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= Scorched Earth ( Law & Order : Special Victims Unit ) = " Scorched Earth " is the thirteenth season premiere of the police procedural television series Law & Order : Special Victims Unit and the 273rd episode overall . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 21 , 2011 . In the episode , which was inspired by the Dominique Strauss @-@ Kahn sexual assault case , an Italian diplomat is arrested when a hotel maid accuses him of rape . The District Attorney 's office then brings the case to trial , which becomes increasingly complicated as the defense questions the maid 's credibility . Meanwhile , Detective Olivia Benson ( Mariska Hargitay ) struggles to cope with the aftermath of the squad room shooting . The episode was written by David Matthews and was directed by Michael Slovis . It is the first episode to air since Christopher Meloni left the series as leading costar , and marks the first appearance of Kelli Giddish as Amanda Rollins , who was added to the main cast alongside Danny Pino in June 2011 following Meloni 's departure . The episode featured guest appearances from Franco Nero , Stephanie March , and Linus Roache , who reprised his role as Michael Cutter from Law & Order . " Scorched Earth " received mostly positive reviews , though the cast changes received mixed reactions . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode 's original broadcast was watched by 7 @.@ 63 million viewers . = = Plot = = Hotel maid Miriam Deng ( Anika Noni Rose ) accuses an Italian diplomat , Roberto DiStasio ( Franco Nero ) , of raping her . While Detective Benson ( Mariska Hargitay ) interviews Deng at the hospital , Detective Amanda Rollins ( Kelli Giddish ) , who has recently transferred from the Atlanta Police Department , finds enough evidence of the assault in Mr. DiStasio 's hotel room . Sergeant Munch ( Richard Belzer ) and Detective Tutuola ( Ice @-@ T ) then race to the airport to arrest him before his plane departs for Italy . DiStasio quickly hires lawyer Marvin Exley ( Ron Rifkin ) and claims diplomatic immunity . After Deng positively identifies DiStasio from the lineup , Tutuola and Benson take him to Dr. Warner 's ( Tamara Tunie ) office for a forensic exam . The results confirm that his DNA matches that recovered from the crime scene . Benson and Assistant District Attorney Alexandra Cabot ( Stephanie March ) then warn Deng that DiStasio 's defense team will claim in court that she fabricated the accusation for monetary reasons and ask her if she has been completely truthful ; she replies that she has been . Later , the police and prosecution learn of a tape recording of Deng in which she admits that she could get a lot of money from DiStasio for assaulting her , weakening her credibility . However , Deng does not retract her accusation and insists that she was raped by DiStasio . During the trial , the defense presents evidence that Deng was convicted of prostitution two years ago . Deng denies the charge and says she had been gang @-@ raped by the soldiers who killed her husband . Deng 's credibility weakens further when the defense presents a surprise witness , Daniel Achok , who testifies that he had advised her to fabricate the gang rape on her application for political asylum . The jury deadlocks on the rape charge , but finds DiStasio guilty of unlawful imprisonment , and Benson says that he will likely serve a year in prison . Meanwhile , Benson anxiously awaits for the return of Detective Stabler ( Christopher Meloni ) , who was put on administrative leave after the squad room shooting . After noticing two detectives from the Internal Affairs Board in the squad room , Benson reminds Captain Donald Cragen ( Dann Florek ) that the shooting was justified . However , Cragen tells Benson that Stabler will have to submit a psychiatric exam before he can return to work , having been involved in five prior shootings . At the end , Cragen informs her that Stabler has filed his retirement papers , leaving the NYPD for good . Stunned , Benson leaves for the interrogation room and breaks down in tears . = = Production = = " Scorched Earth " was written by David Matthews and was directed by Michael Slovis . It is the first episode produced under the direction of Warren Leight , who replaced Neal Baer as showrunner after the twelfth season . It is also the first episode of the series without leading costar Christopher Meloni , who left the cast in May 2011 after the negotiations for his new contract failed . In June 2011 , Kelli Giddish and Danny Pino were subsequently added to the cast as Detectives Amanda Rollins and Nick Amaro , respectively . While this episode marks the debut of Giddish 's character , Pino 's character is not introduced until the next episode . In August 2011 , it was announced that Linus Roache would reprise his role as Michael Cutter from the original Law & Order . The episode was inspired by the Dominique Strauss @-@ Kahn arrest . Strauss @-@ Kahn , who was head of the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) and considered the front @-@ runner in the French presidential election , was accused of sexually assaulting a maid at a midtown Manhattan hotel in May 2011 . He pleaded not guilty to all charges , but quit his IMF post , and his presidential candidacy was sidetracked . Subsequently , the case against him weakened as prosecutors said his accuser admitted to lying to a grand jury about events surrounding the attack . Franco Nero portrays a Strauss @-@ Kahn like character , Roberto DiStasio , but he is an Italian dignitary . Ron Rifkin plays DiStasio 's defense attorney , who is similar to Strauss @-@ Kahn 's real life attorney , Benjamin Brafman . New showrunner Warren Leight said of the incident 's inspiration for this episode , " In this case , I don 't believe we ripped from the headlines . I believe the actual story ripped us off . " While the real life case 's twists and turns made for tantalizing headline news , it wound up being " quite annoying , " Leight said . " We had to do rewrites . Everything we had in our initial draft had to be changed . " He joked that the story was so fast @-@ moving that they worried the final scenes would have to be shot live on the day the episode airs . However , he noted , " It 's still ' SVU ' , the shows are still emotionally driven and loaded . " = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = In its original broadcast on September 21 , 2011 , " Scorched Earth " was watched by 7 @.@ 63 million viewers and acquired a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that it was seen by 2 @.@ 4 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds and 6 % of 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was a decrease in ratings compared to the season 12 premiere , which was watched by 9 @.@ 68 million viewers . Though Law & Order : Special Victims Unit came in third in its timeslot behind CSI : Crime Scene Investigation and Revenge , it was the most @-@ watched program on NBC that night . = = = Reviews = = = Reviews of the plot were generally positive . Mike Hale of The New York Times described the episode as " taut , restrained and well acted " , as well as " interesting for its extremely close tracking of the Strauss @-@ Kahn case , " and felt that the verdict was " disappointing in dramatic terms but understandable . " TVfanatic.com gave the episode a 3 @.@ 5 / 5 rating , calling the episode " your typical SVU fare " , but felt that the episode was missing its typical argument between two of the detectives , as they " provided their own perspectives on the issue and they usually represent the division in the show 's audience 's members . " The site also felt that the crime was a little too current ; the episode 's original broadcast was only a month after the charges against Strauss @-@ Kahn were dismissed . The cast changes were met with mixed reviews . Mike Hale felt that the departure of Christopher Meloni was a relief to the show , as his " tightly wound " character had a " wack @-@ a @-@ doodle intensity [ that ] had taken ' SVU ' way off track " , but still found it hard to imagine the show without him . He said that Meloni 's absence turned the episode " into the best showcase his partner , Olivia , had been given in years . " He called the addition of Michael Cutter was " a big gain " for the show , but felt uncertain about the addition of Detective Rollins , writing : " A scene in which she tried to sweet @-@ talk information out of a jailed suspect was the one really weak moment in the episode . " TVfanatic.com also had mixed feeling about Detective Rollins , who is supposed to breathe new life into the series , but wrote that Rollins may end up becoming an interesting character .

= Fighter ( song ) = " Fighter " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Christina Aguilera for her fourth studio album , Stripped ( 2002 ) . The song was written by Aguilera and Scott Storch , and produced by the latter . It was released by RCA Records as the third single from Stripped on March 13 , 2003 . Inspired by Guns N ' Roses ' song " November Rain " , " Fighter " was characterized as a hybrid of rock and R & B that incorporates elements of arena rock and rock and roll . The track sees Aguilera thanking a man who had done wrong to her for making her a " fighter . " " Fighter " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who praised Aguilera 's vocals and the song 's empowering lyrics . The single peaked at number 20 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . As of September 2014 , " Fighter " has sold 1 @.@ 184 million copies in the United States . Elsewhere , the song reached the top ten of several national music charts , including those in the United Kingdom , Canada , Australia , and the Netherlands . A music video for " Fighter " was directed by Floria Sigismondi . Aguilera performed the track on three of her major concert tours : Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , The Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , and Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 08 ) . " Fighter " has been covered by several artists , including Jordin Sparks and Darren Criss . = = Background and composition = = In the book Chicken Soup for the Soul : The Story Behind the Song , Aguilera revealed the occasion , theme and meaning of " Fighter " . She talked about her " very chaotic and abusive " home , where she did not feel " safe " . In school , Aguilera was picked on and alienated because of her musical passion . However , it made her become " smarter and stronger " . To release herself , Aguilera started to write songs at the age of 15 , both music and lyrics ; and it was the way how she found her voice . The writing process of " Fighter " began during her promotion for her debut album in 1999 , when she was " a part of the big craze pop phenomenon " . According to Aguilera , her debut album helped her a lot to develop the process . She wanted to make an " emotionally rich and positive empowering " song , especially for women , in order for them to speak for themselves be strong . About the idea of the track , she revealed , " I was coming up with titles and ideas and deciding what I wanted to write about . I had to sit down and make sense of my feelings and experiences . I learned a lot from the first record that helped me to develop . I took the good and the bad and considered some of the choices I made and became better because of it . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine characterized " Fighter " as a hybrid of R & B and rock . Meanwhile , a reviewer of Billboard described the song as arena rock @-@ influenced , and AOL Music 's Nana @-@ Adwoa Ofori noted the elements of rock and roll . However , Nick Levin from Digital Spy detailed " Fighter " as an arena rock piece . The song was inspired by band Guns N ' Roses ' song " November Rain " ( 1992 ) . Written in the key of E minor , " Fighter " has a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute . Brian Hiatt from Entertainment Weekly and Chuck Taylor for Billboard likened the track 's musical style to that of Janet Jackson 's " Black Cat " . Aguilera 's vocals on the track span from the low @-@ note of G2 to the high @-@ note of F ♯ 5 ; Taylor labelled Aguilera 's vocals " tornado of a vocal . " At the beginning of " Fighter " , the guitar sound was arranged in the chord progression of Em – G / D – D – C – Em / B – B – Am – C / G – G – B7 . Aguilera speaks the lyrics , " After all you put me through , you 'd think I 'd despise you / But in the end , I wanna thank you , ' cause you made me that much stronger " on the guitar theme by Dave Navarro . Lyrically , Aguilera wants to thank the man who did her wrong rather than insult him , because he helped make her stronger and work harder , thus making her a fighter . At the chorus , she sings , " ' Cause it makes me that much stronger / Makes me work a little bit harder / Makes me that much wiser / So thanks for making me a fighter " . The chords in the guitar part are E5 – F ♯ 5 – G5 – A5 – B5 − C5 – B5 – A5 – G5 – F ♯ 5 – E5 . She continues , " Made me learn a little bit faster / Made my skin a little bit thicker / Makes me that much smarter / So thanks for making me a fighter " . The lyrics of " Fighter " have been recognized as " empowering " . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = David Brownie from Entertainment Weekly called it " spunkier than one would expect from a dance @-@ floor strumpet who loves to flaunt her lung power . " Chuck Taylor writing for Billboard complimented " Fighter " for demonstrating that Aguilera " [ has ] got the goods to rise above what so many lesser acts depend on for celebrity . " On behalf of the same publication , Andrew Unterberger wrote that " Fighter " and " Can 't Hold Us Down " are two tracks that helped " expand audience expectations of her image and sound . " Digital Spy 's Nick Levine named it a " strutting arena rock " song , while Nick Butler from Sputnikmusic simply called it " great . " The New York Times editor Kelefa Sanneh positively viewed the track 's theme as " fearless " and " full of mildly rebellious rhetoric . " On a less positive side , BBC Music 's Jacqueline Hodges called the song " hilarious " , while Jancee Dunn from Rolling Stone wrote that the song " is a sterile foray into rock . " = = = Chart performance = = = In the United States , " Fighter " debuted at number 61 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on April 12 , 2003 , becoming the week 's best @-@ debuting single . In the following week , it jumped to number 56 . On the issue dated April 26 , 2003 , the single charted at number 46 . In its fourth week charting , " Fighter " raised to number 38 . The single grew ten positions , charting at number 28 on May 10 . On May 17 , 2003 , it charted at number 22 . " Fighter " finally peaked at number 20 in its seventh week charting , becoming Aguilera 's ninth top @-@ twenty hit on the chart . On the Pop Songs chart , it peaked at number five . The single also peaked at number 28 on the Adult Pop Songs . On November 1 , 2003 , " Fighter " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping more than 500 @,@ 000 copies in the country . As of August 2014 , the single has sold 1 @,@ 184 @,@ 000 million digital units in the United States . On the Canadian Singles Chart , it peaked at number three . Throughout Europe , " Fighter " also attained moderate success on charts , peaking within the top 15 in most of the countries where it charted . It reached number 11 in Belgium ( Flanders ) and Switzerland , number 12 in Norway and Sweden , number 13 in Germany , and number 15 in Denmark , Italy and Spain . In Hungary , it peaked at number 8 on the Mega Top 100 Singles . The single also reached the top five in the Netherlands . On the UK Singles Chart , " Fighter " was a commercial success , peaking at number three and remained there for 13 weeks , becoming the longest @-@ running single from Stripped on the chart . As of February 2013 , " Fighter " has sold 159 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom . The single also garnered success in Australia and New Zealand , peaking at number five and 14 respectively in the two regions . Due to its chart success in Australia , the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified " Fighter " gold for its shipments of 35 @,@ 000 copies there . = = Music video = = The music video for " Fighter " was directed by Floria Sigismondi , who revealed that it would display Aguilera " like I don 't think she 's been portrayed before " . The video was filmed in Los Angeles , California and was inspired by the director 's signature dark theatrics and the life circle of moths . Sigismondi explained the theme and plot of the clip to MTV News : " The song is sort of about transformation , so I took that in a nature kind of way , the way nature deals with transformation . It 's basically about coming from a very poisoned place to an empowerment , a place of strength . I 've always had this fear of moths , and I subconsciously wrote this thing with these moths in it , so I guess I have to deal with it . They 're furry and they carry dust . I found out in old mythology they are supposed to represent the soul . I think that 's very appropriate " . The video begins with Aguilera wearing a black velvet kimono , with a pale complexion and long black hair , refers to a larva . Three pins are lodged in her back , making her hunch . Initially , she is trapped in a glass box , and her kimono is billowing like a balloon . Three Gothic ballerinas eat fruit and then collapse . Aguilera then breaks free from the box by pounding on it until it breaks . She tosses aside her kimono after furiously removing the pins on her back and throwing them away . A tattered , white , moth @-@ covered dress is revealed , symbolizing her metaphoric evolution from the larva to a pupa . In addition , her hair becomes white , and moths fly around her . Near the end , Aguilera wears an Elvira @-@ type spider dress , again proclaiming that she is a " fighter " . The music video for " Fighter " garnered numerous awards . At the 2003 Belgian TMF Awards , the clip won Best Video International . It garnered Aguilera and Sigismondi a Juno Award for Video of the Year at the 2004 ceremony , which was held at Rexall Place in Edmonton , Alberta , Canada . It also earned four MVPA Awards for Best Pop Video , Best Cinematography , Best Make @-@ Up and Best Styling in a Video in 2004 , held at Orpheum Theater in Los Angeles , California . = = Live performances = = Aguilera performed " Fighter " on a number of shows . The singer performed the song for the first time at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , held at Radio City Music Hall in New York City on August 28 , 2003 , in a medley with " Dirrty " . The performance featured Redman as a featured artist , and Dave Navarro as the guitarist . There , she also performed with Madonna , Britney Spears and Missy Elliott a medley of Madonna 's songs " Like a Virgin " and " Hollywood " , and Elliott 's " Work It " . " Fighter " was also performed on Aguilera and Justin Timberlake 's 2003 summer tour Justified and Stripped Tour , in order to support Stripped and Timberlake 's album Justified . In late 2003 , Aguilera performed the track during the tour 's extension , The Stripped Tour , which happened without Timberlake . The performance is included on her first full @-@ length DVD Stripped Live in the U.K. ( 2004 ) . On June 1 , 2007 , during the promotion of Back to Basics , Aguilera performed " Fighter " along with " Ain 't No Other Man " , " Hurt " and " Candyman " at the 2007 Muz @-@ TV Awards . Later , during her 2006 – 07 Back to Basics Tour , the track was performed as the last song in the encore . Barry Walters for Rolling Stone labelled the performance of " Fighter " " ended the show on a hard @-@ rocking high " . It is included on the video release Back to Basics : Live and Down Under ( 2008 ) . On June 8 , 2010 , the singer sang the track with four other songs , " Bionic " , " Not Myself Tonight " , " Beautiful " and " You Lost Me " on The Today Show . Selected as the opener of the show , James Dinh for MTV News named it " aggressive " , while Erika Brooks Adickman for Idolator called the performance a " hot @-@ mess show wardrobe " . On June 11 , 2010 , Aguilera performed " Fighter " , " You Lost Me " , " Not Myself Tonight " along with a medley of " Genie in a Bottle " and " What a Girl Wants " on The Early Show . Later that year , on June 13 , she performed all of her biggest hits on VH1 Storytellers , including " Fighter " . Before performing the song , Aguilera revealed to the crowd , " When I was younger there were a lot of people , as I mentioned before , that were sort of around me for the wrong reasons . There 's always a positive to those negative times because throughout it you come out so much stronger and wiser " . During the Justin Timberlake & Friends benefit show – held by Justin Timberlake on October 24 , 2010 in Las Vegas , Nevada – Aguilera was invited to perform several of her hits , including " Beautiful " , " Fighter " and " Ain 't No Other Man " . On April 16 , 2012 , Aguilera performed " Fighter " again on the second season of US reality show The Voice , on which she is one of the judges and coaches , with her " Team Xtina " and Crenshaw High School choir . Jonathan Hofmann called the performance " insane and bizarre as it sounds " . = = Legacy = = Since its release , " Fighter " has been recognized as one of Aguilera 's most empowering songs for women due to its lyrics . It was also featured on several shows . On April 6 , 2003 , a 90 @-@ second music video featuring Aguilera preparing for a center court performance at the Staples Center in Los Angeles was premiered for National Basketball Association ( NBA ) ' s " Love It Live " promotional section . The clip also featured several NBA famous acts , including Michael Jordan , Kobe Bryant , Shaquille O 'Neal , and Yao Ming . " Fighter " was also included in the American reality show , The Biggest Loser , which aired by NBC . " Fighter " has been covered on numerous occasions . On May 23 , 2007 , singer Jordin Sparks covered " Fighter " during the season finale of the sixth season of US singing contest American Idol , which made her the winner . On May 26 , 2010 , five female contestants of the ninth season of American Idol : Lacey Brown , Didi Benami , Katie Stevens , Siobhan Magnus and Crystal Bowersox performed a medley of Aguilera 's hits " Beautiful " and " Fighter " , where Aguilera also performed her 2010 single " You Lost Me " . " Fighter " was also covered by her team 's contestants on the second season of The Voice , where she is one of the coaches as well as one of the performers , on April 16 , 2012 . During the second blind auditions of The Voice UK , which was aired on March 31 , 2012 , Denise Pearson ( credited as Denis Pearson ) covered " Fighter " . She was selected to Sir Tom Jones team as a result . American actor Darren Criss , portrayed as his fictional character Blaine Anderson , performed the song on the episode " Big Brother " of US popular TV show Glee , aired on April 10 , 2012 . The version peaked at number 58 on the Hot Digital Songs and at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 . Singer CeCe Frey , a participant of the second season of US show The X Factor , made a cover of the song . Sylvia Yacoub from Aguilera 's team on the third season of The Voice also recorded a version of the song . = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from " Fighter " CD single liner notes Studios Recorded at The Enterprise Studios in Burbank , California Recorded at Conway Studios in Hollywood , Los Angeles , California Mixed at The Record Plant , Los Angeles , California Mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering Personnel = = Track listings and formats = = = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =

= SMS Rostock = SMS Rostock was a light cruiser of the Karlsruhe class built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . She had one sister ship , SMS Karlsruhe ; the ships were very similar to the previous Magdeburg @-@ class cruisers . The ship was laid down in 1911 , launched in November 1912 , and completed by February 1914 . Armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns , Rostock had a top speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) and displaced 6 @,@ 191 t ( 6 @,@ 093 long tons ; 6 @,@ 824 short tons ) at full load . Rostock served with the High Seas Fleet as a leader of torpedo boat flotillas for the duration of her career . She served with the screens for both the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group during operations against the British coast and the Battle of Dogger Bank . She was assigned to the screen for the battle fleet during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . She saw major action at Jutland and frequently engaged British light forces , culminating in her being torpedoed by destroyers shortly after midnight . She was taken under tow by German torpedo boats , but the following morning the cruiser HMS Dublin came upon the retreating ships . The Germans set scuttling charges aboard Rostock and took off the crew before Dublin arrived on the scene . = = Construction = = Rostock was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Geier " and was laid down at the Howaldtswerke shipyard in Kiel in 1911 . She was launched on 12 November 1912 ; at her launching , she was christened by the mayor of Rostock , Dr. Magnus Maßmann . After completing Fitting @-@ out work , the ship was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 5 February 1914 . The ship was 142 @.@ 2 meters ( 467 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 7 m ( 45 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 38 m ( 17 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 191 t ( 6 @,@ 093 long tons ; 6 @,@ 824 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached 43 @,@ 628 shp ( 32 @,@ 533 kW ) in service . These were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 29 @.@ 3 knots ( 54 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 7 mph ) . Rostock carried 1 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 300 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 200 tonnes ( 200 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Rostock had a crew of 18 officers and 355 enlisted men . The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate . = = Service history = = Following her commissioning in February 1914 , Rostock was assigned as a torpedo boat flotilla leader with the High Seas Fleet . On 24 January 1915 , Rostock formed part of the support for Admiral Franz von Hipper battlecruisers in the I Scouting Group during a sortie to destroy British light forces known to be operating near the Dogger Bank . The ship steamed with three other light cruisers and nineteen torpedo boats . Rostock and several of the torpedo boats were tasked with screening the port flank of the battlecruiser squadron . The German group encountered five British battlecruisers , resulting in the Battle of Dogger Bank , during which the armored cruiser Blücher was sunk . Rostock participated in the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 April 1916 , and as part of the screen for the I Scouting Group . While the battlecruisers bombarded Lowestoft , Rostock and five other cruisers engaged the Harwich Force . Shortly thereafter , the battlecruisers intervened and forced the Harwich Force to withdraw . The German squadron then broke off and returned to port . Rostock also participated in the Battle of Jutland , on 31 May 1916 . She served as the leader of the torpedo boat flotillas , flying the flag of Kommodore Andreas Michelsen . The flotilla was tasked with screening for the battle squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . As the German fleet reached the engagement between the British and German battlecruiser squadrons at 17 : 30 , a pair of destroyers , HMS Nestor and Nicator attempted to attack the German battle line . Rostock and a number of the battleships engaged the destroyers , which were both disabled by the heavy German fire . The battleships destroyed Nestor and Nicator and their crews were picked up by German torpedo boats . At 19 : 32 , Rostock and several torpedo boats crossed through the German line and began to lay a smoke screen to cover the withdrawal of the German fleet . Some twenty minutes later , Michelsen detached several torpedo boats to assist the badly damaged battlecruiser Lützow . By the time the German fleet had assumed its night cruising formation , Rostock fell in with the light cruisers of the IV Scouting Group on the port side of the fleet . Shortly before midnight , Rostock and the IV Scouting Group came into contact with the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron . Shortly after midnight , the British 4th Destroyer Flotilla attacked the German line , where Rostock was positioned . She joined the cannonade directed against the destroyers as they pressed home their attack . The destroyers launched several torpedoes at the Germans , forcing Rostock and the other cruisers to turn away to avoid them ; this pointed the ships directly at the battleships in the I Battle Squadron . Rostock successfully passed through the formation , but the cruiser Elbing was rammed by one of the battleships and disabled . In the chaos of the night engagement , Rostock 's search lights illuminated the destroyer Broke . Gunfire from Rostock and the battleships Westfalen and Rheinland smothered the British destroyer ; although heavily damaged , she managed to limp back to port . The ship was attacked by the destroyers Ambuscade and Contest ; the two ships each fired a single torpedo at high @-@ speed settings at a range of about 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 910 m ) . One torpedo struck Rostock at 1 : 30 , though it is unknown which destroyer launched it . Rostock was also hit by three 4 in ( 100 mm ) shells , probably from the destroyer Broke . The disabled Rostock called the destroyer S54 to join her ; S54 took Rostock in tow , at times making up to 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The pair was subsequently joined by the destroyers V71 and V73 , which had been detached from the flotilla to escort Rostock back to port . At around 03 : 55 on 1 June , the four German ships encountered the British cruiser Dublin . The three destroyers went alongside the crippled cruiser and evacuated her crew , while flashing the first two letters of the British signal challenge . Smoke screens were laid to obscure the identity of the German warships . After about ten minutes , S54 departed with Rostock 's crew aboard , while V71 and V73 remained . Scuttling charges had been set in the cruiser , but to ensure Rostock sank faster , the two destroyers fired a total of three torpedoes into the ship . Rostock sank bow @-@ first at approximately 04 : 25 , after which V71 and V73 made for Horns Reef at high speed . Of Rostock 's crew , 14 men were killed and 6 were wounded during the battle . In the course of the battle , Rostock fired some 500 rounds of 10 @.@ 5 cm ammunition , more than any other German ship . A second Rostock , of the Cöln class , was launched in April 1918 , but was not completed before the end of the war .

= Batavian Republic = The Batavian Republic ( Dutch : Bataafse Republiek ; French : République Batave ) was the successor of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands . It was proclaimed on 19 January 1795 , and ended on 5 June 1806 , with the accession of Louis I to the throne of Holland . In early 1795 , intervention by French revolutionary forces led to the downfall of the old Dutch Republic . The new Republic enjoyed widespread support from the Dutch population and was the product of a genuine popular revolution . Nevertheless , it clearly was founded with the armed support of the revolutionary French Republic . The Batavian Republic became a client state , the first of the " sister @-@ republics " and later part of the French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte , and its politics were deeply influenced by the French who supported no fewer than three coups d 'état to bring the different political factions to power that France favored at different moments in its own political development . Nevertheless , the process of creating a written Dutch constitution was mainly driven by internal political factors , not by French influence , until Napoleon forced the Dutch government to accept his brother as monarch . The political , economic and social reforms that were brought about during the relatively short duration of the Batavian Republic have had a lasting impact . The confederal structure of the old Dutch Republic was permanently replaced by a unitary state . For the first time in Dutch history , the constitution that was adopted in 1798 had a genuinely democratic character . For a while the Republic was governed democratically , although the coup d 'état of 1801 put an authoritarian regime in power , after another change in constitution . Nevertheless , the memory of this brief experiment with democracy helped smooth the transition to a more democratic government in 1848 ( the constitutional revision by Johan Rudolph Thorbecke , limiting the power of the king ) . A type of ministerial government was introduced for the first time in Dutch history and many of the current government departments date their history back to this period . Though the Batavian Republic was a client state , its successive governments tried their best to maintain a modicum of independence and to serve Dutch interests even where those clashed with those of their French overseers . This perceived obduracy led to the eventual demise of the Republic when the short @-@ lived experiment with the ( again authoritarian ) regime of " Grand Pensionary " Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck produced insufficient docility in the eyes of Napoleon . The new king , Louis Bonaparte ( Napoleon 's own brother ) , surprisingly did not slavishly follow French dictates either , leading to his downfall . = = Background = = The final days of the intermittent constitutional monarchy / republic , the Dutch Republic , which had governed the Netherlands since the late 16th century , were quite eventful . Due to the Fourth Anglo @-@ Dutch War fought at sea that went poorly and lost many of the plantation colonies of the Dutch , the Patriot party revolted against the authoritarian regime of stadtholder William V but were quickly struck down through the intervention of William 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Frederick William II of Prussia in June 1787 . Most Patriots went into exile in France , while Holland 's own " Ancien Régime " strengthened its grip on Dutch government chiefly through the Orangist Grand Pensionary Laurens Pieter van de Spiegel . Only two years later , the French Revolution began , which embraced many of the political ideas that the Patriots had espoused in their own revolt . The Patriots enthusiastically supported the Revolution , and when the French revolutionary armies started to spread that revolution , the Patriots joined in , hoping to liberate their own country from its authoritarian yoke . The Stadtholder joined the ill @-@ fated First Coalition of countries in their attempt to subdue the suddenly anti @-@ Austrian French First Republic . = = Creation of the Republic = = This war also proceeded disastrously for the Stadtholder 's forces , and in the severe winter of 1794 / 95 a French army under general Charles Pichegru , with a Dutch contingent under general Herman Willem Daendels , crossed the great frozen rivers that traditionally protected the Netherlands from invasion . Aided by the fact that a substantial proportion of the Dutch population looked favorably upon the French incursion , and often considered it a liberation , the French were quickly able to break the resistance of the forces of the Stadtholder , and his Austrian and British allies . However , in many cities revolution broke out even before the French arrived and Revolutionary Committees took over the city governments , and ( provisionally ) the national government also . William was forced to flee to England on a fishing boat on January 18 , 1795 . = = Stages in the history of the new Republic = = Though the French presented themselves as liberators , they behaved like conquerors . After acrimonious negotiations between the representatives of the new Batavian Republic , a name that refers to the Germanic tribe of the Batavians that in Dutch nationalistic lore represented both its ancestry and its ancient quest for liberty , and those of the French Republic , a harsh Treaty of The Hague was concluded on May 16 , 1795 . Apart from imposing territorial concessions and a huge indemnity , this obligated the Dutch to maintain a French army of occupation of 25 @,@ 000 men . This changed the Dutch republic from a client state of England and Prussia into a French one ; henceforth it would conduct a foreign and military policy dictated by France , where its predecessor had followed British dictates since 1787 ( an offensive and defensive alliance of the two republics was part of the treaty ) , while its economic policies would in effect also be made subservient to the interests of France . However , this did not mean that it lost its independence in all respects . The program of reform that the Dutch revolutionaries attempted to put in place ( however constrained by the political realities of the French revolution as this was to progress ) was mostly driven by indigenous needs and aspirations . The political events in the Netherlands were mainly derived from Dutch initiative , with some notable exceptions . The French were responsible for at least one of the coups d 'état , and the French ambassador often acted as a proconsul . = = = Revolutionary States @-@ General = = = At first , the revolutionaries used the constitutional machinery of the old confederal republic . They resumed where they had left off after the purge in 1787 of Patriot regents , taking over the offices of the Orangist regents that were now purged in their turn . Though the political make @-@ up of the States @-@ General changed appreciably because of this change in personnel , it retained a number of defenders of the old particularist interests . The first order of business of the revolutionaries therefore was to strive for the reform of the confederal state , with its discrimination of the Generality Lands , and of particular minorities ( Catholics , Jews ) , in the direction of a unitary state , in which the minorities would be emancipated , and the old entrenched interests superseded by a more democratic political order . As a first step the representatives of Brabant were admitted to the States @-@ General . However , a grass @-@ roots democratic movement began to form in the Summer of 1795 , consisting of popular societies ( clubs ) and wijkvergaderingen ( precinct meetings ) , demanding popular influence on the government . A kind of parallel government in the form of " general assemblies " sprang up next to the city governments and the provincial States that repeatedly came into conflict with the established order . In the Fall of 1795 the States @-@ General started to work on a procedure to peacefully replace itself , " by constitutional means " , with a National Assembly that would possess full executive , legislative and constituent powers . This project at first met with sharp resistance from the conservatives . In some cases even force was used ( as in Friesland and Groningen ) to overcome this opposition . The new National Assembly convened in The Hague on March 1 , 1796 . = = = Struggle for a Constitution = = = Like the old revolutionary States @-@ General , the new National Assembly contained radically opposed parties : the unitary democrats , led by Pieter Vreede , Johan Valckenaer and Pieter Paulus , and the federalists , such as Jacob Abraham de Mist and Gerard Willem van Marle . But there was a broad continuum of opinion between these poles . In this force @-@ field the federalists held the upper hand after the sudden demise of Paulus ( who might otherwise have acted as a unifier ) . The conservative federalists were more adept at parliamentary manoeuvering ( Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck proved himself especially adept at this ) . The frustration this engendered among the democrats led them to appeal to popular opinion and to extra @-@ parliamentary action . Meanwhile , the Assembly installed a constitutional commission that in November 1796 presented a report that amounted to a continuation of the old federal arrangements . As this was totally unacceptable to the unitarists , this draft was subsequently amended into its opposite , by a compromise that finally formed a basis for a new Constitution . The Assembly now started upon a discussion of other important matters , like the separation between church and state , and the emancipation of minorities . The organs of the state were to be a bicameral Legislative Corps , to be elected in indirect elections , and a Directoire @-@ like Executive of five members . The end result looked much like the French Constitution of 1795 . This was approved by the Assembly on May 10 , 1797 . The draft @-@ Constitution was to be subjected to a referendum on August 8 , 1797 , after a very lively campaign in which the French ambassador Noël weighed in with a supportive appeal . This probably contributed to the resounding defeat of the proposal ( 108 @,@ 761 votes to 27 @,@ 995 ) . The Assembly was back at square one . At this moment in time foreign events in the form of the 18 Fructidor coup of general Pierre Augereau intervened . This brought the more radical faction to power in France , which proved to be ultimately less patient with the vagaries of the Dutch political process , and more prone to intervene . Elections for a second National Assembly returned one in which the balance of power had shifted to the unitarists in the Fall of 1797 . Nevertheless , the federalists managed to retain control of the new constitutional commission by a bare majority . This led to more dawdling and the unitarists in the Assembly now came with their own proposal in the form of the Declaration of 43 on December 12 , 1797 , containing a nine @-@ point manifesto concerning the minimum conditions to which the new constitution should conform . Now the course of events started to speed up . The new French ambassador Charles @-@ François Delacroix took the side of the radicals . His behavior sufficiently intimidated the opponents of the radical proposals to actually fall in line . The coup that was to follow was therefore in reality superfluous . Nevertheless , the radicals , led by Wybo Fijnje and Anthonie Willem Ockerse , in cohorts with Pierre Auguste Brahain Ducange , the secretary of the French ambassador , now started to plot the coup d 'état of January 21 – 22 , 1798 , which , with the assistance of general Daendels , put the radicals in power . A rump assembly of about fifty radicals declared itself a Constituante , which in one fell swoop enacted the entire radical program , while the other members of the Assembly were forcibly detained . All provincial sovereignties were repealed ; the dissident members of the Assembly expelled ; an " interim Executive Directory " empowered ; and the constitutional commission reduced to seven radical members . Though the resulting Constitution has sometimes been depicted as a pre @-@ digested French project , it was actually a result of the constitutional commission 's discussions between October 1797 and January 1798 . Except for the purge of the electoral rolls of " crypto @-@ Orangists " and other reactionaries , it might therefore have been acceptable for the moderates , obviating the need for the January coup . In any case , the " suggestions " of Delacroix were politely rejected and the constitutional commission insisted on the following three essential points : universal manhood suffrage , without fiscal qualifications ; the right of revision of the constitution at quinquennial intervals by the voters ; and finally the rejection of the principle of a bicameral legislature , in which each House would have a separate electoral base . The new constitution addressed many of the reformist concerns of the Patriots since 1785 ( no hereditary offices ; no sinecures ; accountability of officials ) . It also came down on the side of economic liberalism ( as opposed to mercantilism ) in the economic debate then raging in republican circles ( and therefore promised to do away with guilds and internal impediments to trade ) . The old provincial @-@ repartition system of public finance was to be replaced by a system of national taxation . There was to be a five @-@ man Uitvoerend Bewind as a collective Executive , with eight national Agenten ( government ministers ) doing the actual Administration work ( Foreign Affairs , Police and Interior , Justice , Finance , War , Navy , National Education , and National Economy ) . Most importantly , as the British historian Simon Schama states : " [ i ] ts central aim was to change the nature of the Dutch state and to bind its new institutions into the framework of an electoral democracy . " As such it had an importance that outlasted the Batavian Republic and set up an ideal to emulate for its successor states . Though the coup of January 22 , 1798 did not bode well for a genuinely democratic approval process for the new constitution ( and the French would have preferred going the " safe " way of approval by the rump assembly ) the plebiscite that started on March 17 ( in the usual form of elections in " primary " assemblies of about 100 @-@ 500 voters ) had a reasonably democratic quality . On April 23 , 1798 , the Staatsregeling voor het Bataafsche Volk was approved with 153 @,@ 913 votes against 11 @,@ 587 ( i.e. just 641 more people voted for approval in 1798 than had voted for rejection of the previous draft in 1797 ; about 50 % of the electorate had voted . ) The new regime therefore seemed well @-@ grounded in the new doctrine of popular sovereignty . = = = Uitvoerend Bewind = = = Giddy with their success , the radicals now started to overstep their bounds . Their legitimacy was already tenuous , because of the way they had seized power . Now they also lost support in the rump @-@ Assembly because of their partisanship . Not wishing to repeat the mistakes of the French Jacobins they moved against the popular political clubs that formed their political base , thereby alienating their most enthusiastic supporters . On the other hand , at the behest of Delacroix they also moved against " counter @-@ revolutionaries " by having purging commissions removing these people from the electoral rolls , further undermining the legitimacy of the regime , as moderate Patriots were also disenfranchised . The final blow was that the new regime reneged on its promise to elect an entirely new Representative Assembly . = = = = Coup d 'état of the moderates = = = = Meanwhile , the 22 Floréal coup in France undermined Delacroix , because it inspired more sympathy by French foreign minister Talleyrand for the Dutch opposition members who demanded the ambassador 's recall . At the same time , Daendels became disaffected with the regime he had helped put into power because of the depredations of the purging commissions . His French colleague General Joubert was displeased with the radicals because of conflicts about the co @-@ dominion of Flushing . Finally , the newly appointed Agenten were disturbed about the inefficiency of the Uitvoerend Bewind . All these disaffections came together with the putsch on June , 12 , 1798 , of that recidivist , general Daendels , in which he disturbed a dinner party of Delacroix and three members of the Uitvoerend Bewind , violating the diplomatic immunity of the ambassador by putting pistols to his chest . The members of the Representative Assembly were arrested in session . The fall of the Vreede @-@ Fijnje Bewind opened the way for the actual implementation of the new constitution . The " Interim Directory " that now came to power ( consisting of a few of the dissenting Agenten ) made haste with organizing elections for the Representative Assembly that convened on July 31 . By the middle of August a new Uitvoerend Bewind had been appointed and the Agenten who had been behind the coup , resumed their original positions . This new regime now started to implement the policies that their radical predecessors had written into the constitution . The coup of June therefore was not a reactionary revolution , but only brought about a change in personnel . Soon most of the people that were arrested at both the January and June coups were released in the spirit of reconciliation that the new regime advocated . The make @-@ up of the Representative Assembly closely resembled that of the second National Assembly of 1797 . The new regime was soon to discover that changes don 't easily come about by legislative fiat . The part of the constitution that worked adequately was the experiment with indirect democracy . During the period in which the constitution was in force , the system of primary assemblies that elected delegates who voted for the respective organs of government worked efficiently , and kept the voters engaged . However , exactly because the Republic was a genuine democracy , other goals of the regime were less easy to attain . The elections often put people into office that were very much opposed to the unitary state that was now enshrined in the constitution , and to other innovations that it entailed , or in any case were of a conservative inclination . This already applied at the top : the constitution contained an age @-@ requirement for the members of the Uitvoerend Bewind , which favored the election of staid Patriot regents , and discriminated against the more talented " young Turks " that were appointed Agents , like Jacobus Spoors , Gerrit Jan Pijman and Isaac Jan Alexander Gogel . The tenor of the Bewind became more conservative in the ensuing years . The agents went to work energetically , however , and started with an onslaught on the old administrative organization of the country , in a deliberate attempt to liquidate the very identity of the old federal structure . The once mighty province of Holland was carved into three pieces : Amstel ( Amsterdam and immediate vicinity ) , Texel ( the northern peninsula ) and Delf ( the southern part ) ; and the other provinces were often merged in larger entities , like Overijssel and Drente into Ouden Yssel , and Frisia and Groningen into the Eems department . The aim was to organize the country into units with equal numbers of primary assemblies ( hence the small Amstel department with its large population ) . The first elections for the administrative organs of these new entities were held in March 1799 . But , of course , such a reorganization did not suddenly change the old allegiances of the people living in these areas . In any case , the new local and departmental administrations , though elected , were supposed to execute the policies as centrally laid down by the national government . As the elections often put people in power who represented the old order ( like Joan Arend de Vos van Steenwijk in Ouden Yssel ) this was exceedingly unlikely . To put it differently , the political effort to attain " national unity " through reconciliation of the diverse Patriot factions of all stripes , got in the way of the effort to create an efficient national unitary state , as envisioned by Gogel . = = = = Public finance reform = = = = The unitary state was not an end in itself , but a means to higher ends . The republic had been in dire financial straits even before the revolution of 1795 . The system of public finance that had been the envy of the world in its Golden Age , enabling it to throw far beyond its weight in world politics up to the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 , had become a millstone around its neck . By 1713 the public debt of the province of Holland had reached 310 million guilders ; the debt of the Generality was 68 million ; and the debts of the smaller provinces , and of the cities came on top of this . The debt service of Holland alone in that year required 14 million guilders , which exceeded its regular tax revenue . Most of this humongous public debt was held by Dutch private citizens , so in a sense it merely engendered an internal money circuit in the Dutch economy . However , it was mostly concentrated in the hands of the rentier class , while the debt was serviced by mainly regressive taxes that weighed on the working population . Most importantly , these were taxes levied by the individual provinces , who serviced their own debt , and paid into the Generality coffers according to a repartition schedule last changed in 1616 . Attempts to reform this structure during the 18th century were mainly fruitless . To ameliorate the situation the old Republic maintained a policy of severe austerity during the century , especially economizing on its defense outlays ( which in large part explains why its military and political role declined so much ) . Up to the Fourth Anglo @-@ Dutch War this policy succeeded in bringing down the level of debt , but this war brought a large uptick in the public debt : between 1780 and 1794 the province of Holland alone issued 120 million guilders of new bonds . In 1795 , its total debt stood at 455 million guilders . To this should be added the debts of the United East India Company and its sister , the WIC , and the five Dutch Admiralties for a total of about 150 million guilders . The other provinces owed 155 million guilders . The grand total in 1795 , at the beginning of the Batavian Republic , came to 760 million guilders ; this imposed a debt service of 25 million guilders annually . The indemnity of the Treaty of The Hague immediately added 100 million guilders to this total , and the maintenance of the French army of occupation added about 12 million annually ( while the other funding requirements of the republic added another 20 million annually ) . In 1814 the public debt stood at 1 @.@ 7 billion guilders . The average ordinary revenue of the republic at this time amounted to between 28 and 35 million guilders . However , since the outbreak of the war in 1793 the expenditure had been running at between 40 and 55 millions . For the year 1800 the republic had to find 78 million guilders for its expenditures . In other words , the new Agent of Finance , Gogel , was faced with a financial emergency . He needed to generate about 50 million guilders annually in ordinary revenue on a permanent basis urgently . Besides , as the Dutch tax system was heavily skewed toward highly regressive indirect taxes , which inordinately burdened the impoverished population , he wanted to change this to a system that depended more on direct ( income and wealth ) taxes . Finally , he wanted to do away with the provincial differentiation in the taxation , and construct a nationally standardized system . When he put these reform proposals to the Representative Assembly on September 30 , 1799 , they met with massive resistance . This led to so much delay in its acceptance that by the time it was to be implemented ( in 1801 ) the re @-@ federalisation of the state by the new Staatsbewind regime was already underway . Eventually , Gogel 's reforms were only implemented under the successor state of the Kingdom of Holland . These are ( important ) examples of instances in which the good intentions of the Uitvoerend Bewind and its Agenten met with the political and economic realities of the times . Other necessary reforms ( the abolition of the guilds , the reform of the system of poor relief to mention but a few examples ) equally came to nothing . These defeats progressively led to disenchantment of the population with the regime , that already was in an awkward position because it was also brushed with the tar of the depredations of the French " sister republic " that mainly viewed the Batavian Republic as a milk cow , both collectively ( in its demands for loans at very low interest rates ) and individually ( in the demands of French officials for bribes and other extortions ) . = = = = Anglo @-@ Russian invasion = = = = The sagging popularity of the Republic did not escape the attention of the British intelligence services . However , because this intelligence was filtered through the eyes of Orangist agents in the Republic and émigrés in England , it was erroneously interpreted as possible support for an Orangist restoration . This caused the miscalculation that led to the ill @-@ fated Anglo @-@ Russian invasion in the peninsula of North Holland in 1799 . Though the expedition ended in failure the members of the Uitvoerend Bewind became very nervous in the days before the Battle of Bergen . The Agent for Foreign Affairs , Van der Goes who had been in favor of distancing the Republic from the French , chose this inopportune moment to secretly approach the King of Prussia as a mediator , with a scheme in which the Hereditary Prince was to become a kind of constitutional monarch in a constitution on the model of the American Constitution . The Republic would revert to its traditional neutrality , while Britain would occupy North Holland , and France Zeeland . The overture was rejected , and it caused a lot of embarrassment in the relations with the French Directoire . At this time Napoleon Bonaparte performed his coup of 18 Brumaire , establishing the French Consulate . The Franco @-@ Batavian relations now entered a whole new era . = = = Staatsbewind and the Peace of Amiens = = = = = = = Pressure for constitutional reform = = = = Though Napoleon had a warlike reputation , his policies in his first years as First Consul were aimed at restoring peace in Europe , be it at terms favorable to France . The animus of the members of the Second Coalition was mostly against the French Revolution , its ideas and its consequences . By this time Napoleon himself was convinced of their perfidy . Talleyrand and Napoleon therefore saw a possibility of a compromise , in which France would retain its chain of docile client states , but with the " revolutionary " sting removed , to appease the Allies . That unrevolutionary docility was to be assured by constitutions designed to eliminate not only domestic conflict ( as was the new French political order ) , but also any flashes of impertinent nationalism . France therefore embarked on a program of constitutional reform in the dependent republics , first in the Helvetic Republic , where Napoleon as Mediator imposed the Constitution of Malmaison in 1801 ( followed by the Second Helvetic Constitution a year later ) , restoring the old confederal order . A similar " solution " seemed appropriate for the Batavian Republic . The Batavian government , and its constitution , were particularly disliked by the Consul ( no friend of democracy in any case ) , because of the snub that Amsterdam bankers gave in 1800 to his request for a big loan at the usual generous rate of interest the French expected as a matter of right . He blamed the Uitvoerend Bewind for this , and many other foibles , like undermining the boycott of British goods . To remedy these ills , a new Batavian constitution on the political principles of the Consulate ( union , authority , political office for men of ability and social station ) was needed . The new French ambassador Charles Louis Huguet , marquis de Sémonville he sent to The Hague in 1799 was just the man for this job . Meanwhile , even the minds of reformers like Gogel had become receptive to the need for change . The frustrations of the stalemate between unitarist reformers and democratically elected federalist obstructionists had caused a certain disillusionment with democratic politics in the former ( the latter were already convinced ) . An alliance was therefore forming between the would @-@ be reformers , who would like to finally push their reforms through , by " Bonapartist " means , if necessary , and the people who wished to restore the old federal order , in the hands of the old regent class . Director Besier in particular was amenable to a project that would extend executive power ( and curtail that of the Assembly ) , and revert the constitution to federal devolution . With the help of Sémonville he now started to push a project of constitutional reform that followed the French Constitution of the Year VIII in important respects : a bicameral legislature would be appointed by a " National College " ( akin to the French Senate ) from a list of names produced by a convoluted system of national elections . This met with little enthusiasm by two of the other Directors François Ermerins and Jean Henri van Swinden , and by the Representative Assembly , that rejected the project on June 11 , 1801 , by fifty votes to twelve . = = = = Augereau @-@ coup = = = = The majority in the Uitvoerend Bewind ( Gerrit Pijman in particular ) therefore amended the project in a sense that gave re @-@ federalization even more emphasis . They unilaterally convened the primary assemblies by a proclamation on September 14 , 1801 , have a referendum on this new draft constitution . The Assembly defiantly ruled this proclamation illegal on September 18 . Then General Augereau ( he of the Fructidor @-@ coup ) , now commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the French forces in the Netherlands , routinely closed the doors of the Assembly ( by previous arrangement with Pijman ) on September 19 , and arrested the dissident Directors . Despite this military putsch the campaign for the plebiscite took place in an atmosphere of political freedom unthinkable in France . Nevertheless , this did not result in great enthusiasm for the new constitution . When the votes were counted on October 1 , out of 416 @,@ 619 voters only 16 @,@ 771 voted in favor and 52 @,@ 219 against . The Directors then used a sleight of hand that unfortunately would also become familiar in the Dutch constitutional politics of the successor states : they counted the 350 @,@ 000 abstentions as " tacit affirmations " . Unlike the coup of June 1798 , the Augereau coup did present a sharp break with the recent past . The new constitution reduced the role of the legislative branch ( which now did not have the right of initiative ) , and expanded the powers of the Executive , which now became known as the Staatsbewind ( Regency of State ) . The elective principle was reduced to a formality : the Staatsbewind , originally consisting of the three directors taking part in the coup , expanded its membership by co @-@ optation to twelve . This executive then appointed the first 35 members of the legislature . As vacancies arose , these were filled , as far as possible , on a provincial rota and according to national quotas of representatives of each province ( much like the old States @-@ General ) . Except for Holland , the old provinces were reconstituted . The local and provincial administrative organs continued to be elected - no longer by universal manhood suffrage , but by a system of census suffrage . Most important was the change in personnel of these organs , mostly as a consequence of this electoral change . The " democrats " were mostly replaced by Patriot regents , who had no patience with democracy , and by the old Orangist regents , who did not even have to disguise their allegiance as in early 1801 a convenient amnesty was proclaimed . One surprising example is Egbert Sjuck Gerrold Juckema van Burmania Rengers , the Orangist burgomaster of Leeuwarden before 1795 , a notorious reactionary . To sum up : the coup represented a counter @-@ revolution . This became clear in the way the iconography of the 1795 revolution disappeared : the epigraph Vrijheid , Gelijkheid , Broederschap ( Liberty , Equality , Fraternity ) which had adorned all official publications , was henceforth removed , and the last Liberty Trees were removed from the town squares . Soon the " good old days " of nepotism and venality were restored . Equally , though the abolition of the guilds formally remained , in practice regulation of crafts and trades was reimposed by local ordinances . Officially , the Batavian Republic became the Batavian Commonwealth ( Bataafs Gemenebest ) . = = = = Peace negotiations = = = = Against this background the negotiations for the Treaty of Amiens started in October 1801 . The minor participants in the negotiations between Great Britain and France ( the Batavian Republic and Spain ) were immediately presented with faits accomplis : the preliminary agreement ceded Ceylon , and guaranteed free English shipping to the Cape of Good Hope , without the Dutch even being consulted . The Dutch ambassador in France , Schimmelpenninck , who acted as the Dutch plenipotentiary , vainly protested that the Treaty of The Hague had guaranteed the Dutch colonies , and that France had promised not to make a separate peace . After this separate peace had been concluded , the British were left to negotiate with the minor French allies separately . This did not mean that the Dutch were completely left to their own devices : whenever French interests seemed to be in danger , France decisively intervened on its own behalf , as in the attempt to deduct the value of the Dutch fleet , surrendered in 1799 , that the British had purchased from the Stadtholder , from the indemnification of the Prince of Orange . That indemnification was an important sideshow in the negotiations . The consequence of the Peace Treaty was that the Batavian Republic now received international recognition , even by the British government , and that the old Dutch Republic was now irreversibly dead . This put an end to all pretensions of the Stadtholder and his heirs , such as they were . It may be important to note that these pretensions were dubious to begin with . The Stadtholder was never the sovereign power in the Netherlands , despite understandable misconceptions by foreigners , who may have thought that a country needed a head of state , and the Stadtholder was it . Instead he was an officeholder , appointed by the provincial States , who also was captain @-@ general and admiral @-@ general of the Union ( there was originally no stadtholder on the confederal level ) . In the Orangist revolution of 1747 this office had been revamped to " Stadhouder @-@ generaal " and made hereditary , and after the Prussian intervention of 1787 the powers of the Stadtholder had become dictatorial . But formally the States @-@ General had been sovereign since 1588 , and the Stadtholder was merely their " first servant . " The British may have entertained certain fantasies about his formal status , when it suited their purposes . An example would be the Kew Letters he was persuaded to write to the governors of the Dutch colonies in his capacity of captain @-@ general on February 7 , 1795 , ordering them to immediately surrender those colonies to the British " for preservation . " Another example would be their acceptance of the surrender of the Batavian fleet in the name of the Stadtholder in 1799 , as though he was a sovereign prince . But this was all make @-@ believe , and it ended with this Peace ( though it was conveniently revived in 1813 ) . The Prince had reason to feel aggrieved by this . He did have large patrimonial estates in the Netherlands that now were forfeit . Besides , the loss of his hereditary offices entailed a loss of income . According to his own calculations the arrears in all these incomes since 1795 amounted to 4 million guilders . The Staatsbewind refused to pay this , or any sum , point blank , and the peace treaty specifically exempted the Dutch from paying anything . Instead , an arrangement between the French , British and Prussians ( the former stadtholder 's champions ) in the matter was reached that in return for dropping any and all claims William was to be compensated with the abbatial domains of Fulda and Corvey Abbey ( see also Principality of Nassau @-@ Orange @-@ Fulda ) . = = = = Short interlude of peace = = = = The Treaty " generously " restored most of the colonies that had been lost to the British since 1795 , except Ceylon , but including the Cape Colony . This now made the attempts in the Asiatic Council , which had replaced the Directorate of the VOC in 1799 , to reform the management of the colonies , more urgent . Dirk van Hogendorp was commissioned to write a proposal , that met with considerable enthusiasm from the more progressive elements on the council , like Samuel Iperusz . Wiselius . He proposed to abolish all perquisites and sinecures ; to permit private trade ; to permit native subjects to own private property ; to substitute the " land levies " by a regulated land tax ; and the abolition of all seigneurial rights in the colonies . This met with overwhelming resistance from vested interests . When a new Charter for the colonies was promulgated , Hogendorp 's proposals had been whittled down to insignificance The vestigial democrats on the Council were now purged in favor of Orangist reactionaries like Hendrik Mollerus , and Hendrik Van Stralen . In any case , the Republic did not enjoy the possession of its colonies for long . After the resumption of hostilities in 1803 the returned colonies in most cases were soon reoccupied by the British . Java , however , held out till 1811 . Another potentially important consequence of the peace might have been that a number of provisions of the Treaty of The Hague , that had been conditional on a peace , like the reduction of the French army of occupation , would now have become operational . However , the First Consul proved reluctant to reduce the numbers of French troops , or return the port of Flushing , for the good of the Dutch as he pointed out , as they needed many of their own troops in their restored colonies , so the " protection " of the French troops was considered necessary . On the other hand , the departure of the French troops was an indispensable point for the British as they could not allow the Netherlands to be dominated by a hostile power , and the Batavian Republic was incapable of defending its own neutrality . This was to be an insoluble dilemma in the coming years . Real advantages of the peace came in the economic field . As an open economy , the Republic needed unhindered trade . It was heavily dependent on exports of agricultural products to the British markets , and on its services sector ( especially its large merchant fleet , and the banking sector ) , whereas its industry ( whatever remained of it after a century of being confronted by foreign protectionism ) also was dependent on exports . All these sectors had suffered enormously from the war : the British blockade and French and British privateering had almost brought marine trade to a standstill , whereas a commercial treaty with France ( which would have ended French discrimination of Dutch trade in industrial goods ) proved an ever @-@ receding fata morgana . True , much of the trade had shifted to flags of convenience ( especially that of the U.S.A. and European neutrals like Prussia ) , but the peace made the resurgence of the Dutch carrying trade fully practicable . Nevertheless , some changes proved irreversible , like the shift of trade patterns to German ports , and the decline of the fisheries . = = = = Invasion preparations and economic warfare = = = = In any case , the peace turned out to be of short duration . On May 18 , 1803 , slightly more than a year after the peace , war resumed . Napoleon was now intent on the destruction of Great Britain by culminating in an ambitious planned invasion . The Batavian Republic was to play a major supporting role in this . As the Franco @-@ Batavian alliance 's embodiment , the Staatsbewind was forced to assent to a Convention bringing the total of French and Batavian forces in the Netherlands to 35 @,@ 000 . In addition , 9 @,@ 000 Batavian troops were earmarked for the proposed overseas expedition . Even more importantly , the Dutch were to supply , by December 1803 , five ships @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line , five frigates , 100 gun boats , and 250 flat @-@ bottomed transport craft , capable of holding 60 – 80 men . In total the Dutch were meant to provide transport for 25 @,@ 000 men and 2 @,@ 500 horses ; the major part of Napoleon 's invasion " armada " , and all at Dutch expense . It was all a fantasy on Napoleon 's part , but this did not diminish the real burden it imposed on the finances of the Republic , and on its economy . Another real burden was the economic warfare that Napoleon launched against the British , and which was answered by a British counter @-@ boycott . This was to foreshadow the Continental System which was written into law in 1806 . However already in 1803 it started to somewhat choke off Dutch trade . Ostensibly , the Staatsbewind did its part by prohibiting the import of all enemy goods on July 5 , 1803 . Later it banned cheese exports and butter . These gestures were , however , of little practical effect : in 1804 the volume of general exports to Britain was nearly equal to that in the last year of peace : 1802 . British goods reached Dutch destinations via neutral German ports , or disguised as " American cargo . " The republic was therefore an important " keyhole into Europe " that undermined the economic sanctions against Britain . As the members of the Staatsbewind , and their friends , often profited from this clandestine trade directly , the patience of the French was wearing thin . Matters came to a head when the French commander in the Republic , Auguste de Marmont , ordered in November 1804 that French naval patrols and customs officials were to take over the responsibility for the surveillance of cargoes in Dutch ports , with powers of confiscation without reference to Dutch authorities . This was the last straw for the Staatsbewind . On November 23 , 1804 , they forbade any Batavian official to take orders from the French . = = = Last Grand Pensionary and end of the Republic = = = This act of defiance sealed the fate of yet another of the Batavian regimes . Napoleon had long been dissatisfied with what he viewed as the foot @-@ dragging and inefficiency of the Dutch . As a matter of fact , since the Spring of 1804 informal talks , mediated by Talleyrand , had been under way with the Batavian envoy in Paris , Schimmelpenninck , who had a good personal rapport with Napoleon ( by now emperor ) . Schimmelpenninck was a power in the Batavian Republic by himself . He had played an important role as the leader of the federalist opposition in the " revolutionary " States @-@ General of 1795 , and the first Assembly . Though an opponent of the radicals , he had politically survived the coups of 1798 , and served as ambassador to France , and as plenipotentiary to the Amiens negotiations . Now Napoleon saw him as the person to clean the Augean stables of the Dutch client state . Schimmelpenninck saw himself in the same light . He had long had a woolly vision of a " national conciliation " in the Netherlands , that made him amenable to a rapprochement with conservative and Orangist circles . These were to become his power base . Though Schimmelpenninck was a convinced federalist , he was a pliable character also . When Napoleon indicated that he preferred a centralized organization of the Dutch state ( as the re @-@ federalized model of the Staatsbewind had clearly not worked out ) , he did not hesitate to implement this in his project of a new constitution , that he constructed in the Summer of 1804 in consultation with the Staatsbewind . As a matter of fact , a delegation of the Staatsbewind , consisting of Schimmelpenninck , and members of the Regency Van der Goes ( the former Agent ) and Van Haersolte ( a former Director ) , presented the case for this draft to Napoleon in November 1804 . When the clash about the French customs men therefore took place later in the month , Napoleon came to a speedy decision and soon thereafter the Batavian Republic had a new constitution and government . On May 10 , 1805 , Schimmelpenninck was therefore inaugurated as Raadpensionaris ( Grand Pensionary ) of the Batavian Republic . This venerable title ( clearly chosen for sentimental reasons ) had little connection with the former office of the States of Holland ; as a matter of fact , the new office more resembled that of Stadtholder , though even William V , after 1787 , had not possessed the powers Schimmelpenninck was to wield . His was a one @-@ man Executive that would in no way be encumbered by the 19 man Legislative Corps , that had no powers apart from the Pensionary . The Pensionary conducted his business assisted by a Staatsraad , that resembled the French Conseil d 'État more than the old Raad van State , and by Secretaries of State , who resembled the Agenten of the Uitvoerend Bewind . Of course , such an important change in the constitution had to receive the imprimatur of the popular will . A plebiscite was duly organized which elicited 14 @,@ 903 Yes @-@ votes ( against 136 Noes ) from an electorate of 353 @,@ 322 . The abstentions were counted as " tacit affirmatives " in the now well @-@ established tradition . Despite such unpromisingly reactionary trappings the Schimmelpenninck regime actually accomplished more in its short existence than the previous regimes had accomplished in the ten years since 1795 . This was , of course , mainly due to the diligent preparatory work that Agents like the ubiquitous Gogel ; Johannes Goldberg , for National Economy ; and Johannes van der Palm , for National Education ; had done . Gogel 's General Taxation Plan was finally enacted in June 1805 ; a first government @-@ approved attempt at unification of the Dutch spelling was made ; an embryonic Department of Agriculture and Department of Hydraulics were formed , to foreshadow the later government departments ; even a Pharmacopeia Batavia started the regulation of drugs ; and the School Law of 1806 organized a national system of public elementary education . Most importantly perhaps , the local @-@ government law of July 1805 founded the first Dutch system of public administration . The French reaction to this flurry of reforms was mixed , however . The very zeal of the program might betoken a renascent nationalism that could work against French interests . The debacle of the Battle of Trafalgar had made it clear that the projected invasion had to be scrapped . The Dutch now began to clamor for economies in the form of the return of the Boulogne flotilla , which annoyed Napoleon , because he still had a use for it . The man who had led that flotilla to Boulogne Carel Hendrik Ver Huell , was now Secretary for the Navy . He had also become a confidant of the emperor , and now engaged in a secret correspondence with Talleyrand and Napoleon . The latter had just concluded the Peace of Pressburg and was busy dividing up Europe in client @-@ kingdoms apportioned to his relatives . He saw a good candidate for such a position in the Netherlands in his brother Louis Bonaparte . Ver Huell started scheming with his French patrons behind the back of Schimmelpenninck and feeding negative information about the Pensionary that found its way into the French press . Schimmelpenninck 's position was weakened by the fact that he was slowly going blind . The Dutch Secretaries of State and the Staatsraad could read the writing on the wall . They were faced with Hobson 's choice : either a complete extinguishing of the national identity in the form of annexation to the Empire , or the lesser evil of a new kingdom under one of Napoleon 's relatives . A Groot Besogne ( Grand Commission ) was formed to conduct the unequal negotiations with the Emperor . The latter , however , refused to speak with the Commission , and only communicated to them through the intermediary of Ver Huell . Talleyrand had meanwhile drafted a " Treaty " which contained the conditions under which the crown of " Holland " was to be offered to Louis : no union of the crowns ; no conscription ; a possible commercial treaty with France ; and the basic freedoms of the Netherlands ( linguistic , religious , judicial ) were to be maintained ; while the civil list was fixed at the " modest sum " of 1 @.@ 5 million guilders . The constitution of the Pensionary was actually to be maintained with a few minor alterations ( the title of raadpensionaris changed to that of King ; and the size of the Staatsraad and the legislative corps nearly doubled ) . The Commission was not allowed to refer back to The Hague . Schimmelpenninck made a last @-@ ditch attempt to have the treaty referred to a plebiscite , but he was ignored . He resigned on June 4 , 1806 . The next day in St. Cloud , after Napoleon had kept them waiting while he received the Turkish ambassador , the hapless commissioners presented their " petition " to Louis to accept the crown of " Holland " , which he graciously did , while Napoleon looked on approvingly . = = Aftermath = = The Kingdom of Holland lasted only four years . Though Louis performed his role beyond all expectations , and did his best to defend the interests of his subjects , this was exactly the reason why Napoleon decided that the Netherlands could no longer be denied the blessings of being reunited with his Empire , though over the objections of Louis . Louis abdicated on July 2 , 1810 , in favor of his son Napoleon Louis Bonaparte , who reigned for ten days . Then the Netherlands were finally reunited with the origins of the " alluvial deposits of the French rivers , " of which the country in the view of Napoleon consists . This reunion did not outlast the effects of the disastrous French invasion of Russia , and the Battle of Leipzig . The Empire melted away , and the independent Netherlands took shape again with every city that the retreating French army of occupation evacuated in the course of 1813 . In the ensuing political vacuum a triumvirate of former Orangist regents , led by Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorp , invited the former Hereditary Prince ( the old Stadtholder had died in 1806 ) to assume power as " Sovereign Prince . " William VI of Orange landed in Scheveningen on November 30 , 1813 . He duly established control in the Netherlands and was offered the crown of the combined area of the former 17 provinces of the Netherlands ( modern Belgium and the Netherlands ) by the Allies in the secret London Protocol ( also known as the Eight Articles of London ) of June 21 , 1814 , which he accepted exactly one month later . On March 16 , 1815 , the United Kingdom of the Netherlands was proclaimed . = = = Historiographical note = = = According to the British historian Simon Schama the Batavian Republic has been controversially treated by historians . After the end of the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands during World War II there were some who saw a historical parallel between the Dutch National Socialist Movement ( NSB ) and the Patriot revolutionaries , while they pictured William V in the heroic role of Queen Wilhelmina and her government @-@ in @-@ exile . Dutch historian Pieter Geyl opposed such comparisons in his Patriotten en NSBers : een historische parallel ( 1946 ) . Still , by that time the Batavians had already had a bad press in Dutch history writing . This may be explained by the fact that the ages @-@ old ideological struggle between the monarchically oriented Orangist party and its successive opponents of a more " republican " bent ( going back to at least the conflict between Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Prince Maurice ) , of which the Patriots were only the latest incarnation , was being refought in the standard works of 19th @-@ century Dutch historians like Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer , who saw plenty to despise in the " popular @-@ sovereignty " philosophy of the Patriot radicals . In his turn Groen was very influential on the way John Lothrop Motley depicted the old Dutch Republic for an American audience . Motley did not get to deal explicitly with the Batavian Republic , but the way his collaborator William Elliot Griffis dismissed the Patriots speaks for itself : " ... whether under the name of the ' Batavian Republic ' , the Kingdom of Holland , or the provinces of the French empire , the French occupation was virtually a French conquest that had little permanent influence on Dutch history or character . " However most , if not all , characteristics of the current centralized state of the Kingdom of the Netherlands were foreshadowed by the accomplishments of the Batavian Republic , not least the liberal 1848 Constitution . That constitution restored the central tenets of the democratic Staatsregeling of 1798 , under the guise of a Constitutional monarchy , as its author Johan Rudolf Thorbecke acknowledged .

= University of California , Santa Cruz = The University of California , Santa Cruz ( also known as UC Santa Cruz or UCSC ) , is a public research university and one of 10 campuses in the University of California system . Located 75 miles ( 120 km ) south of San Francisco at the edge of the coastal community of Santa Cruz , the campus lies on 2 @,@ 001 acres ( 810 ha ) of rolling , forested hills overlooking the Pacific Ocean and Monterey Bay . Founded in 1965 , UC Santa Cruz began as a showcase for progressive , cross @-@ disciplinary undergraduate education , innovative teaching methods and contemporary architecture . Since then , it has evolved into a modern research university with a wide variety of both undergraduate and graduate programs , while retaining its reputation for strong undergraduate support and student political activism . The residential college system , which consists of ten small colleges , is intended to combine the student support of a small college with the resources of a major university . = = History = = Although some of the original founders had already outlined plans for an institution like UCSC as early as the 1930s , the opportunity to realize their vision did not present itself until the City of Santa Cruz made a bid to the University of California Regents in the mid @-@ 1950s to build a campus just outside town , in the foothills of the Santa Cruz Mountains . The Santa Cruz site was selected over a competing proposal to build the campus closer to the population center of San Jose . Santa Cruz was selected for the beauty , rather than the practicality , of its location , however , and its remoteness led to the decision to develop a residential college system that would house most of the students on @-@ campus . The formal design process of the Santa Cruz campus began in the late 1950s , culminating in the Long Range Development Plan of 1963 . Construction had started by 1964 , and the university was able to accommodate its first students ( albeit living in trailers on what is now the East Field athletic area ) in 1965 . The campus was intended to be a showcase for contemporary architecture , progressive teaching methods , and undergraduate research . According to founding chancellor Dean McHenry , the purpose of the distributed college system was to combine the benefits of a major research university with the intimacy of a smaller college . UC President Clark Kerr shared a passion with former Stanford roommate McHenry to build a university modeled as " several Swarthmores " ( i.e. , small liberal arts colleges ) in close proximity to each other . Roads on campus were named after UC Regents who voted in favor of building the campus . = = = Impact on Santa Cruz = = = Although the city of Santa Cruz already exhibited a strong conservation ethic before the founding of the university , the coincidental rise of the counterculture of the 1960s with the university 's establishment fundamentally altered its subsequent development . Early student and faculty activism at UCSC pioneered an approach to environmentalism that greatly impacted the industrial development of the surrounding area . The lowering of the voting age to 18 in 1971 led to the emergence of a powerful student @-@ voting bloc . A large and growing population of politically liberal UCSC alumni changed the electorate of the town from predominantly Republican to markedly left @-@ leaning , consistently voting against expansion measures on the part of both town and gown . = = = Expansion plans = = = Plans for increasing enrollment to 19 @,@ 500 students and adding 1 @,@ 500 faculty and staff by 2020 , and the anticipated environmental impacts of such action , encountered opposition from the city , the local community , and the student body . City voters in 2006 passed two measures calling on UCSC to pay for the impacts of campus growth . A Santa Cruz Superior Court judge invalidated the measures , ruling they were improperly put on the ballot . In 2008 , the university , city , county and neighborhood organizations reached an agreement to set aside numerous lawsuits and allow the expansion to occur . UCSC agreed to local government scrutiny of its north campus expansion plans , to provide housing for 67 percent of the additional students on campus , and to pay municipal development and water fees . George Blumenthal , UCSC 's 10th Chancellor , intends to mitigate growth constraints in Santa Cruz by developing off @-@ campus sites in Silicon Valley . The NASA Ames Research Center campus is planned to ultimately hold 2 @,@ 000 UCSC students – about 10 % of the entire university 's future student body as envisioned for 2020 . In April 2010 , UC Santa Cruz opened its new $ 35 million Digital Arts Research Center ; a project in planning since 2004 . = = Campus = = The 2 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 810 ha ) UCSC campus is located 75 miles ( 121 km ) south of San Francisco , in the Ben Lomond Mountain ridge of the Santa Cruz Mountains . Elevation varies from 285 feet ( 87 m ) at the campus entrance to 1 @,@ 195 feet ( 364 m ) at the northern boundary , a difference of about 900 feet ( 270 m ) . The southern portion of the campus primarily consists of a large , open meadow , locally known as the Great Meadow . To the north of the meadow lie most of the campus ' buildings , many of them among redwood groves . The campus is bounded on the south by the city 's upper @-@ west @-@ side neighborhoods , on the east by Harvey West Park and the Pogonip open space preserve , on the north by Henry Cowell Redwoods State Park near the town of Felton , and on the west by Gray Whale Ranch , a portion of Wilder Ranch State Park . The campus is built on a portion of the Cowell Family ranch , which was purchased by the University of California in 1961 . The northern half of the campus property has remained in its undeveloped , forested state apart from fire roads and hiking and bicycle trails . The heavily forested area has allowed UC Santa Cruz to operate a recreational vehicle park as a form of student housing . A number of shrines , dens and other student @-@ built curiosities are scattered around the northern campus . These structures , mostly assembled from branches and other forest detritus , were formerly concentrated in the area known as Elfland , a glen the university razed in 1992 to build colleges Nine and Ten . Students were able to relocate and save some of the structures , however . Creeks traverse the UCSC campus within several ravines . Footbridges span those ravines on pedestrian paths linking various areas of campus . The footbridges make it possible to walk to any part of campus within 20 minutes in spite of the campus being built on a mountainside with varying elevations . At night , orange lights illuminate the occasionally fogged @-@ in paths . There are a number of natural points of interest throughout the UCSC grounds . The " Porter Caves " are a popular site among students on the west side of campus . The entrance is located in the forest between the Porter College meadow and Empire Grade Road . The caves wind through a set of caverns , some of which are challenging , narrow passages . Tree Nine is another popular destination for students . A large Douglas fir spanning approximately 103 feet ( 31 m ) tall , Tree Nine is located in the upper campus of UCSC behind College Nine . The tree had been a popular climbing spot for many years but due to environmental corrosion and fear of student injuries , UC ground services sawed off the limbs to make it nearly impossible to climb . For specific directions , reference : directions to Tree Nine For the less experienced tree @-@ climber , students also frequent Sunset Tree located on the east side of the meadow behind the UCSC Music Center . The UCSC campus is also one of the few homes to Mima Mounds in the United States . They are extremely rare in the United States and in the world in general . = = Academics = = The university offers 63 undergraduate majors and 35 minors , with graduate programs in 33 fields . Popular undergraduate majors include Art , Business Management Economics , Molecular and Cell Biology , and Psychology . Interdisciplinary programs , such as Feminist Studies , American Studies , Environmental Studies , Visual Studies , Digital Arts and New Media , and the unique History of Consciousness Department are also hosted alongside UCSC 's more traditional academic departments . A new joint program , the first of its kind in the University of California system , enables UC Santa Cruz students to earn a bachelor 's degree and law degree in six years instead of the usual seven . The " 3 + 3 BA / JD " Program between UC Santa Cruz and UC Hastings College of the Law in San Francisco accepted its first applicants in fall 2014 . UCSC students who declare their intent in their freshman or early sophomore year will complete three years at UCSC and then move on to UC Hastings to begin the three @-@ year law curriculum . Credits from the first year of law school will count toward a student 's bachelor 's degree . Students who successfully complete the first @-@ year law course work will receive their bachelor 's degree and be able to graduate with their UCSC class , then continue at UC Hastings for the final two years of law study . = = = Research = = = According to the National Science Foundation , UC Santa Cruz spent $ 155 @.@ 5 million on research and development in 2012 , ranking it 120th in the nation . Although designed as a liberal arts @-@ oriented university , UCSC quickly acquired a graduate @-@ level natural science research component with the appointment of plant physiologist Kenneth V. Thimann as the first provost of Crown College . Thimann developed UCSC 's early Division of Natural Sciences and recruited other well @-@ known science faculty and graduate students to the fledgling campus . Immediately upon its founding , UCSC was also granted administrative responsibility for the Lick Observatory , which established the campus as a major center for astronomy research . Founding members of the Social Science and Humanities faculty created the unique History of Consciousness graduate program in UCSC 's first year of operation . Famous former UCSC faculty members include Judith Butler and Angela Davis . UCSC 's organic farm and garden program is the oldest in the country , and pioneered organic horticulture techniques internationally . As of 2015 , UCSC 's faculty include 13 members of the National Academy of Sciences , 24 fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , and 33 fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science . The young Baskin School of Engineering , UCSC 's first professional school and home to the Expressive Intelligence Studio , and the Center for Biomolecular Science and Engineering are gaining recognition , as has the work that UCSC researchers David Haussler and Jim Kent have done on the Human Genome Project , including the widely used UCSC Genome Browser . UCSC administers the National Science Foundation 's Center for Adaptive Optics . Off @-@ campus research facilities maintained by UCSC include the Lick and Keck Observatories and the Long Marine Laboratory . In September 2003 , a ten @-@ year task order contract valued at more than $ 330 million was awarded by NASA Ames Research Center to the University of California to establish and operate a University Affiliated Research System ( UARC ) . UCSC manages the UARC for the University of California . = = = Rankings = = = UC Santa Cruz was tied for 82nd in the list of Best National Universities in the United States by U.S. News & World Report 's 2016 rankings . In 2015 Kiplinger ranked UC Santa Cruz 63rd out of the top 100 best @-@ value public colleges and universities in the nation , and 7th in California . Money Magazine ranked UC Santa Cruz 114th in the country out of the nearly 1500 schools it evaluated for its 2015 Best Colleges ranking . The Daily Beast ranked UC Santa Cruz 157th in the country out of the nearly 2000 schools it evaluated for its 2013 Best Colleges ranking . In 2015 – 2016 , UC Santa Cruz was rated tied for 144th in the world by Times Higher Education World University Rankings . In 2015 it was ranked 93rd in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities and 269th worldwide in 2015 by the QS World University Rankings . In 2009 , RePEc , an online database of research economics articles , ranked the UCSC Economics Department sixth in the world in the field of international finance . In 2007 , High Times magazine placed UCSC as first among US universities as a " counterculture college . " In 2009 , The Princeton Review ( with Gamepro magazine ) ranked UC Santa Cruz 's Game Design major among the top 50 in the country . In 2011 , The Princeton Review and Gamepro Media ranked UC Santa Cruz 's graduate programs in Game Design as seventh in the nation . In 2012 , UCSC was ranked No. 3 in the Most Beautiful Campus list of Princeton Review . = = Residential colleges = = The undergraduate program , with only the partial exception of those majors run through the university 's School of Engineering , is still based on the version of the " residential college system " outlined by Clark Kerr and Dean McHenry at the inception of their original plans for the campus ( see History , above ) . Upon admission , all undergraduate students have the opportunity to choose one of ten colleges , with which they usually stay affiliated for their entire undergraduate careers . There are cases where some students switch college affiliations as each college holds a different graduation ceremony . Almost all faculty members are affiliated with a college as well . The individual colleges provide housing and dining services , while the university as a whole offers courses and majors to the general student community . Other universities with similar college systems include Rice University and the University of California , San Diego . Each of the colleges has its own , distinctive architectural style and a resident faculty provost , who is the nominal head of his or her college . An incoming first @-@ year student will take a mandatory " core course " within his or her respective college , with a curriculum and central theme unique to that college . College resident populations vary from about 750 to 1 @,@ 550 students , with roughly half of undergraduates living on campus within their college community or in smaller , intramural campus communities such as the International Living Center , the Trailer Park , and the Village . Coursework , academic majors and general areas of study are not limited by college membership , although colleges host the offices of many academic departments . Graduate students are not affiliated with a residential college , though a large portion of their offices , too , have historically tended to be based in the colleges . The ten colleges are , in order of establishment : = = = Admissions = = = For the fall 2015 term , UCSC offered admission to 23 @,@ 022 freshmen out of 44 @,@ 871 applicants , an acceptance rate of 51 @.@ 3 % . The entering freshman class had an average high school GPA of 3 @.@ 76 , and the middle 50 % range of SAT scores were 520 @-@ 640 for critical reading , 550 @-@ 670 for math , and 520 @-@ 640 for writing , while the ACT Composite range was 23 – 29 . = = = Grading = = = For most of its history , UCSC employed a unique student evaluation system . With the exception of the choice of letter grades in science courses the only grades assigned were " pass " and " no record " , supplemented with narrative evaluations . Beginning in 1997 , UCSC allowed students the option of selecting letter grade evaluations , but course grades were still optional until 2000 , when faculty voted to require students receive letter grades . Students were still given narrative evaluations to complement the letter grades . As of 2010 , the narrative evaluations were deemed an unnecessary expenditure . Still , some professors write evaluations for all students while some would write evaluations for specific students upon request . Students can still elect to receive a " pass / no pass " grade , but many academic programs limit or even forbid pass / no pass grading . A grade of C and above would receive a grade of " pass " . Overall , students may now earn no more than 25 % of their UCSC credits on a " pass / no pass " basis . Although the default grading option for almost all courses offered is now " graded " , most course grades are still accompanied by written evaluations . = = Library = = The McHenry Library houses UCSC 's arts and letters collection , with most of the scientific reading at the newer Science and Engineering Library . The McHenry Library was designed by John Carl Warnecke . In addition , the colleges host smaller libraries , which serve as quiet places to study . The McHenry Special Collections Library includes the archives of Robert A. Heinlein , the papers of Anaïs Nin , the papers and drawings of Beat poet Kenneth Patchen , the largest collection of Edward Weston photographs in the country , the mycology book collection of composer John Cage , a large collection of works by Satyajit Ray , the Hayden White collection of 16th @-@ century Italian printing , a photography collection with nearly half a million items , and the Mary Lea Shane Archive . The latter contains an extensive collection of photographs , letters , and other documents related to Lick Observatory dating back to 1870 . A 82 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 600 m2 ) new addition to the library opened on March 31 , 2008 , including a " cyber study " room and a Global Village café . The original 144 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 13 @,@ 400 m2 ) library reopened on June 22 , 2011 after seismic upgrades and other renovations . = = = Grateful Dead archive = = = In 2008 , UCSC agreed to house the Grateful Dead archives at the McHenry Library . Exhibits of Grateful Dead Archive materials are on display in the Brittingham Family Foundation 's Dead Central Gallery on the 2nd Floor of McHenry Library . The Dead Central exhibit space is open during all library business hours . UCSC plans to devote an entire room at the library , to be called " Dead Central , " to display the collection and encourage research . UCSC beat out petitions from Stanford and UC Berkeley to house the archives . Grateful Dead guitarist Bob Weir said that UCSC is " a seat of neo @-@ Bohemian culture that we 're a facet of . There could not have been a cozier place for this collection to land . " Silicon Valley entrepreneurs and Dead fans Roger McNamee and Bill Watkins are expected to join a committee to oversee and raise funds for the project . The archive became open to the public July 29 , 2012 . = = Student life = = Though UCSC students come from throughout the United States and the world , most are from California . The following tables show the ethnic and regional breakdown of the student body : UCSC students are known for political activism . In 2005 , a Pentagon surveillance program deemed student opposition to military recruiters on campus a " credible threat , " the only campus antiwar action to receive the designation . In February 2006 , Chancellor Denice Denton got the designation removed . Military recruiters declined to return to UCSC the following year , but returned in 2008 to a more low @-@ keyed student reception and protests using elements of guerrilla theatre , rather than vandalism or physical violence . Thanks to students passing a $ 3 quarterly tuition increase to support buying renewable energy in 2006 , UCSC is the sixth @-@ largest buyer of renewable energy among college campuses nationwide . UC Santa Cruz is also well known for its cannabis culture . On April 20 , 2007 , approximately 2 @,@ 000 UCSC students gathered at Porter Meadow to celebrate the annual " 420 " . Students and others openly smoked marijuana while campus police stood by . The once student @-@ only event has grown since the city of Santa Cruz passed Measure K in 2006 , an ordinance making marijuana use a low @-@ priority crime for police . The 2007 event attracted a total of 5 @,@ 000 participants . The university does not condone the gathering , but has taken steps to regulate the event and ensure security for all participants . On April 20 , 2010 , the school administration shut down the west entrance to campus and limited the amount of buses that could drive through campus . Another well known tradition is what is known as " First Rain " . Students run around campus naked or nearly naked to celebrate the school year 's first night of heavy rain . The run begins at Porter and proceeds to travel through all the other colleges , collecting more students in its train . = = = Student government = = = The Student Union Assembly was founded in 1985 to better coordinate bargaining positions between students and administration on campus @-@ wide issues . All the residential colleges and six ethnic and gender @-@ based organizations send delegates to SUA . There is a total of 138 recognized student groups as of 2008 . = = = Student media = = = All Student media organizations are funded by a student council referendum of $ 3 @.@ 20 per student per quarter . City on a Hill Press , a weekly publication that serves as the traditional campus newspaper . Fish Rap Live ! , the alternative , comedic paper . TWANAS , the Third World and Native American Student Press Collective publishes issues about every quarter for various communities of color at UCSC . Its peak years were during the 1970s , 1980s and 1990s . Student Cable Television ( SCTV ) disbanded at the beginning of the 2010 academic school year . On The Spot ( OTS ) , replaced the defunct SCTV organization , continuing the student @-@ run television opportunities . On The Spot airs on channel 28 only on campus . The Moxie Production Group , which produces content on a quarterly basis . The Project , a quarterly paper , for UCSC 's radical community . The Disorientation Guide , published on sporadic years , introduces new students to UCSC 's radical history and various political issues that face the campus and community . Rapt Magazine , a quarterly literary and arts magazine . Leviathan Jewish Journal , a Jewish student life publication . On The Spot , a student @-@ run broadcast media organization , that produces a variety of shows including Press Center Live ( Sketch @-@ Comedy ) , ART ( Music videos ) , and game shows . Banana Slug News , a television broadcast news program . Chinquapin , an open @-@ ended creative journal sponsored by the creative writing department . Turnstile , a poetry journal . " Gaia Magazine , " a magazine about environmental and sustainability subjects that is published once a year . Red Wheelbarrow , a " literary arts " journal . Matchbox Magazine , an annual humanities publication , started at UCSC , that operates across many UC campuses . EyeCandy , an annual student @-@ run film journal associated with the Film and Digital Media department . KZSC , the student @-@ run campus radio station . Santa Cruz Indymedia , a local activist resource with a lot of UCSC content . The Film Production Coalition which produces films on a quarterly basis . = = = Housing = = = Most of the UCSC undergraduate housing is affiliated with one of the ten residential colleges . The residence halls , which include both shared and private rooms , typically house fifteen to twenty students per floor and have common bathrooms and lounge areas . Some halls have coed floors where men and women share bathroom facilities , others have separate bathroom facilities for men and women . Single @-@ gender , gender @-@ neutral and substance @-@ free floors are also available . All of the colleges , except for Kresge , have both residence halls and apartments . Kresge is all apartments . Apartments are typically shared by four to eight students , have common living / dining rooms , kitchens and bathrooms , and a combination of shared and private bedrooms . Apartments at colleges other than Kresge are generally reserved for students above the freshman level . In addition to the residential colleges , housing is available at the Village on the lower quarry , populated by continuing and transfer students ( in 2016 @-@ 17 , this will be restricted to only continuing students ) ; the Redwood Grove Apartments , which is available to continuing student applicants from all colleges ; and the University Town Center , located downtown , that serves both continuing and transfer students . The Transfer Community is located in sections of both the A and B Buildings at Porter College and over 500 residents live within this theme housing . Graduate Student Housing is available near Science Hill , and UCSC also offers Family Student Housing units as well as a Camper Park for student @-@ owned trailers and RVs . = = = Greek life = = = UCSC is home to few fraternities and sororities . The first Greek organization on campus , Theta Chi , was given colony status on January 10 , 1987 and chartered on October 14 , 1989 ( designation : Theta Iota ) . In the beginning , fraternities like Theta Chi and Sigma Alpha Epsilon were met with strong opposition from the student body . Student groups like P.A.C. ( People 's Alternative Community ) , S.A.G.E. ( Students Against Greek Environments ) , and M.A.C. ( Men 's Alternative Community ) protested the existence of Greek life at the UCSC campus . In 2003 , the campus gained national notoriety when MTV 's reality show Fraternity Life documented the lives of students pledging Delta Omega Chi . During the shooting , a few of the students fished a 15 @-@ year @-@ old koi named Midas out of a pond at Porter College , barbecued it , and ate it . Since the incident was captured on video , the individuals involved were charged with misdemeanor grand theft and vandalism . In 2016 , six students affiliated with the sorority alpha Kappa Delta Phi and the fraternity Lambda Phi Epsilon were arrested as part of a suspected Ecstasy drug ring when Homeland Security Investigations , the US Drug Enforcement Administration , the US Postal Inspection Service @-@ San Jose Team , and the Santa Cruz Police Department Neighborhood Enforcement Team found over $ 100 @,@ 000 in MDMA ( about 5 @,@ 000 tablets ) . Greek life at UCSC includes fraternities Sigma Lambda Beta , Tau Kappa Epsilon , Sigma Pi , Lambda Phi Epsilon , Sigma Phi Zeta , Alpha Epsilon Pi , Pi Alpha Phi , and Delta Lambda Psi , the nation 's first gender neutral queer Greek organization . Sororities that are members of the National Panhellenic Council at the University of California , Santa Cruz include Gamma Phi Beta and Kappa Kappa Gamma . Recently in June 2016 the Theta Xi chapter of Kappa Alpha Theta was chartered to bring a third National sorority to UC Santa Cruz . Local sororities on campus include Delta Sigma Theta , Sigma Lambda Gamma , Sigma Alpha Epsilon Pi , alpha Kappa Delta Phi , Gamma Phi Beta , Kappa Kappa Gamma , Sigma Pi Alpha , Tri Chi , Sigma Omicron Pi , Kappa Zeta , and Alpha Psi . Lambda Theta Alpha , a Latina sorority which was established in fall 2012 . The most recent Greek lettered organization added to the campus was Zeta Phi Beta sorority , which chartered its chapter Gamma Phi as of Spring 2016 . Aside from social fraternities and sororities on campus , there are also a number of professional organizations as well . There are Kappa Gamma Delta , a prehealth sorority , Sigma Mu Delta , a prehealth fraternity , Alpha Phi Omega , a coed service fraternity , Phi Alpha Delta , a pre @-@ law fraternity , and Delta Sigma Pi , a co @-@ ed professional business fraternity . = = Sustainability = = Though UCSC has been known for its conservation efforts and environmentally minded students since it was founded , since 2000 enthusiasm for the UCSC sustainability movement has grown steadily among students and administrators alike . Students established the Student Environmental Center ( SEC ) in 2001 , have held annual Earth Summits , and established a sustainability funding body , the Campus Sustainability Council . In 2004 , the UC Policy on Sustainable Practices was released , stating that the University of California Office of the President was committed to minimizing its impact on the environment and reducing its dependence on non @-@ renewable energy . This set the scene for huge breakthroughs in 2006 , when a Committee on Sustainability and Stewardship ( CSS ) was established and a campus @-@ wide Sustainability Assessment was completed . The following year , the pilot Sustainability Office was created to help institutionalize sustainability , coordinate communication and collaboration between the many entities already engaged in campus sustainability activities at UCSC , support policy implementation , and serve as a resource for the campus . Sustainability has become a major part of every aspect of the campus , and students , staff , and faculty campus @-@ wide are working toward sustainability in a variety of different ways . = = = Organizations = = = The following is a list of UCSC sustainability organizations , departments , gardens , and funding bodies on the UCSC campus : = = Athletics = = UCSC competes in Division III of the NCAA as an Independent member . There are fifteen varsity sports – men 's and women 's basketball , tennis , soccer , volleyball , swimming , cross country and diving , and women 's golf . UCSC teams have been Division III nationally ranked in tennis , soccer , men 's volleyball , and swimming . UCSC maintains a number of successful club sides . It has won multiple national championships in men 's tennis and a women 's Division II championship in club rugby . In 2016 , due to a mounting debt in funding of the athletic program , the university polled its students on whether or not they would approve an increase in tuition which would be necessary to maintain the athletic program . There was a significant doubt that the students would approve this increase . Contrary to the predictions , a majority of the students approved a significant addition to their annual tuition to maintain the existence of the athletic program . = = Notable alumni and faculty = = Notable alumni of the University of California , Santa Cruz include co @-@ founder of the Black Panther Party Huey P. Newton ( BA 1974 , PhD 1980 ) ; actress and comedian Maya Rudolph ( BA 1995 ) ; founder of Huffington Post and BuzzFeed Jonah Peretti ( BA 1996 ) ; filmmaker Cary Fukunaga ( BA 1999 ) ; and several Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning journalists . Notable attendees include actor and comedian Andy Samberg filmmaker Miranda July and Glenn S. Lipson ( B.A. , Psychology 1981 ) ; forensic psychologist . Notable UC Santa Cruz alumni include :

= Lexie Grey = Alexandra Caroline " Lexie " Grey , M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , which airs on ABC in the United States . The character was created by series ' producer Shonda Rhimes and was portrayed by actress Chyler Leigh from the third through eighth seasons . She was introduced as a surgical intern in season three . Serving as Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) ' s half sister , she transferred to the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital , after her mother 's sudden death . Eventually named a surgical resident , the character was originally contracted to appear for a multi @-@ episode story arc , but received star billing in the fourth season . The character 's focal storyline involved a romantic relationship with plastic surgeon Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) . She sustained life @-@ threatening injuries after an aviation accident , in the eighth season finale , which ultimately ended in her death . The character 's death resulted in mixed critical feedback and the reason given for the departure was Leigh 's desire to spend more time with her family . Rhimes has characterized Lexie as being a dork , as well as having issues with saying how she feels . Leigh has been moderately well received by critics , and was among the cast to receive a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2007 . = = Storylines = = = = = Background = = = Lexie Grey is the daughter of Thatcher Grey ( Jeff Perry ) and his second wife , Susan Grey ( Mare Winningham ) . She grew up with her younger sister , Molly Grey @-@ Thompson ( Mandy Siegfried ) and through @-@ out her childhood was kept unaware that she also had an older half @-@ sister , Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , born to Thatcher and his first wife , Ellis Grey ( Kate Burton ) . Lexie is first mentioned when Molly is admitted to Seattle Grace Hospital , with Susan informing Meredith that Lexie is a student at Harvard Medical School . At some subsequent point , Lexie learns of Meredith 's existence . She graduates from medical school and is accepted to take her surgical internship at Mass General hospital , but following her mother 's sudden death from complications stemming from the hiccups , Lexie instead opts to move back to Seattle to be closer to her father , taking up an internship at Seattle Grace Hospital , one year behind Meredith who is due to begin her residency . = = = Season 4 = = = The night before her internship begins , Lexie meets Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) at Joe 's Bar , mirroring his initial meeting with Meredith . The pair flirt , but Derek makes his excuses and leaves . On her arrival at the hospital , Lexie meets George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) who quickly realizes her identity . Lexie promises to keep George 's secret that he is repeating his internship after failing his intern exam and the pair strike up a friendship . Lexie is assigned to be Cristina Yang 's ( Sandra Oh ) intern , and is dubbed " three " by Cristina , who doesn 't take the time to learn her name . Lexie is eager to get to know her half @-@ sister Meredith , but receives a hostile response when she introduces herself , and her later frequent attempts to bond with Meredith are similarly rebuffed . Lexie begins a brief sexual relationship with Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) , who discovers that Thatcher has descended into alcoholism following Susan 's death . When Meredith scolds Lexie for not looking after Thatcher , she finally retaliates and decides to stop pursuing a relationship with Meredith . Lexie bonds with patient Nick Hanscom ( Seth Green ) , and is present when his exposed artery blows , causing him to suffer massive blood loss . She manages to stop the bleeding , but is distraught when Nick later dies anyway . Feeling sympathy for Lexie , Cristina invites her to join her and Meredith in drinking and dancing , causing the sisters relationship to begin to thaw . The following morning , Meredith goes out of her way to make Lexie breakfast , which she politely eats despite an allergy to eggs , resulting in her having to be treated at the hospital . Lexie and George agree to move in together , but they can only afford a dilapidated apartment which Lexie attempts to improve by stealing decorations from the hospital . She begins to develop romantic feelings for George , and discovers that he had only failed his intern exam by one point , encouraging him to try and convince the Chief that he deserves a second chance . = = = Season 5 = = = Lexie continues to harness romantic feelings for George , oblivious to the fact that he doesn 't see her in the same way . She prioritizes helping George study over taking part in a surgery with Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , but feels betrayed when George doesn 't request that she become one of his interns after passing his exam . Finally realizing that he doesn 't feel the same way , Lexie gives up on her feelings for George and the pair 's friendship begins to fizzle out . She later begins a flirtation with Mark , and the pair begin an unlikely romantic relationship , though they are forced to keep it a secret when Meredith and Derek warn Mark away from Lexie . Lexie discovers that some of her fellow interns have secretly been performing simple procedures on each other and begins taking part . Sadie Harris ( Melissa George ) joins the society , and seeking a more daring procedure , suggests removing her appendix . Though Lexie agrees , she quickly finds herself out of her depth , resulting in Meredith and Cristina having to intervene to save Sadie 's life . Lexie and the other interns are put on probation . Derek finds Lexie distraught at the day 's events , and allows her to move into the attic at his and Meredith 's house . Mark comes clean to Derek about his relationship with Lexie , resulting in the two men getting into a fist fight . The pair continue to feud , resulting in Lexie beginning to stress eat , though they eventually reconcile . Lexie is delighted when Meredith asks her to be a bridesmaid at her and Derek 's wedding , though they eventually give the ceremony to Alex and cancer @-@ stricken Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) . Mark decides to purchase a house and invites Lexie to move in with him , however she declines , concerned about how fast their relationship is progressing . = = = Season 6 = = = Lexie feels guilt following George 's death , having abandoned their friendship after he failed to reciprocate her romantic feelings towards him . Mark comforts her , and she eventually agrees to move into his new apartment with him . Thatcher is admitted into the hospital with liver failure stemming from his former alcoholism . When Lexie is found to not be a suitable transplant candidate , Meredith steps in and donates part of her liver , not to help Thatcher , but to spare Lexie the grief of losing her father . Mark and Lexie receive a shock when a girl named Sloan Riley shows up claiming to be Mark 's daughter , and her parentage is soon confirmed . Sloan announces her pregnancy and Mark quickly agrees to let her and the baby move in without consulting Lexie , resulting in her ending their relationship . She engages in a one @-@ night stand with Alex , but feels guilty the following day . She confesses to Mark who is furious with her , officially ending their relationship . Despite secretly suppressing her feelings for Mark , Lexie and Alex resume a casual relationship . Lexie takes part in a surgery on a patient named Alison Clark ( Caroline Williams ) and informs her husband Gary Clark ( Michael O 'Neill ) that it was a success . However , moments later Alison suffers a stroke and falls into a coma that she is deemed unlikely to wake from . As Alison had signed a DNR form , Lexie is forced to turn off the machine keeping her alive , despite Gary begging her to stop . After failing in an attempt to sue the hospital , a grief @-@ stricken Mr Clark later returns to the hospital with a gun , seeking revenge on Lexie , Derek and Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) . After witnessing Mr Clark shoot a nurse dead , Mark shields Lexie and the pair attempt to save a critically wounded Alex . Seeking supplies , Lexie heads out into the hospital and comes face to face with Mr Clark who attempts to shoot her , but she is saved by a SWAT team member who wounds Clark at the last moment allowing her to escape . Lexie and Mark proceed to save Alex 's life . After a showdown with Richard , Gary Clark eventually commits suicide , having killed eleven people and wounding another seven , as well as causing Meredith to suffer a miscarriage . = = = Season 7 = = = Lexie feels responsible for the shooting and is unable to cope with the guilt , eventually suffering from a breakdown . She is admitted to the hospital 's psychiatric facility and is sedated for over fifty hours , with Meredith remaining by her side through it all . Alex on the other hand is less sympathetic and breaks off his and Lexie 's fling . After both realizing that they continued to have feelings for each other , Lexie and Mark resume their relationship , but their brief happiness is ruined when Lexie discovers that during their breakup , Mark had impregnated his best friend Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) and she again ends their relationship . Eager to win Lexie back , Mark recruits his protégé Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) to try to bring him back into Lexie 's favour , but his plan backfires when Jackson and Lexie develop romantic feelings for each other , resulting in them starting a relationship of their own . Mark is furious and tries to win Lexie back , but shortly after Callie is involved in a car accident and Lexie consoles Mark . The next episode , Lexie explains that she will go back to Mark if he continues to pursue her , despite her belief that they aren 't suited , he agrees to let her go , giving her and Jackson his blessing . = = = Season 8 = = = Although initially happy in her relationship with Jackson , Lexie is distraught when she learns that Mark has begun a relationship with a woman named Julia . At a charity softball match , her jealousy gets the better of her , resulting in her throwing a ball at Julia . Sensing that Lexie is still in love with Mark , Jackson calls off their relationship . Lexie begins working with Derek 's service and becomes increasingly proficient in neurosurgery , helping Derek with a set of " hopeless cases " - high risk surgeries for patients who had otherwise run out of options . During a surgery , Derek is called away on an emergency , leaving Lexie and Meredith to carry out the procedure on their own . Though Derek had instructed them to merely reduce the patient 's brain tumour , Meredith allows Lexie to remove it completely . The sisters celebrate the successful surgery , but when the patient wakes up , Lexie is devastated to discover that the patient suffered severe brain damage , losing the ability to speak . Alex , Jackson and April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) move out of Meredith 's house without inviting Lexie to join them , and with Derek and Meredith settling down with baby Zola , Lexie begins to feel increasingly lonely and isolated . After being left babysitting Zola on Valentine 's Day , she decides to try to salvage her relationship with Mark . However , after plucking up the courage to visit his apartment , she finds Mark studying with Jackson and loses her nerve , instead claiming that she was visiting to set up a play date for Zola and Sofia . When Mark confides in Derek that he and Julia have been discussing having a baby , Derek warns Lexie not to miss her chance again , resulting in her professing her love to a shell @-@ shocked Mark , who merely thanks her for her candour . He later confesses to Derek that he feels the same way , but is unsure about how to go about things . Days later , Lexie is named as part of a team of surgeons that will be sent to Boise to separate conjoined twins , along with Mark , Meredith , Derek , Cristina and Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) ; however , while flying to their destination , the doctors ' plane crashes in the wilderness . Lexie is crushed under debris from the plane , but manages to alert Mark and Cristina to help her . The pair try in vain to free Lexie , who realises that she is suffering from a hemothorax and is unlikely to survive . While Cristina tries to find Meredith , Mark takes Lexie by the hand and professes his love for her , telling her that they were " meant to be " . While fantasizing about the future that she and Mark could have had together , Lexie succumbs to her injuries , and dies moments before Meredith arrives . The remaining doctors are left in the woods waiting for rescue , with Mark refusing to let go of Lexie 's hand . = = = Season 9 onwards = = = The remaining surgeons are rescued from the woods days later , and Lexie 's body is returned to Seattle . Weeks later , a traumatized Cristina reminisces to Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) about her time in the woods , telling him that she had fought with wild animals to keep them away from Lexie 's body . Weeks after the crash , Meredith comes across a young girl presenting with injuries identical to Lexie 's , and tirelessly works to save the girls life , with the experience eventually causing her to come to terms with her sister 's death . Despite making it home from the woods , Mark later died from the injuries he sustained in the crash . When the survivors of the plane crash pool their compensation money to purchase the hospital , they agree to rename the hospital to " Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital " in tribute of Lexie and Mark . = = Development = = = = = Casting and creation = = = Leigh first appeared on the show during the last two episodes of the third season as Meredith 's half @-@ sister , Lexie Grey . Following Isaiah Washington 's departure , who portrayed Preston Burke , it was reported that show 's executives were planning on adding new cast members , such as Lexie . She was officially upgraded to a series ' regular on July 11 , 2007 , for the fourth season . On casting Chyler Leigh as Lexie , Grey 's Anatomy creator Shonda Rhimes said : " We met with a lot of young actresses , but Chyler stood out — she had a quality that felt right and real to me . It felt like she could be Meredith 's sister , but she had a depth that was very interesting . " In September 2011 , Leigh requested an extended summer hiatus , in order to spend more time with her family . This was granted by Rhimes , though the actress returned in mid @-@ October . Leigh 's character died in the eighth season finale . In May 2012 , Rhimes revealed why she decided to have Lexie die : " I love Chyler and I love the character of Lexie Grey . She was an important member of my Grey 's family . This was not an easy decision . But it was a decision that Chyler and I came to together . We had a lot of thoughtful discussion about it and ultimately we both decided this was the right time for her character 's journey to end . As far as I 'm concerned , Chyler will always remain a part of the Shondaland family and I can 't wait to work with her again in the future . " Following the death of her character , Leigh released a statement saying : = = = Characterization = = = Leigh 's character has been called " reliable , trustworthy , timid , and apprehensive " by Grey 's Anatomy executives . In her early appearances , it was learned that Lexie has a photographic memory , which she applied to her surgical career . This led her to being nicknamed " Lexipedia " by Alex Karev . The character has also been described as an " innocent young intern " by Alex Keen of The Trades . Of the character , Leigh said : " She 's a very vulnerable person from a very healthy background — she knows how to make good relationships but at this point [ season four ] , she 's coming into so much opposition she 's trying to adjust to it . " Debbie Chang of BuddyTV commented on Lexie 's early characterization , including her sexual relationship with Karev : Similarities have been established between Lexie and Meredith . Series writer , Stacy McKee , commented on this : " Lexie ’ s struggling to be hardcore herself . I don ’ t know if I ’ d go so far as to say , perhaps , this kind of struggle must run in the family , but … Okay . Fine . It must run in the family – because Lexie , though she ’ s very different from Meredith in many many ways , in this one way – they seem to be exactly alike . Meredith and Lexie both want to succeed . They want to be strong . They want to feel normal . They want , so much , to be whole . But it ’ s a struggle – a genuine struggle for them . Being hardcore doesn ’ t come naturally . Sometimes , they have to fake it . " Lexie entertained several relationships throughout her time on Grey 's Anatomy . In her early appearances , she maintained a friendship with George O 'Malley , until developing romantic feelings towards him . Rhimes offered the insight : " I love them as friends . They make good friends . We all have that friend we met in school or the gym or somewhere – we just hit it off right away . And right away there was no pretense or airs . Just pure honesty . That ’ s Lexie and George . They ’ re really good friends and I can see the friendship evolving into something even greater . At least , that ’ s what Lexie is hoping . She is my kind of girl . The girl who likes the guy because he is a GOOD guy and that ’ s what George is . He is a good guy and that ’ s something that Lexie could use now . She ’ s going through her own challenges what with Meredith and losing her own mother and trying to keep things afloat . I ’ m rooting for Lexie . She ’ s my kind of girl and I hope that she gets what she deserves : love . And more kisses . There should always be that . " Lexie 's most significant relationship was with Mark Sloan . Following her death , Rhimes said : = = Reception = = Leigh has received mixed feedback for her role as Lexie Grey . People , less than impressed , criticized the way Leigh 's character initially approached her sister , calling it " rude " . Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly was also critical of Leigh 's early appearances , referring to her as " awkward " . However , Armstrong later noted that the " sparkling " friendship development between Lexie and O 'Malley " won her over " . The character 's transition from season four to five was positively reviewed , with Keen of The Trades writing : " Her presence and confidence have increased quite a bit since last season , and actress , Chyler Leigh , does a fantastic job of making this progression feel seamless . Since the series has defused the tension between Little Grey and Big Grey ( aka Meredith ) , Lexie has clear sailing through the season and steals the show as one of the best current characters on the series . " Lexie was strongly criticized by Laura Burrows from IGN , being called " awful " . Burrows also wrote : " Everything she says and does is obnoxious and does harm to someone . Lexie is an idiot and should be shot or drowned or exploded . " The character 's relationship with Sloan has been well received , with Chris Monfette of IGN writing : " Sloan 's honest relationship with Lexie helped to make both characters infinitely more interesting and mature . " Leigh served as a primary vocalist in " Song Beneath the Song " , the Grey 's Anatomy music event , and was well received , with the Boston Herald 's Mark Perigard praising her performance . The character was listed in Wetpaint 's " 10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV " . In 2007 , at the 14th Screen Actors Guild Awards , Leigh and the rest of the cast of Grey 's Anatomy , received a nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series .

= 7 World Trade Center = 7 World Trade Center refers to two buildings that have existed at the same location in the World Trade Center site in Lower Manhattan , New York City . The current structure is the second building to bear that name and address in the World Trade Center . The original structure , part of the old World Trade Center , was completed in 1987 and was destroyed in the September 11 attacks . The current building opened in 2006 . Both buildings were developed by Larry Silverstein , who holds a ground lease for the site from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . The original 7 World Trade Center was 47 stories tall , clad in red exterior masonry , and occupied a trapezoidal footprint . An elevated walkway connected the building to the World Trade Center plaza . The building was situated above a Consolidated Edison power substation , which imposed unique structural design constraints . When the building opened in 1987 , Silverstein had difficulties attracting tenants . In 1988 , Salomon Brothers signed a long @-@ term lease , and became the main tenants of the building . On September 11 , 2001 , 7 WTC was damaged by debris when the nearby North Tower of the World Trade Center collapsed . The debris also ignited fires , which continued to burn throughout the afternoon on lower floors of the building . The building 's internal fire suppression system lacked water pressure to fight the fires , and the building collapsed completely at 5 : 21 : 10 pm , according to FEMA , while the 2008 NIST study placed the final collapse time at 5 : 20 : 52 pm . The collapse began when a critical internal column buckled and triggered structural failure throughout , which was first visible from the exterior with the crumbling of a rooftop penthouse structure at 5 : 20 : 33 pm . The collapse made the old 7 World Trade Center the first tall building known to have collapsed primarily due to uncontrolled fires , and the only steel skyscraper in the world to have collapsed due to fire . Construction of the new 7 World Trade Center began in 2002 and was completed in 2006 . The building is 52 stories tall ( plus one underground floor ) , making it the 28th @-@ tallest in New York . It is built on a smaller footprint than the original , allowing Greenwich Street to be restored from Tribeca through the World Trade Center site and south to Battery Park . The new building is bounded by Greenwich , Vesey , Washington , and Barclay streets . A small park across Greenwich Street occupies space that was part of the original building 's footprint . The current building 's design emphasizes safety , with a reinforced concrete core , wider stairways , and thicker fireproofing of steel columns . It also incorporates numerous green design features . The building was the first commercial office building in New York City to receive the U.S. Green Building Council 's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) certification , where it won a gold rating . It was also one of the first projects accepted to be part of the Council 's pilot program for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design – Core and Shell Development ( LEED @-@ CS ) . = = Original building ( 1983 – 2001 ) = = = = = Design and layout = = = The original 7 World Trade Center was a 47 @-@ story building , designed by Emery Roth & Sons , with a red granite facade . The building was 610 feet ( 190 m ) tall , with a trapezoidal footprint that was 330 ft ( 100 m ) long and 140 ft ( 43 m ) wide . Tishman Realty & Construction managed construction of the building , which began in 1983 . In May 1987 , the building opened , becoming the seventh structure of the World Trade Center . The building was constructed above a Con Edison substation that had been on the site since 1967 . The substation had a caisson foundation designed to carry the weight of a future building of 25 stories containing 600 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 56 @,@ 000 m2 ) . The final design for 7 World Trade Center was for a much larger building than originally planned when the substation was built . The structural design of 7 World Trade Center therefore included a system of gravity column transfer trusses and girders , located between floors 5 and 7 , to transfer loads to the smaller foundation . Existing caissons installed in 1967 were used , along with new ones , to accommodate the building . The 5th floor functioned as a structural diaphragm , providing lateral stability and distribution of loads between the new and old caissons . Above the 7th floor , the building 's structure was a typical tube @-@ frame design , with columns in the core and on the perimeter , and lateral loads resisted by perimeter moment frames . A shipping and receiving ramp , which served the entire World Trade Center complex , occupied the eastern quarter of the 7 World Trade Center footprint . The building was open below the 3rd floor , providing space for truck clearance on the shipping ramp . The spray @-@ on fireproofing for structural steel elements was gypsum @-@ based Monokote which had a two @-@ hour fire rating for steel beams , girders and trusses , and a three @-@ hour rating for columns . Mechanical equipment was installed on floors four through seven , including 12 transformers on the 5th floor . Several emergency generators installed in the building were used by the Office of Emergency Management , Salomon Smith Barney , and other tenants . In order to supply the generators , 24 @,@ 000 gallons ( 91 @,@ 000 L ) of diesel fuel were stored below ground level . Diesel fuel distribution components were located at ground level , up to the ninth floor . After the World Trade Center bombings of February 26 , 1993 , New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani decided to situate the emergency command center and associated fuel tanks at 7 World Trade Center . Although this decision was criticized in light of the events of 9 / 11 , the fuel in the building is today not believed to have contributed to the collapse of the building . The roof of the building included a small west penthouse and a larger east mechanical penthouse . Each floor had 47 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 4 @,@ 400 m2 ) of rentable office space which made the building 's floor plans considerably larger than most office buildings in the City . In all , 7 World Trade Center had 1 @,@ 868 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 173 @,@ 500 m2 ) of office space . Two pedestrian bridges connected the main World Trade Center complex , across Vesey Street , to the third floor of 7 World Trade Center . The lobby of 7 World Trade Center had three murals by artist Al Held : The Third Circle , Pan North XII , and Vorces VII . = = = Tenants = = = In June 1986 , before construction was completed , Silverstein signed Drexel Burnham Lambert as a tenant to lease the entire 7 World Trade Center building for $ 3 billion over a term of 30 years . In December 1986 , after the Boesky insider @-@ trading scandal , Drexel Burnham Lambert canceled the lease , leaving Silverstein to find other tenants . Spicer & Oppenheim agreed to lease 14 percent of the space , but for more than a year , as Black Monday and other factors adversely affected the Lower Manhattan real estate market , Silverstein was unable to find tenants for the remaining space . By April 1988 , Silverstein had lowered the rent and made other concessions . In November 1988 , Salomon Brothers withdrew from plans to build a large new complex at Columbus Circle in Midtown and agreed to a 20 @-@ year lease for the top 19 floors of 7 World Trade Center . The building was extensively renovated in 1989 to accommodate the needs of Salomon Brothers . This led to the alternative naming of the building as the Salomon Brothers building . Most of three existing floors were removed as tenants continued to occupy other floors , and more than 350 tons ( U.S. ) of steel were added to construct three double @-@ height trading floors . Nine diesel generators were installed on the 5th floor as part of a backup power station . " Essentially , Salomon is constructing a building within a building – and it 's an occupied building , which complicates the situation " , said a district manager of Silverstein Properties . The unusual task was possible , said Larry Silverstein , because it was designed to allow for " entire portions of floors to be removed without affecting the building 's structural integrity , on the assumption that someone might need double @-@ height floors . " At the time of the September 11 , 2001 , attacks , Salomon Smith Barney was by far the largest tenant in 7 World Trade Center , occupying 1 @,@ 202 @,@ 900 sq ft ( 111 @,@ 750 m2 ) ( 64 percent of the building ) which included floors 28 – 45 . Other major tenants included ITT Hartford Insurance Group ( 122 @,@ 590 sq ft / 11 @,@ 400 m ² ) , American Express Bank International ( 106 @,@ 117 sq ft / 9 @,@ 900 m ² ) , Standard Chartered Bank ( 111 @,@ 398 sq ft / 10 @,@ 350 m ² ) , and the Securities and Exchange Commission ( 106 @,@ 117 sq ft / 9 @,@ 850 m ² ) . Smaller tenants included the Internal Revenue Service Regional Council ( 90 @,@ 430 sq ft / 8 @,@ 400 m ² ) and the United States Secret Service ( 85 @,@ 343 sq ft / 7 @,@ 900 m ² ) . The smallest tenants included the New York City Office of Emergency Management , National Association of Insurance Commissioners , Federal Home Loan Bank , First State Management Group Inc . , Provident Financial Management , and the Immigration and Naturalization Service . The Department of Defense ( DOD ) and Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) shared the 25th floor with the IRS . Floors 46 – 47 were mechanical floors , as were the bottom six floors and part of the seventh floor . = = = 9 / 11 and collapse = = = = = = = Collapse = = = = As the North Tower collapsed on September 11 , 2001 , heavy debris hit 7 World Trade Center , damaging the south face of the building and starting fires that continued to burn throughout the afternoon . The collapse also caused damage to the southwest corner between Floors 7 and 17 and on the south face between Floor 44 and the roof ; other possible structural damage included a large vertical gash near the center of the south face between Floors 24 and 41 . The building was equipped with a sprinkler system , but had many single @-@ point vulnerabilities for failure : the sprinkler system required manual initiation of the electrical fire pumps , rather than being a fully automatic system ; the floor @-@ level controls had a single connection to the sprinkler water riser ; and the sprinkler system required some power for the fire pump to deliver water . Also , water pressure was low , with little or no water to feed sprinklers . After the North Tower collapsed , some firefighters entered 7 World Trade Center to search the building . They attempted to extinguish small pockets of fire , but low water pressure hindered their efforts . Over the course of the day , fires burned out of control on several floors of 7 World Trade Center ; the flames visible on the east side of the building . During the afternoon , fire was also seen on floors 6 – 10 , 13 – 14 , 19 – 22 , and 29 – 30 . In particular , the fires on floors 7 through 9 and 11 through 13 continued to burn out of control during the afternoon . At approximately 2 : 00 pm , firefighters noticed a bulge in the southwest corner of 7 World Trade Center between the 10th and 13th floors , a sign that the building was unstable and might collapse . During the afternoon , firefighters also heard creaking sounds coming from the building . Around 3 : 30 pm , FDNY Chief Daniel A. Nigro decided to halt rescue operations , surface removal , and searches along the surface of the debris near 7 World Trade Center and evacuate the area due to concerns for the safety of personnel . According to FEMA , the building started to collapse at 5 : 20 : 33 pm EDT when the east mechanical penthouse started crumbling , but differing times are given as to what time the building completely collapsed — at 5 : 21 : 10 pm EDT according to FEMA , and at 5 : 20 : 52 pm EDT according to NIST . There were no casualties associated with the collapse . = = = = Reports = = = = In May 2002 , the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) issued a report on the collapse based on a preliminary investigation conducted jointly with the Structural Engineering Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers under leadership of Dr. W. Gene Corley , P.E. FEMA made preliminary findings that the collapse was not primarily caused by actual impact damage from the collapse of 1 WTC and 2 WTC but by fires on multiple stories ignited by debris from the other two towers that continued burning unabated due to lack of water for sprinklers or manual firefighting . The report did not reach conclusions about the cause of the collapse and called for further investigation . Subsequently , the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) was authorized to lead an investigation into the structural failure and collapse of the World Trade Center Twin Towers and 7 World Trade Center . The investigation , led by Dr S. Shyam Sunder , drew upon in @-@ house technical expertise as well as the knowledge of several outside private institutions , including the Structural Engineering Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers ( SEI / ASCE ) ; the Society of Fire Protection Engineers ( SFPE ) ; the National Fire Protection Association ( NFPA ) ; the American Institute of Steel Construction ( AISC ) ; the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat ( CTBUH ) ; and the Structural Engineers Association of New York ( SEAoNY ) . The bulk of the investigation of 7 World Trade Center was delayed until after reports were completed on the Twin Towers . In the meantime , NIST provided a preliminary report about 7 World Trade Center in June 2004 , and thereafter released occasional updates on the investigation . According to NIST , the investigation of 7 World Trade Center was delayed for a number of reasons , including that NIST staff who had been working on 7 World Trade Center were assigned full @-@ time from June 2004 to September 2005 to work on the investigation of the collapse of the Twin Towers . In June 2007 , Shyam Sunder explained , " We are proceeding as quickly as possible while rigorously testing and evaluating a wide range of scenarios to reach the most definitive conclusion possible . The 7 WTC investigation is in some respects just as challenging , if not more so , than the study of the towers . However , the current study does benefit greatly from the significant technological advances achieved and lessons learned from our work on the towers . " In November 2008 , NIST released its final report on the causes of the collapse of 7 World Trade Center . This followed NIST 's August 21 , 2008 , draft report which included a period for public comments . In its investigation , NIST utilized ANSYS to model events leading up to collapse initiation and LS @-@ DYNA models to simulate the global response to the initiating events . NIST determined that diesel fuel did not play an important role , nor did the structural damage from the collapse of the Twin Towers or the transfer elements ( trusses , girders , and cantilever overhangs ) . The lack of water to fight the fire was an important factor . The fires burned out of control during the afternoon , causing floor beams near column 79 to expand and push a key girder off its seat , triggering the floors to fail around column 79 on Floors 8 to 14 . With a loss of lateral support across nine floors , column 79 buckled – pulling the east penthouse and nearby columns down with it . With the buckling of these critical columns , the collapse then progressed east @-@ to @-@ west across the core , ultimately overloading the perimeter support , which buckled between Floors 7 and 17 , causing the remaining portion of the building above to fall downward as a single unit . The fires , fueled by office contents , along with the lack of water , were the key reasons for the collapse . When the first 7 World Trade Center collapsed , debris caused substantial damage and contamination to the Borough of Manhattan Community College 's Fiterman Hall building , located adjacent at 30 West Broadway , to the extent that the building was not salvageable . A revised plan called for demolition in 2009 and completion of the new Fiterman Hall in 2012 , at a cost of $ 325 million . The adjacent Verizon Building , an art deco building constructed in 1926 , had extensive damage to its east facade from the collapse of 7 World Trade Center , though it was able to be restored at a cost of US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion . Files relating to numerous federal investigations had been housed in 7 World Trade Center . The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission estimated over 10 @,@ 000 of its cases were affected . Investigative files in the Secret Service 's largest field office were lost , with one Secret Service agent saying , " All the evidence that we stored at 7 World Trade , in all our cases , went down with the building . " Copies of emails in connection with the WorldCom scandal that were later requested by the SEC from Salomon Brothers , a subsidiary of Citigroup housed in the building , were also destroyed . The NIST report found no evidence supporting conspiracy theories that 7 World Trade Center was brought down by controlled demolition . Specifically , the window breakage pattern and blast sounds that would have resulted from the use of explosives were not observed . The suggestion that an incendiary material such as thermite was used instead of explosives was considered unlikely by NIST because of observations of the fire and the building 's structural response to the fire , and because it is unlikely the necessary quantity of material could have been planted without discovery . Based on its investigation , NIST reiterated several recommendations it had made in its earlier report on the collapse of the Twin Towers , and urged immediate action on a further recommendation : that fire resistance should be evaluated under the assumption that sprinklers are unavailable ; and that the effects of thermal expansion on floor support systems be considered . Recognizing that current building codes are drawn to prevent loss of life rather than building collapse , the main point of NIST 's recommendations was that buildings should not collapse from fire even if sprinklers are unavailable . = = New building = = The new 7 World Trade Center has 52 stories and is 741 ft ( 226 m ) tall . The building has 42 floors of leasable space , starting at the 11th floor , and a total of 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 160 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space . The first ten floors house an electrical substation which provides power to much of Lower Manhattan . The office tower has a narrower footprint at ground level than did its predecessor , so the course of Greenwich Street could be restored to reunite TriBeCa and the Financial District . = = = Design = = = David Childs of Skidmore , Owings and Merrill worked in conjunction with glass artist and designer James Carpenter to create a design that uses ultra @-@ clear , low @-@ iron glass to provide reflectivity and light , with stainless @-@ steel spandrels behind the glass to help reflect sunlight . Stainless steel used in the building façade is molybdenum @-@ containing Type 316 , which provides improved resistance to corrosion . To enclose the power substation and improve its aesthetics , the base of the building has a curtain wall with stainless steel louvers that provide ventilation for the machinery . During the day , the curtain wall reflects light , while at night it is illuminated with blue LED lights . The curtain wall around the lobby uses heavily laminated , heat @-@ strengthened glass that meets high standards for blast resistance . At night , a large cube of light above the lobby also emanates blue light , while during the day it provides white light to the lobby , and at dusk it transitions to violet and back to blue . Inside the main lobby , artist Jenny Holzer created a large light installation with glowing text moving across wide plastic panels . The entire wall , which is 65 ft ( 20 m ) wide and 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) tall , changes color according to the time of day . Holzer worked with Klara Silverstein , the wife of Larry Silverstein , to select poetry for the art installation . The wall is structurally fortified as a security measure . The building is being promoted as the safest skyscraper in the U.S. According to Silverstein Properties , the owner of the building , it " will incorporate a host of life @-@ safety enhancements that will become the prototype for new high @-@ rise construction " . The building has 2 @-@ ft ( 60 cm ) -thick reinforced @-@ concrete and fireproofed elevator and stairway access shafts . The original building used only drywall to line these shafts . The stairways are wider than in the original building to permit faster egress . 7 World Trade Center is equipped with Otis destination elevators . After pressing a destination floor number on a lobby keypad , passengers are grouped and directed to specific elevators that will stop at the selected floor ( there are no buttons to press inside the elevators ) . This system is designed to reduce elevator waiting and travel times . The elevator system is integrated with the lobby turnstile and card reader system that identifies the floor on which a person works as he or she enters and can automatically call the elevator for that floor . Nearly 30 percent of structural steel used in the building consists of recycled steel . Rainwater is collected and used for irrigation of the park and to cool the building . Along with other sustainable design features , the building is designed to allow in plenty of natural light , power is metered to tenants to encourage them to conserve energy , the heating steam is reused to generate some power for the building , and recycled materials are used for insulation and interior materials . = = = Construction = = = Construction of the new 7 World Trade Center began on May 7 , 2002 , with the installation of a fence around the construction site . Tishman Construction Corporation of New York began work at the new 7 World Trade Center in 2002 , soon after the site was cleared of debris . Restoring the Con Ed electrical substation was an urgent priority to meet power demands of Lower Manhattan . Because 7 World Trade Center is separate from the main 16 @-@ acre ( 6 @.@ 5 ha ) World Trade Center site , Larry Silverstein required approval from only the Port Authority , and rebuilding was able to proceed quickly . Building Seven was not included in the original World Trade Center master plan by Daniel Libeskind , but was designed by Skidmore , Owings & Merrill under the leadership of David Childs , who largely redesigned One World Trade Center . Once construction of the power substation was complete in October 2003 , work proceeded on building the office tower . An unusual approach was used in constructing the building ; erecting the steel frame before adding the concrete core . This approach allowed the construction schedule to be shortened by a few months . Construction was completed in 2006 at a cost of $ 700 million . Though Silverstein received $ 861 million from insurance on the old building , he owed more than $ 400 million on its mortgage . Costs to rebuild were covered by $ 475 million in Liberty Bonds , which provide tax @-@ exempt financing to help stimulate rebuilding in Lower Manhattan and insurance money that remained after other expenses . A 15 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 1 @,@ 400 m2 ) triangular park was created between the extended Greenwich Street and West Broadway by David Childs with Ken Smith and his colleague , Annie Weinmayr , of Ken Smith Landscape Architect . The park comprises an open central plaza with a fountain and flanking groves of sweetgum trees and boxwood shrubs . At the center of the fountain , sculptor Jeff Koons created Balloon Flower ( Red ) , whose mirror @-@ polished stainless steel represents a twisted balloon in the shape of a flower . = = = Opening = = = The building was officially opened at noon on May 23 , 2006 , with a free concert featuring Suzanne Vega , Citizen Cope , Bill Ware Vibes , Brazilian Girls , Ollabelle , Pharaoh 's Daughter , Ronan Tynan ( of the Irish Tenors ) , and special guest Lou Reed . Prior to opening , in March 2006 , the new 7 World Trade Center frontage and lobby were used in scenes for the movie Perfect Stranger with Halle Berry and Bruce Willis . Since the building opened , several unleased upper floors have been used for events such as charity lunches , fashion shows , and black @-@ tie galas . Silverstein Properties allowed space in the new building to be used for these events as a means to draw people to see the building . From September 8 to October 7 , 2006 , the work of photographer Jonathan Hyman was displayed in " An American Landscape " , a free exhibit hosted by the World Trade Center Memorial Foundation at 7 World Trade Center . The photographs captured the response of people in New York City and across the United States after the September 11 , 2001 , attacks . The exhibit took place on the 45th floor while the space remained available for lease . By March 2007 , 60 percent of the building had been leased . In September 2006 , Moody 's signed a 20 @-@ year lease to rent 15 floors of 7 World Trade Center . Other tenants that had signed leases in 7 World Trade Center , as of May 2007 , include ABN AMRO , Ameriprise Financial Inc . , Darby & Darby P.C. , Mansueto Ventures LLC , business publisher of Fast Company and Inc . , and the New York Academy of Sciences . The space occupied by Mansueto Ventures has been designed to use the maximum amount of natural light and has an open floor plan . The space used by the New York Academy of Sciences on the 40th floor , designed by H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture , works with the parallelogram shape of the building . Keeping with the green design of the building , the NYAS uses recycled materials in many of the office furnishings , has zoned heating and cooling , and lights that detect motion , coming on automatically only when people are present , and adjust according to incoming sunlight . Silverstein Properties also has offices and the Silver Suites executive office suites in 7 World Trade Center , along with office space used by the architectural and engineering firms working on 1 World Trade Center , 150 Greenwich Street , 175 Greenwich Street , and 200 Greenwich Street . The building became fully leased in September 2011 when MSCI Inc. was reported to have leased a 125 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot space on the top floor .

= The Only Exception = " The Only Exception " is a song by the American rock band Paramore . It was released by Fueled by Ramen in February 2010 as the third single from the band 's third studio album , Brand New Eyes ( 2009 ) . The song was written by band members Hayley Williams and Josh Farro ; Paramore is also credited as being co @-@ producers to the song . The song was generally well received by music critics ; praise of the song was mainly about Williams ' vocal performance . Music critics reviewing the song noted that " The Only Exception " was a different musical theme for the band . " The Only Exception " has been the most successful single from Brand New Eyes , having topped the United Kingdom Rock Chart and peaked at No. 13 and No. 17 in New Zealand and Australia respectively . The single has become the band 's third of five top forty hits to date on the Billboard Hot 100 . A music video for the song , directed by Brandon Chesbro , was released on February 17 , 2010 , via the band 's official website . The song received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals . It was the band 's most successful single to date until the release of " Ain 't It Fun " ( 2014 ) . = = Background = = " The Only Exception " was released as the third single from the band 's 2009 studio album Brand New Eyes in February 2010 . It was noticed by music critics that , Paramore , who usually write and record darker material , mainly of the alternative genre , had , musically , gone in a different direction with " The Only Exception " . Rolling Stone described the song as " a subtle , Radiohead @-@ esque ballad . " The song 's lyrics pertain to the protagonist not believing that love exists and trying to live without it , mainly to avoid rejection , but eventually realizing that it does exist , describing the person as being their " only exception " . Many fans believe that the song was written as an ode to Chad Gilbert from New Found Glory . Incidentally , Williams has declined to comment directly on the issue , merely saying , " Read a couple blogs , and you 'll figure it out . " Other themes include trying to pursue a relationship , as well as trying to make a relationship last , which can be seen in the lyrics , " I know you 're leaving in the morning , when you wake up / Leave me with some kind of proof it 's not a dream " . According to the sheet music published on Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing , the single is written in the time signature of 12 / 8 . The song is played in the key of B Mixolydian and is sung in the vocal range of F # 3 to D # 5 . " The Only Exception " has a moderately slow tempo of forty eight beats per minute . = = Critical reception = = " The Only Exception " received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Williams ' vocal performance was mainly praised by music critics . Mikael Wood , a writer for Spin felt that " The Only Exception " was a " surprisingly soulful acoustic number " and compared its musical structure to Coldplay 's Parachutes @-@ era . Wood commented that the song was an " upgrade " that consisted of " focus and intensity " . Leonie Cooper of NME noted in his review for Brand New Eyes that Paramore were able to " showcase their maturity " with multiple ballad songs , specifying " The Only Exception " . Cooper commented that while the song 's lyrics seemed to be a " nondescript love song " that does not " quite warrant the abrupt change of pace " , he praised Williams ' vocals . Cooper further stated , " [ The song ] feels like something Katy Perry would dismiss for being too lightweight , with its mechanical , campfire strumming and general uninspiring air . Its saving grace , however , comes with Williams ' vocals , which are flawless and sturdy throughout . Even though the song gets soppy , she never does – weakness just ain 't in this lady 's repertoire , and for that we offer her a hefty high five . " Marc Hirsh of The Boston Globe listed " The Only Exception " as the highlight of Brand New Eyes , crediting the song as being an " essential " . Hirsh said that " The Only Exception " is " probably the best place to start " with the album , describing Williams ' vocals as " forging a connection " rather than " simply spitting out her feelings " ; he also praised the other band members for locking in at a " sympathetic simmer " . Channing Freeman of Sputnikmusic felt that that " The Only Exception " had similarities to " The Boy Who Blocked His Own Shot " by Brand New . Freeman stated that on Paramore 's All We Know Is Falling , " My Heart " was a " blunt and obvious song " that focused on a " climax to be emotional " , but with " The Only Exception " , Paramore have " figured out that it doesn 't have to finish loud to incite a reaction in the listener " . He also noted that the song shows that Williams ' lyrics have " definitely improved " . Jesse Catalodo of Slant felt that the lyrics to " The Only Exception " may be " irredeemably over @-@ the @-@ top " but its " vocal melodies are the stuff of perfect pop " . = = Chart performance = = It peaked at number 12 on the Billboard component chart for Pop Songs ; the song remained on the chart for twenty weeks . However , on the week of June 12 , 2010 , the song debuted at number ninety on the Billboard Hot 100 . It has since peaked at No. 24 , becoming ( at the time ) the most successful Paramore single overall ( outside of alternative airplay – Misery Business remains their most @-@ successful alternative @-@ pop airplay single to date ) . It was their third top forty hit in the US , preceding Still Into You and Ain 't It Fun , which became their fourth and fifth top forty hits , respectively . " The Only Exception " also became the band 's first foray onto Adult Contemporary stations , peaking at number 28 on the component Billboard Adult Contemporary chart . The track was more successful internationally , peaking generally within the top twenty on multiple countries ' charts . On the New Zealand RIANZ singles chart , it debuted at number thirty @-@ eight on February 22 , 2010 . The following week , the song moved up fifteen positions to number twenty @-@ three . The song peaked at number thirteen . After four weeks on the chart , " The Only Exception " peaked at number two on the United Kingdom 's Rock Chart on March 14 , 2010 , staying at that position for three weeks but moving up to number one on the chart 's issue date of April 5 , 2010 . The song entered the UK Singles Chart at number eighty on March 28 , 2010 . It peaked at number thirty @-@ one . The track peaked at number forty @-@ seven in Austria on March 28 , 2010 . The single also debuted as its peak position , number eighty @-@ four , on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles chart on April 24 , 2010 . " The Only Exception " debuted at number fifty @-@ nine in Brazilian Hot 100 Airplay chart in June 2010 , becoming the group 's first single to enter the Brazilian charts , achieving the following months the position at No. 32 . = = Music video = = A music video for " The Only Exception " was directed by Brandon Chesbro , who had been working with Paramore for over two years . The song 's music video was Chesbro 's music video directorial debut . Prior to " The Only Exception " video , Chesbro had been approached to direct music videos for Brand New Eyes ' two previous singles , but decided against it due to creative opinions . In December 2009 , he was asked to direct the music video for " The Only Exception " . Although the story board process took a while , the video was filmed in four days . The music video premiered on February 17 , 2010 , on Paramore 's website . Williams confirmed that as part of a Valentine 's Day theme , the band selected cards that were sent to them by fans and featured them in the video . In an interview with MTV , Chesbro commented on filming the scene involving Williams lying on Valentine 's Day 's styled @-@ cards during the music video , saying , " The band has crazy fans . All those cards are so detailed [ ... ] these kids spent serious time on these cards . That 's my favorite shot of the whole video . It was the first thing we shot and I thought that if something falls apart and we only have that one shot , that could be the video all by itself and it 'd be perfect . " The music video opens with Williams waking up on a couch next to an unnamed sleeping male and writes a note that says " I 'm sorry " . From there she walks to a room and hugs her father , who 's mentioned in song . A conversation ensues with Williams taking a photo of someone presumed to be her mother . The video continues with Williams in her room staring at the photo on a mirror , singing about how love , " does not exist . " She moves through a costume closet and into a restaurant set , where a rotating cast of men pose as her date . Then into the next room , there 's a wedding — everyone is wearing white ( the other band members in attendance ) , but Williams comes dressed in black ; she flees the scene from where the bride enters . During the chorus of the song , the clip cuts to the scenes where Williams is lying down on a giant pile of Valentine @-@ themed cards . Throughout the video , clips of Williams singing with the rest of Paramore in a dim @-@ lighted background are shown . In the video 's final moments , Williams spots the same male she woke up to at the beginning of the video in the crowd at a rock show . After fantasizing of the two being together through all sets from the start of the video , she makes her way back through the various rooms to the original set in the beginning . When Williams sings " And I 'm on my way to believing " , she returns to the couch where the male is still asleep , and hides the note she wrote in her pocket as she lies back down next to him . The music video for " The Only Exception " was generally well received by music critics . Kyle Anderson , a writer for MTV , commented that the music video is " by far the most visually interesting and complex clip the group has ever produced . " Anderson further stated that " despite the complexity of the video , the whole process was remarkably efficient " . She remarked that based on the video 's outcome that it was " a little bit surprising " to know that it was directed by a first @-@ time director . Mike Sheffield of Spin viewed the music video as a " love story " and described it as being " Valentine 's Day + epic Emo balladry = Paramore 's brand new video for ' The Only Exception ' " . Chesbro said that he was happy with the final product of the music video and that directing the video made him become more interested in directing videos , saying , " I 'd really like to do more videos now [ ... ] This video turned out so perfect that I 'm worried nothing else will turn out as good . But if this is my only video , I was super @-@ proud to be a part of it . " = = Live performances = = The track has been performed by Paramore on many occasions . The band 's first performance of the song was on November 1 , 2009 in Nashville . Paramore performed a live version of " The Only Exception " for The Ellen DeGeneres Show . The band performed the chorus and outro of the song on the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12 , 2010 . = = The Only Exception EP = = The Only Exception is Paramore 's third EP , released exclusively to the iTunes Store on September 28 , 2010 . = = Track listing = = = = Personnel = = The following personnel contributed to " The Only Exception " : = = Charts and certifications = = = = In popular culture = = = = = Live performances = = = Paramore performed a live version of " The Only Exception " for The Ellen DeGeneres Show . The band performed the chorus and outro of the song on the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12 , 2010 . Paramore performed " The Only Exception " in VH1 Divas 2010 with the song " Misery Business " , " Decode " and " My Hero " The band performed " The Only Exception " in in Madison Square Garden with the song " Misery Business " and " Brick by Boring Brick " = = = Other appearances = = = The music video appears in Paramore 's Videos . All of Them . Ever . The song appears in 2011 Grammy Nominees by the Nominees in 53rd Grammy Awards . = = = Covers = = = Sam Tsui and Kurt Schneider did an acoustic cover . April Chase did a cover , the Directed an shot is Marco Bercasio Rachel G. Fox did an acoustic cover Chris Ninni and Ben Hazlewood covered the song in The Voice Australia Kelly Clarkson covered the song as part of her Stronger Tour Masha covered " The Only Exception " on her popular YouTube channel on March 25 , 2012 . Julien Áncery did a cover of " The Only Exception " for Valentine 's Day 2014 . = = = Glee cover = = = The song was performed in the Britney Spears @-@ themed episode " Britney / Brittany " of the US television series Glee , which aired September 28 , 2010 . Lea Michele , in character as Rachel Berry , sang the song at the end of the episode as an apology to her boyfriend Finn Hudson , played by Cory Monteith . The performance was praised by most critics , with Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman calling it " gorgeous and tender " and Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack praising it as the episode 's " nice , emotional capper " . Williams complimented Michele 's vocals on the rendition through her Twitter account . The cover was released as a single and charted at number twenty @-@ two in both Canada and Ireland , twenty @-@ six in the US , and sixty in Australia , with sales of 89 @,@ 000 copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan . = = = Rock Band music gaming platform = = = The song was made available for download on May 15 , 2012 to play in Rock Band 3 Basic and PRO mode utilizing real guitar / bass guitar , and MIDI compatible electronic drum kits / keyboards plus vocal harmonies . It is also playable in Rock Band Blitz .

= Vampire = A vampire is a being from folklore who subsists by feeding on the life essence ( generally in the form of blood ) of the living . In European folklore , vampires were undead beings that often visited loved ones and caused mischief or deaths in the neighbourhoods they inhabited when they were alive . They wore shrouds and were often described as bloated and of ruddy or dark countenance , markedly different from today 's gaunt , pale vampire which dates from the early 19th century . Although vampiric entities have been recorded in most cultures , the term vampire was not popularized in the west until the early 18th century , after an influx of vampire superstition into Western Europe from areas where vampire legends were frequent , such as the Balkans and Eastern Europe , although local variants were also known by different names , such as shtriga in Albania , vrykolakas in Greece and strigoi in Romania . This increased level of vampire superstition in Europe led to mass hysteria and in some cases resulted in corpses actually being staked and people being accused of vampirism . In modern times , however , the vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity , although belief in similar vampiric creatures such as the chupacabra still persists in some cultures . Early folk belief in vampires has sometimes been ascribed to the ignorance of the body 's process of decomposition after death and how people in pre @-@ industrial societies tried to rationalise this , creating the figure of the vampire to explain the mysteries of death . Porphyria was also linked with legends of vampirism in 1985 and received much media exposure , but has since been largely discredited . The charismatic and sophisticated vampire of modern fiction was born in 1819 with the publication of The Vampyre by John Polidori ; the story was highly successful and arguably the most influential vampire work of the early 19th century . However , it is Bram Stoker 's 1897 novel Dracula which is remembered as the quintessential vampire novel and provided the basis of the modern vampire legend . The success of this book spawned a distinctive vampire genre , still popular in the 21st century , with books , films , and television shows . The vampire has since become a dominant figure in the horror genre . = = Etymology = = The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first appearance of the English word vampire ( as vampyre ) in English from 1734 , in a travelogue titled Travels of Three English Gentlemen published in The Harleian Miscellany in 1745 . Vampires had already been discussed in French and German literature . After Austria gained control of northern Serbia and Oltenia with the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718 , officials noted the local practice of exhuming bodies and " killing vampires " . These reports , prepared between 1725 and 1732 , received widespread publicity . The English term was derived ( possibly via French vampyre ) from the German Vampir , in turn derived in the early 18th century from the Serbian vampir ( Cyrillic : вампир ) , when Arnold Paole , a purported vampire in Serbia was described during the time when Northern Serbia was part of the Austrian Empire . The Serbian form has parallels in virtually all Slavic languages : Bulgarian and Macedonian вампир ( vampir ) , Bosnian : lampir , Croatian vampir , Czech and Slovak upír , Polish wąpierz , and ( perhaps East Slavic @-@ influenced ) upiór , Ukrainian упир ( upyr ) , Russian упырь ( upyr ' ) , Belarusian упыр ( upyr ) , from Old East Slavic упирь ( upir ' ) ( note that many of these languages have also borrowed forms such as " vampir / wampir " subsequently from the West ; these are distinct from the original local words for the creature ) . The exact etymology is unclear . Among the proposed proto @-@ Slavic forms are * ǫpyrь and * ǫpirь . Another , less widespread theory , is that the Slavic languages have borrowed the word from a Turkic term for " witch " ( e.g. , Tatar ubyr ) . Czech linguist Václav Machek proposes Slovak verb " vrepiť sa " ( stick to , thrust into ) , or its hypothetical anagram " vperiť sa " ( in Czech , archaic verb " vpeřit " means " to thrust violently " ) as an etymological background , and thus translates " upír " as " someone who thrusts , bites " . An early use of the Old Russian word is in the anti @-@ pagan treatise " Word of Saint Grigoriy " ( Russian Слово святого Григория ) , dated variously to the 11th – 13th centuries , where pagan worship of upyri is reported . = = Folk beliefs = = The notion of vampirism has existed for millennia . Cultures such as the Mesopotamians , Hebrews , Ancient Greeks , and Romans had tales of demons and spirits which are considered precursors to modern vampires . However , despite the occurrence of vampire @-@ like creatures in these ancient civilizations , the folklore for the entity we know today as the vampire originates almost exclusively from early @-@ 18th @-@ century southeastern Europe , when verbal traditions of many ethnic groups of the region were recorded and published . In most cases , vampires are revenants of evil beings , suicide victims , or witches , but they can also be created by a malevolent spirit possessing a corpse or by being bitten by a vampire . Belief in such legends became so pervasive that in some areas it caused mass hysteria and even public executions of people believed to be vampires . = = = Description and common attributes = = = It is difficult to make a single , definitive description of the folkloric vampire , though there are several elements common to many European legends . Vampires were usually reported as bloated in appearance , and ruddy , purplish , or dark in colour ; these characteristics were often attributed to the recent drinking of blood . Indeed , blood was often seen seeping from the mouth and nose when one was seen in its shroud or coffin and its left eye was often open . It would be clad in the linen shroud it was buried in , and its teeth , hair , and nails may have grown somewhat , though in general fangs were not a feature . Although vampires were generally described as undead , some folktales spoke of them as living beings . = = = = Creating vampires = = = = The causes of vampiric generation were many and varied in original folklore . In Slavic and Chinese traditions , any corpse that was jumped over by an animal , particularly a dog or a cat , was feared to become one of the undead . A body with a wound that had not been treated with boiling water was also at risk . In Russian folklore , vampires were said to have once been witches or people who had rebelled against the Russian Orthodox Church while they were alive . Cultural practices often arose that were intended to prevent a recently deceased loved one from turning into an undead revenant . Burying a corpse upside @-@ down was widespread , as was placing earthly objects , such as scythes or sickles , near the grave to satisfy any demons entering the body or to appease the dead so that it would not wish to arise from its coffin . This method resembles the Ancient Greek practice of placing an obolus in the corpse 's mouth to pay the toll to cross the River Styx in the underworld . It has been argued that instead , the coin was intended to ward off any evil spirits from entering the body , and this may have influenced later vampire folklore . This tradition persisted in modern Greek folklore about the vrykolakas , in which a wax cross and piece of pottery with the inscription " Jesus Christ conquers " were placed on the corpse to prevent the body from becoming a vampire . Other methods commonly practised in Europe included severing the tendons at the knees or placing poppy seeds , millet , or sand on the ground at the grave site of a presumed vampire ; this was intended to keep the vampire occupied all night by counting the fallen grains , indicating an association of vampires with arithmomania . Similar Chinese narratives state that if a vampire @-@ like being came across a sack of rice , it would have to count every grain ; this is a theme encountered in myths from the Indian subcontinent , as well as in South American tales of witches and other sorts of evil or mischievous spirits or beings . In Albanian folklore , the dhampir is the hybrid child of the karkanxholl ( a werewolf @-@ like creature with an iron mail shirt ) or the lugat ( a water @-@ dwelling ghost or monster ) . The dhampir sprung of a karkanxholl has the unique ability to discern the karkanxholl ; from this derives the expression the dhampir knows the lugat . The lugat cannot be seen , he can only be killed by the dhampir , who himself is usually the son of a lugat . In different regions , animals can be revenants as lugats ; also , living people during their sleep . Dhampiraj is also an Albanian surname . = = = = Identifying vampires = = = = Many elaborate rituals were used to identify a vampire . One method of finding a vampire 's grave involved leading a virgin boy through a graveyard or church grounds on a virgin stallion — the horse would supposedly balk at the grave in question . Generally a black horse was required , though in Albania it should be white . Holes appearing in the earth over a grave were taken as a sign of vampirism . Corpses thought to be vampires were generally described as having a healthier appearance than expected , plump and showing little or no signs of decomposition . In some cases , when suspected graves were opened , villagers even described the corpse as having fresh blood from a victim all over its face . Evidence that a vampire was active in a given locality included death of cattle , sheep , relatives or neighbours . Folkloric vampires could also make their presence felt by engaging in minor poltergeist @-@ like activity , such as hurling stones on roofs or moving household objects , and pressing on people in their sleep . = = = = Protection = = = = = = = = = Apotropaics = = = = = Apotropaics , items able to ward off revenants , are common in vampire folklore . Garlic is a common example , a branch of wild rose and hawthorn plant are said to harm vampires , and in Europe , sprinkling mustard seeds on the roof of a house was said to keep them away . Other apotropaics include sacred items , for example a crucifix , rosary , or holy water . Vampires are said to be unable to walk on consecrated ground , such as that of churches or temples , or cross running water . Although not traditionally regarded as an apotropaic , mirrors have been used to ward off vampires when placed , facing outwards , on a door ( in some cultures , vampires do not have a reflection and sometimes do not cast a shadow , perhaps as a manifestation of the vampire 's lack of a soul ) . This attribute , although not universal ( the Greek vrykolakas / tympanios was capable of both reflection and shadow ) , was used by Bram Stoker in Dracula and has remained popular with subsequent authors and filmmakers . Some traditions also hold that a vampire cannot enter a house unless invited by the owner , although after the first invitation they can come and go as they please . Though folkloric vampires were believed to be more active at night , they were not generally considered vulnerable to sunlight . = = = = = Methods of destruction = = = = = Methods of destroying suspected vampires varied , with staking the most commonly cited method , particularly in southern Slavic cultures . Ash was the preferred wood in Russia and the Baltic states , or hawthorn in Serbia , with a record of oak in Silesia . Potential vampires were most often staked through the heart , though the mouth was targeted in Russia and northern Germany and the stomach in north @-@ eastern Serbia . Piercing the skin of the chest was a way of " deflating " the bloated vampire . This is similar to the act of burying sharp objects , such as sickles , in with the corpse , so that they may penetrate the skin if the body bloats sufficiently while transforming into a revenant . In one striking example of the latter , the corpses of five people in a graveyard near the Polish village of Dravsko , dating from the 17th and 18th centuries , were buried with sickles placed around their necks or across their abdomens . Decapitation was the preferred method in German and western Slavic areas , with the head buried between the feet , behind the buttocks or away from the body . This act was seen as a way of hastening the departure of the soul , which in some cultures , was said to linger in the corpse . The vampire 's head , body , or clothes could also be spiked and pinned to the earth to prevent rising . Romani people drove steel or iron needles into a corpse 's heart and placed bits of steel in the mouth , over the eyes , ears and between the fingers at the time of burial . They also placed hawthorn in the corpse 's sock or drove a hawthorn stake through the legs . In a 16th @-@ century burial near Venice , a brick forced into the mouth of a female corpse has been interpreted as a vampire @-@ slaying ritual by the archaeologists who discovered it in 2006 . Further measures included pouring boiling water over the grave or complete incineration of the body . In the Balkans , a vampire could also be killed by being shot or drowned , by repeating the funeral service , by sprinkling holy water on the body , or by exorcism . In Romania , garlic could be placed in the mouth , and as recently as the 19th century , the precaution of shooting a bullet through the coffin was taken . For resistant cases , the body was dismembered and the pieces burned , mixed with water , and administered to family members as a cure . In Saxon regions of Germany , a lemon was placed in the mouth of suspected vampires . In Bulgaria , over 100 skeletons with metal objects , such as plough bits , embedded in the torso have been discovered . = = = Ancient beliefs = = = Tales of supernatural beings consuming the blood or flesh of the living have been found in nearly every culture around the world for many centuries . The term vampire did not exist in ancient times . Blood drinking and similar activities were attributed to demons or spirits who would eat flesh and drink blood ; even the Devil was considered synonymous with the vampire . Almost every nation has associated blood drinking with some kind of revenant or demon , or in some cases a deity . In India , for example , tales of vetālas , ghoul @-@ like beings that inhabit corpses , have been compiled in the Baitāl Pacīsī ; a prominent story in the Kathāsaritsāgara tells of King Vikramāditya and his nightly quests to capture an elusive one . Piśāca , the returned spirits of evil @-@ doers or those who died insane , also bear vampiric attributes . The Persians were one of the first civilizations to have tales of blood @-@ drinking demons : creatures attempting to drink blood from men were depicted on excavated pottery shards . Ancient Babylonia and Assyria had tales of the mythical Lilitu , synonymous with and giving rise to Lilith ( Hebrew לילית ) and her daughters the Lilu from Hebrew demonology . Lilitu was considered a demon and was often depicted as subsisting on the blood of babies . And Estries , female shape changing , blood drinking demons , were said to roam the night among the population , seeking victims . According to Sefer Hasidim , Estries were creatures created in the twilight hours before God rested . An injured Estrie could be healed by eating bread and salt given her by her attacker . Greco @-@ Roman mythology described the Empusae , the Lamia , and the striges . Over time the first two terms became general words to describe witches and demons respectively . Empusa was the daughter of the goddess Hecate and was described as a demonic , bronze @-@ footed creature . She feasted on blood by transforming into a young woman and seduced men as they slept before drinking their blood . The Lamia preyed on young children in their beds at night , sucking their blood , as did the gelloudes or Gello . Like the Lamia , the striges feasted on children , but also preyed on adults . They were described as having the bodies of crows or birds in general , and were later incorporated into Roman mythology as strix , a kind of nocturnal bird that fed on human flesh and blood . In Azerbaijanese mythology Xortdan is the troubled soul of the dead rising from the grave . Some Hortdan can be living people with certain magical properties . Some of the properties of the Hortdan include : the ability to transform into an animal , invisibility , and the propensity to drain the vitality of victims via blood loss . = = = Medieval and later European folklore = = = Many myths surrounding vampires originated during the medieval period . The 12th @-@ century English historians and chroniclers Walter Map and William of Newburgh recorded accounts of revenants , though records in English legends of vampiric beings after this date are scant . The Old Norse draugr is another medieval example of an undead creature with similarities to vampires . Vampires proper originate in folklore widely reported from Eastern Europe in the late 17th and 18th centuries . These tales formed the basis of the vampire legend that later entered Germany and England , where they were subsequently embellished and popularized . One of the earliest recordings of vampire activity came from the region of Istria in modern Croatia , in 1672 . Local reports cited the local vampire Jure Grando of the village Khring near Tinjan as the cause of panic among the villagers . A former peasant , Jure died in 1656 . However , local villagers claimed he returned from the dead and began drinking blood from the people and sexually harassing his widow . The village leader ordered a stake to be driven through his heart , but when the method failed to kill him , he was subsequently beheaded with better results . That was the first case in history that a real person had been described as a vampire . During the 18th century , there was a frenzy of vampire sightings in Eastern Europe , with frequent stakings and grave diggings to identify and kill the potential revenants . Even government officials engaged in the hunting and staking of vampires . Despite being called the Age of Enlightenment , during which most folkloric legends were quelled , the belief in vampires increased dramatically , resulting in a mass hysteria throughout most of Europe . The panic began with an outbreak of alleged vampire attacks in East Prussia in 1721 and in the Habsburg Monarchy from 1725 to 1734 , which spread to other localities . Two famous vampire cases , the first to be officially recorded , involved the corpses of Petar Blagojevich and Arnold Paole from Serbia . Blagojevich was reported to have died at the age of 62 , but allegedly returned after his death asking his son for food . When the son refused , he was found dead the following day . Blagojevich supposedly returned and attacked some neighbours who died from loss of blood . In the second case , Paole , an ex @-@ soldier turned farmer who allegedly was attacked by a vampire years before , died while haying . After his death , people began to die in the surrounding area and it was widely believed that Paole had returned to prey on the neighbours . Another famous Serbian legend involving vampires concentrates around a certain Sava Savanović living in a watermill and killing and drinking blood from millers . The character was later used in a story written by Serbian writer Milovan Glišić and in the Yugoslav 1973 horror film Leptirica inspired by the story . The two incidents were well @-@ documented . Government officials examined the bodies , wrote case reports , and published books throughout Europe . The hysteria , commonly referred to as the " 18th @-@ Century Vampire Controversy " , raged for a generation . The problem was exacerbated by rural epidemics of so @-@ claimed vampire attacks , undoubtedly caused by the higher amount of superstition that was present in village communities , with locals digging up bodies and in some cases , staking them . = = = = Dissertations on Vampirology = = = = From 1679 , Philippe Rohr devotes an essay to the dead who chew their shrouds in their graves , subject resumed later by Otto in 1732 , and then by Michael Ranft in 1734 . The subject was based on the peculiar phenomenon that when digging up graves , it was discovered that some corpses had at some point either devoured the interior fabric of their coffin or their own limbs . This distinguishes the relationship between vampirism and nightmares which were believed that many cases of vampirism were simply illusions brought by the imagination . While in 1732 an anonymous writer calling itself " the doctor Weimar " discusses the non @-@ putrefaction of these creatures , from a theological point of view. in 1733 , Johann Christoph Harenberg wrote a general treatise on vampirism and the Marquis d 'Argens Boyer cites local cases . Theologians and clergymen are also addressing the topic . Dom Augustine Calmet , a French theologian and scholar , put together a comprehensive treatise in 1751 titled Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants which investigated the existence of vampires , demons , spectres and many other matters relating to the occult of his time . Calmet conducted extensive research and amassed reports of vampire incidents and extensively researched theological and mythological accounts as well . He had numerous readers , including both a critical Voltaire and supportive demonologists who interpreted the treatise as claiming that vampires existed . In his Philosophical Dictionary , Voltaire wrote : These vampires were corpses , who went out of their graves at night to suck the blood of the living , either at their throats or stomachs , after which they returned to their cemeteries . The persons so sucked waned , grew pale , and fell into consumption ; while the sucking corpses grew fat , got rosy , and enjoyed an excellent appetite . It was in Poland , Hungary , Silesia , Moravia , Austria , and Lorraine , that the dead made this good cheer . Some theological disputes arose . The non @-@ decay of vampires ' bodies could recall the incorruption of the bodies of the saints of the Catholic Church . A paragraph on vampires was included in the second edition ( 1749 ) of De servorum Dei beatificatione et sanctorum canonizatione , On the beatification of the servants of God and on canonization of the blessed , written by Prospero Lambertini ( Pope Benedict XIV ) . In his opinion , while the incorruption of the bodies of saints was the effect of a divine intervention , all the phenomena attributed to vampires were purely natural or the fruit of " imagination , terror and fear " . In other words , vampires did not exist The controversy only ceased when Empress Maria Theresa of Austria sent her personal physician , Gerard van Swieten , to investigate the claims of vampiric entities . He concluded that vampires did not exist and the Empress passed laws prohibiting the opening of graves and desecration of bodies , sounding the end of the vampire epidemics . Despite this condemnation , the vampire lived on in artistic works and in local superstition . = = = Non @-@ European beliefs = = = Beings having many of the attributes of European vampires appear in the folklore of Africa , Asia , North and South America , and India . Classified as vampires , all share the thirst for blood . = = = = Africa = = = = Various regions of Africa have folktales featuring beings with vampiric abilities : in West Africa the Ashanti people tell of the iron @-@ toothed and tree @-@ dwelling asanbosam , and the Ewe people of the adze , which can take the form of a firefly and hunts children . The eastern Cape region has the impundulu , which can take the form of a large taloned bird and can summon thunder and lightning , and the Betsileo people of Madagascar tell of the ramanga , an outlaw or living vampire who drinks the blood and eats the nail clippings of nobles . = = = = The Americas = = = = The Loogaroo is an example of how a vampire belief can result from a combination of beliefs , here a mixture of French and African Vodu or voodoo . The term Loogaroo possibly comes from the French loup @-@ garou ( meaning " werewolf " ) and is common in the culture of Mauritius . However , the stories of the Loogaroo are widespread through the Caribbean Islands and Louisiana in the United States . Similar female monsters are the Soucouyant of Trinidad , and the Tunda and Patasola of Colombian folklore , while the Mapuche of southern Chile have the bloodsucking snake known as the Peuchen . Aloe vera hung backwards behind or near a door was thought to ward off vampiric beings in South American superstition . Aztec mythology described tales of the Cihuateteo , skeletal @-@ faced spirits of those who died in childbirth who stole children and entered into sexual liaisons with the living , driving them mad . During the late 18th and 19th centuries the belief in vampires was widespread in parts of New England , particularly in Rhode Island and Eastern Connecticut . There are many documented cases of families disinterring loved ones and removing their hearts in the belief that the deceased was a vampire who was responsible for sickness and death in the family , although the term " vampire " was never actually used to describe the deceased . The deadly disease tuberculosis , or " consumption " as it was known at the time , was believed to be caused by nightly visitations on the part of a dead family member who had died of consumption themselves . The most famous , and most recently recorded , case of suspected vampirism is that of nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Mercy Brown , who died in Exeter , Rhode Island in 1892 . Her father , assisted by the family physician , removed her from her tomb two months after her death , cut out her heart and burned it to ashes . = = = = Asia = = = = Rooted in older folklore , the modern belief in vampires spread throughout Asia with tales of ghoulish entities from the mainland , to vampiric beings from the islands of Southeast Asia . South Asia also developed other vampiric legends . The Bhūta or Prét is the soul of a man who died an untimely death . It wanders around animating dead bodies at night , attacking the living much like a ghoul . In northern India , there is the BrahmarākŞhasa , a vampire @-@ like creature with a head encircled by intestines and a skull from which it drank blood . The figure of the Vetala who appears in South Asian legend and story may sometimes be rendered as " Vampire " ( see the section on " Ancient Beliefs " above ) . Although vampires have appeared in Japanese cinema since the late 1950s , the folklore behind it is western in origin . However , the Nukekubi is a being whose head and neck detach from its body to fly about seeking human prey at night . Legends of female vampire @-@ like beings who can detach parts of their upper body also occur in the Philippines , Malaysia and Indonesia . There are two main vampire @-@ like creatures in the Philippines : the Tagalog Mandurugo ( " blood @-@ sucker " ) and the Visayan Manananggal ( " self @-@ segmenter " ) . The mandurugo is a variety of the aswang that takes the form of an attractive girl by day , and develops wings and a long , hollow , thread @-@ like tongue by night . The tongue is used to suck up blood from a sleeping victim . The manananggal is described as being an older , beautiful woman capable of severing its upper torso in order to fly into the night with huge bat @-@ like wings and prey on unsuspecting , sleeping pregnant women in their homes . They use an elongated proboscis @-@ like tongue to suck fetuses from these pregnant women . They also prefer to eat entrails ( specifically the heart and the liver ) and the phlegm of sick people . The Malaysian Penanggalan may be either a beautiful old or young woman who obtained her beauty through the active use of black magic or other unnatural means , and is most commonly described in local folklore to be dark or demonic in nature . She is able to detach her fanged head which flies around in the night looking for blood , typically from pregnant women . Malaysians would hang jeruju ( thistles ) around the doors and windows of houses , hoping the Penanggalan would not enter for fear of catching its intestines on the thorns . The Leyak is a similar being from Balinese folklore of Indonesia . A Kuntilanak or Matianak in Indonesia , or Pontianak or Langsuir in Malaysia , is a woman who died during childbirth and became undead , seeking revenge and terrorizing villages . She appeared as an attractive woman with long black hair that covered a hole in the back of her neck , with which she sucked the blood of children . Filling the hole with her hair would drive her off . Corpses had their mouths filled with glass beads , eggs under each armpit , and needles in their palms to prevent them from becoming langsuir . This description would also fit the Sundel Bolongs . Jiangshi , sometimes called " Chinese vampires " by Westerners , are reanimated corpses that hop around , killing living creatures to absorb life essence ( qì ) from their victims . They are said to be created when a person 's soul ( 魄 pò ) fails to leave the deceased 's body . However , some have disputed the comparison of jiang shi with vampires , as jiang shi are usually represented as mindless creatures with no independent thought . One unusual feature of this monster is its greenish @-@ white furry skin , perhaps derived from fungus or mould growing on corpses . Jiangshi legends have inspired a genre of jiangshi films and literature in Hong Kong and East Asia . Films like Encounters of the Spooky Kind and Mr. Vampire were released during the jiangshi cinematic boom of the 1980s and 1990s . = = = Modern beliefs = = = In modern fiction , the vampire tends to be depicted as a suave , charismatic villain . Despite the general disbelief in vampiric entities , occasional sightings of vampires are reported . Indeed , vampire hunting societies still exist , although they are largely formed for social reasons . Allegations of vampire attacks swept through the African country of Malawi during late 2002 and early 2003 , with mobs stoning one individual to death and attacking at least four others , including Governor Eric Chiwaya , based on the belief that the government was colluding with vampires . In early 1970 local press spread rumours that a vampire haunted Highgate Cemetery in London . Amateur vampire hunters flocked in large numbers to the cemetery . Several books have been written about the case , notably by Sean Manchester , a local man who was among the first to suggest the existence of the " Highgate Vampire " and who later claimed to have exorcised and destroyed a whole nest of vampires in the area . In January 2005 , rumours circulated that an attacker had bitten a number of people in Birmingham , England , fuelling concerns about a vampire roaming the streets . However , local police stated that no such crime had been reported and that the case appears to be an urban legend . In 2006 , a physics professor at the University of Central Florida wrote a paper arguing that it is mathematically impossible for vampires to exist , based on geometric progression . According to the paper , if the first vampire had appeared on 1 January 1600 , and it fed once a month ( which is less often than what is depicted in films and folklore ) , and every victim turned into a vampire , then within two and a half years the entire human population of the time would have become vampires . The paper made no attempt to address the credibility of the assumption that every vampire victim would turn into a vampire . In one of the more notable cases of vampiric entities in the modern age , the chupacabra ( " goat @-@ sucker " ) of Puerto Rico and Mexico is said to be a creature that feeds upon the flesh or drinks the blood of domesticated animals , leading some to consider it a kind of vampire . The " chupacabra hysteria " was frequently associated with deep economic and political crises , particularly during the mid @-@ 1990s . In Europe , where much of the vampire folklore originates , the vampire is usually considered a fictitious being , although many communities may have embraced the revenant for economic purposes . In some cases , especially in small localities , vampire superstition is still rampant and sightings or claims of vampire attacks occur frequently . In Romania during February 2004 , several relatives of Toma Petre feared that he had become a vampire . They dug up his corpse , tore out his heart , burned it , and mixed the ashes with water in order to drink it . Vampirism and the Vampire lifestyle also represent a relevant part of modern day 's occultist movements . The mythos of the vampire , his magickal qualities , allure , and predatory archetype express a strong symbolism that can be used in ritual , energy work , and magick , and can even be adopted as a spiritual system . The vampire has been part of the occult society in Europe for centuries and has spread into the American sub @-@ culture as well for more than a decade , being strongly influenced by and mixed with the neo gothic aesthetics . = = = = Collective noun = = = = 'Coven ' has been used as a collective noun for vampires , possibly based on the Wiccan usage . An alternative collective noun is a ' house ' of vampires . David Malki , author of Wondermark , suggests in Wondermark No. 566 the use of the collective noun ' basement ' , as in " A basement of vampires . " = = Origins of vampire beliefs = = Commentators have offered many theories for the origins of vampire beliefs , trying to explain the superstition – and sometimes mass hysteria – caused by vampires . Everything ranging from premature burial to the early ignorance of the body 's decomposition cycle after death has been cited as the cause for the belief in vampires . = = = Pathology = = = = = = = Decomposition = = = = Paul Barber in his book Vampires , Burial and Death has described that belief in vampires resulted from people of pre @-@ industrial societies attempting to explain the natural , but to them inexplicable , process of death and decomposition . People sometimes suspected vampirism when a cadaver did not look as they thought a normal corpse should when disinterred . Rates of decomposition vary depending on temperature and soil composition , and many of the signs are little known . This has led vampire hunters to mistakenly conclude that a dead body had not decomposed at all , or , ironically , to interpret signs of decomposition as signs of continued life . Corpses swell as gases from decomposition accumulate in the torso and the increased pressure forces blood to ooze from the nose and mouth . This causes the body to look " plump , " " well @-@ fed , " and " ruddy " — changes that are all the more striking if the person was pale or thin in life . In the Arnold Paole case , an old woman 's exhumed corpse was judged by her neighbours to look more plump and healthy than she had ever looked in life . The exuding blood gave the impression that the corpse had recently been engaging in vampiric activity . Darkening of the skin is also caused by decomposition . The staking of a swollen , decomposing body could cause the body to bleed and force the accumulated gases to escape the body . This could produce a groan @-@ like sound when the gases moved past the vocal cords , or a sound reminiscent of flatulence when they passed through the anus . The official reporting on the Petar Blagojevich case speaks of " other wild signs which I pass by out of high respect " . After death , the skin and gums lose fluids and contract , exposing the roots of the hair , nails , and teeth , even teeth that were concealed in the jaw . This can produce the illusion that the hair , nails , and teeth have grown . At a certain stage , the nails fall off and the skin peels away , as reported in the Blagojevich case — the dermis and nail beds emerging underneath were interpreted as " new skin " and " new nails " . = = = = Premature burial = = = = It has also been hypothesized that vampire legends were influenced by individuals being buried alive because of shortcomings in the medical knowledge of the time . In some cases in which people reported sounds emanating from a specific coffin , it was later dug up and fingernail marks were discovered on the inside from the victim trying to escape . In other cases the person would hit their heads , noses or faces and it would appear that they had been " feeding . " A problem with this theory is the question of how people presumably buried alive managed to stay alive for any extended period without food , water or fresh air . An alternate explanation for noise is the bubbling of escaping gases from natural decomposition of bodies . Another likely cause of disordered tombs is grave robbing . = = = = Contagion = = = = Folkloric vampirism has been associated with clusters of deaths from unidentifiable or mysterious illnesses , usually within the same family or the same small community . The epidemic allusion is obvious in the classical cases of Petar Blagojevich and Arnold Paole , and even more so in the case of Mercy Brown and in the vampire beliefs of New England generally , where a specific disease , tuberculosis , was associated with outbreaks of vampirism . As with the pneumonic form of bubonic plague , it was associated with breakdown of lung tissue which would cause blood to appear at the lips . = = = = Porphyria = = = = In 1985 biochemist David Dolphin proposed a link between the rare blood disorder porphyria and vampire folklore . Noting that the condition is treated by intravenous haem , he suggested that the consumption of large amounts of blood may result in haem being transported somehow across the stomach wall and into the bloodstream . Thus vampires were merely sufferers of porphyria seeking to replace haem and alleviate their symptoms . The theory has been rebuffed medically as suggestions that porphyria sufferers crave the haem in human blood , or that the consumption of blood might ease the symptoms of porphyria , are based on a misunderstanding of the disease . Furthermore , Dolphin was noted to have confused fictional ( bloodsucking ) vampires with those of folklore , many of whom were not noted to drink blood . Similarly , a parallel is made between sensitivity to sunlight by sufferers , yet this was associated with fictional and not folkloric vampires . In any case , Dolphin did not go on to publish his work more widely . Despite being dismissed by experts , the link gained media attention and entered popular modern folklore . = = = = Rabies = = = = Rabies has been linked with vampire folklore . Dr Juan Gómez @-@ Alonso , a neurologist at Xeral Hospital in Vigo , Spain , examined this possibility in a report in Neurology . The susceptibility to garlic and light could be due to hypersensitivity , which is a symptom of rabies . The disease can also affect portions of the brain that could lead to disturbance of normal sleep patterns ( thus becoming nocturnal ) and hypersexuality . Legend once said a man was not rabid if he could look at his own reflection ( an allusion to the legend that vampires have no reflection ) . Wolves and bats , which are often associated with vampires , can be carriers of rabies . The disease can also lead to a drive to bite others and to a bloody frothing at the mouth . = = = Psychodynamic theories = = = In his 1931 treatise On the Nightmare , Welsh psychoanalyst Ernest Jones asserted that vampires are symbolic of several unconscious drives and defence mechanisms . Emotions such as love , guilt , and hate fuel the idea of the return of the dead to the grave . Desiring a reunion with loved ones , mourners may project the idea that the recently dead must in return yearn the same . From this arises the belief that folkloric vampires and revenants visit relatives , particularly their spouses , first . In cases where there was unconscious guilt associated with the relationship , however , the wish for reunion may be subverted by anxiety . This may lead to repression , which Sigmund Freud had linked with the development of morbid dread . Jones surmised in this case the original wish of a ( sexual ) reunion may be drastically changed : desire is replaced by fear ; love is replaced by sadism , and the object or loved one is replaced by an unknown entity . The sexual aspect may or may not be present . Some modern critics have proposed a simpler theory : People identify with immortal vampires because , by so doing , they overcome , or at least temporarily escape from , their fear of dying . The innate sexuality of bloodsucking can be seen in its intrinsic connection with cannibalism and folkloric one with incubus @-@ like behaviour . Many legends report various beings draining other fluids from victims , an unconscious association with semen being obvious . Finally Jones notes that when more normal aspects of sexuality are repressed , regressed forms may be expressed , in particular sadism ; he felt that oral sadism is integral in vampiric behaviour . = = = Political interpretations = = = The reinvention of the vampire myth in the modern era is not without political overtones . The aristocratic Count Dracula , alone in his castle apart from a few demented retainers , appearing only at night to feed on his peasantry , is symbolic of the parasitic Ancien regime . In his entry for " Vampires " in the Dictionnaire philosophique ( 1764 ) , Voltaire notices how the end of the 18th century coincided with the decline of the folkloric belief in the existence of vampires but that now " there were stock @-@ jobbers , brokers , and men of business , who sucked the blood of the people in broad daylight ; but they were not dead , though corrupted . These true suckers lived not in cemeteries , but in very agreeable palaces " . Marx defined capital as " dead labour which , vampire @-@ like , lives only by sucking living labour , and lives the more , the more labour it sucks " . Werner Herzog , in his Nosferatu the Vampyre , gives this political interpretation an extra ironic twist when protagonist Jonathon Harker , a middle @-@ class solicitor , becomes the next vampire ; in this way the capitalist bourgeois becomes the next parasitic class . = = = Psychopathology = = = A number of murderers have performed seemingly vampiric rituals upon their victims . Serial killers Peter Kürten and Richard Trenton Chase were both called " vampires " in the tabloids after they were discovered drinking the blood of the people they murdered . Similarly , in 1932 , an unsolved murder case in Stockholm , Sweden was nicknamed the " Vampire murder " , because of the circumstances of the victim 's death . The late @-@ 16th @-@ century Hungarian countess and mass murderer Elizabeth Báthory became particularly infamous in later centuries ' works , which depicted her bathing in her victims ' blood in order to retain beauty or youth . = = = Modern vampire subcultures = = = Vampire lifestyle is a term for a contemporary subculture of people , largely within the Goth subculture , who consume the blood of others as a pastime ; drawing from the rich recent history of popular culture related to cult symbolism , horror films , the fiction of Anne Rice , and the styles of Victorian England . Active vampirism within the vampire subculture includes both blood @-@ related vampirism , commonly referred to as sanguine vampirism , and psychic vampirism , or supposed feeding from pranic energy . = = = Vampire bats = = = Although many cultures have stories about them , vampire bats have only recently become an integral part of the traditional vampire lore . Indeed , vampire bats were only integrated into vampire folklore when they were discovered on the South American mainland in the 16th century . Although there are no vampire bats in Europe , bats and owls have long been associated with the supernatural and omens , although mainly because of their nocturnal habits , and in modern English heraldic tradition , a bat means " Awareness of the powers of darkness and chaos " . The three species of actual vampire bats are all endemic to Latin America , and there is no evidence to suggest that they had any Old World relatives within human memory . It is therefore impossible that the folkloric vampire represents a distorted presentation or memory of the vampire bat . The bats were named after the folkloric vampire rather than vice versa ; the Oxford English Dictionary records their folkloric use in English from 1734 and the zoological not until 1774 . Although the vampire bat 's bite is usually not harmful to a person , the bat has been known to actively feed on humans and large prey such as cattle and often leave the trademark , two @-@ prong bite mark on its victim 's skin . The literary Dracula transforms into a bat several times in the novel , and vampire bats themselves are mentioned twice in it . The 1927 stage production of Dracula followed the novel in having Dracula turn into a bat , as did the film , where Béla Lugosi would transform into a bat . The bat transformation scene would again be used by Lon Chaney Jr. in 1943 's Son of Dracula . = = In modern fiction = = The vampire is now a fixture in popular fiction . Such fiction began with 18th @-@ century poetry and continued with 19th @-@ century short stories , the first and most influential of which was John Polidori 's The Vampyre ( 1819 ) , featuring the vampire Lord Ruthven . Lord Ruthven 's exploits were further explored in a series of vampire plays in which he was the anti @-@ hero . The vampire theme continued in penny dreadful serial publications such as Varney the Vampire ( 1847 ) and culminated in the pre @-@ eminent vampire novel of all time : Dracula by Bram Stoker , published in 1897 . Over time , some attributes now regarded as integral became incorporated into the vampire 's profile : fangs and vulnerability to sunlight appeared over the course of the 19th century , with Varney the Vampire and Count Dracula both bearing protruding teeth , and Murnau 's Nosferatu ( 1922 ) fearing daylight . The cloak appeared in stage productions of the 1920s , with a high collar introduced by playwright Hamilton Deane to help Dracula ' vanish ' on stage . Lord Ruthven and Varney were able to be healed by moonlight , although no account of this is known in traditional folklore . Implied though not often explicitly documented in folklore , immortality is one attribute which features heavily in vampire film and literature . Much is made of the price of eternal life , namely the incessant need for blood of former equals . = = = Literature = = = The vampire or revenant first appeared in poems such as The Vampire ( 1748 ) by Heinrich August Ossenfelder , Lenore ( 1773 ) by Gottfried August Bürger , Die Braut von Corinth ( The Bride of Corinth ) ( 1797 ) by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , Robert Southey 's Thalaba the Destroyer ( 1801 ) , John Stagg 's " The Vampyre " ( 1810 ) , Percy Bysshe Shelley 's " The Spectral Horseman " ( 1810 ) ( " Nor a yelling vampire reeking with gore " ) and " Ballad " in St. Irvyne ( 1811 ) about a reanimated corpse , Sister Rosa , Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's unfinished Christabel and Lord Byron 's The Giaour . Byron was also credited with the first prose fiction piece concerned with vampires : The Vampyre ( 1819 ) . This was in reality authored by Byron 's personal physician , John Polidori , who adapted an enigmatic fragmentary tale of his illustrious patient , " Fragment of a Novel " ( 1819 ) , also known as " The Burial : A Fragment " . Byron 's own dominating personality , mediated by his lover Lady Caroline Lamb in her unflattering roman @-@ a @-@ clef , Glenarvon ( a Gothic fantasia based on Byron 's wild life ) , was used as a model for Polidori 's undead protagonist Lord Ruthven . The Vampyre was highly successful and the most influential vampire work of the early 19th century . Varney the Vampire was a landmark popular mid @-@ Victorian era gothic horror story by James Malcolm Rymer and Thomas Peckett Prest , which first appeared from 1845 to 1847 in a series of pamphlets generally referred to as penny dreadfuls because of their inexpensive price and typically gruesome contents . The story was published in book form in 1847 and runs to 868 double @-@ columned pages . It has a distinctly suspenseful style , using vivid imagery to describe the horrifying exploits of Varney . Another important addition to the genre was Sheridan Le Fanu 's lesbian vampire story Carmilla ( 1871 ) . Like Varney before her , the vampire Carmilla is portrayed in a somewhat sympathetic light as the compulsion of her condition is highlighted . No effort to depict vampires in popular fiction was as influential or as definitive as Bram Stoker 's Dracula ( 1897 ) . Its portrayal of vampirism as a disease of contagious demonic possession , with its undertones of sex , blood and death , struck a chord in Victorian Europe where tuberculosis and syphilis were common . The vampiric traits described in Stoker 's work merged with and dominated folkloric tradition , eventually evolving into the modern fictional vampire . Drawing on past works such as The Vampyre and " Carmilla " , Stoker began to research his new book in the late 19th century , reading works such as The Land Beyond the Forest ( 1888 ) by Emily Gerard and other books about Transylvania and vampires . In London , a colleague mentioned to him the story of Vlad Ţepeş , the " real @-@ life Dracula , " and Stoker immediately incorporated this story into his book . The first chapter of the book was omitted when it was published in 1897 , but it was released in 1914 as Dracula 's Guest . The latter part of the 20th century saw the rise of multi @-@ volume vampire epics . The first of these was Gothic romance writer Marilyn Ross ' Barnabas Collins series ( 1966 – 71 ) , loosely based on the contemporary American TV series Dark Shadows . It also set the trend for seeing vampires as poetic tragic heroes rather than as the more traditional embodiment of evil . This formula was followed in novelist Anne Rice 's highly popular and influential Vampire Chronicles ( 1976 – 2003 ) . The 21st century brought more examples of vampire fiction , such as J.R. Ward 's Black Dagger Brotherhood series , and other highly popular vampire books which appeal to teenagers and young adults . Such vampiric paranormal romance novels and allied vampiric chick @-@ lit and vampiric occult detective stories are a remarkably popular and ever @-@ expanding contemporary publishing phenomenon . L.A. Banks ' The Vampire Huntress Legend Series , Laurell K. Hamilton 's erotic Anita Blake : Vampire Hunter series , and Kim Harrison 's The Hollows series , portray the vampire in a variety of new perspectives , some of them unrelated to the original legends . Vampires in the Twilight series ( 2005 – 2008 ) by Stephenie Meyer ignore the effects of garlic and crosses , and are not harmed by sunlight ( although it does reveal their supernatural nature ) . Richelle Mead further deviates from traditional vampires in her Vampire Academy series ( 2007 – present ) , basing the novels on Romanian lore with two races of vampires , one good and one evil , as well as half @-@ vampires . = = = Film and television = = = Considered one of the preeminent figures of the classic horror film , the vampire has proven to be a rich subject for the film and gaming industries . Dracula is a major character in more films than any other but Sherlock Holmes , and many early films were either based on the novel of Dracula or closely derived from it . These included the landmark 1922 German silent film Nosferatu , directed by F. W. Murnau and featuring the first film portrayal of Dracula — although names and characters were intended to mimic Dracula 's , Murnau could not obtain permission to do so from Stoker 's widow , and had to alter many aspects of the film . In addition to this film was Universal 's Dracula ( 1931 ) , starring Béla Lugosi as the Count in what was the first talking film to portray Dracula . The decade saw several more vampire films , most notably Dracula 's Daughter in 1936 . The legend of the vampire was cemented in the film industry when Dracula was reincarnated for a new generation with the celebrated Hammer Horror series of films , starring Christopher Lee as the Count . The successful 1958 Dracula starring Lee was followed by seven sequels . Lee returned as Dracula in all but two of these and became well known in the role . By the 1970s , vampires in films had diversified with works such as Count Yorga , Vampire ( 1970 ) , an African Count in 1972 's Blacula , the BBC 's Count Dracula featuring French actor Louis Jourdan as Dracula and Frank Finlay as Abraham Van Helsing , and a Nosferatu @-@ like vampire in 1979 's Salem 's Lot , and a remake of Nosferatu itself , titled Nosferatu the Vampyre with Klaus Kinski the same year . Several films featured female , often lesbian , vampire antagonists such as Hammer Horror 's The Vampire Lovers ( 1970 ) based on Carmilla , though the plotlines still revolved around a central evil vampire character . The pilot for the Dan Curtis 1972 television series Kolchak : The Night Stalker revolved around reporter Carl Kolchak hunting a vampire on the Las Vegas strip . Later films showed more diversity in plotline , with some focusing on the vampire @-@ hunter , such as Blade in the Marvel Comics ' Blade films and the film Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Buffy , released in 1992 , foreshadowed a vampiric presence on television , with adaptation to a long @-@ running hit TV series of the same name and its spin @-@ off Angel . Still others showed the vampire as protagonist , such as 1983 's The Hunger , 1994 's Interview with the Vampire : The Vampire Chronicles and its indirect sequel of sorts Queen of the Damned , and the 2007 series Moonlight . Bram Stoker 's Dracula was a noteworthy 1992 film which became the then @-@ highest grossing vampire film ever . This increase of interest in vampiric plotlines led to the vampire being depicted in films such as Underworld and Van Helsing , and the Russian Night Watch and a TV miniseries remake of ' Salem 's Lot , both from 2004 . The series Blood Ties premiered on Lifetime Television in 2007 , featuring a character portrayed as Henry Fitzroy , illegitimate son of Henry VIII of England turned vampire , in modern @-@ day Toronto , with a female former Toronto detective in the starring role . A 2008 series from HBO , entitled True Blood , gives a Southern take to the vampire theme . In 2008 the BBC Three series Being Human became popular in Britain . It featured an unconventional trio of a vampire , a werewolf and a ghost who are sharing a flat in Bristol . Another popular vampire @-@ related show is CW 's The Vampire Diaries . The continuing popularity of the vampire theme has been ascribed to a combination of two factors : the representation of sexuality and the perennial dread of mortality . Another " vampiric " series that has come out between 2008 and 2012 is the Twilight Saga , a series of films based on the book series of the same name . In quite another type of depiction , Count von Count , a harmless and friendly vampire parodying Bela Lugosi 's depictions , is a major character on the children 's television series Sesame Street . He teaches counting and simple arithmetic through his compulsion to count everything , a trait he shares with certain other vampires of folklore . The 2005 CW series Supernatural has also depicted vampires . The main characters , Sam and Dean Winchester , along with other hunters , believe that the true way to kill a vampire is to decapitate the being.The show 's vampires are shown in a rather negative light , though some are shown mercy after being found to not harm humans . = = = Games = = = The role @-@ playing game Vampire : the Masquerade has been influential upon modern vampire fiction and elements of its terminology , such as embrace and sire , appear in contemporary fiction . Popular video games about vampires include Castlevania , which is an extension of the original Bram Stoker Dracula novel , and Legacy of Kain . Vampires are also sporadically portrayed in other games , including The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion , when a character can become afflicted with porphyric haemophilia . A different take on vampires is presented in Bethesda 's other game Fallout 3 with " The Family " . Members of the Family are afflicted with a manic desire to consume human flesh , but restrict themselves to drinking blood to avoid becoming complete monsters .

= Survival of the Fittest ( The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man ) = " Survival of the Fittest " is the pilot episode of the animated television series The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , which is based on the comic book character Spider @-@ Man , created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko . The episode was written and directed by the series developers , Greg Weisman and Victor Cook . In the episode , Spider @-@ Man ( Josh Keaton ) faces the evil Vulture ( Robert Englund ) as he begins his junior year in high school . Sony Entertainment originally conceived The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man as a series of four DVDs , and asked Weisman and Cook to develop it . The central idea was to follow Spider @-@ Man in his younger years in the comics ; Weisman and Cook wanted to incorporate the styles of the early comic publications by Lee and Ditko . Reviewers have cited other influences in the themes , such as the live action film series and the Ultimate Spider @-@ Man continuity . " Survival of the Fittest " originally aired on March 8 , 2008 , on the Kids ' WB block on The CW . It had previously been shown to a large audience at the 2008 WonderCon . The episode was the highest rated program of the Kids WB ! 2007 @-@ 2008 combined with the second episode " Interactions " and alone received a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 2 / 3 . It was well received by critics , IGN calling it " a Spider @-@ Man story that feels like classic Spider @-@ Man , and that 's a good thing . " = = Plot = = The night before school starts , Spider @-@ Man , alter ego of Peter Parker ( Josh Keaton ) , foils an attempted bank robbery ; in the background , a shadowed figure tells his henchman " Hammerhead " to summon the " Enforcers " to kill Spider @-@ Man . The next day , an aerodynamic engineer named Adrian Toomes ( Robert Englund ) is outraged at OsCorp for stealing his anti @-@ gravity project , until Norman Osborn ( Alan Rachins ) arrives and he is escorted out by security , Toomes turns to Octavius and declares that he no longer blames him for the theft of his work . Meanwhile , Peter arrives at school and tells his friends Gwen ( Lacey Chabert ) and Harry ( James Arnold Taylor ) that he is determined to get a date with Sally Avril , though both she and Flash Thompson ( Joshua LeBar ) humiliate him in front of everyone . After school , Peter and Gwen are offered an internship at Dr. Connor 's lab , where the former was given his superpowers ; both accept . Peter goes to Harry 's apartment , where Norman congratulates him on his newfound career . Toomes , going by the name " Vulture , " breaks in wearing a suit with built @-@ in metallic wings and talons , with his anti @-@ gravity technology incorporated to it and kidnaps Norman . Peter slips out to don the Spider @-@ Man costume and pursues Vulture . He succeeds in rescuing Norman but loses to Vulture in a fight . Later , Peter goes to the lab where he meets up with Gwen , his close friend Eddie Brock ( Benjamin Diskin ) , and the Conners . When he finds out he will not be paid for the internship , he tries to sell pictures to the Daily Bugle publisher J. Jonah Jameson ( Daran Norris ) , though he is kicked out near immediately . That night , Norman is attacked by the Vulture once more and when Spider @-@ Man tries to stop him , he is fired upon by the Enforcers , who distract him while Vulture chases after Norman 's limousine . While being pursued by the Enforcers , he follows after Vulture and ends up defeating him while getting the assassins off his back . When he returns home , his Aunt May ( Deborah Strang ) gives him a curfew to ensure he doesn 't come home late again and gives him a slice of pie . = = Production = = The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man was originally conceived by Sony Entertainment as a series of four animated DVDs that chronicled the Spider @-@ Man character in his youth . The company brought in Victor Cook and Greg Weisman to help with development . Weisman had had critical success with the series Gargoyles , while Cook worked on the Hellboy animated features . They both had been Spider @-@ Man fans for decades , as well . Weisman wanted to incorporate the early stages of the comic when Stan Lee and Steve Ditko where the character was in his younger stages ; Cook agreed because he had yet to see it done before in any type of adaptation for the character . Other influences on the style were the Ultimate Spider @-@ Man comics and the live action film adaptions of the comic publications . When the idea was changed to an animated television series , they still kept a similar chronicle style where " each episode stands alone as its own story , but like the comic book itself it ’ s a saga . Then each three episodes is a story and those three episodes are what would be on the DVD releases . " The original title for the series was The Amazing Spider @-@ Man , based on the Spider @-@ Man comic publication of the same name . In mid @-@ 2007 , the title was changed to The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , as well a Spider @-@ Man comic series . Weisman prepared for his role as a story editor of the new series by going out and purchasing the first seven volumes of The Essential Spider @-@ Man , which he had previously read as a child. he re @-@ read them in order to " get the voice of those early stories " and took extensive notes . The show was given a specific budget , so Weisman and Cook wanted to allow the animation to " move " more than anything , giving it simple and stylistic designs . Sam Raimi , director of the Spider @-@ Man live action films , " set the bar " for the fluent movement styles Spider @-@ Man has , which Weisman and Cook were in complete agreement of incorporating into the series . When designing the Vulture , the two employed the dark green shades from his original design , a color which they use thematically for most of their villains and other negative aspects of Peter 's life , along with touches of blood @-@ like red . His wings were employed in the same style that his comic book counterpart ; " [ They are ] for steering [ ... ] they don ’ t keep him air born , " Weisman describes . Vulture was voiced by Robert Englund , iconic for his portrayal as the horror film character Freddy Kruger . " Survival of the Fittest " was written by Weisman and directed by Cook . The episode originally aired on March 8 , 2008 , on the Kids WB ! block for The CW network . It had previously been shown to a packed audience at the 2008 WonderCon ; several goers were forced to stand and the creators and other members of the crew took the stage to answer questions . When Disney XD premiered the series , it aired the episode , along with the following two , " Interactions " and " Natural Selection , " on March 23 , 2009 . = = Cultural references = = " Survival of the Fittest " follows a title scheme given by Weisman that follows " The Education of Peter Parker . " For the episode and beginning arc of season one , the titles are based on Biology . The scene in the episode in which Spider @-@ Man catches Norman Osborn in mid @-@ air and makes several sarcastic comments to Vulture , such as " You guys play hot potato hardcore ! " and " He may be right . I only rent [ the skies ] , ” were described by Comic Mix reviewer Alan Kistler as in the attitude of Bugs Bunny . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Survival of the Fittest " received a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 2 / 3 , which is considered high for American television . The rating was the top mark for the 10 : 00 a.m. timeslot for the 2007 @-@ 2008 season and was a 20 % increase of the previous week 's . In key kids 2 @-@ 11 , it received a rating of 1 @.@ 4 / 5 , a 25 % increase from the previous week 's mark in the demographic . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from critics . IGN reviewer Eric Goldman gave the episode an eight out of ten rating , commenting that it was " literally jam @-@ packed with classic Spider @-@ Man characters " and " a Spider @-@ Man story that feels like classic Spider @-@ Man . " Goldman praised the 1960s @-@ inspired style and described the humor as both " corny " and " legitimately , " along with the fight sequences . Goldman enjoyed the fight sequences where Spider @-@ Man faces the Vulture and Fancy Dan and gave " kodos " to the sound design teams for the " distinctive " noises made by Vulture 's motors , along with the animation style . Sean Elliot , senior edit of iF Magazine , gave " Survival of the Fittest " an " A " ; Elliot wrote that it was " a Spider @-@ man cartoon that 's for all ages and ranges . " Elliot said that he enjoyed the usage of several different Spider @-@ Man villains to the point of watching the episode twice . Though the Vulture is not a favorite of Elliot 's , he commented that the episode made him seem " pretty cool ; " he went on to praise the voice cast , including Englund 's performance as Vulture . Like Goldman , Elliot commented favorably on the animation style and nods to classic comic stories and said that it had a " bit for every level of Spider @-@ man fan . "

= Mello ( Death Note ) = Mihael Keehl ( Japanese : ミハエル ・ ケール , Hepburn : Mihaeru Kēru ) , universally referred to by the mononym Mello ( メロ , Mero ) , is a fictional character in the manga series Death Note , created by Tsugumi Ohba and Takeshi Obata . Mello is introduced alongside Near as a potential substitute for L. Both Mello and Near were raised at Wammy 's House , an orphanage established by Watari , L 's assistant . However , Mello refuses to work with Near to capture a murderer dubbed " Kira " . Over the course of Death Note , he joins the mafia , obtains a Death Note , causes the death of some people , and dies before he can expose Kira 's identity . Mello has also appeared in other media from the series , including video games , and light novels . The character of Mello was created , along with Near , to break the endless cycle of confrontations between the detective L and Light Yagami , the persona behind Kira . Both Mello and Near were designed after L , and were initially envisioned as twins and sons of L. Ultimately , this idea was dropped , with their designs switched compared to the original concept . He is voiced in the Japanese anime series by Nozomu Sasaki and in the English adaptation by David Hurwitz . Merchandise has been created for the character , including plush dolls and action figures . Mello has received mixed commentary by manga and anime publications . = = Appearances = = = = = In Death Note = = = Mello , whose real name is Mihael Keehl , grew up in Wammy 's House , an orphanage for intellectually gifted children , and is one of two potential successors to L — the best detective in the world . When L dies , it is proposed to him to work with Near , the other potential successor , to find L 's murderer , a criminal dubbed " Kira " . Mello rejects the proposal , citing their bad relationship and different personalities . Then , he leaves the orphanage and joins the Mafia . Aware of a Death Note — a book that allows anyone to murder individuals just by knowing their faces and names — in Japanese police 's possession , Mello abducts its director ; Kira , however , kills the director . Afterwards , Mello proceeds to kidnap Sayu Yagami , the daughter of the police 's vice @-@ director , Soichiro Yagami ; Mello succeeds in obtaining the Death Note this time . Light Yagami , the true identity of Kira , discovers the location of Mello 's hideout . An indirect result of this is that Mello meets the Shinigami Sidoh , the original owner of Mello 's Death Note . Sidoh reveals to him — in exchange for some of Mello 's chocolate — that there are two extra fake rules ( in addition to a number of real ones specified to each Death Note 's owner ) . Mello begins to theorize that whoever Kira is , he probably used these spurious rules to fool the Japanese police into thinking he is innocent . However , Light launches a SWAT team led by Soichiro to raid the hideout . In order to escape , Mello detonates remote @-@ controlled explosives , after one of his Mafia accomplices fatally wounds Soichiro . Mello is left with a scar on his face , and the failure of his Mafia scheme leaves his real name in Light 's hands . Mello invades SPK — an organization that aims to catch Kira — to retrieve a photograph of himself from Near . Before he leaves SPK , Mello tells Near about Sidoh and the fake rules , which sharpens Near 's suspicions on Light . Mello then enlists the help of his friend Matt to spy on Misa Amane , suspecting she is helping Kira . After learning that Light is Kira and Near is going to attempt to apprehend him , Mello and Matt kidnap Kiyomi Takada , Kira 's spokesperson . Matt pretends to attack Takada , and Mello offers to take her to safety . Takada agrees but then realizes his identity . Mello forces her to strip naked to get rid of any tracking devices . However , Takada uses a hidden piece of Death Note paper to kill Mello , as Light had told her his name and what to do in such a situation . Mello 's actions ultimately lead to Lights downfall ; Teru Mikami uses the hidden real Death Note to try to kill Takada , which leads to Near learning that the notebook Mikami had been using prior is fake and swapping the real Death Note with his own fake for the final confrontation with Kira . = = = In other media = = = Aside from the initial anime and manga , Mello appears in other media based on Death Note . He serves as the narrator of Nisio Isin 's light novel Death Note Another Note : The Los Angeles BB Murder Cases . He is featured in two video games ; in the Death Note @-@ based Death Note : L o Tsugu Mono , he can serve as Kira or Kira 's accomplice , and in the Weekly Shōnen Jump @-@ based fighting game Jump Ultimate Stars , he is a support character . Mello also appears in the animated special Death Note : Relight 2 : L 's Successors , which retells the second half of the anime . On it , his story is almost the same , the only exception is that Mello 's involvement with the mafia is removed . = = Creation and conception = = Tsugumi Ohba , Death Note 's writer , introduced Near and Mello together because he felt L individually could not defeat Kira and that introducing only one new character would produce a " repeat " of the struggle between Light and L. Ohba asked Takeshi Obata , artist of the series , to make both characters look " a little ' L @-@ ish . ' " Ohba " wavered " in their ages and considered making the characters the sons of L. As Ohba wanted to " include a little L " in Near and Mello , Obata tried to keep " the weirdness and the panda eyes " . Since L is an important character , Obata felt that he had made Near and Mello look too much like L. When he first heard about Near and Mello , Obata assumed that they would join as a team and work together , so he envisioned the two as twins , describing the creation of the character designs as " a major struggle " . At first , he tried to depict Mello as having " more energy than Near " . However , the designs for the characters became switched at a later phase ; the final Mello had Near 's design and vice versa . When Obata created the designs , his editor wrote the wrong names to accompany them ; when Obata received approval for the designs , it was too late to point out that the labels were incorrect . Initially , for him , Mello was " more calm and feminine " , but later he felt that " it 's better " that the switch occurred . Ohba did not initially develop Mello and Near 's personalities as he wanted to " reveal " them through their actions . He added the chocolate trait because he believed that chocolate " represented all sweets " and that the trait would fit with the story arc in the United States . Obata designed Mello 's clothing based on clothes he enjoys drawing , which includes " shiny " leather . At first , Mello 's hair was cut straight across ; Obata preferred Mello 's hair becoming messy , which occurred later in the story . Obata became grateful when Ohba added the scar since he felt that he could draw Mello " looking cooler " . Ohba added Mello 's scar to the thumbnails as the trait would give him " more depth " ; he further added Mello looks " more intense " and " more human " with the scar . After drawing Mello 's updated appearance with the scar , Obata " finally [ felt that he could draw Mello ] really well " . Obata said that the fact that Ohba and Obata did not regularly meet in person was for the best , because if Obata had told Ohba about his satisfaction with Mello 's new appearance , Ohba might not have killed Mello . However , Obata felt sad when Mello died in the story shortly afterwards . Ohba considered having Mello be the character who ultimately defeats Light . According to Ohba , after the disappearance of Sidoh , the writer " struggled " with Mello 's role . Ohba 's idea of Mello ultimately defeating Light and Near , being " the best " , was strong in his mind , but once Mello had " learned too much about the Death Note " , he had to kill him to " sustain the intensity of the story " . As a result , Ohba did not give Mello a " large role " at the conclusion of Death Note and instead had Mello negatively affect Light " indirectly " . Ohba gave Mello a " very plain " death , depicted in only one panel ; he felt that if Mello had perished " dramatically " it would reveal the truth behind his death . = = Reception = = Merchandise based on his character has been released , including action figures and plush dolls . Moreover , several publications for manga and anime have commented on Mello 's character . Referring to Mello and Near 's introduction , Julie Rosato of Mania.com said the " focus on both makes for a clash of attitudes and rough transitions " . However , as they were introduced in the anime , IGN 's Tom S. Pepirium criticized how it is not explained " what Mello is doing and how it differs from Near 's story . " Writing for Active Anime , Holly Ellingwood stated they " truly represent – Light 's newest and greatest enemies " , while Briana Lawrence from Anime News Network said both could be " much better characters " if they were treated as individuals instead of " different halves of L " . Erin Finnegan from Pop Culture Shock praised Death Note : The Last Name for the absence of Mello and Near . Anime News Network 's Casey Brienza stressed Mello 's presence as a narrator in the light novel " makes things a bit too breathless in places and a bit too self @-@ conscious in others " . A. E. Sparrow from IGN praised how the introduction of Mello , " a man of action " , " spiced things up a bit " as he brought " actually " action to the series . Manga News said Mello is " an interesting character " as he is " unpredictable " and also praised the action scenes he brings . As such , they criticized his almost total absence in volume 10 as he is " one of the few to bring some new blood to the series " . After Mello 's death , Pepirium wrote " Mello deserved more . " On the other hand , Mello is " an unhinged character that only offers unpredictability " , according to Chris Beveridge of Mania.com. AnimeLand and Manga News presented opposite opinions if whether or not Mello is charismatic character , with the former declaring he does not replace L as he lacks charisma .

= Russian monitor Koldun = Koldun ( Russian : Колдун ) was an Uragan @-@ class monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in Belgium in the mid @-@ 1860s . The design was based on the American Passaic @-@ class monitor , but was modified to suit Russian engines , guns and construction techniques . She was one of two ships of the class to be built in Belgium and assembled in Russia . Spending her entire career with the Baltic Fleet , the ship was only active when the Gulf of Finland was not frozen , but very little is known about her service . She was stricken in 1900 from the Navy List , converted into a coal barge in 1903 and renamed Barzha No. 324 . Abandoned by the Soviets in Finland in 1918 , the ship was later scrapped by the Finns . = = Description = = Koldun was 201 feet ( 61 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 46 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 10 @.@ 16 – 10 @.@ 84 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 t ) , and her crew numbered eight officers and 88 enlisted men in 1865 . They numbered 10 officers and 100 crewmen in 1877 . The ship was fitted with a two @-@ cylinder , horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine built by the Belgian Cockerill Company . It drove a single propeller using steam that was provided by two rectangular boilers . Specific information on the output of the ship 's engine has not survived , but it ranged between 340 – 500 indicated horsepower ( 254 – 373 kW ) for all the ships of this class . During Koldun 's sea trials on 21 July 1864 , she reached a maximum speed of 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) . The ship carried a maximum of 190 long tons ( 190 t ) of coal , which gave her a theoretical endurance of 1 @,@ 440 nmi ( 2 @,@ 670 km ; 1 @,@ 660 mi ) at 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) . Koldun was designed to be armed with a pair of 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns purchased from Krupp of Germany and rifled in Russia , but the rifling project was seriously delayed and the ship was completed with nine @-@ inch smoothbores . These lacked the penetration power necessary to deal with ironclads and they were replaced by license @-@ built 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading Rodman guns in 1867 – 68 . The Rodman guns were replaced around 1876 with the originally intended nine @-@ inch rifled guns . All of the wrought @-@ iron armor that was used in the Uragan @-@ class monitors was in 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates , just as in the Passaic @-@ class ships . The side of the ship was entirely covered with three to five layers of armor plates , of which the three innermost plates extended 42 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) below the waterline . This armor was backed by a wooden beam that had a maximum thickness of 36 inches ( 914 mm ) . The gun turret and the pilothouse above it was protected by eleven layers of armor . The conning tower armor was 11 inches ( 279 mm ) thick . Curved plates six layers thick protected the base of the funnel up to a height of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above the deck . Unlike their predecessors , the Uragans were built without deck armor to save weight , but Koldun 's deck was reinforced by the addition of 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) armor plates after completion . = = Construction and career = = Construction of Koldun began on 9 November 1863 by the Belgian firm of Cockerill for assembly in Saint Petersburg . The ship was laid down on 9 December 1863 and she was launched on 8 May 1864 . She entered service on 1865 and cost a total of 1 @,@ 237 @,@ 000 rubles , almost double her contract cost of 600 @,@ 000 rubles . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and she , and all of her sister ships except Latnik , made a port visit to Stockholm , Sweden in July – August 1865 while under the command of General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich . Sometime after Koldun was completed , an armored ring , 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and 15 inches ( 381 mm ) tall , was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent splinters from jamming it . Later , an armored , outward @-@ curving bulwark was fitted around the top of the turret to protect any crewmen there . Three sponsons were later added , probably during the 1870s , to the upper portion of the turret . Each sponson , one above the gun ports and one on each side of the turret , mounted a light gun , probably a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) Engstrem gun , for defense against torpedo boats . A fourth gun was mounted on a platform aft of the funnel when a hurricane deck was built between the funnel and the turret , also probably during the 1870s . Little is known about the ship 's career other than that she was laid up each winter when the Gulf of Finland froze . Koldun was reclassified as a coast defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 6 July 1900 , although she was not stricken until 17 August . During 1903 , the ship was converted into a coal barge by the removal of her turret , her side armor , and its wooden backing , and by the division of her hull into three holds . She was redesignated as Barzha No. 31 , Barzha No. 50 and , in 1914 , Barzha No. 323 . The ship was abandoned by the Soviets when they were forced to withdraw from Finland in April 1918 according to the terms of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk and was later scrapped by the Finns .

= Ashlawn = Ashlawn , also called the Joshua Perkins House , is a two @-@ story , central @-@ hall frame farmhouse dating from the 18th century in Sprague , Connecticut . The house 's namesake is its first owner , Joshua Perkins , a farmer and son of the prominent Captain Matthew Perkins , a farmer and founding member of the Hanover Society . Ashlawn 's main house has a five @-@ bay front facade with pilasters supporting broken @-@ base pediments . The inside has well @-@ documented woodwork for its moldings and wainscotting . The house has integrated an older structure , likely a central @-@ chimney structure built in the second quarter of the 18th century , as an ell . In 2002 , the house was maintained by Ruth Rosiene , a descendant of the Perkins . Ashlawn is listed under the National Register of Historic Places as an example of Georgian architecture and locally important for its connection with the Perkins family . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 4 , 1979 . = = History = = The land upon which Ashlawn stands was originally part of a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ acre ( 490 ha ; 1 @.@ 9 sq mi ) parcel purchased by Joshua Perkins ' grandfather Joseph Perkins and great @-@ great uncle Jacob Perkins . The town of Lisbon , Connecticut , was originally known as Newent , the name believed to derive from the Perkins ' place in Gloucestershire , England . Joseph Perkins ' father , Captain Matthew Perkins , was a prominent farmer and founder of the Hanover Society in 1761 . Matthew Perkins held approximately 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ; 1 @.@ 6 sq mi ) in Hanover and owned three slaves as part of his assets ; he died in 1773 . Joshua Perkins is believed to have deeded the land . Joshua Perkins , the eldest son of Matthew Perkins , was born in 1740 . A farmer and a selectman , he served in 1786 and 1787 before going to serve in the Connecticut state legislature in 1789 and again in 1801 . In 1825 , he deeded 400 acres ( 160 ha ) , containing the house , to his son Charles Perkins . Joshua Perkins died in 1833 , living to be 93 . = = Construction = = Ashlawn , named for the ash trees that once sat in front of the house , is also known as the Joshua Perkins House , after its first owner . Ashlawn is described by the National Register of Historic Places as a " late 18th @-@ century , 2 @-@ story , central @-@ hall frame farmhouse with a pitched and end gable overhang . " The date of construction , both of the main house and its older ell , is unknown , as is the architect . The house rests upon a fieldstone foundation with dressed stone ; the cellar of the house has notches in stone that are believed to have been for the " cool storage of foods " . The register lists the architecture as being Georgian . The five @-@ bay front facade has two flat Doric pilasters and two more pilasters , located off the central bay support the broken @-@ base pediment . The original door was replaced with a 19th @-@ century door that has a 20 @-@ pane fanlight and is flanked by two flat pilasters that support the broken @-@ base pediment over the door . The main house originally had two @-@ chimney design and another chimney was added to the east wall for a 20th @-@ century furnace . Most of the windows in the house were replaced in the 19th century with 2 @-@ over @-@ 2 sash , except for two attic windows of each end of the gable which retain the smaller paned sashes . The house includes an earlier one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story ell in the rear that appears to have been a two @-@ room central chimney structure that was integrated into the design of the main house and built in the second quarter of the 18th century . The chimney was replaced in the 19th century . A storage shed also sits behind the house . The property also had a dairy barn that was rebuilt following its destruction in the 1938 New England hurricane . The register 's nomination gives details of the paneling and molding throughout the house . Entering through the front of the house leads to the central hall with a paneled wainscot below the chair rail , forward of the rising stairwell on the left . There is cornice molding and a molded chair rail with runners for the inside shutters . The woodwork in the west front room has a paneled fireplace and is wainscoted below the chair rail . The east rear room is divided in two , with one of the divisions being a bathroom . The upstairs rooms have molded chair rails and cased flair posts . However , the east front room lacks a fireplace while the western one is paneled as the first floor 's front west room . The roof of the house is framed by sawn collar beams that were pegged to rafters which were hewn . The chimney stacks are angled so that they emerge symmetrically from the roof . The original entrance to the ell in the center along the east wall , the door was replaced with a modern door at the time of nomination . Inside , a winding staircase leads to the attic . To the north is the kitchen , retaining a hewn summer beam and flared cased posts while sporting modern cabinets and wallpaper . The room to the south also has a visible hewn summer beam and its original casing on the flared posts . The attic is finished with vertically placed beaded boarding , and the roof is framed with hewn rafters . = = Importance = = The National Register of Historic Places nomination form describes Ashlawn as a historically significant as " an expression of rural Georgian architecture and for its associations with the Perkins family , particularly influential in the settlement of the Hanover section of Sprague . " The nomination also notes that it is " one of the finest of its type in the surrounding area " , calling it a stylish farmhouse built for a prominent farmer . The Town of Sprague placed it among the many historic districts in their small area , which " add substantial aesthetic value " on top of being historic . In 2002 , Ruth Rosiene , a descendant of the Perkins and Ashlawn 's owner , was featured in an article by The Day . Rosiene had been maintaining the house for years , which required repainting every four or five years . A photo in the article shows the latch on the door that was described as possibly original . The article notes that the original sliding shutters are now absent , whereas the original nomination form from 1979 stated they were not installed . = = Explanatory notes = =

= The Break @-@ Up ( 30 Rock ) = " The Break @-@ Up " is the eighth episode of the first season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by co @-@ executive producers Brett Baer and Dave Finkel , and directed by Scott Ellis . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on December 14 , 2006 . Guest stars in this episode include Rachel Dratch , Chris Hansen , Keith Powell , Lonny Ross , and Dean Winters . In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) finally dumps Dennis Duffy ( Winters ) and prowls the singles scene , where she proves to be particularly inept at picking up guys , under Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) tutelage . Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Powell ) clash , landing both in sensitivity training , and Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) dates a certain " high @-@ ranking African @-@ American member of the Bush Administration . " " The Break @-@ Up " received generally good reception from critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 9 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 8 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . Scott Ellis received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series for " The Break @-@ Up " . = = Plot = = Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) comes home to find her wall full of knife holes , a great dane roaming her apartment , and a complete stranger on her bed , all courtesy of her boyfriend , Dennis Duffy ( Dean Winters ) . She breaks up with him , but Dennis claims squatter 's rights , so she gives him a week to move out . Liz and her friend , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) , go out to try to pick up some men , but are very unsuccessful . The next day , Dennis walks in to the staff office of TGS with Tracy Jordan , announcing he has found a new apartment and reads a heartfelt letter to Liz . The staff suddenly turns on Liz after Dennis walks out , and Jenna suggests to Liz that in light of the previous night 's disaster , she should re @-@ consider getting back together with him . She suggests making a list of pros and cons . Liz compiles her list of pros and cons . She marks down a positive remark after coming home to find that Dennis has cleaned up the apartment , put up shelves and a TV stand , and left her dinner . In the evening , Dennis returns with an early Christmas present for Liz . She invites him in , but soon sees Dennis on Dateline 's To Catch a Predator . As a result of this , Liz breaks up with Dennis , and marks it down as a con . Meanwhile , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) is upset that Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) is cross @-@ dressing on TGS because it is demeaning to African @-@ Americans . After a bit of objection , Toofer convinces Tracy to stop , handing the female character over to Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) . Once Josh 's character is successful , Tracy is upset with Toofer . Liz convinces Toofer to work with Tracy . As they work together , Tracy gets upset with Toofer 's supposed lack of blackness , and endearingly calls Toofer a racial slur . The next morning , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , Liz , Toofer , and Tracy sit down for a meeting about Tracy 's vocabulary from the previous night . Tracy and Jack point out that the African @-@ American community has adopted the word to deprive it of its meaning . In trying to reach out to Tracy , Toofer says the word again but because of his perceived cultural whiteness , everyone , including Tracy , is offended in a way they weren 't when Tracy used the term . Tracy and Toofer attend sensitivity training , start arguing , and in the process develop a new sketch for TGS . When show starts running short on time , Liz offers Tracy the option to either air the sketch or one from the Star Jones cooking show , Tracy chooses the latter . Toofer is initially upset , but agrees with Tracy 's decision when he finds the sketch funny . In a subplot , Jack is secretly dating Condoleezza Rice , but gets upset when he sees Vladimir Putin touching her back . After being put on hold by Condoleezza , Jack walks into the bathroom and runs into Dennis there . Dennis , finding Jack a kindred spirit , shares his understanding of his relationship , motivating Jack to play hard to get . As a result , Jack breaks up with Condoleezza . = = Production = = " The Break @-@ Up " was written by that season 's co @-@ executive producers Brett Baer and Dave Finkel , and directed by Scott Ellis . This episode was the first writing credit for both Baer and Finkel , and the first one Ellis directed for 30 Rock . Baer and Finkel would later collaborate on the episode " Fireworks " , that aired in the show 's first season on April 5 , 2007 . " The Break @-@ Up " originally aired on NBC on December 14 , 2006 as the eighth episode of the series . This episode was actor Dean Winters ' third appearance on the series as the character , Dennis Duffy , a former boyfriend of Tina Fey 's character , Liz Lemon . He appeared in the episodes " Jack Meets Dennis " and " Tracy Does Conan " . Finkel has appeared on the show in a 10 @-@ second internet sitcom , Makin ' It Happen , alongside staff writer Kay Cannon . The two play husband and wife . A series of Makin ' It Happen was produced and the webisodes aired on NBC.com. Rachel Dratch , longtime comedy partner and fellow Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) alumna of Fey , the latter who was the show 's head writer from 1999 until 2006 , was originally cast to portray Jenna Maroney . Dratch played the role in the show 's original pilot , but in August 2006 , actress Jane Krakowski was announced as Dratch 's replacement . Executive producer Lorne Michaels announced that while Dratch would not be playing a series regular , she would appear in various episodes in a different role . In this episode , Dratch played Pamela Smew , a group therapist in charge of sensitivity training between Tracy and Toofer . This was Dratch 's fifth appearance on the series . Various other cast members of SNL have appeared on 30 Rock . These cast members include : Chris Parnell , Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Jason Sudeikis and Molly Shannon . Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of SNL . Chris Hansen of Dateline NBC 's television segment To Catch a Predator appeared as himself in this episode , in which he confronts Dennis on To Catch a Predator . = = Reception = = According to the Nielsen ratings system , " The Break @-@ Up " was watched by 5 @.@ 9 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 2 @.@ 8 rating / 8 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 5 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Tracy Does Conan " , which was watched by 6 @.@ 84 million American viewers . Scott Ellis , director of the episode , received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing For a Comedy Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards . Since airing , the episode received good reviews from television critics . IGN contributor Robert Canning said that " The Break @-@ Up " was " well put together " , noting that it had " [ g ] ood set ups and good execution " and that it " gave us good comedy " as it had " plenty to work with . " In regards to the Liz and Dennis story , he admitted that while it was funny , it was " fairly stereotypical . " Canning commented that Jack 's relationship with Condoleezza Rice in the episode was a " great concept " and " offered up a good number of chuckles " , although " it never became as clever as it appeared it was going to be . " Canning gave the episode a 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich was complimentary towards the episode , reporting , " Now this is what I 'm talking about . Second @-@ tier cast integration , multiple stories going on , intimations that Condoleezza Rice likes phone sex ... Another winning week for NBC 's 30 Rock . " Mitovich enjoyed the fact that Jack was in a relationship with Rice , writing that another show " would build [ the ] whole episode around them " but that 30 Rock " made it that much funnier by playing it in the background and thus getting to be more outrageous with it . " Julia Ward of AOL 's TV Squad wrote that Alec Baldwin " always knocks the ball out of the park on the acting front " but noted that " the best material " in this episode belonged to the Tracy and Toofer story . " The show does have a tendency to telegraph its punchlines , but it was nice to have the two men 's differences resolved by finding the funny in a Star Jones / excessive vomiting sketch . " Ward was complimentary towards Jane Krakowski , observing that her " comic timing " in " The Break @-@ Up " was " impeccable as usual , but it would be nice to see her character get a tad more three @-@ dimensional . " Amy Amatangelo of the Boston Herald enjoyed Dean Winters ' appearances on the show , citing that he does a " hilarious turn " as Dennis , while the Houston Chronicle 's Mike McDaniel opined that Winters had a " [ s ] cene @-@ stealing and hilarious role " on the show .

= 2010 – 11 Calgary Flames season = The 2010 – 11 Calgary Flames season was the 31st season in Calgary and 39th for the Flames franchise in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Flames finished second in the Northwest Division but failed to qualify for the playoffs after finishing 10th in the Western Conference . It was the second consecutive season that the Flames missed the playoffs . The franchise reached two milestones during the season : In November , Curtis Glencross scored the 10,000th goal in franchise history dating back to the founding of the Atlanta Flames in 1972 , and in January , the Flames played their 3,000th game . Calgary hosted the 2011 Heritage Classic , an outdoor game against the Montreal Canadiens . The Flames won the game 4 – 0 as goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff became the first goaltender to record a shutout in an NHL outdoor game . Individually , forward Craig Conroy played his 1,000th game before retiring mid season . Team captain Jarome Iginla scored his 500th career assist in January , then recorded his 1,000th point in March en route to leading the team in scoring with 86 points . Former owner Doc Seaman was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . The season marked a turning point for the organization , as General Manager Darryl Sutter announced in December that he was stepping down from the position after eight years with the Flames . Assistant General Manager Jay Feaster assumed full responsibility for the team on an interim basis . = = Pre @-@ season = = Failure to qualify for the 2010 Stanley Cup playoffs resulted in changes to the team 's management and evaluation structure . Former Tampa Bay Lightning general manager Jay Feaster was hired to serve as an assistant to Darryl Sutter , while three scouts were released by the organization as it planned to take a new direction in its amateur scouting . The organization participated in a five @-@ team prospects tournament held in Penticton , British Columbia , that included the Vancouver Canucks , Edmonton Oilers , Anaheim Ducks and San Jose Sharks . Calgary 's prospects played three games , defeating the Ducks 8 – 4 before losing to the Oilers and Canucks by 5 – 3 and 5 – 4 scores , respectively . The Flames played seven games as part of their exhibition schedule , including split @-@ squad games on September 21 against the Vancouver Canucks , with each city hosting one of the match @-@ ups . Calgary faced the New York Islanders in Saskatoon for the second consecutive season . They went unbeaten in the pre @-@ season , recording seven consecutive victories . Calgary ended the exhibition season with several injuries to key players . Centre Daymond Langkow remained sidelined following a neck injury suffered the previous season , while Ryan Stone ( knee ) was also out . Matt Stajan suffered a shoulder separation , David Moss also suffered a shoulder injury and Ales Kotalik was lost to a knee injury . As a result of the injuries , the Flames signed centre Brendan Morrison to a contract ; Morrison had been in training camp with the Canucks before being released . Rookie defenceman T. J. Brodie proved the surprise player of training camp . Expected to start the year with the Abbotsford Heat of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , Brodie impressed the Flames ' coaching staff and earned a position on the team to begin the NHL season . = = Regular season = = = = = October – December = = = The Flames endured a disastrous start to the season , suffering two shutout losses in their first three games . The second , a 3 – 0 loss to the Florida Panthers , ended with Flames fans loudly booing the team as it left the ice . Three more players were lost to injury , Raitis Ivanans and Rene Bourque ( head injuries ) and Adam Pardy ( shoulder ) , while the team 's top scoring line of Jarome Iginla , Olli Jokinen and Alex Tanguay was held pointless . The team 's early struggles resulted in a lengthy meeting between the players and coaches about the team 's need to compete harder . The team responded to the meeting with a stronger effort in a 5 – 3 victory over the Oilers in which Iginla and Tanguay scored their first goals of the season alongside Matt Stajan , who took Jokinen 's spot on the top line . The win over Edmonton began a streak where Calgary won five of six games , ending with another victory over the Oilers , 5 – 4 in a shootout , on October 26 . The Flames ended October with consecutive home losses , to the Colorado Avalanche and Washington Capitals , in which they surrendered two @-@ goal leads in both . The team entered November in the midst of a streak where they lost six of seven games . During the slump , rookie forward Brett Sutter was arrested in Scottsdale , Arizona , on charges that he assaulted a cab driver . Sutter apologized for the incident and his teammates issued a release expressing support , but he was demoted to Abbotsford a few days later . He was subsequently traded to the Carolina Hurricanes along with Ian White in exchange for defenceman Anton Babchuk and forward Tom Kostopoulos in a deal that was being discussed by the two teams prior to Sutter 's legal troubles . Calgary struggled to a 4 – 7 – 2 record in November , losing six of their last seven road games during the month . However , the team ended the month with its star players playing their best games of the season . Kiprusoff recorded his third shutout of the season in a 3 – 0 win against the Minnesota Wild while Iginla scored eight goals and 12 points in the final nine games of the month . Though they sat in 14th place in the 15 @-@ team Western Conference , the Flames ended November only five points out of a playoff spot . The organization reached a milestone during the month , as Curtis Glencross scored the 10,000th goal in the history of the Flames franchise during a 3 – 2 victory over the Philadelphia Flyers on November 26 . The team 's struggles continued into December , where the Flames lost four of six games to begin the month . Back @-@ to @-@ back victories over the Columbus Blue Jackets and Toronto Maple Leafs on December 13 and 16 , respectively , marked the first time the team won consecutive games since late October . The latter victory also spoiled Dion Phaneuf 's first return to Calgary following his trade to Toronto the previous season . The Flames followed the victories with three consecutive losses , but entered the Christmas break on a positive note with a 3 – 2 shootout victory over the Dallas Stars . Despite a victory over the Buffalo Sabres after Christmas , and with the team still mired in 14th place in the Western Conference , General Manager and Executive Vice President Darryl Sutter announced his resignation from both positions on December 28 , exactly eight years after he was hired by the team to become its coach in 2002 . The move was not entirely Sutter 's decision , as he was asked by the organization to step aside . The decision came as a shock to many fans , even as it was believed to be inevitable following the team 's decline in recent seasons . Jay Feaster assumed control of the team , serving as acting general manager . = = = January – April = = = Calgary ended 2010 with three consecutive wins and won their first game in 2011 for a season @-@ high four @-@ game winning streak . The streak came to an end at the hands of the New York Islanders on January 3 , a contest that marked the Flames franchise 's 3,000th game in its history . Losses to Vancouver , Detroit and Carolina followed , the latter two in overtime , but the Flames ' four @-@ game eastern road trip that began in Carolina ended with the team registering two wins and six points . The last game of the trip , against the Montreal Canadiens , saw the team come back from a 4 – 0 deficit to force the contest into overtime before Montreal prevailed . Kiprusoff struggled throughout the road trip , and was jeered by the fans on the team 's first game home , a 6 – 0 loss to Minnesota . The team rebounded from the loss , as backup goaltender Henrik Karlsson led the Flames to a 7 – 4 victory over the Dallas Stars on January 21 . Kiprusoff then showed a return to form by making 41 saves to lead the Flames to a 4 – 3 shootout win over Vancouver the following night . Victories over the Nashville Predators and St. Louis Blues allowed the Flames to enter the All @-@ Star break on a four @-@ game winning streak . Posting a 10 – 3 – 3 record in the 16 games leading up to the break , the Flames had pulled themselves to within two points of the eighth and final playoff spot in the West , and stood six points shy of fourth in the conference . Exactly 100 days after the Flames last held a playoff position , they climbed back into the top eight with a 7 – 0 – 1 run that culminated in a 3 – 1 victory over the Chicago Blackhawks . Jokinen tied a franchise record for points in a period during a February 14 game against the Colorado Avalanche when he scored four points in the first period of a 9 – 1 win . The last Flame to accomplish the feat was Al MacInnis in 1991 . The victory also marked Kiprusoff 's 250th win as a member of the Flames . The Flames hosted the Montreal Canadiens at McMahon Stadium in February for the 2011 Heritage Classic . The game was played before 41 @,@ 022 fans who braved a windchill as cold as − 21 ° C ( − 6 ° F ) . Calgary won the game , 4 – 0 , on the strength of Bourque 's two goals , including the 100th of his career . Kiprusoff became the first goaltender in NHL history to record a shutout at an outdoor game , and his play remained strong following the Heritage Classic , as he shut the Blues out in back @-@ to @-@ back games on February 27 and March 1 . He then became the first goaltender in 25 years to stop two penalty shots in one game to lead the Flames to a 4 – 3 win over the Blue Jackets on March 4 as the Flames moved into fifth place in the West . Two nights later , Iginla scored his 30th goal of the season on a penalty shot against Pekka Rinne of the Nashville Predators . In doing so , he became the 10th player in NHL history to score at least 30 goals in ten consecutive seasons . Jay Bouwmeester , the NHL 's active " ironman " leader , broke Karlis Skrastins ' League record for consecutive games played by a defenceman when he appeared in his 496th consecutive game on March 15 against the Phoenix Coyotes . Bouwmeester last missed a game in the 2003 – 04 season when he suffered a broken foot . He remained 400 games behind Garry Unger 's overall record of 914 consecutive games played . A period of struggle through the middle part of March saw the Flames drop back out of a playoff spot . A 5 – 4 shootout victory over the Oilers on March 26 represented only their second win in eight games . While they ended that night just one point behind the eighth place Blackhawks , Chicago had played three fewer games at that point . A controversial loss to the Ducks on March 30 left Calgary three points behind Chicago with four games to play . The Flames had an apparent tying goal disallowed after Anaheim 's Ryan Getzlaf appeared to pull the puck out of the net in a game the Ducks went on to win 4 – 2 . The Flames gained a boost when it was announced that injured forward Daymond Langkow had been cleared to return to action on April 1 against the Blues . It was Langkow 's first game in over a year after suffering cracked vertibrae in his neck late in the 2009 – 10 season . Langkow recorded an assist in that game , a 3 – 2 victory . Iginla was involved in all three goals for Calgary ; his second goal of the night , and game winner , was the 1,000th point of his NHL career . = = Post @-@ season = = Though the Flames won their third consecutive game in April with a 6 – 1 victory over Edmonton , victories the same night by the Ducks and Blackhawks officially eliminated Calgary from playoff contention . Individually , Iginla recorded his 12th career hat trick to reach the 40 goal mark for the fourth time in his career while Kiprusoff tied Mike Vernon 's franchise record of 262 wins . The Flames ended their season with an overtime loss to the Canucks . Though they ended the year second in the Northwest Division , the Flames finished tenth in the Western Conference , three points behind the eighth place Blackhawks . Several coaches were released by the organization at the conclusion of the season . Goaltender Coach Jamie McLennan and Video Coach Rob Cookson were the first to be let go . McLennan had joined the coaching staff in 2009 after retiring as a player , while Cookson had been a member of the Flames ' staff for nine years . Assistant Ryan McGill was later relieved of his position , while assistant Dave Lowry was the only member of Brent Sutter 's staff who was retained by the Flames . While several players were invited to participate in the 2011 IIHF World Championship , Jarome Iginla , Jay Bouwmeester , Mark Giordano , Curtis Glencross and Alex Tanguay all turned down invitations to play for Team Canada for various reasons . Mikael Backlund and prospect Tim Erixon both played for Sweden . The pair won silver medals after the Swedes were defeated by Finland in the championship final . = = Schedule and results = = = = = Pre @-@ season = = = = = = Regular season = = = = = Player statistics = = = = = Skaters = = = Note : GP

= Games played ; G = Goals ; A

= Assists ; Pts = Points ; + / −

= Plus / Minus ; PIM = Penalty Minutes = = = Goaltenders = = = Note : GP

= Games Played ; TOI = Time On Ice ( minutes ) ; W

= Wins ; L = Losses ; OT

= Overtime Losses ; GA = Goals Against ; GAA = Goals Against Average ; SA = Shots Against ; SV

= Saves ; Sv % = Save Percentage ; SO = Shutouts † Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Flames . Stats reflect time with the Flames only . ‡ Traded mid @-@ season Bold / italics denotes franchise record = = Awards and honours = = The NHL announced on June 22 , 2010 , that late owner Doc Seaman had been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in the builder 's category . Seaman was one of the original owners who brought the team to the city , played a key role in the construction of the Olympic Saddledome and in bringing the 1988 Winter Olympics to Calgary . Several players reached major games played milestones in October . Rookie defenceman T. J. Brodie and goaltender Henrik Karlsson both played their first NHL games , while Karlsson earned his first win at the same time . Meanwhile , veteran defencemen Robyn Regehr and Cory Sarich each played their 800th games . Thirty @-@ nine @-@ year @-@ old Craig Conroy became the second @-@ oldest player in NHL history to play 1 @,@ 000 games on October 28 . The talkative forward began his NHL career in 1995 with the Montreal Canadiens and after playing with the St. Louis Blues for several seasons , was acquired by Calgary in 2001 in a trade that was initially unpopular in Calgary . Conroy has since become one of the Flames ' most popular players . He played only nine more games before announcing his retirement as a player to join the Flames ' front office as an assistant to General Manager Jay Feaster . Daymond Langkow was named a finalist for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , awarded to the player who " best exemplifies the qualities of perseverance , sportsmanship and dedication to hockey . " He was nominated after making his return to the Flames lineup one year after a slapshot to the neck left him with broken vertebrae . Ray Emery of the Anaheim Ducks and Ian Laperriere of the Philadelphia Flyers were also named finalists for the award . = = = Awards = = = = = = Milestones = = = = = Transactions = = Two former Flames were brought back into the fold on the first day of the free agent signing period . Calgary first signed Alex Tanguay to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 7 million contract and then generated considerable debate by signing Olli Jokinen to a two @-@ year , $ 6 million deal . The re @-@ acquisition of Jokinen was especially surprising to fans and media alike , as the centre was shipped to the New York Rangers in a controversial trade only four months previous after a disappointing 2009 – 10 season in Calgary . The signing was sharply criticized by local and national media , though reaction amongst fans was mixed as polls suggested only a minority opposed the moves . = = = Trades = = = = = = Additions and subtractions = = = = = Draft picks = = The Flames entered the 2010 NHL Entry Draft without a selection in the first two rounds . They would have picked 13th overall , however that pick was traded to the Phoenix Coyotes as part of a 2009 trade for Olli Jokinen . Their second round pick went to the Chicago Blackhawks as part of a 2008 deal in which Calgary acquired Rene Bourque . The Flames ' first selection was early in the third round , a pick acquired from the Columbus Blue Jackets in exchange for Anton Stralman . They selected Max Reinhart with that pick . His father Paul was also a former Flames draft pick . Calgary made one trade at the draft , sending their sixth round pick ( 163rd overall ) to the Sharks in exchange for goaltender Henrik Karlsson . Statistics are updated to the end of the 2014 – 15 NHL season . † denotes player was on an NHL roster in 2014 – 15 . = = Abbotsford Heat = = For the second year , the Flames ' top affiliate was the Abbotsford Heat of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . The Heat finished the 2010 – 11 AHL season with a 38 – 32 – 4 – 6 record , fourth in the North Division , but failed to qualify for the Calder Cup playoffs . The Heat struggled offensively for much of the season ; Matt Keith was the team 's leading scorer at just 35 points , while T. J. Brodie and Jon Rheault had 34 points each . Brodie , a rookie , was the team 's lone representative at the 2011 AHL All @-@ Star Game . Leland Irving established himself as the team 's top goaltender early in the year . His 30 wins was second in the AHL , and he led the league in shutouts with eight . The uncertainty surrounding the NHL 's Phoenix Coyotes and a possible relocation to Winnipeg resulted in speculation that the Heat would also be relocating . Vancouver radio station CKNW reported that if the Coyotes relocated , the Manitoba Moose would move to Abbotsford , and the Heat to the nearby community of Chilliwack . Flames president Ken King refuted the argument , noting that the Heat were in only their second year of a ten @-@ year agreement with the City of Abbotsford .

= Owen Hunt = Owen Hunt , M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , which airs on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . The character was created by series ' producer Shonda Rhimes , and is portrayed by actor Kevin McKidd . He was introduced in season five as a U.S. Army trauma surgeon who served in war @-@ torn Iraq , and subsequently joins the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital to teach medicine as a surgical attending , head of trauma surgery , and eventual chief of surgery , sometimes with unorthodox methods . Originally contracted to appear for a multi @-@ episode story arc , he was upgraded to a series ' regular at the conclusion of his first appearance . The fictional character served as a love interest for surgical fellow Cristina Yang , and had an unstable personality when first introduced , suffering from PTSD . McKidd 's connection with fellow actress Sandra Oh ( Cristina Yang ) has been acclaimed amongst critics , with Matt Roush of TV Guide calling the " instant sparks " between McKidd and Oh " electrifying " . McKidd was nominated for two awards for his work on the show , winning one of them . Chris Monfette of IGN has praised the addition of " fresh , new characters " such as Owen Hunt . = = Storylines = = Before his regular appearances on the show , Owen Hunt was a United States Army surgeon , specializing in trauma surgery . The character makes a dramatic first appearance when he performs a tracheotomy on a man with a pen , winning the admiration of resident Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) . He is offered a job by former chief of surgery Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) , but declines , explaining that he has not completed his tour in Iraq . He later becomes the new head of trauma surgery , at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital , and manages to irk both Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) and Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , head of neurosurgery and plastic surgery , respectively , who view his treatment of some of the patients as crude . He is also rebuffed by resident Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) when he stabs a set of pigs and then orders the residents and interns to save their lives , in order to teach them medicine on " live tissue . " Hunt eventually embarks on a relationship with Yang , but it comes to a sudden close when his PTSD gets the best of him , and he unconsciously strangles her . Soon after the breakup , he begins therapy with the hospital psychiatrist , Dr. Wyatt . Some time later , a soldier visits the hospital for treatment , and his presence influences Owen to contemplate returning to the US Army . When he shares this with Cristina , she disagrees with his decision , stating that she doesn 't want him to die , and the two eventually rekindle their relationship . Owen brings in Teddy Altman ( Kim Raver ) , his best friend and colleague from when he was in the army , as the new head of cardiothoracic surgery . When it is revealed that Hunt and Altman may be potential lovers , Hunt and Yang 's relationship is challenged , and eventually concluded by Yang . During a hospital shooting , Owen is shot and injured , attracting the sympathy of Cristina , who subsequently restores their relationship . Due to the emotional reverberations of the shooting crisis , Owen and Cristina decide to wed one another shortly after their reconciliation , not wanting to risk separation . When Cristina discovers she is pregnant , Owen is displeased with her desire to abort the baby , and the two separate from each other . In the fallout of resident Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) ' s tampering with Derek Shepherd 's Alzheimer 's trial , Owen is promoted to Chief of Surgery after Webber steps down . After substantial thought , Owen reluctantly decides to accompany Cristina to the abortion , uniting the two . Owen 's friendship with Teddy ends when Owen lies to Teddy about her husband 's sudden death , due to Owen wanting her to finish a surgery she was currently performing and Teddy blaming Owen for her husband 's death . Feeling abandoned and disconcerted after an altercation with Cristina , Owen has a one @-@ night stand with a patient 's friend . Cristina consequently finds out , terminates their relationship , and their marriage is tested . After Cristina passed her medical boards , she reconciles with Owen , but reveals to him that she is leaving Seattle to go to Mayo Clinic . Teddy and Owen eventually became friends again . After learning that she has been offered a job at Med Com , Owen fires her assuring her that he will be okay . He also fires April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) because the hospital cannot afford to keep her due to her not being a Board certified . Months later , Hunt visits Kepner and rehires her as he realized he made a mistake . In season 9 Cristina and Owen 's marriage is again very strained . Cristina is working at Mayo Clinic and Owen in Seattle but she returns . Owen asks for a divorce . He later shows that he is still in love with her and only asked for a divorce so Cristina and the others involved in the plane crash get the money . Cristina and Owen reconcile in episode 9 before Bailey 's wedding . In season 10 , Cristina decides to accept a job to run a state of the art clinic in Switzerland . Owen supports her decision as he realizes no good could come from him asking her to stay , but requests her not to leave him until she has to leave him for good , following which , they both spend two weeks leading to her permanent departure together . While saying her farewell to her colleagues of the last seven years , there is a possible act of terrorism in Seattle , which later turns out to be just a gas main explosion . Cristina has a quick but emotional goodbye hug with Derek , Bailey , and Webber , leaves her shares of the hospital to Alex , and dances it out with Meredith one last time to an old favorite song . Owen , however , is busy saving a patient in the O.R. , so they share a silent goodbye through the gallery 's glass . In Season 11 , Owen develops a relationship with Amelia Shepherd . This is off and on throughout Season 11 and 12 until the end of Season 12 where he and Amelia get married . = = Development = = = = = Casting and creation = = = Shonda Rhimes , series ' creator , says that the character was envisioned " an old @-@ fashioned tortured hero " and likens him to Heathcliff . Originally set to appear in a multi @-@ episode story arc , Kevin McKidd 's contract was extended , securing him a slot as a series ' regular of Grey 's Anatomy . In July 2008 , Entertainment Weekly announced the possibility of McKidd becoming a series ' regular , with this possibility eventually being confirmed by People . When asked of how he got involved with the show , McKidd offered the insight : McKidd told BuddyTV , " It 's been really great . I was nervous when I started because every job I 've ever done before this , I have been in the job right from day one when everybody 's new and getting to know each other . So I was nervous because I had never done this before . And I feel really grateful to the Grey 's cast and crew and everyone there , really , because they 've been so nice to me and gracious and accepting of me joining the show . The transition was much easier than I thought it might be , which I 'm very grateful for . " McKidd has told People that he thinks Grey 's Anatomy is a great show and he feels lucky to be on it . Shonda Rhimes , the series ' creator , said of his addition , " I am excited to have Kevin McKidd joining us for the season , he 's been a delight to collaborate with and brings incredible passion , talent and creativity to his work . Plus , he ’ s already got the ‘ Mc ’ built into his name so we had to keep him . " = = = Characterization = = = The American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) characterized Hunt as " confident " , " innovative " , " intelligent " , while he also can be " aggressive " , " brazen " , " presumptuous " , " hasty and rash " . McKidd said of his character : " [ ... ] He 's not an easy character to connect to , I think . There 's some darkness to him and there 's some danger to him that I think is really interesting and exciting to play . [ ... ] " Additionally , McKidd describes Hunt as " very instinctive , and follows his gut , and he 's very impulsive , and very immediate . He immediately assesses a situation . And he 's very honest , sometimes painfully honest , with himself and with others . He wants to make himself better . He wants to improve himself as a person . He 's a decent guy , a sort of a guy I 'd like to go out and have a beer with . " McKidd 's unorthodox teaching methods have been the subject of controversy . McKidd said of this : " You know , I think , at the end of the day , [ Owen ] ' s basically a good man who has some pretty extreme teaching techniques that he learned in the army . And all these things that are in the show are actually the way trauma surgeons are taught . But I think probably beyond that , he very much just calls a spade a spade and looks at each scenario . He 's not trying to be difficult . He just looks at each scenario and each case and each patient and knows what is needed and when to cut to the chase , and doesn 't want to mess about with the periphery of it . And sometimes that gets him into trouble , and sometimes that is for the best . So , it 'd be interesting and kind of exciting to see where he goes . " The look of Owen has been described as hardcore and the antithesis of the other males on the show . McKidd says it 's not just the look of Owen , but the fact that in his profession , he is dealing with life and death everyday . The one distinction he finds between his character and the others is that Owen does not care what other people think of him . When McKidd returned from his first appearance , his character appeared to have been changed . McKidd told TV Guide : " Yes , that was who he really is in the premiere , but now we 're seeing what can happen to a good man , a good soldier and good surgeon [ because of war ] . " The character of Owen Hunt had an almost instant attraction to Cristina Yang since his first appearance at Seattle Grace , illustrated by the passionate kiss they share soon after they meet . Owen 's story and connection with fellow character Cristina has been a topic of discussion . McKidd said : " Between him [ Owen ] and her [ Cristina ] , it ’ s going to get really complex and kind of tense and explosive . " Owen and Cristina have experienced roadblocks in their fictional relationship , and continue to . McKidd offered this insight on his character 's relationship with Cristina : McKidd has referred to his character and the character of Cristina Yang as " soulmates . " Speaking of Owen 's PTSD storyline , McKidd stated : " What 's exciting about telling this story with this character is that it 's quite brave of ABC and Shonda [ Rhimes ] , on a prime @-@ time network TV show , to address a tough subject , and one that people don 't necessarily want to hear about . But so far the writing room is handling it beautifully . They 're not banging people over the head with it but exploring it in a sensitive and interesting way . " Owen and Cristina have struggled with their fictional relationship in season eight , leading to Owen having a sexual affair . Directly before the episode involving the affair aired , McKidd said to Entertainment Weekly : " The thing about Owen is that he tries to do things perfectly , and obviously , he messes up as the chief because you have to make these odd black @-@ and @-@ white decisions and sometimes you make the wrong decision . There ’ s a lot of stress in his life at the moment , so he ’ s trying not to let that affect his efficiency as chief . " Although the characters ' marriage is tested , McKidd reported to The Hollywood Reporter : " I think they 're meant for each other . I hold out faith in Cristina and Owen , even though they go to the darkest places out of all the couples on the show . It 's going to get worse but it 's going to get better soon . " = = Reception = = The character has received generally positive feedback from television critics . Weeks after Hunt 's first appearance on the show , Matt Roush of TV Guide commented that " Hunt / McKidd is the most encouraging thing to happen to Grey 's Anatomy in quite a while . " He also added : " The instant sparks between him [ Hunt ] and Yang were electrifying . " On the other hand , Robert Rorke of the New York Post states that McKidd was brought in as Hunt to " boost the sagging fortunes " of the show 's ratings . Kelley L. Carter of USA Today , describes Hunt as " hardcore " and " the antithesis of the other males on the show . " Chris Monfette of IGN said that the fifth season of Grey 's Anatomy was an improvement on the previous two seasons , attributing this in part to the introduction of " fresh , new characters " , Owen and Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) . He also referred to McKidd as " the season [ five ] ' s best , most effective addition " , adding : Margaret Lyons of New York Magazine judged Hunt " too sad " for the first part of the ninth season . In 2010 , Kevin McKidd was nominated for the Prism Award for Best Performance in a Drama Series ' Multi @-@ Episode Storyline , and won the award . In 2011 , McKidd was nominated for the Prism Award for Best Performance in a Drama Series , for his work on Grey 's Anatomy . McKidd was nominated , along with the rest of the Grey 's Anatomy cast , for Best Drama Series at the 21st GLAAD Media Awards , in 2010 . Also in 2010 , McKidd , and the rest of the cast , were nominated for Outstanding Drama Series , at the NAACP Image Awards . The same nomination was received at the 2011 NAACP Image Awards , with the cast winning the award . At the 43rd NAACP Image Awards , in 2012 , McKidd and the cast were nominated yet again for Outstanding Drama Series .

= James Franck = James Franck ( 26 August 1882 – 21 May 1964 ) was a German physicist who won the 1925 Nobel Prize for Physics with Gustav Hertz " for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom " . He completed his doctorate in 1906 and his habilitation in 1911 at the Frederick William University in Berlin , where he lectured and taught until 1918 , having reached the position of professor extraordinarius . He served as a volunteer in the German Army during World War I. He was seriously injured in 1917 in a gas attack and was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class . Franck became the Head of the Physics Division of the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft for Physical Chemistry . In 1920 , Franck became professor ordinarius of experimental physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at the University of Göttingen . While there he worked on quantum physics with Max Born , who was Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics . His work included the Franck – Hertz experiment , an important confirmation of the Bohr model of the atom . He promoted the careers of women in physics , notably Lise Meitner , Hertha Sponer and Hilde Levi . After the NSDAP came to power in Germany in 1933 , Franck resigned his post in protest against the dismissal of fellow academics . He assisted Frederick Lindemann in helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas , before he left Germany in November 1933 . After a year at the Niels Bohr Institute in Denmark , he moved to the United States , where he worked at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore and then the University of Chicago . During this period he became interested in photosynthesis . Franck participated in the Manhattan Project during World War II as Director of the Chemistry Division of the Metallurgical Laboratory . He was also the chairman of the Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb , which is best known for the compilation of the Franck Report , which recommended that the atomic bombs not be used on the Japanese cities without warning . = = Early life = = James Franck was born in Hamburg , Germany , on 26 August 1882 , the second child and first son of Jacob Franck , a banker , and his wife Rebecca née Nachum Drucker . He had an older sister , Paula , and a younger brother , Robert Bernard . His father was a devout and religious man , while his mother came from a family of rabbis . Franck attended primary school in Hamburg . Starting in 1891 he attended the Wilhelm @-@ Gymnasium , which was then a boys @-@ only school . Hamburg had no university then , so prospective students had to attend one of the 22 universities elsewhere in Germany . Intending to study law and economics , Franck entered the University of Heidelberg in 1901 , as it had a renowned law school . He attended lectures on law , but was far more interested in those on science . While there , he met Max Born , who would become a lifelong friend . With Born 's help , he was able to persuade his parents to allow him to switch to studying physics and chemistry . Franck attended mathematics lectures by Leo Königsberger and Georg Cantor , but Heidelberg was not strong on the physical sciences , so he decided to go to the Frederick William University in Berlin . At Berlin , Franck attended lectures by Max Planck and Emil Warburg . On 28 July 1904 he saved a pair of children from drowning in the Spree River . For his Doctor of Philosophy ( Dir . Phil . ) under Warburg 's supervision , Warburg suggested that he study corona discharges . Franck found this topic too complex , so he changed the focus of his thesis . Entitled Über der Beweglichkeit Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung ( " On the Mobility of Ions " ) , it would subsequently be published in the Annalen der Physik . With his thesis completed , Franck had to perform his deferred military service . He was called up on 1 October 1906 and joined the 1st Telegraph Battalion . He suffered a minor horse riding accident in December and was discharged as unfit for duty . He took up an assistantship at the Physikalische Verein in Frankfurt in 1907 , but did not enjoy it , and soon returned to Frederick William University . At a concert Franck met Ingrid Josephson , a Swedish pianist . They were married in a Swedish ceremony in Göteborg on 23 December 1907 . They had two daughters , Dagmar ( Daggie ) , who was born in 1909 , and Elisabeth ( Lisa ) , who was born in 1912 . To pursue an academic career in Germany , having a doctorate was not enough ; one needed a venia legendi , or habilitation . This could be achieved with either another major thesis or by producing a substantial body of published work . Franck chose the latter route . There were many unsolved problems in physics at the time , and by 1914 he had published 34 articles . He was the sole author of some , but generally preferred working in collaboration with Eva von Bahr , Lise Meitner , Robert Pohl , Peter Pringsheim , Robert W. Wood , Arthur Wehnelt or Wilhelm Westphal . His most fruitful collaboration was with Gustav Hertz , with whom he wrote 19 articles . He received his habilitation on 20 May 1911 . = = Franck – Hertz experiment = = In 1914 , Franck teamed up with Hertz to perform an experiment to investigate fluorescence . They designed a vacuum tube for studying energetic electrons that flew through a thin vapour of mercury atoms . They discovered that when an electron collided with a mercury atom it could lose only a specific quantity ( 4 @.@ 9 electron volts ) of its kinetic energy before flying away . A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision , but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy . Slower electrons just bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy . These experimental results provided confirmation of Albert Einstein 's photoelectric effect and Planck 's relation ( E = fh ) linking energy ( E ) and frequency ( f ) arising from quantisation of energy with Planck 's constant ( h ) . But they also provided evidence supporting the model of the atom that had been proposed the previous year by Niels Bohr . Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atom 's " quantum energy levels " . Before a collision , an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level . After the collision , the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4 @.@ 9 electron volts ( eV ) more energy . This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom . There were no intermediate levels or possibilities . In a second paper presented in May 1914 , Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions . They showed that the wavelength of this ultraviolet light corresponded exactly to the 4 @.@ 9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost . The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr . Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918 . In it , they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr 's theory , which they now acknowledged . In his Nobel lecture , Franck admitted that it was " completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental significance of Bohr ’ s theory , so much so , that we never even mentioned it once " . On 10 December 1926 , Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925 Nobel Prize in Physics " for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom . " . = = World War I = = Franck enlisted in the German Army soon after the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 . In December he was sent to the Picardy sector of the Western Front . He became a deputy officer ( offizierstellvertreter ) , and then a lieutenant ( leutnant ) in 1915 . He was awarded the Iron Cross , Second Class , on 30 March 1915 , and the city of Hamburg awarded him the Hanseatic Cross on 11 January 1916 . While in hospital with pleurisy , he co @-@ wrote yet another scientific paper with Hertz , and he was appointed an assistant professor in his absence by Frederick William University on 19 September 1916 . Sent to the Russian front , he came down with dysentery . He returned to Berlin , where he joined Hertz , Westphal , Hans Geiger , Otto Hahn and others at Fritz Haber 's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry , working on the development of gas masks . He was awarded the Iron Cross , First Class , on 23 February 1918 . He was discharged from the Army on 25 November 1918 , soon after the war ended . With the war over , Haber 's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute now returned to research , and Haber offered Franck a job . His new post came with more pay , but was not a tenured position . It did however allow Franck to pursue his research as he wished . Working with new , younger collaborators such as Walter Grotrian , Paul Knipping , Thea Krüger , Fritz Reiche and Hertha Sponer , his first papers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute examined atomic electrons in their excited state , results that would later prove important in the development of the laser . They coined the term " metastable " for atoms spending an extended time in a state other than that of least energy . When Niels Bohr visited Berlin in 1920 , Meitner and Franck arranged for him to come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute to talk with the younger staff without the presence of the bonzen ( " bigwigs " ) . = = Göttingen = = In 1920 , the University of Göttingen offered Max Born its chair of theoretical physics , which had recently been vacated by Peter Debye . Göttingen was an important centre for mathematics , thanks to David Hilbert , Felix Klein , Hermann Minkowski and Carl Runge , but not so much for physics . This would change . As part of his price for coming to Göttingen , Born wanted Franck to head experimental physics there . On 15 November 1920 , Franck became Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics , a fully tenured professor ordinarius . He was allowed two assistants , so he brought Hertha Sponer with him from Berlin to fill one of the positions . Pohl , a gifted teacher , headed the First Institute , and handled the lectures . Franck refurbished the laboratory with the latest equipment using funds from his own pocket . Under Born and Franck , Göttingen was one of the world 's great centres for physics between 1920 and 1933 . Although they published only three papers together , Born and Franck discussed every one of their papers with each other . Gaining admittance to Franck 's laboratory became highly competitive . His doctoral students included Hans Kopfermann , Arthur R. von Hippel , Wilhelm Hanle , Fritz Houtermans , Heinrich Kuhn , Werner Kroebel , Walter Lochte @-@ Holtgreven and Heinz Maier @-@ Leibnitz . In supervising doctoral candidates , Franck had to ensure that thesis topics were well @-@ defined , and would teach the candidate how to conduct original research , while still staying within the limits of the candidate 's ability , the laboratory 's equipment and the institute 's budget . Under his direction , research was carried out into the structure of atoms and molecules . In his own research , Franck developed what became known as the Franck @-@ Condon principle , a rule in spectroscopy and quantum chemistry that explains the intensity of vibronic transitions , simultaneous changes in electronic and vibrational energy levels of a molecule due to the absorption or emission of a photon of the appropriate energy . The principle states that during an electronic transition , a change from one vibrational energy level to another will be more likely to happen if the two vibrational wave functions overlap more significantly . The principle has since been applied to a wide variety of related phenomena . = = Exile = = This period came to an end when the Nazi Party won power in Germany in an election on 2 March 1933 . The following month it enacted the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , which provided for the retirement or dismissal of all Jewish civil servants , along with political opponents of the government . As a veteran of the First World War , Franck was exempt , but he submitted his resignation anyway on 17 April 1933 . He once commented that science was his God and nature was his religion . He did not require his daughters to attend religious instruction classes at school , and even let them have a decorated tree at Christmas ; but he was proud of his Jewish heritage all the same . He was the first academic to resign in protest over the law . Newspapers around the world reported it , but no government or university protested . Franck assisted Frederick Lindemann in helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas , before he left Germany in November 1933 . After a brief visit to the United States , where he measured the absorption of light in heavy water with Wood at Johns Hopkins University , he took up a position at the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen . He needed a new collaborator , so he took on Hilde Levi , whose recent thesis had impressed him . His original intention was to continue his research into the fluorescence of vapours and liquids , but under Bohr 's influence they began to take an interest in biological aspects of these reactions , particularly photosynthesis , the process by which plants use light to convert carbon dioxide and water into more organic compounds . Biological processes turned out to be far more complicated than simple reactions in atoms and molecules . He co @-@ authored two papers with Levi on the subject , which he would return to over the following years . Franck found a position at the Polytekniske Læreanstalt in Copenhagen for Arthur von Hippel , who was now his son in law , having married his daughter Dagmar . He decided to provide financial security for his children by dividing his Nobel Prize money between them . The gold medal itself was entrusted to Niels Bohr for safekeeping . When Germany invaded Denmark on 9 April 1940 , the Hungarian chemist George de Hevesy dissolved the gold medal , along with that of Max von Laue in aqua regia to prevent the Germans from taking them . He placed the resulting solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute . After the war , he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid . The Nobel Society then recast the Nobel Prize medals . In 1935 , Franck moved to the United States , where he had accepted a professorship at Johns Hopkins University . The laboratory there was poorly equipped compared to the one in Göttingen , but he received $ 10 @,@ 000 for equipment from the Rockefeller Foundation . A more intractable problem was that the university had no money to hire skilled staff . Franck was concerned about his family members remaining in Germany , and needed money to help them emigrate . He therefore accepted an offer from the University of Chicago , where his work on photosynthesis had attracted interest , in 1938 . Franck 's first paper there , co @-@ authored with Edward Teller , was on photochemical processes in crystals . Hans Gaffron became his collaborator . They were joined by Pringsheim , who escaped from Belgium after the German invasion . Franck arranged a position for Pringsheim at his laboratory . Both his daughters and their families moved to the United States , and he was also able to bring out his elderly mother and aunt . He became a naturalised United States citizen on 21 July 1941 , so he was not an enemy alien when the United States declared war on Germany on 11 December 1941 . His daughters still were , though , so they were restricted from travelling , and could not take care of their mother when she fell ill and died on 10 January 1942 , although they were permitted to attend her funeral . In February 1942 , Arthur H. Compton established its Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago . As part of the Manhattan Project , its mission was to build nuclear reactors to create plutonium that would be used in atomic bombs . The Metallurgical Laboratory 's Chemistry Division was initially headed by Frank Spedding , but he preferred hands on work to administration . Compton then turned to Franck , with some trepidation owing to his German background . Compton later wrote : How Franck welcomed an invitation to join our project ! It was a vote of confidence that far exceeded his hopes , and it gave him a chance to do his part for the cause of freedom . " It 's not the German people I 'm fighting " , he explained . " It 's the Nazis . They have a stranglehold over Germany . The German people are helpless until we can break the strength of their Nazi masters . " The chemists welcomed Franck as an elder scientific statesman whose guidance they were glad to follow . In addition to heading the Chemistry Division , Franck was also the chairman of the Metallurgical Laboratory 's Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb , which consisted of himself and Donald J. Hughes , J. J. Nickson , Eugene Rabinowitch , Glenn T. Seaborg , J. C. Stearns and Leó Szilárd . In 1945 , Franck warned Henry A. Wallace of their fears that " mankind has learned to unleash atomic power without being ethically and politically prepared to use it wisely . " The committee compiled what became known as the Franck Report . Finished on 11 June 1945 , it recommended that the atomic bombs not be used on the Japanese cities without warning . In any event , the Interim Committee decided otherwise . = = Later life = = Franck married Sponer in a civil ceremony on 29 June 1946 . In his post @-@ war research , he continued to tackle the problem of explaining the mechanism of photosynthesis . Meitner saw no break between his early and later work . She recalled that Franck enjoyed talking about his problems , not so much to explain them to others as to satisfy his own mind . Once a problem had aroused his interest he was completely captivated , indeed obsessed by it . Common sense and straight logic were his main tools , together with simple apparatus . His research followed an almost straight line , from his early studies of ion mobilities to his last work on photosynthesis ; it was always the energy exchange between atoms or molecules that fascinated him . In addition to the Nobel Prize . Franck was awarded the Max Planck Medal of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft in 1951 and the Rumford Medal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on photosynthesis in 1955 . He became an honorary citizen of Göttingen in 1953 , and was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society ( ForMemRS ) in 1964 . He died suddenly from a heart attack while visiting Göttingen on 21 May 1964 , and was buried in Chicago with his first wife . In 1967 , the University of Chicago named the James Franck Institute after him . A lunar crater has also been named in his honour . His papers are in the University of Chicago Library .

= Lord of Scoundrels = Lord of Scoundrels is a Regency romance novel by American author Loretta Chase . Published in 1995 by Avon Books , it is the third installment of her Débauchés series . Set in 1828 , the story follows the Marquess of Dain , a half @-@ English half @-@ Italian aristocrat known as " Lord Beelzebub " and the " Lord of Scoundrels " for his unscrupulous , immoral behavior . Hardened due to a difficult childhood , Dain meets his match in Jessica Trent , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old bluestocking more than capable of trading wits with him . Chase had a love for Italian culture , and decided that this background would provide ample motivation for Dain , being the product of his parents ' inability to understand each other 's cultures . As with many of her stories , Chase made her heroine a strong female , deciding to model Jessica after the type of women who lived a few generations previously and who had " a more practical , frank attitude toward sex " . Lord of Scoundrels is a retelling of the fairytale Beauty and the Beast , with the author stating that like the Beast , Dain is an outcast and misfit among his society . Lord of Scoundrels was positively received upon its release , and in 1996 it earned the RITA Award for " Best Short Historical " , a prize given annually by the Romance Writers of America . Also during that year , Lord of Scoundrels won the Romantic Times ' " Regency Historical Romance " award . Literary critics and romance readers have since described it as one of the best historical romances ever written , praising the novel for its wit and well @-@ developed characters . = = Plot summary = = Background In the story 's prologue , Sebastian Ballister is born in Devon to the 2nd Marquess of Dain and his Italian wife , Lucia Usignuolo . The Marquess is disgusted with the child , describing him as the " Devil 's spawn " and a " wizened olive thing with large black eyes , ill @-@ proportioned limbs , and a grossly oversize nose " . Eight years later , the tempestuous Lucia abandons her husband for her lover . Unloved by his father and told that his mother is an " evil , godless creature " , Sebastian is sent off to Eton where he is teased by his classmates over his appearance . The boy grows up learning to hide his feelings ; given no inheritance by his father , Sebastian acquires clever ways to make his fortune and uses money to unscrupulously get his way . Plot The story begins in 1828 , Paris . Sebastian , now the intelligent but immoral 3rd Marquess of Dain , meets his match in Miss Jessica Trent , who has arrived in the city to rescue her unintelligent , nearly penniless brother Bertie from Dain 's bad influence . Dain and Jessica are instantly attracted to the other , though each seeks to hide their feelings . Dain has developed a hard , sarcastic personality ; he is hostile to noblewomen , as he believes they care only for money . Jessica , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old beautiful , strong @-@ willed bluestocking , has refused dozens of marriage proposals over the years and wishes to maintain her independence . The two exchange wits ; Jessica requests that Dain send her brother back to England in exchange for a valuable religious icon she will sell him , while Dain wants the icon or else he will destroy her reputation and ruin her brother . They reach an impasse , and while her reputation remains intact , Dain spends the week personally overseeing Bertie 's disintegration from excessive drinking and gambling . Jessica angrily confronts him and the two unexpectedly kiss . Later , at a party they almost consummate their relationship before being discovered by other party @-@ goers . Dain coldly departs , assuming Jessica invited the others to force him to honorably marry her , leaving her angry that he would leave her reputation in tatters so casually . Jessica sues him for the loss of her reputation . To her surprise , Dain converts this proposition into a marriage proposal , and they are wedded in London several weeks later . En route to his estate in Devon , Dain assumes she is repulsed by his " gross blackamoor 's body " , when the opposite is true . Filled with self @-@ loathing over his appearance and personality , Dain initially avoids consummating their relationship despite Jessica 's efforts to seduce him . They eventually do , and Dain apologizes for what he realizes has been his difficult behavior . Later , they enter into a disagreement over his illegitimate son ; Dain despises the eight @-@ year @-@ old boy 's calculating mother and wants nothing to do with them , while Jessica sympathetically wants to rescue the boy from his poor living conditions . The boy , Dominick , is becoming ill @-@ behaved and reminds Dain self @-@ loathingly of himself at his age . Eventually , with Jessica 's prodding , Dain is persuaded to rescue the neglected boy from his mother 's clutches . While doing so , the Marquess comes to terms with his mother 's abandonment and realizes that Dominick is just as scared and lonely as he was as a boy . Dominick is invited to live at the Ballister estate , while the boy 's mother , to her pleasure , is given a large stipend and told to find her fortune in Paris . = = Background and development = = American author Loretta Chase began her writing career in 1987 by crafting traditional novels in the Regency romance literary subgenre ; Lord of Scoundrels , published in 1995 , was her ninth such novel released . It was the third installment of her Débauchés ( also known as Scoundrels ) series , following The Lion 's Daughter ( 1992 ) and Captives of the Night ( 1994 ) . As such , some of the characters who feature in Lord of Scoundrels , such as the Comte d 'Esmond and Francis Beaumont , also appear in previous Chase works . In 2007 , Chase said Lord of Scoundrels was her only book " that came to me as a gift from the writing gods . Every other book is a struggle , some bloodier than others . This book was pure fun from start to finish " . Possessing a love for Italian culture , Chase decided to make her male protagonist , Dain , a " mongrel English aristocrat " and half @-@ Italian . By giving Dain Italian ancestry through his mother , Chase was able to develop his character and justify his motivations . She explains , " Having Dain be half @-@ Italian fit so many aspects of his story : his background as well as his behavior , which does get operatic at times " . Chase adds that Dain 's difficult childhood stemmed from his parents ' inability to accept each other 's cultures , which then " warps him and makes him a misfit . In a loving household , he would have grown up with a better self @-@ image , and would have dealt with bullying at school in a different way , and thus would have grown up into someone altogether different from the man Jessica meets in that antique shop " . When writing the novel , Chase knew that her female protagonist had to be strong enough to equal Dain 's forceful personality . Chase admits that because the novel is set in the period leading up to the Victorian era , a woman like Jessica could not have dealt with Dain , writing that " if Jessica were like what we assume to be the typical young lady of her time , she could never handle Dain , and he ’ d think her too boring to live " . Chase instead modeled Jessica after the type of women who lived a few generations previously and who had " a more practical , frank attitude toward sex " . Wishing to depict Jessica as the " Extreme Female " , Chase emphasizes her clothing and gives Dain " a chance to exercise his caustic wit " , as he deems the latest fashions to be ridiculous . Upon their first meeting he silently observes that Jessica is wearing " a blue overgarment of some sort and one of the hideously overdecorated bonnets currently in fashion " . Jessica differs from many other Chase heroines by being interested in fashion ; the author felt that " the way they dress , to a great extent , tells us who they are , in the same way that other heroines ’ simpler or less fashionable attire expresses something about them " . = = Analysis = = Lord of Scoundrels is typically classified as a Regency romance novel , though its story is set in the post @-@ Regency era of 1828 . It features a strong female heroine , a characteristic that Chase has become known for including in her romances . The author explains that " for most of history , and in too many cases today , women are considered ( and too often consider themselves ) lesser beings who do not matter . In my books , the women are not lesser , and they do matter . In other words , I make the world the way I think it should be " . Romantic fiction scholars have identified Jessica Trent as a " feminist heroine " with whom the " alpha male hero " has met his match . Chase inverts many qualities typical of the archetypical romantic hero and heroine . Near the end of the story , Jessica is the one who initiates consummation of their marriage , by seducing Dain . Afterwards , Jessica promptly falls asleep , causing her husband to seethe " that was what he was supposed to do " . In her entry for The Bloomsbury Introduction to Popular Fiction , Maryan Wherry posits that Lord of Scoundrels represents a modern retelling of the classic fairytale Beauty and the Beast , suggesting Chase 's story is a morality tale of " restoring humanity " that is directed at " all levels of society " ( rather than at the lower classes as classic fairytales were intended ) . Chase makes direct reference to this fairytale in the novel , when Dain silently compares his relationship with Jessica to that of Beauty and the Beast . In a 2007 interview , the author described the novel as her " Beauty and the Beast story " , stating that like the Beast , Dain is an outcast and misfit among the novel 's society . Chase describes Dain as " truly awful : rude , overbearing , and intimidating ... He consciously uses his monstrousness in the same way he uses his vast wealth and his social position : to control his world and protect himself . It 's sad , in a way , because he ’ s isolated , like the Beast of the fairy tale trapped in his castle . But Dain is not pitiful by any means : He ’ s smart , cynical , and sarcastic , with a sharp eye for the ridiculous . He has a sense of humor and is adept with clever comebacks and putdowns " . Jessica represents the Beauty of the story , someone who " enters the Beast ’ s lair of her own accord " as his equal " no matter how awful " he acts . Leading up to the couple 's marriage , Dain cynically makes many assurances that he will provide for Jessica financially . At one point , Jessica brings a defamation lawsuit against Dain before they agree to convert it into a prenuptial agreement , leading English professor Jayashree Kamblé to liken their relationship to " a take @-@ over bid " . Kamblé has studied the presence of capitalism and modern economics on storylines in the contemporary romance genre . To her , while Lord of Scoundrels is a Regency romance novel and thus less apt to depict the types of economic pairings seen in many contemporary romances , Kamblé argues that Dain 's repeated monetary promises still contain " echoes of the kind of wealth , monetary security , and financial reward that the heroes of Harlequin Mills and Boon promise as husbands " . The couple is physically attracted to each other , while financial considerations also play a factor . = = Release and reception = = Lord of Scoundrels was released in January 1995 by Avon Books , the same publisher that had released Chase 's last two novels . According to Chase 's website , the novel has been published in over fourteen languages . A Spanish translation was released in 2006 , while a Japanese translation was released in 2008 . Its e @-@ book edition , published by HarperCollins , landed on The New York Times Best Seller list in August 2011 . In 1996 , the novel earned the RITA Award for " Best Short Historical " , a prize given annually by the Romance Writers of America . It also won the 1996 " Regency Historical Romance " award , granted by the Romantic Times . In a review by that publication , M. Helfer praised Chase for being " an exquisite storyteller who creates sharply original characters and moves them in new and exciting ways . One of the true treasures of the genre , she epitomizes the essence of excellence in every word she writes " . Soon after its release , the book also won accolades from other award bodies , including " Best Historical Single Title Romance " by Romance Readers Anonymous and " Best Historical Romance " by Reader 's Voice . In 2014 , romance novelist Madeline Hunter recalled Lord of Scoundrels being " the ' must read ' of the season " when it was published in 1995 , and described it as " witty , heartfelt , with a flawed hero and an indomitable heroine , [ and with ] pacing so perfect a reader could only hold on for the ride . It was no surprise that a book that pushed so many peoples ' happy buttons ended up winning a RITA that year . I think there would have been a revolt if it had not " . The novel 's popularity has endured and it is still considered one of the best historical romances ever published . The website " All about Romance " voted it in first place for four years , and it was also deemed the " Best All @-@ Time Historical Romance " by Romance Readers Anonymous for four years . In a 2010 list of " must @-@ reads in romance " for Kirkus Reviews , Sarah Wendell deemed it her favorite historical romance and believed her successful recommendation to a male professor proved its worth . Author Anne Browning Walker , in a similar list of " Smart Romance Books " for Publishers Weekly , included Lord of Scoundrels and observed Chase 's penchant for " creating smart , thoughtful , witty , and well @-@ meaning heroines " . Also writing for Publishers Weekly , author Beverly Jenkins called Lord of Scoundrels an example of " Chase at the top of her game " and opined that its " characters are full @-@ bodied and evenly matched . The passion is to die for , and every romance reader I know has this book on their keeper shelf " . Elissa Petruzzi of RT Book Reviews wrote in 2014 , " Some consider Loretta Chase ’ s epic tale to be the best Regency ever written " . Novelist Eloisa James recommended Lord of Scoundrels for readers interested in trying historical romance for the first time , saying the novel is " just brilliant , hysterically funny , sexy dialogue " . Chase herself has expressed surprise at the novel 's enduring popularity , writing that she " saw no indication it would become such a reader favorite " . On January 23 , 2015 , fans discussed their views and favorite parts of the novel on Twitter , using the hashtag # LOSlove , and Avon Books randomly gave away signed copies to those participating .

= New York State Route 324 = New York State Route 324 ( NY 324 ) is an east – west state highway located in the western portion of New York in the United States . Officially , NY 324 begins at NY 384 in Niagara Falls and overlaps Interstate 190 ( I @-@ 190 , the Niagara Section of the New York State Thruway ) south to Grand Island , where it separates from I @-@ 190 and continues southward as Grand Island Boulevard . As signed , however , NY 324 begins at the southern end of the official overlap and is contained entirely within Erie County . At the southern edge of Grand Island , NY 324 joins I @-@ 190 to cross over to the mainland , where it runs due east across three towns before reaching its eastern end at a junction with NY 5 in the town of Clarence . NY 324 is known by two names along its routing : Grand Island Boulevard on Grand Island and Sheridan Drive in the northern suburbs of Buffalo . As the latter , the route serves as a major commercial strip for Tonawanda , Amherst , and Clarence . NY 324 , assigned c . 1933 , is one of two routes to occupy part of Sheridan Drive ; the other is New York State Route 325 , which follows the westernmost 1 @.@ 42 miles ( 2 @.@ 29 km ) of the street . NY 324 once extended northwest to downtown Niagara Falls ; however , it was truncated to its current western terminus c . 1962 . = = Route description = = According to the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) , NY 324 begins at NY 384 in eastern Niagara Falls . NY 324 heads south , overlapping with I @-@ 190 ( the Niagara Section of the New York State Thruway ) across the North Grand Island Bridge to Grand Island , where it leaves the expressway at exit 20 . However , as signed , NY 324 begins at the north end of Grand Island , where it splits off from the Interstate Highway as Grand Island Boulevard . South of exit 20 , the official and signed routings are identical . Maintenance of the route is split between NYSDOT , the New York State Thruway Authority ( NYSTA ) , and Erie County . All but the northernmost 0 @.@ 02 miles ( 0 @.@ 03 km ) of the portion of the route that overlaps with I @-@ 190 is maintained by NYSTA . The two county @-@ maintained sections extend from exit 20B to Grand Island Boulevard on Grand Island and from exit 15 to Grand Island Boulevard in Tonawanda , where NY 324 utilizes small portions of the county @-@ owned Long Road and Kenmore Avenue , respectively . The remainder of NY 324 is maintained by NYSDOT . From I @-@ 190 exit 20 , NY 324 runs in a more southeasterly direction , serving as the main commercial strip on Grand Island , before it overlaps I @-@ 190 in order to cross the Niagara River . It parts company with the Interstate Highway on the other side of the river at exit 15 , where it turns north to parallel I @-@ 190 on Kenmore Avenue . After 250 yards ( 229 m ) , it veers east onto Tonawanda 's portion of Grand Island Boulevard for 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to a junction with Sheridan Drive . The latter carries NY 325 , a 1 @.@ 42 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 29 km ) route that begins at NY 266 on the banks of the Niagara and passes through a commercial and industrial area of the town of Tonawanda . NY 324 takes on the Sheridan Drive name here and assumes a more due easterly course across northern Erie County . Though the street is signed as a state highway on both NY 324 and NY 325 , most residents simply refer to this road by its local name . Through much of this portion , the road is divided , with a tree @-@ lined median strip . Businesses , both local and national , line both sides of the road and traffic is heavy . It crosses some other major strips such as Niagara Falls Boulevard ( U.S. Route 62 or US 62 ) , a major contributor to traffic on Sheridan due to the proximity of the Boulevard Mall , and Millersport Highway ( NY 263 ) , which feeds the Amherst campus of the University at Buffalo . In Amherst it meets the Youngmann Expressway ( I @-@ 290 ) where NY 240 ( Harlem Road ) , reaches its northern end . Past the Youngmann development abates , green returns to the roadside and the median ends , although the road remains four @-@ lane and high @-@ volume . There is another pocket of development around the Wegmans supermarket north of Williamsville , which has seen some rapid growth in the last few years . NY 324 crosses its last major route , Transit Road ( NY 78 ) , on an overpass just north of the once @-@ thriving Eastern Hills Mall , which had been the premier mall in the Buffalo area until it began losing tenants and customers to the larger Walden Galleria in Cheektowaga . Beyond Transit , the road is still four @-@ lane but primarily residential as it enters the Town of Clarence . After Harris Hill Road , the highway bends to the southeast once again for a final mile into its eastern end at Main Street ( NY 5 ) . This last section was widened from two lanes to four in the mid @-@ 1990s , and has seen some development but still remains lightly trafficked most of the day . = = History = = When NY 324 was assigned c . 1933 , it began at NY 384 ( River Road ; now NY 266 ) in the town of Tonawanda and followed Sheridan Drive eastward to NY 5 in the town of Clarence . By 1935 , what is now NY 324 between Niagara Falls and Tonawanda via Grand Island was designated as NY 325 . NY 324 was extended northward to NY 384 in Niagara Falls c . 1937 , supplanting the entirety of NY 325 . The NY 325 designation was reassigned to the short piece of Sheridan Drive not designated as NY 324 . The route was extended one final time by 1948 to follow NY 384 westward from the North Grand Island Bridge into downtown Niagara Falls . NY 324 remained unchanged until c . 1962 when the overlap with NY 384 was removed . Although the overlap with the new I @-@ 190 on the North Grand Island Bridge was also removed from maps during the same period , and is no longer signed , this overlap was never officially removed from either NYSDOT 's description of the route or the annual NYSDOT Traffic Data Report . = = Major intersections = =

= Ehrhardt ( typeface ) = Ehrhardt is an old @-@ style serif typeface released by British branch of the Monotype Corporation in 1938 . Ehrhardt is a modern adaptation of printing types of " stout Dutch character " from the Dutch Baroque tradition sold by the Ehrhardt foundry in Leipzig . These are believed to have been cut by the Hungarian @-@ Transylvanian priest and punchcutter Miklós ( Nicholas ) Tótfalusi Kis while in Amsterdam in the period from 1680 to 1689 . From 1937 to 1938 , Monotype re @-@ cut the type for modern @-@ day usage , and it has become a popular book typeface . Ehrhardt has a slightly condensed design , giving it a strongly vertical , crisp appearance . = = Historical background = = Miklós Kis , a Transylvanian Protestant priest and schoolteacher , became deeply interested in printing after being sent to Amsterdam to help print a Hungarian Protestant translation of the Bible . This was a period of considerable prosperity for the Netherlands and a time when its styles of printing were very influential across Europe , making it a centre for the creation of new typefaces . He developed a second career as a punchcutter , an engraver of the punches used as a master for making moulds for metal type , working on commission for printers and governments . Kis returned to Transylvania around 1689 and may have left matrices ( the moulds used to cast type ) in Leipzig on his way home . The Ehrhardt type foundry of Leipzig released a surviving specimen sheet of them around 1720 . Kis 's surviving matrices were first acquired by Stempel , and are now held in the collection of the Druckmuseum ( Museum of Printing ) , Darmstadt . They were earlier often called the Janson designs , after the Dutch printer Anton Janson , based in Leipzig , who it was once believed might have created them , and Linotype 's revival of the same designs in a less condensed form accordingly is named Janson . Kis 's identity as the maker of the typefaces was rediscovered by comparison with type from Hungarian archive sources ( including an autobiography ) on which his name was identified . = = Modern history = = Monotype 's development of Ehrhardt took place under the influence of executive and historian of printing Stanley Morison , not long after their successful creation of Times New Roman , which had also been ( more loosely ) inspired by Dutch Baroque printing . It began from a recognition that the Janson designs were well @-@ respected by fine printers of the Arts and Crafts period such as Daniel Berkeley Updike , who could print books from them using hand @-@ set type cast from surviving original matrices owned by the Stempel company of Germany . Morison had discussed what he knew of their history with Updike in their extensive correspondence from the 1920s onwards . Modernised versions of the Janson designs were being created by Linotype and Monotype 's American branch at the same time . In addition , Morison was interested in the history of printing in Leipzig , a centre of the German book trade , and would later write an article on the topic . During the early 20th century , many companies such as Monotype worked to develop revivals of historic typefaces for the modern hot metal typesetting system , which could be made more accurately and better @-@ aligned through pantograph engraving systems , as opposed to historic typefaces which had been hand @-@ carved out of steel . Monotype developed a revival of the Ehrhardt typefaces using a rediscovered specimen sheet as a source , while simultaneously also working on Van Dijck , a revival of the work of Christoffel van Dijck ( d . 1669 ) , a slightly earlier Dutch Baroque punch @-@ cutter . Ehrhardt 's original working title was ' Old Holländische ' , according to veteran Monotype designer Robin Nicholas . Developed by the Monotype drawing office team in Salfords , Surrey , led by Fritz Steltzer , the project veered away from a purely faithful revival towards a denser , more condensed design . This differentiated it from the other Janson revivals on the market . Nicholas commented " I think it was Morison 's take on Janson - made a little heavier and narrower to give improved legibility and economy . " Typesetting expert Yannis Haralambous wrote of being told by a Monotype manager that the typeface was designed particularly for sale in Germany " to appeal to those who have a weakness for Fraktur " ( blackletter or ' Gothic ' typefaces , still very popular in Germany in the 1930s ) . In its dense design it may be able to compliment blackletter well , and Morison in his article on Leipzig printing suggested that this might have been a motivation behind the original 's design style . The finished design was first displayed in Monotype 's journal , the Monotype Recorder , in 1938 with an unsigned blurb in what Carter would later call " the accents of Morison " . Morison 's article on the history of printing in Leipzig would later be typeset in it and it was also used to set a festschrift on his work after his death . = = Distinctive features = = Distinctive features of Ehrhardt include an ' A ' with gently curving bar matching the centre @-@ link of the ' B ' , a wide ' T ' with spreadeagled serifs on either side and a ' b ' with no foot on the left . In italic the ' J ' has a crossbar , the ' w ' has sharp reverse curves towards the top and left , and the ' v ' has a flourish on the left . The face has high stroke contrast ( difference between thick and thin strokes ) by the standards of most old @-@ style serif fonts . In order to allow compact line spacing , descenders were kept reasonably short . = = Reception = = Ehrhardt attracted considerable attention on its initial release ; Monotype 's publicity material blurbed it as " in the opinion of some authorities , the most important new book face since Times New Roman " . However Ehrhardt remains considerably less well @-@ known than many of Monotype 's other classic serif designs of the interwar period , such as Times , Perpetua , Garamond or Bembo . Harry Carter ( who with George Buday made the modern attribution to Kis ) wrote that " the letters of Monotype Ehrhardt are like those of the Janson , but the appearance of a page set in it is different . The Janson is more rotund and has greater contrast of thick and thin . " Writing in the 1970s , Carter had misgivings about the condensation , saying that it came close to turning Kis 's work into an " accurate drudge " but that " it is a successful type @-@ face " . He also noted the irony that , unknown to the Monotype drawing office , Kis had designed himself a set of more condensed typefaces for use in Florence which they might have used as a more authentic model . Printing historian James Mosley 's review of Morison 's memoir , A Tally of Types , described the original metal type as " crudely drawn " compared with some earlier Monotype designs , and suggested that this was due to a change in works management at Monotype with the retirement of head engineer Frank Pierpont . Notable books set in Ehrhardt include the Oxford World 's Classics series , the New English Bible , the Pelican Shakespeare and the Penguin 60s . It has also been used by Faber and Faber and The Iconic magazine . An extremely rare infant variant of the typeface also exists , which can be seen in the American edition of the book Hey ! Get off Our Train by John Burningham . = = Extensions = = Monotype later created a bold and bold italic ( called a semi @-@ bold in some digitisations ) to match the roman and italic of the original release . ( True bold type did not exist in Kis 's time . ) Released in 1967 , Fleet Titling was a capitals @-@ only alphabet intended to serve as a companion for titling use . It was created by Monotype 's occasional collaborator John Peters , a Cambridge University Press designer who also worked as a private printer . Monotype used it for their logo and letterhead . More oddly , Monotype in the 1960s used Ehrhardt as a base for printing in the Initial Teaching Alphabet . This alphabet system , intended to be used to teach children to read , used alternative characters for different sounds spelled with the same letter , like t 's and c 's dropped below the baseline of the text . = = Digitisations and alternative versions = = Monotype has digitised Ehrhardt into the TrueType and OpenType font formats . It is sold in standard and professional releases , some releases including text figures and small caps ( in the roman style only ) . Like several other Monotype typefaces digitised in the early period of computerised publishing , it is sold under two releases credited both to Monotype itself and to Adobe , the latter only in the standard version without small caps . Fleet Titling and the Initial Teaching Alphabet version have not been digitised . Inspired by Ehrhardt , designer and lawyer Matthew Butterick created a revival called Equity , praising its " satisfying heft and authority " . This design was inspired by his experiences of office needs from working as a lawyer ; it was created for sale with separate grades designed to suit different types of paper and printers , and separate small caps fonts ( in regular and bold ) intended for use in Word . Font Bureau also created the very large revival family Kis . Unlike other digitisations , this has been released in optical sizes , with a separate display @-@ size font intended for headlines . It is used by the Los Angeles Times but ( as of 2015 ) has not been released for online sale .

= What You Waiting For ? = " What You Waiting For ? " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her debut solo studio album , Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) . Written by Stefani and Linda Perry , the song is the album 's opening track and was released as Stefani 's debut solo single . " What You Waiting For ? " details Stefani 's lack of inspiration , fear of producing the album , as well as her reaction to pressures exerted by her record label . It is primarily an electropop song and introduces Stefani 's four back @-@ up dancers , the Harajuku Girls , who had a major input into the album 's production . " What You Waiting For ? " was released as the album 's lead single ; according to Stefani , as an " explanation for doing the record " . The song was well received by critics , and was frequently cited as a highlight of the album . The single was commercially successful , topping the chart in Australia and reaching the top 10 in several countries . It was certified gold in the United States , and was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 47th Grammy Awards . The song has been remixed a number of times , and was covered by the indie rock band Franz Ferdinand and singer Marina and the Diamonds . = = Background and writing = = During the night of the 2003 Grammy Awards , Perry forced Stefani into a chokehold , and demanded that they were " gonna write songs together ! " , to which Stefani reluctantly agreed . Soon after , Stefani finished the Rock Steady Tour with her band No Doubt , and took a call from her label , who informed her that Perry was in a studio ready to collaborate , and that Perry " only [ had ] five days out of the whole year to work with [ her ] . " Stefani has since admitted that she was frustrated by not being able to see her husband Gavin Rossdale , and was intimidated at the thought of collaboration , in particular with Perry , who she did not feel was qualified to write dance music . Stefani was exhausted by the recently completed tour , and shortly afterwards suffered an emotional breakdown , which she spent in bed crying . During their first day of work , the two wrote a song titled " Fine by You " , which Stefani later described as " a stupid love song , but really good " . Perry remarked that the song " wasn 't right " , and the track was excluded from the album . The session was unproductive , due in part to Stefani 's self @-@ consciousness and writer 's block , and she at one stage broke down in tears in the studio . Stefani has since admitted that writing songs without her band members felt " humiliating and intimidating even if they 're sweet and excited , because you 're drowning in their creativity " . That night , Perry began work on another track , which she played for Stefani the next day to motivate her . Stefani was impressed with the track , and Perry asked her , " What are you waiting for ? " According to Perry , Stefani took the question as a dare , replying , " You 're totally challenging me , right ? " The two began writing lyrics for the new wave @-@ styled song based on Stefani 's writer 's block and fears about making a solo record , and it grew into " What You Waiting For ? " Stefani came up with the idea of the Harajuku Girls while writing the song . Stefani first saw the women of Harajuku , known for their unique style drawing from Gothic Lolita and cyberpunk fashion , in 1996 and had admired them since . She decided to mention them in the line " You Harajuku Girls , damn you got some wicked style " , and the concept grew into a running theme on Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , which went as far as to feature one song named after and dedicated to them . = = Composition = = " What You Waiting For ? " combines the genres of electropop , new wave , dance @-@ rock , and funk , and was composed in common time and in the key of G minor . It is written in verse @-@ chorus form , and its instrumentation derives from the guitar and electronic keyboard . The song opens with an emotional piano solo as a tribute to Stefani 's time with No Doubt . The verse begins at only 60 beats per minute and gradually slows , mixed with sounds of applause from the audience . A beat set at 138 BPM begins , and Stefani repeats the phrase " tick @-@ tock " , commonly interpreted as a reference to her maternal clock and the pressures she felt about producing the album . Stefani creates an argument between lyrical personas by alternating her vocal range and point of view . Stefani 's vocal range spans two octaves in the song , from G3 to G5 . In a melody similar to that of Weezer 's " Hash Pipe " , one side of Stefani 's personality sings in a higher range in the first person , and the other , more confident personality sings lower in the second person . During the verses , the more nervous personality discusses her concerns about leaving No Doubt for a solo career as well as the ephemeral success of female singers in the music industry . The chorus is a boost of confidence for her and continues the song 's time motif with the lines " Look at your watch now / You 're still a super hot female " . Backed by perfect octave dyads , Stefani sings a verse about her excitement for her future , and the two personalities merge into one during the coda . = = Critical reception = = " What You Waiting For ? " received positive reviews from critics . Nick Sylvester of Pitchfork Media gave the song a strong review , rating it four and a half stars , and labeled it " fucking great " . The website went on to rank the song 16th on its list of the Top 50 Singles of 2004 . RJ Smith of Blender noted the song 's new wave influence by stating that it could start a revival of Missing Persons , and Amy Linden of The Village Voice compared the " giddy , yodeling vocals " to those of Lene Lovich 's 1981 song " New Toy " . Jason Damas from PopMatters was mixed on the song , calling the opening " awkward " and the refrain " ridiculously dumb " , but arguing that the song " is so frivolous and stupid that it winds up being brilliant ; it pretends to be nothing more than party bubblegum and achieves its artistic criteria beautifully . " Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani agreed , stating that " it 's this impishness that helps make ' What You Waiting For ' one of the hottest ' arrival ' songs of all time " . Richard Smirke of Playlouder found the track 's production " crisp " and " edgy " , and Jennifer Nine of Yahoo ! Music called the song " itchily irresistible " . Jemma Volp @-@ Fletcher , writing for Contactmusic.com , rated the song nine out of 10 , commenting that it has " irresistible commercial pull and a melody to die for " and that the track " makes the most of her unmistakable vocal and reflects that off @-@ the @-@ wall Stefani personality perfectly . " Natasha Tripney from musicOMH gave the song a negative review , stating that " it 'll become one of those tracks that 's irritatingly catchy — but on this initial listening , Ms Stefani 's debut solo effort is just plain irritating . " Many reviewers considered the track one of the album 's highlights . Entertainment Weekly critic David Browne gave Love . Angel . Music . Baby. a C + rating but called the track " one of the album 's undeniable highs " . In its review of the album , Nick Sylvester of Pitchfork Media believed that " we can 't expect 12 more cuts as personal or urgent as debut single ' What You Waiting For ' " , while naming it " one of the best electro songs this year " . Lisa Haines of BBC Music stated that it " stands out as the best track on the album for the way it pits storming beats against enthusiastic lyrics " and compared the song to Goldfrapp 's 2003 single " Strict Machine " . Eric Greenwood of Drawer B , who felt that the album " fails on every level " , also commented that " if this album had even two more songs this immediate and catchy , then I 'd stick my neck out for it , but , sadly , it 's the only song worth listening to . " In 2009 , The Daily Telegraph listed the song at number 82 on their list " 100 songs that defined the Noughties . " = = Commercial performance = = In the United States , " What You Waiting For ? " debuted at number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue dated October 16 , 2004 . It reached a peak of number 47 on November 27 , 2004 and remained on the chart for a total of 20 weeks . The song topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart , but only had moderate success on the pop charts , reaching number 17 on the Mainstream Top 40 and number 24 on the Adult Top 40 . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on February 25 , 2005 . Additionally , it was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2005 Grammy Awards , but lost to Norah Jones ' " Sunrise " . Elsewhere , the song 's reception was stronger . In Canada , it debuted in the top 40 on the Canadian Singles Chart before reaching number 24 in late January 2005 . In the United Kingdom , " What You Waiting For ? " debuted and peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart and remained on the chart for 15 weeks . The single performed well across most of the rest of Europe , reaching the top five in Belgium , Denmark , Finland , France , Ireland , Italy , and Norway , and the top 10 in Austria , Hungary , the Netherlands , and Sweden . In Australia , " What You Waiting For ? " debuted atop the ARIA Singles Chart on November 14 , 2004 and stayed there for two weeks . It remained within the top three through January 17 , 2005 and dropped off the chart after 15 weeks . In 2014 , the single was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The song reached number three on New Zealand 's RIANZ Singles Chart and spent four months on the chart . = = Music video = = The song 's music video was directed by Francis Lawrence and produced by Caleb Dewart of DNA Inc . The video deals directly with the lyrics ' theme of Stefani 's search for inspiration in songwriting . It opens with a lengthy non @-@ musical section in which Stefani arrives in Los Angeles off of No Doubt 's Rock Steady Tour . She receives several calls from Interscope label head Jimmy Iovine , who attempts to push her forward with her solo debut project , but she replies that she is tired and uninspired . After a failed studio attempt , Stefani sees a flyer advertising help for writer 's block . Upon arrival she is asked to fill out a suspicious questionnaire , where the camera pans to the questions which will be important . She is then told that she will be billed when she is finished . She asks for clarification only to discover that she is already back in the studio by herself . When Stefani picks up an oversized pocket watch from the piano , a rabbit knick @-@ knack that she had previously seen jumps across the room . She throws the watch at the knick @-@ knack , causing her to fall back on her chair and find herself transported to a fantasy world based on Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking @-@ Glass . Stefani portrays several characters from the books , including Alice , the White Queen , and the Red Queen , in dresses by British @-@ Gibraltarian fashion designer John Galliano . The video frequently cuts to Stefani back in the studio to show her singing and performing in semi @-@ synchronization with her actions within her fantasy world . As this transpires the song is recording itself . Stefani ultimately rediscovers her confidence , and her full awareness is transported back to the ordinary reality of the studio just as she dances in front of her four giggling Harajuku Girls . She then is presented with her bill by the consultant as a wooden chair topples to the floor . There are four versions of the video . The full , long version is one minute longer than the Making the Video version , while the cut version omits the scenes in which she leaves the airport and is sleepy and in which she fills out the questionnaire . The short version begins with Stefani practicing on the piano and her finding the watch just seconds after that . Her being billed is not shown in this version , so the video ends with the Harajuku Girls laughing at her performance . The music video was well received by many reviewers . Sam Bloch from Stylus Magazine referred to it as a short film , comparing it to Michael Jackson 's Thriller , and commented , " I sigh with admiration and wish every video was this alive . " The video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live on October 19 , 2004 at number 11 . The following month it reached the top of the chart and was there for three non @-@ consecutive days , remaining over five weeks on the program . At the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards , the video won the award for Best Art Direction and was nominated for Best Editing . In Canada , it only reached number 11 on the MuchMusic 's Countdown , though it remained on the chart for eight weeks . At the 2005 MuchMusic Video Awards , the video was nominated for Best International Video but lost to Usher 's " Caught Up " . It won the award for Best Dressed Video at the first MTV Australia Video Music Awards , and was also nominated for Video of the Year and Best Pop Video . = = Alternative versions = = Stuart Price ( also known as Jacques Lu Cont ) made the most well @-@ known remix of the song , titled the Thin White Duke Mix , which was included on the CD single . The track , over eight minutes long , is carried by a guitar riff and occasional chimes . The remix received positive reviews from music critics . Aaron Mandel of Pitchfork Media labeled it " outstanding " , and John M. Cunningham of Stylus Magazine stated that it " endowed [ the song ] with a sense of grandeur " . DJ InVincible from About.com viewed the remix as " moody and a bit hypnotic " , commenting that it is " best suited for early @-@ evening sets . " Armand Van Helden created two remixes , the Armand Van Helden Remix and the Armand Van Helden Dub , which use only some of the original vocals and a new bassline constructed with synthesizers and some electric guitar . Felix da Housecat created the Rude Ho Mix , which uses more bass guitar and leaves out the original background vocals by Mimi Parker until the final verse . Alex Kapranos , guitarist and lead singer of Scottish indie rock band Franz Ferdinand , wore a Gwen Stefani pin on a Members Only jacket as a tribute to " What You Waiting For ? " . In December 2005 , the band performed a cover version of the song on Live Lounge , a segment of The Jo Whiley Show on BBC Radio 1 . The cover includes the chorus from Billy Idol 's 1983 song " White Wedding " . In October 2006 , the song was released as a part of the Radio 1 's Live Lounge compilation , and the cover received mixed reviews . Jack Foley from IndieLondon called the track " completely insane " , stating that it " really has to be heard to be believed . " The Guardian 's Dorian Lynskey found the cover smug , adding that " one of Alex Kapranos 's eyebrows [ is ] raised so high that it practically vacates his head . " Welsh indie pop singer Marina and the Diamonds covered " What You Waiting For ? " during some of her early live performances in 2009 . Mary Bellamy of Drowned in Sound referred to her debut album The Family Jewels ( 2010 ) as " an extended album length re @-@ write " of " What You Waiting For ? " . = = Track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love . Angel . Music . Baby . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = =

= The Governor 's Daughter = The Governor 's Daughter is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The story details a convict who is being sent to prison when the train is wrecked and the sheriff escorting him is killed . The convict frees himself , but halts his escape to save the life of a little girl . As he returns the girl to her nurse , a policeman identifies and recaptures him . Later the little girl accompanies her father , the governor , on a tour of the prison and the father pardons the hero @-@ convict . The film included scenes of a real train wreck and the scenario was written around the filming of the disaster . The film received praise for the before and after scenes which were described as shocking to The Moving Picture World 's reviewer . The film was released on June 24 , 1910 , and was shown as far away as Australia . The film is presumed lost . = = Plot = = Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from June 25 , 1910 . It states : " Bill Raymond , a convict , sentenced to a long term , is on his way to prison , in custody of the sheriff . A little girl [ Nell ] is a passenger in the same train . She shows that she feels sorry for the man . He in turn appreciates her sympathy . The train is wrecked , and the sheriff , who is handcuffed to Bill , is killed . Bill takes the key of the handcuffs from the pocket of the dead man , frees himself , and is about to escape , when he notices that the little girl , abandoned by her nurse , is lying unconscious in the car , which is now on fire . The convict risks his life to save the child , and carries her out in his arms . He takes her to her nurse and is recognized by a policeman and taken in custody , his chance for freedom lost . The child , who is the daughter of the governor , although Bill does not know it , is restored to her parent . The nurse fears to mention the incident , and the governor does not know how his darling 's life was saved . Later the governor goes to the state prison on a tour of inspection , and Nell accompanies him . She has some flowers which she wants to give to the prisoners . In her tour of the prison , she recognizes Bill . She tells her father about it , and he pardons the hero @-@ convict on the spot .... " = = Production = = The impetus to produce this film appears to have been the ability of the Thanhouser crew to capture a disaster on film . Film historian Q. David Bowers writes , " What was one company 's misfortune was another 's gain , and from time to time during the next few years Thanhouser cameramen hurried to film scenes of disasters so that they could be featured as film episodes in scenarios which were written after the fact . " It is unknown what particular rail disaster was filmed , but a possible that the accident depicted was in the Bronx on the night of June 1 , 1910 . That night one stalled train , concealed in smoke from a fire , was struck by another train near the Mott Avenue subway station . One of the composite cars was shredded by the steel cars behind it ; there were no fatalities in the accident . Other accidents prior to the film debut occurred in January and February . The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The only credit known for the cast is that of Marie Eline as Nell . Other members cast may have included the leading players of the Thanhouser productions , Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane . Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company . Crane was also involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser . = = Release and reception = = The single reel drama , approximately 985 feet long , was released on June 24 , 1910 . Advertisements played up the wreck of the $ 40 @,@ 000 train car while a positive review in The Moving Picture World praised the well @-@ managed production 's prison and track wreck scenes , but remarked that the improbable story was purely fantastical . One of the more dramatic articles to appear in The Moving Picture World included reference to the film while playing up the dramatic element describe the footage and the filming of the wreck . It states : " ... The scenes were portrayals of a train crash and they give you startling before @-@ and @-@ after wreck views . They made you shiver when they showed you the fate that came to a car full of passengers - sudden , cruel and without warning . They made you shiver ; ... And you thanked God that the thing before you was only a picture on the screen ! " Known advertisements for the film included theaters in Rhode Island and Indiana . Records show that film made it to Australia , with one Launceston , Tasmania newspaper showing an advertisement on January 30 , 1911 . The film was still in circulation years after its production , with the Pennsylvania State Board of Censors of Moving Pictures approving this film for viewing without censorship in a May 21 , 1915 decision . This list also records the existence of two films bearing the same name , one from Selig Polyscope and the other from the Éclair American Company .

= Impala = The impala ( pronounced / ɪmˈpɑːlə , -ˈpalə / ) ( Aepyceros melampus ) is a medium @-@ sized antelope in eastern and southern Africa . The sole member of the genus Aepyceros , it was first described by German zoologist Martin Hinrich Carl Lichtenstein in 1812 . Two subspecies are recognised – the common impala , and the larger and darker black @-@ faced impala . The impala reaches 70 – 92 centimetres ( 28 – 36 inches ) at the shoulder and weighs 40 – 76 kilograms ( 88 – 168 pounds ) . It features a glossy , reddish brown coat . The male 's slender , lyre @-@ shaped horns are 45 – 92 centimetres ( 18 – 36 in ) long . Active mainly during the day , the impala may be gregarious or territorial depending upon the climate and geography . Three distinct social groups can be observed – the territorial males , bachelor herds and female herds . The impala is known for two characteristic leaps that constitute an anti @-@ predator strategy . Browsers as well as grazers , impala feed on monocots , dicots , forbs , fruits and acacia pods ( whenever available ) . An annual , three @-@ week @-@ long rut takes place toward the end of the wet season , typically in May . Rutting males fight over dominance , and the victorious male starts an elaborate courtship with a female in oestrus . Gestation lasts six to seven months , following which a single calf is born and immediately concealed in cover . Calves are suckled for four to six months ; young males , forced out of the group , join bachelor herds , while females may stay back . The impala occurs in woodlands and sometimes on the interface ( ecotone ) between woodlands and savannahs ; it inhabits places close to water . While the black @-@ faced impala is confined to southwestern Angola and Kaokoland in northwestern Namibia , the common impala is widespread across its range and has been reintroduced in Gabon and southern Africa . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) classifies the impala as a species of least concern ; the black @-@ faced subspecies , however , has been classified as a vulnerable species ; as of 2008 , less than 1 @,@ 000 individuals remain in the wild . = = Etymology = = The common name " impala " comes from the Zulu name for the animal ; the first recorded use of the name dates back to 1885 . " Rooibok " is its Afrikaans name , and the scientific name is Aepyceros melampus ; Aepyceros comes from the Greek words αιπος aipos ( " high " ) and κερος ceros ( " horn " ) . The specific epithet melampus derives from the Greek words μελάς melas ( " black " ) and πούς pous ( " foot " ) . = = Taxonomy and evolution = = The impala is the sole member of the genus Aepyceros and belongs to the family Bovidae . It was first described by German zoologist Martin Hinrich Carl Lichtenstein in 1812 . In 1984 , palaeontologist Elisabeth Vrba opined that the impala is a sister taxon to the alcelaphines given its resemblance to the hartebeest . A 1999 phylogenetic study by Alexandre Hassanin ( of the National Centre for Scientific Research , Paris ) and colleagues , based on mitochondrial and nuclear analyses , showed that the impala forms a clade with the suni ( Neotragus moschatus ) . This clade is sister to another formed by the bay duiker ( Cephalophus dorsalis ) and the klipspringer ( Oreotragus oreotragus ) . An rRNA and β @-@ spectrin nuclear sequence analysis in 2003 also supported an association between Aepyceros and Neotragus . The following cladogram is based on the 1999 study : Up to six subspecies have been described , although only two are generally recognised on the basis of mitochondrial data . Though morphologically similar , the subspecies show a significant genetic distance between them , and no hybrids between them have been reported . A. m. melampus Lichtenstein , 1812 : Known as the common impala , it occurs across eastern and southern Africa . The range extends from central Kenya to South Africa and westward into southeastern Angola . A. m. petersi Bocage , 1879 : Known as the black @-@ faced impala , it is restricted to southwestern Africa , occurring in northwestern Namibia and southwestern Angola . According to Vrba , the impala evolved from an alcelaphine ancestor . She noted that while this ancestor has diverged at least 18 times into various morphologically different forms , the impala has continued in its basic form for at least five million years . Several fossil species have been discovered , including A. datoadeni from the Pliocene of Ethiopia . The oldest fossil discovered suggests its ancient ancestors were slightly smaller than the modern form , but otherwise similar in all aspects to the latter . This implies that the impala has efficiently adapted to its environment since prehistoric times . Its gregarious nature , variety in diet , positive population trend , defence against ticks and symbiotic relationship with the tick @-@ feeding oxpeckers could have played a role in preventing major changes in morphology and behaviour . = = Description = = The impala is a medium @-@ sized , slender antelope similar to the kob or Grant 's gazelle in build . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is around 130 centimetres ( 51 in ) . Males reach approximately 75 – 92 centimetres ( 30 – 36 in ) at the shoulder , while females are 70 – 85 centimetres ( 28 – 33 in ) tall . Males typically weigh 53 – 76 kilograms ( 117 – 168 lb ) and females 40 – 53 kilograms ( 88 – 117 lb ) . Sexually dimorphic , females are hornless and notably smaller than males . Males grow slender , lyre @-@ shaped horns 45 – 92 centimetres ( 18 – 36 in ) long . The horns , strongly ridged and divergent , are circular in section and hollow at the base . Their arch @-@ like structure allows interlocking of horns , which helps a male throw off his opponent during fights ; horns also protect the skull from damage . The glossy coat of the impala shows two @-@ tone colouration – the reddish brown back and the tan flanks ; these are in sharp contrast to the white underbelly . Facial features include white rings around the eyes and a light chin and snout . The ears , 1 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) long , are tipped with black . Black streaks run from the buttocks to the upper hindlegs . The bushy white tail , 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) long , features a solid black stripe along the midline . The impala 's colouration bears a strong resemblance to the gerenuk , which has shorter horns and lacks the black thigh stripes of the impala . The impala has scent glands covered by a black tuft of hair on the hindlegs . Sebaceous glands concentrated on the forehead and dispersed on the torso of dominant males are most active during the mating season , while those of females are only partially developed and do not undergo seasonal changes . There are four nipples . Of the subspecies , the black @-@ faced impala is significantly larger and darker than the common impala ; a recessive gene is responsible for the black colouration . Distinctive of the black @-@ faced impala is a dark stripe , on either side of the nose , that runs upward to the eyes and thins as it reaches the forehead . Other differences include the larger black tip on the ear , and a bushier and nearly 30 % longer tail in the black @-@ faced impala . The impala has a special dental arrangement on the front lower jaw similar to the toothcomb seen in strepsirrhine primates , which is used during allogrooming to comb the fur on the head and the neck and remove ectoparasites . = = Ecology and behaviour = = The impala is diurnal ( active mainly during the day ) , though activity tends to cease during the hot midday hours ; they feed and rest at night . Three distinct social groups can be observed – the territorial males , bachelor herds and female herds . The territorial males hold territories where they may form harems of females ; territories are demarcated with urine and faeces and defended against juvenile or male intruders . Bachelor herds tend to be small , with less than 30 members . Individuals maintain distances of 2 @.@ 5 – 3 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) from one another ; while young and old males may interact , middle @-@ aged males generally avoid one another . The membership of female herds varies from 6 to 100 ; herds occupy home ranges of 80 – 180 hectares ( 200 – 440 acres ; 0 @.@ 31 – 0 @.@ 69 sq mi ) . The mother @-@ calf bond is weak , and breaks soon after weaning ; juveniles leave the herds of their mothers to join other herds . Female herds tend to be loose and have no distinct leadership . Allogrooming is an important means of social interaction in bachelor and female herds ; in fact , the impala appears to be the only ungulate to display self @-@ grooming as well as allogrooming . In allogrooming , females typically groom related individuals , while males associate with unrelated individuals . Each partner grooms the other six to twelve times . Social behaviour is influenced by the climate and geography ; as such , the impala are territorial at certain times of the year and gregarious at other times , and the length of these periods can vary broadly among populations . For instance , populations in southern Africa display territorial behaviour only during the few months of the rut , whereas in eastern African populations , territoriality is relatively minimal despite a protracted mating season . Moreover , territorial males often tolerate bachelors , and may even alternate between bachelorhood and territoriality at different times of the year . A study of impala in the Serengeti National Park showed that in 94 % of the males , territoriality was observed for less than four months . The impala is an important prey for several carnivores , such as cheetahs , leopards and lions . The antelope displays two characteristic leaps – it can jump up to 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , over vegetation and even other impala , covering distances of up to 10 metres ( 33 ft ) ; the other type of leap involves a series of jumps in which the animal lands on its forelegs , moves its hindlegs mid @-@ air in a kicking fashion , lands on all fours and then rebounds . It leaps in either manner in different directions , probably to confuse predators . At times , the impala may also conceal itself in vegetation to escape the eye of the predator . The most prominent vocalisation is the loud roar , delivered through one to three loud snorts with the mouth closed , followed by two to ten deep grunts with the mouth open and the chin and tail raised ; a typical roar can be heard up to 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away . Scent gland secretions identify a territorial male . A notable feature of impala is their sedentary nature ; adult and middle @-@ aged males , in particular , can hold their territories for years . = = = Parasites = = = Common ixodid ticks collected from impala include Amblyomma hebraeum , Boophilus decoloratus , Hyalomma marginatum , Ixodes cavipalpus , Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and R. evertsi . In Zimbabwe , heavy infestation by ticks such as R. appendiculatus has proved to be a major cause behind the high mortality of ungulates , as they can lead to tick paralysis . Impala have special adaptations for grooming , such as their characteristic dental arrangement , to manage ticks before they engorge ; however , the extensive grooming needed to keep the tick load under control involves the risk of dehydration during summer , lower vigilance against predators and gradual wearing out of the teeth . A study showed that impala adjust the time devoted to grooming and the number of grooming bouts according to the seasonal prevalence of ticks . Impala are symbiotically related to oxpeckers , which feed on ticks from those parts of the antelope 's body which the animal cannot access by itself ( such as the ears , neck , eyelids , forehead and underbelly ) . The impala is the smallest ungulate that oxpeckers are associated with . In a study it was observed that oxpeckers selectively attended to impala despite the presence of other animals such as Coke 's hartebeest , Grant 's gazelle , Thompson 's gazelle and topi . A possible explanation for this could be that because the impala inhabits woodlands ( which can have a high density of ticks ) , the impala could have greater mass of ticks per unit area of the body surface . Another study showed that the oxpeckers prefer the ears over other parts of the body , probably because these parts show maximum tick infestation . Lice recorded from impala include Damalinia aepycerus , D. elongata , Linognathus aepycerus and L. nevilli ; in a study , ivermectin ( a medication against parasites ) was found to have an effect on Boophilus decoloratus and Linognathus species , though not on Damalinia species . In a study of impala in South Africa , the number of worms in juveniles showed an increase with age , reaching a peak when impala turned a year old . This study recorded worms of genera such as Cooperia , Cooperoides , Fasciola , Gongylonema . Haemonchus , Impalaia , Longistrongylus and Trichostrongylus ; some of these showed seasonal variations in density . = = = Diet = = = Impala browse as well as graze ; either may predominate , depending upon the availability of resources . The diet comprises monocots , dicots , forbs , fruits and acacia pods ( whenever available ) . Impala prefer places close to water sources , and resort to succulent vegetation if water is scarce . An analysis showed that the diet of impala is composed of 45 % monocots , 45 % dicots and 10 % fruits ; the proportion of grasses in the diet increases significantly ( to as high as 90 % ) after the first rains , but declines in the dry season . Browsing predominates in the late wet and dry season , and diets are nutritionally poor in the mid @-@ dry season , when impala feed mostly on woody dicots . Another study showed that the dicot proportion in the diet is much higher in bachelors and females than in territorial males . Impala feed on soft and nutritious grasses such as Digitaria macroblephora ; tough , tall grasses , such as Heteropogon contortus and Themeda triandra , are typically avoided . Impala on the periphery of the herds are generally more vigilant against predators than those feeding in the centre ; a foraging individual will try to defend the patch it is feeding on by lowering its head . A study revealed that time spent in foraging reaches a maximum of 75 @.@ 5 % of the day in the late dry season , decreases through the rainy season , and is minimal in the early dry season ( 57 @.@ 8 % ) . = = = Reproduction = = = Males are sexually mature by the time they are a year old , though successful mating generally occurs only after four years . Mature males start establishing territories and try to gain access to females . Females can conceive after they are a year and a half old ; oestrous lasts for 24 to 48 hours , and occurs every 12 – 29 days in non @-@ pregnant females . The annual three @-@ week @-@ long rut ( breeding season ) begins toward the end of the wet season , typically in May . Gonadal growth and hormone production in males begin a few months before the breeding season , resulting in greater aggressiveness and territoriality . The bulbourethral glands are heavier , testosterone levels are nearly twice as high in territorial males as in bachelors , and the neck of a territorial male tends to be thicker than that of a bachelor during the rut . Mating tends to take place between full moons . Rutting males fight over dominance , often giving out noisy roars and chasing one another ; they walk stiffly and display their neck and horns . Males desist from feeding and allogrooming during the rut , probably to devote more time to garnering females in oestrus ; the male checks the female 's urine to ensure that she is in oestrus . On coming across such a female , the excited male begins the courtship by pursuing her , keeping a distance of 3 – 5 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 – 16 @.@ 4 ft ) from her . The male flicks his tongue and may nod vigorously ; the female allows him to lick her vulva , and holds her tail to one side . The male tries mounting the female , holding his head high and clasping her sides with his forelegs . Mounting attempts may be repeated every few seconds to every minute or two . The male loses interest in the female after the first copulation , though she is still active and can mate with other males . Gestation lasts six to seven months ; the mother may even delay giving birth for an additional month if conditions are harsh . Births generally occur in the midday ; the female will isolate herself from the herd when labour pain begins . A single calf is born , and is immediately concealed in cover for the first few weeks of its birth . The fawn then joins a nursery group within its mother 's herd . Calves are suckled for four to six months ; young males , forced out of the group , join bachelor herds , while females may stay back . = = Distribution and habitat = = The impala inhabits woodlands due to its preference for shade ; it can also occur on the interface ( ecotone ) between woodlands and savannahs . Places close to water sources are preferred . In southern Africa , populations tend to be associated with Colophospermum mopane and Acacia woodlands . Habitat choices differ seasonally – Acacia senegal woodlands are preferred in the wet season , and A. drepanolobium savannahs in the dry season . Another factor that could influence habitat choice is vulnerability to predators ; impala tend to keep away from areas with tall grasses as predators could be concealed there . A study found that the reduction of woodland cover and creation of shrublands by the African bush elephants has favoured impala population by increasing the availability of more dry season browse . Earlier , the Baikiaea woodland , which has now declined due to elephants , provided minimum browsing for impala . The newly formed Capparis shrubland , on the other hand , could be a key browsing habitat . Impala are generally not associated with montane habitats ; however , in KwaZulu @-@ Natal , impala have been recorded at altitudes of up to 1 @,@ 400 metres ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level . The historical range of the impala , spanning across southern and eastern Africa , has remained intact to a great extent , although it has disappeared from a few places such as Burundi . The range extends from central and southern Kenya and northeastern Uganda in the east to northern KwaZulu @-@ Natal in the south , and westward up to Namibia and southern Angola . The black @-@ faced impala is confined to southwestern Angola and Kaokoland in northwestern Namibia ; the status of this subspecies has not been monitored since the 2000s . The common impala has a wider distribution , and has been introduced in protected areas in Gabon and across southern Africa . = = Threats and conservation = = The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) classifies the impala as a species of least concern overall ; the black @-@ faced impala , however , is classified as a vulnerable species ; as of 2008 , fewer than 1 @,@ 000 individuals are estimated in the wild . Though there are no major threats to the survival of the common impala , poaching and natural calamities have significantly contributed to the decline of the black @-@ faced impala . As of 2008 , the population of the common impala has been estimated at around two million . According to some studies , translocation of the black @-@ faced impala can be highly beneficial in its conservation . Around a quarter of the common impala populations occur in protected areas , such as the Okavango Delta ( Botswana ) ; Masai Mara and Kajiado ( Kenya ) ; Kruger National Park ( South Africa ) ; the Ruaha and Serengeti National Parks and Selous Game Reserve ( Tanzania ) ; Luangwa Valley ( Zambia ) ; Hwange , Sebungwe and Zambezi Valley ( Zimbabwe ) . The rare black @-@ faced impala has been introduced into private farms in Namibia and the Etosha National Park . Population densities vary largely from place to place ; from less than one individual per square kilometre in Mkomazi National Park ( Tanzania ) to as high as 135 individuals per square kilometre near Lake Kariba ( Zimbabwe ) .

= HMS Alceste ( 1806 ) = HMS Alceste was a 38 @-@ gun frigate of the Royal Navy . She was built at Rochefort in 1804 for the French Navy as the Minerve , an Armide @-@ class frigate . As part of a French squadron , anchored in the roads of the Île @-@ d 'Aix , in the spring of 1806 , she engaged HMS Pallas , then under Lord Cochrane . During the duel , the ships became entangled and ran aground but Cochrane , having spotted French reinforcements arriving , managed to free his ship and take off . On 25 September 1806 , she was captured by the British and in March 1807 , brought into Royal Navy service as HMS Alceste . She continued to serve throughout the Napoleonic Wars and on 29 November 1811 , she led a British squadron that captured a French military convoy bound for Trieste , and in doing so , possibly changed the course of the war . In 1814 she was converted to a troopship and used to transport British soldiers to North America during the War of 1812 . Following the Treaty of Vienna in 1815 , Alceste was chosen to carry Lord Amherst on his 1816 diplomatic mission to China , then on the return journey , she foundered on a reef in the Java Sea where , after the evacuation of her passengers and crew , she was plundered and burned by Malayan pirates . = = Construction and armament = = Alceste was built for the French Navy as the Minerve , an Armide @-@ Class 18 @-@ pounder / 40 @-@ gun frigate to a design by Pierre Rolland . She was built at Rochefort with construction starting in May 1804 . She was launched in September 1805 and finished in November . She was 152 feet 5 inches ( 46 @.@ 46 m ) along her gundeck with a 40 feet ( 12 m ) beam . With a depth in the hold of 12 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 86 m ) , she had a capacity of just over 1 @,@ 097 tons BM . When first fitted out , Minerve carried twenty @-@ eight 18 pounders ( 8 @.@ 2 kg ) as her main battery , fourteen 32 pounders ( 15 kg ) carronades on her quarter @-@ deck , while her forecastle had two 9 pounders ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) long guns and two 32 pounders ( 15 kg ) carronades . = = French service = = In April 1806 Minerve was commanded by Capitaine Jaques Collet and formed part of a squadron under Contre @-@ Amiral Zacharie Allemand . This French squadron comprised five ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line , five frigates and four smaller vessels , and was anchored under the shore batteries of the Île @-@ d 'Aix On the 25 April , HMS Pallas arrived . Pallas , under the command of Thomas Cochrane , had been sent by Sir Edward Thornbrough to count the enemy ships in the roadstead behind the island , and Minerve and three corvettes , were ordered to weigh anchor and meet the British frigate . As the French approached , Pallas discharged her guns and a small engagement followed in which none of the ships incurred much damage . Collet then spotted the frigate HMS Isis , the 16 @-@ gun Hazard and a cutter , and decided to seek shelter beneath the island 's guns . The British then left . Pallas returned on 12 May with HMS Indefatigable and a 16 @-@ gun ship @-@ sloop , Kingfisher . The unfavourable winds , and the two large frigates and three brigs , Allemande had despatched , caused the British to withdraw . On 14 May Pallas was once more sighted and Allemande again ordered Minerve and three corvettes , the Lynx , Sylphe and Palinure to chase Cochrane off . Collett ordered all sail in the hope of catching Pallas before she could escape , but Cochrane was in no hurry to leave and even attempted to draw Minerve on by backing his topsails . Once in range , Pallas fired into the enemy , bringing down the main topsail yard of one of the smaller vessels , before making off among the shoals with Minerve in pursuit . By 1300 hrs , Minerve had come up on the leeward side of Pallas , whereupon Pallas fired into her and closed with the intention of boarding . Just at that moment , Minerve hit a sandbank and Pallas crashed into her with such force that her guns were jolted from their positions . Pallas then unleashed a devastating broadside . Both ships were badly damaged in the collision but Pallas , drawing less water than Minerve , was able to free herself and take off , having spotted two forty @-@ gun French frigates , Armide and Infatigable , approaching . Kingfisher , disobeyed her orders to keep offshore , and sailed in to take Pallas in tow , which had lost her jib @-@ boom , spritsail and stunsail yards , main topsail yard and fore topmast . The damage to Minerve was relatively minor , she was later re @-@ floated and taken to Rochefort for repair . The engagement on 14 May cost the lives of seven seamen aboard Minerve , with a further fourteen injured . The casualties aboard Pallas were light : one dead and five wounded . On 25 September 1806 , Minerve , Armide , Gloire and Infatigable were captured by a heavily armed , six @-@ ship squadron under Samuel Hood . Minerve surrendered to the 74 @-@ gun HMS Monarch . The French frigate Thémis and two French brigs managed to escape . = = British service = = The captured Minerve arrived at Plymouth on 26 October 1806 , and after languishing there for some months , was taken into service as HMS Alceste , and commissioned in March 1807 under Captain Murray Maxwell . She was refitted at Plymouth for British naval service from April to August 1807 , then in December that year she was sent to the Mediterranean . In the Action of 4 April 1808 Alceste , in company with HMS Mercury and HMS Grasshopper attacked a Spanish convoy off Rota , destroying two of the escorts and driving many of the merchants ashore . Seven were subsequently captured and sailed back out to sea by marines and sailors of the British ships . On 22 May , Alceste encountered some French feluccas that were forced to seek refuge under the guns of the bay of Agay . Under cover of darkness , two boats from Alceste , one under Lieutenant Andrew Wilson , the other led by the ship 's master , Henry Bell , were sent in to attack the shore batteries . This was only partially successful ; Wilson was unable to achieve his objective , while Bell 's section managed to spike the guns of the second battery but only after taking heavy fire . Alceste stood out to sea for three days , and on the night of 25 May , Maxwell sent two armed boats to lay in wait in a rocky cove . The following morning Alceste set sail . The French , assuming Alceste had gone to attend to some other business , attempted to leave , but the two British boats lying in ambush attacked . Despite fierce resistance and fire from the guns on shore , four ships of the French convoy were captured . On 21 June 1810 , the boats of Alceste and Topaze captured two vessels in the bay of Martino in Corsica . A landing party captured a battery of three guns that protected the entrance to the bay . They were able to capture and render the guns unserviceable , and kill or wound a number of the garrison . The British lost one man killed and two wounded in the action . In 1811 , Alceste entered the Adriatic . On 4 – 5 May , she and Belle Poule participated in a raid at Parenza ( Istria ) that destroyed a French 18 @-@ gun brig . They chased the brig into the harbour but could not get the ships close enough to bombard her . Instead , the two vessels landed 200 seamen and all their marines on an island nearby and brought on to it two 9 @-@ pounders and two howitzers , which they placed in one battery , and a field piece that they placed further away . Eventually , they and the French in Parenza engaged in five hours of mutual bombardment , during which the British were able to sink the brig . They then returned men and cannons to their ships . In the action , Belle Poule had one man killed and three wounded and Alceste had two men killed ; all casualties occurred onshore . Alceste raided Ragusa , and at the Action of 29 November 1811 , Alceste led the British frigate squadron that outran and defeated a French military convoy carrying cannon . Alceste was stationed at the island of Lissa ( now Vis ) , together with the frigates Unité and Active , when word was received of a similar size French squadron heading north . The three British frigates immediately set sail , caught up with and engaged the French , capturing two of their frigates . The frigates contained more than 200 cannon , which were being transported to Trieste , a city in north @-@ east Italy on the border of the Balkan States . It has been suggested by British historian James Henderson that this action was a factor in Napoleon 's decision to change the direction of his planned eastward expansion in 1812 from the Balkans to Russia . In late 1812 , Alceste was decommissioned and placed in ordinary at Deptford . Between February and July 1814 she was converted at Deptford into a troopship ; in this role , she was recommissioned in May 1814 under Commander Faniel Lawrence , and sailed with troops to North America . Alceste left Pensacola on 8 December 1814 , in tandem with the 50 other vessels in Admiral Alexander Cochrane 's convoy . = = = Diplomatic mission to China = = = With the end of the war came a peace settlement which redefined Europe . It was the British government ’ s desire to strengthen ties with China and to that end planned to send an envoy to inform the emperor of the settlement and to profess Britain 's friendship . William Amherst was the able diplomat chosen for the job and Amherst , in turn , specifically requested Maxwell and the frigate Alceste . Therefore , in 1816 , Alceste was recommissioned under Captain Maxwell again , whose previous ship HMS Daedalus had been wrecked in 1813 . The journey out was uneventful ; Alceste left Spithead for China on 9 February 1816 with Amherst aboard , and after stopping at Madeira , Rio de Janeiro , the Cape of Good Hope , Anyer and Batavia , sailed through the Bangka Strait into the South China Sea . After a short stop to pay respects at Canton , Alceste passed the Straits of Formosa and hove @-@ to in the Bohai Sea on 28 July . There she met with the 10 @-@ gun brig @-@ sloop , Lyra , despatched earlier to herald the arrival of Britain 's ambassador . = = = = Exploration of Korea and Ryukyu Islands = = = = Having previously arranged to travel back overland from Peking and rendezvous with Alceste at Canton , Amherst was ferried to the mouth of the Hai River on 9 August . Amherst 's mission and return journey would take several weeks , thus providing Maxwell an opportunity to explore the area . Alceste headed north while Lyra , under the command of Lieutenant Basil Hall , was ordered to explore the south . The General Hewitt , an Indiaman chartered to carry gifts for the Emperor of China , was to take the centre channel . Alceste first undertook a survey of the Gulf of Liaodong , at that time virtually unknown to Europeans and after spending some time exploring the Liaodong Peninsula , Alceste proceeded southward to Jiaozhou Bay on the coast of Shandong , where she encountered the General Hewitt , and was later joined by Hall in the Lyra . Alceste and Lyra left the bay on 29 August and proceeded eastward toward the west coast of Korea , an area that had not been surveyed since the Jesuit missionaries visited in the 16th and 17th centuries . Maxwell hence found the coast to be some 130 miles further east than expected and while there also discovered the archipelago that forms the south @-@ western tip of the Korean peninsula . Maxwell then turned his attention the Loo Choo Islands , now known as the Ryukyu archipelago , dropping anchor in the Napakiang roads on the south @-@ west side of Okinawa on 16 September 1816 . After a six @-@ week stay , Alceste returned to China , via the southern end of the island of Taiwan , arriving at the mouth of the Pearl River on 2 November . = = = = Return to Whampoa = = = = Alceste required some repairs after an arduous journey in less than clement weather so Maxwell wasted no time in petitioning the viceroy of Canton for permission to travel up the Tigris to a secure anchorage , unaware that Amherst 's mission had been less than successful . The emperor 's reception towards the British had been tepid at best , having showed little interest in the affairs of Europe , so far away , and refusing to accept a gift from King George which he had thought less than sufficient . Having received an insulting message in response to his request , Maxwell decided to enter the river anyway but had not gone far when he was hailed by a local mandarin who threatened to have the batteries guarding the entrance sink Alceste if she went any further . Still in need of repairs and requiring navigation of the river to Whampoa to pick up Amherst , Maxwell told the mandarin that he would proceed in any event . Alceste made short work of the shore defences and 17 or so war @-@ junks sent to stop her , and continued up the river to Whampoa where she anchored and awaited the arrival of Lord Amherst and his suite . Having completed as much of the mission as possible , Amherst repaired on board Alceste which left Whampoa , on 21 January 1817 . = = = Fate = = = Alceste was a little undermanned , carrying a complement of 257 , including Lord Amherst and his entourage . It would have been usual practice to remove some of the guns in order to create more space for distinguished guests , and it is likely that this had been done . Fewer guns allowed for a smaller crew and this may have been a contributing factor . With waters that remain uncharted even today and the many shoals and reefs which rise so steeply that even modern equipment could fail to spot them , the South China Seas , with its frequent storms and typhoons remain some of the most dangerous waters in the world . Despite the continual use of a sounding lead , on 18 February 1817 , Alceste grounded on one of the many hidden reefs in the Java Sea . Maxwell ordered the anchor dropped to prevent the ship from slipping into deeper water , an undesirable situation if the hull had been breached , which indeed turned out to be the case . The pumps were unable to cope with the influx of water and the ship 's carpenter , Cheffy , reported that Alceste was beyond repair . Three miles away was an island , known today as Pulau Liat , and Maxwell ordered the first lieutenant , Henry Parkyns Hoppner , to take Lord Amherst and his party off in two of the boats . The island 's thick vegetation prevented an accurate assessment of whether it was inhabited or not , and forced the crews to row a further three miles before finding a suitable landing spot between the mangroves . The rest of the ships company were evacuated in the remaining boats and a large raft . Because of the lack of provisions , and in particular , drinking water , it was decided that Hoppner would take Amherst and his embassy in two of the boats to Java , 200 miles to the south . Once there , a rescue could be initiated . A return journey to Java could not be accomplished in less than nine days and so further supplies would be required for the 200 remaining . An expedition back to Alceste to see what could be salvaged was interrupted by the arrival of pirates in the form of Malay Dyaks . The unarmed expedition was obliged to return to the shore , and leave the pirates to plunder the wreck . Maxwell ordered the construction of a stockade and the improvisation of additional weapons to counter the threat of an attack . On 22 February , an armed party was sent out to reclaim the ship but before they could do so , the pirates set light to Alceste and made off . The wreck was completely destroyed by the fire which lasted throughout the night but , because the marooned had since managed to construct a well on the island , the impact was minimal . Even so , the following morning , Maxwell sent out a boat which managed to retrieve some barrels of flour , cases of wine and a cask of ale . At dawn on 26 February two proas and two canoes entered the cove but the second lieutenant , Hay , led a sortie in which one of the proas was boarded , four pirates were killed , five jumped into the sea and two were captured . The boat could not be brought in however as she was scuttled beforehand and sank quickly . Later that day the pirates returned in force and the following day further reinforcements arrived . The pirates did not attempt to land but behaved aggressively , firing their swivel guns towards the shore . Fourteen more proas arrived during the day , on 1 March , and several more during the night . With the provisions running low , the build @-@ up of pirates , and a rescue now overdue , Maxwell formulated a plan to capture sufficient proas to escape from the island . While the plan was being proposed , a sail was spotted on the horizon , heading toward the island . The appearance of this vessel , coupled with a sudden attack spearheaded by Alceste 's marines , caused the pirates to flee . The rescue ship turned out to be the Ternate , an East Indiaman , despatched by Lord Amherst , on the day of his arrival in Batavia . The Ternate returned to Batavia with the castaways , where Amherst chartered another ship , Ceaser , for the journey to England . During a stop at St Helena , Maxwell met Napoleon , who remembered the action on the 29 November 1811 , when Alceste had captured La Pomone , and remarked , " ... your government must not blame you for the loss of Alceste , for you have taken one of my frigates . " Later , at his court martial , Maxwell was exonerated of all blame for the loss of Alceste . Maxwell received much praise for his actions , and the British East India Company awarded him £ 1500 . He was knighted in 1818 .

= Valston Hancock = Air Marshal Sir Valston Eldridge ( Val ) Hancock , KBE , CB , DFC ( 31 May 1907 – 29 September 1998 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He served as Chief of the Air Staff from 1961 to 1965 . A graduate of the Royal Military College , Duntroon , Hancock transferred to the RAAF in 1929 and qualified as a pilot . His administrative training at Duntroon saw him primarily occupy staff posts , including Deputy Director of Operations and Intelligence at RAAF Headquarters from 1931 to 1935 , and Director of Works and Buildings from 1937 to 1939 . During the early years of World War II , he commanded No. 1 Bombing and Gunnery School , and held senior planning and administrative positions . He eventually saw combat in the Aitape – Wewak campaign of the Pacific War during 1945 . Flying Bristol Beaufort light bombers , he led first No. 100 Squadron , and later No. 71 Wing . His actions earned him the Distinguished Flying Cross . After the war , Hancock became the inaugural commandant of RAAF College . His subsequent positions included Deputy Chief of the Air Staff from 1951 to 1953 , Air Member for Personnel from 1953 to 1955 , and Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) No. 224 Group RAF in Malaya , responsible for all Commonwealth air forces in the region , from 1957 to 1959 . Appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1958 , he served as AOC RAAF Operational Command from 1959 to 1961 , before being promoted to air marshal and commencing his term as Chief of the Air Staff . He was knighted in 1962 . In his role as the Air Force 's senior officer , Hancock initiated redevelopment of RAAF Base Learmonth in north Western Australia , as part of a chain of forward airfields for the defence of the continent . He also evaluated potential replacements for the RAAF 's English Electric Canberra bomber , selecting the American " TFX " ( later the General Dynamics F @-@ 111 ) as the most suitable for Australia 's needs , though he did not recommend its immediate purchase due to its early stage of development . After his retirement from the military in May 1965 , Hancock co @-@ founded the Australia Defence Association . He died in 1998 , aged 91 . = = Early career = = Hancock was born on 31 May 1907 in Perth , Western Australia , and educated at Hale School in Wembley Downs . He was the elder cousin of future mining magnate Lang Hancock . Val Hancock entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1925 and graduated as senior cadet in 1928 , earning the Sword of Honour . His preferred career path in the military was engineering , and it was only when he found that there was no vacancy in his corps of choice , and that he had instead been earmarked for the artillery , that he put his name forward for transfer to the Royal Australian Air Force . He enlisted in the RAAF on 1 February 1929 , and undertook flying instruction at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , later that year . Hancock 's initial postings after qualifying as a pilot were to Nos. 1 and 3 Squadrons . It was , however , common practice for Duntroon graduates to be given staff positions in the Air Force because of their training in administration , and Hancock was no exception . He spent most of the 1930s in a succession of posts at RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . From 1931 to 1935 , he served as Deputy Director of Operations and Intelligence . He married Joan Butler on 26 May 1932 ; the couple had two sons and a daughter . By 1935 , Hancock had been promoted to flight lieutenant and appointed Staff Officer to the Chief of the Air Staff . In 1937 he was posted to Britain to attend the RAF Staff College , Andover . Like other Commonwealth air forces , the RAAF maintained close technological and educational ties with the Royal Air Force , and Hancock was one of 30 Australian officers to pass through Andover before the outbreak of World War II . Returning to Australia in 1938 , he was promoted to squadron leader and became Director of Works and Buildings , commonly known as " Works and Bricks " , at RAAF Headquarters . = = World War II = = In March 1940 , Hancock 's Directorate of Works and Buildings was transferred from the office of the Chief of the Air Staff to the newly formed Organisation and Equipment Branch under Air Marshal Richard Williams . Considered a key part of the Air Force 's expansion during the early part of World War II , " Works and Bricks " quickly absorbed all staff with civil engineering and building experience in the RAAF active reserve . As Director , Hancock was responsible for surveying and developing a military aerodrome at Evans Head , near the Queensland and New South Wales border , which became home to No. 1 Bombing and Gunnery School ( No. 1 BAGS ) . Promoted to wing commander , he held command of No. 1 BAGS , operating Fairey Battle single @-@ engined bombers , from August 1940 until November 1941 . He was promoted to acting group captain in April 1941 . Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) on 1 January 1942 , Hancock became Assistant Director of Plans at Allied Air Forces Headquarters , South West Pacific Area , that April . He was made Director of Plans at the Air Force 's main operational formation , RAAF Command , when it was established in September . In 1943 – 44 , he served as Staff Officer Administration for Western Area Command , which maintained two bomber squadrons for anti @-@ submarine patrols and two fighter squadrons to guard against possible attack on the mainland by Japanese carrier @-@ borne aircraft . Hancock finally achieved a combat command in January 1945 , when he took charge of No. 100 Squadron , flying Bristol Beaufort light bombers during the Aitape @-@ Wewak campaign in New Guinea . That month , the unit attacked Japanese positions at Maprik , below the Prince Alexander Ranges , and Cape Moem , near Wewak . On 1 April , Hancock took over No. 71 Wing , which came under overall control of RAAF Northern Command and nominally comprised Nos. 7 , 8 and 100 Beaufort Squadrons , as well as a flight of CAC Boomerang fighter @-@ bombers from No. 4 ( Army Cooperation ) Squadron . It was soon augmented by two more Beaufort units , Nos. 6 and 15 Squadrons . Providing close air support to Australian ground troops in the lead @-@ up to the final assault on Wewak , the wing flew over 1 @,@ 400 sorties and dropped more than 1 @,@ 200 tons of bombs in May alone . By mid @-@ year , Hancock 's forces were acutely short of fuel and ordnance , to the extent that his squadrons took to arming their Beauforts with captured Japanese bombs . In July , enough supplies arrived to enable the wing to continue operating at normal strength . No. 71 Wing was active to the very last day of the Pacific War , flying its final combat mission involving 30 Beauforts only hours before news of victory arrived on 15 August 1945 . Hancock 's " distinguished flying on operations in Northern Command " earned him the Distinguished Flying Cross ; the award was published in the London Gazette on 22 February 1946 . = = Post @-@ war career = = Among a small coterie of wartime RAAF commanders considered suitable for future senior roles , Hancock retained his rank of group captain following the end of hostilities . As Director of Personnel Services during 1946 , he was involved in restructuring the Air Force into a dramatically smaller peacetime service . He recalled this time as a " twilight period " when " no @-@ one wanted to know about us " and many good people were let go due to the government 's parsimonious retention policies . In 1947 , Hancock was promoted to air commodore and appointed inaugural commandant of the newly formed RAAF College , Point Cook , the Air Force 's equivalent of Duntroon and the Royal Australian Naval College . He also drafted the institution 's charter . Departing in late 1949 , he spent the following year in Britain , where he attended the Imperial Defence College . On his return to Australia in 1951 , he was promoted to acting air vice marshal and made Deputy Chief of the Air Staff . He was raised to a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1953 New Years Honours . In October that year , Hancock took over from Air Vice Marshal Frank Bladin as Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) . As AMP , he occupied a seat on the Air Board , the service 's controlling body that consisted of its most senior officers and which was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . Completing his term in January 1955 , Hancock was posted to Britain as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff in London . He spent much of the latter half of 1955 and early 1956 laid low by a stomach ailment that was initially diagnosed as amoebic dysentery but was later thought to be Malta fever or malaria . In March 1957 , Hancock was one of three candidates , along with Air Vice Marshals Frederick Scherger and Allan Walters , touted as possible successors to Air Marshal Sir John McCauley as Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) , the RAAF 's senior position . Scherger gained selection , and Hancock was posted in June to Malaya as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) No. 224 Group RAF , responsible for all Commonwealth air forces in the region . Though fastidious in appearance and a strict teetotaller , he was known for his enthusiasm in meeting staff and as " an indefatigable participant in mess functions and games " . He also made a point of getting out to units in the field , taking every opportunity to fly himself around his command . For his " distinguished service in Malaya " , Hancock was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) on 9 December 1958 . He returned to Australia in July 1959 to serve as AOC Operational Command ( now Air Command ) . When Scherger 's term as CAS was due to complete , Hancock and Walters were once more put forward to the Minister for Air as potential replacements . His " professional ability , operational experience and personal qualities " being deemed more appropriate for the role , Hancock was promoted to air marshal and took over as CAS in May 1961 . In June , he met with his opposite numbers in the Army and Navy at a Chiefs of Staff Committee conference to discuss the necessity of Australia acquiring nuclear weapons ; the chiefs agreed that the probability such a capability would be required was remote but that it should remain an option under certain circumstances , a position the defence forces maintained during the ensuing decade . He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) in the 1962 Queen 's Birthday Honours , gazetted on 2 June . As CAS , Hancock worked to enhance the RAAF 's deterrent capability in the Pacific region , particularly in light of heightened tensions with Indonesia during its period of Konfrontasi with Malaysia . In June 1963 , Hancock undertook a mission to Britain , France and the United States to consider potential replacements for the English Electric Canberra bomber as Australia 's prime aerial strike platform . After investigating the US " TFX " , North American A @-@ 5 Vigilante and McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II , the British BAC TSR @-@ 2 , and the French Dassault Mirage IV , Hancock decided that the swing @-@ wing TFX , forerunner of the General Dynamics F @-@ 111 , would be the aircraft best suited for this role . However , as the TFX had not yet flown , he recommended purchase of the already operational Vigilante to counteract a perceived imminent threat from Indonesia . In the event , the Federal Government did not go ahead with an immediate replacement for the Canberra , and Hancock 's original choice of the TFX was taken up as a long @-@ term solution , leading to Australia 's agreement in October to purchase the F @-@ 111C . The same month , as Konfrontasi continued to simmer , Hancock approved simplification to the rules of engagement for Australian CAC Sabre fighters based at RAAF Butterworth to engage and destroy Indonesian aircraft violating Malay air space . The following month he urged using RAAF Canberras from Butterworth to make pre @-@ emptive strikes against Indonesian air bases , in retaliation for incursions into West Malaysia , but Britain , which had initially requested Australia 's involvement , held back on action . Once the F @-@ 111 had been ordered , Hancock sought a suitable forward airfield from which they could operate . In this , he continued a policy initiated by his predecessor as CAS , Air Marshal Scherger , of developing a chain of so @-@ called " bare bases " in Northern Australia . Hancock recommended redeveloping RAAF Base Learmonth in the northern part of Western Australia , due to its proximity to Indonesia . Flying out of this airfield , the F @-@ 111s could destroy " vital centres in Java " ; just as importantly for deterrence purposes , Hancock contended , enhancing the base 's capability would send a clear message to Indonesia 's hierarchy . Though the project was delayed , in part due to thawing in relations between Australia and Indonesia , Learmonth 's upgrade was completed in 1973 , the same year that the F @-@ 111 finally entered RAAF service . The latter part of Hancock 's tour as CAS coincided with the beginning of large @-@ scale Australian involvement in the Vietnam War . By mid @-@ 1964 , the Commonwealth had already sent a small team of military advisors , plus a detachment of newly acquired DHC @-@ 4 Caribou cargo planes , to the region at the request of the South Vietnamese government . Under Hancock , the Caribou had itself only been reluctantly ordered by the Air Force following intense pressure from the Army and the Federal government for an STOL transport . Concerned at the potential drain on the RAAF 's resources , Hancock tried to resist calls for commitments to Vietnam . His negative views were in contrast to the hawkish attitudes of his deputy , Air Vice Marshal Colin Hannah , and Air Chief Marshal Scherger , now Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and Australia 's senior soldier . In April 1965 , as part of American operations in Indochina , United States Air Force strike aircraft took up residence at Ubon Air Force Base , Thailand , which since 1962 had been home to No. 79 Squadron Sabres and run by the RAAF under SEATO arrangements . Hancock proposed that Australia continue to command the facility and provide local air defence , though this effectively made the Sabres a support unit in the war effort and therefore potential targets of North Vietnamese attack ; in the event , none occurred . = = Later life = = Hancock retired from the Air Force in May 1965 after completing his term as CAS , which the government had extended for twelve months beyond its original three years . Having followed two fellow Royal Military College graduates — McCauley and Scherger — in the role , he was succeeded by another former Duntroon cadet , Alister Murdoch . Hancock 's name was put forward as a successor to Scherger when the latter 's term as Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee completed in May 1966 , but Prime Minister Sir Robert Menzies preferred General Sir John Wilton for the position . Later the same year , Hancock took over as Commissioner @-@ General for Australia at Expo 67 in Montreal , Canada , following the sudden death of the previous appointee , Vice Admiral Sir Hastings Harrington . In 1975 , prompted in part by the fall of Saigon in April that year , Hancock co @-@ founded the Australia Defence Association as an independent think tank for defence matters , and chaired its Western Australian chapter . He was also active in the Royal Commonwealth Society , and published an autobiography , Challenge , in 1990 . Hancock continued to fly in retirement , joining his cousin Lang , also a pilot , in promoting the Pilbara mining district . Val Hancock died in Perth on 29 September 1998 , and was survived by his wife and three children . He is commemorated by Sir Valston Hancock Drive at Evans Head .

= Air India = Air India is the flag carrier airline of India and the third largest airline in India in terms of passengers carried , after IndiGo and Jet Airways . It is owned by Air India Limited , a Government of India enterprise and operates a fleet of Airbus and Boeing aircraft serving 84 domestic and international destinations . It is headquartered in New Delhi . Air India has its main hub at Indira Gandhi International Airport , New Delhi and a secondary hub at Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport , Mumbai . Air India became the 27th member of Star Alliance on 11 July 2014 . Founded in 1932 by J. R. D. Tata and later renamed as Tata Airlines , he flew its first single @-@ engine De Havilland Puss Moth , carrying air mail from Karachi to Bombay and later continuing to Madras ( currently Chennai ) . After World War II , it became a public limited company and was renamed to Air India . On 21 February 1960 , it included its first Boeing 707 – 420 named Gauri Shankar and became the first Asian airline to induct a jet aircraft in its fleet . In 2000 – 01 , attempts were made to privatize Air India and from 2006 onwards , it suffered losses after its merger with Indian . Air India also operates flights to domestic and Asian destinations through its subsidiaries Air India Regional and Air India Express . Air India uses the Airbus A320 family and Boeing 787 aircraft for selected domestic routes while long distance services use the Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , 747 and 787 aircraft . Air India 's mascot is the Maharajah ( Emperor ) and the logo consists of a flying Swan with the wheel of Konark inside it . = = History = = = = = Early years ( 1932 – 1945 ) = = = Air India had its origin in Tata Sons , founded by J. R. D. Tata , an Indian aviator and business tycoon . In April 1932 , Tata won a contract to carry mail for Imperial Airways and the aviation department of Tata Sons was formed with two single @-@ engine De Havilland Puss Moths . On 15 October 1932 , Tata flew a Puss Moth carrying air mail from Karachi to Bombay ( currently Mumbai ) and the aircraft continued to Madras ( currently Chennai ) piloted by Neville Vincent , a former Royal Air Force pilot and friend of Tata . The airline fleet consisted of a Puss Moth aircraft and a Leopard Moth . Initial service included weekly airmail service between Karachi and Madras via Ahmedabad and Bombay . In its first year of operation , the airline flew 160 @,@ 000 miles ( 260 @,@ 000 km ) , carrying 155 passengers and 9 @.@ 72 tonnes ( 10 @.@ 71 tons ) of mail and made a profit of ₹ 60 @,@ 000 ( US $ 890 ) . Later , the airline launched a domestic flight from Bombay to Trivandrum with a six @-@ seater Miles Merlin . In 1938 , it was re @-@ christened as Tata Air Services and later as Tata Airlines . Delhi and Colombo were added to the destinations in 1938 . During the Second World War , the airline helped the Royal Air Force with troop movements , shipping of supplies , rescue of refugees and maintenance of planes . = = = Post Independence ( 1946 – 2000 ) = = = After World War II , regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on 29 July 1946 under the name Air India . After the Indian independence in 1947 , 49 % of the airline was acquired by the Government of India in 1948 . On 8 June 1948 , a Lockheed Constellation L @-@ 749A named Malabar Princess ( registered VT @-@ CQP ) took off from Bombay bound for London Heathrow marking the airline 's first international flight . In 1953 , the Government of India passed the Air Corporations Act and purchased a majority stake in the carrier . The company was renamed as Air India International Limited and the domestic services were transferred to Indian Airlines as a part of restructuring . From 1948 to 1950 , the airline introduced services to Nairobi in Africa and to major European destinations Rome , Paris and Düsseldorf . The airline took delivery of its first Lockheed Constellation L @-@ 1049 named Rani of Jhansi ( registered VT @-@ DGL ) and inaugurated services to Bangkok , Hong Kong , Tokyo and Singapore . On 21 February 1960 , Air India International inducted its first Boeing 707 – 420 named Gauri Shankar ( registered VT @-@ DJJ ) , thereby becoming the first Asian airline to induct a jet aircraft in its fleet . The airline inaugurated services to New York on 14 May 1960 . On 8 June 1962 , the airline 's name was officially truncated to Air India and on 11 June 1962 , Air India became the world 's first all @-@ jet airline . In 1971 , the airline took delivery of its first Boeing 747 @-@ 200B named Emperor Ashoka ( registered VT @-@ EBD ) and introduced a new Palace in the Sky livery and branding . In 1986 , Air India took delivery of its first Airbus A310 @-@ 300 . In 1993 , Air India took delivery of a Boeing 747 @-@ 400 named Konark ( registered VT @-@ ESM ) and operated the first non @-@ stop flight between New York and Delhi . = = = Later years ( 2000 – ) = = = In 2000 – 01 , attempts were made to privatize Air India . In 2000 , Air India introduced services to Shanghai , China . On 23 May 2001 , the Ministry of Civil Aviation charged Michael Mascarenhas , the then @-@ managing director , with corruption . According to the ministry reports , the airline lost approximately ₹ 570 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 5 million ) because of extra commissions that Mascarenhas sanctioned and he was later suspended from the airline . In May 2004 , Air India launched a wholly owned low cost subsidiary called Air @-@ India Express connecting cities in India with the Middle East and Southeast Asia . Until 2007 , Air India mainly operated on international long @-@ haul routes while Indian Airlines operated on domestic and international short @-@ haul routes . In 2007 , Air India and Indian Airlines were merged under Air India Limited and the airline took delivery of its first Boeing 777 aircraft . The airline was invited to be a part of the Star Alliance in 2007 . The combined losses for Air India and Indian Airlines in 2006 – 07 were ₹ 7 @.@ 7 billion ( US $ 110 million ) and after the merger , it went up to ₹ 72 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 billion ) by March 2009 . In July 2009 , State Bank of India was appointed to prepare a road map for the recovery of the airline . The carrier sold three Airbus A300 and one Boeing 747 – 300M in March 2009 for $ 18 @.@ 75 million to finance the debt . By March 2011 , Air India had accumulated a debt of ₹ 425 @.@ 7 billion ( US $ 6 @.@ 3 billion ) and an operating loss of ₹ 220 billion ( US $ 3 @.@ 3 billion ) , and was seeking ₹ 429 @.@ 2 billion ( US $ 6 @.@ 4 billion ) from the government . A report by the Comptroller and Auditor General blamed the decision to buy 111 new planes and the ill @-@ timed merger with Indian Airlines for the poor financial situation . In August 2011 , the invitation to join Star Alliance was suspended as a result of its failure to meet the minimum standards for the membership . The government pumped ₹ 32 billion ( US $ 480 million ) into Air India in March 2012 . On 1 March 2009 , Air India made Frankfurt Airport its international hub for onward connections to the United States from India . However , the airline shut down the Frankfurt hub on 30 October 2010 because of high operating costs . In 2010 , financially less lucrative routes were terminated and the airline planned to open a new hub for its international flights at Dubai . In 2012 , a study commissioned by the Corporate Affairs Ministry recommended that Air India should be partly privatized . In May 2012 , the carrier invited offers from banks to raise up $ 800 million via external commercial borrowing and bridge financing . In May 2012 , the airline was fined $ 80 @,@ 000 by the U.S. Transportation Department for failing to post customer service and tarmac delay contingency plans on its website and adequately inform passengers about its optional fees . In 2013 , the then @-@ Civil Aviation Minister Ajit Singh stated privatization was the key to the airline 's survival . However , the opposition led by the BJP and the CPI ( M ) slammed the government . In 2013 , the Indian government planned to delay equity infusion of ₹ 300 billion ( US $ 4 @.@ 5 billion ) that was slated to be infused into the airline slowly over a period of eight years . In January 2013 , Air India cleared a part of its pending dues through funds raised by selling and leasing back the newly acquired Boeing 787 Dreamliners . In March 2013 , the airline posted its first positive EBITDA after almost six years and 20 % growth in its operating revenue since the previous financial year . Air India Limited split its engineering and cargo businesses into two separate subsidiaries , Air India Engineering Services Limited ( AIESL ) and Air India Transport Services Limited ( AITSL ) in 2013 . In December 2013 , the airline appointed veteran pilot SPS Puri as its head of operations . The appointment was criticized by the Air India pilots union as Puri allegedly has multiple violations to his name . Air India became the 27th member of Star Alliance on 11 July 2014 . In August 2015 , it signed an agreement with Citibank and State Bank of India to raise $ 300 million in external commercial borrowing to meet working capital requirements . For FY 2014 – 15 , its revenue , operating loss and net loss were ₹ 197 @.@ 81 billion ( US $ 2 @.@ 9 billion ) , ₹ 2 @.@ 171 billion ( US $ 32 million ) and ₹ 5 @.@ 41 billion ( US $ 80 million ) compared FY 2011 – 12 , which were ₹ 147 @.@ 13 billion ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 billion ) , ₹ 5 @.@ 138 billion ( US $ 76 million ) and ₹ 7 @.@ 55 billion ( US $ 110 million ) . As of February 2016 , Air India is the third largest carrier in India , after IndiGo and Jet Airways with a market share of 15 @.@ 4 % . = = Corporate affairs and identity = = = = = Headquarters = = = Air India Limited is headquartered at the Indian Airlines House , New Delhi . Air India moved its headquarters from Air India Building , Mumbai to Delhi in 2013 . The former headquarters is a 23 @-@ storey tower on Marine Drive and was one of the targets of the 1993 Bombay bombings . = = = Subsidiaries = = = = = = = Current = = = = Air India Regional was established as Alliance Air , a wholly owned subsidiary of Indian Airlines on 1 April 1996 and started operations on 21 June 1996 . It was renamed Air India Regional after the merger between Air India and Indian Airlines . Air India Express began operations on 29 April 2005 and was initially owned by Air India Charters . It operates flights from South India to the Middle East and Southeast Asia . = = = = Defunct = = = = Air India became the first Asian airline to operate freighters when Air India Cargo was set up in 1954 and started its freighter operations with a Douglas DC @-@ 3 aircraft . Air India Cargo ended freighter aircraft operations in early 2012 . = = = Mascot = = = Air India 's mascot is the Maharajah ( Emperor ) . It was created by Bobby Kooka , the then @-@ commercial director of Air India , and Umesh Rao , an artist with J. Walter Thompson Limited in 1946 . Kooka stated that , " We call him a Maharajah for want of a better description . But his blood isn 't blue . He may look like royalty , but he isn 't royal " . Air India adopted the Maharajah as its mascot in 1946 . It was used in promoting it although initially designed only for the airline 's memo @-@ pads . The Maharajah was given a makeover in 2015 and the brand is represented by a younger version . = = = Logo and livery = = = Air India 's colour scheme is red and white . The aircraft were painted in white with red palace style carvings on the outside of the windows and the airline 's name written in red . The name is written in Hindi on one side and in English on the other . The window scheme was designed in line with the slogan Your Palace in the Sky . The airplanes were earlier named after Indian kings and landmarks . In 1989 , to supplement its Flying Palace livery , Air India introduced a new livery that included a metallic gold spinning wheel on a deep red @-@ coloured tail and a Boeing 747 , Rajendra Chola , was the first aircraft to be painted in the new colours . The first logo of Air India was a centaur , a stylised version of Sagittarius shooting an arrow in a circle representing the wheel of Konark . The logo chosen by founder J. R. D. Tata was introduced in 1948 and represented the airline until 2007 . On 22 May 2007 , Air India and Indian Airlines unveiled their new livery consisting of a Flying Swan with the wheel of Konark placed inside it . The flying swan was morphed from the centaur logo and the chakra was derived from Indian 's erstwhile logo . On 15 May 2007 , Air India refreshed its livery , making the Rajasthani arches along the windows slightly smaller , extending a stylised line from the tail of the aircraft to the nose and painting the underbelly red . The new logo features on the tail and the engine covers with red and orange lines running parallel to each other from the front door to the rear door . = = Destinations = = Air India flies to a total of 84 destinations including 48 domestic destinations and 36 international destinations in 24 countries across four continents around the world . Its primary hub is located at Indira Gandhi International Airport , New Delhi , and it has a secondary hub at Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport , Mumbai . = = = Code @-@ share agreements = = = Air India became the 27th member of Star Alliance on 11 July 2014 . Air India has code @-@ sharing agreements with the following airlines : = = Fleet = = = = = Current = = = As of July 2016 , the Air India fleet consists of the following aircraft : = = = Fleet information = = = In 1932 , Air India started operations with De Havilland Puss Moth . It inducted its first Boeing 707 – 420 named Gauri Shankar ( registered VT @-@ DJJ ) , thereby becoming the first Asian airline to induct a jet aircraft in its fleet and on 4 August 1993 , Air India took the delivery of its first Boeing 747 – 400 named Konark ( registered VT @-@ ESM ) . The airline 's first Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR aircraft was delivered on 26 July 2007 , which was named Andhra Pradesh . Air India received its first Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER aircraft on 9 October 2007 and the aircraft was named as Bihar . Air India received its first Boeing 787 dreamliner aircraft on 6 September 2012 and commenced flights on 19 September 2012 . Apart from the Boeing aircraft , Air India also operates a wide range of Airbus aircraft . In 1989 , Indian Airlines introduced the Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft , which Air India now uses to operate both domestic and international short haul flights . In 2005 , Indian Airlines introduced the smaller , A319 , which are now used mainly on domestic and regional routes . After the merger in 2007 , Air India inducted the biggest member of the A320 family , the A321 , to operate mainly on international short haul and medium haul routes . At the same time , Air India leased the Airbus A330s to operate on medium @-@ long haul international routes . As of February 2013 , Air India operates 62 Airbus A320 family aircraft . Air India One ( also referred to as AI @-@ 1 or AIC001 ) is the call sign of any Air India aircraft carrying the Prime Minister , President or the Vice President . Air India One operates on one of the five Boeing 747 @-@ 400s that Air India currently owns as VIP flights . Customised Embraer 135 and Boeing Business Jets are also used . = = = New aircraft orders = = = On 11 January 2006 , Air India announced an order for 68 jets – 8 Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR , 15 Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , 18 Boeing 737 @-@ 800 and 27 Boeing 787 @-@ 8 Dreamliners . The eighteen Boeing 737s ordered were later transferred to Air India Express . Air India has taken the delivery of 20 Boeing 787 – 8s as of December 2015 and the remaining are expected to be delivered by 2016 . = = = Fleet restructuring = = = As a part of the financial restructuring , Air India sold five of its eight Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR aircraft to Etihad Airways in December 2013 . According to the airline , plans for introducing ultra @-@ long flights with service to Seattle , San Francisco and Los Angeles were cancelled due to factors like high fuel prices and weak demand . In April 2014 , the airline decided to sell its remaining three Boeing 777 @-@ 200LRs as well , citing higher operating costs . On 24 April 2014 , Air India issued a tender for leasing 14 Airbus A320 aircraft for up to six years , to strengthen its domestic network . = = = Aircraft operated = = = Apart from the aircraft listed above , Air India operated several other aircraft . Air India operated the De Havilland Puss Moth , De Havilland Fox Moth , Waco YQC @-@ 6 , de Havilland Dragon Rapide , Percival Petrel , Douglas DC @-@ 2 , DC @-@ 3 , Vickers VC.1 Viking , Lockheed L @-@ 749 Constellation , Douglas DC @-@ 4 and the Lockheed L @-@ 1049 Super Constellation up @-@ to 1960 . Thereafter , Air India started operating the Boeing 707 and the De Havilland Comet . = = Services = = = = = Cabin = = = The Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR / 777 @-@ 300ER aircraft operated on long haul flights can accommodate 342 passengers in a three class configuration viz. first ( 3 ) , business ( 35 ) and economy ( 303 ) . The Boeing 747 – 400 can accommodate 423 passengers in the same three class configuration in a 12 @-@ 26 @-@ 385 seating arrangement . Boeing 787 Dreamliner and Airbus A321 flights have a two class configuration and can accommodate 256 ( 18B / 238E ) and 172 ( 20B / 152E ) passengers . Airbus A320 aircraft operated on domestic and short haul international flights can accommodate either 168 in economy configuration or 140 ( 20B / 120E ) in a two class configuration . Airbus A319 aircraft have a full economy 144 seat configuration . Air India serves meals on all international flights and domestic flights with a flight duration of over 90 minutes . = = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = = Air India aircraft are equipped with Thales i3000 in @-@ flight entertainment system . Passengers can choose from five channels airing Hindi and English content . Air India 's Boeing 777 series , 747 and 787 aircraft are also equipped with personal on demand in @-@ flight entertainment systems on which passengers can choose from available content . Showtime is the official entertainment guide published by Air India . Shubh Yatra ( meaning Happy Journey ) is a bilingual in @-@ flight magazine published in English and Hindi by Air India . = = = Frequent flyer programme = = = Flying Returns is Air India 's frequent @-@ flyer programme . It is India 's first frequent flyer programme and is shared by Air India and its subsidiaries . A member can earn mileage points and redeem them during future travel . On higher fares , passengers will earn bonus miles and clock mileage points . The points can be redeemed for awards travel on Lufthansa and Singapore Airlines . = = = Premium lounges = = = The Maharaja Lounge ( English : Emperor 's Lounge ) is available for the use of First and Business class passengers . Air India shares lounges with other international airlines at international airports that do not have a Maharaja Lounge available . There are eight Maharaja Lounges : India Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport , Mumbai Indira Gandhi International Airport , Delhi Chennai International Airport , Chennai Kempegowda International Airport , Bangalore Rajiv Gandhi International Airport , Hyderabad Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport , Ahmedabad International John F. Kennedy International Airport , New York Heathrow Airport , London = = Awards and recognitions = = Preferred International Airline for travel and hospitality from Awaz Consumer Awards ( 2006 ) Best Corporate Social Responsibility Initiative by Galileo Express Travel World Best Short @-@ Haul International Airline by Galileo Express Travel World ( 2008 ) Amity Corporate Excellence Award by Amity University Reader 's Digest Trusted Brand Dun and Bradstreet Award ( D & B ) , first in terms of revenue out of the top airline companies out of India Best South Asian Airline , Mice and business travel publications Cargo Airline of the Year , 26th Cargo Airline of the Year Awards The Montreal Protocol Public Awareness Award by the United Nations for environmental protection It was named India 's most trusted airline by The Brand Trust Report 2015 . Air India 's ground services became the first ground service provider to acquire ISO 9002 certification on 31 January 2001 . = = = Gulf War evacuation = = = The airline entered the Guinness Book of World Records for the most people evacuated by a civil airliner . Over 111 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from Amman to Mumbai , a distance of 4 @,@ 117 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 558 mi ) , by operating 488 flights from 13 August to 11 October 1990 – lasting 59 days . The operation was carried out during Persian Gulf War to evacuate Indian expatriates from Kuwait and Iraq . = = Accidents and incidents = = = = = 1940s = = = On 27 December 1947 , an Air India DC @-@ 3 ( registered VT @-@ AUG ) carrying 23 people ( 19 passengers and four crew ) en route from Karachi to Bombay , lost control after take @-@ off from Karachi International Airport due to an instrument failure and crashed , killing all on board . This was the airline 's first fatal accident . = = = 1950s = = = On 3 November 1950 , Air India Flight 245 Malabar Princess , a Lockheed L @-@ 749 Constellation ( registered VT @-@ CQP ) carrying 48 people ( 40 passengers and eight crew ) , flying on the Bombay @-@ Cairo @-@ Geneva @-@ London route , crashed on Mont Blanc in France killing all on board . On 13 December 1950 , an Air India DC @-@ 3 ( registered VT @-@ CFK ) carrying 21 people ( 17 passengers and four crew ) , en route from Bombay to Coimbatore , crashed into high ground near Kotagiri due to a navigational error , killing all on board . On 15 September 1951 , an Air India Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrain ( registered VT @-@ CCA ) carrying 27 people ( 23 passengers and four crew ) en route from Bangalore to Trivandrum , crashed on take @-@ off killing a crew member . On 9 May 1953 , an Air India Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrain ( registered VT @-@ AUD ) carrying 18 people ( 13 passengers and five crew ) crashed after take @-@ off from Delhi killing all on board . On 11 April 1955 , Kashmir Princess , a Lockheed L @-@ 749A Constellation ( registered VT @-@ DEP ) carrying 19 people ( 11 passengers and 8 crew ) was bombed in mid @-@ air , killing 16 of the 19 on board . On 19 July 1959 Rani of Aera , a Lockheed L @-@ 1049G Super Constellation ( registered VT @-@ DIN ) carrying 46 people ( 39 passengers and seven crew ) crashed on approach to Santacruz Airport in conditions of poor visibility due to rain . The aircraft suffered damage beyond repair and was written off . There were no fatalities . = = = 1960s = = = On 24 January 1966 , Air India Flight 101 Kanchenjunga , a Boeing 707 – 420 ( registered VT @-@ DMN ) carrying 117 people ( 106 passengers and 11 crew ) crashed on Mont Blanc , France killing all on board including the noted Indian scientist , Homi J. Bhabha . = = = 1970s = = = On 1 January 1978 , Air India Flight 855 Emperor Ashoka , a Boeing 747 @-@ 237B ( registered VT @-@ EBD ) crashed into the Arabian Sea after take @-@ off from Mumbai killing everyone on board ( 213 persons ; 190 passengers , 23 crew ) . = = = 1980s = = = On 21 June 1982 , Air India Flight 403 Gouri Shankar , a Boeing 707 – 420 ( registered VT @-@ DJJ ) carrying 99 passengers and 12 crew from Kuala Lumpur to Bombay via Madras crashed during landing at Sahar International Airport during a rainstorm . The fuselage exploded and 17 people including two crew members were killed . On 23 June 1985 , Air India Flight 182 Emperor Kanishka , a Boeing 747 @-@ 237B ( registered VT @-@ EFO ) was blown up in mid @-@ air by a suitcase @-@ bomb planted by Babbar Khalsa terrorists allegedly as revenge for the Indian Government 's operation on the Golden Temple in June 1984 . The flight was on the first leg on its Montreal @-@ London @-@ Delhi @-@ Bombay flight when it exploded off the coast of Cork , Ireland in the Atlantic Ocean . All 307 passengers and 22 crew on board died . = = = 1990s = = = On 7 May 1990 , Air India Flight 132 Emperor Vikramaditya , a Boeing 747 @-@ 237B ( registered VT @-@ EBO ) flying on the London @-@ Delhi @-@ Bombay route carrying 215 people ( 195 passengers and 20 crew ) caught fire on touch down at Delhi airport due to a failure of an engine pylon to wing attachment . There were no fatalities but the aircraft was damaged beyond repair and written off .

= Fantasy Black Channel = Fantasy Black Channel is the debut studio album by British dance @-@ punk band Late of the Pier . It was released on 30 July 2008 in Japan through Toshiba EMI and on 4 August 2008 in the British Isles on Parlophone , the band 's primary label . Five tracks had already been released as singles in the United Kingdom : " Bathroom Gurgle " , " The Bears Are Coming " , " Space and the Woods " and " Focker " as a double A @-@ side , and " Heartbeat " . The record peaked at number 28 on the UK Albums Chart , but failed to chart in the United States . The album was recorded in frontman Sam Eastgate 's bedroom in Castle Donington , England , and at several locations in London . It went through a fractured creative process that lasted for more than two years . It was eventually produced by Eastgate and DJ Erol Alkan between 2007 and 2008 . Fantasy Black Channel does not contain a unifying musical or lyrical theme ; rather , it is a collage of all the ideas , genres , and studio effects that fascinated the band members and Alkan , especially during live recording sessions . The record was very well received by critics . It was often treated as one of the best British albums of 2008 because of its eclecticism and spirit of invention . = = Origins and recording = = Having officially formed a band under the name Late of the Pier in 2004 , childhood friends Sam Eastgate , Andrew Faley , Sam Potter , and Ross Dawson initially developed the sound of their first album by listening to the alternative dance music of British ensemble The Prodigy and the grunge music of American band Nirvana . They soon branched out into listening to diverse genres from the last 40 years of music , including Motown and soul . Potter has treated their conception of Fantasy Black Channel as a reaction to " mediocre , complacent indie @-@ schmindie bands who find a sound and stick to it ; whose songs sound exactly the same " , while lead writer and composer Eastgate has pointed out that they wanted to " take people past their own limits " . The nascent recording stages took place in Eastgate 's bedroom , where unconventional time signatures and experimental chords were performed because , at the time , no band member could play an instrument properly . Late of the Pier started using the album working title Interesting Adventure in 2006 after practising in Eastgate 's bedroom for about a year and previewed their new material at the Liars Club in Nottingham . After receiving contract offers from Parlophone and Atlantic Records , the band members signed to Parlophone because the label gave them total autonomy over the recording process without pressuring them to be commercially successful immediately . The record deal was followed by the recording of an EP titled Zarcorp Demo , from which a demo single , " Space and the Woods " , was released in March 2007 . Eastgate has claimed that the band members were influenced by the music of the 1980s during these formative stages of Fantasy Black Channel even though none of them were born before 1986 . In late 2007 , Late of the Pier formally met renowned DJ Erol Alkan after seeing him play a set at the Liars Club . Alkan called them " THE most exciting band around " and offered the band members help in the recording process of Fantasy Black Channel . They accepted and made him producer for the album because of the immediate rapport that developed between the two parties . Dawson has explained the choice of producer by suggesting that Alkan is famous for playing broad genres of music and that he understands the properties and crossover of dance and guitar music . Alkan fully embraced the band members ' ideas and immediately understood what they were trying to achieve . " Bathroom Gurgle " was recorded by the new collaboration and was released as a limited edition single in September 2007 . The production process for Fantasy Black Channel gathered pace around December 2007 . Late of the Pier usually proceeded by taking bedroom recordings into the studio , where they were refined by Alkan into " a more presentable package " . They tried unconventional techniques in the style of avant garde producer Joe Meek during the live studio recording sessions , including stamping in baths and reamping guitars through air vents . When tracks were mixed after being recorded , the band members , Alkan , and engineer Jimmy Robertson worked in tandem and unanimously decided when a track had finished undergoing the studio effects process . No songs changed after this point , even when one of the parties had further ideas . At the time , in an interview with the band , Stuart Turnbull of the BBC Collective indicated that Alkan managed to " channel Late of the Pier 's sonic attack into something more focused yet still undeniably different " . = = Promotion and release = = The record was nearly completed by the end of January 2008 . Late of the Pier stopped recording to embark on a headlining UK tour during the month of February , in which they previewed new material . " The Bears Are Coming " was released as a vinyl single in March 2008 . The band toured until the end of April 2008 to promote another single — a double A @-@ side containing a reworked " Space and the Woods " and " Focker " — from the as @-@ yet @-@ unreleased Fantasy Black Channel . Studio work with Alkan restarted in May 2008 to put the finishing touches on the album ; the final version was christened as " a compilation of hits " and " anti @-@ pop pop " . The album was recorded during six months in different studios and the band members have admitted that the variety in venues partially explains why it sounds disjointed . The idea of having a single 45 @-@ minute track instead of a track list of songs was mooted at the end of May 2008 , but was not followed through . Fantasy Black Channel 's track listing and UK CD release date of 11 August 2008 were confirmed on 11 June . Faley has claimed that " the album fell into place itself , like the songs basically told us where they wanted to go on the album " . Late of the Pier picked the record 's name at random after first contemplating using Peggy Patch and Her Sequenced Dress . The cover art was designed by a friend of the band members from Brighton , Jon Bergman . A final EP containing material already released in 2007 and 2008 , Echoclistel Lambietroy , was released in July 2008 as part of the marketing campaign for the forthcoming album . Potter has summed the record 's conception by concluding , " I think in the three years to build up to the album , we never actually thought of a track list , and we never really kind of considered the fact that it should sound like an album . I think we recorded all the songs and then they were there and it was like , ' Oh , we have to kind of stitch this together and make it sound like one piece . ' " = = Content = = = = = Lyrics = = = The writing process for Fantasy Black Channel was largely unplanned . The verses of " Broken " were conceived late at night and are inspired by insomnia . It took Eastgate a long time to describe how he was feeling " in a way that sounded original " for such a common theme in pop music . The lyrics in the chorus are about the first time Late of the Pier drove to London and got lost . " Space and the Woods " tries to weigh up what is more important : a person or an inanimate object , or an absence of anything , while " The Bears Are Coming " concerns " a silent threat " . The idea for the lyric " A heartbeat , a flicker , a line " in " Heartbeat " came to Eastgate while recording the song and hearing its time signature always changing . The lyricist cannot remember writing " White Snake " and did not know there was a band of the same name in existence . " Focker " evolved out of a demo , called " 6 / 8 Focker " , Eastgate sang through a guitar amp with initially indecipherable lyrics . " The Enemy Are the Future " gets its name from a sentence in a promotional leaflet for the indie rock band The Enemy . Eastgate has explained that for " Mad Dogs and Englishmen " he randomly " shouted lots of short phrases " and then tried to make sense of what he said . The process led to stylised lines like " Falling over aeroplanes and wanting to be a derelict " . = = = Composition = = = Fantasy Black Channel is largely built on sonic experiments and the use of studio and computer techniques . The opening track , " Hot Tent Blues " , is an instrumental short which contains seven layers of electric guitar run through a Zoom 506 bass guitar pedal . " Broken " was conceived during a jam session between Eastgate 's guitar riffs and Dawson 's drumming , while a demo of " Space and the Woods " similar to the Nirvana song " All Apologies " was reworked and remixed in the studio . Eastgate credits Storm Mortimer , who used to drive Late of the Pier around London , as the muse for " The Bears Are Coming " . She often sang impromptu and the frontman eventually borrowed a page of her songs and added an afrobeat @-@ inspired rhythm to it . Eastgate and Dawson wanted to create a track that evoked the idea of " coming out of the jungle " and credit varied musical acts like Slagsmålsklubben , Prince , The Beatles , Mr Flash , FrYars , and Lutricia McNeal as inspiration . " Random Firl " was one of Alkan 's favourites and he persuaded Late of the Pier to re @-@ record it like a classical piece of music rather than in a rock @-@ oriented way . The vocal harmonies at the end of the song were added during one of the last days of recording when the pressure to complete the album was high . " Heartbeat " is based on an old acid house demo track that Eastgate created during his childhood using a Roland TB @-@ 303 electronic synthesiser @-@ sequencer . The track features complex time signature progressions and a guitar solo played by Potter on the sampler at the end . " Whitesnake " was inspired by the music of Devo , Roxy Music , and Dandi Wind , while " VW " is based on a 2001 demo recorded in Eastgate 's attic . In the studio , Late of the Pier hired brass players to perform the horn sections and create new scales . Once the instrumentals were recorded , the band members purposefully decided to mix their own playing lower in certain sections of the song so that listeners could hear the horns more clearly . " Focker " was created using a looped riff from " 6 / 8 Focker " . Eastgate then conceived a drum solo and remixed and rearranged the last 20 seconds of the song . " The Enemy Are the Future " was created during a hungover jam session , where all band members played individually and not in tandem . Dawson performed around 40 different beats one after another all in different timings . The session was recorded using a tape player and a track was moulded in the studio . Four different endings were recorded and three were spliced together at the end . " Mad Dogs and Englishmen " , whose riff is based on an old French samba song , was borne out of an interplay between Eastgate on the guitar and Faley on the bass . The last track on the album , " Bathroom Gurgle " , includes " a squelchy grind of the riff " purpose @-@ built for the Liars Club audience during the band 's first ever gigs . Eastgate has explained , " I had these two themes , which looped round on each other which I sang very exasperated Annie Lennox style vocals over . " The fast tempo of the first half of the song was juxtaposed against a section of " slow drama " . = = Critical reception = = Media response to Fantasy Black Channel was highly favourable ; aggregating website Metacritic reports a normalised rating of 81 % based on 18 critical reviews . Allmusic 's K. Ross Hoffman described the album as " glorious and galvanising " and labelled it " a convoluted construction crammed with so many immediately gratifying moments that it takes multiple listens to extricate them all " . John Burgess of The Guardian explained that a new favourite song , riff , or wayward moment can be found every time that the album is listened to . Tim Chester of NME concluded , " It takes a certain kind of mind to make this . While others whinge about living and dying in cul @-@ de @-@ sac towns shackled by cul @-@ de @-@ sac imaginations , LOTP 's vision is housed on Dubai 's ' The World ' island @-@ creation project . " Some reviewers classified Fantasy Black Channel into the British New Rave genre and musical scene . Others claimed that they could hear impressions of Roxy Music frontman Bryan Ferry and musician Gary Numan in the recording . Pitchfork Media 's Adam Moerder commented that it contains several New Rave compositions which are aesthetically dubious . Chris Baynes of PopMatters claimed that the band members " wear their influences pretty much inked onto their sleeves " , but concluded that the album is exciting and excitable in equal measure . According to Late of the Pier , comparisons to Klaxons and New Rave are the results of lazy journalism , especially for a scene the band has never been in . Eastgate has explained that musical influences are often subconscious , even though the band members tried not to listen to anything but their own work while recording the album . Nick Mitchell of The Skinny pointed out that the record is " an unrestrained , unclassifiable , unexpectedly triumphant romp through blaring influences and genres , from the 70s camp rock of Queen and Bowie to the primitive electronics of Gary Numan , with echoes of 90s computer games and snatches of modern house " . Fantasy Black Channel figured in several publications ' end @-@ of @-@ year best album lists for 2008 , notably , at number three by Clash , at number five by FACT , and at number 18 by NME . It was ranked at number 16 in HMV 's Poll of Polls for 2008 , which aggregates the votes of prominent British critics to decide the commercial group 's Album Of The Year . Earlier in 2008 , Rory Carroll of Artrocker claimed that the record would have been a late entrant for the Mercury Music Prize , and would have probably won the award , if nominations had been made in August rather than July 2008 . Because of their work on the album , Late of the Pier received a nomination for Best New Band at the 2009 NME Awards . Two tracks were also nominated : " Bathroom Gurgle " and " Heartbeat " , in the Best Dancefloor Filler and Best Video categories respectively . In 2009 , Clash placed Fantasy Black Channel at number 40 in its list of the 50 Greatest Albums , 2004 – 2009 , while FACT included it at number 99 in its editorial staff list of the 100 Best : Albums of the Decade . = = Track listing = = All songs written and arranged by Sam Eastgate , unless otherwise stated . A hidden track , " No Time " , begins at 4 : 50 of " Bathroom Gurgle " . = = = Bonus tracks = = = " Dose A " – 1 : 47 – track 13 on the iTunes version " Very Wav " – 4 : 44 – track 13 on the Japanese and U.S. editions " Focker ( Rolmops Remix ) " – 3 : 15 – track 14 on the Japanese edition " The Bears Are Coming ( Emperor Machine Remix ) " – 9 : 22 – track 14 on U.S. edition and track 15 on the Japanese edition = = = Vinyl = = = The 2008 UK LP version of Fantasy Black Channel comprised a standard black vinyl copy in a gatefold picture sleeve . It was released a week earlier than the CD version and had the following track changes : " Space and the Woods ( Cenzo Townsend Mix ) " instead of " Space and the Woods " " The Bears Are Coming ( Original Version ) " instead of " The Bears Are Coming " " Heartbeat ( Cenzo Townsend Version ) " instead of " Heartbeat " The 2009 U.S. LP version was released concurrently with the CD version . = = Personnel = = = = Recording and release details = = Fantasy Black Channel was recorded between 2006 and 2008 in Sam Eastgate 's bedroom in Castle Donington and at the following studios in London . The album 's release history is as follows : = = Chart positions = =

= George B. McClellan = George Brinton McClellan ( December 3 , 1826 – October 29 , 1885 ) was an American soldier , civil engineer , railroad executive , and politician . A graduate of West Point , McClellan served with distinction during the Mexican @-@ American War , and later left the Army to work in railroads until the outbreak of the American Civil War . Early in the war , McClellan was appointed to the rank of major general and played an important role in raising a well @-@ trained and organized army , which would become the Army of the Potomac ; he served a brief period ( November 1861 to March 1862 ) as general @-@ in @-@ chief of the Union Army . Although McClellan was meticulous in his planning and preparations , these very characteristics hampered his ability to challenge aggressive opponents in a fast @-@ moving battlefield environment . He chronically overestimated the strength of enemy units and was reluctant to apply principles of mass , frequently leaving large portions of his army unengaged at decisive points . McClellan organized and led the Union 's army in the Peninsula Campaign ( also known as the Peninsular Campaign ) in southeastern Virginia from March through July 1862 . It was the first large @-@ scale offensive in the Eastern Theater . Making an amphibious clockwise turning movement around the Confederate States Army in northern Virginia , McClellan 's forces turned west to move up the Virginia Peninsula , with the Confederate capital , Richmond , as their objective . Initially , McClellan was somewhat successful against the equally cautious General Joseph E. Johnston , but the emergence of General Robert E. Lee turned the subsequent Seven Days Battles into a Union defeat . General McClellan failed to maintain the trust of President Abraham Lincoln . He was insubordinate to his commander @-@ in @-@ chief and privately derisive of him . He was removed from command in November after failing to decisively pursue Lee 's Army following the tactically inconclusive but strategic Union victory at the Battle of Antietam , and never received another field command . McClellan went on to become the unsuccessful Democratic Party nominee in the 1864 presidential election against Lincoln . The effectiveness of his campaign was damaged when he repudiated his party 's platform , which promised to end the war and negotiate with the Confederacy . He served as the 24th Governor of New Jersey from 1878 to 1881 . He eventually became a writer , and vigorously defended his Civil War conduct . Most modern authorities have assessed McClellan as a poor battlefield general . A few historians view him as a highly capable commander whose reputation suffered unfairly at the hands of pro @-@ Lincoln partisans who made him a scapegoat for the Union 's military setbacks . After the war , Ulysses S. Grant was asked for his opinion of McClellan as a general . He replied , " McClellan is to me one of the mysteries of the war . " = = Early life and career = = George Brinton McClellan was born in Philadelphia , the son of a prominent surgeon , Dr. George McClellan , the founder of Jefferson Medical College . His father 's family was of Ulster Scots heritage . His mother was Elizabeth Sophia Steinmetz Brinton McClellan ( 1800 – 1889 ) , daughter of a leading Pennsylvania family , a woman noted for her " considerable grace and refinement " . The couple had five children : a daughter , Frederica ; then three sons , John , George , and Arthur ; and finally a second daughter , Mary . McClellan was the great @-@ grandson of Revolutionary War general Samuel McClellan , of Woodstock , Connecticut . He attended the University of Pennsylvania in 1840 at age 13 , resigning himself to the study of law . After two years , he changed his goal to military service . With the assistance of his father 's letter to President John Tyler , young George was accepted at the United States Military Academy in 1842 , the academy having waived its normal minimum age of 16 . At West Point , he was an energetic and ambitious cadet , deeply interested in the teachings of Dennis Hart Mahan and the theoretical strategic principles of Antoine @-@ Henri Jomini . His closest friends were aristocratic Southerners such as James Stuart , Dabney Maury , Cadmus Wilcox , and A. P. Hill . These associations gave McClellan what he considered to be an appreciation of the Southern mind and an understanding of the political and military implications of the sectional differences in the United States that led to the Civil War . He graduated in 1846 , second in his class of 59 cadets , losing the top position to Charles Seaforth Stewart only because of poor drawing skills . He was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . = = = Mexican – American War = = = McClellan 's first assignment was with a company of engineers formed at West Point , but he quickly received orders to sail for the Mexican – American War . He arrived near the mouth of the Rio Grande in October 1846 , well prepared for action with a double @-@ barreled shotgun , two pistols , a saber , a dress sword , and a Bowie knife . He complained that he had arrived too late to take any part in the American victory at Monterrey in September . During a temporary armistice in which the forces of Gen. Zachary Taylor awaited action , McClellan was stricken with dysentery and malaria , which kept him in the hospital for nearly a month . The malaria would recur in later years — he called it his " Mexican disease . " He served bravely as an engineering officer during the war , was frequently subject to enemy fire , and was appointed a brevet first lieutenant for Contreras and Churubusco and to captain for Chapultepec , He performed reconnaissance missions for Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott , a close friend of McClellan 's father . McClellan 's experiences in the war would shape his military and political life . He learned that flanking movements ( used by Scott at Cerro Gordo ) are often better than frontal assaults , and the value of siege operations ( Veracruz ) . He witnessed Scott 's success in balancing political with military affairs , and his good relations with the civil population as he invaded , enforcing strict discipline on his soldiers to minimize damage to property . McClellan also developed a disdain for volunteer soldiers and officers , particularly politicians who cared nothing for discipline and training . = = = Peacetime service = = = McClellan returned to West Point to command his engineering company , which was attached to the academy for the purpose of training cadets in engineering activities . He chafed at the boredom of peacetime garrison service , although he greatly enjoyed the social life . In June 1851 he was ordered to Fort Delaware , a masonry work under construction on an island in the Delaware River , 40 miles ( 64 km ) downriver from Philadelphia . In March 1852 he was ordered to report to Capt. Randolph B. Marcy at Fort Smith , Arkansas , to serve as second @-@ in @-@ command on an expedition to discover the sources of the Red River . By June the expedition reached the source of the north fork of the river and Marcy named a small tributary McClellan 's Creek . Upon their return to civilization on July 28 , they were astonished to find that they had been given up for dead . A sensational story had reached the press that the expedition had been ambushed by 2 @,@ 000 Comanches and killed to the last man . McClellan blamed the story on " a set of scoundrels , who seek to keep up agitation on the frontier in order to get employment from the Govt. in one way or other . " In the fall of 1852 , McClellan published a manual on bayonet tactics that he had translated from the original French . He also received an assignment to the Department of Texas , with orders to perform a survey of Texas rivers and harbors . In 1853 he participated in the Pacific Railroad surveys , ordered by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis , to select an appropriate route for the planned transcontinental railroad . McClellan surveyed the western portion of the northern corridor along the 47th and 49th parallels from St. Paul to the Puget Sound . In so doing he demonstrated a tendency for insubordination toward senior political figures . Isaac Stevens , governor of the Washington Territory , became dissatisfied with McClellan 's performance in scouting passes across the Cascade Range . McClellan selected Yakima Pass without a thorough reconnaissance and refused the governor 's order to lead a party through it in winter conditions , relying on faulty intelligence about the depth of snow pack in that area . In so doing , he missed three greatly superior passes in the near vicinity , which would be the ones eventually used for railroads and interstate highways . The governor ordered McClellan to turn over his expedition logbooks , but McClellan steadfastly refused , most likely because of embarrassing personal comments that he had made throughout . Returning to the East , McClellan began courting his future wife , Mary Ellen Marcy ( 1836 – 1915 ) , the daughter of his former commander . Ellen , or Nelly , refused McClellan 's first proposal of marriage , one of nine that she received from a variety of suitors , including his West Point friend , A. P. Hill . Ellen accepted Hill 's proposal in 1856 , but her family did not approve and he withdrew . In June 1854 , McClellan was sent on a secret reconnaissance mission to Santo Domingo at the behest of Jefferson Davis . McClellan assessed local defensive capabilities for the secretary . ( The information was not used until 1870 , when President Ulysses S. Grant unsuccessfully attempted to annex the Dominican Republic . ) Davis was beginning to treat McClellan almost as a protégé , and his next assignment was to assess the logistical readiness of various railroads in the United States , once again with an eye toward planning for the transcontinental railroad . In March 1855 , McClellan was promoted to captain and assigned to the 1st U.S. Cavalry regiment . Because of his political connections and his mastery of French , McClellan received the assignment to be an official observer of the European armies in the Crimean War in 1855 . Traveling widely , and interacting with the highest military commands and royal families , McClellan observed the siege of Sevastopol . Upon his return to the United States in 1856 he requested assignment in Philadelphia to prepare his report , which contained a critical analysis of the siege and a lengthy description of the organization of the European armies . He also wrote a manual on cavalry tactics that was based on Russian cavalry regulations . Like other observers , though , McClellan did not appreciate the importance of the emergence of rifled muskets in the Crimean War , and the fundamental changes in warfare tactics it would require . The Army adopted McClellan 's cavalry manual and also his design for a saddle , dubbed the McClellan Saddle , which he claimed to have seen used by Hussars in Prussia and Hungary . It became standard issue for as long as the U.S. horse cavalry existed and is still used for ceremonies . = = = Civilian pursuits = = = McClellan resigned his commission January 16 , 1857 , and , capitalizing on his experience with railroad assessment , became chief engineer and vice president of the Illinois Central Railroad , and then president of the Ohio and Mississippi Railroad in 1860 . He performed well in both jobs , expanding the Illinois Central toward New Orleans and helping the Ohio and Mississippi recover from the Panic of 1857 . Despite his successes and lucrative salary ( $ 10 @,@ 000 per year ) , he was frustrated with civilian employment and continued to study classical military strategy assiduously . During the Utah War against the Mormons , he considered rejoining the Army . He also considered service as a filibuster in support of Benito Juárez in Mexico . Before the outbreak of the Civil War , McClellan became active in politics , supporting the presidential campaign of Democrat Stephen A. Douglas in the 1860 election . He claimed to have defeated an attempt at vote fraud by Republicans by ordering the delay of a train that was carrying men to vote illegally in another county , enabling Douglas to win the county . In October 1859 McClellan was able to resume his courtship of Mary Ellen , and they were married in Calvary Church , New York City , on May 22 , 1860 . = = Civil War = = = = = Ohio and strategy = = = At the start of the Civil War , McClellan 's knowledge of what was called " big war science " and his railroad experience suggested he might excel at military logistics . This placed him in great demand as the Union mobilized . The governors of Ohio , Pennsylvania , and New York , the three largest states of the Union , actively pursued him to command their states ' militia . Ohio Governor William Dennison was the most persistent , so McClellan was commissioned a major general of volunteers and took command of the Ohio militia on April 23 , 1861 . Unlike some of his fellow Union officers who came from abolitionist families , he was opposed to federal interference with slavery . So some of his Southern colleagues approached him informally about siding with the Confederacy , but he could not accept the concept of secession . On May 3 McClellan re @-@ entered federal service as commander of the Department of the Ohio , responsible for the defense of the states of Ohio , Indiana , Illinois , and , later , western Pennsylvania , western Virginia , and Missouri . On May 14 , he was commissioned a major general in the regular army . At age 34 , he outranked everyone in the Army other than Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott , the general @-@ in @-@ chief . McClellan 's rapid promotion was partly due to his acquaintance with Salmon P. Chase , Treasury Secretary and former Ohio governor and senator . As McClellan scrambled to process the thousands of men who were volunteering for service and to set up training camps , he also applied his mind to grand strategy . He wrote a letter to Gen. Scott on April 27 , four days after assuming command in Ohio , that presented the first proposal for a strategy for the war . It contained two alternatives , each envisioning a prominent role for himself as commander . The first would use 80 @,@ 000 men to invade Virginia through the Kanawha Valley toward Richmond . The second would use the same force to drive south instead , crossing the Ohio River into Kentucky and Tennessee . Scott rejected both plans as logistically infeasible . Although he complimented McClellan and expressed his " great confidence in your intelligence , zeal , science , and energy " , he replied by letter that the 80 @,@ 000 men would be better used on a river @-@ based expedition to control the Mississippi River and split the Confederacy , accompanied by a strong Union blockade of Southern ports . This plan , which would require considerable patience of the Northern public , was derided in newspapers as the Anaconda Plan , but eventually proved to be the outline of the successful prosecution of the war . Relations between the two generals became increasingly strained over the summer and fall . = = = Western Virginia = = = McClellan 's first military operations were to occupy the area of western Virginia that wanted to remain in the Union and subsequently became the state of West Virginia . He had received intelligence reports on May 26 that the critical Baltimore and Ohio Railroad bridges in that portion of the state were being burned . As he quickly implemented plans to invade the region , he triggered his first serious political controversy by proclaiming to the citizens there that his forces had no intentions of interfering with personal property — including slaves . " Notwithstanding all that has been said by the traitors to induce you to believe that our advent among you will be signalized by interference with your slaves , understand one thing clearly — not only will we abstain from all such interference but we will on the contrary with an iron hand , crush any attempted insurrection on their part . " He quickly realized that he had overstepped his bounds and apologized by letter to President Lincoln . The controversy was not that his proclamation was diametrically opposed to the administration 's policy at the time , but that he was so bold in stepping beyond his strictly military role . His forces moved rapidly into the area through Grafton and were victorious at the tiny skirmish called the Battle of Philippi , arguably the first land conflict of the war . His first personal command in battle was at Rich Mountain , which he also won , but only after displaying a strong sense of caution and a reluctance to commit reserve forces that would be his hallmark for the rest of his career . His subordinate commander , William S. Rosecrans , bitterly complained that his attack was not reinforced as McClellan had agreed . Nevertheless , these two minor victories propelled McClellan to the status of national hero . The New York Herald entitled an article about him " Gen. McClellan , the Napoleon of the Present War . " = = = Building an army = = = After the defeat of the Union forces at Bull Run on July 21 , 1861 , Lincoln summoned McClellan from western Virginia , where McClellan had given the North the only engagements bearing a semblance of victory . He traveled by special train on the main Pennsylvania line from Wheeling through Pittsburgh , Philadelphia , and Baltimore , and on to Washington , D.C. , and was greeted by enthusiastic crowds that met his train along the way . Carl Sandburg wrote , " McClellan was the man of the hour , pointed to by events , and chosen by an overwhelming weight of public and private opinion . " On July 26 , the day he reached the capital , McClellan was appointed commander of the Military Division of the Potomac , the main Union force responsible for the defense of Washington . On August 20 , several military units in Virginia were consolidated into his department and he immediately formed the Army of the Potomac , with himself as its first commander . He reveled in his newly acquired power and influence : I find myself in a new and strange position here — Presdt , Cabinet , Genl Scott & all deferring to me — by some strange operation of magic I seem to have become the power of the land . ... I almost think that were I to win some small success now I could become Dictator or anything else that might please me — but nothing of that kind would please me — therefore I won 't be Dictator . Admirable self @-@ denial ! During the summer and fall , McClellan brought a high degree of organization to his new army , and greatly improved its morale with frequent trips to review and encourage his units . It was a remarkable achievement , in which he came to personify the Army of the Potomac and reaped the adulation of his men . He created defenses for Washington that were almost impregnable , consisting of 48 forts and strong points , with 480 guns manned by 7 @,@ 200 artillerists . The Army of the Potomac grew in number from 50 @,@ 000 in July to 168 @,@ 000 in November , becoming the largest military force the United States had raised until that time . But this was also a time of tension in the high command , as he continued to quarrel frequently with the government and the general @-@ in @-@ chief , Lt. Gen. Scott , on matters of strategy . McClellan rejected the tenets of Scott 's Anaconda Plan , favoring instead an overwhelming grand battle , in the Napoleonic style . He proposed that his army should be expanded to 273 @,@ 000 men and 600 guns and " crush the rebels in one campaign . " He favored a war that would impose little impact on civilian populations and require no emancipation of slaves . McClellan 's antipathy to emancipation added to the pressure on him , as he received bitter criticism from Radical Republicans in the government . He viewed slavery as an institution recognized in the Constitution , and entitled to federal protection wherever it existed ( Lincoln held the same public position until August 1862 ) . McClellan 's writings after the war were typical of many Northerners : " I confess to a prejudice in favor of my own race , & can 't learn to like the odor of either Billy goats or niggers . " But in November 1861 , he wrote to his wife , " I will , if successful , throw my sword onto the scale to force an improvement in the condition of those poor blacks . " He later wrote that had it been his place to arrange the terms of peace , he would have insisted on gradual emancipation , guarding the rights of both slaves and masters , as part of any settlement . But he made no secret of his opposition to the radical Republicans . He told Ellen , " I will not fight for the abolitionists . " This put him in opposition with officials of the administration who believed he was attempting to implement the policies of the opposition party . The immediate problem with McClellan 's war strategy was that he was convinced the Confederates were ready to attack him with overwhelming numbers . On August 8 , believing that the Confederacy had over 100 @,@ 000 troops facing him ( in contrast to the 35 @,@ 000 they actually deployed at Bull Run a few weeks earlier ) , he declared a state of emergency in the capital . By August 19 , he estimated 150 @,@ 000 rebel soldiers on his front . McClellan 's subsequent campaigns were strongly influenced by the overblown enemy strength estimates of his secret service chief , detective Allan Pinkerton , but in August 1861 , these estimates were entirely McClellan 's own . The result was a level of extreme caution that sapped the initiative of McClellan 's army and dismayed the government . Historian and biographer Stephen W. Sears observed that McClellan 's actions would have been " essentially sound " for a commander who was as outnumbered as McClellan thought he was , but McClellan in fact rarely had less than a two @-@ to @-@ one advantage over the armies that opposed him in 1861 and 1862 . That fall , for example , Confederate forces ranged from 35 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 , whereas the Army of the Potomac in September numbered 122 @,@ 000 men ; in early December 170 @,@ 000 ; by year end , 192 @,@ 000 . The dispute with Scott became increasingly personal . Scott ( as well as many in the War Department ) was outraged that McClellan refused to divulge any details about his strategic planning , or even such basic information as the strengths and dispositions of his units . McClellan claimed he could not trust anyone in the administration to keep his plans secret from the press , and thus the enemy . In the course of a disagreement about defensive forces on the Potomac River , McClellan wrote to his wife on August 10 : " Genl Scott is the great obstacle — he will not comprehend the danger & is either a traitor , or an incompetent . I have to fight my way against him . " Scott became so disillusioned with the young general that he offered his resignation to President Lincoln , who initially refused to accept it . Rumors traveled through the capital that McClellan might resign , or instigate a military coup , if Scott were not removed . Lincoln 's Cabinet met on October 18 and agreed to accept Scott 's resignation for " reasons of health . " = = = General @-@ in @-@ chief = = = On November 1 , 1861 , Winfield Scott retired and McClellan became general @-@ in @-@ chief of all the Union armies . The president expressed his concern about the " vast labor " involved in the dual role of army commander and general @-@ in @-@ chief , but McClellan responded , " I can do it all . " Lincoln , as well as many other leaders and citizens of the northern states , became increasingly impatient with McClellan 's slowness to attack the Confederate forces still massed near Washington . The Union defeat at the minor Battle of Ball 's Bluff near Leesburg in October added to the frustration and indirectly damaged McClellan . In December , the Congress formed a Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War , which became a thorn in the side of many generals throughout the war , accusing them of incompetence and , in some cases , treason . McClellan was called as the first witness on December 23 , but he contracted typhoid fever and could not attend . Instead , his subordinate officers testified , and their candid admissions that they had no knowledge of specific strategies for advancing against the Confederates raised many calls for McClellan 's dismissal . McClellan further damaged his reputation by his insulting insubordination to his commander @-@ in @-@ chief . He privately referred to Lincoln , whom he had known before the war as a lawyer for the Illinois Central , as " nothing more than a well @-@ meaning baboon " , a " gorilla " , and " ever unworthy of ... his high position . " On November 13 , he snubbed the president , who had come to visit McClellan 's house , by making him wait for 30 minutes , only to be told that the general had gone to bed and could not receive him . On January 10 , Lincoln met with top generals ( McClellan did not attend ) and directed them to formulate a plan of attack , expressing his exasperation with General McClellan with the following remark : " If General McClellan does not want to use the army , I would like to borrow it for a time . " On January 12 , 1862 , McClellan was summoned to the White House , where the Cabinet demanded to hear his war plans . For the first time , he revealed his intentions to transport the Army of the Potomac by ship to Urbanna , Virginia , on the Rappahannock River , outflanking the Confederate forces near Washington , and proceeding 50 miles ( 80 km ) overland to capture Richmond . He refused to give any specific details of the proposed campaign , even to his friend , newly appointed War Secretary Edwin M. Stanton . On January 27 , Lincoln issued an order that required all of his armies to begin offensive operations by February 22 , Washington 's birthday . On January 31 , he issued a supplementary order for the Army of the Potomac to move overland to attack the Confederates at Manassas Junction and Centreville . McClellan immediately replied with a 22 @-@ page letter objecting in detail to the president 's plan and advocating instead his Urbanna plan , which was the first written instance of the plan 's details being presented to the president . Although Lincoln believed his plan was superior , he was relieved that McClellan finally agreed to begin moving , and reluctantly approved . On March 8 , doubting McClellan 's resolve , Lincoln again interfered with the army commander 's prerogatives . He called a council of war at the White House in which McClellan 's subordinates were asked about their confidence in the Urbanna plan . They expressed their confidence to varying degrees . After the meeting , Lincoln issued another order , naming specific officers as corps commanders to report to McClellan ( who had been reluctant to do so prior to assessing his division commanders ' effectiveness in combat , even though this would have meant his direct supervision of twelve divisions in the field ) . Two more crises would confront McClellan before he could implement his plans . The Confederate forces under General Joseph E. Johnston withdrew from their positions before Washington , assuming new positions south of the Rappahannock , which completely nullified the Urbanna strategy . McClellan revised his plans to have his troops disembark at Fort Monroe , Virginia , and advance up the Virginia Peninsula to Richmond , an operation that would be known as the Peninsula Campaign . Then , however , McClellan came under extreme criticism in the press and Congress when it was learned that Johnston 's forces had not only slipped away unnoticed , but had for months fooled the Union Army with logs painted black to appear as cannons , nicknamed Quaker Guns . Congress 's joint committee visited the abandoned Confederate lines and radical Republicans introduced a resolution demanding the dismissal of McClellan , but it was narrowly defeated by a parliamentary maneuver . The second crisis was the emergence of the Confederate ironclad CSS Virginia , which threw Washington into a panic and made naval support operations on the James River seem problematic . On March 11 , 1862 , Lincoln removed McClellan as general @-@ in @-@ chief , leaving him in command of only the Army of the Potomac , ostensibly so that McClellan would be free to devote all his attention to the move on Richmond . Lincoln 's order was ambiguous as to whether McClellan might be restored following a successful campaign . In fact , the general @-@ in @-@ chief position was left unfilled . Lincoln , Stanton , and a group of officers who formed the " War Board " directed the strategic actions of the Union armies that spring . Although McClellan was assuaged by supportive comments Lincoln made to him , in time he saw the change of command very differently , describing it as a part of an intrigue " to secure the failure of the approaching campaign . " = = = Peninsula Campaign = = = McClellan 's army began to sail from Alexandria on March 17 . It was an armada that dwarfed all previous American expeditions , transporting 121 @,@ 500 men , 44 artillery batteries , 1 @,@ 150 wagons , over 15 @,@ 000 horses , and tons of equipment and supplies . An English observer remarked that it was the " stride of a giant . " The army 's advance from Fort Monroe up the Virginia Peninsula proved to be slow . McClellan 's plan for a rapid seizure of Yorktown was foiled when he discovered that the Confederates had fortified a line across the Peninsula , causing him to decide on a siege of the city , which required considerable preparation . McClellan continued to believe intelligence reports that credited the Confederates with two or three times the men they actually had . Early in the campaign , Confederate General John B. " Prince John " Magruder defended the Peninsula against McClellan 's advance with a vastly smaller force . He created a false impression of many troops behind the lines and of even more troops arriving . He accomplished this by marching small groups of men repeatedly past places where they could be observed at a distance or were just out of sight , accompanied by great noise and fanfare . During this time , General Johnston was able to provide Magruder with reinforcements , but even then there were far fewer troops than McClellan believed were opposite him . After a month of preparation , just before he was to assault the Confederate works at Yorktown , McClellan learned that Johnston had withdrawn up the Peninsula towards Williamsburg . McClellan was thus required to give chase without any benefit of the heavy artillery so carefully amassed in front of Yorktown . The Battle of Williamsburg on May 5 is considered a Union victory — McClellan 's first — but the Confederate army was not destroyed and a bulk of their troops were successfully moved past Williamsburg to Richmond 's outer defenses while the battle was waged and for several days thereafter . McClellan had also placed hopes on a simultaneous naval approach to Richmond via the James River . That approach failed following the Union Navy 's defeat at the Battle of Drewry 's Bluff , about 7 miles ( 11 km ) downstream from the Confederate capital , on May 15 . Basing artillery on a strategic bluff high above a bend in the river , and sinking boats to create an impassable series of obstacles in the river itself , the Confederates effectively blocked this potential approach to Richmond . McClellan 's army cautiously inched towards Richmond over the next three weeks , coming to within four miles ( 6 km ) of it . He established a supply base on the Pamunkey River ( a navigable tributary of the York River ) at White House Landing where the Richmond and York River Railroad extending to Richmond crossed , and commandeered the railroad , transporting steam locomotives and rolling stock to the site by barge . On May 31 , as McClellan planned an assault , his army was surprised by a Confederate attack . Johnston saw that the Union army was split in half by the rain @-@ swollen Chickahominy River and hoped to defeat it in detail at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks . McClellan was unable to command the army personally because of a recurrence of malarial fever , but his subordinates were able to repel the attacks . Nevertheless , McClellan received criticism from Washington for not counterattacking , which some believed could have opened the city of Richmond to capture . Johnston was wounded in the battle , and General Robert E. Lee assumed command of the Army of Northern Virginia . McClellan spent the next three weeks repositioning his troops and waiting for promised reinforcements , losing valuable time as Lee continued to strengthen Richmond 's defenses . At the end of June , Lee began a series of attacks that became known as the Seven Days Battles . The first major battle , at Mechanicsville , was poorly coordinated by Lee and his subordinates and resulted in heavy casualties for little tactical gain . However the battle had a significant impact on McClellan 's nerve . The surprise appearance of Maj. Gen. Stonewall Jackson 's troops in the battle ( when they had last been reported to be many miles away in the Shenandoah Valley ) convinced McClellan that he was even more outnumbered than he had thought . He reported to Washington that he faced 200 @,@ 000 Confederates ( the actual number was 85 @,@ 000 . ) As Lee continued his offensive at Gaines 's Mill to the east , McClellan played a passive role , taking no initiative and waiting for events to unfold . He kept two thirds of his army out of action , fooled again by Magruder 's theatrical diversionary tactics . That night , he decided to withdraw his army to a safer base , well below Richmond , on a portion of the James River that was under control of the Union Navy . In doing so , he may have unwittingly saved his army . Lee had assumed that the Union army would withdraw to the east toward its existing supply base and McClellan 's move to the south delayed Lee 's response for at least 24 hours . But McClellan was also tacitly acknowledging that he would no longer be able to invest Richmond , the object of his campaign ; the heavy siege artillery required would be almost impossible to transport without the railroad connections available from his original supply base on the York River . In a telegram to Secretary of War Edwin Stanton , reporting on these events , McClellan blamed the Lincoln administration for his reversals . " If I save this army now , I tell you plainly I owe no thanks to you or to any other persons in Washington . You have done your best to sacrifice this army . " Fortunately for McClellan , Lincoln never saw that inflammatory statement ( at least at that time ) because it was censored by the War Department telegrapher . McClellan was also fortunate that the failure of the campaign left his army mostly intact , because he was generally absent from the fighting and neglected to name any second @-@ in @-@ command who might direct his retreat . Military historian Stephen W. Sears wrote , " When he deserted his army on the Glendale and Malvern Hill battlefields during the Seven Days , he was guilty of dereliction of duty . Had the Army of the Potomac been wrecked on either of these fields ( at Glendale the possibility had been real ) , that charge under the Articles of War would likely have been brought against him . " In the battle of Glendale , McClellan was five miles ( 8 km ) away behind Malvern Hill , without telegraph communications and too distant to command his army . In the battle of Malvern Hill , he was on a gunboat , the U.S.S. Galena , which at one point was ten miles ( 16 km ) away , down the James River . In both battles , effective command of the army fell to his friend and V Corps commander Brigadier General Fitz John Porter . When the public heard about the Galena , it was yet another great embarrassment , comparable to the Quaker Guns at Manassas . Editorial cartoons published in the course of the 1864 presidential campaign lampooned McClellan for having preferred the safety of a ship while a battle was fought in the distance . McClellan was reunited with his army at Harrison 's Landing on the James . Debates were held as to whether the army should be evacuated or attempt to resume an offensive toward Richmond . McClellan maintained his estrangement from Abraham Lincoln with his repeated call for reinforcements and by writing a lengthy letter in which he proposed strategic and political guidance for the war , continuing his opposition to abolition or seizure of slaves as a tactic . He concluded by implying he should be restored as general @-@ in @-@ chief , but Lincoln responded by naming Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck to the post without consulting , or even informing , McClellan . Lincoln and Stanton also offered command of the Army of the Potomac to Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside , who refused the appointment . Back in Washington , a reorganization of units created the Army of Virginia under Maj. Gen. John Pope , who was directed to advance toward Richmond from the northeast . McClellan resisted calls to reinforce Pope 's army and delayed return of the Army of the Potomac from the Peninsula enough so that the reinforcements arrived while the Northern Virginia Campaign was already underway . He wrote to his wife before the battle , " Pope will be thrashed ... & be disposed of [ by Lee ] . ... Such a villain as he is ought to bring defeat upon any cause that employs him . " Lee had assessed McClellan 's defensive nature and gambled on removing significant units from the Peninsula to attack Pope , who was beaten decisively at Second Bull Run in August . = = = Maryland Campaign = = = After the defeat of Pope at Second Bull Run , President Lincoln reluctantly returned to the man who had mended a broken army before . He realized that McClellan was a strong organizer and a skilled trainer of troops , able to recombine the units of Pope 's army with the Army of the Potomac faster than anyone . On September 2 , 1862 , Lincoln named McClellan to command " the fortifications of Washington , and all the troops for the defense of the capital . " The appointment was controversial in the Cabinet , a majority of whom signed a petition declaring to the president " our deliberate opinion that , at this time , it is not safe to entrust to Major General McClellan the command of any Army of the United States . " The president admitted that it was like " curing the bite with the hair of the dog . " But Lincoln told his secretary , John Hay , " We must use what tools we have . There is no man in the Army who can man these fortifications and lick these troops of ours into shape half as well as he . If he can 't fight himself , he excels in making others ready to fight . " Northern fears of a continued offensive by Robert E. Lee were realized when he launched his Maryland Campaign on September 4 , hoping to arouse pro @-@ Southern sympathy in the slave state of Maryland . McClellan 's pursuit began on September 5 . He marched toward Maryland with six of his reorganized corps , about 84 @,@ 000 men , while leaving two corps behind to defend Washington . McClellan 's reception in Frederick , Maryland , as he marched towards Lee 's army , was described by the correspondent for Harper 's Magazine : The General rode through the town on a trot , and the street was filled six or eight deep with his staff and guard riding on behind him . The General had his head uncovered , and received gracefully the salutations of the people . Old ladies and men wept for joy , and scores of beautiful ladies waved flags from the balconies of houses upon the street , and their joyousness seemed to overcome every other emotion . When the General came to the corner of the principal street the ladies thronged around him . Bouquets , beautiful and fragrant , in great numbers were thrown at him , and the ladies crowded around him with the warmest good wishes , and many of them were entirely overcome with emotion . I have never witnessed such a scene . The General took the gentle hands which were offered to him with many a kind and pleasing remark , and heard and answered the many remarks and compliments with which the people accosted him . It was a scene which no one could forget — an event of a lifetime . Lee divided his forces into multiple columns , spread apart widely as he moved into Maryland and also maneuvered to capture the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry . This was a risky move for a smaller army , but Lee was counting on his knowledge of McClellan 's temperament . He told one of his generals , " He is an able general but a very cautious one . His army is in a very demoralized and chaotic condition , and will not be prepared for offensive operations — or he will not think it so — for three or four weeks . Before that time I hope to be on the Susquehanna . " This was not a completely accurate assessment , but McClellan 's army was moving lethargically , averaging only 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) a day . However , McClellan soon received a miraculous break of fortune . Union soldiers accidentally found a copy of Lee 's orders dividing his army , wrapped around a package of cigars in an abandoned camp . They delivered the order to McClellan 's headquarters in Frederick on September 13 . Upon realizing the intelligence value of this discovery , McClellan threw up his arms and exclaimed , " Now I know what to do ! " He waved the order at his old Army friend , Brig. Gen. John Gibbon , and said , " Here is a paper with which if I cannot whip Bobbie Lee , I will be willing to go home . " He telegraphed President Lincoln : " I have the whole rebel force in front of me , but I am confident , and no time shall be lost . I think Lee has made a gross mistake , and that he will be severely punished for it . I have all the plans of the rebels , and will catch them in their own trap if my men are equal to the emergency . ... Will send you trophies . " = = = = Battle of South Mountain = = = = Despite this show of bravado , McClellan continued his cautious line . After telegraphing to the president at noon on September 13 , rather than ordering his units to set out for the South Mountain passes immediately , he ordered them to depart the following morning . The 18 hours of delay allowed Lee time to react , because he received intelligence from a Confederate sympathizer that McClellan knew of his plans . ( The delay also doomed the federal garrison at Harpers Ferry because the relief column McClellan sent could not reach them before they surrendered to Stonewall Jackson . ) In the Battle of South Mountain , McClellan 's army was able to punch through the defended passes that separated them from Lee , but also gave Lee enough time to concentrate many of his men at Sharpsburg , Maryland . The Battle of South Mountain presented McClellan with an opportunity for one of the great theatrical moments of his career , as historian Sears describes : The mountain ahead was wreathed in smoke eddies of battle smoke in which the gun flashes shone like brief hot sparks . The opposing battle lines on the heights were marked by heavier layers of smoke , and columns of Federal troops were visible winding their way up the mountainside , each column ... looking like a ' monstrous , crawling , blue @-@ black snake ' ... McClellan posed against this spectacular backdrop , sitting motionless astride his warhorse Dan Webster with his arm extended , pointing Hooker 's passing troops toward the battle . The men cheered him until they were hoarse ... and some broke ranks to swarm around the martial figure and indulge in the ' most extravagant demonstrations ' . The Union army reached Antietam Creek , to the east of Sharpsburg , on the evening of September 15 . A planned attack on September 16 was put off because of early morning fog , allowing Lee to prepare his defenses with an army less than half the size of McClellan 's . = = = = Battle of Antietam = = = = The Battle of Antietam on September 17 , 1862 , was the single bloodiest day in American military history . The outnumbered Confederate forces fought desperately and well . Despite significant advantages in manpower , McClellan was unable to concentrate his forces effectively , which meant that Lee was able to shift his defenders to parry each of three Union thrusts , launched separately and sequentially against the Confederate left , center , and finally the right . McClellan was also unwilling to employ his ample reserve forces to capitalize on localized successes . Historian James M. McPherson has pointed out that the two corps McClellan kept in reserve were in fact larger than Lee 's entire force . The reason for McClellan 's reluctance was that , as in previous battles , he was convinced he was outnumbered . The battle was tactically inconclusive , although Lee technically was defeated because he withdrew first from the battlefield and retreated back to Virginia . McClellan wired to Washington , " Our victory was complete . The enemy is driven back into Virginia . " Yet there was obvious disappointment that McClellan had not crushed Lee , who was fighting with a smaller army with its back to the Potomac River . Although McClellan 's subordinates can claim their share of responsibility for delays ( such as Ambrose Burnside 's misadventures at Burnside Bridge ) and blunders ( Edwin V. Sumner 's attack without reconnaissance ) , these were localized problems from which the full army could have recovered . As with the decisive battles in the Seven Days , McClellan 's headquarters were too far to the rear to allow his personal control over the battle . He made no use of his cavalry forces for reconnaissance . He did not share his overall battle plans with his corps commanders , which prevented them from using initiative outside of their sectors . And he was far too willing to accept cautious advice about saving his reserves , such as when a significant breakthrough in the center of the Confederate line could have been exploited , but Fitz John Porter is said to have told McClellan , " Remember , General , I command the last reserve of the last Army of the Republic . " Despite being a tactical draw , Antietam is considered a turning point of the war and a victory for the Union because it ended Lee 's strategic campaign ( his first invasion of the North ) and it allowed President Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation on September 22 , taking effect on January 1 , 1863 . Although Lincoln had intended to issue the proclamation earlier , he was advised by his Cabinet to wait until a Union victory to avoid the perception that it was issued out of desperation . The Union victory and Lincoln 's proclamation played a considerable role in dissuading the governments of France and Britain from recognizing the Confederacy ; some suspected they were planning to do so in the aftermath of another Union defeat . McClellan had no prior knowledge that the plans for emancipation rested on his battle performance . Because McClellan failed to pursue Lee aggressively after Antietam , Lincoln ordered that he be removed from command on November 5 , 1862 . Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside assumed command of the Army of the Potomac on November 9 , 1862 . McClellan wrote to his wife , " Those in whose judgment I rely tell me that I fought the battle splendidly and that it was a masterpiece of art . ... I feel I have done all that can be asked in twice saving the country . ... I feel some little pride in having , with a beaten & demoralized army , defeated Lee so utterly . ... Well , one of these days history will I trust do me justice . " = = The 1864 Presidential election = = Secretary Stanton ordered McClellan to report to Trenton , New Jersey , for further orders , although none were issued . As the war progressed , there were various calls to return McClellan to an important command , following the Union defeats at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville , as Robert E. Lee moved north at the start of the Gettysburg Campaign , and as Jubal Early threatened Washington in 1864 . When Ulysses S. Grant became general @-@ in @-@ chief , he discussed returning McClellan to an unspecified position . But all of these opportunities were impossible , given the opposition within the administration and the knowledge that McClellan posed a potential political threat . McClellan worked for months on a lengthy report describing his two major campaigns and his successes in organizing the Army , replying to his critics and justifying his actions by accusing the administration of undercutting him and denying him necessary reinforcements . The War Department was reluctant to publish his report because , just after completing it in October 1863 , McClellan openly declared his entrance to the political stage as a Democrat . McClellan was nominated by the Democrats to run against Abraham Lincoln in the 1864 U.S. presidential election . Following the example of Winfield Scott , he ran as a U.S. Army general still on active duty ; he did not resign his commission until election day , November 8 , 1864 . He supported continuation of the war and restoration of the Union ( though not the abolition of slavery ) , but the party platform , written by Copperhead Clement Vallandigham of Ohio , was opposed to this position . The platform called for an immediate cessation of hostilities and a negotiated settlement with the Confederacy . McClellan was forced to repudiate the platform , which made his campaign inconsistent and difficult . He also was not helped by the party 's choice for vice president , George H. Pendleton , a peace candidate from Ohio . The deep division in the party , the unity of the Republicans ( running under the label " National Union Party " ) , and the military successes by Union forces in the fall of 1864 doomed McClellan 's candidacy . Lincoln won the election handily , with 212 Electoral College votes to 21 and a popular vote of 2 @,@ 218 @,@ 388 to 1 @,@ 812 @,@ 807 or 55 % to 45 % . For all his popularity with the troops , McClellan failed to secure their support and the military vote went to Lincoln nearly 3 – 1 . Lincoln 's share of the vote in the Army of the Potomac was 70 % . = = Postbellum years = = At the conclusion of the war , McClellan and his family went to Europe ( not returning until 1868 ) , during which he did not participate in politics . When he returned , the Democratic Party expressed some interest in nominating him for president again , but when it became clear that Ulysses S. Grant would be the Republican candidate , this interest died . McClellan worked on engineering projects in New York City and was offered the position of president of the newly formed University of California . McClellan was appointed chief engineer of the New York City Department of Docks in 1870 . Evidently the position did not demand his full @-@ time attention because , starting in 1872 , he also served as the president of the Atlantic and Great Western Railroad . He and his family then embarked on another three @-@ year stay in Europe ( 1873 – 75 ) In March 1877 , McClellan was nominated by Governor Lucius Robinson to be the first Superintendent of Public Works but was rejected by the New York State Senate as being " incompetent for the position . " In 1877 , McClellan was nominated by the Democrats for Governor of New Jersey , an action that took him by surprise because he had not expressed an interest in the position . He accepted the nomination , was elected , and served a single term from 1878 to 1881 , a tenure marked by careful , conservative executive management and minimal political rancor . The concluding chapter of his political career was his strong support in 1884 for the election of Grover Cleveland . He sought the position of secretary of war in Cleveland 's cabinet , for which he was well qualified , but political rivals from New Jersey were able to block his nomination . McClellan 's final years were devoted to traveling and writing , including his memoirs McClellan 's Own Story ( published posthumously in 1887 ) , in which he stridently defended his conduct during the war . He died unexpectedly of a heart attack at age 58 at West Orange , New Jersey , after suffering from chest pains for a few weeks . His final words , at 3 a.m. , October 29 , 1885 , were , " I feel easy now . Thank you . " He was buried at Riverview Cemetery , Trenton , New Jersey . McClellan 's son , George B. McClellan , Jr . ( 1865 – 1940 ) , was born in Dresden , Kingdom of Saxony , during the family 's first trip to Europe . Known within the family as Max , he was also a politician , serving as a United States Representative from New York State and as Mayor of New York City from 1904 to 1909 . McClellan 's daughter , Mary ( " May " ) ( 1861 – 1945 ) , married a French diplomat and spent much of her life abroad . McClellan 's wife , Ellen , died in Nice , France , while visiting May at her home " Villa Antietam " . Neither Max nor May had any children of their own . = = Legacy = = The New York Evening Post commented in McClellan 's obituary , " Probably no soldier who did so little fighting has ever had his qualities as a commander so minutely , and we may add , so fiercely discussed . " This fierce discussion has continued for over a century . McClellan is usually ranked in the lowest tier of Civil War generals . However , the debate over McClellan 's ability and talents remains the subject of much controversy among Civil War and military historians . He has been universally praised for his organizational abilities and for his very good relations with his troops . They referred to him affectionately as " Little Mac " ; others sometimes called him the " Young Napoleon " . It has been suggested that his reluctance to enter battle was caused in part by an intense desire to avoid spilling the blood of his men . Ironically , this led to failing to take the initiative against the enemy and therefore passing up good opportunities for decisive victories , which could have ended the war early , and thereby could have spared thousands of soldiers who died in those subsequent battles . Generals who proved successful in the war , such as Lee and Grant , tended to be more aggressive and more willing to risk a major battle even when all preparations were not perfect . McClellan himself summed up his cautious nature in a draft of his memoirs : It has always been my opinion that the true course in conducting military operations , is to make no movement until the preparations are as complete as circumstances permit , & never to fight a battle without some definite object worth the probable loss . McClellan 's reluctance to press his enemy aggressively was probably not a matter of personal courage , which he demonstrated well enough by his bravery under fire in the Mexican – American War . Stephen Sears wrote , There is indeed ample evidence that the terrible stresses of commanding men in battle , especially the beloved men of his beloved Army of the Potomac , left his moral courage in tatters . Under the pressure of his ultimate soldier 's responsibility , the will to command deserted him . Glendale and Malvern Hill found him at the peak of his anguish during the Seven Days , and he fled those fields to escape the responsibility . At Antietam , where there was nowhere for him to flee to , he fell into a paralysis of indecision . Seen from a longer perspective , General McClellan could be both comfortable and successful performing as executive officer , and also , if somewhat less successfully , as grand strategist ; as battlefield commander , however , he was simply in the wrong profession . One of the reasons that McClellan 's reputation has suffered is because of his own memoirs . Historian Allan Nevins wrote , " Students of history must always be grateful McClellan so frankly exposed his own weaknesses in this posthumous book . " Doris Kearns Goodwin claims that a review of his personal correspondence during the war reveals a tendency for self @-@ aggrandizement and unwarranted self @-@ congratulation . His original draft was completed in 1881 , but the only copy was destroyed by fire . He began to write another draft of what would be published posthumously , in 1887 , as McClellan 's Own Story . However , he died before it was half completed and his literary executor , William C. Prime , editor of the pro @-@ McClellan New York Journal of Commerce , included excerpts from some 250 of McClellan 's wartime letters to his wife , in which it had been his habit to reveal his innermost feelings and opinions in unbridled fashion . Robert E. Lee , on being asked ( by his cousin , and recorded by his son ) who was the ablest general on the Union side during the late war , replied emphatically : " McClellan , by all odds ! " While McClellan 's reputation has suffered over time , especially over the last 75 years , there is a small but intense cadre of American Civil War historians who believe that the general has been poorly served on at least four levels . First , McClellan proponents say that because the general was a conservative Democrat with great personal charisma , radical Republicans fearing his political potential deliberately undermined his field operations . Second , that as the radical Republicans were the true winners coming out of the American Civil War , they were able to write its history , placing their principal political rival of the time , McClellan , in the worst possible light . Third , that historians eager to jump on the bandwagon of Lincoln as America 's greatest political icon worked to outdo one another in shifting blame for early military failures from Lincoln and Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton to McClellan . And fourth , that Lincoln and Stanton deliberately undermined McClellan because of his conciliatory stance towards the South , which might have resulted in a less destructive end to the war had Richmond fallen as a result of the Peninsula Campaign . Proponents of this school claim that McClellan is criticized more for his admittedly abrasive personality than for his actual field performance . Several geographic features and establishments have been named for George B. McClellan . These include Fort McClellan in Alabama , McClellan Butte in the Mount Baker @-@ Snoqualmie National Forest , where he traveled while conducting the Pacific Railroad Survey in 1853 , and a bronze equestrian statue honoring General McClellan in Washington , D.C. Another equestrian statue honors him in front of Philadelphia City Hall , while the McClellan Gate at Arlington National Cemetery is dedicated to him and displays his name . McClellan Park in Milbridge , Maine , was donated to the town by the general 's son with the stipulation that it be named for the general . The Fire Department of New York operated a fireboat named George B. McClellan from 1904 to 1954 . = = Electoral history = = 1864 Democratic National Convention : George B. McClellan – 174 ( 77 @.@ 33 % ) Thomas H. Seymour – 38 ( 16 @.@ 89 % ) Horatio Seymour – 12 ( 5 @.@ 33 % ) Charles O 'Conor – 1 ( 0 @.@ 44 % ) United States presidential election , 1864 Abraham Lincoln / Andrew Johnson ( National Union ) – 2 @,@ 218 @,@ 388 ( 55 @.@ 0 % ) and 212 electoral votes George B. McClellan / George H. Pendleton ( Democratic ) – 1 @,@ 812 @,@ 807 ( 45 @.@ 0 % ) and 21 electoral votes ( 3 states carried ) New Jersey gubernatorial election , 1877 : George B. McClellan ( D ) – 97 @,@ 837 ( 51 @.@ 65 % ) William Augustus Newell ( R ) – 85 @,@ 094 ( 44 @.@ 92 % ) = = Selected works = = The Mexican War Diary of George B. McClellan ( William Starr Myers , Editor ) . Princeton : Princeton University Press , 1917 . Bayonet Exercise , or School of the Infantry Soldier , in the Use of the Musket in Hand @-@ to @-@ Hand Conflicts ( translated from the French of Gomard ) , 1852 . Reissued as Manual of Bayonet Exercise , Prepared for the Use of the Army of the United States . Philadelphia : J.B. Lippincott & Co . , 1862 . The Report of Captain George B. McClellan , One of the Officers Sent to the Seat of War in Europe , in 1855 and 1856 , 1857 . Reissued as The Armies of Europe , Comprising Descriptions in Detail of the Military Systems of England , France , Russia , Prussia , Austria , and Sardinia . Philadelphia : J.B. Lippincott & Co . , 1861 . European Cavalry , Including Details of the Organization of the Cavalry Service Among the Principal Nations of Europe . Philadelphia : J.B. Lippincott & Co . , 1861 . Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana in the Year 1852 ( with Randolph B. Marcy ) . Washington : A.O.P. Nicholson , 1854 . Regulations and Instructions for the Field Service of the United States Cavalry in Time of War , 1861 . Reissued as Regulations and Instructions for the Field Service of the U.S. Cavalry in Time of War . Philadelphia : J.B. Lippincott & Co . , 1862 . McClellan 's Own Story : The War for the Union , The Soldiers Who Fought It , The Civilians Who Directed It and His Relations to It and to Them ( William C. Prime , Editor ) . New York : Charles L. Webster & Company , 1887 . The Life , Campaigns , and Public Services of General George B McClellan . Philadelphia : T.B. Peterson & Brothers , 1864 . The Democratic Platform , General McClellan 's Letter of Acceptance . New York : Democratic National Committee , 1864 . The Army of the Potomac , General McClellan 's Report of Its Operations While Under His Command . New York : G.P. Putnam , 1864 . Report of Major General George B McClellan , Upon the Organization of the Army of the Potomac and Its campaigns in Virginia and Maryland . Boston : Boston Courier , 1864 . Letter of the Secretary of War by George Brinton McClellan . Washington : Government Printing Office , 1864 . West Point Battle Monument , History of the Project to the Dedication of the Site ( Oration of Major @-@ General McClellan ) . New York : Sheldon & Co . , 1864 .

= Shin Megami Tensei : Devil Summoner = Shin Megami Tensei : Devil Summoner ( Japanese : 真 ・ 女神転生 デビルサマナー , Hepburn : Shin Megami Tensei Debiru Samanā ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Atlus . Forming part of the Megami Tensei series , it is the first title in the Devil Summoner subseries . It was first released for the Sega Saturn in December 1995 , and received a port to the PlayStation Portable in December 2005 . Despite reports of it being planned for localization , neither version has been released outside Japan . Set in the city of Hirasaki in modern @-@ day Japan , the story follows a college student whose death at the hands of demons forces his soul into the body of Summoner Kyouji Kuzunoha . Now in Kuzunoha 's body , the protagonist must investigate the appearance of demons in the town and the activities of Sid Davis , the Dark Summoner responsible for killing the protagonist and Kuzunoha . The gameplay carries over multiple classic elements from the Megami Tensei series , including first @-@ person dungeon navigation , turn @-@ based battles , and negotiation with demons to recruit them into the player 's party . Devil Summoner began development after the positive reception of Shin Megami Tensei If .... Designed from the outset as a spin @-@ off from the main Megami Tensei series , it drew on elements of detective fiction . It was also the series ' first appearance on fifth @-@ generation home consoles . Regular Megami Tensei staff were involved with the project , including director Kouji Okada , writer Ryutaro Ito , and character designer Kazuma Kaneko . The music was composed by Toshiko Tasaki and Tsukasa Masuko . Upon its release in Japan , the original version garnered positive reviews from Japanese press and strong sales . It went on to spawn both a television series and multiple sequels . = = Gameplay = = Shin Megami Tensei : Devil Summoner is a role @-@ playing video game in which the player takes control of a silent protagonist that can be named and whose personality is determined by dialogue choices made in the game . Navigation is split into two types : standard navigation through the game 's three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) dungeons in a first @-@ person view , and navigation around the protagonist 's home of Hirasaki City using a 3D overworld map . During dungeon navigation , the player 's route is automatically mapped , and the map can be viewed in the menu screen . Non @-@ playable characters ( NPCs ) are represented in first @-@ person navigation with 2D sprites , and their speech is represented with head @-@ and @-@ shoulder portraits above dialogue boxes . Quests are available at a location called the House of Divination , which the player can choose to accept in exchange for rewards . Various stores are scattered throughout Hirasaki City for buying items , weapons and armor , and healing the player 's party and reserves . A key currency in the game is Magnetite , which is used for summoning demons and as currency in some of the stores . Enemies are confronted on the overworld map and in dungeons through both random encounters and staged battles . Battles are governed by a turn @-@ based system : the player 's and enemy 's parties each get a turn during which they can perform available actions . The player party is arranged in a three @-@ by @-@ two grid , with their positioning effecting how they can attack enemies : for instance , short @-@ ranged attacks are made less effective if the selected party member is in the back row . The player has access to multiple commands in battle : " Sword " , " Gun " , " Magic " and " Extra " . Items can also be used in battle , and the player can choose to escape from most encounters aside from key boss battles . An " Auto " option is also available , where the entire party is commanded using the game 's artificial intelligence . At the end of each successful battle , experience points are distributed among party members depending on the strength of the enemy , and the protagonist is given Ability Points to assign to six different attributes which affect his performance in battle . Key elements in the game are negotiation with and the fusion and creation of demons . Encountered in battle , demons can be talked with and negotiated into running from the battle , giving money or items , or joining the player 's party . If the negotiation fails , the demon will attack . Once a demon is won over , they are given a loyalty meter which is influenced by the player 's actions . If the demon is treated well and performs actions in battle it approves of , its loyalty will increase . If the opposite occurs , the demon will begin to disobey the protagonist , then leave . Demons can be fused together at a special location in the game called the Hotel Goumaden , where fusions are supervised by the NPC Dr. Victor . Demon fusion is governed by a comparability system , with more favorable fusions emerging from better demon compatibility . Demons can also be fused with weapons to grant stat boosts , and after a certain point in the game artificial demons called Zomas can be used and strengthened through repeated fusions . = = Synopsis = = Devil Summoner takes place in Hirasaki , a coastal Japanese city that has seen a recent rise in supernatural activity . The player character , an unnamed college student , is asked to accompany his girlfriend Kumiko Hatano to check out a book on the occult for her studies . Going to an amusement park to buy some concert tickers at Kumiko 's request , the protagonist is attacked by demons and saved by Kyouji Kuzunoha , a Summoner belonging to an ancient clan dedicated to protecting Japan from supernatural threats . Shortly after leaving him , Kuzunoha dies under mysterious circumstances . Shortly after this , the protagonist is attacked by a Dark Summoner named Sid Davis . Killed by Davis , he is returned to the land of the living by Charon . Upon waking , the protagonist finds himself in the body of Kuzunoha , who was also killed by Davis . Now trapped in Kuzunoha 's body , the protagonist is forced to work in his place to investigate the reasons behind Sid Davis ' activities alongside Kuzunoha 's partner Rei Reiho : he does this to both protect the city and return Kuzunoha and himself to their original bodies . During his investigations , the protagonist and Rei learn of multiple demon @-@ run criminal organizations causing chaos in Hirasaki including factions of the Yakuza , all of them connected to Davis . The protagonist 's efforts against the demon threats are hindered by Hideo Momochi , who accuses the pair of being involved in the incidents until the police station is infested by demons and the police chief is revealed to be a demon in disguise . The protagonist also foils an attempt to Kumiko for unknown reasons . After taking down each of the five major demon factions , Davis reveals that the entire affair was orchestrated to break five seals holding prisoner the spirit of Inaruna : once a powerful regional priestess who was executed for resisting the forces of Emperor Jimmu with her magical powers during the unification of Japan , her spirit 's hatred for her conquerors has grown beyond control and she will destroy the city if released . Kumiko , the reincarnation of Inaruna , is successfully abducted by Davis and used as a host for Inaruna 's spirit . Although she is summoned , the protagonist and Rei rescue Kumiko and kill Davis . They then successfully defeat Inaruna . With the city returned to normal , the protagonist remains trapped in Kuzunoha 's body , and can choose either to use his own name or adopt the Kuzunoha title . = = Development = = Shin Megami Tensei : Devil Summoner is the first entry in the Devil Summoner series , which forms part of the larger Megami Tensei series : as with other entries , its narrative takes the form of a modern @-@ day detective story as opposed to the series ' more prevalent post @-@ apocalyptic settings . The concept for Devil Summoner originated during the development of Shin Megami Tensei II and Shin Megami Tensei If ... for the Super Famicom . During the development of II , series producer Kouji Okada considered creating a more imposing sequel , but instead created If ... as a smaller @-@ scale spin @-@ off title . The positive reaction to If ... gave Okada the freedom to realize long @-@ held concepts for a " parallel world " as an extension of the original concept for If .... Odaka was the game 's director , while the script was written by regular Megami Tensei writer Ryutaro Ito . The story and atmosphere drew on themes from detective fiction , particularly the melancholic and hardboiled fiction of Raymond Chandler . One of Ito 's favorite pieces of dialogue was the opening segment , where the protagonist is dragged about by Kumiko on her errands , during which the protagonist 's personality is determined by the player . The name of the game 's setting , Hirasaki City , was constructed using kanji taken from the names of places in Kanagawa Prefecture . The city 's name also served as a reference to Heijo City , a location in Patriotic Squadron Dai @-@ Nippon . Devil Summoner was the first Megami Tensei title to be released on a 32 @-@ bit fifth @-@ generation home video game console , and the first Megami Tensei game to feature 3D graphics . The latter presented a new challenge for the development team : while they found adjusting to the new specifications a challenge , they also greatly enjoyed working with the Sega Saturn , the which was unlike anything previously experienced by the team . Among the design staff were Katsura Hashino , who focused on combat , and Shogo Isogai , who focused on coordination between gameplay events . The demon conversation system was conceived by Okada based on experiences with the multiple accents encountered in the Kansai region of Japan . Using this as a base , he created the response system to give demon negotiation a more realistic feeling than previous Megami Tensei games . It was also a means of equalizing the relationship between demons and the player party , which had previously been more akin to master and servant than equal partners . The Zoma demons , which could be freely tailored into different demon types , was created while the team was balancing out the game 's difficulty . The gameplay difficulty , which by later standards would be considered quite high , was toned down from the difficulty of earlier Megami Tensei titles to appeal to a wider audience . This necessitated balancing a more forgiving difficulty with keeping traditional Megami Tensei gameplay elements . The character designs were created by Kazuma Kaneko . In keeping with the " MegaTen Detective " theme , Kaneko emulated the genre 's hard @-@ boiled elements in his character designs . Kuzunoha 's character design was inspired by the first animated version of Japanese character Lupin III , the main protagonists of Tantei Monogatari and Ace Ventura : Pet Detective , and the titular character from The Adventures of Ford Fairlane . Rei Reiho , who Kaneko later referred to as his favorite female character design , was created to be the main character 's sidekick and consequently was portrayed as a strong character . Her appearance was influenced by Japanese model Kitaura Tomoe . Her choker necklace , which was hung with coins needed to cross the Sanzu River after death , was part of how Kaneko expressed the story 's hard @-@ boiled elements . The character Sid Davis was created as Ito wanted a black character in the game : the star mark on his forehead represented a pentagram , which resulted in him getting the production nickname " shooting star " . The name of true antagonist Inaruna was influenced by Sumerian mythology . She was originally going to be Princess Takiyasha , the legendary daughter of Taira no Masakado : while the explicit details were changed , Inaruna 's character was still influenced by the tales surrounding Takiyasha . Her reincarnation in the form of Kumiko was a conscious reference to the Megami Tensei series ' titular concept of reincarnation . Kumiko 's early portrayal was far gentler than she was in the final game : given a high @-@ class background , she would come across as a Yamato nadeshiko . Supporting character Dr. Victor was based on the titular protagonist of Mary Shelley 's novel Frankenstein . Future character designer Shigenori Soejima worked on the game a sprite designer . Devil Summoner would be his very first work within the Megami Tensei franchise . The music was composed by Toshiko Tasaki and Tsukasa Masuko , with additional arrangements by Tasaki , Masuko , Taku Iwasaki , Hisaaki Takemori and Don McCow . In their commentary on the game 's music , the two main composers noted that tracks such as " Conduct Record " and " Sid Davis " were composed quite quickly : the latter track was rewritten , but circumstances led to the original version being used in the final game . " Kuzunoha Detective Agency " was Tasaki 's favorite composition . Several environmental tracks were themed after their respective locations . The theme for Dr. Victor 's location , the Goumaden Hotel , made heavy use of the organ despite Toshiko 's original decision against this . The theme for 3D dungeons was re @-@ purposed during debugging into the " level up " theme . The normal battle theme was originally intended to be a sub @-@ boss theme , while the first battle theme to be composed was the main boss theme . The boss battle theme used in the game is a toned @-@ down version of Tsukasa 's original version , which was too large for comfortable use within the game . The final boss theme was divided into two parts : in the first part , Tsukasa made the guitar solo " jerky " , but brought it back to normal for the second half . The staff roll music was composed by Masuko with a strong guitar element . For some tracks , the team were restricted by the available disc space . = = Release = = Devil Summoner was released by Atlus for the Sega Saturn on December 25 , 1995 . A supplementary release containing bonus material such as the ability to view the game 's demon collection , titled Shin Megami Tensei : Devil Summoner - Akuma Zensho , was released on April 26 , 1996 . In 2005 , it was announced that a port to the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) was in development as part of the Devil Summoner subseries ' tenth anniversary celebrations . The port included a demon compendium , adjustable difficulty levels , a save @-@ anywhere option , adjustable screen ratio , and additional bosses and interface alterations for user convenience . Hashino and Isogai returned to the project , this time taking up the respective roles of producer and director . The port was decided upon when it was decided to begin development on the third Devil Summoner game so players who had missed the Saturn original could experience it again . An important element of the port was ensuring short loading times , an issue plaguing other PSP ports of the time . The port was released in Japan on December 20 , 2005 . = = = Localization efforts = = = In March 1996 , it was reported by GameFan that Devil Summoner was being localized for a North American release in June of that year . For unknown reasons , it remained exclusive to Japan . During the run @-@ up towards its release , it was rumored that the PSP port would be picked for a western release in 2006 . Ultimately , the port was not localized . It was speculated that the reason for its continuing exclusivity was that Sony had blocked a localization attempt due to a lack of new content . As part of staff interviews in 2006 relating to the third Devil Summoner game , Atlus confirmed that they had no plans to localize the title for the West , preferring to prioritize new entries in the franchise . It was also said that the " top @-@ secret reasons " for this were unrelated to the game 's content or censorship issues . = = Reception = = In its first week of release , the Sega Saturn version of Devil Summoner sold 264 @,@ 822 copies . As of 2007 , it sold 355 @,@ 656 , becoming the 14th best @-@ selling game for the system in Japan . In contrast , the PSP remake did not appear in the top 500 best @-@ selling titles either for 2005 or 2006 . Famitsu gave the original version a positive review , with it scoring 35 out of 40 points : the four reviews gave it scores of 9 , 9 , 9 and 8 out of 10 . SoftBank Creative 's magazine publication Sega Saturn Magazine gave it a score of 24 / 30 points , with the three reviewers giving it respective scores of 8 , 9 and 7 out of 10 . In a feature on the game for GameFan , Casey Loe noted the game 's " clean and crisp " 3D visuals , called the enemy design excellent , and thought the full @-@ motion video sequences were the best to be found on the Saturn system . She ended by praising Atlus ' plans for releasing a title so deep and mature for the Western market . Fellow gaming magazine Game Players , in a feature on upcoming role @-@ playing game releases in North America , thought that the premise and previewed gameplay showed it to be a promising title after its positive Japanese reception . Kurt Kalata and Christopher J. Snelgrove , writing for gaming website Hardcore Gaming 101 , called the game decent despite its slow pacing , an unpolished look , and some aggravating aspects to the demon loyalty system . In a 2015 feature on recommended software produced for the Saturn , Dengeki Online highlighted Devil Summoner as one of the system 's most notable games . The writer ranked it among the best early Megami Tensei titles despite its high difficulty . Famitsu 's writers expressed disappointment over how the PSP version 's graphics and screen size had not been changed in comparison to the Sega Saturn version , and of how few adjustments had been made . Despite this , the reviewers positively noted the easier gameplay experience and praised the battle system . Kalata and Snelgrove appreciated the graphics used in the game 's dungeons , which they found to be detailed and better @-@ looking than ones in previous games in the series ; they also appreciated the battle transitions . On the other hand , they found the graphics for the game 's maps to be " not particularly impressive looking " , and the graphics for the enemies to be lacking and " barely animated " . = = Legacy = = The commercial and critical success of Devil Summoner prompted the development of a second game in the subseries . Titled Devil Summoner : Soul Hackers , it was released for the Saturn in November 1997 , and served as an indirect sequel . Two prequels for the PlayStation 2 were released , focusing on the adventures of Raidou Kuzunoha in 1920s Japan : Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army and Raidou Kuzunoha vs. King Abaddon . The third Devil Summoner was the first to be released outside Japan . A live @-@ action TV series adaptation of the first game , titled Shin Megami Tensei : Devil Summoner , was produced and aired in Japan . Originally only scheduled for one thirteen episode season in 1997 , popular demand prompted the production of a second season , which broadcast in 1998 . The first series follows the plot of Devil Summoner , while the second season follows an original story . For their VHS release , the subtitle Bright Demon Advent was added .

= Leipzig @-@ class cruiser = The Leipzig class was a class of two light cruisers of the German Reichsmarine and later Kriegsmarine ; the class comprised Leipzig , the lead ship , and Nürnberg , which was built to a slightly modified design . The ships were improvements over the preceding Königsberg @-@ class cruisers , being slightly larger , with a more efficient arrangement of the main battery and improved armor protection . Leipzig was built between 1928 and 1931 , and Nürnberg followed between 1934 and 1935 . Both ships participated in the non @-@ intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War in 1936 and 1937 . After the outbreak of World War II , they were used in a variety of roles , including as minelayers and escort vessels . On 13 December 1939 , both ships were torpedoed by the British submarine HMS Salmon . They were thereafter used in secondary roles , primarily as training ships , for most of the rest of the war . Leipzig provided some gunfire support to German Army troops fighting on the Eastern Front . Both ships survived the war , though Leipzig was in very poor condition following an accidental collision with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen late in the war . Leipzig was therefore used as a barracks ship before being scuttled in 1946 . Nürnberg , however , emerged from the war largely unscathed , and as a result , was seized by the Soviet Navy as war reparations , and commissioned into the Soviet fleet as Admiral Makarov ; she continued in Soviet service until the late 1950s , and was broken up for scrap by 1960 . = = Design = = = = = General characteristics = = = The two ships of the Leipzig class were not identical , prompting some naval historians to classify them as separate designs , rather than as a ship class . Of the two , Nürnberg was larger . Leipzig was 165 @.@ 8 meters ( 544 ft ) long at the waterline and 177 m ( 581 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 16 @.@ 3 m ( 53 ft ) and a maximum draft of 5 @.@ 69 m ( 18 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 820 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 710 long tons ; 7 @,@ 520 short tons ) as designed and 8 @,@ 100 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 000 long tons ; 8 @,@ 900 short tons ) at full combat load . Nürnberg was slightly longer , at 170 m ( 560 ft ) at the waterline and 181 @.@ 3 m ( 595 ft ) overall . Her beam was identical to Leipzig , but her draft was slightly greater , at 5 @.@ 74 m ( 18 @.@ 8 ft ) forward . She displaced 8 @,@ 060 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 930 long tons ; 8 @,@ 880 short tons ) as designed and 9 @,@ 040 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 900 long tons ; 9 @,@ 960 short tons ) at full combat load . The ships ' hulls were divided into fourteen watertight compartments and had double bottoms that ran for 83 percent of the length of their keels . Both vessels had side bulges and bulbous bows . They were constructed with longitudinal steel frames , and were more than 90 percent welded in order to save weight . Nürnberg had a large , blocky forward superstructure , while Leipzig 's superstructure resembled that of the preceding Königsberg class . Nürnberg also had a large searchlight platform fitted on the funnel , while Leipzig did not . Leipzig initially had a crew of 26 officers and 508 enlisted men . Later in her career , the crew grew to 30 officers and 628 sailors and then again to 24 officers and 826 sailors . She could also accommodate an admiral 's staff of 6 officers and 20 enlisted men when she was serving as a flagship . Nürnberg 's crew started as 25 officers and 648 ratings , and over the course of her career swelled to 26 officers and 870 enlisted men . The ships carried two picket boats , two barges , two launches , and two cutters . Both ships carried one aircraft catapult for a pair of Heinkel He 60 biplane reconnaissance float planes . They were equipped with a crane to retrieve the aircraft after landing . The He 60s were later replaced by the monoplane Arado Ar 196 by 1939 . Leipzig 's catapult was located between the funnel and the forward superstructure , while Nürnberg 's was placed aft of the funnel . = = = Machinery and handling = = = The ships ' propulsion system consisted of two steam turbines manufactured by the Deutsche Werke and Germaniawerft shipyards , along with four 7 @-@ cylinder double @-@ acting two @-@ stroke diesel engines built by MAN . Steam for the turbines was provided by six Marine @-@ type double @-@ ended oil @-@ fired boilers . The engines were rated at 60 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 45 @,@ 000 kW ) for the turbines plus 12 @,@ 400 shp ( 9 @,@ 200 kW ) for the central diesel engines . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 32 kn ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 200 km ; 4 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) using only the diesel engines . With only the turbines in operation , the ships could steam for 2 @,@ 800 nmi ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 16 @.@ 5 kn ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) . The ships had extensive electrical generator systems . Leipzig had three power plants that each had a 180 kilowatt turbo @-@ generator and a 180 kW diesel generator ; this gave the ship a combined output of 1 @,@ 080 kW at 220 volts . Nürnberg had four generators which comprised two 300 kW turbo @-@ generators and two 350 kW diesel generators , for a total output of 1 @,@ 300 kW , also at 220 volts . Steering was controlled by a single balanced rudder , which gave the ships excellent maneuverability . The rudder was augmented with special steering system on the engine transmissions ; they had gears that could drive half of the engines astern and half forward allowed the screws to assist in turning the ship at sharper angles . The ships tended toward lee helm in general conditions , but in heavy wind , they suffered from weather helm . Both vessels also suffered from severe leeway at low speeds , and the effect was especially pronounced for Nürnberg , owing to her larger superstructure . = = = Armament and armor = = = Leipzig and Nürnberg were armed with nine 15 cm SK C / 25 guns mounted in three triple gun turrets . One was located forward , and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft , all on the centerline . They were supplied with between 1 @,@ 080 and 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for between 120 and 166 shells per gun . As built , Leipzig was also equipped with two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns in single mounts ; they had 800 rounds of ammunition . Nürnberg meanwhile was built with eight of these weapons with 3 @,@ 200 rounds in total . Nürnberg also carried eight 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 anti @-@ aircraft guns , and several 2 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns , though the number of the latter changed over her career . The two ships also carried four triple torpedo tube mounts located amidships ; Leipzig had 50 cm ( 20 in ) weapons while Nürnberg was equipped with 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedoes . They were supplied with twenty @-@ four torpedoes . They were also capable of carrying 120 naval mines . Leipzig used Krupp cemented armor , while Nürnberg received the newly developed Wotan Hart steel . The ships were protected by an armored deck that was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick amidships and an armored belt that was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The belt was inclined to a greater degree than in the preceding Königsbergs , to increase the effectiveness of the same thickness of armor plate . The sloping armor that connected the deck with the belt was 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides with a 50 mm thick roof . The gun turrets had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick faces , 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick sides , and 32 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) thick roofs . They were mounted on barbettes that were protected with 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) of steel plating . = = = Modifications = = = After the outbreak of war , both ships were fitted with a degaussing coil to protect them against magnetic mines . Leipzig had her aircraft equipment removed in 1941 , along with her after torpedo tubes . In 1942 , Nürnberg 's aircraft handling equipment and aft torpedo tubes were also removed . Throughout the war , the ships ' radar suites were upgraded ; in March 1941 , Nürnberg was equipped with FuMO 21 radar and in early 1942 , a FuMO 25 radar set was installed . The latter was a search radar for surface targets and low @-@ flying aircraft at low range . The FuMO 21 set was replaced by the short @-@ range FuMO 63 Hohentwiel 50 @-@ centimeter radar . Nürnberg was also fitted with four Metox radar warning receivers . Leipzig did not receive her FuMO 24 / 25 radar set until 1943 ; this was to be the last modification for Leipzig . Leipzig had her anti @-@ aircraft armament modernized to bring her closer to the standard of weaponry fitted to her sister . After 1934 , two additional 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were added , with another pair later . Starting in 1941 , eight 3 @.@ 7 cm guns were installed , along with fourteen 2 cm guns . After 1944 , she only carried eight of the 2 cm guns . Nürnberg 's anti @-@ aircraft battery was improved over the course of World War II . In late 1942 , a pair of Army @-@ variant 2 cm Flakvierling quadruple mounts were installed , one on the navigating bridge and the other on top of the aft superfiring turret . In May 1944 , the navy proposed installing several Bofors 40 mm guns , but most of these weapons were diverted to other uses , and only two guns were installed . One was mounted on the bridge and the other where the catapult had been located . Two Navy @-@ pattern Flakvierlings were added ; one replaced the Army model atop the aft superfiring turret , and the other was placed in front of the anti @-@ aircraft fire director . The Army @-@ pattern Flakvierlings were moved to the main deck . In December 1944 , another revised anti @-@ aircraft plan was proposed , this time incorporating the new 3 @.@ 7 cm FlaK 43 gun , of which there were to be eight , along with two Flakvierlings and ten 2 cm twin mounts . Germany 's wartime situation by the end of 1944 prevented these changes from being made , however . = = Construction = = = = Service history = = = = = Leipzig = = = In the 1930s , Leipzig was used as a training cruiser , as well as to make goodwill visits to foreign ports . She participated in non @-@ intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War . In the first year of World War II , she performed escort duties for warships in the Baltic and North seas . Leipzig was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS Salmon on 13 December 1939 while on one of these operations . The cruiser was badly damaged , and the necessary repairs took almost a year to complete . She thereafter resumed her duties as a training ship . She provided gunfire support to the advancing Wehrmacht troops as they invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 . In a heavy fog in October 1944 , Leipzig collided with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen ; the damage was so severe that the navy decided complete repairs were unfeasible . Instead , they repaired Leipzig enough to keep her afloat , and in that state , provided gunfire support to the defenders of Gotenhafen against the advancing Red Army in March 1945 . As the Germans continued to retreat in the east , Leipzig was then used to transport a group of fleeing German civilians . She reached Denmark by late April . After the end of the war , Leipzig was used as a barracks ship for minesweeping forces and was scuttled in July 1946 . = = = Nürnberg = = = Following her commissioning , Nürnberg participated in the non @-@ intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War ; she completed her patrols without major incident and returned to Germany in mid @-@ 1937 . After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , she was used to lay defensive minefields off the German coast in the North Sea . She was thereafter used to escort offensive mine @-@ layers in the North Sea until she was torpedoed by the British submarine Salmon on 13 December 1939 . After repairs were completed in early 1940 , Nürnberg returned to active duty as a training ship in the Baltic Sea . She performed this role for most of the rest of the war , apart from a short deployment to Norway from November 1942 to April 1943 . In January 1945 , she was assigned to mine @-@ laying duties in the Skaggerak , but severe shortages of fuel permitted only one such operation . After the end of the war , Nürnberg was seized by the Royal Navy and ultimately awarded to the Soviet Union as war reparations . In December 1945 , a Soviet crew took over the ship , and the following month took her to Tallinn , where she was renamed Admiral Makarov . She served in the Soviet Navy , first in the 8th Fleet , then as a training cruiser based in Kronstadt . Her ultimate fate is unclear , but by 1960 , she had been broken up for scrap . Nürnberg was the second @-@ largest warship of the Kriegsmarine to survive the war intact , after the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen , and she was the only vessel to see service after the war , albeit in a foreign navy .

= Anbe Vaa = Anbe Vaa ( English : Come , My Love ) is a 1966 Indian Tamil @-@ language romantic comedy film written and directed by A. C. Tirulokchandar . The film features M. G. Ramachandran and B. Saroja Devi in the lead roles , while S. A. Ashokan , Nagesh , Manorama , T. R. Ramachandran and P. D. Sambandam play supporting roles . Broadly based on the 1961 American film Come September directed by Robert Mulligan , Anbe Vaa was produced and distributed by AVM Productions . The soundtrack and background music were composed by M. S. Viswanathan while the lyrics for the songs were written by Vaali . Anbe Vaa was the first film produced by AVM to be shot in Eastmancolor , besides being their first colour production . The film was also the studio and Tirulokchandar 's only collaboration with M. G. Ramachandran . The film follows JB ( Ramachandran ) , a wealthy industrialist who goes on vacation to his bungalow in Shimla , only to discover that his caretaker ( Sambandam ) and his wife have left for Varanasi after renting the bungalow to a family of three . The rest of the film revolves around JB 's response to this situation that he finds himself in . Principal photography for the film began in August 1965 . Shooting for the film took place in Shimla , Ooty and at the hill station of Kufri , with some scenes being filmed at Valparai . Anbe Vaa was released on 14 January 1966 , during the festive occasion of Thai Pongal . It received positive reviews from critics , who particularly praised Ramachandran 's performance , as he was known for doing mainly action @-@ adventure films up until that point in his career . The film was also a commercial success , with a theatrical run of over 23 weeks . It was also dubbed into Telugu , under the title Prema Manasulu . = = Plot = = JB ( M.G. Ramachandran ) is a wealthy industrialist who decides to take a vacation at his residence in Shimla . Upon his arrival , he discovers that his caretaker ( P. D. Sambandam ) has rented his house to a Bangalore @-@ based couple , Punyakodi ( T. R. Ramachandran ) and Pappamma ( T. P. Muthulakshmi ) , and their daughter , Geetha ( B. Saroja Devi ) . The caretaker and his wife leave for Varanasi after taking the money for the rent , leaving the caretaker 's daughter , Kannamma ( Manorama ) , and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Ramaiah ( Nagesh ) , in charge of the house and the guests . JB decides not to reveal his true identity , pretending to be JB 's personal secretary Balu , and pays the rent for a place in his own house . Ramaiah , who has never met JB , takes the money and gives JB 's room to Balu . Balu plays continual pranks on Geetha , during the course of which he also falls in love with her . Geetha reciprocates his feelings , but circumstances and their egos prevent them both from expressing those feelings . One day , Balu pretends to suffer from chest pain , which scares Geetha , causing her to finally admit that she loves him . Later , when Geetha and Ramaiah go to Balu to enquire about his health , Balu , exiting from the bathroom , fails to see that Geetha is there . He tells Ramaiah about his prank on her , and that he was only pretending to have chest pain . Angry that she had been deceived by Balu , she begins to question whether or not his professed love for her is also deceit . Hurt , she brings her friends , who are on a holiday trip to Shimla , to the residence and tries to drive Balu out of the house . When her plan backfires and her friends start supporting Balu , she becomes spiteful and tells her parents to move forward with a planned marriage to Sekar ( S. A. Ashokan ) , a relative and an air force pilot . Geetha reconciles with Balu after he saves her from a wrestler named Sitting Bull . But by the time Balu confesses his love for her , Geetha 's engagement is already fixed . Luckily , Sekar turns out to be a school friend of JB , and when he discovers that Balu and Geetha are truly in love , he steps aside , wishing the couple a happy life . When Balu is finally revealed as JB , Geetha , again not knowing what to believe , thinks the wedding plans are yet another of Balu 's practical jokes and tries to run away . He finds her and clears up all of the misunderstandings between them . The two then get married . = = Cast = = Lead actors M. G. Ramachandran as JB / Balu B. Saroja Devi as Geetha Male supporting actors S. A. Ashokan as Sekar Nagesh as Ramaiah T. R. Ramachandran as Punyakodi P. D. Sambandam as the bungalow caretaker Female supporting actors Manorama as Kannamma T. P. Muthulakshmi as Pappamma , Geetha 's mother Madhavi as Mary , the nurse who takes care of Geetha 's parents M. S. S. Bhagyam as Kannamma 's mother = = Production = = = = = Development = = = The 1961 American romantic comedy film Come September , featuring Rock Hudson and Gina Lollobrigida , and directed by Robert Mulligan , was a worldwide box office success , especially in Chennai . The film narrated the tale of Robert ( Hudson ) , an American millionaire , who arrives at his villa for his vacation . His girlfriend , Lisa ( Lollobrigida ) , has given up waiting for him and has decided to marry another man . Robert 's villa manager , Maurice ( Walter Slezak ) , converts the villa into a hotel while Robert is away . The villa is now occupied by a group of young American girls trying to fend off a gang of boys , led by Tony ( Bobby Darin ) . A. C. Tirulokchandar , who was then a screenwriter for AVM Productions , adapted the screenplay of Come September for his film Anbe Vaa . According to The New Indian Express , it was AVM Productions ' 50th film . Tirulokchandar was introduced to AVM Productions by S. A. Ashokan , who he had worked with previously as an assistant director on Vijayapuri Veeran ( 1960 ) . It was Ashokan who helped Tirulokchandar cast M. G. Ramachandran in the film . Aaroor Das wrote the film 's dialogues . Director S. P. Muthuraman worked as an assistant director on the film . S. Maruthi Rao , R. G. Gope and A. K. Shekar were in charge of the cinematography , editing , and art direction , respectively . A. K. Chopra was in charge of the film 's choreography , and Raghuram , who later went on to become a successful choreographer in Indian cinema , worked as an assistant choreographer to him . = = = Casting = = = Anbe Vaa marked the first time where AVM Productions wrote a script to suit an actor 's image and acting style ; prior to this they had chosen actors to fit an already completed script . AVM Productions ' founder A. V. Meiyappan 's son M. Saravanan , one of the film 's producers , recalled in 2013 that it as a fan of M. G. Ramachandran , it was his wish to see him act under the AVM banner . For several days he hesitated to tell his father about this choice , but when he did , he showed support . While Tirulokchandar was writing the script , Meiyappan made the suggestion to approach Ramachandran for the lead role . Tirulokchandar found this intriguing , as the script 's genre was dissimilar to what Ramachandran was noted for : action @-@ adventure or social and family dramas which portrayed him as a champion for the downtrodden . When approached by Saravanan , Ramachandran showed enthusiasm about working with AVM Productions . He told Saravanan that the film should be " a different picture – a typical director 's picture " , and he would act in it . Ramachandran gave a call sheet of seventy two days for participating in the film . Saravanan states in his 2005 book AVM 60 Cinema that ₹ 3 @,@ 00 @,@ 000 was arranged as the pay for Ramachandran , but the latter demanded an additional 25 @,@ 000 ; his final pay was ₹ 3 @,@ 25 @,@ 000 . The Economic Times stated in 2010 that Ramachandran was paid 10 % of the film 's ₹ 3 million budget . Anbe Vaa remained his only collaboration with both Tirulokchandar and AVM Productions . Ramachandran , who later became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu , also became the fourth Chief Minister of an Indian state to work with AVM Productions . Ramachandran initially recommended K. A. Thangavelu for the role of Punyakodi , but Saravanan said that his father wanted T. R. Ramachandran in the role . M. G. Ramachandran accepted the decision and told Saravanan not to tell T. R. Ramachandran about his initial choice . M. G. Ramachandran also recommended Jayalalithaa for the role of Geetha , but it eventually went to B. Saroja Devi . She was paid ₹ 90 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to ₹ 3 @.@ 8 million or US $ 56 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) for acting in the film . Ashokan was cast as Geetha 's relative Sekar , P. D. Sambandam was cast as the caretaker , Nagesh was cast as the caretaker ’ s brother @-@ in @-@ law Ramaiah , and Manorama was cast as Kannamma , the caretaker 's daughter . = = = Filming = = = Anbe Vaa was the first colour film of AVM Productions , being made in Eastmancolor . Principal photography for the film began with a puja ceremony held on 12 August 1965 . Ramachandran received special permission to go by car to shoot the film in exotic locations in Shimla ; a privilege allowed only to the governor of the state . Under the auspices of that permission , the entire unit went to Shimla . The song " Pudhiya Vaanam " was shot in the small hill station of Kufri , located 13 kilometres from Shimla , as well as at Mall Road , Shimla . Portions of the film were also shot at a 200 @-@ year old bungalow covering 15 acres in Valparai . Savi , an editor who worked for the Tamil magazine , Ananda Vikatan , accompanied the production unit and published an article on the making of the film . Although the story is set in Shimla , most of the film was shot in Ooty . Shooting in Shimla took place for only five days . " Naan Paarthathilae " was one of the few songs in the film that was shot outdoors , due to Ramachandran not wanting to attract attention from his large fan following . During shooting in Ooty , Ramachandran personally bought sweaters for the entire cast and crew . The Government Botanical Gardens in Ooty were also used as a shooting location . The production unit , composed of 20 crew members , along with Tirulokchandar , M. G. Ramachandran , Saroja Devi and Savi , initially flew to Delhi . From Delhi , they travelled to Kalka by train , then continued on to Shimla , using three first @-@ generation Chevrolet Impalas . The skating scenes in the film , involving Ramachandran and Saroja Devi , were completed in two days . Both Ramachandran and Saroja Devi were initially hesitant to perform the scene , but went through with it after they received encouragement from the local population . For some scenes in the film , Saroja Devi was made to walk with mincing steps and flutter her eyelashes . She and Ramachandran also performed a twist in the film . For the climactic action sequence in which JB fights a wrestler , Tirulokchander requested Ramachandran to lift the wrestler overhead and hold him in the air for some time before trampling him , and Ramachandran obliged . The final length of the film was 4 @,@ 854 @.@ 70 metres ( 15 @,@ 927 @.@ 5 ft ) . = = Themes = = Folklorist and writer M. D. Muthukumaraswamy , writing for The Times of India , compared M. G. Ramachandran 's character in Anbe Vaa to the sage Vishvamitra , describing the former as " the archetypal male figure who resists the advances of the beautiful damsels " , similar to Vishvamitra resisting the temptations of the Apsara Menaka . According to Sri Lankan historian and author Sachi Sri Kantha , the song " Pudhiya Vaanam " had " delicately introduced " the symbol for the political party Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam through the lyrics , " Udaya sooriyanin paarvaiyile – ulagam vizhithukonda velaiyile , imayathil irukkum kulir kaatru Ithayathai thodukirathu " ( " While rising sun shines , the world will become aware , the cool wind from Himalaya will touch the heart " ) in that pre @-@ election year . Although the film is based on Come September , The Times of India stated that it was " structured as a Roman Holiday with a man as the protagonist " . = = Music = = Released under the Saregama label , the film 's soundtrack and score were composed by M. S. Viswanathan , while the lyrics were written by Vaali . Kalyan Subrahmanyam , an anaesthetist and alumnus of Madras Medical College and Stanley Medical College , made his musical debut with this film , singing as part of the chorus.K. Sampath , a sound engineer who joined AVM Productions in in the mid @-@ 1950s , created the " chick mungu " ( also spelt " chik mang " ) sound effect for the title track . " Pudhiya Vaanam " originally had the lyrics " Udaya sooriyanin paarvaiyile " , but on Meiyappan 's request , Vaali changed the first word in the line to " Puthiya " . The sound effect of the horses ' footfall in " Rajavin Paarvai " was created by Meesai Murugesan . The soundtrack received positive critical reception , and all the songs were successful , especially " Rajavin Parvai " , and " Pudhiya Vaanam " . Film historian Randor Guy of The Hindu called the songs " melodious " , describing the soundtrack as one of the film 's major positives . He said " Pudhiya Vaanam " had " a political touch " , and was " brilliantly photographed by master lens man S. Maruthi Rao . " Karan Bali , writing for Scroll.in , said , " MS Viswanathan ’ s musical score deserves a special mention . The music is easily one of the highlights of Anbe Vaa . " Music director Ramesh Vinayakam , writing for The Hindu , commented on Viswanathan : " Setting prose and poetry to tune in ‘ Andha Naal Gnyyabagam , ’ ‘ musicalising ’ laughter ( Sirrippil Undaagum ) , and ‘ painting ’ the sky and the earth along with falling rain in ‘ Pudhiya Vaanam ’ are true works of a genius . " Gopal Ethiraj , writing for Asian Tribune , noted that " Pudhiya Vaanam " was one of several songs written by Vaali for Ramachadran that " helped the latter galvanize masses " . Uma S. Maheshwari of The Hindu included " Pudhiya Vaanam " in her list of the " Immortal songs of TMS " , and also among lyricist Vaali 's best songs in their collection , " Best of Vaali : From 1964 - 2013 " . " Rajavin Parvai " was performed live by French actor and singer Pascal Heni ( popularly known as Pascal of Bollywood ) during his visit to India in 2003 . It was also included on MGR Special , a compilation album of songs from films starring Ramachandran , that was released in January 2016 . " Naan Paarthathilae " was performed live by the Chennai @-@ based music group Square Band at the concert " Isai Kaveri " hosted by the Bharathidasan Institute of Management in August 2012 . = = Release = = Anbe Vaa was released on 14 January 1966 , during the festive occasion of Thai Pongal . When AVM first discussed with Ramachandran about making the film a Pongal release , he objected as another film of his , Naan Aanaiyittal , produced by his then manager R. M. Veerappan , was already set for releasing at that time . Ramachandran , however , negotiated a deal with AVM by postponing the release of Naan Aanaiyittal , and in the January 1966 slot to release Anbe Vaa . It was Ramachandran 's first of nine films released in that year . The film had a theatrical run of 23 weeks and was a box office success , grossing ₹ 6 million ( equivalent to ₹ 250 million or US $ 3 @.@ 8 million in 2016 ) against a budget of ₹ 3 million according to a 2015 estimate by Dinamalar . It was also dubbed into Telugu as Prema Manasulu . In November 2008 , Anbe Vaa was screened at the 39th International Film Festival of India under the segment " Lifetime Classics " . On 18 April 2010 , it was screened at the South Indian Film Chamber Theatre for the Dignity Film Festival held in Chennai ; other films also screened included Madhumati ( 1958 ) , Kadhalikka Neramillai ( 1964 ) , Server Sundaram ( 1964 ) and Thillana Mohanambal ( 1968 ) . = = = Critical reception = = = On 6 August 1966 , the review in Ananda Vikatan described Anbe Vaa as an English film in Tamil , and felt that though it did not have any story , one could spend three hours in an entertaining manner with the film . Randor Guy , in his review , wrote , " The screenplay was brilliantly written by ACT . MGR 's performance as the rich man posing as a tenant was impressive . Nagesh was inimitable . Saroja Devi looked glamorous in her glossy make @-@ up and costume . " He went on to conclude that the film would be " Remembered for the impressive performances by MGR , Nagesh and Saroja Devi , melodious music , interesting storyline and screenplay , picturesque cinematography which captured the beautiful landscape of the Himalayan region , and the fabulous sets in true AVM style . " Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff called Saroja Devi , " a style icon " , and rated this as " her best " performance , comparing it with her role in Enga Veettu Pillai ( 1965 ) . Sify called Nagesh 's on @-@ screen chemistry with M. G. Ramachandran in the film " fantastic " , further elaborating that , " In this film the MGR @-@ Nagesh scenes according to a veteran distributor brought repeat audiences to the theatres . He played the hero 's sidekick and was simply terrific . " They also praised Anbe Vaa for being " one of the rare films of MGR with minimum action scenes and punch dialogues " . In July 2008 , The Times of India said , " If ever one comes out with a list of highly entertaining Tamil movies , this one will top the list " , and gave the film a rating of three stars out of five . Following Tirulokchander 's death in June 2016 , they said , " The director 's gifts of storytelling , intelligent lines , good song positioning , and extracting creditable performances were at play " with this film . Karan Bali stated in 2016 , " The comedy [ ... ] is enjoyably light @-@ hearted fluff and sees MGR ably carry the film through in the role of the Westernised , wealthy urbane romantic hero . The role is different from the MGR prototype – the poor , mother @-@ loving crusading Tamil hero who fights for the oppressed and tames the rich heroine while all along propagating the DMK ’ s ideology and concerns . " Writing for The Hindu , Malathi Rangarajan described it as a " breezy romantic comedy " that had " none of the formulaic ingredients of an MGR film " . Following Manorama 's death in October 2015 , Jayalalithaa – then the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu – described her performance in the film as " superb " . = = Legacy = = According to The Times of India , Anbe Vaa emerged an " uncommon triumph " for M. G. Ramachandran , who had previously acted mainly in " scrappily made cop and robber flicks " . It was one of several films featuring Ramachandran which he used to propagate his ideologies during his election campaigns . Actor and film historian Mohan V. Raman noted that M. G. Ramachandran 's acceptance of the role " that went against the then accepted formula for an MGR film " was a demonstration of the actor 's faith in Tirulokchandar . Likewise , The Times of India noted , " A C Thirulokchander [ ... ] had imbibed the deportment by observing his role model L V Prasad - that film stars looked up to him . So much so that even the usually interfering MGR allowed himself to be moulded under the filmmaker 's baton in the film Anbe Vaa ( 1966 ) . " Anbe Vaa attained cult status in Tamil cinema , and was one of the first South Indian films to be shot in Shimla , inspiring many other films to choose Shimla as a shooting location , notably the Telugu film , Desamuduru ( 2007 ) . Director Mani Ratnam , film producer M. S. Guhan 's daughter Aruna Guhan , choreographer Prabhu Deva and director Sundar C. all ranked Anbe Vaa among their favourite films . The costumes that Ramachandran used in the film , as well as the carriage used for " Rajavin Paarvai " , are preserved at AVM Studios . References to Anbe Vaa are made in various films . The 1988 film Puthiya Vaanam , starring Sivaji Ganesan , was named after the song of the same name . Films like Rajavin Parvaiyile ( 1995 ) , Love Birds ( 1996 ) , and the upcoming Rajavin Paarvai Raniyin Pakkam were also named after the songs from Anbe Vaa . In Unakkaga Ellam Unakkaga ( 1999 ) , Kundalakesi ( Goundamani ) imagines himself as M. G. Ramachandran in " Pudhiya Vaanam " by dancing with children , the result of which is him being mistaken for a kidnapper by the police . In Kathai Thiraikathai Vasanam Iyakkam ( 2014 ) , Thamizh ( Santhosh Prathap ) is an aspiring filmmaker who reads stories by F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ponniyin Selvan , but is forced to listen to anecdotes about films such as Anbe Vaa . In Dhool ( 2003 ) , Aarumugam ( Vikram ) echoes a single line , " Pudhiya Vaanam " , to signal his arrival to his friends . In 2005 , another film called Anbe Vaa , starring actors Thendral , Sridevika and Vivek in the lead roles , was released ; its critical response was average . A song with the same title as the film is used in Thotta ( 2008 ) . A clip from the song " Love Birds " is featured in Venkat Prabhu 's Saroja ( 2008 ) . Scenes from the film were interposed in Villu ( 2009 ) . A portion of " Rajavin Paarvai " is used in the song " Vaa Machi " from Onbadhule Guru ( 2013 ) . In 2002 , a quiz programme called Pudhiya Vaanam Pudhiya Bhoomi aired on DD National and DD Podhigai to help develop tourism in Tamil Nadu . In 2009 , a television series titled Anbe Vaa aired on STAR Vijay every Monday @-@ Thursday at 8 : 00 pm IST . = = Explanatory notes = =

= Earth = Earth ( otherwise known as the world , in Greek : Γαῖα Gaia , or in Latin : Terra ) is the third planet from the Sun , the densest planet in the Solar System , the largest of the Solar System 's four terrestrial planets , and the only astronomical object known to harbor life . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4 @.@ 54 billion years ago . Earth gravitationally interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its own axis 366 @.@ 26 times , creating 365 @.@ 26 solar days or one sidereal year . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted 23 @.@ 4 ° away from the perpendicular of its orbital plane , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface within a period of one tropical year ( 365 @.@ 24 solar days ) . The Moon , Earth 's only permanent natural satellite , by its gravitational relationship with Earth , causes ocean tides , stabilizes the orientation of Earth 's rotational axis , and gradually slows Earth 's rotational rate . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water . The remaining 29 % is land mass — consisting of continents and islands — that together has many lakes , rivers , and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within its first billion years , life appeared in Earth 's oceans , and began to affect the atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and today thrive . The earliest undisputed life on Earth arose at least 3 @.@ 5 billion years ago . Earlier physical evidence of life includes biogenic graphite in 3 @.@ 7 billion @-@ year @-@ old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland , as well as " remains of biotic life " found in 4 @.@ 1 billion @-@ year @-@ old rocks in Western Australia . Except when interrupted by mass extinction events , Earth 's biodiversity has continually expanded . Although scholars estimate that over 99 % of all species of life ( over five billion ) that ever lived on Earth are today extinct , there are an estimated 10 – 14 million species still in existence , of which about 1 @.@ 2 million have been documented and over 86 % have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one @-@ thousandth of one percent described . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor ( LUCA ) of all organisms living on Earth . Over 7 @.@ 3 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Earth 's human population is divided among about 200 sovereign states that interact through diplomacy , conflict , travel , trade , and communication media . = = Name and etymology = = The modern English word Earth developed from a wide variety of Middle English forms , which derived from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe . It has cognates in every Germanic language , and their proto @-@ Germanic root has been reconstructed as * erþō . In its earliest appearances , eorðe was already being used to translate the many senses of Latin terra and Greek γῆ ( gē ) : the ground , its soil , dry land , the human world , the surface of the world ( including the sea ) , and the globe itself . As with Terra and Gaia , Earth was a personified goddess in Germanic paganism : the Angles were listed by Tacitus as among the devotees of Nerthus , and later Norse mythology included Jörð , a giantess often given as the mother of Thor . Originally , earth was written in lowercase , and from early Middle English , its definite sense as " the globe " was expressed as the earth . By early Modern English , many nouns were capitalized , and the earth became ( and often remained ) the Earth , particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies . More recently , the name is sometimes simply given as Earth , by analogy with the names of the other planets . House styles now vary : Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common , with the capitalized form an acceptable variant . Another convention capitalizes " Earth " when appearing as a name ( e.g. " Earth 's atmosphere " ) but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the ( e.g. " the atmosphere of the earth " ) . It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as " what on earth are you doing ? " = = Chronology = = = = = Formation = = = The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4 @.@ 5672 ± 0 @.@ 0006 billion years ago ( Gya ) . By 4 @.@ 54 ± 0 @.@ 04 Gya the primordial Earth had formed . The formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred along with those of the Sun . In theory , a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse , which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk , and then the planets grow out of that disk along with the Sun . A nebula contains gas , ice grains , and dust ( including primordial nuclides ) . In nebular theory , planetesimals form by accretion . The assembly of the primordial Earth proceeded for 10 – 20 Ma . The process that led to the formation of the Moon approximately 4 @.@ 53 billion years ago is the subject of ongoing research . The working hypothesis is that it formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars @-@ sized object , named Theia , impacted Earth . In this scenario , the mass of Theia was approximately 10 % of that of Earth , it impacted Earth with a glancing blow , and some of its mass merged with Earth . Between approximately 4 @.@ 1 and 3 @.@ 8 Gya , numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon , and by inference , to that of Earth . = = = Geological history = = = Earth 's atmosphere and oceans formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapor . The origin of the world 's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids , protoplanets , and comets . In this model , atmospheric " greenhouse gases " kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70 % of its current luminosity . By 3 @.@ 5 Gya , Earth 's magnetic field was established , which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind . A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled to form a solid as the accumulated water vapor began to act in the atmosphere . The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present @-@ day forms or , more likely , a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long @-@ term steady continental area . Continents formed by plate tectonics , a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth 's interior . On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years , the supercontinents have formed and broken up three times . Roughly 750 mya ( million years ago ) , one of the earliest known supercontinents , Rodinia , began to break apart . The continents later recombined to form Pannotia , 600 – 540 mya , then finally Pangaea , which also broke apart 180 mya . The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 mya and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 mya . High @-@ latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw , repeating every 40 – 100000 years . The last continental glaciation ended 10 @,@ 000 years ago . = = = Evolution of life = = = Highly energetic chemical reactions are thought to have produced self – replicating molecules around four billion years ago . This was followed a half billion years later by the last common ancestor of all life . The development of photosynthesis allowed the Sun 's energy to be harvested directly by life forms ; the resultant molecular oxygen ( O2 ) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation , formed a protective ozone layer ( O3 ) in the upper atmosphere . The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes . True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized . Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer , life colonized Earth 's surface . The earliest fossil evidence for life is microbial mat fossils found in 3 @.@ 48 billion @-@ year @-@ old sandstone in Western Australia , biogenic graphite found in 3 @.@ 7 billion @-@ year @-@ old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland , as well as , remains of biotic material found in 4 @.@ 1 billion @-@ year @-@ old rocks in Western Australia . Since the 1960s , it has been hypothesized that severe glacial action between 750 and 580 mya , during the Neoproterozoic , covered much of Earth in ice . This hypothesis has been termed " Snowball Earth " , and it is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion , when multicellular life forms began to proliferate . Following the Cambrian explosion , about 535 mya , there have been five major mass extinctions . The most recent such event was 66 mya , when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of the non @-@ avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles , but spared some small animals such as mammals , which then resembled shrews . Over the past 66 Ma , mammalian life has diversified , and several million years ago an African ape @-@ like animal such as Orrorin tugenensis gained the ability to stand upright . This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain , which allowed the evolution of the human race . The development of agriculture , and then civilization , led to humans having an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms as no other species ever has . = = = Predicted future = = = Estimates on how much longer Earth will be able to continue to support life range from 500 million years ( Myr ) , to as long as 2 @.@ 3 billion years ( Ga ) . Earth 's long @-@ term future is closely tied to that of the Sun . As a result of the steady accumulation of helium at the Sun 's core , the Sun 's total luminosity will slowly increase . The luminosity of the Sun will grow by 10 % over the next 1 @.@ 1 Ga and by 40 % over the next 3 @.@ 5 Ga . Climate models indicate that the rise in radiation reaching Earth is likely to have dire consequences , including the loss of the oceans . Earth 's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic CO2 cycle , reducing its concentration to levels lethally low for plants ( 10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis ) in approximately 500 – 900 Ma . The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere , so animal life will become extinct within several million more years . After another billion years all surface water will have disappeared and the mean global temperature will reach 70 ° C ( 158 ° F ) . Earth is expected to be effectively habitable for about another 500 Ma from that point , although this may be extended up to 2 @.@ 3 Ga if the nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere . Even if the Sun were eternal and stable , 27 % of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the mantle in one billion years , due to reduced steam venting from mid @-@ ocean ridges . The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about 5 Ga . Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly 1 AU ( 150 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) , which is about 250 times its present radius . Earth 's fate is less clear . As a red giant , the Sun will lose roughly 30 % of its mass , so , without tidal effects , Earth will move to an orbit 1 @.@ 7 AU ( 250 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) from the Sun when it reaches its maximum radius . Earth was , therefore , once expected to escape envelopment by the expanded Sun 's outer atmosphere , though most , if not all , remaining life would have been destroyed by the Sun 's increased luminosity ( peaking at about 5 @,@ 000 times its present level ) . A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth 's orbit will decay due to tidal effects and drag , causing it to enter the red giant Sun 's atmosphere and be vaporized . = = Physical characteristics = = = = = Shape = = = The shape of Earth approximates an oblate spheroid , a sphere flattened along the axis from pole to pole such that there is a bulge around the equator . This bulge results from the rotation of Earth , and causes the diameter at the equator to be 43 kilometres ( 27 mi ) larger than the pole @-@ to @-@ pole diameter . Thus the point on the surface farthest from Earth 's center of mass is the summit of the equatorial Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador . The average diameter of the reference spheroid is about 12 @,@ 742 kilometres ( 7 @,@ 918 mi ) , which is approximately ( 40 @,@ 000 km ) / π , because the meter was originally defined as 1 / 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole through Paris , France . Local topography deviates from this idealized spheroid , although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth 's radius : The maximum deviation of only 0 @.@ 17 % is at the Mariana Trench ( 10 @,@ 911 metres ( 35 @,@ 797 ft ) below local sea level ) , whereas Mount Everest ( 8 @,@ 848 metres ( 29 @,@ 029 ft ) above local sea level ) represents a deviation of 0 @.@ 14 % . If Earth were shrunk to the size of a billiard ball , some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections , whereas much of the planet , including the Great Plains and the abyssal plains , would feel smoother . = = = Chemical composition = = = Earth 's mass is approximately 5 @.@ 97 × 1024 kg ( 5 @,@ 970 Yg ) . It is composed mostly of iron ( 32 @.@ 1 % ) , oxygen ( 30 @.@ 1 % ) , silicon ( 15 @.@ 1 % ) , magnesium ( 13 @.@ 9 % ) , sulfur ( 2 @.@ 9 % ) , nickel ( 1 @.@ 8 % ) , calcium ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) , and aluminium ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) , with the remaining 1 @.@ 2 % consisting of trace amounts of other elements . Due to mass segregation , the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron ( 88 @.@ 8 % ) , with smaller amounts of nickel ( 5 @.@ 8 % ) , sulfur ( 4 @.@ 5 % ) , and less than 1 % trace elements . The geochemist F. W. Clarke calculated that a little more than 47 % of Earth 's crust consists of oxygen . The more common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all oxides : chlorine , sulfur and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1 % . The principal oxides are silica , alumina , iron oxides , lime , magnesia , potash and soda . The silica functions principally as an acid , forming silicates , and all the most common minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature . From a computation based on 1 @,@ 672 analyses of all kinds of rocks , Clarke deduced that 99 @.@ 22 % was composed of 11 oxides ( see the table at right ) , with the other constituents occurring in minute quantities . = = = Internal structure = = = Earth 's interior , like that of the other terrestrial planets , is divided into layers by their chemical or physical ( rheological ) properties , but unlike the other terrestrial planets , it has a distinct outer and inner core . The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust , which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle . The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity , and the thickness of the crust varies : averaging 6 km ( kilometers ) under the oceans and 30 – 50 km on the continents . The crust and the cold , rigid , top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere , and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed . Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere , a relatively low @-@ viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides . Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and 660 km below the surface , spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle . Beneath the mantle , an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core . The inner core may rotate at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet , advancing by 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 5 ° per year . The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth . = = = Heat = = = Earth 's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion ( about 20 % ) and heat produced through radioactive decay ( 80 % ) . The major heat @-@ producing isotopes within Earth are potassium @-@ 40 , uranium @-@ 238 , uranium @-@ 235 , and thorium @-@ 232 . At the center , the temperature may be up to 6 @,@ 000 ° C ( 10 @,@ 830 ° F ) , and the pressure could reach 360 GPa . Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay , scientists postulate that early in Earth 's history , before isotopes with short half @-@ lives had been depleted , Earth 's heat production would have been much higher . This extra heat production , twice present @-@ day at approximately 3 Ga , would have increased temperature gradients with radius , increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics , and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today . The mean heat loss from Earth is 87 mW m − 2 , for a global heat loss of 4 @.@ 42 × 1013 W. A portion of the core 's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes ; a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher @-@ temperature rock . These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts . More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics , by mantle upwelling associated with mid @-@ ocean ridges . The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere , the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents . = = = Tectonic plates = = = The mechanically rigid outer layer of Earth , the lithosphere , is broken into pieces called tectonic plates . These plates are rigid segments that move in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries : convergent boundaries , at which two plates come together , divergent boundaries , at which two plates are pulled apart , and transform boundaries , in which two plates slide past one another laterally . Earthquakes , volcanic activity , mountain @-@ building , and oceanic trench formation can occur along these plate boundaries . The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere , the solid but less @-@ viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates . As the tectonic plates migrate , the ocean floor is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries . At the same time , the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid @-@ ocean ridges . The combination of these processes continually recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle . Due to this recycling , most of the ocean floor is less than 100 Ma old in age . The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific , and has an estimated age of about 200 Ma . By comparison , the oldest dated continental crust is 4030 Ma . The seven major plates are the Pacific , North American , Eurasian , African , Antarctic , Indo @-@ Australian , and South American . Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate , the Caribbean Plate , the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean . The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between 50 and 55 mya . The fastest @-@ moving plates are the oceanic plates , with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm / year and the Pacific Plate moving 52 – 69 mm / year . At the other extreme , the slowest @-@ moving plate is the Eurasian Plate , progressing at a typical rate of about 21 mm / year . = = = Surface = = = Earth has a total surface area of about 501 million km2 ( 197 million sq mi ) . About 70 @.@ 8 % of the surface is covered by water , with much of the continental shelf below sea level . This equates to 361 @.@ 13 million km2 ( 139 @.@ 43 million sq mi ) . The submerged surface has mountainous features , including a globe @-@ spanning mid @-@ ocean ridge system , as well as undersea volcanoes , oceanic trenches , submarine canyons , oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains . The remaining 29 @.@ 2 % ( 148 @.@ 94 million km2 , or 57 @.@ 51 million sq mi ) not covered by water has terrain that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains , deserts , plains , plateaus , and other landforms . Earth 's surface undergoes reshaping over geological time periods due to tectonics and erosion . The surface features built up or deformed through plate tectonics are subject to steady weathering and erosion from precipitation , thermal cycles , and chemical effects . Glaciation , coastal erosion , the build @-@ up of coral reefs , and large meteorite impacts also act to reshape the landscape . The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite . Less common is basalt , a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors . Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and compacted together . Nearly 75 % of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks , although they form about 5 % of the crust . The third form of rock material found on Earth is metamorphic rock , which is created from the transformation of pre @-@ existing rock types through high pressures , high temperatures , or both . The most abundant silicate minerals on Earth 's surface include quartz , feldspars , amphibole , mica , pyroxene and olivine . Common carbonate minerals include calcite ( found in limestone ) and dolomite . The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth 's continental surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes . The total arable land is 10 @.@ 9 % of the land surface , with 1 @.@ 3 % being permanent cropland . Close to 40 % of Earth 's land surface is used for cropland and pasture , or an estimated 1 @.@ 3 × 107 km2 of cropland and 3 @.@ 4 × 107 km2 of pastureland . The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of − 418 m at the Dead Sea , to a 2005 @-@ estimated maximum altitude of 8 @,@ 848 m at the top of Mount Everest . The mean height of land above sea level is 840 m . Besides being described in terms of Northern and Southern hemispheres centered on the poles , Earth is also often described in terms of Eastern and Western hemispheres . Earth 's surface is traditionally divided into seven continents and various seas . = = = Hydrosphere = = = The abundance of water on Earth 's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the " Blue Planet " from other planets in the Solar System . Earth 's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans , but technically includes all water surfaces in the world , including inland seas , lakes , rivers , and underground waters down to a depth of 2 @,@ 000 m . The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of 10 @,@ 911 @.@ 4 m . The mass of the oceans is approximately 1 @.@ 35 × 1018 metric tons , or about 1 / 4400 of Earth 's total mass . The oceans cover an area of 3 @.@ 618 × 108 km2 with a mean depth of 3682 m , resulting in an estimated volume of 1 @.@ 332 × 109 km3 . If all of Earth 's crustal surface was at the same elevation as a smooth sphere , the depth of the resulting world ocean would be 2 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 8 km . About 97 @.@ 5 % of the water is saline ; the remaining 2 @.@ 5 % is fresh water . Most fresh water , about 68 @.@ 7 % , is present as ice in ice caps and glaciers . The average salinity of Earth 's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water ( 3 @.@ 5 % salt ) . Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks . The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases , which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms . Sea water has an important influence on the world 's climate , with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir . Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts , such as the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation . = = = Atmosphere = = = The atmospheric pressure on Earth 's surface averages 101 @.@ 325 kPa , with a scale height of about 8 @.@ 5 km . It has a composition of 78 % nitrogen and 21 % oxygen , with trace amounts of water vapor , carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules . The height of the troposphere varies with latitude , ranging between 8 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator , with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors . Earth 's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere . Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2 @.@ 7 Gya , forming the primarily nitrogen – oxygen atmosphere of today . This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms and , indirectly , the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O2 into O3 . The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation , permitting life on land . Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor , providing useful gases , causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface , and moderating temperature . This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect : trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground , thereby raising the average temperature . Water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . Without this heat @-@ retention effect , the average surface temperature would be − 18 ° C , in contrast to the current + 15 ° C , and life would likely not exist . = = = = Weather and climate = = = = Earth 's atmosphere has no definite boundary , slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space . Three @-@ quarters of the atmosphere 's mass is contained within the first 11 km of the surface . This lowest layer is called the troposphere . Energy from the Sun heats this layer , and the surface below , causing expansion of the air . This lower @-@ density air then rises , and is replaced by cooler , higher @-@ density air . The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy . The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30 ° latitude and the westerlies in the mid @-@ latitudes between 30 ° and 60 ° . Ocean currents are also important factors in determining climate , particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions . Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere . When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm , humid air , this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation . Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes . This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land , and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods . Precipitation patterns vary widely , ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter . Atmospheric circulation , topographic features and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region . The amount of solar energy reaching Earth 's surface decreases with increasing latitude . At higher latitudes the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere . As a result , the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about 0 @.@ 4 ° C ( 0 @.@ 7 ° F ) per degree of latitude from the equator . Earth 's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate . Ranging from the equator to the polar regions , these are the tropical ( or equatorial ) , subtropical , temperate and polar climates . Climate can also be classified based on the temperature and precipitation , with the climate regions characterized by fairly uniform air masses . The commonly used Köppen climate classification system ( as modified by Wladimir Köppen 's student Rudolph Geiger ) has five broad groups ( humid tropics , arid , humid middle latitudes , continental and cold polar ) , which are further divided into more specific subtypes . Climate on Earth has latitudinal anomalies , namely the habitability of the Scandinavian peninsula very far north in sharp contrast to the polar climates of northern Canada as well as the cool summers expected at low latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere ( for example on the west coast of South America ) . Another anomaly is the impact of landmass on temperature , manifested by the fact that Earth is much warmer at aphelion , where the planet is at a more distant position from the Sun . When the Northern hemisphere is turned towards the sunlight even the increased distance to it does not hinder temperatures to be 2 @.@ 3 ° C ( 4 ° F ) warmer than at perihelion — when the marine southern hemisphere is turned towards the Sun . At high latitudes , the western sides of continents tend to be milder than the eastern sides — for example seen in North America and Western Europe where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean . The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was 56 @.@ 7 ° C ( 134 @.@ 1 ° F ) in Furnace Creek , California , in Death Valley , in 1913 . The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was − 89 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 128 @.@ 6 ° F ) at Vostok Station in 1983 , but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as − 94 @.@ 7 ° C ( − 138 @.@ 5 ° F ) in East Antarctica . These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth . = = = = Upper atmosphere = = = = Above the troposphere , the atmosphere is usually divided into the stratosphere , mesosphere , and thermosphere . Each layer has a different lapse rate , defining the rate of change in temperature with height . Beyond these , the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere , where the geomagnetic fields interact with the solar wind . Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer , a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth . The Kármán line , defined as 100 km above Earth 's surface , is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth 's gravity . This causes a slow but steady leakage of the atmosphere into space . Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass , it can achieve escape velocity more readily and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases . The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth 's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one . Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen , but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere . Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth . In the current , oxygen @-@ rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape . Instead , most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere . = = = Magnetic field = = = The main part of Earth 's magnetic field is generated in the core , the site of a dynamo process that converts kinetic energy of fluid convective motion into electrical and magnetic field energy . The field extends outwards from the core , through the mantle , and up to Earth 's surface , where it is , to rough approximation , a dipole . The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth 's geographic poles . At the equator of the magnetic field , the magnetic @-@ field strength at the surface is 3 @.@ 05 × 10 − 5 T , with global magnetic dipole moment of 7 @.@ 91 × 1015 T m3 . The convection movements in the core are chaotic ; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment . This causes field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years . The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700 @,@ 000 years ago . = = = Magnetosphere = = = The extent of Earth 's magnetic field in space defines the magnetosphere . Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere ; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere , to about 10 Earth radii , and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail . Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which wave propagate through the solar wind , a supersonic bowshock precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind . Charged particles are contained within the magnetosphere ; the plasmasphere is defined by low @-@ energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates ; the ring current is defined by medium @-@ energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field , but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field , and the Van Allen radiation belt are formed by high @-@ energy particles whose motion is essentially random , but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere . During a magnetic storm , charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere , directed along field lines into Earth 's ionosphere , where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized , causing the aurora . = = Orbit and rotation = = = = = Rotation = = = Earth 's rotation period relative to the Sun — its mean solar day — is 86 @,@ 400 seconds of mean solar time ( 86 @,@ 400 @.@ 0025 SI seconds ) . Because Earth 's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal deceleration , each day varies between 0 and 2 SI ms longer . Earth 's rotation period relative to the fixed stars , called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service ( IERS ) , is 86 @,@ 164 @.@ 098903691 seconds of mean solar time ( UT1 ) , or 23h 56m 4.098903691s. Earth 's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean vernal equinox , misnamed its sidereal day , is 86 @,@ 164 @.@ 09053083288 seconds of mean solar time ( UT1 ) ( 23h 56m 4.09053083288s ) as of 1982 . Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8 @.@ 4 ms . The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623 – 2005 and 1962 – 2005 . Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low @-@ orbiting satellites , the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth 's sky is to the west at a rate of 15 ° / h = 15 ' / min . For bodies near the celestial equator , this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes ; from Earth 's surface , the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same . = = = Orbit = = = Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 150 million kilometres ( 93 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 mi ) every 365 @.@ 2564 mean solar days , or one sidereal year . This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1 ° / day , which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours . Due to this motion , on average it takes 24 hours — a solar day — for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the meridian . The orbital speed of Earth averages about 29 @.@ 8 km / s ( 107 @,@ 000 km / h ) , which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth 's diameter , about 12 @,@ 742 km ( 7 @,@ 918 mi ) , in seven minutes , and the distance to the Moon , 384 @,@ 000 km ( 239 @,@ 000 mi ) , in about 3 @.@ 5 hours . The Moon and Earth orbit a common barycenter every 27 @.@ 32 days relative to the background stars . When combined with the Earth – Moon system 's common orbit around the Sun , the period of the synodic month , from new moon to new moon , is 29 @.@ 53 days . Viewed from the celestial north pole , the motion of Earth , the Moon , and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise . Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth , Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun . The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned : Earth 's axis is tilted some 23 @.@ 4 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth – Sun plane ( the ecliptic ) , and the Earth – Moon plane is tilted up to ± 5 @.@ 1 degrees against the Earth – Sun plane . Without this tilt , there would be an eclipse every two weeks , alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses . The Hill sphere , or gravitational sphere of influence , of Earth is about 1 @.@ 5 million kilometres ( 930 @,@ 000 mi ) in radius . This is the maximum distance at which the Earth 's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets . Objects must orbit Earth within this radius , or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun . Earth , along with the Solar System , is situated in the Milky Way and orbits about 28 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from its center . It is about 20 light @-@ years above the galactic plane in the Orion Arm . = = = Axial tilt and seasons = = = The axial tilt of the Earth is approximately 23 @.@ 439281 ° . Due to Earth 's axial tilt , the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year . This causes seasonal change in climate , with summer in the northern hemisphere occurring when the North Pole is pointing toward the Sun , and winter taking place when the pole is pointed away . During the summer , the day lasts longer and the Sun climbs higher in the sky . In winter , the climate becomes generally cooler and the days shorter . In northern temperate latitudes , the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice , and sets north of true west , reversing in the winter . The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone , and sets south of true west . Above the Arctic Circle , an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year , up to six months at the North Pole itself , a polar night . In the southern hemisphere the situation is exactly reversed , with the South Pole oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole . Six months later , this pole will experience a midnight sun , a day of 24 hours , again reversing with the South Pole . By astronomical convention , the four seasons can be determined by the solstices — the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun — and the equinoxes , when the direction of the tilt and the direction to the Sun are perpendicular . In the northern hemisphere , winter solstice currently occurs around 21 December , summer solstice is near 21 June , spring equinox is around 20 March and autumnal equinox is about 22 or 23 September . In the southern hemisphere , the situation is reversed , with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped . The angle of Earth 's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time . Its axial tilt does undergo nutation ; a slight , irregular motion with a main period of 18 @.@ 6 years . The orientation ( rather than the angle ) of Earth 's axis also changes over time , precessing around in a complete circle over each 25 @,@ 800 year cycle ; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year . Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth 's equatorial bulge . The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth 's surface . This polar motion has multiple , cyclical components , which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion . In addition to an annual component to this motion , there is a 14 @-@ month cycle called the Chandler wobble . Earth 's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length @-@ of @-@ day variation . In modern times , Earth 's perihelion occurs around 3 January , and its aphelion around 4 July . These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors , which follow cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles . The changing Earth – Sun distance causes an increase of about 6 @.@ 9 % in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion . Because the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun , the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year . This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt , and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere . = = Habitability = = A planet that can sustain life is termed habitable , even if life did not originate there . Earth provides liquid water — an environment where complex organic molecules can assemble and interact , and sufficient energy to sustain metabolism . The distance of Earth from the Sun , as well as its orbital eccentricity , rate of rotation , axial tilt , geological history , sustaining atmosphere and protective magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface . = = = Biosphere = = = A planet 's life forms inhabit ecosystems , whose total is sometimes said to form a " biosphere " . Earth 's biosphere is thought to have begun evolving about 3 @.@ 5 Gya . The biosphere is divided into a number of biomes , inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals . On land , biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude , height above sea level and humidity . Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic or Antarctic Circles , at high altitudes or in extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life ; species diversity reaches a peak in humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes . = = = Natural resources and land use = = = Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans . Those termed non @-@ renewable resources , such as fossil fuels , only renew over geological timescales . Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth 's crust , consisting of coal , petroleum , and natural gas . These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production . Mineral ore bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of ore genesis , resulting from actions of magmatism , erosion and plate tectonics . These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful elements . Earth 's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans , including food , wood , pharmaceuticals , oxygen , and the recycling of many organic wastes . The land @-@ based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water , and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land . In 1980 , 5 @,@ 053 Mha ( 50 @.@ 53 million km2 ) of Earth 's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands , 6 @,@ 788 Mha ( 67 @.@ 88 million km2 ) was grasslands and pasture , and 1 @,@ 501 Mha ( 15 @.@ 01 million km2 ) was cultivated as croplands . The estimated amount of irrigated land in 1993 was 2 @,@ 481 @,@ 250 square kilometres ( 958 @,@ 020 sq mi ) . Humans also live on the land by using building materials to construct shelters . = = = Natural and environmental hazards = = = Large areas of Earth 's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical cyclones , hurricanes , or typhoons that dominate life in those areas . From 1980 to 2000 , these events caused an average of 11 @,@ 800 human deaths per year . Many places are subject to earthquakes , landslides , tsunamis , volcanic eruptions , tornadoes , sinkholes , blizzards , floods , droughts , wildfires , and other calamities and disasters . Many localized areas are subject to human @-@ made pollution of the air and water , acid rain and toxic substances , loss of vegetation ( overgrazing , deforestation , desertification ) , loss of wildlife , species extinction , soil degradation , soil depletion and erosion . According to the United Nations , a scientific consensus exists linking human activities to global warming due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions . This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets , more extreme temperature ranges , significant changes in weather and a global rise in average sea levels . = = = Human geography = = = Cartography , the study and practice of map @-@ making , and geography , the study of the lands , features , inhabitants and phenomena on Earth , have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth . Surveying , the determination of locations and distances , and to a lesser extent navigation , the determination of position and direction , have developed alongside cartography and geography , providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information . Earth 's human population reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011 . Projections indicate that the world 's human population will reach 9 @.@ 2 billion in 2050 . Most of the growth is expected to take place in developing nations . Human population density varies widely around the world , but a majority live in Asia . By 2020 , 60 % of the world 's population is expected to be living in urban , rather than rural , areas . It is estimated that one @-@ eighth of Earth 's surface is suitable for humans to live on – three @-@ quarters of Earth 's surface is covered by oceans , leaving one quarter as land . Half of that land area is desert ( 14 % ) , high mountains ( 27 % ) , or other unsuitable terrain . The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is Alert , on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut , Canada . ( 82 ° 28 ′ N ) The southernmost is the Amundsen – Scott South Pole Station , in Antarctica , almost exactly at the South Pole . ( 90 ° S ) Independent sovereign nations claim the planet 's entire land surface , except for some parts of Antarctica , a few land parcels along the Danube river 's western bank , and the odd unclaimed area of Bir Tawil between Egypt and Sudan . As of 2015 , there are 193 sovereign states that are member states of the United Nations , plus two observer states and 72 dependent territories and states with limited recognition . Historically , Earth has never had a sovereign government with authority over the entire globe although a number of nation @-@ states have striven for world domination and failed . The United Nations is a worldwide intergovernmental organization that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations , thereby avoiding armed conflict . The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and international law . When the consensus of the membership permits , it provides a mechanism for armed intervention . The first human to orbit Earth was Yuri Gagarin on 12 April 1961 . In total , about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit as of 30 July 2010 , and , of these , twelve have walked on the Moon . Normally , the only humans in space are those on the International Space Station . The station 's crew , made up of six people , is usually replaced every six months . The farthest that humans have travelled from Earth is 400 @,@ 171 km , achieved during the Apollo 13 mission in 1970 . = = Moon = = The Moon is a relatively large , terrestrial , planet @-@ like natural satellite , with a diameter about one @-@ quarter of Earth 's . It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet , although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto . The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as " moons " , after Earth 's . The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes tides on Earth . The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking : its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth . As a result , it always presents the same face to the planet . As the Moon orbits Earth , different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun , leading to the lunar phases ; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the solar terminator . Due to their tidal interaction , the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately 38 mm / yr . Over millions of years , these tiny modifications — and the lengthening of Earth 's day by about 23 µs / yr — add up to significant changes . During the Devonian period , for example , ( approximately 410 mya ) there were 400 days in a year , with each day lasting 21 @.@ 8 hours . The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet 's climate . Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth 's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon . Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the Sun and planets to Earth 's equatorial bulge , the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable , exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years , as appears to be the case for Mars . Viewed from Earth , the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent @-@ sized disk as the Sun . The angular size ( or solid angle ) of these two bodies match because , although the Sun 's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon 's , it is also 400 times more distant . This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth . The most widely accepted theory of the Moon 's origin , the giant impact theory , states that it formed from the collision of a Mars @-@ size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth . This hypothesis explains ( among other things ) the Moon 's relative lack of iron and volatile elements , and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth 's crust . = = Asteroids and artificial satellites = = Earth has at least five co @-@ orbital asteroids , including 3753 Cruithne and 2002 AA29 . A trojan asteroid companion , 2010 TK7 , is librating around the leading Lagrange triangular point , L4 , in the Earth 's orbit around the Sun . The tiny near @-@ Earth asteroid 2006 RH120 makes close approaches to the Earth – Moon system roughly every twenty years . During these approaches , it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time . As of September 2015 , there were 1 @,@ 305 operational , human @-@ made satellites orbiting Earth . There are also inoperative satellites , including Vanguard 1 , the oldest satellite currently in orbit , and over 300 @,@ 000 pieces of space debris . Earth 's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station . = = Cultural and historical viewpoint = = The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross circumscribed by a circle , , representing the four quadrants of the world . Human cultures have developed many views of the planet . Earth is sometimes personified as a deity . In many cultures it is a mother goddess that is also the primary fertility deity , and by the mid @-@ 20th century the Gaia Principle compared Earth 's environments and life as a single self @-@ regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability . Creation myths in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural deity or deities . Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in our view of the planet . In the West , belief in a flat Earth was displaced by the idea of spherical Earth , credited to Pythagoras in the 6th century BC . Earth was further believed to be the center of the universe until the 16th century , when scientists first theorized that it was a moving object , comparable to the other planets in the Solar System . Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as James Ussher , who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture , Westerners prior to the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most . It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth 's age was at least many millions of years . Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864 , sparking a vigorous debate on the subject ; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth 's age was established , proving the planet to be billions of years old . The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit , and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the Apollo program .

= Brandon Marsh = Brandon Marsh is an SSSI ( Site of Special Scientific Interest ) and nature reserve in Warwickshire , England . It is situated adjacent to the River Avon , near the village of Brandon , a few miles east of Coventry . The reserve is also the headquarters of the Warwickshire Wildlife Trust . Formerly used for sand and gravel quarrying , the 92 hectare ( 228 acre ) site is owned by French industrial company LaFarge Industries and is leased to the Trust . Today , Brandon Marsh is a mixture of flooded gravel pits , fen , scrubland , reedbeds and woodland , much of which is uncommon habitat for the local area . The site is particularly important for birdlife , with a wide range of breeding and wintering birds — 234 different species had been recorded up to the end of 2014 . The reserve also supports a variety of mammals and insects , over 500 species of plant , and more than 570 species of fungi . The nature reserve and Visitor Centre are open to the public seven days a week . = = History = = Although the landscape features of the site are mainly derived from gravel pits and settling pools alongside the River Avon , the area was originally farmland , and the first pools were created by mining subsidence in the 1940s and 1950s caused by workings at Binley Colliery . The site was of interest to local naturalists for its range of bird life , especially as by 1959 the area of open water was far larger than it is now , although much was lost when Severn Trent Water dredged it in 1963 . Shortly afterwards the first official attempts at using the site for conservation purposes came when the West Midlands Trust for Nature Conservation , supported by the West Midland Bird Club began moves to secure the site as a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) . The Brandon Marsh Conservation Group was formed in 1968 , and by 1973 the site had been confirmed as an SSSI . In 1981 , the Warwickshire Wildlife Trust ( the successor to the West Midlands Trust ) came to an agreement with Lafarge whereby the site is leased for a period of 99 years at a peppercorn amount of £ 1 a year , leading to the creation of the nature reserve . The first bird hides were constructed in 1984 , overlooking the East Marsh and Teal Pools . Quarrying ceased in 1989 , and by 1991 the Trust had moved their headquarters to the site and erected a small visitor centre . As improvements to the reserve continued and visitor numbers grew , a requirement for a much improved infrastructure was identified , and in 1998 the new Visitor Centre at Brandon Marsh was opened by Sir David Attenborough . It cost over £ 600 @,@ 000 to build and was mainly funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund , with support from Lafarge through the Landfill Tax Credit Scheme and an appeal to Trust members . The Centre is open to the public every day of the year except Christmas Day , and also houses an Education Centre catering for school visits , a conference centre , and a tearoom and gift shop . = = Nature reserve = = The nature reserve itself is a large expanse of wetland and pools . There are a number of paths and trails for visitors to follow , and seven bird hides from which to observe the wildlife . The flora and fauna is extremely varied due to the numerous types of habitat , and includes many species that are otherwise rare in the area . Large numbers of bird species are resident or passage migrants here , including many ducks , geese and waders . The wide range of species is mainly due to Brandon Marsh being one of the few extensive areas of water in the area ( accounting for such local rarities as osprey and whooper swan ) together with the existence of habitats such as reedbed and woodland in close proximity . 148 different species were recorded during 2009 alone — including one new record , a vagrant woodchat shrike which was the first recorded in Warwickshire — and 66 species bred at the site . These figures have been assisted by a nest box scheme ; in 2008 there were 49 occupied nest boxes which produced 270 fledged young , and by 2009 these numbers had increased to 65 and 352 respectively , including two owl species , barn owl and tawny owl . As well as birds , the reserve also harbours a varied selection of mammals . These are mostly of common species , although otters have been recorded and evidence suggests they were present for the whole of 2009 . An attempt is being made to establish the endangered water vole to the site , although success has been irregular and there were no sightings at all during 2008 or 2009 . The reserve is a haven for dragonfly and damselfly with areas being tailored to their needs — 16 species were recorded in 2008 , along with 24 species of butterfly and 220 species of moth . Plant life varies throughout the reserve depending on the habitat , and notable species are mentioned in the relevant sections . As the reserve develops , new species are being regularly recorded , including four in 2008 and three in 2009 . The large number of fungus species recorded is also due to the diversity of habitat , but even so , species unknown elsewhere in the region have been recorded , such as Taphrina pruni and Otidea bufonia . = = = Pools = = = There are eight main pools in the reserve , some of which are maintained to support specific flora or fauna . At the centre of the reserve is East Marsh Pool , the largest of the pools , which contains two islands . Tern Island is composed of gravel and pebbles which attracts certain species to breed here , notably common tern and little ringed plover . There are also a number of artificial rafts on the pool , again to induce common tern to breed ; eight pairs did so in 2008 . Willow Island is much larger and more grassy , providing suitable areas for lapwing , common redshank and green sandpiper . The existence of the islands helps to prevent the nests of species such as these being predated by foxes . There are three hides overlooking the pool . An artificial structure alongside the pool is designed to attract sand martins to breed , as they did when the gravel quarry was operational ; this was successful for the first time in 2009 , with eight nestholes occupied and over 40 young fledged . To the south lie Teal Pool and River Pool , created in 1983 when an earth dam was constructed between the two in order that Teal Pool retained water to provide habitat for dabbling duck species , which generally include common teal and mallard . River Pool is a larger expanse of water popular with wading birds , especially redshank and greenshank . Central Marsh and Pool is a diverse area where the main flora is common reed , reed sweetgrass , sedges , bulrushes and teasel . Willow trees are particularly important in this habitat as they have over 250 species of insect associated with them . Alder trees support birds such as redpoll , siskin and various tit species . Beyond Central Marsh lies West Marsh Pool , a small area of water surrounded by reedbed , where a number of dragonfly pools have been dug . Plants which thrive in damp areas , such as marsh marigold and meadowsweet , flourish here . Adjacent to the visitor centre are three further pools . Grebe Pool is named for the great crested grebes which regularly breed there , whereas Goose Pool was used by the aggregate company for water storage , and as such the water level is very variable due to its unstable base . Swallow Pool was so named because it was formerly a favourite roosting area for swallows , although this is no longer the case . = = = Reedbeds = = = The main reedbed on the site is known as Newlands , an extensive area forming the eastern end of the reserve . Together with other areas in the West Marsh , the total area of reedbed is now around 25 hectares ( 61 acres ) . A wind @-@ powered water pump is currently installed to lift water from the flood plain to irrigate a further 9 hectare ( 22 acre ) area near the Visitor Centre . This project is part of the UK Biodiversity Action Plan which has targeted the creation of 1 @,@ 200 hectare ( 3 @,@ 000 acres ) of reedbed nationwide . The reedbeds support a number of acrocephalid warblers such as the reed warbler , sedge warbler and marsh warbler as well as others such as grasshopper warbler , and it was the first recorded breeding site in the region for Cetti 's warbler . There is a long @-@ term plan to have an endangered species , the Eurasian bittern , breeding here by 2014 and regular sightings of the species have already occurred , with up to three individual birds being sighted during late 2009 . A new hide overlooking Newlands , named after Brandon volunteer Ted Jury who died in 2009 , was opened in 2014 . = = = Other habitats = = = New Hare Covert is woodland , mainly composed of oak , ash , larch and Scots pine . The area is managed for biodiversity purposes and provides habitat for numerous mammals , including muntjac , as well as woodland bird species . Between New Hare Covert and Swallow Pool there is also an area of grassland , which attracts numerous species of butterfly . The area also has a large population of small mammals such as common shrew , field vole and bank vole , which in turn attract birds of prey such as the common kestrel and short @-@ eared owl . Horsetail Glade , as the name suggests , is home to a large area of giant horsetails . There are numerous willow species , and common spotted orchid grows here in the summer . = = = Threats = = = Brandon Marsh has a very low risk of pollution and as such the main threat from man has been from vandalism ; in 2007 , a fire started by youths destroyed a third of the Newlands reedbed . This was the second time the reed bed had been targeted , the previous attack seven years earlier having occurred shortly after threats were made by animal rights activists protesting against a cull of ruddy duck . Most of the current threats to the biodiversity of the site are natural in origin . A perennial problem is the invasive Japanese knotweed , which shades out local plant species with its dense growth . Removing it is time @-@ consuming as the herbicide used to control it has to be injected straight into the root system , to prevent it reaching other flora . Alder trees are also at risk at the reserve , this time from a fungal disease caused by Phytophthora alni . Being water @-@ borne , this infection could spread to all the alders on the site . Another natural threat is that of the introduced Harlequin ladybird which was first identified at the site in June 2008 and is a severe threat to the native seven @-@ spot ladybird population as it is such an effective aphid predator . Mink are occasional visitors to the reserve , although humane traps are used in an attempt to control them . Mink are a serious threat to ground @-@ nesting birds , and since they are strong swimmers , the nests on the East Marsh islands are vulnerable to them .

= Falafel = Falafel ( / fəˈlɑːfəl / ; Arabic : فلافل , [ fæˈlæːfɪl ] , dialectal : [ fæˈlæːfel ] ) is a deep @-@ fried ball or patty made from ground chickpeas , fava beans , or both . Falafel is a traditional Middle Eastern food , commonly served in a pita , which acts as a pocket , or wrapped in a flatbread known as taboon ; " falafel " also frequently refers to a wrapped sandwich that is prepared in this way . The falafel balls are topped with salads , pickled vegetables , hot sauce , and drizzled with tahini @-@ based sauces . Falafel balls may also be eaten alone as a snack or served as part of a meze tray ( assortment of appetizers ) . Falafel is a common dish eaten throughout the Middle East . The fritters are now found around the world as a replacement for meat and as a form of street food . = = Etymology = = The word Falāfil ( Arabic : فلافل ) is the plural of Filfil ( فلفل ) , meaning " pepper " . The word itself spread and is used in other languages such as Persian pilpil ( پلپل ) , from the Sanskrit word pippalī ( पिप ् पली ) , meaning " long pepper " ; or an earlier * filfal , from Aramaic pilpāl , " small round thing , peppercorn , " derived from palpēl , " to be round , roll " . Thus in origin , falafel would be " rollers , little balls . " A Coptic origin has recently been proposed via the unattested phrase * pha la phel ( Φα Λα Φελ ) , meaning " of many beans " . The Arabic word falāfil has been globalized into many other languages and spread around the rest of the world as the general name for this food . In English , it is first attested in 1941 . Falafel is known as taʿamiya ( Egyptian Arabic : طعمية ṭaʿmiyya , IPA : [ tˤɑʕˈmejjɑ ] ) in Egypt . The word is derived from a diminutive form of the Arabic word ṭaʿām ( طعام , " food " ) ; the particular form indicates " a unit " of the given root in this case Ṭ @-@ ʕ @-@ M ( ط ع م , having to do with taste and food ) , thus meaning " a little piece of food " or " small tasty thing " . The word falafel can refer to the fritters themselves or to sandwiches filled with them . = = History = = The origin of falafel is unknown and controversial . A common theory is that the dish originated in Egypt , possibly eaten by Copts as a replacement for meat during Lent . As Alexandria is a port city , it was possible to export the dish and name to other areas in the Middle East . The dish later migrated northwards to the Levant , where chickpeas replaced the fava beans . It has been speculated that its history may go back to Pharaonic Egypt . = = = Middle East = = = Falafel grew to become a common form of street food or fast food in the Middle East . The croquettes are regularly eaten as part of meze . During Ramadan , falafel balls are sometimes eaten as part of the iftar , the meal that breaks the daily fast after sunset . Falafel became so popular that McDonald 's for a time served a " McFalafel " in some countries . Falafel is still popular with the Copts , who cook large volumes during religious holidays . Debates over the origin of falafel have sometimes devolved into political discussions about the relationship between Arabs and Israelis . In modern times , falafel has been considered a national dish of Egypt , Palestine , and of Israel . Resentment exists amongst many Palestinians for what they see as the appropriation of their dish by Israelis . Additionally , the Lebanese Industrialists ' Association has raised assertions of copyright infringement against Israel concerning falafel . Falafel plays an iconic role in Israeli cuisine and is widely considered to be the national dish of the country . While falafel is not a specifically Jewish dish , it was eaten by Mizrahi Jews in their countries of origin . Later , it was adopted by early Jewish immigrants to Palestine . Due to its being entirely plant based , it is considered pareve under Jewish dietary laws and gained acceptance with Jews because it could be eaten with meat or dairy meals . In 2012 , in an attempt to challenge Israeli claims regarding the origins of Falafel , and reassert the Arabic identity of the food , one of the hotels in the capital of Jordan , Amman , prepared the world 's largest Falafel disc weighing about 75 kg – breaking the previous record set at a Jewish food festival in the United States . = = = North America = = = In North America , prior to the 1970s , falafel was found only in Middle Eastern and Jewish neighborhoods and restaurants . Today , the dish is a common and popular street food in many cities throughout North America . = = = Vegetarianism = = = Falafel has become popular among vegetarians and vegans , as an alternative to meat @-@ laden street foods , and is now sold in packaged mixes in health @-@ food stores . While traditionally thought of as being used to make veggie burgers , its use has expanded as more and more people have adopted it as a source of protein . In the United States , falafel 's versatility has allowed for the reformulating of recipes for meatloaf , sloppy joes and spaghetti and meatballs into vegetarian dishes . = = Preparation and variations = = Falafel is made from fava beans or chickpeas , or a combination of the two . The use of chickpeas is predominant in most Middle Eastern countries . The dish is usually made with chickpeas in Syria , Lebanon , Jordan , Israel and Palestine . This version is the most popular in the West . The Egyptian variety uses only fava beans . When chickpeas are used , they are not cooked prior to use ( cooking the chickpeas will cause the falafel to fall apart , requiring adding some flour to use as a binder ) . Instead they are soaked ( sometimes with baking soda ) overnight , then ground together with various ingredients such as parsley , scallions , and garlic . Spices such as cumin and coriander are often added to the beans for added flavor . The dried fava beans are soaked in water and then stone ground with leek , parsley , green coriander , cumin and dry coriander . The mixture is shaped into balls or patties . This can be done by hand or with a tool called an aleb falafel ( falafel mould ) . The mixture is usually deep fried , or it can be oven baked . When not served alone , falafel is often served with flat or unleavened bread when it is wrapped within lafa or stuffed in a hollow pita . Tomatoes , lettuce , cucumbers , and other garnishes can be added . Falafel is commonly accompanied by tahini . Falafel is typically ball @-@ shaped , but is sometimes made in other shapes , particularly donut @-@ shaped . The inside of falafel may be green ( from green herbs such as parsley or green onion ) , or tan . = = Nutrition = = When made with chickpeas , falafel is high in protein , complex carbohydrates , and fiber . Key nutrients are calcium , iron , magnesium , phosphorus , potassium , zinc , copper , manganese , vitamin C , thiamine , pantothenic acid , vitamin B , and folate . Phytochemicals include beta @-@ carotene . Falafel is high in soluble fiber , which has been shown to be effective in lowering blood cholesterol . Chickpeas are low in fat and contain no cholesterol , but a considerable amount of fat is absorbed during the frying process . Falafel can be baked to reduce the high fat content associated with frying . Although baking alters the texture and flavor , it is a preparation technique often recommended to people suffering from such health problems as diabetes . = = World records = = = = = Largest falafel ball = = = The current record , 74 @.@ 75 kg ( 164 @.@ 4 lb ) , was set on 28 July 2012 in Amman , Jordan . The previous record was 23 @.@ 94 kg ( 52 @.@ 8 lb ) , 1 @.@ 17 m in circumference and 0 @.@ 3 m in height , set at the Santa Clarita Valley Jewish Food and Cultural Festival ( US ) , at the College of the Canyons in Valencia , California , US , on 15 May 2011 . = = = Largest serving of falafel = = = The record , 5 @,@ 173 kg ( 11 @,@ 404 lb 8 oz ) , was set by Chef Ramzi Choueiri and the students of Al @-@ Kafaat University ( Lebanon ) in Beirut on 9 May 2010 . = = In popular culture = = There is one novel ( He Died with a Felafel in His Hand ) and at least two films ( Falafel and He Died with a Felafel in His Hand ) related to falafel . = = Gallery = =

= Genetics = Genetics is the study of genes , genetic variation , and heredity in living organisms . It is generally considered a field of biology , but it intersects frequently with many of the life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems . The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel , a late 19th @-@ century scientist and Augustinian friar . Mendel studied ' trait inheritance ' , patterns in the way traits were handed down from parents to offspring . He observed that organisms ( pea plants ) inherit traits by way of discrete " units of inheritance " . This term , still used today , is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene . Trait inheritance and molecular inheritance mechanisms of genes are still primary principles of genetics in the 21st century , but modern genetics has expanded beyond inheritance to studying the function and behavior of genes . Gene structure and function , variation , and distribution are studied within the context of the cell , the organism ( e.g. dominance ) and within the context of a population . Genetics has given rise to a number of sub @-@ fields including epigenetics and population genetics . Organisms studied within the broad field span the domain of life , including bacteria , plants , animals , and humans . Genetic processes work in combination with an organism 's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior , often referred to as nature versus nurture . The intra- or extra @-@ cellular environment of a cell or organism may switch gene transcription on or off . A classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn , one placed in a temperate climate and one in an arid climate . While the average height of the two corn stalks may be genetically determined to be equal , the one in the arid climate only grows to half the height of the one in the temperate climate due to lack of water and nutrients in its environment . = = Etymology = = The word genetics stems from the Ancient Greek γενετικός genetikos meaning " genitive " / " generative " , which in turn derives from γένεσις genesis meaning " origin " . = = The gene = = The modern working definition of a gene is a portion ( or sequence ) of DNA that codes for a known cellular function or process ( e.g. the function " make melanin molecules " ) . A single ' gene ' is most similar to a single ' word ' in the English language . The nucleotides ( molecules ) that make up genes can be seen as ' letters ' in the English language . Nucleotides are named according to which of the four nitrogenous bases they contain . The four bases are cytosine , guanine , adenine , and thymine . A single gene may have a small number of nucleotides or a large number of nucleotides , in the same way that a word may be small or large ( e.g. ' cell ' vs. ' electrophysiology ' ) . A single gene often interacts with neighboring genes to produce a cellular function and can even be ineffectual without those neighboring genes . This can be seen in the same way that a ' word ' may have meaning only in the context of a ' sentence . ' A series of nucleotides can be put together without forming a gene ( non coding regions of DNA ) , like a string of letters can be put together without forming a word ( e.g. udkslk ) . Nonetheless , all words have letters , like all genes must have nucleotides . A quick heuristic that is often used ( but not always true ) is " one gene , one protein " meaning a singular gene codes for a singular protein type in a cell ( enzyme , transcription factor , etc . ) . The sequence of nucleotides in a gene is read and translated by a cell to produce a chain of amino acids which in turn folds into a protein . The order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the order of nucleotides in the gene . This relationship between nucleotide sequence and amino acid sequence is known as the genetic code . The amino acids in a protein determine how it folds into its unique three @-@ dimensional shape , a structure that is ultimately responsible for the protein 's function . Proteins carry out many of the functions needed for cells to live . A change to the DNA in a gene can alter a protein 's amino acid sequence , thereby changing its shape and function and rendering the protein ineffective or even malignant ( e.g. sickle cell anemia ) . Changes to genes are called mutations . = = History = = The observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding . The modern science of genetics , seeking to understand this process , began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid @-@ 19th century . Prior to Mendel , Imre Festetics , a Hungarian noble , who lived in Kőszeg before Gregor Mendel , was the first who used the word " genetics " . He described several rules of genetic inheritance in his work The genetic law of the Nature ( Die genetische Gesätze der Natur , 1819 ) . His second law is the same as what Mendel published . In his third law , he developed the basic principles of mutation ( he can be considered a forerunner of Hugo de Vries . ) Other theories of inheritance preceded his work . A popular theory during Mendel 's time was the concept of blending inheritance : the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents . Mendel 's work provided examples where traits were definitely not blended after hybridization , showing that traits are produced by combinations of distinct genes rather than a continuous blend . Blending of traits in the progeny is now explained by the action of multiple genes with quantitative effects . Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics : the belief that individuals inherit traits strengthened by their parents . This theory ( commonly associated with Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck ) is now known to be wrong — the experiences of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children , although evidence in the field of epigenetics has revived some aspects of Lamarck 's theory . Other theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin ( which had both acquired and inherited aspects ) and Francis Galton 's reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited . = = = Mendelian and classical genetics = = = Modern genetics started with Gregor Johann Mendel , a scientist and Augustinian friar who studied the nature of inheritance in plants . In his paper " Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden " ( " Experiments on Plant Hybridization " ) , presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein ( Society for Research in Nature ) in Brünn , Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically . Although this pattern of inheritance could only be observed for a few traits , Mendel 's work suggested that heredity was particulate , not acquired , and that the inheritance patterns of many traits could be explained through simple rules and ratios . The importance of Mendel 's work did not gain wide understanding until the 1890s , after his death , when other scientists working on similar problems re @-@ discovered his research . William Bateson , a proponent of Mendel 's work , coined the word genetics in 1905 . ( The adjective genetic , derived from the Greek word genesis — γένεσις , " origin " , predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860 . ) Bateson both acted as a mentor and was aided significantly by the work of women scientists from Newnham College at Cambridge , specifically the work of Becky Saunders , Nora Darwin Barlow , and Muriel Wheldale Onslow . Bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London , England , in 1906 . After the rediscovery of Mendel 's work , scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance . In 1911 , Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes , based on observations of a sex @-@ linked white eye mutation in fruit flies . In 1913 , his student Alfred Sturtevant used the phenomenon of genetic linkage to show that genes are arranged linearly on the chromosome . = = = Molecular genetics = = = Although genes were known to exist on chromosomes , chromosomes are composed of both protein and DNA , and scientists did not know which of the two is responsible for inheritance . In 1928 , Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of transformation ( see Griffith 's experiment ) : dead bacteria could transfer genetic material to " transform " other still @-@ living bacteria . Sixteen years later , in 1944 , the Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment identified DNA as the molecule responsible for transformation . The role of the nucleus as the repository of genetic information in eukaryotes had been established by Hämmerling in 1943 in his work on the single celled alga Acetabularia . The Hershey – Chase experiment in 1952 confirmed that DNA ( rather than protein ) is the genetic material of the viruses that infect bacteria , providing further evidence that DNA is the molecule responsible for inheritance . James Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953 , using the X @-@ ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA had a helical structure ( i.e. , shaped like a corkscrew ) . Their double @-@ helix model had two strands of DNA with the nucleotides pointing inward , each matching a complementary nucleotide on the other strand to form what looks like rungs on a twisted ladder . This structure showed that genetic information exists in the sequence of nucleotides on each strand of DNA . The structure also suggested a simple method for replication : if the strands are separated , new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand . This property is what gives DNA its semi @-@ conservative nature where one strand of new DNA is from an original parent strand . Although the structure of DNA showed how inheritance works , it was still not known how DNA influences the behavior of cells . In the following years , scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production . It was discovered that the cell uses DNA as a template to create matching messenger RNA , molecules with nucleotides very similar to DNA . The nucleotide sequence of a messenger RNA is used to create an amino acid sequence in protein ; this translation between nucleotide sequences and amino acid sequences is known as the genetic code . With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research . A notable theory arose from Tomoko Ohta in 1973 with her amendment to the neutral theory of molecular evolution through publishing the nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution . In this theory , Ohta stressed the importance of natural selection and the environment to the rate at which genetic evolution occurs . One important development was chain @-@ termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger . This technology allows scientists to read the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule . In 1983 , Kary Banks Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction , providing a quick way to isolate and amplify a specific section of DNA from a mixture . The efforts of the Human Genome Project , Department of Energy , NIH , and parallel private efforts by Celera Genomics led to the sequencing of the human genome in 2003 . = = Features of inheritance = = = = = Discrete inheritance and Mendel 's laws = = = At its most fundamental level , inheritance in organisms occurs by passing discrete heritable units , called genes , from parents to progeny . This property was first observed by Gregor Mendel , who studied the segregation of heritable traits in pea plants . In his experiments studying the trait for flower color , Mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white — but never an intermediate between the two colors . These different , discrete versions of the same gene are called alleles . In the case of the pea , which is a diploid species , each individual plant has two copies of each gene , one copy inherited from each parent . Many species , including humans , have this pattern of inheritance . Diploid organisms with two copies of the same allele of a given gene are called homozygous at that gene locus , while organisms with two different alleles of a given gene are called heterozygous . The set of alleles for a given organism is called its genotype , while the observable traits of the organism are called its phenotype . When organisms are heterozygous at a gene , often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism , while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed . Some alleles do not have complete dominance and instead have incomplete dominance by expressing an intermediate phenotype , or codominance by expressing both alleles at once . When a pair of organisms reproduce sexually , their offspring randomly inherit one of the two alleles from each parent . These observations of discrete inheritance and the segregation of alleles are collectively known as Mendel 's first law or the Law of Segregation . = = = Notation and diagrams = = = Geneticists use diagrams and symbols to describe inheritance . A gene is represented by one or a few letters . Often a " + " symbol is used to mark the usual , non @-@ mutant allele for a gene . In fertilization and breeding experiments ( and especially when discussing Mendel 's laws ) the parents are referred to as the " P " generation and the offspring as the " F1 " ( first filial ) generation . When the F1 offspring mate with each other , the offspring are called the " F2 " ( second filial ) generation . One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross @-@ breeding is the Punnett square . When studying human genetic diseases , geneticists often use pedigree charts to represent the inheritance of traits . These charts map the inheritance of a trait in a family tree . = = = Multiple gene interactions = = = Organisms have thousands of genes , and in sexually reproducing organisms these genes generally assort independently of each other . This means that the inheritance of an allele for yellow or green pea color is unrelated to the inheritance of alleles for white or purple flowers . This phenomenon , known as " Mendel 's second law " or the " Law of independent assortment " , means that the alleles of different genes get shuffled between parents to form offspring with many different combinations . ( Some genes do not assort independently , demonstrating genetic linkage , a topic discussed later in this article . ) Often different genes can interact in a way that influences the same trait . In the Blue @-@ eyed Mary ( Omphalodes verna ) , for example , there exists a gene with alleles that determine the color of flowers : blue or magenta . Another gene , however , controls whether the flowers have color at all or are white . When a plant has two copies of this white allele , its flowers are white — regardless of whether the first gene has blue or magenta alleles . This interaction between genes is called epistasis , with the second gene epistatic to the first . Many traits are not discrete features ( e.g. purple or white flowers ) but are instead continuous features ( e.g. human height and skin color ) . These complex traits are products of many genes . The influence of these genes is mediated , to varying degrees , by the environment an organism has experienced . The degree to which an organism 's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability . Measurement of the heritability of a trait is relative — in a more variable environment , the environment has a bigger influence on the total variation of the trait . For example , human height is a trait with complex causes . It has a heritability of 89 % in the United States . In Nigeria , however , where people experience a more variable access to good nutrition and health care , height has a heritability of only 62 % . = = Molecular basis for inheritance = = = = = DNA and chromosomes = = = The molecular basis for genes is deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) . DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides , of which there are four types : adenine ( A ) , cytosine ( C ) , guanine ( G ) , and thymine ( T ) . Genetic information exists in the sequence of these nucleotides , and genes exist as stretches of sequence along the DNA chain . Viruses are the only exception to this rule — sometimes viruses use the very similar molecule , RNA , instead of DNA as their genetic material . Viruses cannot reproduce without a host and are unaffected by many genetic processes , so tend not to be considered living organisms . DNA normally exists as a double @-@ stranded molecule , coiled into the shape of a double helix . Each nucleotide in DNA preferentially pairs with its partner nucleotide on the opposite strand : A pairs with T , and C pairs with G. Thus , in its two @-@ stranded form , each strand effectively contains all necessary information , redundant with its partner strand . This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance : DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand . Genes are arranged linearly along long chains of DNA base @-@ pair sequences . In bacteria , each cell usually contains a single circular genophore , while eukaryotic organisms ( such as plants and animals ) have their DNA arranged in multiple linear chromosomes . These DNA strands are often extremely long ; the largest human chromosome , for example , is about 247 million base pairs in length . The DNA of a chromosome is associated with structural proteins that organize , compact and control access to the DNA , forming a material called chromatin ; in eukaryotes , chromatin is usually composed of nucleosomes , segments of DNA wound around cores of histone proteins . The full set of hereditary material in an organism ( usually the combined DNA sequences of all chromosomes ) is called the genome . While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome , most animals and many plants are diploid , containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene . The two alleles for a gene are located on identical loci of the two homologous chromosomes , each allele inherited from a different parent . Many species have so @-@ called sex chromosomes that determine the gender of each organism . In humans and many other animals , the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics . In evolution , this chromosome has lost most of its content and also most of its genes , while the X chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes . The X and Y chromosomes form a strongly heterogeneous pair . = = = Reproduction = = = When cells divide , their full genome is copied and each daughter cell inherits one copy . This process , called mitosis , is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction . Asexual reproduction can also occur in multicellular organisms , producing offspring that inherit their genome from a single parent . Offspring that are genetically identical to their parents are called clones . Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents . The process of sexual reproduction alternates between forms that contain single copies of the genome ( haploid ) and double copies ( diploid ) . Haploid cells fuse and combine genetic material to create a diploid cell with paired chromosomes . Diploid organisms form haploids by dividing , without replicating their DNA , to create daughter cells that randomly inherit one of each pair of chromosomes . Most animals and many plants are diploid for most of their lifespan , with the haploid form reduced to single cell gametes such as sperm or eggs . Although they do not use the haploid / diploid method of sexual reproduction , bacteria have many methods of acquiring new genetic information . Some bacteria can undergo conjugation , transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium . Bacteria can also take up raw DNA fragments found in the environment and integrate them into their genomes , a phenomenon known as transformation . These processes result in horizontal gene transfer , transmitting fragments of genetic information between organisms that would be otherwise unrelated . = = = Recombination and genetic linkage = = = The diploid nature of chromosomes allows for genes on different chromosomes to assort independently or be separated from their homologous pair during sexual reproduction wherein haploid gametes are formed . In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair . Genes on the same chromosome would theoretically never recombine . However , they do via the cellular process of chromosomal crossover . During crossover , chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA , effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes . This process of chromosomal crossover generally occurs during meiosis , a series of cell divisions that creates haploid cells . The first cytological demonstration of crossing over was performed by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931 . Their research and experiments on corn provided cytological evidence for the genetic theory that linked genes on paired chromosomes do in fact exchange places from one homolog to the other . The probability of chromosomal crossover occurring between two given points on the chromosome is related to the distance between the points . For an arbitrarily long distance , the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated . For genes that are closer together , however , the lower probability of crossover means that the genes demonstrate genetic linkage ; alleles for the two genes tend to be inherited together . The amounts of linkage between a series of genes can be combined to form a linear linkage map that roughly describes the arrangement of the genes along the chromosome . = = Gene expression = = = = = Genetic code = = = Genes generally express their functional effect through the production of proteins , which are complex molecules responsible for most functions in the cell . Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptide chains , each of which is composed of a sequence of amino acids , and the DNA sequence of a gene ( through an RNA intermediate ) is used to produce a specific amino acid sequence . This process begins with the production of an RNA molecule with a sequence matching the gene 's DNA sequence , a process called transcription . This messenger RNA molecule is then used to produce a corresponding amino acid sequence through a process called translation . Each group of three nucleotides in the sequence , called a codon , corresponds either to one of the twenty possible amino acids in a protein or an instruction to end the amino acid sequence ; this correspondence is called the genetic code . The flow of information is unidirectional : information is transferred from nucleotide sequences into the amino acid sequence of proteins , but it never transfers from protein back into the sequence of DNA — a phenomenon Francis Crick called the central dogma of molecular biology . The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three @-@ dimensional structure for that protein , and the three @-@ dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions . Some are simple structural molecules , like the fibers formed by the protein collagen . Proteins can bind to other proteins and simple molecules , sometimes acting as enzymes by facilitating chemical reactions within the bound molecules ( without changing the structure of the protein itself ) . Protein structure is dynamic ; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture , transport , and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood . A single nucleotide difference within DNA can cause a change in the amino acid sequence of a protein . Because protein structures are the result of their amino acid sequences , some changes can dramatically change the properties of a protein by destabilizing the structure or changing the surface of the protein in a way that changes its interaction with other proteins and molecules . For example , sickle @-@ cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β @-@ globin section of hemoglobin , causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin 's physical properties . Sickle @-@ cell versions of hemoglobin stick to themselves , stacking to form fibers that distort the shape of red blood cells carrying the protein . These sickle @-@ shaped cells no longer flow smoothly through blood vessels , having a tendency to clog or degrade , causing the medical problems associated with this disease . Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products — such RNA molecules are called non @-@ coding RNA . In some cases , these products fold into structures which are involved in critical cell functions ( e.g. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA ) . RNA can also have regulatory effects through hybridization interactions with other RNA molecules ( e.g. microRNA ) . = = = Nature and nurture = = = Although genes contain all the information an organism uses to function , the environment plays an important role in determining the ultimate phenotypes an organism displays . This is the complementary relationship often referred to as " nature and nurture " . The phenotype of an organism depends on the interaction of genes and the environment . An interesting example is the coat coloration of the Siamese cat . In this case , the body temperature of the cat plays the role of the environment . The cat 's genes code for dark hair , thus the hair @-@ producing cells in the cat make cellular proteins resulting in dark hair . But these dark hair @-@ producing proteins are sensitive to temperature ( i.e. have a mutation causing temperature @-@ sensitivity ) and denature in higher @-@ temperature environments , failing to produce dark @-@ hair pigment in areas where the cat has a higher body temperature . In a low @-@ temperature environment , however , the protein 's structure is stable and produces dark @-@ hair pigment normally . The protein remains functional in areas of skin that are colder – such as its legs , ears , tail and face – so the cat has dark @-@ hair at its extremities . Environment plays a major role in effects of the human genetic disease phenylketonuria . The mutation that causes phenylketonuria disrupts the ability of the body to break down the amino acid phenylalanine , causing a toxic build @-@ up of an intermediate molecule that , in turn , causes severe symptoms of progressive mental retardation and seizures . However , if someone with the phenylketonuria mutation follows a strict diet that avoids this amino acid , they remain normal and healthy . A popular method in determining how genes and environment ( " nature and nurture " ) contribute to a phenotype is by studying identical and fraternal twins or siblings of multiple births . Because identical siblings come from the same zygote , they are genetically the same . Fraternal twins are as genetically different from one another as normal siblings . By analyzing statistics on how often a twin of a set has a certain disorder compared to other sets of twins , scientists can determine whether that disorder is caused by genetic or environmental factors ( i.e. whether it has ' nature ' or ' nurture ' causes ) . One famous example is the multiple birth study of the Genain quadruplets , who were identical quadruplets all diagnosed with schizophrenia . = = = Gene regulation = = = The genome of a given organism contains thousands of genes , but not all these genes need to be active at any given moment . A gene is expressed when it is being transcribed into mRNA and there exist many cellular methods of controlling the expression of genes such that proteins are produced only when needed by the cell . Transcription factors are regulatory proteins that bind to DNA , either promoting or inhibiting the transcription of a gene . Within the genome of Escherichia coli bacteria , for example , there exists a series of genes necessary for the synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan . However , when tryptophan is already available to the cell , these genes for tryptophan synthesis are no longer needed . The presence of tryptophan directly affects the activity of the genes — tryptophan molecules bind to the tryptophan repressor ( a transcription factor ) , changing the repressor 's structure such that the repressor binds to the genes . The tryptophan repressor blocks the transcription and expression of the genes , thereby creating negative feedback regulation of the tryptophan synthesis process . Differences in gene expression are especially clear within multicellular organisms , where cells all contain the same genome but have very different structures and behaviors due to the expression of different sets of genes . All the cells in a multicellular organism derive from a single cell , differentiating into variant cell types in response to external and intercellular signals and gradually establishing different patterns of gene expression to create different behaviors . As no single gene is responsible for the development of structures within multicellular organisms , these patterns arise from the complex interactions between many cells . Within eukaryotes , there exist structural features of chromatin that influence the transcription of genes , often in the form of modifications to DNA and chromatin that are stably inherited by daughter cells . These features are called " epigenetic " because they exist " on top " of the DNA sequence and retain inheritance from one cell generation to the next . Because of epigenetic features , different cell types grown within the same medium can retain very different properties . Although epigenetic features are generally dynamic over the course of development , some , like the phenomenon of paramutation , have multigenerational inheritance and exist as rare exceptions to the general rule of DNA as the basis for inheritance . = = Genetic change = = = = = Mutations = = = During the process of DNA replication , errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand . These errors , called mutations , can affect the phenotype of an organism , especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene . Error rates are usually very low — 1 error in every 10 – 100 million bases — due to the " proofreading " ability of DNA polymerases . Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic : mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication , often by interfering with the structure of base @-@ pairing , while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure . Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks . The repair does not , however , always restore the original sequence . In organisms that use chromosomal crossover to exchange DNA and recombine genes , errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations . Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment ; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way . These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence – duplications , inversions , deletions of entire regions – or the accidental exchange of whole parts of sequences between different chromosomes ( chromosomal translocation ) . = = = Natural selection and evolution = = = Mutations alter an organism 's genotype and occasionally this causes different phenotypes to appear . Most mutations have little effect on an organism 's phenotype , health , or reproductive fitness . Mutations that do have an effect are usually deleterious , but occasionally some can be beneficial . Studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene , about 70 percent of these mutations will be harmful with the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial . Population genetics studies the distribution of genetic differences within populations and how these distributions change over time . Changes in the frequency of an allele in a population are mainly influenced by natural selection , where a given allele provides a selective or reproductive advantage to the organism , as well as other factors such as mutation , genetic drift , genetic draft , artificial selection and migration . Over many generations , the genomes of organisms can change significantly , resulting in evolution . In the process called adaptation , selection for beneficial mutations can cause a species to evolve into forms better able to survive in their environment . New species are formed through the process of speciation , often caused by geographical separations that prevent populations from exchanging genes with each other . The application of genetic principles to the study of population biology and evolution is known as the " modern synthesis " . By comparing the homology between different species ' genomes , it is possible to calculate the evolutionary distance between them and when they may have diverged . Genetic comparisons are generally considered a more accurate method of characterizing the relatedness between species than the comparison of phenotypic characteristics . The evolutionary distances between species can be used to form evolutionary trees ; these trees represent the common descent and divergence of species over time , although they do not show the transfer of genetic material between unrelated species ( known as horizontal gene transfer and most common in bacteria ) . = = = Model organisms = = = Although geneticists originally studied inheritance in a wide range of organisms , researchers began to specialize in studying the genetics of a particular subset of organisms . The fact that significant research already existed for a given organism would encourage new researchers to choose it for further study , and so eventually a few model organisms became the basis for most genetics research . Common research topics in model organism genetics include the study of gene regulation and the involvement of genes in development and cancer . Organisms were chosen , in part , for convenience — short generation times and easy genetic manipulation made some organisms popular genetics research tools . Widely used model organisms include the gut bacterium Escherichia coli , the plant Arabidopsis thaliana , baker 's yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) , the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans , the common fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster ) , and the common house mouse ( Mus musculus ) . = = = Medicine = = = Medical genetics seeks to understand how genetic variation relates to human health and disease . When searching for an unknown gene that may be involved in a disease , researchers commonly use genetic linkage and genetic pedigree charts to find the location on the genome associated with the disease . At the population level , researchers take advantage of Mendelian randomization to look for locations in the genome that are associated with diseases , a method especially useful for multigenic traits not clearly defined by a single gene . Once a candidate gene is found , further research is often done on the corresponding gene – the orthologous gene – in model organisms . In addition to studying genetic diseases , the increased availability of genotyping methods has led to the field of pharmacogenetics : the study of how genotype can affect drug responses . Individuals differ in their inherited tendency to develop cancer , and cancer is a genetic disease . The process of cancer development in the body is a combination of events . Mutations occasionally occur within cells in the body as they divide . Although these mutations will not be inherited by any offspring , they can affect the behavior of cells , sometimes causing them to grow and divide more frequently . There are biological mechanisms that attempt to stop this process ; signals are given to inappropriately dividing cells that should trigger cell death , but sometimes additional mutations occur that cause cells to ignore these messages . An internal process of natural selection occurs within the body and eventually mutations accumulate within cells to promote their own growth , creating a cancerous tumor that grows and invades various tissues of the body . Normally , a cell divides only in response to signals called growth factors and stops growing once in contact with surrounding cells and in response to growth @-@ inhibitory signals . It usually then divides a limited number of times and dies , staying within the epithelium where it is unable to migrate to other organs . To become a cancer cell , a cell has to accumulate mutations in a number of genes ( 3 – 7 ) that allow it to bypass this regulation : it no longer needs growth factors to divide , it continues growing when making contact to neighbor cells , and ignores inhibitory signals , it will keep growing indefinitely and is immortal , it will escape from the epithelium and ultimately may be able to escape from the primary tumor , cross the endothelium of a blood vessel , be transported by the bloodstream and will colonize a new organ , forming deadly metastasis . Although there are some genetic predispositions in a small fraction of cancers , the major fraction is due to a set of new genetic mutations that originally appear and accumulate in one or a small number of cells that will divide to form the tumor and are not transmitted to the progeny ( somatic mutations ) . The most frequent mutations are a loss of function of p53 protein , a tumor suppressor , or in the p53 pathway , and gain of function mutations in the ras proteins , or in other oncogenes . = = = Research methods = = = DNA can be manipulated in the laboratory . Restriction enzymes are commonly used enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences , producing predictable fragments of DNA . DNA fragments can be visualized through use of gel electrophoresis , which separates fragments according to their length . The use of ligation enzymes allows DNA fragments to be connected . By binding ( " ligating " ) fragments of DNA together from different sources , researchers can create recombinant DNA , the DNA often associated with genetically modified organisms . Recombinant DNA is commonly used in the context of plasmids : short circular DNA molecules with a few genes on them . In the process known as molecular cloning , researchers can amplify the DNA fragments by inserting plasmids into bacteria and then culturing them on plates of agar ( to isolate clones of bacteria cells ) . ( " Cloning " can also refer to the various means of creating cloned ( " clonal " ) organisms . ) DNA can also be amplified using a procedure called the polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) . By using specific short sequences of DNA , PCR can isolate and exponentially amplify a targeted region of DNA . Because it can amplify from extremely small amounts of DNA , PCR is also often used to detect the presence of specific DNA sequences . = = = DNA sequencing and genomics = = = DNA sequencing , one of the most fundamental technologies developed to study genetics , allows researchers to determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA fragments . The technique of chain @-@ termination sequencing , developed in 1977 by a team led by Frederick Sanger , is still routinely used to sequence DNA fragments . Using this technology , researchers have been able to study the molecular sequences associated with many human diseases . As sequencing has become less expensive , researchers have sequenced the genomes of many organisms , using a process called genome assembly , which utilizes computational tools to stitch together sequences from many different fragments . These technologies were used to sequence the human genome in the Human Genome Project completed in 2003 . New high @-@ throughput sequencing technologies are dramatically lowering the cost of DNA sequencing , with many researchers hoping to bring the cost of resequencing a human genome down to a thousand dollars . Next generation sequencing ( or high @-@ throughput sequencing ) came about due to the ever @-@ increasing demand for low @-@ cost sequencing . These sequencing technologies allow the production of potentially millions of sequences concurrently . The large amount of sequence data available has created the field of genomics , research that uses computational tools to search for and analyze patterns in the full genomes of organisms . Genomics can also be considered a subfield of bioinformatics , which uses computational approaches to analyze large sets of biological data . A common problem to these fields of research is how to manage and share data that deals with human subject and personally identifiable information . See also genomics data sharing . = = Society and culture = = On 19 March 2015 , a leading group of biologists urged a worldwide ban on clinical use of methods , particularly the use of CRISPR and zinc finger , to edit the human genome in a way that can be inherited . In April 2015 , Chinese researchers reported results of basic research to edit the DNA of non @-@ viable human embryos using CRISPR .

= 1982 Pacific typhoon season = The 1982 Pacific typhoon season had no official bounds ; it ran year @-@ round in 1982 . On average , most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between May and November . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean . The scope of this article is limited to the Pacific Ocean , north of the equator and west of the International Date Line . Storms that form east of the date line and north of the equator are called hurricanes . Tropical Storms that formed in the entire west Pacific basin were assigned a name by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . Tropical depressions that enter or form in the Philippine area of responsibility are assigned a name by the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA . This can often result in the same storm having two names . During this season , the first tropical cyclone formed on March 16 , and the last one dissipated on December 12 . A total of 29 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific , of which 25 became tropical storms . 19 storms reached typhoon intensity , of which 2 reached super typhoon strength . Two @-@ thirds of the tropical cyclones formed between July and October . Typhoon Pamela was the longest @-@ lived tropical cyclone of the season . Sixteen of the cyclones struck land during their life cycles , with eight moving through the Philippines . Tropical cyclones accounted for 35 percent of the 1982 rainfall across Hong Kong , their fifth wettest tropical cyclone contribution on record at the time . Nearly half of the deaths during the season were the result of Typhoon Nancy moving through the Philippines and Vietnam in October . = = Seasonal activity = = A total of 28 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific , of which 26 became tropical storms . 19 storms reached typhoon intensity , of which 2 reached super typhoon strength . Three tropical cyclones formed in March ( most active since 1967 , ) one in May , three in June , four in July , five in August , six in September , four in October , one in November , and one in December . Typhoon Pamela ( Aning ) was the longest @-@ lived tropical cyclone of the season . Sixteen tropical cyclones made landfall , with eight moving through the Philippines , four striking China , three impacting Vietnam , and three crossing Japan . Tropical cyclones accounted for 35 percent of the 1982 rainfall across Hong Kong , their fifth wettest tropical cyclone contribution on record at the time . Tropical Storm Mamie moved across the tropical western Pacific ocean , striking the Philippines and Vietnam during mid to late March . Nelson formed soon after Mamie , becoming the first typhoon of the season which subsequently moved westward through the southern Philippines before dissipating shy of Vietnam in late March . Odessa formed well out to sea , wandering across the western Pacific before dissipating in early April , ending the most active March since 1967 . Pat formed in mid May , approaching the Philippines before becoming an extratropical cyclone offshore Japan late in the month . Ruby wandered around the Marianas in late June , becoming an extratropical cyclone east of Japan . Tess became the first tropical cyclone of the season to form in the South China Sea during late June , weakening before reaching Taiwan in early July . The Japanese Meteorological Agency states that Val was a continuation of Tess , which moved east @-@ northeast from Taiwan to the south of Japan in early July . Skip formed ahead of Tess , moving east @-@ northeast well to the south of Japan in late June and early July . Winona moved west @-@ northwest through the northern Philippines across Hainan Island into southern China before dissipating in mid July . Andy formed south of Guam , moving west @-@ northwest across Taiwan into southern China in late July . Bess formed within the same monsoon trough which spawned Andy , moving generally northwest into Japan early in August . Cecil formed northeast of the Philippines , moving northward offshore Taiwan and eastern China before moving ashore North Korea in mid @-@ August . Dot formed east of Cecil , moving west @-@ northwest into southern Taiwan and southeast China in mid @-@ August . Ellis formed well east of the Philippines in mid @-@ August , recurving northward into southern Japan late in the month . Faye wandered aimlessly between the central Philippines and Taiwan during late August and early September , steered partially by Gordon to its east @-@ northeast . Gordon recurved offshore Japan during late August and early September . Tropical Storm Hope moved through the South China Sea into Vietnam in early September . Irving moved across the central Philippines and Hainan Island before dissipating in southeast China in mid @-@ September . Judy formed in the same monsoon trough which spawned Irving , recurving across central Japan during mid @-@ September . Ken formed northeast of the Philippines in mid @-@ September , recurving across southern Japan in late September . Tropical Storm Lola formed and recurved well east of Asia in mid @-@ September . Tropical Depression 22 was a short lived system which moved northwestward east of the Philippines and south of Japan on September 21 and 22 . Mac was the first super typhoon to form during the season , recurving southeast of Japan in early October . Nancy was a straight @-@ running typhoon which moved steadily westward across the northern Philippines south of Hainan Island into northern Vietnam . Tropical Depression 25 behaved similarly to Tropical Depression 22 , moving northwest well east of the Philippines and south of Japan in mid October . Typhoon Owen meandered well to the southeast of Japan in mid and late October . Pamela moved generally westward across the central Philippines as a typhoon in early December . Roger was the last tropical cyclone of the season , and it moved northward along the northeast side of the Philippines in mid December before dissipating southeast of Taiwan . = = Storms = = = = = Severe Tropical Storm Mamie ( Akang ) = = = An area of thunderstorms was first spied March 7 near the 150th meridian east and just south of the equator . Over the next several days , the disturbance crossed the equator , moving northward . By March 14 , it was located 190 kilometres ( 120 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Truk . Turning westward , the system became a tropical storm by the afternoon of March 16 . Further intensification was quite slow , and halted upon landfall in Mindanao on March 19 . Extensive property and crop damage , as well as 45 deaths , were attributed to this storm . The cyclone entered the Sulu Sea as a tropical storm , and turned northward as it reached the South China Sea . A turn to the west again occurred , which directed Mamie to a landfall near Nha Trang , Vietnam late on March 24 . Dissipation was complete within a mountainous region on March 25 . = = = Typhoon Nelson ( Bising ) = = = This storm was the second of three early season , low latitude systems to form to the southeast of Guam . Nelson intensified rapidly from a tropical disturbance into a tropical storm . This was due to very strong divergence aloft . Strong low level easterlies and rapid westward movement led to slower development thereafter . After March 22 , forward motion began to slow and intensification resumed . Maximum intensity was reached on March 25 . On March 27 , Nelson moved through the south @-@ central Philippines and rapidly weakened . Fifty @-@ six perished across the Philippines from this typhoon . Slight intensification resumed as the center emerged into the South China Sea . By March 30 , upper level wind shear led to significant weakening , with the low level center becoming exposed and eventually dissipating on April 1 about 445 kilometres ( 277 mi ) east of Nha Trang , Vietnam . = = = Typhoon Odessa = = = An area of disorganized thunderstorms was noted near 2N 159E on March 26 . Moving northwest due to significant cyclogenesis offshore Japan , a circulation center developed within this convective cluster over the next few days . By the afternoon of March 29 , it had matured into a tropical storm . A mid @-@ level trough extended southwest towards the cyclone . Combined with strong ridging building in north to northwest of the storm , Odessa ceased moving northwest and turned east at around 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) during March 30 and March 31 . As the mid @-@ level trough continued moving east , Odessa turned back to the north , and eventually west @-@ northwest , as ridging built in north of the cyclone . After the change in course to west , intensification resumed , and the system reached typhoon strength in the afternoon of April 2 . As Odessa peaked in strength a weakness in the subtropical ridge lured its convection northeast , shearing the thunderstorms away from the center . Rapid weakening ensued , and the cyclone dissipated on the afternoon of April 4 . The occurrence of this cyclone ended the most active March for tropical cyclone formation in the northwest Pacific ocean since 1967 . Odessa was unique from a climatological standpoint , moving east and west in an area normally known for northward moving tropical cyclones in March . = = = Typhoon Pat ( Klaring ) = = = Pat became the lone tropical cyclone in the western Pacific basin during the two @-@ month interval between Odessa 's dissipation and the formation of Ruby . The disturbance which led to Pat 's formation developed southwest of Guam on May 14 . By May 17 the system had organized sufficiently to become a tropical depression . Moving westward until the afternoon of May 18 , Pat abruptly changed course to the north through a break in the subtropical ridge parallel and close to the Philippines . Rapid intensification ensued , with Pat reaching its maximum intensity late on May 21 . As the cyclone turned to the northeast , vertical wind shear began to weaken the cyclone . Its wind field broadened as it began extratropical transition . By midday on May 23 , Pat had evolved into an extratropical cyclone along a frontal boundary with cool , dry air wrapping into its center . The cyclone became absorbed by a larger system near Japan on May 24 . = = = Typhoon Ruby = = = A blob of thunderstorms was noticed about 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) southeast of Guam on June 18 . It tracked westward , without significant development until June 20 while passing south of Ulithi Atoll . Steering currents collapsed , and the system drifted between Ulithi and Yap for the next couple of days . By the morning of June 21 , the system had strengthened into a tropical storm . The system drifted north to northwest , then northeast towards Guam . Ruby waited to detach from the monsoon trough before further strengthening was realized on June 23 . Steady intensification ensued , and the cyclone accelerated northward , becoming a typhoon on the afternoon of June 24 . Ruby became an extratropical cyclone on June 27 , occluding and becoming nearly stationary east of Hokkaidō for several days . Two vessels with a collective crew of 42 people became stranded off the coast of Honshu during the typhoon . The 19 crew of the No. 10 Soichi @-@ Maru were rescued while the 23 members on the No. 8 Takojima @-@ Maru remained missing . Heavy rains fell near the path of this cyclone . Yap Island received 594 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 23 @.@ 40 in ) of rainfall . Koror , within Palau , recorded 277 millimetres ( 10 @.@ 9 in ) of rain . Anderson Air Force Base on Guam measured 184 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 25 in ) of rain . = = = Tropical Storm Tess – Val ( Deling ) = = = The initial disturbance formed in the South China Sea in late June as a monsoon depression . A weak low @-@ level circulation formed on June 27 , but convection remained far from the center . By June 29 , convection had become nearer to the center and it qualified as a tropical depression . No additional development was seen through June 30 as the system moved northward . The cyclone turned east @-@ northeast , paralleling the coast of China . When tropical storm force winds were observed in Hong Kong , the cyclone was upgraded to a tropical storm late on June 30 . Winds gusted to 53 knots ( 98 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn , and 279 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 10 @.@ 99 in ) of rain fell from the cyclone . Quickly weakening back to a tropical depression early on July 1 , Tess dissipated as it approached the Formosa Strait . The Japanese Meteorological Agency states that Val was a continuation of Tess , which moved east @-@ northeast from Taiwan to the south of Japan in early July . Its circulation center moved along a frontal @-@ like band east of Taiwan on July 1 . Isolated convection was seen near the low pressure center at the time . When deeper convection formed on July 3 , Val was deemed to become a tropical storm . In the Joint Typhoon Warning Center write @-@ up , it was considered a subtropical cyclone after the fact . The cyclone accelerated northeast , and by July 4 whatever central convection it once had was gone and it was considered an extratropical cyclone late that morning . = = = Tropical Storm Skip = = = Skip formed from a tropical disturbance near 20N 124E on June 26 . A sharp trough connected Ruby with Skip at this time , which was undergoing frontogenesis as Ruby became extratropical . By late morning on June 30 , Skip was of tropical storm strength accelerating up the frontal boundary to its northeast with limited convection near its center , and was considered by the Joint Typhoon Warning center as a subtropical cyclone in its annual report . By July 2 , what limited convection was near the center of Skip disappeared , and it became an extratropical cyclone . = = = Severe Tropical Storm Winona ( Emang ) = = = Moderate to strong northeasterly vertical wind shear hampered the development of this tropical cyclone throughout its life cycle . Between July 10 and July 12 , its predecessor disturbance marched westward with little development . Observations from Yap late on July 12 verified the existence of a developing low @-@ level center , and it was upgraded to a tropical depression at this time . Moving west @-@ northwest along the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge , Winona made landfall on Luzon during the afternoon of July 15 . Rainfall at Clark Air Force Base totaled 81 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 21 in ) . Damage to Clark Air Force Base totalled US $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1982 dollars ) . Two died and 5000 were left homeless in the Philippines were left homeless by the ensuing flood . Reintensifying in the South China Sea , the cyclone reached its peak intensity on the afternoon of July 16 . Thereafter , wind shear took its toll and the cyclone began to weaken . The cyclone revealed an exposed low @-@ level center on July 17 , and the system dissipated before reaching the China / Vietnam coast on July 18 . Winds gusted to 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn . = = = Tropical Depression Gading = = = = = = Tropical Depression Heling = = = = = = Typhoon Andy ( Iliang ) = = = The system formed on the northern edge of the monsoon trough south of Guam . Prior to its formation , low @-@ level westerlies were firmly in place south of the 10th parallel eastward to the International Date Line . On July 20 , the monsoon trough segmented , with the middle segment becoming Andy ( Bess formed from the eastern segment ) . On July 22 , the area south of Guam showed increasing thunderstorm activity and organization . That morning , it became a tropical storm . Andy 's center briefly became exposed on July 23 before drifting back under the thunderstorm activity . After looping south of Guam , the cyclone moved northwest and strengthened . Andy turned westward near the 18th parallel on July 25 as the ridge to its northeast strengthened . The system became a strong typhoon for a prolonged period on July 28 and July 29 before striking southern Taiwan . Heavy rains fell over Hong Kong , where 205 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 08 in ) fell at Tate 's Cairn . A deluge fell across eastern Taiwan , where flood @-@ related damage was concentrated . Continuing westward through the Formosa Strait , the storm made its final landfall and dissipated in southeast China on July 30 . Andy led to 13 deaths across Taiwan . = = = Super Typhoon Bess = = = The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression near Kwajalein on July 22 . It headed northwestward , becoming a tropical storm on July 23 and a typhoon on July 24 . A shortwave trough forced Bess southwestward where it remained a 90 knots ( 170 km / h ) typhoon . It looped and stalled until another shortwave trough brought the typhoon to the northwest . Bess rapidly intensified to a 140 knots ( 260 km / h ) super typhoon , and weakened steadily as it turned more northward . Bess crossed the Japanese coast on August 1 as a minimal typhoon , and was absorbed by a low pressure center in the Sea of Japan on August 2 . Bess caused torrential mudslides in Japan , causing extensive damage and 59 casualties . The name Bess was retired after this season . = = = Typhoon Cecil ( Loleng ) = = = A low @-@ level circulation north of Chuuk organized into a tropical depression on August 4 . After moving quickly westward , the depression stalled on August 5 and August 6 , allowing it to strengthen into a tropical storm and mature into a typhoon on August 7 . The typhoon turned northward , rapidly intensifying to maximum sustained winds of 125 knots ( 232 km / h ) on August 8 while east of Taiwan . Cooler water temperatures and vertical wind shear weakened Cecil as it continued northward , and as a 35 knots ( 65 km / h ) tropical storm , it hit North Korea on August 14 . Though significantly weakened , it brought a great deal of precipitation , causing severe flooding killing 54 and leading to millions of dollars in damage . = = = Typhoon Dot ( Miding ) = = = A weak circulation formed near Kwajalein on August 5 . Over the next couple days , the low moved northwest . Slowly developing , it became a tropical depression on the morning of August 9 , and a tropical storm by evening . Becoming a typhoon on August 11 , Dot moved westward under the base of the subtropical ridge . By August 12 , Cecil 's outflow began to impact Dot , and weakening ensued , sending Dot back to the tropical storm stage . As Cecil 's influence began to lessen on August 13 , Dot stopped weakening . As a tropical storm , Dot rapidly passed over Taiwan on August 15 , rapidly weakening over the mountainous island . As a weak tropical storm , Dot dissipated after making landfall in eastern China . As of 2005 , Dot is the eighth wettest known typhoon for Hong Kong . It dropped 491 @.@ 7 millimetres ( 19 @.@ 36 in ) of rainfall upon the region . = = = Typhoon Ellis ( Oyang ) = = = A disturbance appeared in the monsoon trough south of Ponape on August 15 . Modest development ensued as it moved west @-@ northwest , and the system was classified as a tropical depression on the morning of August 19 , and a tropical storm that night . Turning to the northwest , Ellis became a typhoon on the morning of August 21 , and ultimately a major typhoon on August 22 . A mid @-@ level trough moving into the Yellow Sea continued Ellis ' recurvature . Moving east of Okinawa on August 25 , the cyclone headed northward towards Japan . Moving by Kyūshū , Shikoku , and Honshū , the cyclone degenerated into a tropical storm . Heavy rains up to 711 millimetres ( 28 @.@ 0 in ) inundated southwest Japan , bringing life to a standstill for the region . Five perished across Japan . Moving into the Sea of Japan on August 27 , Ellis evolved into an extratropical cyclone which turned back to the northwest , ending up about 220 kilometres ( 140 mi ) west of Vladivostok . = = = Typhoon Faye ( Norming ) = = = On August 16 , a weak tropical disturbance was moving towards the southern Philippines . Its low @-@ level circulation was easily identified , since it was exposed , away from any deep convection . The system organized in the South China Sea , becoming a tropical depression by midday on August 21 , a tropical storm that evening , and a typhoon on the night of August 22 . A small cyclone , Faye moved northward on August 24 due to the weakening of a warm core ridge over China . By that evening , it reached its maximum intensity . On the morning of August 25 , the cyclone strikes Luzon and rapidly weakens . Wallace Air Station reported gusts to 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) during the passage of Faye . Thirty @-@ two perished in the Philippines due to Faye . Recurving to the northeast , Faye continued weakening due to vertical wind shear from Ellis , with dissipation as a tropical cyclone occurring on the afternoon of August 27 . As a tropical depression , Faye moved east @-@ northeast for a while before stalling between a mid @-@ level trough and newly developed Tropical Storm Gordon . As Ellis retreated to the north , Faye began to reorganize with tropical storm status reattained on the morning of August 28 and typhoon status reached that night . Weakening began anew due to outflow from Typhoon Gordon , and the system became a tropical storm once more on the early morning of August 30 . By August 31 , a building ridge to Faye 's north led to a southwest motion as the system continued to weaken . The cyclone became a tropical depression that evening , and drifted west for the next few days as an exposed low level circulation . The depression dissipated in the South China Sea on the afternoon of September 3 . = = = Typhoon Gordon = = = The initial disturbance that led to Gordon 's formation developed within the monsoon trough just west of the International Date Line . A surface circulation developed in associated with this convection on August 25 near 8N 163E . While upper ridging aloft existed , it was not until the following day that it developed directly over this disturbance . Moving northwest , rapid development began early on August 27 , with tropical depression status achieved that morning and tropical storm intensity reached that afternoon . Gordon became a typhoon on the morning of August 28 . By early on August 30 , the cyclone reached its maximum intensity . A building ridge to its north directed Gordon westward until September 3 , when its motion slowed . A shortwave trough deepened to its northwest , and the cyclone turned northward in response . By September 4 , the cyclone was accelerating east to northeast , passing about 480 kilometres ( 300 mi ) southeast of Tokyo , and the storm became extratropical early on the afternoon of September 5 . = = = Severe Tropical Storm Hope ( Pasing ) = = = A monsoon depression formed over the South China Sea on September 3 . It deepened rapidly , becoming a tropical storm late on September 4 . Moving quickly westward , it struck the coast of Vietnam south of Da Nang , then moved into the mountains of Laos and Vietnam as it rapidly dissipated . Significant flooding caused the evacuation of several thousand people and damaged the rice crop . = = = Typhoon Irving ( Ruping ) = = = An active monsoon trough was south of Guam . By late on September 4 , a surface low was apparent near 11N 130E . Late the next day , it became a tropical depression while moving generally to the west . By the next morning , it had strengthened into a tropical storm . Late on September 8 , the cyclone struck the southern tip of Luzon as a strong tropical storm . Moving through an inland sea route though the archipelago , Irving slightly weakened before turning northwest into the South China Sea . Irving became a compact typhoon while strengthening over open waters . Weakening back into a tropical storm due to land interaction with Hai @-@ nan and mainland China , the system made landfall about 205 kilometres ( 127 mi ) northeast of Hanoi , then rapidly dissipated as it moved inland . Across the Philippines , Irving battered a dozen provinces in the southern section of Luzon , toppling trees and ripping off rooftops . Moreover , the storm also uprooted trees , downed power and telephone lines , triggered landslides and forced the cancellation of several domestic airline flights on Thursday . Schools were closed . Irving wrecked 7 @,@ 890 houses in Albay and Sorsogon provinces alone . As a result , 23 @,@ 101 families , or about 138 @,@ 500 people were listed as homeless . A total of 37 perished and three others were rendered as missing . Most of the casualties occurred when people were downed by falling trees or falling debris . Two people perished due to a landslide southeast of Manila . Moreover , 15 people died in the Batangas City , where electrical and water supplies was cut for two days . Twenty @-@ three were wounded . However , damage to crops , especially rice , was minor . Damage in the Philippines totaled to $ 13 million . The nations ' president order for the release of $ 294 @,@ 000 in aid . Upon making landfall in China , winds gusted to 53 knots ( 98 km / h ) at Lei Yue Mun in Hong Kong . In all , 49 died due to Irving . = = = Typhoon Judy ( Susang ) = = = Forming in tandem with Irving , Judy formed east of the Philippines as a tropical disturbance on September 4 . In contrast to Irving , Judy 's intensification was more rapid , becoming a tropical depression early on September 6 , a tropical storm later that morning , and a typhoon on September 8 while tracking northwestward . On September 9 , Judy appears to have ingested dry air from a nearly tropical upper tropospheric cyclone , as its central eye feature expanded significantly . A mid @-@ latitude trough south of Korea swept Judy more northward , ultimately accelerating the storm towards Japan on September 11 . When the 70 knots ( 130 km / h ) Typhoon Judy hit southeastern Japan on September 12 , its torrential rains left 25 dead and causing moderate damage . Extratropical transition had begun around that time , and Judy became an extratropical cyclone on September 13 . = = = Typhoon Ken ( Tering ) = = = Forming along the western end of the monsoon trough in the Philippine Sea , the convective disturbance was first noted on September 14 . By the afternoon of September 16 , the system had organized into a tropical depression , and by that night a tropical storm . As a compact system , rapid intensification continued , with Ken becoming a typhoon on the evening of September 17 and a major typhoon on September 18 . The cyclone up to this point had a history of progressing slowly west @-@ northwest , but Ken eventually stalled on September 20 and became a larger cyclone , possibly due to the ingestion of some cooler , drier air from its periphery . As a mid @-@ latitude trough to its north deepened , Ken took off to the northeast towards Okinawa . On September 23 , Ken brought significant rains to the island when 282 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) were measured at Kadena . Weakening ensued thereafter due to interaction with the main belt of the Westerlies . Ken made landfall upon Shikoku early on September 25 , and moved onward into the Sea of Japan where it evolved into an extratropical cyclone . The fourth typhoon of the season to strike Japan , Ken brought winds as high as 114 knots ( 211 km / h ) and rainfall of 221 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) within a six @-@ hour period to Shikoku . Resultant mudslides damaged thousands of homes , and five people died . = = = Tropical Storm Lola = = = Forming in proximity to the tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) , its initial disturbance was first spotted as a weak band of convection near the International Dateline in the subtropics on September 13 . Slowly developing , a low pressure system was spotted with the thunderstorm activity on the morning of September 15 . Becoming a tropical storm the following afternoon , Lola recurved around the western periphery of the subtropical ridge . The cyclone accelerated northeast on September 17 , and by the morning of September 19 , Lola had become an extratropical cyclone along the frontal zone which swept it out of the subtropics . = = = Tropical Depression 22W = = = A short lived system , this cyclone followed in the wake of Ken . In fact , Ken 's outflow kept the thunderstorm activity significantly removed from the depression 's low level center for its entire existence . Moving northwest , numerous ship reports of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) winds led to the indication of this depression during the afternoon of September 21 . The cyclone could not develop into a deep system due to the persistent wind shear as it began to round the western periphery of the subtropical ridge . By the afternoon of September 22 , the cyclone weakened into a low pressure area . This low developed into a small extratropical cyclone when it linked up with a frontal boundary southeast of Japan on September 24 . = = = Super Typhoon Mac ( Uding ) = = = A persistent surface circulation developed on September 28 east of Ponape . On October 1 , the convection began to organize as the upper level environment improved and the system became a tropical depression that night . Moving west @-@ northwest , Mac passed nearby Guam as a strong tropical storm on the morning of October 3 . Heavy rains and high winds in the southern part of the island led to US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1982 dollars ) in damage . Continuing to intensify rapidly , Mac soon became a typhoon , and by October 5 had become a super typhoon . Recurving northwest , the storm travelled into a weakness in the subtropical ridge , accelerating north @-@ northeast as it passed the ridge axis by October 6 . Acceleration into the main belt of the Westerlies continued while the cyclone slowly weakened , and Mac evolved into a typhoon @-@ strength extratropical cyclone on the afternoon of October 9 . = = = Typhoon Nancy ( Weling ) = = = Typhoon Nancy , which developed on October 10 , hit eastern Luzon on October 14 . Its winds were reduced to tropical storm strength , but Nancy re @-@ intensified to an 80 knots ( 150 km / h ) typhoon over the South China Sea . It hit northern Vietnam on the October 18 , and dissipated shortly thereafter . The heavy rains accompanied by the system caused 309 fatalities and over US $ 46 million in damage ( 1982 dollars ) . = = = Tropical Depression 25W ( Yaning ) = = = A weak circulation formed near 18N 141E on October 14 . Moving westward , it developed into a tropical depression on the morning of October 15 . Convection near the center soon weakened , and it became an exposed low level swirl on October 16 . Progressing northwest , this low level circulation maintained its identity for another couple days . On October 18 , some convective bands returned to the system . Early on October 19 , the circulation became involved with the developing Typhoon Owen , and was absorbed . = = = Typhoon Owen = = = The last cyclone of an active 14 week period , Owen developed from a disturbance east of Kwajalein on October 13 . Slow development ensued as it moved west @-@ northwest , and by early October 16 it achieved tropical depression status . Northerly vertical wind shear tilted the system to the south with height , and slowed development . By October 19 , Owen became a typhoon as it slowed and turned more to the north . As it picked up forward speed during recurvature , it reached its peak intensity during the afternoon of October 20 . Thereafter , the system began to shear from the south , its wind field expanded , and extratropical transition had begun . Owen became an extratropical cyclone on the morning of October 22 . The system then was blocked from fully recurving into the Westerlies , and turned to the southeast and south . Convection increased south of the center on October 23 , and Owen became a tropical cyclone once more with active central convection on October 24 . The system moved eastward as a tropical storm for the next day . By October 25 , Owen turned back to the north and began to lose its thunderstorm activity once more . Weakening back into a tropical depression , Owen eventually dissipated in the warm sector of an approaching extratropical cyclone late on October 27 after tracking over 6 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 100 mi ) . = = = Typhoon Pamela ( Aning ) = = = On November 21 , an area of convection west of the International Date Line organized into Tropical Disturbance . It looped , then tracked to the west where it strengthened into Tropical Deppression 27W on November 23 , In the next day it was named Tropical Storm Pamela on November 24 . It continued west @-@ northwestward , reaching typhoon intensity on the 26th . Pamela reached a peak of 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) winds as it crossed the Marshall Islands , and as it continued westward , residents of Guam were afraid of the devastating Super Typhoon Pamela of 1976 . It approached the island as a weakened tropical storm on December 1 , but only brought minor winds and damage . Pamela looped to the southwest on the 4th , strengthened to a typhoon but weakened back to a tropical storm . It restrengthened to a typhoon just before hitting the Philippines on the 7th . The storm dissipated on the 9th , after causing moderate to extensive damage to the islands of the West Pacific . Its unusual path and the time of year was very nearly repeated by Typhoon Manny in the 1993 Pacific typhoon season . = = = Severe Tropical Storm Roger ( Bidang ) = = = Following quickly behind Pamela , this system was slow to initially organize . A large area of thunderstorm activity was spotted on the afternoon of December 3 about 2 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 400 mi ) southeast of Pamela . The convective system moved west @-@ northwest at 10 knots , shadowing Pamela . Upper level outflow from Pamela was leading to moderate to strong vertical wind shear over the disturbance , explaining its slow development . Early on December 7 , both Pamela 's and Roger 's centers were as close as 1 @,@ 110 kilometres ( 690 mi ) from each other . Vertical wind shear finally lessened as Pamela weakened over the Philippines , allowing Roger to rapidly develop into a tropical storm late on December 8 and a typhoon on the morning of December 10 . Moving northwest along the coast of the Philippines , Roger weakened back into a tropical storm . Vertical wind shear increased again , which combined with land interaction quickly weakened the tropical cyclone . By early afternoon on December 10 , the cyclone became ill @-@ defined and no longer qualified as a tropical cyclone . Moving northeast away from the Philippines , Roger 's remains were absorbed into an approaching frontal zone on December 12 . = = Storm names = = During the season 26 named tropical cyclones developed in the Western Pacific and were named by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , when it was determined that they had become tropical storms . These names were contributed to a revised list from 1979 . = = = Philippines = = = The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration uses its own naming scheme for tropical cyclones in their area of responsibility . PAGASA assigns names to tropical depressions that form within their area of responsibility and any tropical cyclone that might move into their area of responsibility . Should the list of names for a given year prove to be insufficient , names are taken from an auxiliary list , the first 6 of which are published each year before the season starts . Names not retired from this list will be used again in the 1986 season . This is the same list used for the 1978 season . PAGASA uses its own naming scheme that starts in the Filipino alphabet , with names of Filipino female names ending with " ng " ( A , B , K , D , etc . ) . Names that were not assigned / going to use are marked in gray . = = = Retirement = = = Due to extensive damages in Japan by Typhoon Bess , the name Bess was retired and later replaced by Brenda , which was first used in the 1985 season . = = Season effects = = This table will list all the storms that developed in the northwestern Pacific Ocean west of the International Date Line and north of the equator during 1982 . It will include their intensity , duration , name , areas affected , deaths , missing persons ( in parentheses ) , and damage totals . Classification and intensity values will be based on estimations conducted by the JMA . All damage figures will be in 1982 USD . Damages and deaths from a storm will include when the storm was a precursor wave or an extratropical low .

= Batik = Batik ( Javanese pronunciation : [ ˈbateʔ ] ; Indonesian : [ ˈbatɪk ] ) is a technique of wax @-@ resist dyeing applied to whole cloth , or cloth made using this technique . Batik is made either by drawing dots and lines of the resist with a spouted tool called a canting ( IPA : [ ʈ ͡ ʂantiŋ ] , also spelled tjanting ) , or by printing the resist with a copper stamp called a cap ( IPA : [ ʈ ͡ ʂap ] , also spelled tjap ) . The applied wax resists dyes and therefore allows the artisan to colour selectively by soaking the cloth in one colour , removing the wax with boiling water , and repeating if multiple colours are desired . A tradition of making batik is found in various countries , including Indonesia , Malaysia , Singapore , India , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , Philippines and Nigeria ; the batik of Indonesia , however , is the best @-@ known . Indonesian batik made in the island of Java has a long history of acculturation , with diverse patterns influenced by a variety of cultures , and is the most developed in terms of pattern , technique , and the quality of workmanship . On October 2009 , UNESCO designated Indonesian batik as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity . = = Etymology = = The word batik is Javanese in origin . It may either come from the Javanese word amba ( ' to write ' ) and titik ( ' dot ' ) , or may derive from a hypothetical Proto @-@ Austronesian root * beCík ( ' to tattoo ' ) . The word is first recorded in English in the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1880 , in which it is spelled battik . It is attested in the Indonesian Archipelago during the Dutch colonial period in various forms : mbatek , mbatik , batek and batik . = = History = = Wax resist dyeing of fabric is an ancient art form . It already existed in Egypt in the 4th century BC , where it was used to wrap mummies ; linen was soaked in wax , and scratched using a stylus . In Asia , the technique was practised in China during the Tang Dynasty ( 618 @-@ 907 AD ) , and in India and Japan during the Nara Period ( 645 @-@ 794 AD ) . In Africa it was originally practised by the Yoruba tribe in Nigeria , Soninke and Wolof in Senegal . These African version however , uses cassava starch or rice paste , or mud as a resist instead of beeswax . The art of batik is most highly developed in the island of Java in Indonesia . In Java , all the materials for the process are readily available — cotton and beeswax and plants from which different vegetable dyes are made . Indonesian batik predates written records : G. P. Rouffaer argues that the technique might have been introduced during the 6th or 7th century from India or Sri Lanka . On the other hand , the Dutch archaeologist J.L.A. Brandes and the Indonesian archaeologist F.A. Sutjipto believe Indonesian batik is a native tradition , since another regions in Indonesia such as Toraja , Flores , Halmahera , and Papua , which were not directly influenced by Hinduism , have an age @-@ old tradition of batik making . Rouffaer reported that the gringsing pattern was already known by the 12th century in Kediri , East Java . He concluded that this delicate pattern could be created only by using the canting , an etching tool that holds a small reservoir of hot wax , and proposed that the canting was invented in Java around that time . The carving details of clothes worn by East Javanese Prajnaparamita statues from around the 13th century show intricate floral patterns within rounded margins , similar to today 's traditional Javanese jlamprang or ceplok batik motif . The motif is thought to represent the lotus , a sacred flower in Hindu @-@ Buddhist beliefs . This evidence suggests that intricate batik fabric patterns applied with the canting existed in 13th @-@ century Java or even earlier . In Europe , the technique was described for the first time in the History of Java , published in London in 1817 by Stamford Raffles , who had been a British governor for the island . In 1873 the Dutch merchant Van Rijckevorsel gave the pieces he collected during a trip to Indonesia to the ethnographic museum in Rotterdam . Today the Tropenmuseum houses the biggest collection of Indonesian batik in the Netherlands . The Dutch and Chinese colonists were active in developing batik , particularly coastal batik , in the late colonial era . They introduced new patterns as well as the use of the cap ( copper block stamps ) to mass @-@ produce batiks . Displayed at the Exposition Universelle at Paris in 1900 , the Indonesian batik impressed the public and artists . In the 1920s , Javanese batik makers migrating to Malaya ( now Malaysia ) introduced the use of wax and copper blocks to its east coast . In Subsaharan Africa , Javanese batik was introduced in the 19th century by Dutch and English traders . The local people there adapted the Javanese batik , making larger motifs with thicker lines and more colours . In the 1970s , batik was introduced to Australia , where aboriginal artists at Erna Bella have developed it as their own craft . = = Technique = = Firstly , a cloth is washed , soaked and beaten with a large mallet . Patterns are drawn with pencil and later redrawn using hot wax , usually made from a mixture of paraffin or bees wax , sometimes mixed with plant resins , which functions as a dye @-@ resist . The wax can be applied with a variety of tools . A pen @-@ like instrument called a canting ( IPA : [ tʃantiŋ ] , sometimes spelled with old Dutch orthography tjanting ) is the most common . A tjanting is made from a small copper reservoir with a spout on a wooden handle . The reservoir holds the resist which flows through the spout , creating dots and lines as it moves . For larger patterns , a stiff brush may be used . Alternatively , a copper block stamp called a cap ( IPA : [ tʃap ] ; old spelling tjap ) is used to cover large areas more efficiently . After the cloth is dry , the resist is removed by boiling or scraping the cloth . The areas treated with resist keep their original colour ; when the resist is removed the contrast between the dyed and undyed areas forms the pattern . This process is repeated as many times as the number of colours desired . The most traditional type of batik , called batik tulis ( written batik ) , is drawn using only the canting . The cloth need to be drawn on both sides and dipped in a dye bath three to four times . The whole process may take up to a year ; it yields considerably finer patterns than stamped batik . = = Culture = = = = = Indonesia = = = Many Indonesian batik patterns are symbolic . Infants are carried in batik slings decorated with symbols designed to bring the child luck , and certain batik designs are reserved for brides and bridegrooms , as well as their families . Some designs are reserved for royalties , and even banned to be worn by commoners . Consequently , a person 's rank could be determined by the pattern of the batik he or she wore . Further study to the geometry of symbolism in Indonesian batik showed the applicability of fractal geometry in traditional designs . Batik garments play a central role in certain Javanese rituals , such as the ceremonial casting of royal batik into a volcano . In the Javanese naloni mitoni ceremony , the mother @-@ to @-@ be is wrapped in seven layers of batik , wishing her good things . Batik is also prominent in the tedak siten ceremony when a child touches the earth for the first time . In October 2009 , UNESCO designated Indonesian batik as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity . As part of the acknowledgment , UNESCO insisted that Indonesia preserve its heritage . = = = = Popularity = = = = The popularity of batik in Indonesia has varied . Historically , it was essential for ceremonial costumes and it was worn as part of a kebaya dress , commonly worn every day . The use of batik was already recorded in the 12th century , and the textile has become a strong source of identity for Indonesians crossing religious , racial and cultural boundaries . The batik industry of Java flourished from the late 1800s to early 1900s , but declined during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia . It further declined after the Indonesian independence , as people chose western clothes , decimating the batik industry . However , batik has somewhat revived at the turn of the 21st century , through the efforts of Indonesian fashion designers to innovate batik by incorporating new colours , fabrics , and patterns . Batik has become a fashion item for many Indonesians , and may be seen on shirts , dresses , or scarves for casual wear ; it is a preferred replacement for jacket @-@ and @-@ tie at certain receptions . Traditional batik sarongs are still used in many occasions . After the UNESCO recognition for Indonesian batik on 2 October 2009 , the Indonesian administration asked Indonesians to wear batik on Fridays , and wearing batik every Friday has been encouraged in government offices and private companies ever since . 2 October is also celebrated as National Batik Day in Indonesia . Batik had helped improve the small business local economy , batik sales in Indonesia had reached Rp 3 @.@ 9 trillion ( US $ 436 @.@ 8 million ) in 2010 , an increase from Rp 2 @.@ 5 trillion in 2006 . The value of batik exports , meanwhile , increased from $ 14 @.@ 3 million in 2006 to $ 22 @.@ 3 million in 2010 . Batik is also popular in the neighbouring countries of Singapore and Malaysia . It is produced in Malaysia with similar , but not identical , methods to those used in Indonesia . Prior to UNESCO 's recognition and following the 2009 Pendet controversy , Indonesia and Malaysia disputed the ownership of batik culture . However , Dr Fiona Kerlogue of the Horniman museum argued that the Malaysian printed wax textiles , made for about a century , were quite a different tradition from the " very fine " traditional Indonesian batiks produced for many centuries . Batik is featured in the national airline uniforms of the three countries , represented by batik prints worn by flight attendants of Singapore Airlines , Garuda Indonesia and Malaysian Airlines . The female uniform of Garuda Indonesia flight attendants is a modern interpretation of the Kartini style kebaya with parang gondosuli motifs . = = = = Terminology = = = = Batik is traditionally sold in 2 @.@ 25 @-@ metre lengths used for kain panjang or sarong . It is worn by wrapping it around the hip , or made into a hat known as blangkon . The cloth can be filled continuously with a single pattern or divided into several sections . Certain patterns are only used in certain sections of the cloth . For example , a row of isosceles triangles , forming the pasung motif , as well as diagonal floral motifs called dhlorong , are commonly used for the head . However , pasung and dhlorong are occasionally found in the body . Other motifs such as buketan ( flower bouquet ) and birds are commonly used in either the head or the body . The head is a rectangular section of the cloth which is worn at the front . The head section can be at the middle of the cloth , or placed at one or both ends . The papan inside of the head can be used to determine whether the cloth is kain panjang or sarong . The body is the main part of the cloth , and is filled with a wide variety of patterns . The body can be divided into two alternating patterns and colours called pagi @-@ sore ( ' dawn @-@ dusk ' ) . Brighter pattern are shown during the day , while darker pattern are shown in the evening . The alternating colours give the impression of two batik sets . Margins are often plain , but floral and lace @-@ like patterns , as well as wavy lines described as a dragon , are common in the area beside seret . = = = = Types = = = = As each region has its own traditional pattern , batiks are commonly distinguished by the region they originated in , such as batik Solo , batik Pekalongan , and batik Madura . Batiks from Java can be distinguished by their general pattern and colours into batik pedalaman ( inland batik ) or batik pesisir ( coastal batik ) . Batiks which do not fall neatly into one of these two categories are only referred to by their region . A mapping of batik designs from all places in Indonesia depicts the similarities and reflects cultural assimilation within batik designs . = = = = = Javanese Batik = = = = = = = = = = = Inland Batik = = = = = = Inland batik or batik kraton ( Javanese court batik ) is the oldest form of batik tradition known in Java . Inland batik has earthy colour such as black , indigo , brown , and sogan ( brown @-@ yellow colour made from the tree Peltophorum pterocarpum ) , sometimes against a white background , with symbolic patterns that are mostly free from outside influence . Certain patterns are reserved for royalty , while other are worn on specific occasions . At a Javanese wedding for example , the bride wears specific patterns at each stage of the ceremony . Noted inland batiks are produced in Solo and Jogjakarta , cities traditionally regarded as the centre of Javanese culture . Batik Solo typically has sogan background and is preserved by the Susuhunan and Mangkunegaran Court . Batik Jogja typically has white background and is preserved by the Yogyakarta Sultanate and Pakualaman Court . = = = = = = Coastal Batik = = = = = = Coastal batik is produced in several areas of northern Java and Madura . In contrast to inland batik , coastal batiks have vibrant colours and patterns inspired by a wide range of cultures as a consequence of maritime trading . Recurring motifs include European flower bouquets , Chinese phoenix , and Persian peacocks . Noted coastal batiks are produced in Pekalongan , Cirebon , Lasem , Tuban , and Madura . Pekalongan has the most active batik industry . A notable sub @-@ type of coastal batik called Jawa Hokokai is not attributed to a particular region . During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia in early 1940 , the batik industry greatly declined due to material shortages . The workshops funded by the Japanese however were able to produce extremely fine batiks called Jawa Hokokai . Common motifs of Hokokai includes Japanese cherry blossoms , butterflies , and chrysanthemums . Another coastal batik called tiga negeri ( batik of three lands ) is attributed to three regions : Lasem , Pekalongan , and Solo , where the batik would be dipped in red , blue , and sogan dyes respectively . As of 1980 , batik tiga negeri was only produced in one city . = = = = = Sundanese Batik = = = = = Sundanese or Priangan Batik is the term for batik from the Priangan region of West Java and Banten . Although Priangan batiks can use a wide range of colours , a preference for indigo is seen in some of its variants . Natural indigo dye made from Indigofera is among the oldest known dyes in Java , and its local name tarum has lent its name to the Citarum river and the Tarumanagara kingdom , which suggests that ancient West Java was once a major producer of natural indigo . Noted Priangan batik is produced in Ciamis , Garut , and Tasikmalaya . Other traditions include Batik Kuningan influenced by batik Cirebon , batik Banten that developed quite independently , and an older tradition of batik Baduy . Batik Banten employs bright pastel colours and represents a revival of a lost art from the Sultanate of Banten , rediscovered through archaeological work during 2002 – 2004 . Twelve motifs from locations such as Surosowan and several other places have been identified . Batik Baduy only employs indigo colour in shades ranged from bluish black to deep blue . It is traditionally worn as iket , a type of Sundanese headress similar to Balinese udeng , by Outer Baduy people of Lebak Regency , Banten . = = = = = Sumatran Batik = = = = = Trade relations between the Melayu Kingdom in Jambi and Javanese coastal cities have thrived since the 13th century . Therefore , coastal batik from northern Java probably influenced Jambi . In 1875 , Haji Mahibat from Central Java revived the declining batik industry in Jambi . The village of Mudung Laut in Pelayangan district is known for producing batik Jambi . Batik Jambi , as well as Javanese batik , influenced the Malaysian batik . The Minangkabau people also produce batik called batiak tanah liek ( clay batik ) , which use clay as dye for the fabric . The fabric is immersed in clay for more than 1 day and later designed with motifs of animal and flora . The Batik from Bengkulu , a city on west coast of Sumatra , is called Batik Besurek , which literary means " batik with letters " as they draw inspiration from Arabic calligraphy . = = = = = Balinese Batik = = = = = Batik making in the island of Bali is relatively new , but a fast @-@ growing industry . Many patterns are inspired by local designs , which are favoured by the local Balinese and domestic tourists . Objects from nature such as frangipani and hibiscus flowers , birds or fishes , and daily activities such as Balinese dancer and ngaben processions or religious and mythological creatures such as barong , kala and winged lion are common . Modern batik artists express themselves freely in a wide range of subjects . Contemporary batik is not limited to traditional or ritual wearing in Bali . Some designers promote batik Bali as elegant fabric that can be used to make casual or formal cloth . Using high class batik , like hand made batik tulis , can show social status . = = = Malaysia = = = Batik was mentioned in the 17th century Malay Annals . The legend goes when Laksamana Hang Nadim was ordered by Malacca King , Sultan Mahmud , to sail to India to buy 140 pieces of serasah cloth ( batik ) with 40 types of flowers depicted on each . Unable to find any that fulfilled the requirements explained to him , he made up his own . On his return unfortunately his ship sank and he only managed to bring four pieces , earning displeasure from the Sultan . The method of Malaysian batik making is different from those of Indonesian Javanese batik , the pattern being larger and simpler with only occasional use of the canting to create intricate patterns . It relies heavily on brush painting to apply colours to fabrics . The colours also tend to be lighter and more vibrant than deep coloured Javanese batik . The most popular motifs are leaves and flowers . Malaysian batik often displays plants and flowers to avoid the interpretation of human and animal images as idolatry , in accordance with local Islamic doctrine . However , the butterfly theme is a common exception . = = = India = = = Indians are known to use resist method of printing designs on cotton fabrics , which can be traced back 2000 years . Initially , wax and even rice starch were used for printing on fabrics . Until recently batik was made only for dresses and tailored garments , but modern batik is applied in numerous items , such as murals , wall hangings , paintings , household linen , and scarves , with livelier and brighter patterns . Contemporary batik making in India is also done by the Deaf women of Delhi , these women are fluent in Indian Sign Language and also work in other vocational programs . = = = Sri Lanka = = = Over the past century , batik making in Sri Lanka has become firmly established . The Sri Lankan batik industry is a small scale industry which can employ individual design talent and mainly deals with foreign customers for profit . It is now the most visible of the island 's crafts with galleries and factories , large and small , having sprung up in many tourist areas . Rows of small stalls selling batiks can be found all along Hikkaduwa 's Galle Road strip . Mahawewa , on the other hand , is famous for its batik factories . = = = China = = = Batik is done by the ethnic people in the South @-@ West of China . The Miao , Bouyei and Gejia people use a dye resist method for their traditional costumes . The traditional costumes are made up of decorative fabrics , which they achieve by pattern weaving and wax resist . Almost all the Miao decorate hemp and cotton by applying hot wax then dipping the cloth in an indigo dye . The cloth is then used for skirts , panels on jackets , aprons and baby carriers . Like the Javanese , their traditional patterns also contain symbolism , the patterns include the dragon , phoenix , and flowers . = = = Africa = = = In Africa , where batik was originally imported by Dutch merchants from Indonesia ( then the Netherlands East Indies ) , paste made from starch or mud is used as a resist instead of wax . The most developed resist @-@ dyeing skills are to be found in Nigeria where the Yoruba make adire cloths . Two methods of resist are used adire eleso which involves tied and stitched and adire eleko that uses starch paste . The paste is most often made from cassava starch , rice , and other ingredients boiled together to produce a smooth thick paste . The Yoruba of West Africa use cassava paste as a resist while the Soninke and Wolof people in Senegal uses rice paste . The Bamana people of Mali use mud as a resist . = = Gallery = = = = = Indonesian batik = = = = = = Batik processing = = = = = = People wearing batik = = =

= Persuasion ( 1995 film ) = Persuasion is a 1995 period drama film directed by Roger Michell and based on Jane Austen 's 1817 novel of the same name . In her theatrical film debut , the British actress Amanda Root stars as protagonist Anne Elliot , while Ciarán Hinds plays her romantic interest , Captain Frederick Wentworth . The film is set in 19th century England , nine years after Anne was persuaded by others to reject Wentworth 's proposal of marriage . Persuasion follows the two as they become reacquainted with each other , while supporting characters threaten to interfere . The film was adapted by the writer Nick Dear , who considered the story more mature than Austen 's other novels . He characterised it as one of realism and truthfulness , particularly in telling the story of two people separated and then reunited . As Austen 's narrative style conveys Anne 's thoughts internally , Dear and Root felt compelled to express the character 's emotions using comparatively little dialogue . Persuasion was shot in chronological order , allowing the actress to portray Anne 's development from being downtrodden to happy and blossoming . Originally the BBC was the sole producer of Persuasion , until it partnered with the American company WGBH Boston and the French company Millesime . This decision gave the production a larger budget and allowed it to be filmed at locations featured in the novel , including Lyme Regis and Bath . Michell believed this was Austen 's most emotional and poignant novel , as well as her most autobiographical . While directing , he avoided what he felt was the polished , artificial feel of other 19th @-@ century depictions , and discouraged his actors from wearing make @-@ up or appearing too hygienic . Costume designer Alexandra Byrne produced clothing that appeared " lived @-@ in " , winning a BAFTA for her efforts . Persuasion was filmed during a period of popularity for Austen 's works ; it was one of six adaptations of her novels produced during the mid @-@ 1990s . The film originally aired on 16 April 1995 , when it broadcast on the British television channel BBC Two . Sony Pictures Classics released the film in American cinemas on 27 September 1995 , as Austen 's increasing popularity became apparent to Hollywood . Persuasion 's cinematic release attracted the attention of film critics , and it received generally positive reviews , with many praising Root 's performance . Film scholars have since observed significant changes from the source material , as well as class and gender themes . = = Plot = = The film opens by cutting back and forth between scenes of a naval ship carrying Admiral Croft ( John Woodvine ) , and a buggy carrying Mr. Shepherd ( David Collings ) and his daughter Mrs. Clay ( Felicity Dean ) to Kellynch Hall . Shepherd and Clay are accosted by creditors due to the debts owed by the residence 's owner , Sir Walter Elliot ( Corin Redgrave ) , while Croft discusses the end of the Napoleonic Wars with fellow men of the navy . Sir Walter , a vain foppish baronet , is faced with financial ruin unless he retrenches . Though Sir Walter initially opposes the idea , he eventually agrees to temporarily move to Bath while the hall is let ; the idea came from Shepherd , family friend Lady Russell ( Susan Fleetwood ) , and Sir Walter 's second eldest daughter , the intelligent Anne ( Amanda Root ) . Anne is visibly upset upon learning that the new tenant of Kellynch Hall will be Admiral Croft , who is the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Frederick Wentworth ( Ciarán Hinds ) — a naval captain she was persuaded to reject in marriage nine years previously because of his lack of prospects and connections . Wentworth is now wealthy from serving in the Wars , and has returned to England , presumably to find a wife . Later , Anne expresses to Lady Russell her unhappiness at her family 's current financial predicament , and her past decision to reject the captain 's proposal of marriage . Anne visits her other sister Mary ( Sophie Thompson ) , a hypochondriac who has married into a local farming family . Anne patiently listens to the various complaints confided in her by each of the Musgrove family ; this includes Mary 's husband Charles , sisters @-@ in @-@ law Louisa ( Emma Roberts ) and Henrietta ( Victoria Hamilton ) , and parents @-@ in @-@ law Mr and Mrs Musgrove ( Roger Hammond and Judy Cornwell ) . Captain Wentworth comes to dine with the Musgroves , but Anne avoids going when she volunteers to nurse Mary 's injured son . The following morning at breakfast , Anne and Mary are suddenly met briefly by Wentworth , the first time he and Anne have seen each other since she rejected him . Anne later hears that Wentworth thought her so altered that he " would not have known [ her ] again " . Louisa and Henrietta begin to pursue marriage with Wentworth , as the family is unaware of his and Anne 's past relationship . Hurt and rejected by Anne 's refusal years before , Wentworth appears to court Louisa , much to Anne 's chagrin . Later , Wentworth learns Anne also was persuaded by Lady Russell to refuse Charles ' offer of marriage , after which Charles instead proposed to Mary . Anne , Wentworth , and the younger Musgroves go to Lyme and visit two of Wentworth 's old naval friends , Captain Harville ( Robert Glenister ) and Captain Benwick ( Richard McCabe ) . While there , Louisa rashly jumps off a staircase in the hopes Wentworth will catch her , sustaining a head injury . Afterwards , Anne goes to Bath to stay with her father and sister . Sir Walter and Elizabeth reveal they have repaired their relationship with a previously disreputable cousin , Mr. Elliot ( Samuel West ) , the heir to the Elliot baronetcy and estate . Anne is introduced to him , and they realise they briefly saw each other in Lyme . Much to Lady Russell 's pleasure , Mr. Elliot begins to court Anne , but she remains uncertain of his true character . Meanwhile , Louisa has recovered and become engaged to Captain Benwick . Wentworth arrives in Bath and encounters Anne on several occasions , though their conversations are brief . Anne learns from an old friend , Mrs. Smith ( Helen Schlesinger ) , that Mr. Elliot is bankrupt and only interested in marrying Anne to help ensure his inheritance from her father . Anne also is told that Mr. Elliot wishes to keep the baronet from possibly marrying Mrs. Clay to produce a male heir . Soon after , Wentworth overhears Anne talking with Captain Harville about the constancy of a woman 's love , and writes her a letter declaring that he still cares for her . Anne quickly finds him and the two happily walk off down a street , arm in arm . That night at a party , Wentworth announces his intention to marry Anne , much to Mr. Elliot 's consternation . The final scene shows Wentworth and Anne on a naval ship , happy to be together . = = Cast = = = = Production = = = = = Conception and adaptation = = = The filming of Persuasion coincided with a sudden resurgence of Jane Austen adaptations , as it was one of six such productions released during the mid @-@ 1990s . The media dubbed the phenomenon " Austenmania " . While it was common for a successful adaptation to lead to the production of others , this surge in Austen 's popularity involved many simultaneous projects — Persuasion 's production , for instance , coincided with the TV serial Pride and Prejudice and the feature film Sense and Sensibility . Despite the surge , film scholar Andrew Higson and others argue that there is little evidence that the various producers — who were employed by different companies — communicated when conceiving their adaptations . The idea for a film version of the 1817 Austen novel Persuasion began with the English producer Fiona Finlay , who had wanted to create an adaptation for several years . The novel had last been adapted by ITV in a 1971 serial starring Ann Firbank . Finlay felt that the " very romantic " story was one " everyone can relate to . There 's something very touching about long @-@ lost love " . She approached the writer Nick Dear about adapting it for television ; Finlay had enjoyed his contributions to theatre , particularly his play about William Hogarth , The Art of Success . Dear first suggested they try one of Austen 's other works — either Sense and Sensibility or Pride and Prejudice — but agreed to adapt Persuasion after reading it . Dear considered the novel — the author 's last completed work — a maturer story than the others . Dear later wrote that Persuasion was superficially " a love story in the Cinderella mould " but it was also one of " realism and truthfulness " , particularly in telling the story of two people separated and then reunited . He spent two years working on a script , and found this task difficult for several reasons . First , he needed to find a structure that would be faithful to the novel . Second , his protagonist barely spoke for the first half , and " therefore can 't motor the action along as a central character conventionally does " . Adapting Austen 's wit was another challenge ; much could not be used " because it 's almost all in the author 's voice telling us about characters , with a certain wit or lightness that came from the characters themselves . It 's a craft job , interpreting the novel for oneself and then finding a film language for it " . An experienced theatre and serial director , Roger Michell was chosen to direct Persuasion , in what was to be his first feature film . As a young child , Michell had been an admirer of Austen 's , which set him apart from his male classmates . " I was the only boy in my class who took Austen as a special paper " , he said . His attraction to Persuasion was based on his belief that it was Austen 's most emotional and poignant novel , as well as her most autobiographical . He described the work as an " erotic love story which is full of sexual yearning " . While directing , Michell sought to emphasise contrasts in Austen 's story , seen for instance between " the chilly formality of Kellynch Hall and the warm , wet feel of Uppercross " . The Royal Navy was another point of interest , as officers like Wentworth would often have returned to society wealthy and full of stories . The director wished to depict the integration of cultures , as naval officers came back with " an informality of behaviour and language which was in marked contrast to what was there before " . = = = Casting = = = Root made her theatrical film debut playing Anne Elliot , the film 's protagonist . According to Root , " every actress in England " read for the part . Having worked with the director previously on the 1993 TV serial The Buddha of Suburbia , Root won the role by writing him a letter to gain an audition . The character was described to Root as " haggard " , which attracted the actress . " I relish a job like this , starting off downtrodden and gradually blossoming " , she said . WGBH Boston , the American company co @-@ producing the film , had wanted a better known actress for the part but agreed to Root 's casting after seeing Root 's screen test . Root came to realise that while the novel 's narrative style allowed Anne 's thoughts to come through , the film adaptation offered comparatively little dialogue . As a result , she " had to cover pages and pages of the story without uttering anything , much of the time . I couldn 't even think about technique , I just had to keep looking at the [ novel ] and then somehow radiate the feelings " . Persuasion was shot in chronological order , which allowed Root to see " what a difference [ her character 's ] sense of unhappiness can create " , as by the end of the film Anne is " happier and looks better " . Root considered the role to be much quieter than her experiences working with the Royal Shakespeare Company , which included her portrayal of Lady Macbeth . The Irish actor Ciarán Hinds , who depicted Frederick Wentworth , commented that Austen " understands a man 's heart and how delicate it can be sometimes " . He also appreciated that , though Wentworth was a " competent leader of men in his profession " , he was " socially inept " in Anne 's presence . Susan Fleetwood , the actress who played Lady Russell , had also worked with Michell on The Buddha of Suburbia . She died soon after filming ; Persuasion was her last film role . = = = Make @-@ up and costume design = = = Michell attempted to be as faithful to the novel as possible , in particular avoiding what he felt was the polished , artificial feel of other period dramas set in the 19th @-@ century . The director explained , " I was desperately trying to make it feel like it could be happening in the next room . I tried to make it something which is absolutely about real people and not about dressing or hairstyles or carpet " . Consequently , because he felt the realistic look of the age would make the film more dramatic , Michell chose to depict the actors without make @-@ up , and disallowed them from looking too hygienic . Root commented about the film 's natural look in an interview , " I basically didn 't wear any makeup [ in the film ] , and my hair was obviously set in a very unflattering way ... I suppose the lighting was quite harsh , as well . None of us looked good " . She said in a separate interview , " I wanted to make Anne Elliot a somewhat plain woman who was not really miserable but had found a way to be content somehow , and yet emotions are buzzing around her all the time " . Root believed the film 's realistic depiction of the age was a key aspect of its appeal . The film 's costume design was overseen by Alexandra Byrne , who created clothing that appeared " lived @-@ in " and " realistic " . Like Fleetwood , Byrne had also worked with Michell on The Buddha of Suburbia . It was her first time designing period costumes for film . During shooting , the crew often had to compete for costumes and props with the BBC production Pride and Prejudice , which was being filmed at the same time . Persuasion 's crew consequently had to send for replacement items from Italy and Australia . For her work in the film , Byrne won a BAFTA for Best Costume Design . Louise Watson , writing for Screenonline , felt the film 's costume and make @-@ up help " convey the full Cinderella transformation of Austen 's heroine . At first the undervalued family martyr , Anne is the wallflower who has lost her ' bloom ' . Her loose @-@ fitting costumes hint at how she has pined away since refusing Wentworth ... As she regains her confidence , she blossoms ; she dresses becomingly , her eyes sparkle and her features become animated " . Paulette Richards argues that the film 's " unreliable " male characters , such as Sir Walter , are identified as such by the flamboyant nature of their clothing . This flamboyance is especially clear to modern viewers , who live in a culture where " real men " are expected to care little for their clothing . Conversely , the film 's Wentworth is typically depicted in naval uniforms , which is a contrast to Bryan Marshall 's version of the character in the 1971 adaptation . This uniform helps set Wentworth apart from many of the other male characters , allowing him to appear romantic but isolated . Gina and Andrew MacDonald had a similar view of the film , writing that it accurately captures Austen 's satire by juxtaposing the upper classes ' extravagance in fashion with the virtuous qualities of the Royal Navy . The naval men 's profession is emphasised by the frequency of wearing their uniforms , in contrast to other adaptations of the novel . = = = Filming = = = As a BBC production , Persuasion originally received a budget of £ 750 @,@ 000 . The British broadcaster proposed a collaboration with the American public television station WGBH Boston , a partnership that had also produced the American anthology television series Masterpiece Theatre as well as literary adaptations like the serial Pride and Prejudice . Rebecca Eaton , executive producer of Masterpiece Theatre , approved the co @-@ production as she had a preference for Persuasion out of all Austen 's novels . The decision led to additional funding . Eaton would cite Persuasion as a successful example of WGBH using its small budget to invest in television projects , though she later expressed regret that the adaptation was two hours rather than a " luscious " six @-@ part miniseries . Additionally , the French company Millesime co @-@ produced the film in exchange for airing it on television in France . This decision further increased funding to £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Mobil Oil Corporation , a major sponsor of Masterpiece Theatre , co @-@ produced the film . The diverse sources of funding meant that the production team had to field opinions from various sources . Millesime was unhappy with certain aspects of the story , for instance wanting the entire Lyme sequence removed because they considered it " too boring " . WGBH gave the BBC detailed notes , which were then integrated into the script . One change concerned the ending . To display the climax when Anne and Wentworth finally approach each other with their feelings , two different scenes were shot , one in which they kiss and one in which they do not . Dear first wrote a scene closely modelled after Austen 's ending : Anne reunites with Wentworth on the streets of Bath , and the two exchange words and hold hands . Eaton felt that after hours of waiting , audiences " would go nuts with frustration and irritation " if the two did not kiss . Eaton also thought " a kiss would be an emotional pay @-@ off " , and WGBH believed it would give the film a wider appeal . Michell agreed to compromise , opting to shoot one British version and one American version — the latter included the kiss . The American ending is reflected on the international poster , which shows the two protagonists embracing . While the kiss attracted some criticism among fans , actress Amanda Root defended it . " After the great suspense of the story , by the end you 're desperate for Anne and Captain Wentworth to get together , desperate ! Film is a visual medium , after all . You don 't necessarily want to see them in bed together , but you do want to see something like a kiss " , she said . In comparison to its adaptations of the 1970s and 1980s , the BBC provided increased funding for many of its productions in the 1990s . Persuasion consequently benefited , allowing it to frequently film on @-@ location in places including Lyme Regis and Bath , and in the south @-@ eastern English countryside . Both Lyme and Bath are prominent locales in Austen 's novel . Dear desired the opening sequence be on board a Royal Navy ship of the period , but the only authentic vessel available was the HMS Victory . It was dry docked as part of a museum in Portsmouth , and filming was only possible during short periods when the vessel was closed to the public . The final shot , in which Anne and Wentworth gaze into the ocean , was taken from the 1984 historical film The Bounty . The film 's low budget also resulted in one of the opening shots , depicting Admiral Croft 's ship on the ocean , being taken from The Bounty . = = Themes and analysis = = = = = Changes from source material = = = While Dear has received praise for " remarkably ... retain [ ing ] most of the source novel 's complex plot and numerous characters " , literary scholars have noted significant differences between the film and the source material . Sarah R. Morrison observes that the film 's version of Anne articulates thoughts that the character would never say in the novel . Morrison cites Anne 's adamant defence of her visit to Mrs. Smith — where Anne visits a poor old friend rather than go to the party of a titled relative — in the film as an example , as " Austen 's narrator makes it abundantly clear that Anne would never presume to dispute with her father upon such terms of absolute equality " . The film 's Anne also engages in actions not visible in the novel , such as her haste to stop Wentworth from leaving a musical concert when he feels demeaned by disparaging comments about his profession . Morrison attributes these differences to the difficulty in adapting novel to film , particularly as the latter form lacks a narrator to convey Anne 's inner thoughts . The film also expands upon Austen 's subtle characterisation by exaggerating the emotions of characters and certain scenes . For example , in the novel during an early party Anne offers to play the pianoforte like usual ; while doing so , she is slightly tearful but also " extremely glad to be employed " and " unobserved " . Conversely , Dear 's screenplay has Wentworth quickly giving up his seat to Anne and then immediately dancing with the Musgrove sisters , furthering the contrast between Anne and the others . According to David Monaghan , Austen 's novel displays a " relatively radical vision " of societal change , such as the rise of a professional class challenging the old order of landed gentry . Monaghan posits that this vision appealed to Dear and Michell , who used visuals and movement to emphasise this change . However , the two " deviate significantly " from the source material by depicting Anne and Wentworth as " single @-@ mindedly oriented " to the future and thus 20th @-@ century viewers ' sensibilities . Sue Parrill observes that Persuasion 's larger production budget , which allowed the crew to film much content on @-@ location , " enabled the filmmakers to make fuller use of setting for symbolism and for creation of mood " . The weather , for instance , is particularly important to Anne 's state of mind in the novel . Persuasion 's opening scenes establish its historical context , as well as the financial predicament in which the Elliot family finds itself . Indeed , for Rachel Brownstein , by opening the film with a depiction of sailors , the director is confronting a common complaint of Austen 's works — her failure to mention the Napoleonic Wars . The juxtaposition between the navy and the Elliots establishes their differences , with the former group discussing the fall of Napoleon and the latter group discussing the relatively minor inconvenience of overspending . = = = Class and gender = = = In his introduction to the published screenplay , Dear said he was in part attracted to adapt Persuasion because it depicted a " world in transition " . To him , the novel showed " an old order fading away into decadence , and a new tribe , a meritocracy , coming to the fore " . While directing , Roger Michell felt that the story included " the prototype of the postmodern family " — Anne 's mother is dead , her father is bankrupt , and " the old social orders are breaking down " . Root described Anne as a " feminist in a prefeminist period " and a " strong , independent character " , to whom modern viewers can relate despite the story 's period setting . Austen scholars have studied the film 's intersection with class and social change . Carole M. Dole notes that , among the many productions of Austen 's work that appeared in the 1990s , Persuasion was the only one to " insistently draw attention to class issues " , and " provide striking visual testimony to the workings of the British class system " . The film , she adds , accomplishes this in part by focusing on the servants ' faces , gauging their negative reactions to events . Richards , too , finds Michell " visually more aware " of the lower classes , adding that the film 's inclusion of black servants alludes to the " colonial sources of wealth " supporting those superior in class and rank . Anne @-@ Marie Scholz writes that the film and Emma Thompson 's Sense and Sensibility both highlight the theme of class , but in different ways . Unlike Sense and Sensibility , Persuasion depicts general class divisions rather than just how the working class impacts the protagonists — the camera focuses on the faces and expressions of servants and working people , personifying them . In Michell 's opinion , Austen was a " proto @-@ feminist " who possessed a " clear @-@ sighted vision of the ways the world is tilted against women " . As evidence , Michell cites a book scene in which Anne discusses how songs and proverbs about women 's fickleness were all written by men . Scholz argues that Anne 's marginal status as a woman in the film is linked to that of the servants ; the parallel between class and gender is conveyed with Anne 's trip to Uppercross in a cart containing animals . Julianne Pidduck adds that the director " pointedly foregrounds themes of class and gendered social constraint by juxtaposing the stuffy interiors of mannered society with the inviting , open horizons of the sea " . As an example , Pidduck discusses Anne 's stay in a gated residence in Bath , where she gazes out of an upper story window in search for Wentworth on the streets below . To her , Wentworth and the sea represent freedom and possibility . = = Reception = = = = = Release = = = Persuasion premiered on 16 April 1995 , Easter Day , on the British television channel BBC Two . An estimated 3 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the production . BBC Two aired it again on 25 December , Christmas Day . It also later aired on the American television channel PBS on 6 April 1997 . Near the end of filming , Rebecca Eaton noticed the growing " buzz " surrounding Austen and costume dramas in Hollywood . WGBH had never made a theatrical film before , but " decided to try its luck on the big screen " . Sony Pictures Classics saw a cut of the adaptation and requested permission to show it in American cinemas , releasing it on 27 September 1995 . There , it was characterised as an " art @-@ house " film , with a small niche audience . It was shown at the Toronto and Chicago International Film Festivals . Persuasion earned $ 56 @,@ 000 in its first week of release in New York , and grossed $ 150 @,@ 000 in Los Angeles . The total US gross was $ 5 @,@ 269 @,@ 757 . It was less financially successful than the popular Sense and Sensibility , which was released in cinemas several months later . The film was released in VHS format on 12 November 1996 ; a DVD version followed on 1 February 2000 . = = = Critical reception = = = Upon its release , Persuasion at first failed to attract many critical reviews . This changed when Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility were released in late 1995 to great success in the UK . Their reception lifted the earlier film out of obscurity , as Austen 's popularity became apparent among critics . Persuasion garnered highly positive reviews from major film critics , and critical review website Rotten Tomatoes has since calculated a rating of 83 % , which refers to the percentage of positive reviews . Caryn James of The New York Times deemed it a " critic 's pick " , praising " a cast completely in sync with Austen 's warm but piercing style " . Jay Carr of The Boston Globe highlighted Root 's performance , calling it " a heart @-@ stoppingly reticent yet glorious debut " . In a contribution for The Washington Post , Desson Howe said " there 's a wonderful , unhurried delicacy about Persuasion ... as if everyone concerned with the production knows that , if given time and patience , Austen 's genius will emerge . Thanks to assured performances , exacting direction and , of course , inspired writing , it does , in subtle , glorious ways " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , critic Ken Tucker graded the film with an " A – " , saying it " should enthral even those who haven 't read " the novel . Tucker concluded that the film was " the sort of passionate yet precise comedy that reminds me why Austen remains such a vital writer " . Susan Ostrov Weisser , a professor of nineteenth @-@ century literature , called the film a " faithful parade of Austen 's world " , and praised Root as the film 's " crown jewel " for playing a " fiercely intelligent , regretful , and frustrated Anne Elliot with subtlety and nuance " . In 2008 , James Rampton of The Independent rated it the fourth best Austen adaptation of all time . When reviewing , film critics often compared the respective adaptations of Persuasion and Sense and Sensibility . Thompson 's film received more recognition and accolades from Hollywood , while Michell 's production gained the admiration of up @-@ market critics , who felt it was a more authentic and thoughtful representation of Austen 's world . Janet Maslin of The New York Times , for instance , wrote that Sense and Sensibility " can 't match the brilliant incisiveness of the more spartan Persuasion , still the most thoughtful new Austen adaptation " . The Los Angeles Times characterised Persuasion as " the most authentically British version and the one closest to the spirit of the novels " and Sense and Sensibility as " the audience @-@ friendly Hollywood version of Austen , easygoing and aiming to please " . Time magazine named them both the best films of 1995 , referring to Persuasion as " reserved " and Sense and Sensibility as " more bustling " . Higson , when analysing both productions , felt Persuasion captured a sense of " gritty realism " that would influence such later Austen adaptations as Mansfield Park ( 1999 ) and Becoming Jane ( 2007 ) . = = = Accolades = = =

= Suquamish Museum = The Suquamish Museum is a museum located on the Port Madison Indian Reservation in Washington state . It preserves and displays relics and records related to the Suquamish Tribe , including artifacts from the Old Man House and the Baba 'kwob site . Founded in 1983 , the museum currently occupies a facility opened in 2012 . = = History = = The Suquamish Museum opened in 1983 as the Suquamish Museum and Cultural Center , then only the second tribal museum in the state of Washington . In 2009 the Suquamish tribe launched a capital campaign to construct a new facility , enlisting Senator Patty Murray and former Washington Secretary of State Ralph Munro to help lead the effort . The new facility opened in 2012 and is triple the size of the original building . Constructed at a cost of $ 6 million , the 9 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 840 m2 ) purpose @-@ built structure is set in a small botanical garden on the Port Madison Indian Reservation and consists of two galleries , a gift shop , a 50 @-@ seat auditorium , and a climate @-@ controlled storage room used to house artifacts not on display . The facility was designed by the Seattle architectural firm Mithun and is a LEED Gold certified building . In 2013 it received a citation from the Washington Council of the American Institute of Architects . = = Operations = = = = = Collection = = = In addition to a large repository of photographs documenting tribal life from the 1860s to the present , the museum 's collection includes 496 archaeological artifacts recovered from the site of the former Old Man House , a massive , 240 meters ( 790 ft ) long longhouse that served as the Suquamish capitol until its destruction in the late nineteenth century . Originally in the custody of the Burke Museum at the University of Washington , the artifacts , which include harpoon points , smoking pipes , and jewelry , were transferred to the Suquamish tribe in 2013 . In 2014 , the Port of Seattle transferred additional artifacts to the museum , including crockery and glass bottles , discovered during archaeological excavations in the 1970s at the Baba 'kwob site , a pre @-@ contact village located in what is now Seattle 's Belltown neighborhood . The controversial transfer was contested by the Duwamish , an unrecognized tribe and historic Suquamish rival who claim ownership of the artifacts . = = = Exhibitions = = = The museum 's main gallery features a permanent exhibit titled " Ancient Shores – Changing Tides " that showcases drawings , documents , and historic photographs related to the Suquamish Tribe , contemporary and historic crafts , and interpretative panels and multimedia elements . The centerpiece of this exhibit is a 300 @-@ year @-@ old carved canoe that was last used in the 1989 Paddle to Seattle , the first of a now annual series of canoe journeys through the Salish Sea undertaken by tribal members . A second gallery is used to house rotating exhibits from the museum 's permanent collection , or items on loan from other museums , including traveling exhibits from the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service ( SITES ) . Exhibits have included a SITES display " Native Words , Native Warriors " , chronicling the history of Native Americans in the U.S. armed forces . = = = Management = = = The Suquamish Museum is governed by a five @-@ member board of directors appointed by the Suquamish Tribal Council . The galleries and auditorium of the museum are open daily during the summer , and five days per week the rest of the year . The museum 's storage vault is open to tribal members and accredited researchers weekly .

= No. 79 Squadron RAAF = No. 79 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) flight training unit that has been formed on four occasions since 1943 . The squadron was established in May 1943 as a fighter unit equipped with Supermarine Spitfires , and subsequently saw combat in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II . Between June 1943 and the end of the war in August 1945 it flew air defence patrols to protect Allied bases and ships , escorted Australian and United States aircraft , and attacked Japanese positions . The squadron was disbanded in November 1945 , but was re @-@ formed between 1962 and 1968 to operate CAC Sabres from Ubon Air Base in Thailand . In this role it contributed to the defence of Thailand against a feared attack from its neighbouring states and exercised with United States Air Force units . No. 79 Squadron was active again at RAAF Base Butterworth in Malaysia between 1986 and 1988 where it operated Mirage III fighters and a single DHC @-@ 4 Caribou transport during the period in which the RAAF 's fighter squadrons were transitioning to new aircraft . The squadron was re @-@ formed in its present incarnation during 1998 and is currently stationed at RAAF Base Pearce , where it has operated Hawk 127 jet training aircraft since 2000 . The unit 's main role is to provide introductory jet aircraft training to RAAF pilots as well as refresher training on the Hawk for experienced pilots . No. 79 Squadron also supports Australian Army and Royal Australian Navy training exercises in Western Australia and the Northern Territory . = = History = = = = = World War II = = = No. 79 Squadron was formed at RAAF Base Laverton in Victoria on 26 April 1943 under the command of flying ace Squadron Leader Alan Rawlinson . The squadron 's intended role was to use Spitfire Vc fighters to provide ' high cover ' escort for the RAAF 's P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk @-@ equipped units which were engaging Japanese forces in the New Guinea Campaign . This requirement was considered urgent , and the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , directed that No. 79 Squadron receive priority for the RAAF 's limited stock of Spitfires . The squadron moved to Wooloomanata Aerodrome several days after it was formed , and received its first Spitfires on 3 May . While at Wooloomanata No. 79 Squadron undertook training exercises to prepare for combat . The allocation of 24 Spitfires to the squadron resulted in No. 1 Wing RAAF , which was stationed near Darwin and responsible for protecting the town against air attack , suffering a shortage of these aircraft during June and July . No. 79 Squadron began moving to Goodenough Island in the war zone off the north coast of Papua in mid @-@ May 1943 . Its advance party departed Wooloomanata on 17 May , followed by the pilots on 4 June . The main body of ground crew sailed from Sydney on 7 June . The squadron suffered its first fatality on 13 June , when Flight Lieutenant Virgil Brennan — an experienced fighter pilot who had shot down 10 Axis aircraft over Malta — died from wounds incurred when his Spitfire collided with another while they were landing at Cairns . During the unit 's transit to Goodenough Island , No. 79 Squadron Spitfires were scrambled from Gurney Airfield at Milne Bay on several occasions between 19 and 25 June to intercept Japanese reconnaissance aircraft , but did not damage these intruders . The squadron completed its movement to Goodenough Island on 26 June and began flying air defence sorties from Vivigani Airfield as part of No. 73 Wing . It did not intercept any Japanese aircraft while operating from this base , however . The squadron moved to Kirwina Airfield on Kiriwina between 9 and 18 August , from where it operated alongside the P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk @-@ equipped No. 76 Squadron . This was the closest Allied airfield to the major Japanese base at Rabaul and was expected to be regularly attacked . No Japanese raids were made on the airfield during the first weeks of the squadron 's deployment there , however , and its pilots were disappointed to not see combat while conducting patrols in support of United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) raids on Rabaul . The Imperial Japanese Army Air Force ( IJAAF ) began a series of attacks on Goodenough Island and Kiriwina in early October , however , and the squadron claimed its first victory in 31 October when one of its Spitfires shot down a Kawasaki Ki @-@ 61 fighter 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Kiriwina ( this type of aircraft was labelled the " Tony " by the Allies ) . After a period of training , No. 79 Squadron flew its first sweep over Japanese @-@ held territory on 27 November when eight Spitfires were dispatched to Gasmata on New Britain . The next day one of its Spitfires shot down a Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 46 " Dinah " reconnaissance aircraft south of Kitava . As few Japanese attacks were made against Kirwina , No. 79 Squadron 's pilots became restive . The offensive patrols over New Britain improved their morale , however . Another Ki @-@ 61 was intercepted and shot down by a Spitfire on 21 December , and an A6M Mitsubishi A6M " Zero " fighter was destroyed on the ground at Gasmata seven days later . A Spitfire was lost during a patrol over New Britain on 31 December , however . During January and February 1944 the squadron conducted offensive sweeps over New Britain , strafed Japanese positions and escorted Allied bombers . On 17 January , eight No. 79 Squadron Spitfires took part in an attack against a Japanese camp near Lindenhafen which involved 73 Australian aircraft ; this was the largest RAAF operation of the war up to that time . Two Spitfires were lost during the operations in January and February . In early 1944 No. 73 Wing was selected to support the US Army 's Admiralty Islands campaign . The 1st Cavalry Division began to land on the islands on 29 February , and the wing moved to Momote Airstrip on Los Negros Island in March 1944 . No. 79 Squadron became operational there with 24 aircraft on the 29th of the month . From Momote , the squadron flew ground attack sorties in support of US troops until Japanese resistance ceased . No Japanese aircraft were encountered throughout this operation . By the end of April , No. 79 Squadron 's main role was to escort Allied shipping , though flying was hampered by a shortage of spare parts . The squadron 's commanding officer , Squadron Leader M.S. Bott , was killed in an accident on 16 April . Shipping escort patrols continued in May , but difficulties maintaining the Spitfires reduced the squadron to just two operational aircraft with another 12 awaiting repair . Due to a shortage of aircraft the squadron 's flying activities were limited to training sorties between August and October , and aircraft availability continued to be a problem until late November . On 9 November , two Spitfires unsuccessfully attempted to intercept three Japanese A6M fighters which had raided Hyane Harbour ; while the Japanese force had been tracked by Allied radar for 25 minutes prior to the attack , the Spitfires were scrambled only after the raiders had left the area . No. 79 Squadron subsequently maintained a three @-@ aircraft patrol over Los Negros during daylight hours until 22 November . Two days later the squadron was released from operations ahead of moving to Darwin in northern Australia to be re @-@ equipped with more modern Mark VIII Spitfires . No. 79 Squadron arrived at Sattler Airfield south of Darwin on 12 January 1945 and received its new aircraft shortly afterwards . It began to move to Morotai in the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) on 6 February and became operational there as part of No. 80 Wing at the end of March . The squadron conducted ground attack sorties against Japanese positions on nearby islands until the end of the war and also became responsible for Morotai 's air defence from 28 May . Although no Japanese aircraft were encountered in this area , several Spitfires were shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire during ground attack sorties . Operations were hindered at times by personnel shortages , and many of the airmen who were posted to the unit were judged by the squadron 's commander to have been inadequately trained . On 30 July No. 80 Wing was disbanded and the squadron became the first flying unit assigned to the newly formed No. 11 Group . This group was responsible for garrison duties in much of Borneo and the eastern NEI . No. 79 Squadron dropped leaflets on Japanese positions after Japan agreed to surrender on 15 August and returned to Australia in October 1945 . It was disbanded at Oakey Airfield on 12 November that year . The unit suffered 13 fatal casualties during the war . In late 2010 the squadron was awarded battle honours for its World War II service in the Pacific , New Britain and Morotai . = = = Ubon = = = In May 1962 the Australian Government decided to deploy a squadron of CAC Sabre fighters to Thailand to bolster that country 's defences . This action was undertaken as part of Australia 's Southeast Asia Treaty Organization ( SEATO ) commitment to defend Thailand against attack from its Communist neighbours , which was thought likely to occur . The United States , United Kingdom and New Zealand also deployed forces to Thailand in response to this perceived threat , though Malaysia and several other SEATO members chose not to be involved . On 28 May , Minister for Defence Athol Townley announced that Australia 's contribution would be an RAAF squadron equipped with Sabre fighters . The eight aircraft , along with their pilots and ground crew , were drawn from No. 77 Squadron , which formed part of Australia 's Commonwealth Strategic Reserve forces at RAAF Base Butterworth in Malaysia . In order to preserve Malaysia 's neutrality , the Sabres were flown to Thailand via Singapore . This force was designated No. 79 Squadron while at Tengah Air Base in Singapore on 29 May . ( I ) The squadron arrived at Ubon Air Base in the Ubon Ratchathani Province of eastern Thailand on 1 June 1962 and flew its first operational patrol four days later . Facilities at Ubon were initially spartan , and the pilots and ground crew lived in tents . Construction of permanent accommodation began under the supervision of No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron in September 1962 , however , and facilities were later further improved . Despite Malaysia 's policy of neutrality in regards the conflict in Southeast Asia , No. 79 Squadron operated as a detachment of the RAAF force ( No. 78 Wing ) based at Butterworth throughout its time in Thailand . Aircraft and personnel were regularly transferred between Butterworth and Ubon , and most pilots ' nominally six @-@ month @-@ long tours of duty in Thailand were broken into several shorter periods during which they and their aircraft were illegally rotated between the two bases . In March 1963 the Defence Committee , which was the highest decision @-@ making body of the Department of Defence , recommended to Cabinet that No. 79 Squadron be withdrawn from Thailand on the grounds that the British and New Zealand contingents had left the country . The Cabinet 's Foreign Affairs and Defence Committee decided against this on 28 March as it was believed that maintaining the squadron at Ubon helped maintain good relationships with Thailand and the United States . The Thai Government was discreetly asked if it would prefer a different form of assistance , however . Throughout its period at Ubon , No. 79 Squadron formed part of an international force tasked with defending Thailand 's air space against intruders . At the start of the deployment , tensions in Thailand were such that the squadron 's personnel believed that they were at war . While the situation became more stable from late July 1962 , No. 79 Squadron maintained armed aircraft on alert at all times and scrambled Sabres when unidentified aircraft were detected . No air attacks were conducted against Thailand , however , and the unidentified aircraft that were intercepted almost always proved to be from the Central Intelligence Agency @-@ controlled Air America . In January 1965 two Sabres accidentally overflew North Vietnam after becoming lost during a training sortie but returned safely to Ubon . From early April 1965 , Ubon became an important base for United States Air Force ( USAF ) attacks on North Vietnam during the Vietnam War , and No. 79 Squadron became part of an integrated air defence system controlled by the USAF on 25 June . This changed the status of the squadron 's presence in Thailand , and RAAF Headquarters assessed that the North Vietnamese would be justified in regarding it as forming part of the air campaign against their country . Due to the threat of counter @-@ attacks on Ubon , the base 's ground defences were upgraded during 1966 ; this included the construction of defensive positions for No. 79 Squadron 's aircraft and personnel as well as the deployment of a detachment of RAAF airfield defence guards . While the squadron did not play an active role in the war , it supported the US effort by providing air defence for Ubon and taking part in exercises with USAF aircraft in which the Sabres adopted tactics used by North Vietnamese MiG @-@ 17 fighters . In December 1965 the commander of the United States Pacific Air Forces , General Hunter Harris , Jr . , wrote to the chief of the RAAF , Air Marshal Alister Murdoch , to suggest that No. 79 Squadron join the USAF operations against the Ho Chi Minh trail in southern Laos which were being covertly conducted by Ubon @-@ based aircraft . The Thai Government indicated that it would allow the squadron to be used for this purpose as long as the Australian operations were conducted without a formal agreement or any public announcement . On 2 March 1966 the Australian Cabinet decided to reinforce the Army and RAAF force in South Vietnam , but rejected the option of expanding the scope of RAAF operations in Thailand . This decision was made on the grounds that the expanded force in South Vietnam and existing deployments to Thailand , Malaysia and Singapore represented the maximum forces Australia could commit to the region . By mid @-@ 1968 , No. 79 Squadron no longer had a clear role at Ubon . The USAF had sufficient fighters based in Thailand to defend the country and was reluctant to use the Australian fighters — which were now regarded as obsolete — to intercept potentially hostile aircraft , as the squadron 's rules of engagement did not allow it to pursue contacts that left Thai airspace . As a result , the Australian military 's chiefs of staff determined that the RAAF presence in Thailand had outlived its political and military usefulness and decided to withdraw the squadron without replacement . No. 79 Squadron was taken off alert status on 26 July and disbanded at the end of the month . On 31 March 2011 it received a battle honour for its deployment to Ubon between May 1962 and August 1968 . ( II ) = = = Butterworth = = = On 31 March 1986 , No. 79 Squadron was re @-@ formed at RAAF Base Butterworth as a temporary measure to cover part of the period while the RAAF 's three fighter squadrons were transitioning from Mirage IIIs to F / A @-@ 18 Hornets . The squadron inherited all of No. 3 Squadron 's twelve Mirage IIIs fighters and most of its personnel ; the remainder of No. 3 Squadron returned to Australia to be re @-@ equipped with Hornets . As well as the Mirage IIIs , the squadron operated a single DHC @-@ 4 Caribou transport that was also based at Butterworth . In its new incarnation , No. 79 Squadron continued the air defence and training duties for which No. 3 Squadron had been responsible at Butterworth . It participated in routine training exercises in Southeast Asia , which included making regular deployments to Paya Lebar Air Base in Singapore to train with the Republic of Singapore Air Force . In May 1987 the squadron deployed to Clarke Air Force Base in the Philippines to participate in the annual Cope Thunder exercise with USAF units . It also exercised with No. 77 Squadron 's new F / A @-@ 18 Hornets in April 1988 when that unit visited Butterworth . The Caribou transport was used to support Australian Army units in Malaysia and also flew training sorties to neighbouring countries . By early 1988 both No. 3 and No. 77 Squadrons had successfully converted to the F / A @-@ 18 , and No. 79 Squadron was no longer required . Preparations to return the unit 's Mirages to Australia took place during the first months of 1988 , and on 3 May they departed Butterworth . As the RAAF 's F / A @-@ 18 Hornet squadrons were to be based in Australia , this marked the end of the permanent deployment of RAAF fighters to Butterworth that had begun in mid @-@ 1958 . No. 79 Squadron 's aircraft commemorated the occasion by conducting a spectacular low @-@ altitude flypast of the base , the first leg of which commenced at transonic speed . The aircraft were flown to Woomera in central Australia to be placed in storage via Paya Lebar , Bali , Darwin and RAAF Base Tindal . Most of No. 79 Squadron 's ground crew returned to Australia in late May , and the squadron was formally disbanded at Butterworth on 30 June 1988 . = = Current status = = No. 79 Squadron was re @-@ formed a third time on 1 July 1998 as a training unit located at RAAF Base Pearce near Perth in Western Australia . The squadron was re @-@ established by separating No. 25 Squadron 's Permanent Air Force ( full @-@ time ) component from its Air Force Reserve ( part @-@ time reservist ) personnel and responsibilities . The squadron initially operated Aermacchi MB @-@ 326 aircraft before being re @-@ equipped with Hawk 127 aircraft between 7 December 2000 and 4 March 2001 . In 2000 No. 78 Wing was re @-@ formed and assumed command of No. 76 and No. 79 Squadrons . The Hawks experienced serviceability problems during their first 18 months with the squadron , but these were eventually rectified . During October 2003 two No. 79 Squadron Hawks conducted a tour of Australia to belatedly commemorate the unit 's 60th anniversary . During this tour the aircrew visited Alan Rawlinson at his home at Naracoorte , South Australia , and later conducted a flyover of the town in his honour . The squadron made its first overseas deployment in almost twenty years during April 2006 when six Hawks and 52 personnel were dispatched to RMAF Base Butterworth to take part in Exercise Bersama Shield . This was also the first time RAAF Hawks had operated overseas . As of May 2010 , No. 79 Squadron was equipped with 15 of the RAAF 's 33 Hawks . In 2011 , the squadron was organised into a Training Flight , Operations Flight , and Maintenance Flight . A program to modernise all of the RAAF 's Hawks to a similar standard to the Royal Air Force 's Hawk T.2 aircraft began in 2014 , and No. 79 Squadron is scheduled to begin operations with these aircraft in mid @-@ 2017 . The unit 's Maintenance Flight was disbanded in July 2016 when responsibility for support services for the Hawks was transferred to BAE Systems . In its current role No. 79 Squadron 's main responsibility is to provide introductory fast jet training to pilots who have recently graduated from No. 2 Flying Training School . During this training , new pilots who have been selected to fly jet aircraft are taught to operate Hawks and provided with initial instruction on jet aircraft combat tactics . In 2004 , each of No. 79 Squadron 's training courses lasted for twelve weeks . After completing their initial jet aircraft training , pilots transfer to No. 76 Squadron at RAAF Base Williamtown for advanced instruction before being posted to one of the RAAF 's operational conversion units . No. 79 Squadron also provides introductory training on fast jets for RAAF air combat officers who have been selected to serve on board F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets . The squadron trained RAAF personnel selected to serve as navigators on board F @-@ 111 strike aircraft until these aircraft were replaced with Super Hornets in 2010 . No. 79 Squadron also provides refresher training on the Hawk aircraft for experienced fighter pilots . In addition to its pilot training responsibilities , No. 79 Squadron 's Operations Flight provides aircraft to support Navy and Army training exercises . These duties are undertaken by experienced pilots who did not successfully complete operational conversion training , and also by new pilots who have completed training with No. 76 Squadron and been posted back to No. 79 Squadron until a place becomes available in an operational conversion course . No. 76 Squadron has a similar Operations Flight . Most of No. 79 Squadron 's exercises with the Navy take place off the coast of Western Australia , but aircraft are occasionally deployed to Darwin for this task .

= James Morris III = James Morris III ( ( 1752 @-@ 01 @-@ 19 ) January 19 , 1752 – April 20 , 1820 ( 1820 @-@ 04 @-@ 20 ) ) was a Continental Army officer from Connecticut during the American Revolutionary War and founder of the Morris Academy , a pioneer in coeducation . Born in Litchfield County , Connecticut , James Morris spent his early life hoping and training to be a minister . However , after graduating from Yale College , Morris accepted a commission of First Lieutenant from the Continental Army and joined the fight for American Independence . Morris was captured during the Battle of Germantown and spent most of the remaining war in captivity . Upon his release , Morris was promoted to the rank of Captain and supported Alexander Hamilton in the Siege of Yorktown . When he returned from the war , Morris began and ran an academy that trained both boys and girls together , a rarity at the time . James Morris died in 1820 . In 1859 , Morris 's hometown of South Farms , Connecticut was renamed Morris in his honor . = = Early life and education = = James Morris was born to Deacon James Morris Jr. and Phebe Barns Morris in South Farms , Connecticut on January 19 , 1752 . Even as a young man , Morris displayed a disposition for education , borrowing often from the library in nearby Bethlehem , where his father was a member . Through these studies , Morris hoped to eventually become a minister . When Morris was eighteen , his father sent him to live full @-@ time in Bethlehem and study under Dr. Joseph Bellamy . Morris continued with Bellamy until the spring of 1770 , when he spent the season studying under the South Farms minister Dr. Salmon Hurlburt . That fall Morris found yet another instructor in Mr. Nathan Hale , saying of him , " Mr. Hale was an accurate scholar and an able instructor . " In September 1771 , Morris began more formal studies at Yale College . For his tutor at Yale , Morris was assigned future Yale president Timothy Dwight IV , who would be an influential force in coeducation in his own right . Morris was awarded his degree in July , 1775 , noting in his memoirs , " having had my share of honorary appointments . " Upon graduation Morris returned to South Farms , where he helped his father with the harvest and took a post teaching grammar school in nearby Litchfield , where he received his first opportunity to teach and was paid " ' handsome wages ' hoping to reimburse his father for the heavy expenses of his college education . " = = The War = = = = = Commission and early service = = = Morris 's tenure as an instructor in Litchfield was cut short when , within months of arriving , he received an unsolicited ensign 's commission in the Connecticut militia , which he accepted . While in the service of the Connecticut militia Morris saw his first action , fighting battles in both Long Island and White Plains . In his memoirs , Morris wrote of this time , stating that " The soldiers universally manifested a great respect for me , for my care of the sick and my attention to their wants , and for my sympathies in their distresses . " In late December 1776 , Morris completed his commitment to the Connecticut militia and immediately accepted a commission in the Continental Army as a first lieutenant . After serving as a recruiting officer in Litchfield , Morris joined General George Washington and the army at Peekskill . On October 3 , 1776 , General Washington commanded this army in the Battle of Germantown . The American forces were ultimately unsuccessful in this battle and Morris was taken as a prisoner of war on October 4 , 1776 . = = = Captivity = = = The early part of Morris 's confinement were the most trying . He was taken to the " New Jail " in Philadelphia where he " was locked in a cold room ... destitute of everything by cold stone walls and bare floors — no kind of a seat to sit on — all total darkness , no water to drink or a morsel to eat ; without a blanket to cover [ him ] . " Despite his meager accommodations , Morris decided to make the best of his imprisonment in Philadelphia by negotiating with his jailors to borrow books from the so @-@ called circulating library recently established by Benjamin Franklin in that city . One historian points to this time as when Morris was exposed to the philosophers that would be so influential in his later life as an educator : " From Milton , James Morris absorbed ideas in favor of healthy exercises to develop both body and mind at the same time ; from Rollin , the danger of following custom blindly rather than reason ; and form Locke , the novel idea that the English language was as important as Latin and Greek . " In May 1778 , Morris convinced his captors to admit him to parole and was sent to Flatbush , Long Island , where he stayed with a Mr. Clarkson . In his memoir , Morris noted that Clarkson was " a man of science and large property , ... who owned the most extensive private library that [ Morris ] had ever known in the United States . " While still in captivity Morris found this situation rather comfortable and took every advantage of the library he so admired . On January 3 , 1781 , Morris was freed as part of a prisoner exchange . = = = Post @-@ release = = = Upon his release , Morris returned to Peekskill where he discovered that he had been promoted to the rank of captain while in the custody of the British . Morris commanded a company back to White Plains until he received orders to head south to Virginia . Upon arrival , Morris 's company , under the overall command of General George Washington , aided in Siege of Yorktown , the last major battle of the American Revolution . Specifically , Morris 's company of light infantry provided support to the forlorn hope commanded by Colonel Alexander Hamilton . = = Post @-@ war = = James Morris returned to South Farms in December 1781 . Days after his return , on December 20 , he married Elizabeth Hubbard . Shortly thereafter , the people of South Farms made Morris both the Justice of the Peace and a Selectman . In the summer of 1782 Morris briefly returned to service , but was ultimately released from service in November of that year . In the following years James and Elizbeth had five children : Abigail Morris ( b . 8 / 2 / 1783 ) James Morris , IV ( b . 12 / 4 / 1784 ) : 1803 Yale graduate , Tutor of the University of Georgia , Head of the Academy in Sunbry , Georga . Reuben Smith Morris ( b . 5 / 24 / 1786 ) : 1804 Yale graduate , attorney in Cayuga , New York . Samuel Hubbard Morris ( b . 2 / 6 / 1788 ) ( d . 12 / 22 / 1793 ) Robert Hubbard Morris ( b . 7 / 25 / 1789 ) : " endowed with ' good academic education , ' " settled at Cayuga . " In between the birth of James and Reuben , Morris became severely ill . During his illness , a man named Gad Farnam moved into the Morris 's home to care for him day and night . The two families became very close and Gad 's daughter Rhoda , only five years old at the time of the illness , later became Morris 's second wife . It was at this point in Morris 's life that he accepted that he would never realize his early dream of becoming a minister . = = The Morris Academy = = By 1790 , it had become common for children to come to Morris 's house for instruction and access to his library . Morris welcomed all of these students , both male and female . Morris 's coeducation caused some stir within the community when some claimed that his education of women was " ' blowing up their pride ' so that ' they would feel themselves above their mates and they would feel above labour . ' " In 1794 , these frustrations were brought to fruition when a hearing was held in the church . The charges were dismissed and the publicity from the controversy brought so much attention , that , by 1803 , he had instructed students " from all the New England States except Rhode Island , and from the States of New York , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Maryland , Virginia , South Carolina and Georgia . Also from the Island of St. Thomas in the West Indies , and from the Island of Bermuda . " By the turn of the century , Morris found it necessary to formalize his instruction and construct a proper Academy building . The estimated cost was $ 1200 , so Morris enlisted wealthy residents of Litchfield and South Farms . On November 28 , 1803 , The Morris Academy moved out of James Morris 's home and into the brand new building . For the period from 1803 to 1812 , the Morris Academy grew to an average of 50 @-@ 75 students . The Academy was handed to several other heads of school , until , on April 12 , 1888 , the Morris Academy was closed for good . In the introduction to her book on the academy , Barbara Nolen Strong noted : The Morris Academy is entitled to be called a pioneer institution because of its ' open door ' policy in coeducation . It was not the first in the United States , not even in Connecticut , but none of the other early academies opened their doors as wide and kept them open as long . No other coeducational academy spread its influence so far . = = Later life = = In September 1814 Morris 's wife Elizabeth died . The following March , Morris married Rhonda Farnam and the marriage bore two children . Jane Elizabeth Morris ( b . 1 / 30 / 1816 ) Timothy Dwight Morris ( b . 11 / 22 / 1817 ) During the " second war with Great Britain " , at the age of 61 , Morris was commissioned as a First Major of the Second Regiment of Volunteers in the State of Connecticut . Toward the end of his life , Morris compiled his memoirs , which were subsequently published as Memoirs of James Morris of South Farms In Litchfield . James Morris died on April 20 , 1820 and was buried in the graveyard at what is now commonly referred to as the East Morris cemetery . = = Legacy = = In June , 1859 , South Farms was incorporated as Morris , Connecticut in his honor . The James Morris Museum is located in the center of the town of Morris and contains original artifacts and writings of James Morris . The foundation of The Morris Academy remains intact on the grounds of James Morris Elementary School , in Morris .

= William T. Porter = William Trotter Porter ( December 24 , 1809 – July 19 , 1858 ) was an American journalist and newspaper editor who founded an early American newspaper devoted to sports . After working at a number of small newspapers , Porter moved to New York City in the 1830s . After employment at a newspaper in the city , he founded the Spirit of the Times , a newspaper modeled on a London paper called Bell 's Life in London . The Spirit , which went through a number of names and incarnations over the years , was devoted to sports and other recreational pursuits . One of Porter 's main interests involved horse racing , and he was involved in attempts to create the first stud book in the United States , which did not bear fruit . He was also instrumental in the development of American literature , as the Spirit published a number of short stories by American tall tale writers , and Porter edited two collections of short stories by American writers . After publishing the Spirit through the 1830s , he sold it to another printer but continued as the editor into the 1850s . He left the original Spirit in 1855 and in 1856 was hired as editor for another sporting newspaper , Porter 's Spirit of the Times , published by George Wilkes . Porter died in 1858 . = = Early life = = Porter was born on December 24 , 1809 , the son of Benjamin Porter and Martha Olcott in Newbury , Vermont . He was one of five boys born to his parents . His father was a lawyer , but died suddenly in 1818 , leaving the family in difficult financial circumstances . He attended a charity school in Hanover , New Hampshire after the family moved there , but left school to work in a print shop . He also attended Dartmouth College . His mother died in 1825 , which meant the family was broken up and Porter worked at a number of small newspapers before arriving in New York City in the early 1830s . While in New York , Porter gained the nickname of " York 's Tall Son " . = = Editorial work = = Porter edited the Constellation , a newspaper in New York City that published humorous stories . Porter became interested in sports , and concentrated on the emerging sports journalism field . In December 1831 , Porter published the first issue of a new newspaper devoted to covering sports and other recreational activities , which he called The Spirit of the Times . Porter imitated Bell 's Life in London , a contemporary English publication covering the same subjects . The first attempt at Spirit of the Times failed quickly , and Porter sold the magazine to C. J. B. Fisher , who merged it into Fisher 's publication of the Traveller , and the Spirit was combined with the Traveller as the Traveller and Spirit of the Times . During the brief period that Porter operated the Spirit , he employed Horace Greeley as a typesetter . When Porter sold the Spirit , he then went to work at the New @-@ Yorker , which was edited at the time by Horace Greeley . In January 1835 Porter purchased the Traveller and Spirit of the Times and renamed the newspaper back to Spirit of the Times , returning to editing it . This version of the Spirit managed to survive , although with some initial financial difficulties . Porter focused on selling his paper in the south and west of the United States , and emphasized subjects of use to his readers , such as cattle breeding , farm methods , books of interest , as well as sports . The newspaper was published weekly . Porter was interested in reforming the sport of horse racing , and expended much effort in the newspaper trying to bring together horsemen in the various parts of the country . Although the effort did not bear fruit , the Spirit became a repository for information of interest to those involved in horse racing , printing statistics and results of races . Porter was also involved in attempts to publish an American stud book for race horses in the United States , similar to the General Stud Book that was published in England documenting the pedigrees of Thoroughbred horses . In February 1837 , Porter announced in the Spirit the projected coverage of the project , which was to be edited by Wiley Jones Stratton , who was secretary to the National Jockey Club in Washington , D. C. But this project never materialized , and Porter turned to Patrick Nesbitt Edgar in January 1838 to take over the project . But Edgar did not finish the work , and by 1842 , the project was abandoned . Porter also served as an arbiter of disputes about sports rules and sports betting . Porter also encouraged new authors from the south and the west to write in his newspaper and helped them get books published . He also edited two collections of short stories from the frontier , The Big Bear of Arkansas in 1846 and A Quarter Race in Kentucky and Other Sketches in 1847 . Besides the sporting interests , the Spirit was involved in the emergence of American literature , especially the " tall tale " form of humor . Porter encouraged Southwestern authors to write and publish their short stories in the Spirit , and was involved in getting their works published in book form . He was the editor for two of these collections : The Big Bear of Arkansas , published in 1846 , and A Quarter Race in Kentucky and Other Sketches , published in 1847 . Porter was instrumental in encouraging the career of Johnson Hooper . Another writer who contributed to the Spirit was Henry William Herbert , who wrote under the pen name " Frank Forester " . The Panic of 1837 hurt the Spirit 's circulation , but Porter responded by buying out his main competition , the American Turf Register and Sporting Magazine and moved it to New York City . Porter edited the Turf Register until the paper stopped being published in 1844 . Porter continued the publication of annual stallion lists and the publication of lists of horses owned by breeders . However , the purchase of the American Turf Register strained Porter 's finances , and he sold the Spirit to another printer , John Richards , who retained Porter as editor . The 1840s were prosperous , but in the 1850s the magazine again encountered difficulties . Around 1855 , Porter left Richards ' paper , and in 1856 , another printer , George Wilkes , began a new sporting newspaper , which he called Porter 's Spirit of the Times , and employed Porter as editor . = = Later life = = In 1845 , Porter served as secretary for the New York Jockey Club , during the famous match race between the fillies Fashion and Peytona at the Union Course on May 15 , 1845 . Although the Spirit and the American Turf Register were known for their coverage of horse racing , Porter 's main sporting interest for himself was fishing . Porter never married , and three of his brothers died before Porter himself caught a cold and died of consumption on July 19 , 1858 , in his house in New York City . He left unfinished a biography of his friend Wiliam Herbert . The journalist and historian Frank Luther Mott wrote that " Porter undoubtedly did much to give American sports a respectable standing . "

= Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. ( season 1 ) = The first season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , which is based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. ( Strategic Homeland Intervention , Enforcement and Logistics Division ) , revolves around the character of Phil Coulson and his team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents , who are assigned to several dangerous cases . The cases are centered on Project Centipede and its leader , The Clairvoyant , while Coulson also searches for answers concerning his mysterious resurrection after dying in The Avengers . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the films of the franchise . The season , which aired on ABC from September 24 , 2013 , through May 13 , 2014 , over 22 episodes , was produced by ABC Studios , Marvel Television , and Mutant Enemy Productions , with Jed Whedon , Maurissa Tancharoen , and Jeffrey Bell serving as showrunners . Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. was picked up for a full season by ABC in May 2013 , and filming took place primarily in Los Angeles . Clark Gregg reprises his role as Coulson from the film series , and is joined by principal cast members Ming @-@ Na Wen , Brett Dalton , Chloe Bennet , Iain De Caestecker , and Elizabeth Henstridge , while several other characters from MCU films and Marvel One @-@ Shots also appear throughout the season . Some episodes directly crossover with the films Thor : The Dark World and Captain America : The Winter Soldier , with the Winter Soldier crossover causing a retooling of the season for its final six episodes . The series premiere was watched by 12 @.@ 12 million viewers , the highest ratings received by the first episode of a drama series in the United States since the pilot episode of V in 2009 . The season initially received a mixed reception , which also mirrored a decrease in ratings as the season progressed . However , reception grew more positive as the season progressed into its second half , which led to more consistent ratings . The series was renewed for a second season on May 8 , 2014 . = = Episodes = = = = Cast and characters = = = = Production = = = = = Development = = = In August 2012 , it was announced that Marvel 's The Avengers director Joss Whedon would be involved in an upcoming project for ABC , set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe . A few weeks later , ABC ordered a pilot for a show called S.H.I.E.L.D. , to be written by Joss Whedon , Jed Whedon and Maurissa Tancharoen , directed by Joss Whedon , and executive produced by Joss Whedon , Jed Whedon , Tancharoen , Jeffrey Bell and Jeph Loeb . Jed Whedon , Tancharoen and Bell were slated to serve as the series ' showrunners . Additional executive producers on the series were Joe Quesada , Alan Fine , and Stan Lee . In April 2013 , ABC announced that the show would be titled Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , and it was officially picked up to series in May . On October 10 , 2013 , ABC announced that it had ordered a full season of 22 episodes . = = = Writing = = = In July 2013 , Maurissa Tancharoen revealed that Joss Whedon , Jed Whedon , Jeff Bell , Paul Zbyszewski , Monica Owusu @-@ Breen , Brent Fletcher , Lauren LeFranc , Rafe Judkins , and Shalisha Francis would be the writers for the season . All the episodes were written with the knowledge that S.H.I.E.L.D. would be destroyed in Captain America : The Winter Soldier , with Jed Whedon saying " It 's the kind of thing that if someone told you that concept , you 'd think it was a great thing to have happen at the beginning of the show or the end of Season 3 . To have it happen in the middle of your first season is an interesting kind of riddle because we had to quickly establish what a regular day at S.H.I.E.L.D. looks like , what [ is ] it like to go on a mission , say here 's the team , and that there are also different teams all over the world . Then to blow that up , we knew the way to best illustrate that was by putting it on a personal level with our main man Coulson and to put him through the paces as a man dedicated to an organization . " Tancharoen elaborated that " We see what it actually looks like for S.H.I.E.L.D. to crumble in Captain America 2 , we see the Helicarriers literally barreling through the Triskelion , we see the massive destruction throughout the city , but the benefit of our show is we get to dive into the emotional toll of that . To build our characters up to a point where they have established a bond , and they are working together in a way they 've never worked together before , and to strip away the foundation that they 've dedicated their lives to and the trust they 've now laid with one another , it 's a really fun thing to play . " From the beginning it was decided that one of the main characters would be a traitor , with Jed Whedon saying " When we started conceptualizing the show with Joss , knowing [ Captain America : The Winter Soldier ] was coming , we knew there would have to be some sort of personal toll , and there 's the version of it where someone gets injured , but since this is an infiltration based on betrayal on a massive scale , we wanted to have it on the small scale , and have it be a really personal dagger to the heart . " The individual character arcs were laid out by the series ' creative team , with Marvel 's only initial guidelines being to work around Captain America : The Winter Soldier . On whether it was Marvel 's idea or the showrunner 's idea to have Coulson promoted to Director and tasked with rebuilding S.H.I.E.L.D. at the end of the season , Jed Whedon said " They 're one in the same . They have plans for films , and we have plans to intermingle with them , and it 's the name of our show . The second to last episode is called " Ragtag " , and that 's a term we 've used ; we wanted to create this ragtag group , but within this giant organization with billions of dollars and support all over the globe and satellite feeds on their luxurious plane . Now we have a chance to start them over and figure out what it 's like to really be a secret again . " = = = Casting = = = The main cast for the season includes Clark Gregg as Phil Coulson , reprising his role from the film series , Ming @-@ Na Wen as Melinda May , Brett Dalton as Grant Ward , Chloe Bennet as Skye , Iain De Caestecker as Leo Fitz , and Elizabeth Henstridge as Jemma Simmons . In April 2013 , J. August Richards , one of the stars of an earlier Joss Whedon series , Angel , was also cast in the pilot in an unspecified role , later revealed to be Mike Peterson , the first live @-@ action portrayal of Deathlok , and a recurring character throughout the season . Buffy the Vampire Slayer actor Nicholas Brendon , another Whedon collaborator , was also reportedly considered for Richards ' role . In December 2013 , two recurring characters were set to be added to the series , starting with the episode " T.A.H.I.T.I. " They were described as " an African @-@ American agent who specializes in combat / weapons , and a high @-@ level S.H.I.E.L.D. agent / munitions expert who has past ties to both Coulson and Ward . " On January 13 , 2013 , Bill Paxton was cast as Agent John Garrett , " a rough @-@ and @-@ tumble former cohort of Agent Coulson with a little bit of attitude and cigar @-@ smoking swagger " , for at least four episodes of the season . Jed Whedon said that " We actually discussed Bill Paxton in the room , when we were talking about the character ... Then when he came up as an actual possibility , we couldn 't believe it . " In February , B.J. Britt was cast as Agent Triplett , described as being an associate of Garrett . Saffron Burrows , David Conrad , and Ruth Negga recur as Victoria Hand , Ian Quinn , and Raina , respectively , throughout the season . In January 2013 , Cobie Smulders , who played agent Maria Hill in The Avengers , said that her character may make an appearance in the show and that her commitment to How I Met Your Mother would not prevent her from participating . Smulders reprised her role as Maria Hill in the pilot , with Joss Whedon saying , " I wanted very much to have Cobie in the pilot because as much as anyone else , she is S.H.I.E.L.D. She 's cool and commanding , and has the dry humor that plays so well with Clark 's . " Smulders returned once again in the role in the episode " Nothing Personal " . In June 2013 , Samuel L. Jackson expressed interest in guest starring as S.H.I.E.L.D. director Nick Fury , and subsequently appeared in the second episode " 0 @-@ 8 @-@ 4 " . Jackson makes a second appearance in the season finale . During the episode " The Well " , Chris Hemsworth appears as Thor via archival footage from Thor : The Dark World . Maximiliano Hernández , Titus Welliver , and Jaimie Alexander reprised their roles as Jasper Sitwell , Felix Blake , and Sif , respectively , from previous MCU films and Marvel One @-@ Shots during the season . = = = Design = = = Storyboards were used throughout the season , to " put the director , stunts , camera , FX and the crew on the same page " , though Joss Whedon did not use them for the pilot . One of the storyboard artists , Warren Drummond , noted the process was different to that on films , because there was limited time to complete the work , and because the storyboard artists were often working with different directors for each episode . Most of the sequences storyboarded were action or science fiction sequences . The main recurring setting for the season is the Bus , a retrofitted Boeing C @-@ 17 , that serves as both the transportation and headquarters of the titular team . The Bus includes such features as a soundproof interrogation room , a forensics and research lab located on the lower deck , where Fitz and Simmons work , and a cargo hold directly outside the lab where the team parks its SUV and Lola , Coulson 's prized 1962 Corvette . = = = Filming = = = The pilot was produced almost entirely in Los Angeles to accommodate Joss Whedon 's busy schedule . Subsequent episodes were also produced in Los Angeles , as well as Culver City , California , though additional filming took place around the world , including in Paris , France , for " Pilot " , and in Stockholm , Sweden , for " Eye Spy " . The stunt coordinator for the season was Tanner Gill . In September 2013 , Ming @-@ Na Wen talked about stunts and action scenes on the series , saying " I train . I work out and I have great stunt coordinators and choreographers to help me through every step and with the magic of filmmaking and editing , it all brings about her skills , to another level . That has to be very believable ... I think the hardest part is doing the actual stunts , the stunt @-@ fighting . That 's a whole other thing . I 'm not really punching out the stunt guy , nor are they hitting me , so it 's learning this dance , really , within the fight . It 's how to pull back , how to take a hit and make it look real . As with many Marvel projects , secrecy was a big issue . For instance , it was a challenge keeping Samuel L. Jackson 's cameo in " 0 @-@ 8 @-@ 4 " a surprise due to " this age of tweets and spoilers " . The showrunners had been exposed to this while working on The Avengers , but with their own series they were able to see " all the details that go into keeping everything under lock and key " . = = = Visual effects = = = The visual effects supervisor for the season was Mark Kolpack , with Los Angeles @-@ based visual effects company FuseFX the main visual effects vendor . Kevin Lingenfelser started the season focused on 2D supervising , but took over as lead in @-@ house visual effects supervisor after episode eight from David Altenau . Two separate production management and creative teams were established to work on the show , with most of the episodes being worked on concurrently , either two or three at a time . For the Bus , Altenau explained that it " has all kinds of S.H.I.E.L.D. technology that is revealed over time as the series progresses . This includes an extra wing and engines in the rear giving the plane the ability to operate vertically for take @-@ offs and landings , and even mid @-@ flight u @-@ turns ... FuseFX was given the opportunity to design the Bus . The design included many features from the start , such as the ability to do vertical take @-@ offs and landing " . FuseFX designed the Bus , and " Extreme attention was paid when designing the textures and rigging for this asset . Half a dozen 8k maps make up the details on the plane which allows the camera to get right up to the surface of the plane without any loss of detail . A very complex rig controls every aspect of the plane from the landing gear , engine transformation , doors opening , lighting and even the wings have flex controls for the animators to sell the weight of this massive aircraft . When the engines are in vertical flight mode they have several degrees of rotation which gives the jet a lot of maneuvering ability . " FuseFX also worked on Lola , Coulson 's " vintage 1962 Corvette " which was described as " a classic car and beautiful in its own right , but through digital effects , Fuse has added hovercraft capabilities . When Coulson needs it , the wheel 's rotate into a horizontal position , exposing hidden jet engine ducts that create lifting thrust through the rims of the tires , which double as turbo @-@ fan blades . We worked closely with production to help design the mechanism and the look of the hovercraft engines . It 's Stark technology designed to be consistent with the period aspect of the car . " When the real Corvette is shown transitioning to its hover mode , volumetric dust , exhaust , and particle effects are added . Occasionally , FuseFX was required to use a fully digital model of the car , which matches the real vehicle precisely . = = = Music = = = In addition to the series ' main theme for Coulson , Bear McCreary composed several other themes that he used throughout the season : themes for Mike Peterson and Project : Centipede were introduced in " Pilot " ; a theme for the Agents as a team was introduced in " 0 @-@ 8 @-@ 4 " ; the Skye theme was introduced in " The Asset " ; a theme for both Fitz and Simmons together was introduced in " FZZT " ; a theme for Victoria Hand and The Hub , which served as the theme for ' Big S.H.I.E.L.D. ' , as opposed to Coulson 's ' little S.H.I.E.L.D. ' team , was introduced in " The Hub " . McCreary opted not to reprise any themes from the films during the season , notably composing his own themes for the Tesseract and Asgard , which he acknowledged had already appeared in several films . A soundtrack featuring music from the first and second seasons , was released by Marvel Music digitally on September 4 , 2015 , and will be released on CD in October 2015 . = = = Marvel Cinematic Universe tie @-@ ins = = = In June 2013 , Clark Gregg explained how the series would tie into the Marvel Cinematic Universe films : " ... the exciting part is going to be seeing the way that Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. interacts with the S.H.I.E.L.D. component in Captain America 2 , and the other movies , and whether those movies will then affect our show . " Joss Whedon did state that the show would be autonomous from The Avengers , saying " It 's gotta be a show that works for people who haven 't seen the Marvel movies . It will please Marvel fans , I think . " He reiterated that sentiment in an interview at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival , explaining " It 's new characters . It needs to be its own thing . It needs to be adjacent [ to The Avengers ] ... What does S.H.I.E.L.D. have that the other superheroes don 't ? And that , to me , is that they 're not superheroes , but they live in that universe . Even though they 're a big organization , that [ lack of powers ] makes them underdogs , and that 's interesting to me . " Ultimately , the season featured several tie @-@ in episodes with Marvel Cinematic Universe films : the episode " The Well " takes place directly after the events of Thor : The Dark World ; the episode " T.A.H.I.T.I. " introduces the alien race the Kree to the MCU ( confirmed as such in the second season ) , members of which play a significant role in Guardians of the Galaxy ; and the episodes " End of the Beginning " and " Turn , Turn , Turn " revolve around the events of Captain America : The Winter Soldier . Due to Captain America : The Winter Soldier revealing that Hydra had infiltrated S.H.I.E.L.D. with sleeper agents , the season sees a retooling for the final six episodes . Regarding the synergy the show has with addressing events from the films , Loeb said " It 's an extremely unique experience that doesn 't exist anywhere else out there in the entertainment business " . The characters face the Hydra issue head on , while experiencing trust issues within themselves . Jed Whedon added that the Hydra element , which the show could not mention until after the release of The Winter Soldier in order to avoid spoiling the film , also attempts to address the lack of characters from the comics , a complaint fans had throughout the season , while also tying established threats such as the Clairvoyant , Project Centipede , and Deathlok , back into Hydra . = = Release = = = = = Broadcast = = = Along with the premiere in the United States on ABC , the season began airing in Canada on CTV on September 24 , 2013 . In the United Kingdom , the season debuted three days later on Channel 4 , while it began airing on the Seven Network in Australia on October 2 , 2013 , and in New Zealand on TV2 on February 16 , 2014 . = = = Marketing = = = Three episodes were screened before their initial air dates : " Pilot " at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International on July 19 , 2013 , " Eye Spy " at New York Comic Con on October 12 , 2013 , and " End of the Beginning " at Marvel 's PaleyFest panel for the series on March 23 , 2014 . Beginning with " T.A.H.I.T.I. " , all episodes leading up to The Winter Soldier crossover were marketed as Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. : Uprising . On March 18 , 2014 , ABC aired a one @-@ hour television special titled Marvel Studios : Assembling a Universe in the place of an Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode . The special included promotional footage for then unaired episodes of the season . = = = = " The Art of Level Seven " = = = = For the final six episodes , Marvel began the " Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. : The Art of Level Seven " initiative , in which a different image was released each Thursday before a new episode , depicting a first look at a key event from the upcoming episode . Bell stated that the initiative was a way to tie the series back to its comics roots , and was thought of at the beginning of the season . The production team tried to pair specific artists to the teaser posters based on their previous work and how it connected to the themes and emotion of the intended episode . The art also appeared as variant covers to select titles published by Marvel Comics in August 2014 . Jeph Loeb stated , " It 's exciting to bring this art to life once more , exclusively at comic book stores , and to give fans a chance to own the Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. art in a different format . " The poster for " Turn , Turn , Turn " , created by Mike Del Mundo , depicts a maze forming the S.H.I.E.L.D. logo and show title , with a rat inside , hinting ominously at S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s corruption and a possible traitor . The poster for " Providence " , created by Paolo Rivera , highlights the rise of Hydra by showing a melded Hydra and S.H.I.E.L.D. logo , and depicts the team divided by Coulson , Raina , and Ward . The poster for " The Only Light in The Darkness " , created by Pascal Campion , focuses on Coulson and his cellist lover , Audrey , while also hinting at the villain for the episode , Marcus Daniels . The poster for " Nothing Personal " , created by Stephanie Hans , highlights Skye and Ward in a depiction of a moment from the episode , with Deathlok looming over them , and the S.H.I.E.L.D. logo in the background . The poster for " Ragtag " , created by Emma Ríos , depicts significant moments in Ward 's life , as well as Fitz – Simmons in danger , and Skye looming behind the S.H.I.E.L.D. logo , as if she is a presence that Ward cannot seem to shake . The poster for " Beginning of the End " , created by Phantom City Creative , is reminiscent of the first official poster released , with differences including the characters ' order and clothing , the poster 's coloring , a broken S.H.I.E.L.D. logo over Hydra 's , and Ward being tinted by Hydra . = = = Home media = = = The season was released on September 9 , 2014 , on Blu @-@ ray and DVD . Bonus features included behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , audio commentary , deleted scenes , a blooper reel , as well as the television special , Marvel Studios : Assembling a Universe . On November 20 , 2014 , the season became available for streaming on Netflix . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = As of September 30 , 2013 , an estimated 22 @.@ 1 million viewers have watched the premiere episode in the US through live , DVR , encore , and online viewing . In Canada , the premiere saw 2 @.@ 706 million viewers , the third highest viewership for the week on the network . In the United Kingdom , the episode debuted as the highest rated drama launch of the year , averaging 3 @.@ 23 million viewers including the + 1 channel and recordings viewed the same night , a share of 14 @.@ 8 percent of people watching TV in the UK at the time . The premiere in Australia was watched by 1 @.@ 3 million viewers , the top show of the night . In New Zealand , the episode premiered to 326 @,@ 790 viewers , the fourth highest show of the night , and the most watched show on TV2 . By the time the full season was picked up by ABC it ranked as the number one new series of the 2013 – 14 television season among adults 18 – 49 . = = = Critical response = = = The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 86 % approval rating with an average rating of 8 / 10 based on 43 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is sure to please comic book fans , but the strong ensemble and brisk pacing help to make this better @-@ than @-@ average superhero show accessible to non @-@ fanboys as well . " Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 74 out of 100 based on 33 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews . " The early screening of the pilot at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International was met with a very positive reaction from the crowd . Critically , the initial screening of the pilot was met with mostly positive reviews , though The New York Times ' Brooks Barnes noted that " what goes over well at Comic @-@ Con does not necessarily work in the real world , " especially on a network with " Scandal moms and Dancing with the Stars grandparents " . Entertainment Weekly 's initial reactions were that if everything that made the show appealing — its continuity with the Marvel Cinematic Universe , its continuance of The Avengers storyline , and Whedon 's return to television , were stripped from it , the show would still work . However , they also questioned whether the show was accessible enough to attract a wider audience . Evan Valentine , writing for Collider , divided the season into highs and lows : highs included the Captain America : The Winter Soldier crossover , with Valentine noting that " The creators had clearly known this moment was coming ... and did a great job of capitalizing [ on ] it , " as well as other tie @-@ ins with the Marvel Cinematic Universe , and he praised Gregg 's performance , stating " What made us fall in love with the character from the first Iron Man to his death in The Avengers is still alive and kicking " ; lows of the season included the episodes before the Winter Soldier tie @-@ in , with Valentine feeling that the series " became the show that had to stall its developments and character building to make way for the [ tie @-@ in ] . " He also criticized the rest of the main cast , though he did approve of the guest and supporting cast members , and he criticized the series ' use of minor comic book characters and concepts , singling out the costume design for Deathlok as " horrid " and not scary . Eric Goldman of IGN gave the season a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , calling it " a fun , lighthearted , but fairly disposable piece of entertainment " , noting that it improved through the season , especially following the Captain America : The Winter Soldier tie @-@ in , and that by the end of the season , the series " was starting to come into its own " . Though he found the main cast 's performances to all be good , and praised the strong guest and recurring stars , Goldman found the main characterizations to be weak during the first half of the season , and he also criticized the pacing of certain overarching plotlines , noting " the mystery of Coulson 's return , Skye 's parentage , etc . – moved far too slow , with relatively minor revelations treated as though they were big reveals " . Jim Steranko , an artist and writer who worked on 18 of the Nick Fury : Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. comic books between 1966 and 1968 , was critical of the pilot episode , lamenting that " the show had no menace , no tension . " For the second episode , Steranko said that it was " too unfocused to be satisfying , " but praised Jackson 's cameo as Nick Fury as " an electrifying reminder of what the series could and should be . " In contrast , Steranko 's opinion of some later episodes in the first season were more positive , congratulating the writer and director of " The End of the Beginning " for " finding an entertaining , bravura groove that finally brings the concept to life " , and saying of the next episode " I was concerned that last week 's bravura transformation was only a fluke , but it was apparent from the opening moments that the exec lineup 's new image @-@ and @-@ edit policy was in play . " Overall , however , he found season one to be " 22 episodes of ' sanctified ' plot and character crumbs being salted with terminally @-@ sluggish velocity ( into anemic ' standalone ' stories ) " . = = = Analysis = = = Both the way the series was affected by the destruction of S.H.I.E.L.D. in Captain America : The Winter Soldier and the way its characters are depicted rebuilding the organization have been noted by some : Terri Schwartz , writing for Zap2it following the airing of " Nothing Personal " , called the series " incredible " , stating that it " got off to a rocky start " , but that changed once the Winter Soldier tie @-@ in took place . Schwartz felt that the season earned many of its early criticisms from having to " bide time " until the crossover , but " Now that it has the freedom to be the series it was always intended to , Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. has turned into a fantastic show . Its connection to Marvel 's Cinematic Universe is clear : This is where viewers get to see the fallout of Hydra 's S.H.I.E.L.D. infiltration . And the fact that the movie so influenced the show is game @-@ changing in terms of how the mediums of film and television can be interwoven . " Merrill Barr , reviewing " Beginning of the End " for Forbes , reiterated this sentiment , stating that " the series finally stands its ground and stakes its claim as a member of the Marvel Cinematic Universe ... By establishing world changing consequences that don 't just affect one MCU franchise , but all of them . " He continues saying that " what Marvel 's daring to say with this season finale is " everything we do matters , and you need to pay attention to all of it . " ... It 's been a long journey , and there 's no question many viewers ' patience wore thin toward the end , but that never stopped Marvel from pushing forward to one of the most entertaining hours of television this season and finally cementing a deserved place on the small screen . " Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times felt that the series " created a whole new sort of television show : One that must support , and change with , the plot twists of its film family ... never before has television been literally married to film , charged with filling in the back story and creating the connective tissue of an ongoing film franchise . " She stated that the Captain America : The Winter Soldier crossover " infused S.H.I.E.L.D. with a new energy , and helped explain , perhaps , why the show took so long to find its footing — in the writers ' room at least ... That Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. was able to succeed as a story both independent and ancillary is all but miraculous . " She concluded that the series " is now not only a very good show in its own right , it 's part of Marvel 's multiplatform city @-@ state . It faces a future of perpetual re @-@ invention , and that puts it in the exhilarating first car of television 's roller @-@ coaster ride toward possible world domination . " = = = Accolades = = =

= Value — Beyond Price = Value — Beyond Price is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on a family beset by tragedy when the father is presumed dead after his ship is lost at sea . The mother struggles to support her child and sells her possessions to a pawnbroker . When she has nothing left , save her wedding ring , the pawnbroker asks to take care of the child and the mother consents . The pawn broker gives her a pawn ticket for the girl stating " a precious jewel , a value beyond price " and tells her she can redeem it at any time . Before her death , she entrusts the ticket to a friend . Ten years pass , the shipwrecked father has discovered a great fortune on the island and is rescued by a passing steamship . The father soon realizes his wife is dead and his child is missing , but he receives the pawn ticket and decides to claim this jewel his wife had left for him . He redeems it at the pawn shop and finds it is his lost daughter . The film was released on November 29 , 1910 and it was met with positive reviews . The film survives in the Library of Congress archives . = = Plot = = Though a modern synopsis has not been published , the original synopsis was published in The Moving Picture World on December 3 , 1910 . It states : " Captain Smith sails away on his vessel for a trip around South America , through the Pacific , leaving behind him his wife and little girl , whom he dearly loves . The ship is reported lost with all on board , with the exception of a cabin boy who is picked up in mid ocean . The captain 's wife struggles to support her child , but owing to a rapidly failing health she fights a losing battle with poverty . One by one her valued possessions find their way to the pawnshop , where the kind @-@ hearted old pawnbroker , Levy , becomes interested in the sad @-@ faced woman and pretty child , who never seem able to redeem any of their possessions . The last article of value left in Mrs. Smith 's possession is her wedding ring , and Levy refuses to take this . Instead he offers her help , which the widow proudly refuses . She insists that she can go out and get work . Levy , seeing that he can help in no other way , offers to care for little Marie , and to this the mother finally gives her consent . Half in jest , Levy gives the mother a pawn ticket for the little girl , which he fills out to read that ' a precious jewel , a value beyond price , ' has been left with him and can be redeemed ' at any time . ' The mother leaves the little one in Levy 's care and upon reaching home and finding herself mortally stricken , she puts the pawn ticket he has given her in an envelope which she entrusts to a friendly janitoress , to be given into no other hands than those of her husband should it be that he is not dead . " And he is not . He has been cast up on a fertile island in the South Seas , where he lives a Crusoe @-@ like existence for 10 years , and incidentally finds buried treasure which makes him rich . He was finally rescued by a passing steamer and brought back to his own country , only to find that in his absence his wife has died , no one knows the fate of his child . He only finds , in an envelope addressed to him in the hand of his dying wife , a pawn ticket for a ' precious jewel ' which she has pledged . Thinking the jewel to be some gift of his to his wife , which she desired him to have as a remembrance , he goes to the pawnshop and is there waited upon by a sweet @-@ faced girl of 15 to whom he is at once attracted . The girl is unable to find any article in the shop with a ticket corresponding to the number on the ticket which the captain carries , and appeals to her foster father , Levy , to help her find the gentleman 's goods . Levy at once recognizes the ticket as the one he gave for his little adopted daughter . Although he dislikes to surrender the one joy of his life , he finally decides to reunite father and daughter . The latter have the old pawnbroker make his home with them , so the reunion brings happiness to all . " = = Production = = The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The only known cast credit is for Marie Eline having been in the film as the young child who is pawned . The other cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . = = Release and reception = = The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on November 29 , 1910 . One advertisement stated that an alternate title for the film was The Castaway Finds the Hidden Treasure , but this may be in error . The film had a wide national release , advertising theaters are known in Kansas , Texas , South Dakota , Vermont , and Missouri . The film was met with positive reviews by bothThe Moving Picture World and The New York Dramatic Mirror . The reviewer for the World highlighted that novelty of the subject , having the child being pawned only to be reclaimed by the father . Despite the novelty of the plot , the reviewer stated , " While the play attracts because of this novelty , it still has dramatic interest , dramatic because it tells a life story in a simple way . Such stories are the most interesting since there are numerous persons who see it that can duplicate it either in their own experience or the experience of some of their friends or acquaintances . " The reviewer for the Mirror was critical of the film , stating the plot was improbable , but it was well @-@ acted . The only fault identified by the reviewer was the improper depiction of the poor , for the mother could not keep her child , but kept her maid . The reviewer also noted that the maid also did not age after the apparent ten year time @-@ skip . In 2001 , the Thanhouser Company Film Preservation acquired an original 35 mm nitrate film print from John Conning . The intention was to deposit the film in the Library of Congress . The surviving print is 925 feet in length , but it is not listed as being a whole or partial print .

= Meteorological history of Hurricane Luis = The meteorological history of Hurricane Luis spanned sixteen days between August 27 to September 11 , 1995 . The storm originated from an area of low pressure associated with a tropical wave on August 26 . The following day , the low became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical depression , while tracking general westward . By August 29 , the depression intensified into a tropical storm and was given the name Luis by the National Hurricane Center . Luis attained hurricane status the following day as an eye began to develop . On September 1 the cyclone intensified into a major hurricane — a storm with winds of 111 mph ( 178 km / h ) or higher — and further strengthened to a Category 4 hurricane later that day . Hurricane Luis maintained wind speeds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) for nearly two days and developed a symmetrical structure with a well @-@ defined 46 mi ( 74 km ) wide eye . Early on September 3 , winds within the eyewall reached 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) . Luis maintained this intensity until September 5 , shortly before passing through the Leeward Islands with 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) winds . The hurricane maintained Category 4 status until September 7 as it tracked towards the northwest . Gradual weakening took place for several days and by September 9 , the hurricane passed about 200 mi ( 320 km ) west of Bermuda . The next day , Luis began to undergo an extratropical transition and the storm 's forward motion rapidly increased . Early on September 11 , Luis made landfall on the Avalon Peninsula as a strong Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The same day , a 30 metres ( 98 ft ) wave produced by Luis struck an ocean liner . This wave is the largest ever recorded , Several hours later , the storm completed its extratropical transition as it began to be absorbed into an approaching trough . The following day , the remnants of Luis were fully absorbed into the trough near the southern coast of Greenland . = = Formation and intensification = = On August 26 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring a tropical wave between the western coast of Africa and the Cape Verde Islands . Later that day , a low @-@ level circulation center formed beneath the wave and began strengthening . Convective activity associated with the low became increasingly organized , and at around 1200 UTC on August 27 , the NHC classified the system as Tropical Depression Thirteen ; at the time , it was located approximately 255 miles ( 410 kilometres ) south @-@ southeast of Praia , Cape Verde . Operationally , the NHC did not begin to issue advisories on the depression until 2100 UTC on August 28 . Tracking nearly due west in response to an anticyclone to the north and an area of moderate wind shear , the depression was forecast to slowly strengthen over the next several days . Early on August 29 , satellite intensity estimates of maximum sustained winds within the depression reached 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , indicating that it had intensified into a tropical storm . At this time , the NHC assigned the name Luis to the system . Gradual strengthening took place throughout August 29 as Luis tracked towards the west @-@ northwest . Increased wind shear displaced convection from the center of circulation , preventing further intensification . By August 30 , strong outflow developed around Luis despite convection remaining displaced from the low pressure center . Once the shear began to relent , shower and thunderstorm activity redeveloped around the center , allowing the storm to intensify . Around 1800 UTC that day , Luis attained Category 1 hurricane status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ; however , operationally Luis was not upgraded to a hurricane until 0900 UTC on August 31 . The newly upgraded hurricane steadily intensified as banding features developed around the periphery of the cyclone . By the morning of August 31 , cold cloud tops surrounded a developing eye . Around this time , Luis was located due south of the area of high pressure and tracking steadily towards the west @-@ northwest . Further development resulted in the appearance of a ragged eye appearing on visible satellite images . Winds within the eyewall were estimated at 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , making Luis a low @-@ end Category 2 hurricane . Later that day , the storm became increasingly organized , with a symmetrical structure and a well @-@ defined center . The NHC forecast the hurricane to peak as a Category 3 hurricane in 36 hours before interacting with Hurricane Iris and Tropical Storm Karen . = = Peak intensity and the Leeward Islands = = Early on September 1 , Hurricane Luis strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) ; upper @-@ level outflow continued to improve throughout the day , allowing further intensification . Maintaining its structure , Luis further intensified to a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Subsequent to doing so , its intensity remained steady for 42 hours while it tracked nearly due west . Early on September 3 , satellite intensity estimates indicated that the storm strengthened slightly , attaining its peak winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) at around 0600 UTC . Continuing on a westward track , the forward motion of the hurricane decreased to 13 mph ( 20 km / h ) later on September 3 . When Luis was about 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles , a Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance flight into the storm confirmed satellite intensity estimates . Flight level winds around the eye of Luis were recorded at 165 mph ( 265 km / h ) , which corresponds to surface winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 944 mbar ( 27 @.@ 87 inHg ) . With a Category 4 hurricane forecast to track directly over the Leeward Islands , hurricane warnings were issued for several islands by September 4 . The ridge located north of Luis began to weaken by this time , leading to slower forward movement to 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) . Outflow to the north of the hurricane weakened slightly as a distinct area of dry air developed around the weakening ridge . Late on September 4 , the hurricane 's eye began to shrink , a possible indication of strengthening . An area of low pressure over Florida cut off from a trough would eventually cause Luis to slow significantly and cause a northward turn . On September 5 , Hurricane Luis weakened slightly , with winds decreasing to 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , before tracking directly over Barbuda . The eyewall of the storm brushed Antigua , St. Barthelemy , St. Martin and Anguilla . Sustained winds on these islands were recorded up to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) with gusts up to 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) . The eye of Luis was estimated to be 46 mi ( 74 km ) in diameter at this time . Operationally , the NHC briefly downgraded Luis to a Category 3 hurricane as it passed through the islands due to the formation of concentric eyewalls ; however , in post @-@ season analysis , it was determined that the storm never weakened below Category 4 status while passing through the Leeward Islands . = = Bermuda and dissipation = = Tracking away from the Leeward Islands on September 6 , Luis maintained Category 4 status for another 24 hours before downgrading to a Category 3 hurricane . A strong mid- to upper @-@ level low located over the Gulf of Mexico was forecast to steer the hurricane in a general northeastern direction . From September 6 to 7 , a ship named the Teal Arrow sailed directly into the center , encountering wind gusts of up to 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) and seas to 50 feet ( 15 m ) . The storm 's eye further shrank to a diameter of 23 mi ( 37 km ) . The NHC anticipated re @-@ strengthening as the central pressure decreased . The winds failed to intensity ; however , the central pressure continued to decrease until 0000 UTC on September 8 , when it fell to 935 mbar ( 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) , the lowest recorded during the storm 's existence . Tracking around the periphery of the ridge of high pressure , Luis began to slow . Late on September 7 , a double eye featured developed , indicating an eyewall replacement cycle , with the strongest winds being recorded in the outer eyewall . By the afternoon of September 8 , the eye became cloud filled , indicating weakening ; however , the inner eyewall dissipated later that day , leaving a large , 52 mi ( 84 km ) wide eye in its place . Tracking towards the north @-@ northwest , Luis was forecast to move over an area of cooler waters upwelled by Hurricane Felix . Early on September 9 , Luis turned towards the north and weakened to a Category 2 hurricane , with winds of 110 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Several hours later , the hurricane made its closest approach to Bermuda , passing about 200 mi ( 320 km ) west of the island . Later that day , the storm began to accelerate as it traveled northeast ahead of a strong trough located to the northwest of Luis . During the afternoon of September 10 , Hurricane Luis began to undergo an extratropical transition as it rapidly approached the Canadian coastline . Due to the rapid movement of the storm , significant weakening did not occur until Luis was at an unusually high latitude . During the afternoon of September 10 , the central pressure of the storm decreased to 961 mbar ( 28 @.@ 38 inHg ) but sustained winds did not exceed 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) according to the NHC . Luis maintained this intensity until it made landfall on the Avalon Peninsula in eastern Newfoundland early on September 11 . While tracking over Newfoundland , cold , dry air became entrenched in Luis 's circulation and the system began to merge with the approaching trough . The NHC issued their final advisory on Hurricane Luis at 0900 UTC on September 11 as it tracked nearly 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) to the northeast and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The extratropical remnants persisted for 30 more hours over the North Atlantic Ocean before being absorbed by the trough near the southern coast of Greenland late on September 12 . = = Records = = When Tropical Depression Thirteen strengthened into Tropical Storm Luis on August 29 , it marked the earliest date on which the twelfth named storm of any season formed , surpassing the previous record set by Tropical Storm Twelve of the 1933 season . Shortly before becoming extratropical , Hurricane Luis was moving at 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , becoming among the fastest Atlantic hurricanes in recorded history . On September 11 , a 30 metres ( 98 ft ) wave struck an ocean liner . This wave is the largest ever recorded , though Hurricane Ivan in 2004 may have produced a wave up to 40 metres ( 130 ft ) high off the coast of Mexico .

= Brookville Tunnel = The Brookville Tunnel ( also Brooksville Tunnel ) was a historic railroad tunnel engineered by Claudius Crozet during the construction of the Blue Ridge Railroad in the 1850s . The tunnel was part of a series of four tunnels used to cross the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia for the Virginia Central Railroad of the United States . The Brookville Tunnel was the second tunnel used to cross the mountains from the east ( the easternmost being the Greenwood Tunnel ) , and was located approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) west of the village of Greenwood , Virginia . During its construction , numerous cave @-@ ins and landslides occurred because of the fragile and weak rock the tunnel passed through , and at one point , an outbreak of cholera forced work to stop . By October 1856 the tunnel was completed at a cost of $ 114 @,@ 600 , having been lined with a thick elliptical brick arch to hold back the earth . The Brookville Tunnel was used by the Virginia Central Railroad , and after 1868 , the line 's successor , the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad . After the reorganization of the line in 1878 as the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway , the tunnel continued to be used until it was demolished and replaced by a cut during the construction of Interstate 64 in the 1960s and 1970s , at which point it was one of only two of Crozet 's original four tunnels still in use . = = History = = On March 5 , 1849 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act to incorporate the Blue Ridge Railroad . This railroad was to construct a rail line over the Blue Ridge Mountains for the Louisa railroad ( renamed as the Virginia Central Railroad in February 1850 ) from a point near Blair Park at the eastern base of the mountains to Waynesboro in the Shenandoah Valley via Rockfish Gap . Claudius Crozet was appointed as chief engineer of the Blue Ridge Railroad and developed a plan to cross the mountains using a series of four tunnels . The first tunnel from the east was the Greenwood Tunnel , built through a difficult and insecure ridge near Greenwood . Brookville tunnel was located 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) west of the Greenwood Tunnel , also built through a small offshoot spur of the Blue Ridge Mountains . Construction on the Brookville Tunnel , or the " middle " or " second tunnel " as it was then called , was begun sometime between 1849 and 1851 . The earth encountered at Brookville was of a much weaker quality than at the Greenwood Tunnel , rendering the digging of the tunnel both an extremely dangerous and difficult task . Although the eastern section of the ridge was composed of firm and sturdy rock , the majority of the tunnel passed through a mixture of frail slate that was formed at a steep angle , soapstone , and clay . When exposed to air , this mixture would often disintegrate causing large amounts of earth to fall into the tunnel bore . On two occasions during the tunnel 's construction , though great care was taken to provide temporary support , major cave @-@ ins occurred forming craters on top of the ridge , as much as 150 feet ( 46 m ) above the tunnel . Another slide occurred on the outside of the western portal that blocked the entrance to the tunnel and prevented workers from repairing the damage from the two internal cave @-@ ins . Rocks often fell down upon the timbers under which the men worked , creating sounds described as " resembling that of distant thunder " . The weakness of the earth , especially in the western sections , necessitated the implementation of a strong arch throughout approximately 500 feet ( 150 m ) of the tunnel and a durable brick lining . Crozet described the nature of the work on the tunnel in an 1854 letter : The Brooksville Tunnel is the most difficult work of the kind , I have seen any record of : at the Western entrance , the pressure of the big slides actually causes the bottom to surge up , as is sometime the case in coal mines ; in view of the sliding tendency and immense pressure of this ground , it will be advisable to enter on that side with an invested arch to prevent a collapse ... This work is vastly more difficult than the Greenwood Tunnel was , though it was not , by any means , an easy safe job . By this time , the tunnel had come to be known as the " Brooksville Tunnel , " after a small stagecoach stop and inn nearby where Crozet 's headquarters was located ; in later years , the " s " was dropped and the tunnel was simply referred to as the " Brookville Tunnel . " In late summer of 1854 , an epidemic of cholera broke out among the Irish workers at the tunnel . In a letter to the Virginia Board of Public Works , Crozet states that the epidemic began at the eastern end of the tunnel where around 25 of the total 150 workers perished from the disease . The disease then spread to the western end where another eight workers died before work ceased . During this outbreak , little work could be done on the tunnel , adding yet another delay to the difficult work the Brookville Tunnel posed . While work on the tunnels continued , the Virginia Central Railroad , eager to connect its eastern division to the line under construction in the Shenandoah Valley , developed plans to use temporary tracks to bypass the incomplete Blue Ridge Railroad . As was done over Rockfish Gap to the west , a temporary track approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) long was proposed by the Virginia Central Railroad 's Chief Engineer , Charles Ellet , Jr . , and constructed around the Brookville Tunnel as the digging continued . Due to the many setbacks and difficulties encountered , the tunnel was not completed until October 1856 , just two months prior to the hole @-@ through of the 4 @,@ 273 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 302 m ) Blue Ridge Tunnel at the top of Rockfish Gap . Remarkably , with the exception of the cholera outbreak , no one was injured during the dangerous work completing the Brookville tunnel . The Virginia Central soon after began routing trains through the Brookville tunnel , avoiding the short temporary track . During the American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) , a large crack was found within the tunnel 's arch , being in some locations as much as 4 inches ( 10 cm ) wide . Upon examination of the earth above the tunnel , it was found that a section of the earth had slipped , and was resting on the tunnel walls . With the tunnel in danger of collapsing , a plan to address the tunnel 's structural issues was developed that put in place a second arch below the original . The new arch was started 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) above the rails and rose to a peak just above what was necessary to clear a brakeman riding atop a railroad car ( at that time , 17 feet or 5 @.@ 2 metres ) , around 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) below the original arch . Because of the ongoing war and the lack of funds and resources , the new arching could only be completed in 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) segments . It was deemed necessary to re @-@ arch a total of 450 feet ( 140 m ) of the tunnel , and as of 1864 , 260 feet ( 79 m ) had been completed at a cost of $ 23 @,@ 390 @.@ 73 ( Confederate dollars ) . After the war , the tunnel continued to be used by the Virginia Central Railroad , and after 1868 , the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad . The Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad was reorganized as the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway in 1878 , and continued to route trains through the tunnel up until the tunnel 's demolition with the construction of Interstate 64 in the 1960s and 1970s . At the time of the tunnel 's demolition , it was one of only two of Crozet 's original four tunnels of the Blue Ridge Railroad still in operation ( the other , which as of 2013 is still in use , was the 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) Little Rock Tunnel ) . Today , Interstate 64 passes over the cut that replaced the Brookville Tunnel . = = Architecture = = The Brookville Tunnel was constructed in an elliptical form , a design typical of tunnel construction during the 1800s and also used on the Blue Ridge and Greenwood Tunnels . In a November 1849 report , Crozet describes the design to be used on the tunnels : The shape I have adopted is that of an ellipse , formed by bisecting , on each side , the horizontal ordinates of a circle of 32 feet diameter , down to its center , below which the sides are to be made vertical , if no arch is necessary lower down ; otherwise , the ellipse is to continue down to the bottom and to be shaped all round with bricks , stones , or iron , as may appear most eligible . This shape leaves ample room for the cars , and , by contracting the roof , is more secure than a semicircle of 16 feet diameter . Portions of the Brookville tunnel were lined with brick for added strength , with the brickwork originally contracted to Joseph Dettor , a local brickmaker . Because of the poor quality of Dettor 's bricks , Crozet decided to use these bricks on the Greenwood Tunnel to the east , which was a stronger bore than Brookville . Crozet estimated in 1854 that the total number of bricks required for the entire tunnel would be upwards of 750 @,@ 000 . After examining the offers of multiple brickmakers , the Virginia Board of Public Works contracted Robert Harris to provide the bricks for the Brookville Tunnel . The resulting arch was between 3 – 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 2 m ) in thickness over the entire length of the tunnel , and formed an opening approximately 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high and , at the extreme , 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide . During the construction , the timbers that were used to support the fragile sections of the tunnel to be arched were left in place after the arch was completed , as it was thought too hazardous to remove them . When the earth slip occurred during the Civil War , these remaining timbers acted as levers , furthering the cracking and structural instability of the tunnel . As the new arch was constructed , the old timbers were removed , and the space in between the new and old walls was filled with brick and cement . The original brick portals were replaced by the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway in 1928 with concrete portals , as part of a series of tunnel upgrades across the line beginning in the 1920s . The new portals no longer bore the distinctive elliptical design of Crozet 's original , but had vertical sides and a semi @-@ circular arch . = = Construction Costs = = The total cost to complete the Brookville Tunnel amounted to $ 114 @,@ 600 , with a cost per foot , at a length of 869 feet ( 265 m ) , of $ 131 @.@ 90 . By comparison , the cost per foot of the 538 @-@ foot ( 164 m ) Greenwood Tunnel was $ 138 @.@ 30 , the 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) Little Rock Tunnel was $ 123 @.@ 90 , and the 4 @,@ 273 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 302 m ) Blue Ridge Tunnel was $ 108 @.@ 60 . Costs at the Brookville Tunnel were greatly increased from the expected by the frail and insecure earth encountered , contrary to what originally appeared to be solid rock . Workers , both inside and outside laborers , were paid approximately $ 1 @.@ 12 per day , while miners were paid $ 1 @.@ 37 per day , equivalent to $ 29 @.@ 5 and $ 36 @.@ 08 , respectively , today .

= Menominee Tribe v. United States = Menominee Tribe v. United States , 391 U.S. 404 ( 1968 ) , is a case in which the Supreme Court ruled that the Menominee Indian Tribe kept their historical hunting and fishing rights even after the federal government ceased to recognize the tribe . It was a landmark decision in Native American case law . The Menominee Indian Tribe had entered into a series of treaties with the United States which did not specifically state that they had hunting and fishing rights . In 1961 , Congress terminated the tribe 's federal recognition , ending its right to govern itself , federal support of health care and education programs , police and fire protection , and tribal rights to land . In 1963 , three members of the tribe were charged with violating Wisconsin 's hunting and fishing laws on land which had been a reservation for over 100 years . The tribe members were acquitted , but when the state appealed , the Wisconsin Supreme Court held that the Menominee tribe no longer had hunting and fishing rights due to the termination action by Congress . The tribe sued the United States for compensation in the U.S. Court of Claims , which ruled that tribal members still had hunting and fishing rights and that Congress had not abrogated those rights . The opposite rulings by the state and federal courts brought the issue to the Supreme Court . In 1968 , the Supreme Court held that the tribe retained its hunting and fishing rights under the treaties involved and the rights were not lost after federal recognition was ended by the Menominee Indian Termination Act without a clear and unequivocal statement by Congress removing those rights . = = Background = = = = = Early treaties = = = Ancestors of the Menominee Indian Tribe may have lived in the states of Wisconsin and Michigan for the last 10 @,@ 000 years . Their traditional territory was about 10 million acres ( 4 million hectares ) . They first acknowledged that they were under the protection of the United States in 1817 in the Treaty of St. Louis . In 1825 and 1827 , the treaties of Prairie du Chien and Butte des Morts answered boundary questions . None of the early treaties addressed hunting and fishing rights . In 1831 , the tribe entered into the Treaty of Washington , which ceded about 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 ha ) to the federal government . These two treaties reserved hunting and fishing rights for the tribe on the ceded land until the President of the United States ordered the land surveyed and sold to settlers . In 1836 , the tribe entered into the Treaty of Cedar Point , under which 4 @,@ 184 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 693 @,@ 000 ha ) were ceded to the federal government . The treaty did not mention hunting or fishing rights . In 1848 , the tribe entered into another treaty with the United States , the Treaty of Lake Poygan , which ceded the tribe 's remaining approximately 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 ha ) in exchange for 600 @,@ 000 acres ( 240 @,@ 000 ha ) west of the Mississippi River in present @-@ day Minnesota . This treaty was contingent on the tribe examining the land proposed for them and accepting it as suitable . In 1850 , Chief Oshkosh led a delegation to the Crow Wing area and determined that the land was not suitable for the tribe , mainly because the proposed reservation was located between two warring tribes , the Dakota and Ojibwe . Oshkosh then pressed for a new treaty , stating that he " preferred a home somewhere in Wisconsin , for the poorest region in Wisconsin was better than the Crow Wing . " = = = Treaty of 1854 = = = The tribe had been living in an area near the Wolf River . They entered into the Treaty of Wolf River with the United States in 1854 . The United States set aside 276 @,@ 480 acres ( 111 @,@ 890 ha ) of land for a reservation in present @-@ day Menominee County , Wisconsin . In return , the tribe ceded the land in Minnesota back to the federal government . None of the previous treaties except the Treaty of Washington addressed the tribe 's retained hunting and fishing rights , but stated that the reservation was " to be held as Indian lands are held " . Since the Treaty of Wolf River , this area has been the tribe 's home , and they were free from state taxation , regulation and court jurisdiction . Of the original land , 230 @,@ 000 acres ( 93 @,@ 000 ha ) of prime timberland remained under the tribe 's control , while the remaining land was transferred to the Mahican and Lenape ( the latter also known as the Delaware or Munsee ) tribes . During this period , the Menominee enjoyed complete freedom to regulate hunting and fishing on the reservation , with the acquiescence of Wisconsin . = = = Tribal termination = = = In the mid- to late @-@ 1940s , the Menominee tribe was considered by a government survey to identify tribes for termination , a process in which federal recognition of the tribe would be withdrawn and the tribe would no longer be dependent on the Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) to support them . The Menominee were thought to be a tribe that could be terminated because they were one of the richest tribes in the nation . The federal government thought that termination would allow the tribal members to be assimilated into mainstream American culture , becoming hard @-@ working , tax @-@ paying , productive citizens . In 1954 , Congress terminated the federally recognized status of the tribe with the Menominee Indian Termination Act . According to the terms of the Termination Act , the federally recognized status was to end in 1958 . The tribe and the state of Wisconsin successfully lobbied for a delay in the implementation of termination until 1961 . The tribe was opposed to termination for a number of reasons ; their concerns included the loss of tribal culture , the loss of land due to tax liens , the possibility of bankruptcy and loss of the tribal timber industry , and the lack of tribal members who were trained to run a county government . The state of Wisconsin was concerned that with no industry for the tribe to tax , the state would be responsible for the large financial outlay that would be required to maintain governmental operations for the former reservation . On termination , the Menominee , which was one of the wealthiest tribes prior to termination , became one of the poorest . In 1954 , the tribe 's timber operations allowed it to be self @-@ sufficient . The tribe , which owned utility companies , paid for a hospital , BIA salaries , local schools , and a stipend to tribal members . The tribe was forced to use its reserve funds to develop a termination plan that they did not want and instead of having a reserve , they entered into termination with a $ 300 @,@ 000 deficit . Menominee County was created out of the old reservation boundaries and the tribe immediately had to finance its own police and fire protection . Without federal support and with no tax base , the situation became dire . The tribe closed the hospital , sold its utility company , and contracted those services to neighboring counties . The Menominee Enterprises , Inc . , formed to care for the tribe 's needs after termination , was unable to pay property taxes and began to consider selling off tribal property . Many Menominee tribal members believed that the sponsor of the termination bill , Senator Arthur Wilkins of Utah , intended to force the loss of rich tribal lands to non @-@ Indians . In 1962 , the state of Wisconsin took the position that the hunting and fishing rights were abrogated by the termination act and that the tribal members were subject to state hunting and fishing regulations . With the poverty in the former reservation , the loss of hunting rights meant the loss of one of their last remaining means of survival . = = = State enforcement actions = = = In 1962 , tribal members Joseph L. Sanapaw , William J. Grignon , and Francis Basina were charged with violating state hunting and fishing regulations . All three admitted to the acts in open court , but claimed that the Wolf River Treaty gave them the right to hunt . The state trial court agreed and acquitted the three . The state was given leave to pursue a writ of error and appealed to the Wisconsin Supreme Court to answer whether the Termination Act canceled those rights retained by treaty . The Wisconsin Supreme Court in State v. Sanapaw held that the treaty rights were terminated by Congress . In analyzing the case , the Wisconsin Supreme Court first had to determine whether the tribe had hunting and fishing rights under treaties with the United States . It found that although the Wolf River Treaty did not specifically mention hunting and fishing rights , the term " to be held as Indian lands are held " was clear . Indians have always been able to hunt and fish on their own land , and if a term in a treaty with Indians is ambiguous , the Wisconsin Supreme Court found that it must be resolved in favor of the tribe . Since the tribe originally had hunting and fishing rights under the treaty , the Wisconsin Supreme Court then looked to determine whether Congress had removed those rights by enacting the Menominee Termination Act . The Wisconsin Supreme Court held that Congress had used its plenary power to abrogate those rights . The Wisconsin Supreme Court placed special emphasis on the phrase " all statutes of the United States which affect Indians because of their status as Indians shall no longer be applicable to the members of the tribe , and the laws of the several States shall apply to the tribe and its members in the same manner as they apply to other citizens or persons within their jurisdiction . " The Wisconsin Supreme Court held that the latter section was controlling , despite the tribal members ' argument that hunting rights were retained by treaty rather than by statute . The Wisconsin Supreme Court held that the tribe had lost their hunting and fishing rights . The tribal members appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court , which declined to hear the appeal . = = = Federal Court of Claims = = = The Menominee sued in the U.S. Court of Claims to recover compensation for the loss of their hunting and fishing rights . The Court of Claims first clarified that the Menominee Termination Act did not abolish the tribe or its membership , but merely ended federal supervision of the tribe . Since the Menominee was still a tribe , although not one under federal trusteeship , the tribe had a right to assert a claim arising out of the Wolf River Treaty in accordance with the Indian Claims Commission Act and the Tucker Act . The Court of Claims looked at whether the tribe had hunting and fishing rights and drew the same conclusion as the Wisconsin Supreme Court — that the terms of the treaty had to be resolved in the favor of the tribe , citing The Menominee Tribe of Indians v. United States , 95 Ct.Cl. 232 ( Ct.Cl. , 1941 ) . In that decision , the Court of Claims had observed that the reason the tribe had agreed to the site of the reservation was that it was well suited for hunting , with plenty of game . The hunting rights by treaty were therefore confirmed . The Court of Claims had to determine whether the Menominee Termination Act had taken away that right . If it had , the tribe would have a valid claim for compensation ; but if not , then there would be no compensation . On April 14 , 1967 , the Court of Claims denied the claim , stating that the hunting and fishing rights had not been abrogated by the Termination Act . In arriving at this decision , it said that the legislative history included two witnesses who stated that the Act would not affect hunting and fishing rights acquired by treaty , but would abrogate any such rights acquired by statute . Additionally , the Court of Claims observed that Congress also amended Public Law 280 so that Indian hunting and fishing rights were protected in Wisconsin . The decision contradicted the decision of the Wisconsin Supreme Court . On October 9 , 1967 , the U.S. Supreme Court agreed to hear the appeal and granted certiorari ( a writ to the lower court to send the case to them for review ) to resolve the conflict between the Wisconsin Supreme Court and the federal Court of Claims . = = Supreme Court = = = = = Argument = = = In most appeals , the parties argue opposing positions . In this case , both the appellee ( the Menominee ) and the appellant ( the United States ) argued that the decision of the Court of Claims should be affirmed . The State of Wisconsin , as amicus curiae , argued that the Court of Claims ruling should be reversed . The tribe was represented by Charles A. Hobbs of Washington , D.C. The tribe argued that the Menominee Termination Act did not extinguish treaty rights , but instead had two purposes ; to terminate federal supervision of the tribe and to transfer to the state general criminal and civil jurisdiction — which had already been accomplished by Public Law 280 and that law expressly preserved hunting and fishing rights . In the event that the court would decide that the hunting and fishing rights were extinguished , then the tribe should receive compensation for the loss of the rights . The United States was represented by Louis F. Claiborne , assistant to the U.S. Solicitor General . The United States also argued that the Menominee Termination Act did not extinguish hunting and fishing rights under the 1854 treaty and therefore the tribe was not due compensation from the United States . Claiborne also argued that whatever regulatory rights which were held by the federal government were transferred to the state of Wisconsin by the termination act . The case was originally argued on January 22 , 1968 . During oral argument , some of the justices were concerned that the state of Wisconsin was not a party to the case . Following oral arguments , the court called for reargument and requested that Wisconsin present an oral argument in addition to the brief it had filed with the court . Justice Marshall recused himself from the case , as he had been the U.S. Solicitor General the previous year and had participated in the government 's preparation of the case . = = = Reargument = = = On April 25 , 1968 , the case was reargued . The tribe was again represented by Hobbs , who made the same basic argument that the hunting and fishing rights were not extinguished . The state of Wisconsin was represented by Bronson La Follette , the Attorney General of Wisconsin . La Follette argued that the plain language of the termination act not only ended federal supervision of the tribe , but extinguished the tribe and with it all treaty rights . He argued that the Court of Claims ruling was incorrect and should be reversed , and that the tribe was due compensation from the federal government . The United States was again represented by Claiborne , who reiterated his earlier argument . = = = Opinion of the court = = = Justice William O. Douglas delivered the opinion of the court . In a 6 @-@ 2 decision , the ruling of the U.S. Court of Claims was affirmed , ruling that the tribe retained its hunting and fishing rights under the treaty . Douglas noted that Public Law 280 had been enacted and was fully in force for approximately seven years before the Termination Act became effective . The section of that law that dealt with Wisconsin provided that hunting and fishing rights in " Indian Country " were protected from state regulation and action . Thus from 1954 until termination in 1961 , the Menominee 's hunting and fishing rights were not interfered with by Wisconsin . The Termination Act stated that all federal statutes dealing with the tribe were no longer in force , but Douglas noted that it was silent with regard to treaties . The act did not specifically address the hunting and fishing rights , and Douglas stated that the U.S. Supreme Court would " decline to construe the Termination Act as a backhanded way of abrogating the hunting and fishing rights of these Indians . " He noted that in a similar bill for the Klamath Tribe , there was a discussion on paying the tribe to buy out their hunting and fishing rights , a clear indication that Congress was aware of the implications . Douglas found it hard to believe that Congress would subject the United States to a claim for compensation without an explicit statement to that effect . He found that without a specific abrogation of those rights , the tribe retained those rights . = = = Dissent = = = Justice Potter Stewart , joined by Justice Hugo Black , dissented . Stewart acknowledged that the Wolf River Treaty unquestionably conferred hunting and fishing rights on the tribe and its members . He stated that the Termination Act subjected the members of the tribe to the same laws that all other citizens of Wisconsin were held to , including hunting and fishing regulations . In Stewart 's opinion , Public Law 280 had no bearing on the case and the rights were not protected by the Termination Act , so they were lost . Stewart did note that this would have also made the claim for compensation valid under Shoshone Tribe v. United States , regardless of whether Congress intended it or not . He would have reversed the decision of the Court of Claims . = = Subsequent developments = = Menominee Tribe v. United States is a landmark case in Native American law , primarily in the area of reserved tribal rights . It has been used in college courses to explain tribal sovereignty rights , and that tribes retain some rights even if the tribe has been terminated — as the Menominee tribe was . The decision in the case has affected subsequent legislation , such as the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act , in which Congress expressly extinguished all aboriginal rights . The case has been discussed internationally , for example in Australia regarding the relevance of indigenous or aboriginal title . = = = Law reviews and journals = = = The case has been cited in over 300 law review articles as of October 2013 . A consistent point made in numerous articles is that while Congress may terminate tribal and treaty rights , it must show a " specific intent to abrogate them " . It is repeatedly cited by cases and law reviews to show that the court will construe laws and treaties , where ambiguous , in favor of the tribes . Judges and legal experts have noted that hunting and fishing rights are valuable property rights , and if the government takes away those rights it must compensate those who hold the rights for their loss . Courts must also construe treaty rights and statutes liberally in favor of the Indians , even when the treaty does not specifically speak of hunting and fishing . = = = Restoration of federal recognition = = = In 1973 , Congress repealed termination and restored federal recognition of the Menominee tribe . The Menominee Restoration Act was signed by President Richard Nixon ; it repealed the Menominee Indian Termination Act , reopened the tribal rolls , re @-@ established the trust status and provided for the reformation of tribal government . The tribe was the first terminated tribe to be restored to trust and recognition status . The Restoration Act signaled the end of the termination era .

= Belgian Congo in World War II = The involvement of the Belgian Congo ( the modern @-@ day Democratic Republic of Congo ) in World War II began with the German invasion of Belgium in May 1940 . Despite Belgium 's surrender , the Congo remained in the conflict on the Allied side , administered by the Belgian government in exile , and provided much @-@ needed raw materials , most notably gold and uranium , to Britain and the United States . Congolese troops of the Force Publique fought alongside British forces in the East African Campaign , and a Congolese medical unit served in Madagascar and in the Burma Campaign . Congolese formations also acted as garrisons in Egypt , Nigeria and Palestine . The increasing demands placed on the Congolese population by the colonial authorities during the war , however , provoked strikes , riots and other forms of resistance , particularly from the indigenous Congolese . These were repressed , often violently , by the Belgian colonial authorities . The Congo 's comparative prosperity during the conflict led to a wave of post @-@ war immigration from Belgium , bringing the white population to 100 @,@ 000 by 1950 , as well as a period of industrialisation that continued throughout the 1950s . The role played by Congolese uranium during the hostilities caused the country to be of interest to the Soviet Union during the Cold War . = = Background = = Following World War I , Belgium possessed two colonies in Africa — the Belgian Congo , which it had controlled since its annexation of the Congo Free State in 1908 , and Ruanda @-@ Urundi , a former German colony that had been mandated to Belgium in 1924 by the League of Nations . The Belgian colonial military numbered 18 @,@ 000 soldiers , making it one of the largest standing colonial armies in Africa at the time . The Belgian government followed a policy of neutrality during the interwar years . Nazi Germany invaded on 10 May 1940 and , after 18 days of fighting , Belgium surrendered on 28 May and was occupied by German forces . King Leopold III , who had surrendered to the Germans , was kept a prisoner for the rest of the war . Just before the fall of Belgium , its government , including the Minister of the Colonies Albert de Vleeschauwer , fled first to Bordeaux in France , then to London , where it formed an official Belgian government in exile in October 1940 . The Governor @-@ General of the Congo , Pierre Ryckmans , decided on the day of Belgium 's surrender that the colony would remain loyal to the Allies , in stark contrast to the French colonies that later pledged allegiance to the pro @-@ German Vichy government . The Congo was therefore administered from London by the Belgian government in exile during the war . Despite this assurance , disruption broke out in the city of Stanleyville ( now Kisangani in the eastern Congo ) among the white population panicking about the future of the colony and the threat of an Italian invasion . = = Economic contribution = = Soon after the arrival of the Belgian government in exile in London , negotiations began between the Belgians and the British about the role which the Congo would play in the Allied war effort . The British were determined that the Congo should not fall into Axis hands , and planned to invade and occupy the colony if the Belgians did not come to an arrangement . This was particularly because , after the fall of Dutch and British colonies in the Far East to Japan , the Allies were desperate for raw materials like rubber which the Congo could produce in abundance . Eventually , the two parties came to an arrangement in which virtually all the British demands were accepted , including a 30 percent devaluation of the Congolese franc . With the official agreement and the Congolese declaration of support for the Allies , the economy of the Congo and in particular its production of important raw materials , was placed at the disposal of Belgium 's Allies , particularly Britain and the United States . The Congo had become increasingly centralised economically during the Great Depression of the 1930s , as the Belgian government encouraged the production there of cotton , which had value on the international market . The greatest economic demands on the Congo were related to raw materials . Between 1938 and 1944 , the number of workers employed in the mines of the Union Minière du Haut Katanga ( UMHK ) rose from 25 @,@ 000 to 49 @,@ 000 to cope with the increased demand . In order to increase production for the war effort , the colonial authorities increased the hours and the speed at which workers , both European and African , were expected to work . This led to increasing labour unrest across the colony . Discontent among the white population was also increased by the raising of a 40 percent " war tax " . High taxes and price controls were enforced from 1941 , limiting the amount of profit that could be made and curbing profiteering . The vast majority of the Congolese @-@ produced raw resources were exported to other Allied countries . By 1942 , the entire colony 's output of copper , palm oil and industrial diamonds were being exported to the United Kingdom , while almost all the colony 's lumber was sent to South Africa . Exports to the United States also rose from $ 600 @,@ 000 in early 1940 to $ 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 by 1942 . Tax revenue from the Belgian Congo enabled the Belgian government in exile and Free Belgian Forces to fund themselves , unlike most other states in exile , which operated through subsidies and donations from sympathetic governments . It also meant that the Belgian gold reserves , which had been moved to London in 1940 , were not needed to fund the war effort , and therefore were still available at the end of the war . = = = Uranium = = = The Congo possessed major uranium deposits and was one of the few sources of the material available to the Allies . Uranium extracted from the disused Shinkolobwe uranium mine , owned by the UMHK in Katanga in the southern Congo , was instrumental in the development of an atomic bomb during the American Manhattan Project . The director of UMHK , Edgar Sengier , secretly despatched half of its uranium stock to New York in 1940 ; in September 1942 , he sold it to the United States Army . Sengier himself moved to New York , from where he directed the UMHK 's operations for the rest of the war . The U.S. government sent soldiers from the Army Corps of Engineers to Shinkolobwe in 1942 to restore the mine and improve its transport links by renovating the local aerodromes and port facilities . In 1944 , the Americans acquired a further 1 @,@ 720 long tons ( 1 @,@ 750 t ) of Uranium ore from the newly reopened mine . = = Military involvement = = The Force Publique ( or " Public Force " ) was the combined police and military force of both the Congo and Ruanda @-@ Urundi . During World War II , it constituted the bulk of the Free Belgian Forces , numbering some 40 @,@ 000 men . Like other colonial armies of the time , the Force Publique was racially segregated ; it was led by 280 white officers and NCOs , but otherwise comprised indigenous black Africans . The Force Publique had never received the more modern equipment supplied to the Belgian Armed Forces before the war , and so had to use outdated weapons and equipment like the Stokes mortar and the Saint Chamond 70 mm howitzer . = = = East African Campaign = = = Three brigades of the Force Publique were sent to Abyssinia alongside British forces to fight the Italians in June 1940 . This was done , in spite of the government in exile 's reservations , to demonstrate its allegiance to the Allied cause and in retaliation for the deployment of Italian bombers in bases on the channel coast within occupied Belgium . The Belgian 1st Colonial Brigade operated in the Galla @-@ Sidamo area in the South @-@ West sector . In May 1941 , around 8 @,@ 000 men of the Force Publique , under Major @-@ General Auguste @-@ Édouard Gilliaert , successfully cut off the retreat of General Pietro Gazzera 's Italians at Saio , in the Ethiopian Highlands after marching over 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) from their bases in western Congo . The troops suffered from malaria and other tropical diseases , but successfully defeated the Italians in a number of engagements . Gilliaert subsequently accepted the surrender of Gazzera and 7 @,@ 000 Italian troops in a number of small engagements . Over the course of the campaign in Abyssinia , the Force Publique received the surrender of nine Italian generals , 370 high @-@ ranking officers and 15 @,@ 000 Italian colonial troops before the end of 1941 . The Congolese forces in Abyssinia suffered about 500 fatalities . After the Allied victory in Abyssinia the Force Publique moved to the British colony of Nigeria , which was being used as a staging ground for a planned invasion of Vichy @-@ controlled Dahomey which did not occur , was also garrisoned by 13 @,@ 000 Congolese troops . Then a part of the Force Publique went to Egypt and British Mandatory Palestine and was redesignated the 1st Belgian Congo Brigade Group during 1943 and 1944 . = = = Medical support = = = A medical unit from the Congo , the 10th ( Belgian Congo ) Casualty Clearing Station , was formed in 1943 , and served alongside British forces during the invasion of Madagascar and in the Far East during the Burma Campaign . The unit ( which had a small body of Force Publique troops for local defense of the station ) included 350 black and 20 white personnel , and continued to serve with the British until 1945 . = = Life in the Belgian Congo = = At the start of the war , the population of the Congo numbered approximately 12 million black people and 30 @,@ 000 whites . The colonial government segregated the population along racial lines and there was very little mixing between the colours . The white population was highly urbanized and , in Léopoldville , the capital , lived in a quarter of the city separated from the black majority . All blacks in the city had to adhere to a curfew . Education was overwhelmingly controlled by Protestant and Catholic missions , which were also responsible for providing limited medical and welfare support to the rural Congolese . Food remained unrationed during the war , with only the sales of tyres and automobiles restricted by the government . One of the consequences of the Congo 's economic mobilisation during the war , particularly for the black population , was significant urbanisation . Just 9 % of the indigenous population lived in cities in 1938 ; by 1950 , the figure stood at close to 20 % . The colonial authorities arrested enemy aliens in the Congo and confiscated their property in 1940 . = = Unrest = = = = = Strikes = = = The demands made by the colonial government on Congolese workers during the war provoked strikes and riots from the workforce . Whites in the colony were allowed to form trade unions for the first time during the war , and their demands for better pay and working conditions were often emulated by black workers . In October 1941 , white workers in the colony unsuccessfully attempted a general strike across the colony . In December 1941 , black mine workers at various sites in Katanga Province , including Jadotville and Élisabethville , went on strike , demanding that their pay be increased from 1 @.@ 50 francs to 2 francs to compensate for rising living costs . The strike started on 3 December , and by the next day 1 @,@ 400 workers had downed tools . All UMHK sites were affected by 9 December . The strike was also fuelled by other grievances against the colonial order and segregation . From the start , the colonial authorities attempted to persuade the strikers to disperse and go back to work . When they refused , they were fired on . In Jadotville , 15 strikers were shot dead by the military . In Élisabethville , the strikers , including their leader Léonard Mpoyi , were invited to negotiations at the town 's stadium , where they were offered various concessions , including a 30 % pay rise . When the workers refused , the Governor of Katanga , Amour Maron , shot Mpoyi , killing him . The Governor then ordered his soldiers to fire on the other strikers in the stadium . Between 60 and 70 strikers were killed during the protest , although the official estimate was around 30 . The miners returned to work on 10 December . Numerous smaller strikes occurred in the Congo later in the war , though not on the same scale as in 1941 . In 1944 strikes broke out in Katanga and Kasaï , provoked by the conscription of workers for the mines and deteriorating working conditions . In 1945 , riots and strikes occurred among the black dockworkers in the port city of Matadi . = = = Luluabourg mutiny = = = The colonial government in the Congo depended on its military to maintain civil order and , above all , it depended on the loyalty of the native troops who made up the bulk of the Force Publique . Black non @-@ commissioned Officers led by First Sergeant @-@ Major Ngoie Mukalabushi , a veteran of the East Africa Campaign , munitied at Luluabourg in the central Congolese province of Kasaï in February 1944 ; the trigger for this was a plan to vaccinate troops who had served at the front , though the soldiers were also unhappy about the demands placed on them and their treatment by their white officers . The mutineers broke into the base 's armoury on the morning of 20 February and pillaged the white quarter of the town . The town 's inhabitants fled , and a Belgian officer and two white civilians were killed . The mutineers attacked visible signs of the colonial authorities and proclaimed their desire for independence . The mutineers then dispersed to their home villages , pillaging on the way ; they failed to spread the insurrection to neighbouring garrisons . Two mutineers , including Mukalabushi , were executed for their part in the insurrection . = = Legacy = = As a result of the Congo 's comparative prosperity during the conflict , the post @-@ war period saw a wave of immigration to the country from Belgium . By 1950 , 100 @,@ 000 whites were living in the Congo . Nevertheless , the war highlighted the precarious nature of the colonial administration , leading Governor Ryckmans to remark that " the days of colonialism are over " in 1946 . In the years after the war , the colonial government underwent extensive reform . Black people were granted significantly more rights and freedoms , leading to the growth of a so @-@ called Évolué ( " evolved " ) class . Following the industrial unrest , trade unions for black workers were instituted in 1946 , though they lacked power and influence . Workers at the UMHK continued to demand higher wages , and strikes were common in the colony for the next decade . Nevertheless , both wages and living conditions improved significantly in the years after the war . The war began a second wave of industrialisation that lasted right up to Congolese independence in 1960 . The 1941 Élisabethville massacre is a recurrent theme in Congolese art and folklore , and was later incorporated into the popular Congolese anti @-@ colonial narrative . The importance of Congolese uranium during the war caused the Soviet Union to become interested in the territory ; it was subsequently an area of Soviet interest during the Cold War .

= Invasion of Île Bonaparte = The Invasion of Île Bonaparte was an amphibious operation in 1810 that formed an important part of the British campaign to blockade and capture the French Indian Ocean territories of Île Bonaparte ( now Réunion ) and Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) during the Napoleonic Wars . These islands formed a fortified base for a French frigate squadron under Commodore Jacques Hamelin to raid British convoys of East Indiamen travelling between Britain and British India . Hamelin 's ships had destroyed two convoys the previous year despite the attention of a squadron of Royal Navy ships under Commodore Josias Rowley . Rowley had responded by raiding the fortified anchorage of Saint Paul on Île Bonaparte and capturing one of Hamelin 's frigates and two captured East Indiamen . The raid had an unforeseen consequence , when the commander of Île Bonaparte General Nicolas Des Bruslys , committed suicide rather than lead the garrison against the British landing parties . This encouraged Rowley to consider a larger operation to seize the whole island . Using the small British @-@ held island of Rodriguez as a base , Rowley and his British Army counterpart Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Henry Keating planned to land two forces either side of the island 's capital Saint Denis and force the governor to capitulate before the island 's militia could be mobilised against them . The plan was launched on 7 July 1810 as two combined forces of British sailors , soldiers , sepoys and Royal Marines landed at separate beaches . Although a number of men were drowned in the heavy surf , the majority of the invasion force reached the beaches safely and marched inland , attacking French outposts as they approached the capital . Recognising that his demoralised garrison would be unable to defend Saint Denis and that the militia would take too long to mobilise , the French commander Colonel Chrysostôme de Sainte @-@ Suzanne surrendered the island , its garrison and its stores to Rowley . = = Background = = The French Indian Ocean islands of Île Bonaparte and Isle de France had provided a secure base for French privateers and French Navy frigates to operate against British shipping in the region for the entire French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . In 1808 , determined to capitalise on this poorly defended region of British trade , the French government ordered Commodore Jacques Hamelin in Vénus to sail to Isle de France where he would be joined by three other large and powerful frigates with specific orders to target British trade . Dispersing his frigates into the Bay of Bengal , Hamelin had some success during 1809 : Caroline capturing two East Indiamen at the Action of 31 May 1809 and Hamelin himself seizing three at the Action of 18 November 1809 . The French squadron also captured a number of smaller British warships and the large Portuguese frigate Minerve . To counteract Hamelin 's ships , the British commander in the region Admiral Albemarle Bertie had ordered Commodore Josias Rowley to operate off the islands with a squadron of Royal Navy frigates , with instructions to disrupt French movements and prepare for future invasion attempts . Rowley 's ships had some successes : one of the East Indiamen captured by Hamelin was retaken by a blockading frigate in December 1809 , but he was largely powerless to prevent the large French ships leaving their fortified anchorages at will . Rowley 's first action to address this problem was to request a British Army force from the government in Madras . This force , made up of British soldiers and Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) sepoys , was used to capture the tiny island of Rodriguez . Rodriguez provided a secure harbour , at which Rowley 's ships could collect supplies and repair minor damage within a short sailing distance of the French islands : previously the British ships had been forced to return to Madras or the Cape of Good Hope , decreasing the time available for operations against the islands . Rodriguez also provided Rowley with a staging post from which he could prepare the planned invasions and , in September 1809 , he led an amphibious operation against the defences of the harbour of Saint Paul on Île Bonaparte . The Raid on Saint Paul was an important demonstration of Rowley 's ability to strike at the French anchorages directly . Landing men at unwatched beaches , the British soldiers , sailors and Royal Marines of the landing party were able to storm the defences from the landward side and rout the defenders . This allowed Rowley 's squadron to enter the harbour and capture Caroline and a number of smaller ships that were docked there . The attack caused consternation on the island and its commander , Nicolas Des Bruslys , committed suicide rather than order his troops to attack the British positions . Unopposed , Rowley was able to destroy the defences and public works in the town before leaving with large quantities of captured supplies and ships . Colonel Chrysostome Sainte @-@ Suzanne replaced Des Bruslys but was unable to effectively defend the island with the remaining garrison in the event of a concerted invasion . = = Preparation = = In early 1810 , as the cyclone season came to an end , Hamelin ordered a squadron of frigates under Captain Guy @-@ Victor Duperré to attack British convoys in the Bay of Bengal . Duperré was initially unsuccessful , but after sailing to Madagascar for a brief refit he encountered and defeated a convoy in the Action of 3 July 1810 . The British response to the French depredations was already in progress : in late June , Rowley sailed with two frigates to Rodriguez , leaving Captain Samuel Pym off Isle de France with the remainder . On Rodriguez , Rowley and Lieutenant Colonel Henry Keating conferred on the best method of invading and rapidly subduing the island , determining that the best plan was to land soldiers either side of the island 's capital Saint Denis and defeat the garrison outside the town , forcing the new governor to surrender . The government in Madras had augmented the garrison of Rodriguez over the previous year , so that by June 1810 it stood at over 3 @,@ 650 men : 1 @,@ 800 British Army regulars and 1 @,@ 850 HEIC Army sepoys under Keating 's overall command . To transport these troops , Rowley called up his own frigate HMS Boadicea and HMS Nereide under Captain Nesbit Willoughby , a veteran of the raid on Saint Paul who was still recovering from an accidental explosion two months before that had inflicted severe facial injuries . Among the passengers on Boadicea was Robert Townsend Farquhar , a diplomat and trader with the HEIC who had been sent from London to assume governorship of the islands once they had been captured . On 6 July , Rowley 's force rendezvoused with the squadron under Pym , consisting of his frigate HMS Sirius , HMS Iphigenia under Captain Henry Lambert and HMS Magicienne under Captain Lucius Curtis . = = Invasion = = Rowley 's squadron and a number of supporting transport ships reached Île Bonaparte on 7 July . The main body , under Rowley , approached Sainte @-@ Marie at 14 : 00 , to draw French forces away from Grande Chaloupe , where Sirius was secretly landing the first " brigade " under Lieutenant Colonel Frazier . This force of 950 soldiers , a small battery of howitzers and the supplies needed for the campaign was landed without loss under the direction of Navy Lieutenant John Wyatt Watling , who had landed first and secured the beach with a party of seamen , distributing the soldiers and supplies as they came ashore . Advancing rapidly to seize the heights over the beach , Frazier drove off French outposts and snipers and cut the main road between Saint Denis and Saint Paul , hampering French communications and the movement of reinforcements . To the east , on the other side of Saint Denis , Rowley ordered his forces to land . The first ashore was intended to be Nesbit Willoughby in a schooner named Estafette , to secure the beach and organise the landing forces . However , as this boat approached the beach the wind strengthened and built up a powerful surf , which smashed the schooner ashore with enough force to break it apart : four of the 150 @-@ strong landing party were drowned . Realising that the smaller transports would be similarly overwhelmed by the waves , Keating ordered a small brig named Ulney driven on shore as a breakwater . This allowed a number of additional boats safely to reach the beach but did not provide enough cover for a full landing before nightfall . By the morning of 8 July , the French had still failed to concentrate their forces , which consisted of 576 regular French Army soldiers and 2 @,@ 717 militia dispersed across the island . Seeing that a landing on the beach at Grande Chaloupe was still practical , Captains Rowley and Lambert successfully landed their contingents , providing Keating with sufficient force to march on Saint Denis . While Keating was landing , Frazier had advanced on the capital from the west , storming a French barricade on the road from Saint Paul and routing its defenders with minimal casualties . Brushing aside French resistance in a series of minor skirmishes , Keating and Frazier 's forces closed on Saint Denis . The advancing British were met at 18 : 00 by representatives of Sainte @-@ Suzanne , who later signed a capitulation that surrendered the entire island to Rowley , Keating and Farquhar with its garrison and supplies . Offshore , Sirius had blockaded Saint Paul after landing her soldiers and , on 9 July , observed a ship attempting to break out of the harbour after hearing news of the surrender . Sirius sent her barge , under the command of Lieutenant George Norman , to pursue the fugitive . In an exhausting twelve @-@ hour chase , Norman was able to catch and board the ship , revealed to be a privateer named Edward carrying four guns and 30 men . Norman was able to defeat the crew in a brief struggle in which three men were wounded , and discovered that she was carrying despatches from the French government for the authorities on Isle de France , all of which fell into British hands . = = Aftermath = = The invasion cost the British a combined total of 22 dead and 79 wounded , including those drowned in the wreck of Estafette . Most of the other casualties had been incurred in the skirmishes on the road to Saint Denis and French casualties , although not known , were probably of a similar number . The French failed to put up a meaningful resistance to the British force , which rapidly established beachheads and carried French outposts without facing significant opposition . The island reverted to its pre @-@ Revolutionary name of Bourbon following the invasion , and Farquhar briefly assumed the governorship before moving to Mauritius upon that island 's capture in December 1810 . Keating replaced him in command and remained in the position until 1814 , when the island was restored to France at the end of the Napoleonic Wars . The success allowed British forces to concentrate against the one remaining French territory in the Indian Ocean , Isle de France . Bourbon provided a number of secure anchorages and plentiful supplies for the British frigate squadron , becoming Rowley and Keating 's new headquarters . With a safe harbour only a short journey away , Rowley was able to despatch his frigates against French ports on Isle de France more frequently and more aggressively , developing a plan to seize small offshore islands near the main harbours on Isle de France to disrupt the passage of shipping and the ability of French frigates to use these ports as raiding bases . This plan ultimately led to the disastrous attempt to seize the shipping in Grand Port in which four frigates of Rowley 's squadron were lost . = = Photo gallery = =

= USS Wainwright ( DD @-@ 62 ) = USS Wainwright ( Destroyer No. 62 / DD @-@ 62 ) was a Tucker @-@ class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the first U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of U.S. Navy officers Jonathan Wainwright , his cousin , Commander Richard Wainwright , and his son , Jonathan Wainwright , Jr .. Wainwright was laid down by the New York Shipbuilding of Camden , New Jersey , in September 1914 and launched in June of the following year . The ship was a little more than 315 feet ( 96 m ) in length , just under 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) . She was armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) guns and had eight 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . Wainwright was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) . After her May 1916 commissioning , Wainwright sailed in the Atlantic and the Caribbean . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Wainwright was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , Wainwright made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft . Upon returning to the United State after the war , Wainwright resumed operations with the destroyers of the Atlantic Fleet until May 1922 , when she was decommissioned . In April 1926 , Wainwright was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC Wainwright ( CG @-@ 24 ) until April 1934 , when she was returned to the Navy . She was sold for scrap in August 1934 . = = Design and construction = = Wainwright was authorized in 1913 as the sixth and final ship of the Tucker class which , like the related O 'Brien class , was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to New York Shipbuilding of Camden , New Jersey , which laid down her keel on 1 September 1914 . Just over nine months later , on 12 June 1915 , Wainwright was launched by sponsor Miss Evelyn Wainwright Turpin , a descendant of the ship 's namesakes , Commodore Jonathan Wainwright ( 1821 – 1863 ) , his cousin Richard Wainwright ( 1817 – 1862 ) , and son Jonathan Wainwright , Jr . ( 1849 – 1870 ) , all U.S. Navy officers that died while serving . As built , Wainwright was 315 feet 3 inches ( 96 @.@ 09 m ) in length and 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) abeam and drew 9 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 84 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 060 long tons ( 1 @,@ 080 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 205 long tons ( 1 @,@ 224 t ) when fully loaded . Wainwright had two Curtis steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional steam turbine geared to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes . The power plant could generate 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) and move the ship at speeds up to 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) . Wainwright 's main battery consisted of four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) / 50 Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) . Wainwright was also equipped with eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the Tucker @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Wainwright or any of the other ships of the class . = = Early career = = USS Wainwright was commissioned into the United States Navy on 12 May 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Fred H. Poteet . After fitting out at Philadelphia , the destroyer rounded Cape May on 20 June and headed for Newport , Rhode Island , to load torpedoes before joining Division 8 of the Atlantic Fleet Destroyer Flotilla . Following exercises near Eastport , Maine , she remained on the New England coast until mid @-@ September when she headed south for gunnery tests and training off the Virginia capes . Upon the completion of a fortnight 's gun drills , the ship then returned to Buzzard 's Bay , Massachusetts , on 2 October . Later that month , Wainwright operated out of Newport , practiced torpedo tactics near Vineyard Sound , and visited New York to pick up cargo for the flotilla 's tender , Melville . She returned to Newport on the 18th and , eight days later , resumed torpedo practice near Vineyard Sound for the remainder of the month . She put into Boston , Massachusetts on 1 November for extensive repairs in the navy yard . Refurbished , the destroyer got underway for the Caribbean on 8 January 1917 . Steaming via Hampton Roads , Virginia , she reached Culebra Island , near Puerto Rico , on the 14th and conducted war games exercises with the Atlantic Fleet . In the course of those operations , she visited the Dominican Republic as well as Guantanamo Bay and Santiago in Cuba . Later that month , Wainwright carried Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt ; Brigadier General George Barnett , the Commandant of the Marine Corps ; and the Chairman of the Civil Service Commission from Santiago to Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti . Following that assignment , Wainwright conducted torpedo exercises , patrols , and power trials near Guantanamo Bay until the beginning of March . She returned to Boston on 10 March for a short period in the Navy Yard . On 31 March , she departed Boston for Hampton Roads where she arrived on 2 April . The following morning , in response to the imminent threat of war with Germany , Wainwright began to search for submarines and to patrol Hampton Roads to protect the Fleet and naval bases . Two days later , other warships relieved her on patrol ; and she anchored with the Fleet in the mouth of the York River . The next day , 6 April 1917 , the United States entered World War I. = = World War I = = By the spring of 1917 , the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign — which Germany had launched at the beginning of February — had so succeeded that the entire Allied war effort was endangered . Strong reinforcements to the Allied antisubmarine forces were desperately needed to avert defeat and needed at once . In response to a request from the Royal Navy for the service of American antisubmarine warfare ships in European waters , the United States Navy began sending destroyers eastward across the Atlantic . Wainwright again briefly patrolled Hampton Roads before heading for the New York Navy Yard on 14 April , and on to Boston , where she arrived two days later , to prepare for overseas duty . On 24 April , the destroyer departed Boston in company with Wadsworth , Porter , Davis , Conyngham , and McDougal , bound for the British Isles . This division — led by Commander Joseph K. Taussig — was the first American naval unit to be sent to Europe . The destroyers reached Queenstown on the southern coast of Ireland on 4 May and , after fueling , began patrolling the southern approaches to Liverpool and other British ports on the coast of the Irish Sea . Wainwright reported her first scrape with a German submarine on 11 May . She sighted an abandoned lifeboat at about 08 : 00 . After investigating the drifting boat for occupants and finding none , she sank the boat with gunfire . At about 08 : 15 , a lookout reported that a torpedo had missed the destroyer some 150 yards ( 140 m ) astern . Wainwright then fired several rounds from her 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns at what was thought to be a periscope . The supposed submarine disappeared soon thereafter ; and , despite a thorough investigation of the area , the destroyer could turn up no more evidence of the presence of a U @-@ boat . The summer of 1917 provided few opportunities for Wainwright to test her sub @-@ killing techniques . On 4 July , a member of the destroyer 's crew spotted a purported periscope and soon thereafter others claimed that a torpedo was reported to have passed the ship , 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) astern . Wainwright depth @-@ charged the last indicated position of the undersea raider but to no avail . On the morning of 20 August , after Rowan brought up some oil with one of her depth charges , Wainwright dropped a couple of depth charges as she passed through the faint slick . A few minutes later , she joined other ships in some sporadic gunfire but failed to prove that a submarine was in the area . The fall , on the other hand , brought Wainwright increased activity . After spending the first two weeks of September in repairs at Birkenhead , near Liverpool , she departed the yard at Laird Basin at about 07 : 00 on the 14th to return to Queenstown . Three quarters of an hour into the afternoon watch , she received orders sending her to the scene of a submarine attack against an Allied merchantman some 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ) south @-@ southeast of Helvick Head , Ireland . Wainwright rang up full speed , made off for the reported location , and began a search for the U @-@ boat in conjunction with a British dirigible and other surface units . Near the end of the second dog watch , she sighted the submarine 's conning tower and bow about 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ) off . Wainwright charged to the attack , but the submarine submerged almost immediately . Upon reaching the spot where the submarine had been , the warship located an oil slick and began dropping depth charges which failed to achieve positive results . Approaching darkness and the necessity of escorting an Admiralty oiler forced Wainwright to break off her attack . After she shepherded the oiler to safety , she returned to the area of her attack and patrolled throughout the night , but the submarine had apparently retired from the neighborhood . Four days later , while searching for a U @-@ boat in the area of Conigbeg Rock , the destroyer received word that the Conigbeg Lightship had rescued survivors from a fishing vessel . Wainwright rendezvoused with the craft to interview the four seamen of the smack Our Bairns . They revealed that the U @-@ boat — which turned out to be UC @-@ 48 — was of the latest type Germany had in action . The destroyer relieved the lighthouse vessel of the four fishermen and continued the search until dusk , when she headed back to Queenstown to land the rescued men . For a month , she carried on conducting routine patrols . Action finally came on the morning of 18 October , when Wainwright again received orders to Helvick Head to hunt for an enemy submarine . She arrived at the designated location at about 11 : 15 and searched for more than two hours for clues as to the U @-@ boat 's location . Then , at 13 : 58 , she sighted a submarine 's conning tower about 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) off her starboard bow . The enemy appeared to be maneuvering into position for a torpedo attack but submerged the moment Wainwright charged to the attack . When the destroyer reached the estimated location of the U @-@ boat , she dropped a depth charge and then a buoy to mark the spot . The warship followed that maneuver with a systematic , circular search out to a radius of 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ) . Having found nothing by 04 : 00 the following morning , she gave up and shaped a course for Queenstown . The ensuing six months brought no new encounters with U @-@ boats . She scouted areas where submarines had been reported but neither sighted nor engaged the enemy . On one occasion , she collided with a merchantman , Chicago City , and had to enter the drydock at Spencer Jetty that same day , 24 November 1917 , for repairs . While steaming generally south on 29 April 1918 , she sighted a sail bearing almost due west whose hull was down below the horizon . By the time the destroyer had swung around to an intercepting course , the sail had disappeared . While the destroyer steamed toward the estimated position of the sail , she searched for evidence of a submarine . After covering 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ) westward , she came upon an area marked by a number of small oil slicks . Wainwright chose the most promising of the slicks and dropped four depth charges . She then commenced another fruitless search which ended at midnight when she received orders to return to Queenstown . Wainwright continued to operate out of Queenstown until June 1918 when she was reassigned to United States naval forces in France . On the 8th , she reported for duty at Brest , the French port from which she conducted her patrols for the remainder of the war . Those patrols brought no further encounters with the enemy . Only two events of note occurred between June and November 1918 . On the night of 19 / 20 October , she sighted what appeared to be a submarine running on the surface . However , upon closer inspection , the object proved to be a derelict carrying the crew of the 77 @-@ ton Portuguese schooner Aida , which had been captured by German submarine U @-@ 43 and sunk with explosive charges . Wainwright took on the survivors and saw them safely into port . Later , during the evening of 1 November , heavy winds at Brest caused the destroyer to drag anchor : and she struck the breakwater . After Jarvis had failed to pull her loose , the tug Concord took over and finally managed to refloat the warship at 19 : 20 and towed her into Brest . Hostilities ended on 11 November 1918 , and Wainwright returned home early in 1919 to resume duty with the Atlantic Fleet destroyers . She operated along the east coast and in the Caribbean until 19 May 1922 when she was decommissioned at Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The destroyer remained in reserve until the spring of 1926 . = = Coast Guard career = = On 17 January 1920 , Prohibition was instituted by law in the United States . Soon , the smuggling of alcoholic beverages along the coastlines of the United States became widespread and blatant . The Treasury Department eventually determined that the United States Coast Guard simply did not have the ships to constitute a successful patrol . To cope with the problem , President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 authorized the transfer from the Navy to the Coast Guard of twenty old destroyers that were in reserve and out of commission . Wainwright was activated and acquired by the Coast Guard on 2 April 1926 , as part of a second group of five to augment the original twenty . Wainwright moved to Boston on 22 May and remained there until 27 July when she got underway for the Connecticut coast . She reached New London , two days later ; and , on the 30th , she was commissioned by the Coast Guard . The warship retained her name while serving with the Coast Guard 's " Rum Patrol " to suppress the illegal importation of alcoholic beverages . She served at New London from the summer of 1926 until 1929 . On 4 January 1929 , she headed south to Charleston , South Carolina , whence she conducted gunnery practice until 4 February when she returned north to Boston . In January 1930 , she headed south again for gunnery practice but this time at St. Petersburg , Florida . During each of the two succeeding years — in January 1931 and late in March 1932 — she returned to St. Petersburg for a month of target practice and afterward resumed her duties along the New England coast . In May 1933 , her permanent duty station was changed to New York , and she reported there at the end of the first week in June . After a summer of normal operations , the warship began target practice at Hampton Roads , on 7 September . = = U.S. Navy duty in Cuba = = That duty , however , was interrupted on the 9th by orders to report for duty with the Navy in the area of the Florida Strait during the series of revolts in Cuba which finally resulted in the beginning of Fulgencio Batista 's 25 @-@ year rule . On 6 November , Wainwright was released from duty with the Navy and was ordered back to New York . = = Return to Coast Guard duty = = Wainwright arrived three days later and resumed duties with the Coast Guard until March 1934 . On the 14th , she departed the station at Stapleton , New York , and arrived in Philadelphia the following day . She was decommissioned by the Coast Guard on 29 March . = = Return to Navy , decommissioning , and disposal = = On 27 April , the Commandant , 4th Naval District , took possession of Wainwright for the Navy . Her name was reinstated on the Navy list briefly but was struck once again on 5 July 1934 . On 22 August , she was sold to Michael Flynn , Inc . , of Brooklyn , New York , for scrapping .

= Water rail = The water rail ( Rallus aquaticus ) is a bird of the rail family which breeds in well @-@ vegetated wetlands across Europe , Asia and North Africa . Northern and eastern populations are migratory , but this species is a permanent resident in the warmer parts of its breeding range . The adult is 23 – 28 cm ( 9 – 11 in ) long , and , like other rails , has a body that is flattened laterally , allowing it easier passage through the reed beds it inhabits . It has mainly brown upperparts and blue @-@ grey underparts , black barring on the flanks , long toes , a short tail and a long reddish bill . Immature birds are generally similar in appearance to the adults , but the blue @-@ grey in the plumage is replaced by buff . The downy chicks are black , as with all rails . The brown @-@ cheeked rail , R. indicus , has distinctive markings and a call that is very different from the pig @-@ like squeal of the western races , and is now usually split as a separate species . The water rail breeds in reed beds and other marshy sites with tall , dense vegetation , building its nest a little above the water level from whatever plants are available nearby . The off @-@ white , blotched eggs are incubated mainly by the female , and the precocial downy chicks hatch in 19 – 22 days . The female will defend her eggs and brood against intruders , or move them to another location if they are discovered . This species can breed after its first year , and it normally raises two clutches in each season . Water rails are omnivorous , feeding mainly on invertebrates during summer and berries or plant stems towards winter . They are territorial even after breeding , and will aggressively defend feeding areas in winter . These rails are vulnerable to flooding or freezing conditions , loss of habitat and predation by mammals and large birds . The introduced American mink has exterminated some island populations , but overall the species ' huge range and large numbers mean that it is not considered to be threatened . = = Taxonomy = = The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species . Although the origins of the group are lost in antiquity , the largest number of species and the most primitive forms are found in the Old World , suggesting that this family originated there . However , the genus Rallus , the group of long @-@ billed reed bed specialists to which the water rail belongs , arose in the New World . Its Old World members , the Water , African and Madagascan rails , form a superspecies , and are thought to have evolved from a single invasion from across the Atlantic . Genetic evidence suggests that the water rail is the most closely related of its genus to the Pacific Gallirallus rails , and is basal to that group . The water rail was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 under its current scientific name , Rallus aquaticus . The binomial name is the Latin equivalent of the English " water rail " . = = = Fossils = = = The oldest known fossils of an ancestral water rail are bones from Carpathia dated to the Pliocene ( 5 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 8 million years ago ) . By the late Pleistocene , two million years ago , the fossil evidence suggests that the water rail was present across most of its present range . This species is surprisingly well recorded , with over 30 records from Bulgaria alone , and many others from across southern Europe. and China . A rail from Eivissa , Rallus eivissensis , was smaller but more robust than the water rail , and probably had poorer flight abilities . In the Quaternary , the island lacked terrestrial mammals , and this distinctive form was presumably descended from its continental relative . It became extinct at about the same time as humans arrived on the island , between 16 @,@ 700 and 5 @,@ 300 BC . The nominate race of water rail is now a very rare resident on Eivissa . = = Description = = The adult of the nominate subspecies is a medium @-@ sized rail , 23 – 28 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 0 in ) long with a 38 – 45 cm ( 15 – 18 in ) wingspan . Males typically weigh 114 – 164 g ( 4 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 8 oz ) and females are slightly lighter at 92 – 107 g ( 3 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 8 oz ) . The upper parts from the forehead to tail are olive @-@ brown with black streaks , especially on the shoulders . The sides of the head and the underparts down to the upper belly are dark slate @-@ blue , except for a blackish area between bill and eye , and brownish sides to the upper breast . The flanks are barred black and white , and the undertail is white with some darker streaks . The long bill and the iris are red , and the legs are flesh @-@ brown . The sexes are similar ; although the female averages slightly smaller than the male , with a more slender bill , determining sex through measurements alone is unreliable . The juvenile has a blackish crown and a white chin and throat . The underparts are buff or white with darker bars , and the flank markings are brown and buff , rather than black and white . The undertail is buff , and the eye , bill and leg colours are duller than the adult . The downy chick is all black apart from a mainly white bill . After breeding , the rail has an extensive moult , and is flightless for about three weeks . Individual adults can be identified by the markings on the undertail , which are unique to each bird . Adult males have the strongest black undertail streaks . It has been suggested that the dark barring on the undertail of this species is a compromise between the signalling function of a pure white undertail , as found in open water or gregarious species like the common moorhen , and the need to avoid being too conspicuous . The water rail can readily be distinguished from most other reed bed rails by its white undertail and red bill ; the latter is a little longer than the rest of the rail 's head ( 55 – 58 % of the total ) and slightly down @-@ curved . The somewhat similar slaty @-@ breasted rail of tropical Asia has a stouter bill , a chestnut crown and white @-@ spotted upperparts . Juvenile and freshly moulted water rails may show a buff undertail like spotted crake , but that species ' plumage is spotted with white , and it has a much shorter , mainly yellowish bill . The range of the water rail does not overlap with that of any other Rallus species , but vagrants could be distinguished from their American relatives by the lack of rufous or chestnut on the closed wing . The larger African rail has unstreaked darker brown upperparts and brighter red legs and feet . = = = Vocalisations = = = The water rail is a vocal species which gives its main call , known as " sharming " , throughout the year . This is a series of grunts followed by a high @-@ pitched piglet @-@ like squeal and ending in more grunts . It is used as a territorial call , alarm and announcement . Members of a pair may call alternately , the male giving lower and slower notes than his partner . The courtship song , given by both sexes , is a tyick @-@ tyick @-@ tyick often ending with a trill from the female ; the male may sing for hours . The flight call is a sharp whistle , and other vocalizations include a loud repeated creak given by the male when showing the nest site to the female , and a purring given by both parents when at the nest with chicks . The rails are most vocal when setting up a territory and early in the breeding season , when calling may continue at night . Chicks initially cheep weakly , but soon develop a tyk @-@ tyk @-@ trik begging call . When researchers played recordings of the reed warbler at night to attract that species for trapping , they found water rails and other wetland birds were also grounded , despite a lack of suitable habitat , suggesting that the rails and other nocturnal migrants recognised the warbler ’ s song and associated it with the marshy habitat in which it is usually found . = = = Subspecies = = = There are three recognised subspecies . R. a. aquaticus ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) . This is the nominate subspecies that breeds in Europe , North Africa , Turkey , western Asia to the Caspian Sea and western Kazakhstan , and in a narrow band east to central Siberia . R. a. hibernans ( Salomonsen , 1931 ) . The Icelandic race , which has slightly warmer brown upperparts than the nominate form . The bars of the flanks are dark brown , not black , and the bill is somewhat shorter ; the grey of the underparts may have a brown tinge . R. a. korejewi ( Zarudny , 1905 ) ( includes the dubious forms deserticolor , tsaidamensis and arjanicus ) . This subspecies breeds in south central Asia from southern and eastern Iran east to western China , and in the Indian subcontinent in Kashmir and Ladakh . It is slightly larger than the nominate race , with paler brown upperparts and slightly paler slate underparts . It has a weak brown stripe through the eye . = = Distribution and habitat = = The water rail breeds across temperate Eurasia from Iceland and the British Isles discontinuously to North Africa , Saudi Arabia and western China . Its distribution in Asia is poorly studied . The Icelandic population of water rail , R. a. hibernans , became extinct around 1965 , as a result of loss of habitat through the draining of wetlands , and predation by the introduced American mink . Prior to its extinction , at least some birds were present year @-@ round on the island , relying on warm volcanic springs to survive through the coldest months , but this race was also found in winter in the Faroe Islands and Ireland , and on passage through the Western Isles , suggesting that the Icelandic form was a partial migrant . The nominate subspecies , R. a. aquaticus is resident in the milder south and west of its range , but migrates south from areas that are subject to harsh winters . It winters within its breeding range , and also further south in North Africa , the Middle East and the Caspian Sea area . The peak migration period is September to October , with most birds returning to the breeding grounds from March to mid @-@ April . A specimen of the nominate population labelled as " Baluchistan " and collected by Richard Meinertzhagen is considered of doubtful provenance . R. a. korejewi is another partial migrant , with some of the population wintering from Iraq and eastern Saudi Arabia eastwards through Pakistan and northern India to western China . The breeding habitat of the water rail is permanent wetland with still or slow @-@ moving fresh or brackish water and dense , tall vegetation , which may include common reed , reedmace , irises , bur @-@ reed or sedges . In coastal areas , sea rush is common in saltmarsh breeding sites , with sedges and bur @-@ reed dominant in somewhat less saline environments . A study in the Netherlands and Spain showed that the rush provided better concealment than the other maritime plants . As elsewhere , nests were constructed from the nearest available plants . Where it occurs , saw @-@ sedge provides good breeding habitat , its tall ( 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) ) dense structure providing good cover for the nesting rails . The preferred habitat is Phragmites reedbed with the plants standing in water , with a depth of 5 – 30 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) , muddy areas for feeding and a rich diversity of invertebrate species . Locations with nearby willows or shrubs are favoured above large areas of uniform habitat . In addition to natural fresh or marine marshes , this rail may use gravel or clay excavations and peat workings as long as there is suitable habitat with good cover . It may be found in rice paddies or on floating islands , and it occurs in Kashmir in flooded sugarcane fields . A Finnish study showed that the main factor influencing the distribution of water rails was the extent of vegetation cover , with the highest densities in the most vegetated areas ; the presence of other marshes nearby was also significant . However , factors such as temperature , rainfall , length of shore line and extent of peat , important for some other marsh birds , were not statistically relevant . The areas with the highest densities of the rail also had the greatest numbers of three species considered at risk in Finland , the great reed warbler , Eurasian bittern and marsh harrier . The northern limit of breeding seems to be determined by the transition from nutrient @-@ rich wetland to poorer , more acidic water . This leads to the replacement of common reed by a more open vegetation type dominated by marsh cinquefoil , which is unsuitable for the rails . Occasionally , more unusual locations are used . One pair in Scotland nested in the open by the side of a road , and when an English nature reserve installed nest boxes for bearded tits ( reed " wigwams " with a wooden floor ) , rails nested both in the boxes and under the wooden floor , in the latter case sometimes with the tits in residence above . Although mainly a lowland species , the water rail breeds at 1 @,@ 240 m ( 4 @,@ 070 ft ) in the Alps and 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) in Armenia . An Italian study suggested that reed bed birds need a minimum area of wetland for breeding , which for the water rail is about 1 ha ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) , although the highest densities are in marshes of 10 ha ( 25 acres ) or more . On migration and in winter , a wider range of wet habitats may be used , including flooded thickets or bracken . Freezing condition may force birds into more open locations such as ditches , rubbish dumps and gardens , or even out onto exposed ice . A Welsh study suggested that individual winter territories overlap , with each bird using a significant proportion of the reed bed . After site desertion in freezing weather , birds return to their former range . A density of 14 birds per hectare ( 6 @.@ 6 per acre ) was recorded . Birds wintering in Iceland rely on warm geothermal streams , and may access streams through tunnels under the snow . When not feeding , they may shelter in holes and crevices in the solidified lava . This species sometimes wanders well outside its normal range and vagrants have been found in the Azores , Madeira , Mauritania , the Arctic , Greenland , Malaysia and Vietnam . = = Behaviour = = This rail is a skulking species , its streaked plumage making it difficult to see in its wetland habitat . Its laterally compressed body allows it to slip though the densest vegetation , and it will " freeze " if surprised in the open . It walks with a high @-@ stepping gait , although it adopts a crouch when it runs for cover . It swims , when necessary , with the jerky motion typical of rails , and it flies short distances low over the reeds with its long legs dangling . Although their flight looks weak , water rails are capable of long sustained flights during their nocturnal migrations , and are sometimes killed in collisions with lighthouses or wires . British @-@ ringed birds have been recovered from as far away as Poland , Czechoslovakia and Sweden . This species defends its breeding and wintering territories . Birds will charge each other with neck outstretched when breeding , sometimes both members of a pair attacking together . Large strongly @-@ marked males are dominant in winter , when the direct aggression is replaced by sharming while standing upright on tip @-@ toe , head jerking and bill thrusting . = = = Breeding = = = The water rail is monogamous and highly territorial when breeding . The birds pair off after arriving at their nesting areas , or possibly even before spring migration . In large wetlands with good conditions birds may nest 20 – 50 m ( 22 – 55 yd ) apart . Territories vary in size , but 300 m2 ( 360 sq yd ) is typical . The pair give courting and contact calls throughout the breeding season . The male selects the nest site which he shows to the female while posturing with raised back feathers , wings arched over his back , tail spread and bill pointed vertically downwards . This display is accompanied by a loud call . Before mating , he raises his wings and tail , and bows with his bill touching his breast . The male feeds the female during courtship , and , when incubating , she may leave the nest to display to the male , walking round him , calling softly , rubbing her bill against his and taking short runs to and from him . The nest is made from whatever wetland vegetation is available and built mostly by the male , usually in a single day . It is raised 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) or more above the level of the marsh , and is sometimes constructed on clumps of roots , tree stumps or similar support . It may be built up higher if the marsh waters start to rise . The nest is 13 – 16 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) across and about 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) high . It is well hidden and approached cautiously by narrow tracks . The typical clutch is 6 – 11 eggs across most of the range , but appears to be smaller ( 5 – 8 ) in Kashmir at around 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) altitude . Laying dates vary with location , from late March in western Europe and North Africa , to late May in Kashmir and June in Iceland . The clutch size may be smaller early or late in the breeding season . The breeding season can be extended by replacement and second clutches . The eggs are blunt and oval , smooth and slightly glossy ; the colour varies from off @-@ white to pink @-@ buff , with reddish @-@ brown blotches mainly at the broader end that sometimes merging into a single patch . Variation in egg size across the four subspecies is much less than differences between individual eggs ; the average size of the eggs of the nominate subspecies , 36 mm × 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in × 1 @.@ 0 in ) , is therefore typical for the species as a whole . The eggs weigh about 13 g ( 0 @.@ 46 oz ) , of which 7 % is shell . Both parents incubate the eggs , although the female takes the larger share of this duty . The eggs are incubated for 19 – 22 days to hatching , with at least 87 % success . Food is brought to the nest by the other adult and passed to the sitting parent who feeds the chicks . The precocial , downy young leave the nest within two days of hatching but continue to be fed by their parents , although the chicks also find some of their own food after about five days . They are independent of their parents after 20 – 30 days and can fly when aged 7 – 9 weeks . If a nest appears to have been discovered , the female may carry the chicks or eggs one by one to another location ; the eggs are carried in the bill , but small chicks may be tucked under the wing . Sitting birds may stay on the eggs even when approached closely , or attack the intruder , or feign injury as a distraction . The water rail can breed after its first year , and it normally raises two broods . Average survival after fledging has been estimated as between 17 and 20 months , with an annual survival rate slightly less than 50 % per year for the first three years , and somewhat higher thereafter . The maximum recorded age is 8 years 10 months . = = = Feeding = = = Water rails are omnivorous , although they mainly feed on animals . These include leeches , worms , gastropods , small crustaceans , spiders , and a wide range of both terrestrial and aquatic insects and their larvae . Small vertebrates such as amphibians , fish , birds and mammals may be killed or eaten as carrion . Vertebrates are impaled with a strike of the bill which breaks the prey 's spinal cord . Plant food , which is consumed more in autumn and winter , includes the buds , flowers , shoots and seeds of water plants , berries and fruit . In south Asia , paddy ( harvested rice kernels ) may sometimes be eaten . The young rails are fed mainly on insects and spiders . Food obtained on land or from mud is normally washed in water before it is eaten . After rain , rails may probe soft ground for earthworms . This species will occasionally feed in the open even when not forced to do so by cold weather ; Edmund Meade @-@ Waldo described seven rails feeding in an open meadow . Despite its skulking nature , the water rail appears to thrive in captivity when fed on animal food such as raw meat or earthworms ; one individual was taught to jump for worms suspended from a fishing rod . Water rails follow definite routes when feeding , frequently returning to good hunting areas . These rails are versatile and opportunist foragers . They will jump to take insects from plants , climb to find berries , or dislodge apples from trees so they can be eaten on the ground . They will kill birds by impaling or drowning them , particularly if the bird 's ability to escape is restricted . They have been recorded as killing a European greenfinch and a king quail in an aviary , and small birds trapped in bird ringers ' mist nets . One bird killed a twite caught with it in a Heligoland trap . They are also nest predators , particularly of small birds that nest in reeds such as the great reed warbler . Water rails may defend a winter feeding territory , although this is smaller than when breeding , with individuals perhaps less than 10 m ( 11 yd ) apart ; favoured sites may hold hundreds of birds . Aggressive behaviour outside the breeding season may extend to attacks on other marsh rails such as spotted and Baillon 's crake . = = Predators and parasites = = Predators of the water rail include a number of mammals and large birds . The American mink was partly responsible for the extinction of the Icelandic population , and cats and dogs have also been recorded as killing this species . At least locally , otters will also eat rails and other water birds . The Eurasian bittern , another reed bed bird , will consume rails , as will grey herons . Water rails are particularly vulnerable to the heron when forced out of the cover of the reeds by very high tides . Wetland @-@ hunting harriers are predictable predators , but more unusually , the rail has also been recorded as a prey item of the tawny owl , short @-@ eared owl , Eurasian eagle @-@ owl , greater spotted eagle , common kestrel , and night @-@ hunting peregrine falcons . Parasites include the sucking lice Nirmus cuspidiculus and Pediculus ralli , the tick Ixodes frontalis , and the louse fly Ornithomyia avicularia . The water rail can be infected by the avian influenza virus and the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi , carried by Ixodes ticks , which is also a human pathogen causing Lyme disease . Three lice , Fulicoffula rallina , Pseudomenopon scopulacorne and Rallicola cuspidatus discovered on dead water rails in 2005 on the Faroe Islands were all species that had not been found on the archipelago previously . The parasitic flatworm Ophthalmophagus nasciola was found in one rail 's nasal sinus , and at least three species of feather mite have been detected on the plumage . The louse Philopterus ralli and the nematode Strongyloides avium have been found on the subspecies R. a. indicus . The eastern subspecies is also one of the many intermediate hosts of another nematode , Gnathostoma spinigerum , which causes human gnathostomiasis , a disease found in Thailand , Japan and other parts of Southeast Asia . The nematode 's first @-@ stage hosts are copepods of the genus Cyclops , which are consumed directly or indirectly by a wide variety of vertebrates before maturing in the third and final host , a carnivorous mammal . The rail is therefore unlikely to be a source of human gnathostomiasis , which is normally caused by consuming raw or undercooked infected poultry , pork , freshwater fish , or by drinking water contaminated with infected Cyclops . = = Status = = The water rail 's numbers are declining , but it has a large population of 100 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 adults and a huge breeding range estimated at 15 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 km2 ( 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq mi ) ; it is therefore classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List . In most European countries , the population is either stable or decreasing slightly due to loss of habitat . The rail 's range and numbers are increasing in Morocco , with breeding as far south as Oued Massa . Little is known about the Asian range , but korejewi is a common breeder in Pakistan and Kashmir . Introduced predators are a threat to vulnerable island populations . In addition to the extirpation of the Icelandic race , mink have been responsible for marked declines in the populations of water rails and other ground @-@ nesting birds in the Hebrides , where the mainly fish @-@ eating otter was the only native carnivore . The mink derived from fur farms on Lewis , from whence they spread through Harris , North Uist and South Uist . Mink and ferret eradication programmes have enabled the rail to return to islands including Lewis and Harris , and further projects are ongoing or planned on the Scottish mainland . Locally , habitat may be affected by the drainage of marshes , canalisation of water courses and urban encroachment , or by pollution . Water rails have been eaten by humans for thousands of years ; they were eaten by the Romans , and depicted in wall paintings at Pompeii , and consumption continued through the Middle Ages to modern times .

= Red @-@ billed chough = The red @-@ billed chough , Cornish chough or simply chough ( / ˈtʃʌf / CHUFF ) ( Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax ) , is a bird in the crow family , one of only two species in the genus Pyrrhocorax . Its eight subspecies breed on mountains and coastal cliffs from the western coasts of Ireland and Britain east through southern Europe and North Africa to Central Asia , India and China . This bird has glossy black plumage , a long curved red bill , red legs , and a loud , ringing call . It has a buoyant acrobatic flight with widely spread primaries . The red @-@ billed chough pairs for life and displays fidelity to its breeding site , which is usually a cave or crevice in a cliff face . It builds a wool @-@ lined stick nest and lays three eggs . It feeds , often in flocks , on short grazed grassland , taking mainly invertebrate prey . Although it is subject to predation and parasitism , the main threat to this species is changes in agricultural practices , which have led to population decline , some local extirpation , and range fragmentation in Europe ; however , it is not threatened globally . The red @-@ billed chough , which derived its common name from the jackdaw , was formerly associated with fire @-@ raising , and has links with Saint Thomas Becket and Cornwall . The red @-@ billed chough has been depicted on postage stamps of a few countries , including the Isle of Man , with four different stamps , and The Gambia , where the bird does not occur . = = Taxonomy = = The red @-@ billed chough was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Upupa pyrrhocorax . It was moved to its current genus , Pyrrhocorax , by Marmaduke Tunstall in his 1771 Ornithologia Britannica . The genus name is derived from Greek πυρρός ( pyrrhos ) , " flame @-@ coloured " , and κόραξ ( korax ) , " raven " . The only other member of the genus is the Alpine chough , Pyrrhocorax graculus . The closest relatives of the choughs are the typical crows , Corvus , especially the jackdaws in the subgenus Coloeus . " Chough " was originally an alternative onomatopoeic name for the jackdaw , Corvus monedula , based on its call . The similar red @-@ billed species , formerly particularly common in Cornwall , became known initially as " Cornish chough " and then just " chough " , the name transferring from one species to the other . The Australian white @-@ winged chough , Corcorax melanorhamphos , despite its similar shape and habits , is only distantly related to the true choughs , and is an example of convergent evolution . = = = Subspecies = = = There are eight extant subspecies , although differences between them are slight . P. p. pyrrhocorax , the nominate subspecies and smallest form , is endemic to the British Isles , where it is restricted to Ireland , the Isle of Man , and the far west of Wales and Scotland , although it recolonised Cornwall in 2001 after an absence of 50 years . P. p. erythropthalmus , described by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1817 as Coracia erythrorhamphos , occurs in the red @-@ billed chough 's continental European range , excluding Greece . It is larger and slightly greener than the nominate race . P. p. barbarus , described by Charles Vaurie under its current name in 1954 , is resident in North Africa and on La Palma in the Canary Islands . Compared to P. p. erythropthalmus , it is larger , has a longer tail and wings , and its plumage has a greener gloss . It is the longest @-@ billed form , both absolutely and relatively . P. p. baileyi described by Austin Loomer Rand and Charles Vaurie under its current name in 1955 , is a dull @-@ plumaged subspecies endemic to Ethiopia , where it occurs in two separate areas . The two populations could possibly represent different subspecies . P. p. docilis , described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin as Corvus docilis in 1774 , breeds from Greece to Afghanistan . It is larger than the African subspecies , but it has a smaller bill and its plumage is very green @-@ tinted , with little gloss . P. p. himalayanus , described by John Gould in 1862 as Fregilus himalayanus , is found from the Himalayas to western China , but intergrades with P. p. docilis in the west of its range . It is the largest subspecies , long @-@ tailed , and with blue or purple @-@ blue glossed feathers . P. p. centralis , described by Erwin Stresemann in 1928 under its current name , breeds in Central Asia . It is smaller and less strongly blue than P. p. himalayanus , but its distinctness from the next subspecies has been questioned . P. p. brachypus , described by Robert Swinhoe in 1871 as Fregilus graculus var. brachypus , breeds in central and northern China , Mongolia and southern Siberia . It is similar to P. p. centralis but with a weaker bill . There is one known prehistoric form of the red @-@ billed chough . P. p. primigenius , a subspecies that lived in Europe during the last ice age , which was described in 1875 by Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards from finds in southwest France . Detailed analysis of call similarity suggests that the Asiatic and Ethiopian races diverged from the western subspecies early in evolutionary history , and that Italian red @-@ billed choughs are more closely allied to the North African subspecies than to those of the rest of Europe . = = Description = = The adult of the " nominate " subspecies of the red @-@ billed chough , P. p. pyrrhocorax , is 39 – 40 centimetres ( 15 – 16 inches ) in length , has a 73 – 90 centimetres ( 29 – 35 inches ) wingspan , and weighs an average 310 grammes ( 10 @.@ 9 oz ) . Its plumage is velvet @-@ black , green @-@ glossed on the body , and it has a long curved red bill and red legs . The sexes are similar ( although adults can be sexed in the hand using a formula involving tarsus length and bill width ) but the juvenile has an orange bill and pink legs until its first autumn , and less glossy plumage . The red @-@ billed chough is unlikely to be confused with any other species of bird . Although the jackdaw and Alpine chough share its range , the jackdaw is smaller and has unglossed grey plumage , and the Alpine chough has a short yellow bill . Even in flight , the two choughs can be distinguished by Alpine 's less rectangular wings , and longer , less square @-@ ended tail . The red @-@ billed chough 's loud , ringing chee @-@ ow call is clearer and louder than the similar vocalisation of the jackdaw , and always very different from that of its yellow @-@ billed congener , which has rippling preep and whistled sweeeooo calls . Small subspecies of the red @-@ billed chough have higher frequency calls than larger races , as predicted by the inverse relationship between body size and frequency . = = Distribution and habitat = = The red @-@ billed chough breeds in Ireland , western Great Britain , the Isle of Man , southern Europe and the Mediterranean basin , the Alps , and in mountainous country across Central Asia , India and China , with two separate populations in the Ethiopian Highlands . It is a non @-@ migratory resident throughout its range . Its main habitat is high mountains ; it is found between 2 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 and 8 @,@ 200 ft ) in North Africa , and mainly between 2 @,@ 400 and 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 7 @,@ 900 and 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in the Himalayas . In that mountain range it reaches 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 20 @,@ 000 feet ) in the summer , and has been recorded at 7 @,@ 950 metres ( 26 @,@ 080 feet ) altitude on Mount Everest . In Ireland , Great Britain and Brittany it also breeds on coastal sea cliffs , feeding on adjacent short grazed grassland or machair . It was formerly more widespread on coasts but has suffered from the loss of its specialised habitat . It tends to breed at a lower elevation than the Alpine chough , that species having a diet better adapted to high altitudes . = = Behaviour and ecology = = = = = Breeding = = = The red @-@ billed chough breeds from three years of age , and normally raises only one brood a year , although the age at first breeding is greater in large populations . A pair exhibits strong mate and site fidelity once a bond is established . The bulky nest is composed of roots and stems of heather , furze or other plants , and is lined with wool or hair ; in central Asia , the hair may be taken from live Himalayan tahr . The nest is constructed in a cave or similar fissure in a crag or cliff face . In soft sandstone , the birds themselves excavate holes nearly a metre deep . Old buildings may be used , and in Tibet working monasteries provide sites , as occasionally do modern buildings in Mongolian towns , including Ulaanbaatar . The red @-@ billed chough will utilise other artificial sites , such as quarries and mineshafts for nesting where they are available . The chough lays three to five eggs 3 @.@ 9 by 2 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 by 1 @.@ 1 inches ) in size and weighing 15 @.@ 7 grammes ( 0 @.@ 55 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . They are spotted , not always densely , in various shades of brown and grey on a creamy or slightly tinted ground . The egg size is independent of the clutch size and the nest site , but may vary between different females . The female incubates for 17 – 18 days before the altricial downy chicks are hatched , and is fed at the nest by the male . The female broods the newly hatched chicks for around ten days , and then both parents share feeding and nest sanitation duties . The chicks fledge 31 – 41 days after hatching . Juveniles have a 43 % chance of surviving their first year , and the annual survival rate of adults is about 80 % . Choughs generally have a lifespan of about seven years , although an age of 17 years has been recorded . The temperature and rainfall in the months preceding breeding correlates with the number of young fledging each year and their survival rate . Chicks fledging under good conditions are more likely to survive to breeding age , and have longer breeding lives than those fledging under poor conditions . = = = Feeding = = = The red @-@ billed chough 's food consists largely of insects , spiders and other invertebrates taken from the ground , with ants probably being the most significant item . The Central Asian subspecies P. p. centralis will perch on the backs of wild or domesticated mammals to feed on parasites . Although invertebrates make up most of the chough 's diet , it will eat vegetable matter including fallen grain , and in the Himalayas has been reported as damaging barley crops by breaking off the ripening heads to extract the corn . In the Himalayas , they form large flocks in winter . The preferred feeding habitat is short grass produced by grazing , for example by sheep and rabbits , the numbers of which are linked to the chough 's breeding success . Suitable feeding areas can also arise where plant growth is hindered by exposure to coastal salt spray or poor soils . It will use its long curved bill to pick ants , dung beetles and emerging flies off the surface , or to dig for grubs and other invertebrates . The typical excavation depth of 2 – 3 cm ( 1 – 1 in ) reflects the thin soils which it feeds on , and the depths at which many invertebrates occur , but it may dig to 10 – 20 cm ( 4 – 8 in ) in appropriate conditions . Where the two chough species occur together , there is only limited competition for food . An Italian study showed that the vegetable part of the winter diet for the red @-@ billed chough was almost exclusively Gagea bulbs , whilst the Alpine chough took berries and hips . In June , red @-@ billed choughs fed on Lepidoptera larvae whereas Alpine choughs ate cranefly pupae . Later in the summer , the Alpine chough mainly consumed grasshoppers , whilst the red @-@ billed chough added cranefly pupae , fly larvae and beetles to its diet . Both choughs will hide food in cracks and fissures , concealing the cache with a few pebbles . = = = Natural threats = = = The red @-@ billed chough 's predators include the peregrine falcon , golden eagle and Eurasian eagle @-@ owl , while the common raven will take nestlings . In northern Spain , red @-@ billed choughs preferentially nest near lesser kestrel colonies . This small insectivorous falcon is better at detecting a predator and more vigorous in defence than its corvid neighbours . The breeding success of the red @-@ billed chough in the vicinity of the kestrels was found to be much higher than that of birds elsewhere , with a lower percentage of nest failures ( 16 % near the falcon , 65 % elsewhere ) . This species is occasionally parasitised by the great spotted cuckoo , a brood parasite for which the Eurasian magpie is the primary host . Red @-@ billed choughs can acquire blood parasites such as Plasmodium , but a study in Spain showed that the prevalence was less than one percent , and unlikely to affect the life history and conservation of this species . These low levels of parasitism contrast with a much higher prevalence in some other passerine groups ; for example a study of thrushes in Russia showed that all the fieldfares , redwings and song thrushes sampled carried haematozoans , particularly Haemoproteus and Trypanosoma . Red @-@ billed choughs can also carry mites , but a study of the feather mite Gabucinia delibata , acquired by young birds a few months after fledging when they join communal roosts , suggested that this parasite actually improved the body condition of its host . It is possible that the feather mites enhance feather cleaning and deter pathogens , and may complement other feather care measures such as sunbathing , and anting — rubbing the plumage with ants ( the formic acid from the insects deters parasites ) . = = Status = = The red @-@ billed chough has an extensive range , estimated at 10 million square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 8 million sq mi ) , and a large population , including an estimated 86 @,@ 000 to 210 @,@ 000 individuals in Europe . Over its range as a whole , the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the global population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List ( i.e. , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) , and is therefore evaluated as least concern . However , the European range has declined and fragmented due to the loss of traditional pastoral farming , persecution and perhaps disturbance at breeding and nesting sites , although the numbers in France , Great Britain and Ireland may now have stabilised . The European breeding population is between 12 @,@ 265 – 17 @,@ 370 pairs , but only in Spain is the species still widespread . Since in the rest of the continent breeding areas are fragmented and isolated , the red @-@ billed chough has been categorised as " vulnerable " in Europe . In Spain , the red @-@ billed chough has recently expanded its range by utilising old buildings , with 1 @,@ 175 breeding pairs in a 9 @,@ 716 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 751 square miles ) mi ) study area . These new breeding areas usually surround the original montane core areas . However , the populations with nest sites on buildings are threatened by human disturbance , persecution and the loss of old buildings . Fossils of both chough species were found in the mountains of the Canary Islands . The local extinction of the Alpine chough and the reduced range of red @-@ billed chough in the islands may have been due to climate change or human activity . A small group of wild red @-@ billed chough arrived naturally in Cornwall in 2001 , and nested in the following year . This was the first English breeding record since 1947 , and a slowly expanding population has bred every subsequent year . In Jersey , the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust , in partnership with the States of Jersey and the National Trust for Jersey began a project in 2010 , aimed at restoring selected areas of Jersey 's coastline with the intention of returning those birds that had become locally extinct . The red @-@ billed chough was chosen as a flagship species for this project , having been absent from Jersey since around 1900 . Durrell initially received two pairs of choughs from Paradise Park in Cornwall and began a captive breeding programme . In 2012 , the red @-@ billed choughs were living free in the central valley area of Durrell Wildlife Park , and the Trust expects colonisation of the coastal areas of Jersey in the following years . = = In culture = = In Greek mythology , the red @-@ billed chough , also known as ' sea @-@ crow ' , was considered sacred to the Titan Cronus and dwelt on Calypso 's ' Blessed Island ' , where " The birds of broadest wing their mansions form / The chough , the sea @-@ mew , the loquacious crow . " The red @-@ billed chough has a long association with Cornwall , and appears on the Cornish coat of arms . According to Cornish legend King Arthur did not die after his last battle but rather his soul migrated into the body of a red @-@ billed chough , the red colour of its bill and legs being derived from the blood of the last battle and hence killing this bird was unlucky . Legend also holds that after the last Cornish chough departs from Cornwall , then the return of the chough , as happened in 2001 , will mark the return of King Arthur . Up to the eighteenth century , the red @-@ billed chough was associated with fire @-@ raising , and was described by William Camden as incendaria avis , " oftentime it secretly conveieth fire sticks , setting their houses afire " . Daniel Defoe was also familiar with this story : It is counted little better than a kite , for it is of ravenous quality , and is very mischievous ; it will steal and carry away any thing it finds about the house , that is not too heavy , tho ' not fit for its food ; as knives , forks , spoons and linnen cloths , or whatever it can fly away with , sometimes they say it has stolen bits of firebrands , or lighted candles , and lodged them in the stacks of corn , and the thatch of barns and houses , and set them on fire ; but this I only had by oral tradition . Not all mentions of " chough " refer to this species . Because of the origins of its name , when Shakespeare writes of " the crows and choughs that wing the midway air " [ King Lear , act 4 , scene 6 ] or Henry VIII 's Vermin Act of 1532 is " ordeyned to dystroye Choughes , Crowes and Rookes " , they are clearly referring to the jackdaw . Since at least the 14th century , Thomas Becket , Archbishop of Canterbury has been attributed a coat of arms consisting of three Cornish choughs on a silver field . The symbolism behind this is not known for certain ; according to one legend , a chough strayed into the cathedral during Becket 's murder , while another school of thought states that the choughs are a canting reference to Becket 's name , as they were once known as " beckits " . The latter theory does not stand up to scrutiny , as the use of the term " beckit " to mean a chough is not found before the 19th century . Regardless of its origin , the chough is still used in heraldry as a symbol of Becket , and appears in the arms of several persons and institutions associated with him , most prominently the city of Canterbury . This species has been depicted on the stamps of Bhutan , The Gambia , the Isle of Man , Turkmenistan and Yugoslavia .

= United States Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management = The United States Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management ( also known as the McClellan Committee ) was a select committee created by the United States Senate on January 30 , 1957 , and dissolved on March 31 , 1960 . The select committee was directed to study the extent of criminal or other improper practices in the field of labor @-@ management relations or in groups of employees or employers , and to suggest changes in the laws of the United States that would provide protection against such practices or activities . It conducted 253 active investigations , served 8 @,@ 000 subpoenas for witnesses and documents , held 270 days of hearings , took testimony from 1 @,@ 526 witnesses ( 343 of whom invoked the Fifth Amendment ) , and compiled almost 150 @,@ 000 pages of testimony . At the peak of its activity in 1958 , 104 persons worked for the committee . The select committee 's work led directly to the enactment of the Labor @-@ Management Reporting and Disclosure Act ( Public Law 86 @-@ 257 , also known as the Landrum @-@ Griffin Act ) on September 14 , 1959 . = = Background and creation = = In December 1952 , Robert F. Kennedy was appointed assistant counsel for the Committee on Government Operations by the then @-@ chairman of the committee , Senator Joseph McCarthy . Kennedy resigned in July 1953 , but rejoined the committee staff as chief minority counsel in February 1954 . When the Democrats regained the majority in January 1955 , Kennedy became the committee 's chief counsel . Soon thereafter , the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U.S. Senate Committee on Government Operations , under the leadership of Democratic Senator John L. McClellan ( chair of the committee and subcommittee ) , began holding hearings into labor racketeering . Much of the Permanent Subcommittee 's work focused on a scandal which emerged in 1956 in the powerful trade union , the International Brotherhood of Teamsters . In the mid @-@ 1950s , Midwestern Teamster leader Jimmy Hoffa began an effort to unseat Dave Beck , the union 's international president . In October 1955 , mobster Johnny Dio met with Hoffa in New York City and the two men conspired to create as many as 15 paper locals ( fake local unions which existed only on paper ) to boost Hoffa 's delegate totals . When the paper locals applied for charters from the international union , Hoffa 's political foes were outraged . A major battle broke out within the Teamsters over whether to charter the locals , and the media attention led to investigations by the U.S. Department of Justice and the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations . Beck and other Teamster leaders subsequently challenged the authority of the Permanent Subcommittee to investigate the union by arguing that the Senate 's Labor and Public Welfare Committee had jurisdiction over labor racketeering , not Government Operations . McClellan objected to the transfer of his investigation to the Labor Committee because he felt the Labor chairman , Senator John F. Kennedy , was too close to union leaders and would not thoroughly investigate organized labor . To solve its jurisdictional and political problems , the Senate established on January 30 , 1957 , an entirely new committee , the Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management , and gave it broad subpoena and investigative powers . The new select committee was given a year to complete its work , and charged with studying the extent of criminal or other improper practices in the field of labor @-@ management relations or in groups of employees or employers . Half the membership was drawn from the Committee on Government Operations and half from the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare . McClellan , Ervin , McCarthy , and Mundt were drawn from Government Operations , and Kennedy , McNamara , Ives , and Goldwater from Labor . An equal number of Democrats and Republicans sat on the Select Committee . Senator McClellan was named chair of the Select Committee , and Republican Senator Irving Ives of New York vice chair . Democrats and liberals , primarily , criticized the committee for not having a neutral attitude toward labor . Only three of the committee 's eight members looked on organized labor favorably , and only one of them ( Senator Patrick McNamara ) was strongly pro @-@ labor . The committee 's other five members were strongly pro @-@ management , and that included the Select Committee 's Southern conservative chair , John L. McClellan . McClellan hired Robert F. Kennedy as the subcommittee 's chief counsel and investigator . Kennedy , too , did not have a neutral opinion of labor unions . Appalled by stories he had heard about union intimidation on the West Coast , Kennedy undertook the chief counsel 's job determined to root out union malfeasance and with little knowledge or understanding of or even concern over management misbehavior . The biases of the Select Committee members and its chief counsel , some observers concluded , led the committee to view corruption in labor @-@ management relations as a problem with unions , not management , and management as nothing more than a victim . Senator McClellan gave Robert Kennedy extensive control over the scheduling of testimony , areas of investigation , and questioning of witnesses . This suited McClellan , a conservative Democrat and opponent of labor unions : Robert Kennedy would take the brunt of organized labor 's outrage , while McClellan would be free to pursue an anti @-@ labor legislative agenda once the hearings began to draw to a close . Republican members of the Select Committee voiced strong disagreement with McClellan 's decision to let Kennedy set the direction for the committee and ask most of the questions , but McClellan largely ignored their protests . Robert Kennedy proved to be an inexpert interrogator , fumbling questions and engaging in shouting matches with witnesses rather than laying out legal cases against them . McClellan and Kennedy 's goal had been to refer nearly all their investigations to the Justice Department for prosection , but the department refused to do so because it concluded that nearly all the legal cases were significantly flawed . A frustrated Robert Kennedy publicly complained about the Justice Department 's decisions in September 1958 . Chief Counsel Kennedy resolved to investigate a wide range of labor unions and corporations , including the International Brotherhood of Teamsters , the United Auto Workers ( UAW ) , Anheuser @-@ Busch , Sears , and Occidental Life Insurance . The Select Committee also established formal liaisons with the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , Internal Revenue Service , Federal Narcotics Bureau , Department of Labor , and other federal agencies as well as state and local offices and officials involved in law enforcement . = = Investigations = = The Select Committee focused its attention for most of 1957 on the Teamsters union . Teamsters President Dave Beck fled the country for a month to avoid its subpoenas before returning in March 1957 . The Select Committee had a difficult time investigating the Teamsters . Four of the paper locals were dissolved to avoid committee scrutiny , several Teamster staffers provided verbal testimony which differed substantially from their prior written statements ( the Select Committee eventually charged six of them with contempt of Congress ) , and union records were lost or destroyed ( allegedly on purpose ) . But , working with the FBI , the Select Committee electrified the nation when on February 22 , 1957 , wiretaps were played in public before a national television audience in which Dio and Hoffa discussed the creation of even more paper locals , including the establishment of a paper local to organize New York City 's 30 @,@ 000 taxi cab drivers and use the charter as a means of extorting money from a wide variety of employers . The 1957 hearings opened with a focus on corruption in Portland , Oregon , and featured the testimony of Portland crime boss Jim Elkins . With the support of 70 hours of taped conversations , Elkins described being approached by two Seattle gangsters about working with the Teamsters to take over Portland vice operations . The colorful testimony brought the committee 's investigations national media attention from the outset . As 1 @.@ 2 million viewers watched on live television , evidence was unearthed over the next few weeks of a mob @-@ sponsored plot in which Oregon Teamsters unions would seize control of the state legislature , state police , and state attorney general 's office through bribery , extortion and blackmail . On March 14 , 1957 , Jimmy Hoffa was arrested for allegedly trying to bribe an aide to the Select Committee . Hoffa denied the charges ( and was later acquitted ) , but the arrest trigged additional investigations and more arrests and indictments over the following weeks . Less than a week later , Beck admitted to receiving an interest @-@ free $ 300 @,@ 000 loan from the Teamsters which he had never repaid , and Select Committee investigators claimed that loans to Beck and other union officials ( and their businesses ) had cost the Teamsters more than $ 700 @,@ 000 . Beck appeared before the Select Committee for the first time on March 25 , 1957 , and notoriously invoked his Fifth Amendment right against self @-@ incrimination 117 times . Beck was called before the McClellan Committee again in May 1957 , and additional interest @-@ free loans and other potentially illegal and unethical financial transactions exposed . Based on these revelations , Beck was indicted for tax evasion on May 2 , 1957 . The Beck and Hoffa hearings generated strong criticisms of Robert Kennedy . Many liberal critics said he was a brow @-@ beater , badgerer , insolent , overbearing , intolerant , and even vicious . Hoffa and other witnesses often were able to anger Kennedy to the point where he lost control , and would shout and insult them . Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas , one of Robert Kennedy 's mentors and a close friend , criticized Kennedy for presuming the guilt of anyone who exercised his Fifth Amendment rights . Noted attorney Edward Bennett Williams accused the Select Committee of bringing witnesses into executive session , ascertaining that they would exercise their Fifth Amendment rights , and then force them to return in public and refuse to answer questions — merely to generate media attention . The Chicago American newspaper so strongly criticized Robert Kennedy for his overbearing , zealous behavior during the hearings that a worried Joseph P. Kennedy , Sr. rushed to Washington , D.C. to see for himself if Robert Kennedy was endangering John Kennedy 's political future . During much of the summer and fall of 1957 , the Select Committee investigated corruption in the Bakery Workers Union , United Textile Workers , Amalgamated Meat Cutters Union , and Transport Workers Union . In the late fall , the committee focused its attention on union @-@ busting , and examined the behavior of companies such as Morton Packing Company , Continental Baking Company , and Sears , Roebuck and Company . While continuing to investigate and hold hearings on other unions and corporations , the McClellan Committee also began to examine the behavior of Jimmy Hoffa and other Teamsters officials . Senator McClellan accused Hoffa of attempting to gain control of the nation 's economy and set himself up as a sort of private government . The Select Committee also accused Hoffa of instigating the creation of the paper locals , and of arranging for a $ 400 @,@ 000 loan to the graft @-@ ridden International Longshoremen 's Association in a bid to take over that union and gain Teamsters control of the waterfront as well as warehouses . Johnny Dio , who by late summer 1957 was in prison serving time on bribery and conspiracy charges , was paroled by a federal court in order to testify at the Select Committee 's hearings . But in a two @-@ hour appearance before the Select Committee , Dio invoked his Fifth Amendment right against self @-@ incrimination 140 times , and refused to answer any of the committee 's questions . But despite the problems encountered in interrogating Dio , the Select Committee developed additional testimony and evidence alleging widespread corruption in Hoffa @-@ controlled Teamster units was presented in public in August 1957 . The worsening corruption scandal led the AFL @-@ CIO to eject the Teamsters on December 6 , 1957 . As the Hoffa hearings occurred in August 1957 , the Select Committee met in executive session to restructure its organizations and set its agenda for the future . The Select Committee had succeeded in securing the removal of Beck as Teamsters president and seemed on the verge of sending Jimmy Hoffa to jail as well , but the Committee had also been strongly criticized for its handling of witnesses and its apparent one @-@ sidedness in exposing union but not management corruption . To guide the Select Committee 's investigations in the future , McClellan established a set of 11 areas of investigation for the committee , nine of which involved labor misdeeds and only one of which involved management misbehavior ( preventing workers from organizing unions ) . The management @-@ oriented area came last on the committee 's list of priorities , and there were no staff assigned to investigate the issue . Under the new guidelines , the Select Committee 's schedule of hearings slowed . In January 1958 , Chairman McClellan asked for and received permission from the Senate to extend the deadline for completing the committee 's work for another year . For a short time early in the year , the Select Committee investigated the International Union of Operating Engineers , and uncovered a limited financial scandal at the top of the union . But the main focus of the committee for the first half of the year was the United Auto Workers . Republicans on the Select Committee , notably Barry Goldwater , had for several months in late 1957 accused Robert Kennedy of covering up extensive corruption in the UAW . The Republicans pointed to a lengthy , ongoing , and sometimes violent strike which the UAW was conducting against the Kohler plumbing fixtures company in Wisconsin . Walter Reuther , President of the Auto Workers , told Select Committee investigators that the Kohler Company was committing numerous unfair labor practices against the union and that the union 's books were in order . Despite no evidence of any mismanagement or organized crime infiltration , Kennedy and McClellan went ahead with hearings on the UAW in February 1958 . The five @-@ week series of hearings produced no evidence of corruption . A second set of hearings into the UAW in September 1959 lasted just six days , and once more uncovered no evidence of UAW malfeasance . The September 1959 hearings were the last public hearings the embarrassed committee ever held . As the UAW hearings were winding down , the Select Committee issued its first Interim Report on March 24 , 1958 . The report roundly condemned Jimmy Hoffa ( by now President of the Teamsters ) and accused the Teamsters of gathering enough power to destroy the national economy . Refocusing its attention back on the Teamsters , the Select Committee held a short set of hearings in August 1958 intended to expose corruption by the Hoffa regime . But a number of witnesses recanted their written testimony and the hearings led nowhere . In February 1959 , the Select Committee 's attention turned to an investigation of organized crime . McClellan had won yet another one @-@ year extension of the Select Committee 's existence in January , giving it additional time for more investigations . This new focus was a natural outgrowth of the committee 's previous investigations , but it also reflected the committee 's frustration at uncovering no additional scandals like the one which had rocked the Teamsters . Through much of the spring and summer of 1959 , the committee held a series of public hearings which brought a number of organized crime figures to the public 's attention , including Anthony Corrallo , Vito Genovese , Anthony Provenzano , Joey Glimco , Sam Giancana , and Carlos Marcello . Although more muted and less frequent , criticisms of the Select Committee and Robert Kennedy continued . Kennedy 's moralism about labor racketeering , several high @-@ profile critics concluded , even endangered the Constitution . Although McClellan wanted to further investigate organized crime , the Select Committee had reached the limits of its jurisdiction and no further investigations were made . By September 1959 , it was clear that the Select Committee was not developing additional information to justify continued operation . A second interim report was released in August 1959 once again denouncing the Teamsters and Jimmy Hoffa . Robert F. Kennedy resigned as the Select Committee 's chief counsel on September 11 , 1959 , and joined Senator John F. Kennedy 's presidential campaign as campaign manager . Committee members became more involved in passing legislation to deal with the abuses uncovered . Although his committee had already been dissolved by 1960 , McClellan began a related three @-@ year investigation in 1963 into the union benefit plans of labor leader George Barasch , alleging misuse and diversion of $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of benefit funds . McClellan 's notable failure to find any legal wrongdoing led to his introduction of several pieces of new legislation including McClellan 's own bill on October 12 , 1965 setting new fiduciary standards for plan trustees . Senator Jacob K. Javits ( R ) of New York also introduced bills in 1965 and 1967 increasing regulation on welfare and pension funds to limit the control of plan trustees and administrators . Provisions from all three bills ultimately evolved into the guidelines enacted in the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 ( ERISA ) . = = Disbandment and legislative and other outcomes = = The final report of the Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management was issued on March 31 , 1960 . At that time , the authority granted by the Senate to the Select Committee was transferred to the Committee on Government Operations . During its existence , the Select Committee conducted 253 active investigations , served 8 @,@ 000 subpoenas for witnesses and documents , held 270 days of hearings with 1 @,@ 526 witnesses ( 343 of whom invoked the Fifth Amendment ) , compiled almost 150 @,@ 000 pages of testimony , and issued two interim and one final report . At its peak , 104 persons were engaged in the work of the committee , including 34 field investigators . Another 58 staffers were delegated to the committee by the Government Accounting Office and worked in Detroit , Chicago , New York City , and southern Florida . To accommodate the huge staff , a corridor was blocked off in the Old Senate Office Building and turned into a suite of offices . Some observers continued to criticize the Select Committee . In 1961 , Yale Law professor Alexander Bickel accused Kennedy of being punitive and battering witnesses , compared his tactics to those of Joseph McCarthy , and declared Kennedy unfit to be Attorney General . At the turn of the century , historians and biographers continued to criticize the Select Committee 's lack of respect for the constitutional rights of witnesses brought before it . = = = Legislative and legal outcomes = = = Several historic legal developments came out of the select committee 's investigation , including a U.S. Supreme Court decision and landmark labor legislation . The right of union officials to exercise their Fifth Amendment rights was upheld and a significant refinement of constitutional law made when the U.S. Supreme Court reaffirmed the right of union officials to not divulge the location of union records in Curcio v. United States , 354 U.S. 118 ( 1957 ) . The scandals uncovered by the Select Committee led directly to passage of the Labor @-@ Management Reporting and Disclosure Act ( also known as the Landrum @-@ Griffin Act ) in 1959 . Calls for legislation and drafts of bills began circulating in the Senate as early as May 1957 . Among the more prominent bills was one submitted in 1958 by Senators John F. Kennedy and Irving Ives ( with assistance from nationally @-@ known labor law professor Archibald Cox ) which covered 30 areas , including union recordkeeping , finances , and democratic organizational structures and rules . The Kennedy @-@ Ives bill proved immensely controversial , leading to the longest Senate debate of the year , and the greatest number of amendments and floor votes any piece of legislation that year . But President Dwight D. Eisenhower opposed the bill and it died when the Congressional session ended in December 1958 . Kennedy reintroduced the bill , with some additional provisions , in 1959 . Although Ives had retired from the Senate , Senator Sam Ervin agreed to co @-@ sponsor the revised bill . The Kennedy @-@ Ervin bill also encountered stiff opposition , and Republicans were able to win Senate approval of a management " bill of rights " to the bill which labor strongly denounced . But with this and other Republican @-@ backed amendments , the bill passed the Senate overwhelmingly . By 1959 the Eisenhower administration had crafted its own bill , which was co @-@ sponsored in the House of Representatives by Phillip M. Landrum ( Democrat from Georgia ) and Robert P. Griffin ( Republican from Michigan ) . The Landrum @-@ Griffin bill contained much stricter financial reporting and fiduciary restrictions than the Kennedy @-@ Ervin bill as well as several unrelated provisions restricting union organizing , picketing , and boycott activity . A conference committee to reconcile the House and Senate bills began meeting on August 18 , 1959 . On September 3 and 4 , the House and Senate passed the conference committee bill , which was far closer to the original Landrum @-@ Griffin bill than the Kennedy @-@ Ervin bill , and President Eisenhower signed the bill into law on September 14 , 1959 . After the Select Committee 's mandate expired , Senator McClellan and others advocated that the Senate expand the jurisdiction of one or more committees not only to provide oversight of the new labor law but also to continue the Senate 's investigations into organized crime . McClellan originally sought jurisdiction for his own Committee on Government Operations , but members of his committee balked at the request . However , McClellan was able to convince the full Senate to impose jurisdiction on Government Operations , and the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations began making inquiries into matters pertaining to syndicated or organized crime . = = = Impact on key participants = = = The national attention paid to Robert F. Kennedy during the Select Committee 's hearings helped launch his career as a government official and politician . It also earned him a reputation for ruthlessness and hard work . His experiences with the Select Committee significantly affected Robert Kennedy , and strongly influenced his decision to make fighting organized crime a high priority during his tenure as United States Attorney General . After leaving the Select Committee , Robert F. Kennedy spent the better part of a year writing about his experiences and what he had learned about unions and organized crime . Kennedy 's book , The Enemy Within , was published in February 1960 . The hearings also made Jimmy Hoffa a household name in the United States . The hearings were a critical turning point in Hoffa 's career as a labor leader . Bringing down Dave Beck ensured that Hoffa would become president of the Teamsters , an outcome Robert Kennedy later regretted . Although Hoffa was indicted several times in federal and state courts based on evidence uncovered by the Select Committee , he was never convicted on any of the charges . Prosecutors and others accused Hoffa of jury tampering and suborning witnesses in order to beat conviction , but these charges also were never proven in a court of law . After he became U.S. Attorney General in January 1961 , Robert F. Kennedy formed a " get Hoffa squad " whose mission was to identify additional evidence and secure a conviction against Hoffa . Kennedy 's focus on Hoffa was so strong that many observers at the time as well as later historians believed Kennedy had a personal vendetta against Hoffa . Hoffa was eventually convicted by a federal district court jury on March 4 , 1964 , on two counts of tampering with the jury during his 1962 conspiracy trial in Nashville , Tennessee , and sentenced to eight years in prison and a $ 10 @,@ 000 fine . While on bail during his appeal , a second federal district court jury convicted Hoffa on July 26 , 1964 , on one count of conspiracy and three counts of mail and wire fraud . Hoffa entered prison on March 7 , 1967 , and Frank Fitzsimmons was named Acting President of the union . Hoffa resigned as Teamsters president on July 9 , 1971 . Barred by a commutation of sentence agreement from participating directly or indirectly in union activities until 1980 , Hoffa was released from prison on December 23 , 1971 , but disappeared on July 30 , 1975 ( and was presumably murdered ) . The hearings had positive benefits for other key participants as well . The Kennedy @-@ Ives bill was Senator John F. Kennedy 's most important legislative accomplishment , and although it was not enacted into law many Senators nonetheless revised their opinion and now saw him as a serious legislator . This helped remove a major obstacle to Kennedy 's political aspirations . Kennedy also used the publicity he gained from the Select Committee 's work to launch his own presidential bid in 1960 . The work of the Select Committee also was a key turning point in the Senate career of John L. McClellan . McClellan devoted significant time and resources of the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations ( of which he was chair ) to pushing anti @-@ organized crime agenda in 1960s , and his efforts kept the issue alive despite the prominence of other issues such as the civil rights movement and Vietnam War . When limited jurisdiction over organized crime was transferred to the Committee on Government Operations after the disbandment of the Select Committee , Senator McClellan held a number of sensational hearings on organized crime from 1960 to 1964 which became known as the Valachi Hearings . In 1962 , McClellan published his own account of the Select Committee 's activities and findings in the book Crime Without Punishment . The senator sponsored several pieces of important anti @-@ crime legislation in the 1960s and early 1970s , including the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 and the Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 ( part of which contains the highly influential Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act ) . = = Members = = = = = 85th United States Congress = = = The Select Committee 's chair was Senator John L. McClellan , and the vice chair was Senator Irving Ives . An equal number of Democrats and Republicans sat on the committee . Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy died on May 2 , 1957 , and was replaced by Republican Senator Homer E. Capehart . Democratic Senator Patrick McNamara resigned from the committee on March 31 , 1958 , to protest the Select Committee 's rough treatment of union witnesses . He was replaced by Democratic Senator Frank Church . = = = 86th United States Congress = = = The Select Committee 's chair was Senator John L. McClellan . With the retirement of Senator Irving Ives from the Senate in December 1958 , the new Vice Chair became Senator Karl E. Mundt . Senator Homer E. Capehart joined the committee to keep the partisan balance . = = = Chairmen and staff = = = Senator John L. McClellan ( D @-@ Arkansas ) was the committee 's only chair for its entire history . At the peak of its activity in 1958 , 104 persons worked for the committee , including 34 field investigators . Another 58 staff were loaned to the committee from the General Accounting Office . Committee staff included : Robert F. Kennedy , Chief Counsel . Carmine Bellino , Chief Assistant to the Chief Counsel . Angela Novello , Personal Secretary to the Chief Counsel . Robert E. Manuel , Assistant Counsel . Walter Sheridan , Chief Investigator . Paul Tierney , investigator . LaVern J. Duffy , investigator . Richard G. Sinclair , investigator . James F. Mundie , investigator . John T. Thiede , investigator . Ruth Y. Watt , Chief Clerk . Kenneth O 'Donnell , administrative assistant . Pierre Salinger , investigator . John Seigenthaler , investigator . Edwin Guthman , investigator .

= USS Massachusetts ( BB @-@ 2 ) = USS Massachusetts ( BB @-@ 2 ) was an Indiana @-@ class battleship and the second United States Navy ship comparable to foreign battleships of the time . Authorized in 1890 and commissioned six years later , she was a small battleship , though with heavy armor and ordnance . The ship class also pioneered the use of an intermediate battery . She was designed for coastal defense and as a result her decks were not safe from high waves on the open ocean . Massachusetts served in the Spanish – American War ( 1898 ) as part of the Flying Squadron and took part in the blockades of Cienfuegos and Santiago de Cuba . She missed the decisive Battle of Santiago de Cuba after steaming to Guantánamo Bay the night before to resupply coal . After the war she served with the North Atlantic Squadron , performing training maneuvers and gunnery practice . During this period she suffered an explosion in an 8 @-@ inch gun turret , killing nine , and ran aground twice , requiring several months of repair both times . She was decommissioned in 1906 for modernization . Although considered obsolete in 1910 , the battleship was recommissioned and used for annual cruises for midshipmen during the summers and otherwise laid up in the reserve fleet until her decommissioning in 1914 . In 1917 she was recommissioned to serve as a training ship for gun crews during World War I. She was decommissioned for the final time in March 1919 under the name Coast Battleship Number 2 so that her name could be reused for USS Massachusetts ( BB @-@ 54 ) . In 1921 she was scuttled in shallow water off the coast of Pensacola , Florida and then used as a target for experimental artillery . The ship was never scrapped and in 1956 it was declared the property of the state of Florida . Since 1993 the wreck has been a Florida Underwater Archaeological Preserve and is included in the National Register of Historic Places . It serves as an artificial reef and diving spot . = = Design and construction = = Massachusetts was constructed from a modified version of a design drawn up by a policy board in 1889 for a short @-@ range battleship . The original design was part of an ambitious naval construction plan to build 33 battleships and 167 smaller ships . The United States Congress saw the plan as an attempt to end the U.S. policy of isolationism and did not approve it , but a year later approved funding for three coast defense battleships , which would become Massachusetts and her sister ships Indiana and Oregon . The ships were limited to coastal defense due to their moderate endurance , relatively small displacement and low freeboard , or distance from the deck to the water , which limited seagoing capability . They were however heavily armed and armored ; Conway 's All The World 's Fighting Ships describes their design as " attempting too much on a very limited displacement . " Construction of the ships was authorized on 30 June 1890 and the contract for Massachusetts — not including guns and armor — was awarded to William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia , who offered to build it for $ 3 @,@ 020 @,@ 000 . The total cost of the ship was almost twice as high , approximately $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The contract specified the ship had to be built in three years , but slow delivery of armor plates and guns caused a delay . Her keel was laid down on 25 June 1891 and she was launched two years later on 10 June 1893 . The launching ceremony was attended by thousands of people , including Secretary of the Navy Hilary A. Herbert and commander George Dewey . Her preliminary sea trial did not take place until March 1896 because of the delays in armor and gun deliveries . At this point Massachusetts was almost complete , and her official trial was held a month later . = = Service history = = = = = Early career = = = Massachusetts was commissioned on 10 June 1896 with Captain Frederick Rodgers in command . She had her shakedown cruise between August and November 1896 , followed by an overhaul at the New York Navy Yard . In February 1897 she made a short voyage to Charleston , South Carolina . The battleship departed New York again in May for Boston , where a celebration in her honor was held . For the next ten months the warship participated in training maneuvers with the North Atlantic Squadron off the coast of Florida and visited several major ports on the American east coast . On 27 March 1898 , she was ordered to Hampton Roads to join the Flying Squadron under Commodore Winfield Scott Schley for the blockade of Cuba . = = = Spanish – American War = = = After the outbreak of the Spanish – American War the Flying Squadron steamed to Key West . There Schley met with Rear Admiral Sampson , who had just returned from the bombardment of San Juan , Puerto Rico . They discussed the possible locations of the Spanish squadron under Admiral Cervera , and Schley was sent to the harbor of Cienfuegos , Cuba to look for Cervera . Schley arrived off Cienfuegos on 22 May and took several days to establish that Cervera 's ships were not in the harbor . The squadron then proceeded to Santiago de Cuba , the only other port on the southern coast of Cuba large enough for the Spanish ships , arriving after several delays on 29 May . On arrival , the Spanish cruiser Cristóbal Colón was visible from outside the harbor entrance , confirming that the Spanish fleet was in the harbor . Schley blockaded the harbor and informed Sampson , who arrived with his own squadron on 1 June and assumed overall command . During the next month Massachusetts took part in the blockade of Santiago , occasionally bombarding the harbor forts . On the night of 2 – 3 July she and the two cruisers New Orleans and Newark left the blockade to load coal in Guantanamo Bay . This caused her to miss the Battle of Santiago de Cuba on 3 July , in which the Spanish fleet attempted to break through the blockade and was completely destroyed . The next day the battleship came back to Santiago , where she and Texas fired at the disarmed Spanish cruiser Reina Mercedes , which was being scuttled by the Spanish in an attempt to block the harbor entrance channel . Massachusetts was then sent to Puerto Rico to support the American occupation until she steamed home to New York on 1 August , arriving on 20 August . = = = Post Spanish – American War = = = After a quick overhaul in drydock , Massachusetts was attempting to leave New York Harbor on 10 December 1898 when she struck Diamond Reef , flooding five of her forward compartments . She was forced to return to the navy yard , where she was placed in drydock again for repairs which took around three months . For a year Massachusetts served with the North Atlantic Squadron , visiting various cities on the Atlantic coast . In May 1900 , she and Indiana were placed in reserve as the navy had an acute officer shortage and needed to put the new Kearsarge @-@ class and Illinois @-@ class battleships into commission . The battleships were reactivated the following month as an experiment in how quickly this could be achieved , and Massachusetts returned to service with the North Atlantic Squadron . In March 1901 the battleship grounded again , this time in the harbor of Pensacola , Florida , but the ship was able to continue her trip . A more serious accident occurred during target practice in January 1903 , when an explosion in an 8 @-@ inch turret killed nine crew members . They were the first fatalities aboard a United States battleship since the sinking of the Maine . Another accident happened in August of that year , when Massachusetts grounded on a rock in Frenchman Bay , Maine . The ship was seriously damaged and had to be repaired in drydock . In December 1904 yet another lethal accident took place aboard Massachusetts : three men were killed and several others badly burned when a broken gasket caused steam to fill the boiler room . On 8 January 1906 the battleship was decommissioned and her crew was transferred to her sister ship Indiana , which had completed a three @-@ year modernization . Massachusetts now received the same upgrades , including twelve 3 " / 50 caliber gun single @-@ purpose guns to replace the 6 @-@ inch and most of the lighter guns , new Babcock & Wilcox boilers , counterweights to balance her main turrets , a lattice mast and electric traversing mechanisms for her turrets . On 2 May 1910 Massachusetts was placed in reduced commission so she could be used for the annual Naval Academy midshipmen summer cruise . Despite her modernizations the battleship was now regarded as " obsolete and worthless , even for the second line of defense " by Secretary of the Navy George von Lengerke Meyer . She saw little use other than summer cruises and was transferred to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet when it was formed in 1912 . After a quick trip to New York for a Presidential Fleet Review in October 1912 , the warship returned to Philadelphia and stayed there until she was decommissioned on 23 May 1914 . = = = World War I and beyond = = = After the United States entered World War I Massachusetts was recommissioned for the final time on 9 June 1917 . She was used by Naval Reserve gun crews for gunnery training in Block Island Sound until 27 May 1918 . The battleship was then redeployed to serve as a heavy gun target practice ship near Chesapeake Bay until the end of World War I. Massachusetts returned to Philadelphia on 16 February 1919 . She was decommissioned for the final time on 31 March 1919 , after being re @-@ designated “ Coast Battleship Number 2 ” two days earlier so her name could be reused for Massachusetts ( BB @-@ 54 ) . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 22 November 1920 and loaned to the War Department , then used as a target ship for experimental artillery . She was scuttled in shallow water off Pensacola in January 1921 and bombarded by the coastal batteries of Fort Pickens and by railway artillery . She was returned on 20 February 1925 to the navy , which offered her for scrap , but no acceptable bids were received . Another attempt to scrap her was made in 1956 , but the state prevented this . Eventually the ship was declared the property of the State of Florida by the Supreme Court of Florida . On 10 June 1993 — the centennial anniversary of her launching — the site became the fourth Florida Underwater Archaeological Preserve . In 2001 the wreck was also added to the National Register of Historic Places , and it still serves as an artificial reef and diving spot .

= Sukhoi Su @-@ 35 = The Sukhoi Su @-@ 35 ( Russian : Сухой Су @-@ 35 ; NATO reporting name : Flanker @-@ E ) is a designation for two separate , heavily upgraded derivatives of the Su @-@ 27 ' Flanker ' jet plane . They are single @-@ seat , twin @-@ engine , supermaneuverable multirole fighters , designed by Sukhoi and built by Komsomolsk @-@ on @-@ Amur Aircraft Production Association ( KnAAPO ) . The first variant was designed during the 1980s , when Sukhoi sought to upgrade its high @-@ performance Su @-@ 27 , and was initially known as the Su @-@ 27M . Later re @-@ designated Su @-@ 35 , this derivative incorporated aerodynamic refinements with increased manoeuvrability , enhanced avionics , longer range , and more powerful engines . The first Su @-@ 35 prototype , converted from a Su @-@ 27 , made its maiden flight in June 1988 . More than a dozen of these were built , some of which were used by the Russian Knights aerobatic demonstration team . The first Su @-@ 35 design was later modified into the Su @-@ 37 , which possessed thrust vectoring engines and was used as a technology demonstrator . A sole Su @-@ 35UB two @-@ seat trainer was built in the late 1990s that strongly resembled the Su @-@ 30MK family . In 2003 , Sukhoi embarked on a second modernization of the Su @-@ 27 to produce what the company calls a 4 + + generation fighter that would bridge the gap between legacy fighters and the upcoming fifth @-@ generation Sukhoi PAK FA . This derivative , while omitting the canards and air brake , incorporates a reinforced airframe , improved avionics and radar , thrust @-@ vectoring engines , and a reduced frontal radar signature . In 2008 the revamped variant , erroneously named the Su @-@ 35BM in the media , began its flight test programme that would involve four prototypes , one of which was lost in 2009 . The Russian Air Force has ordered 98 production units , designated Su @-@ 35S , of the newly revamped Su @-@ 35 . Both Su @-@ 35 models are marketed to many countries , including Brazil , China , India , Indonesia , and South Korea ; China ordered the Su @-@ 35 in late 2015 . Sukhoi originally projected that it would export more than 160 units of the second modernized Su @-@ 35 worldwide . = = Design and development = = = = = Upgraded Su @-@ 27 = = = In the early 1980s , while the Su @-@ 27 was entering service with the Soviet Air Forces , Sukhoi looked to develop a follow @-@ on variant . Originally designated " Su @-@ 27M " and known internally as the " T10 @-@ M " , it would be much more agile and feature greatly improved avionics compared to the aircraft considered to be the best contemporary fighter . It was also to carry more armament to improve its Air @-@ to @-@ ground weaponry capabilities . The improved variant , the development of which began in the early 1980s , featured a host of changes in aerodynamics , avionics , powerplants , and construction methods , as well as increasing payload capacity . High @-@ strength composites and Aluminium @-@ lithium alloys were used to reduce weight and boost internal fuel volume . One of the distinguishing features of this early design were the canards , which improved airflow over the wings , eliminating buffeting and allowing the aircraft to fly at an angle of attack of 120 ° . These canards were governed by a new digital fly @-@ by @-@ wire flight @-@ control system . The aircraft was fitted with the Luylka AL @-@ 31FM ( AL @-@ 35F ) turbofan engine which is larger , more reliable and , with a thrust of 125 kN ( 28 @,@ 200 lbf ) , more powerful than those found on the Su @-@ 27 . Also new was the fire @-@ control system , at the heart of which is the N011 pulse @-@ Doppler radar , which could track up to 15 aerial targets simultaneously and guide up to six missiles simultaneously . The tail " stinger " houses the Phazotron N @-@ 012 rear @-@ facing radar . The aircraft could carry various bombs ( including napalm , dumb and Cluster munitions ) and both air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles ; and had two additional underwing pylons . The cockpit was modernized , equipped with multi @-@ function colour LCD screens , and fitted with a K @-@ 36DM ejection seat inclined at 30 ° to improve pilot g @-@ force tolerance . Range was increased to 4 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 222 nmi ) , the adoption of an aerial refuelling probe enables further range extension . The aircraft was characterized by its twin nose wheel – as a result of higher payload – and larger tail fins with Carbon @-@ fiber @-@ reinforced polymer square @-@ topped tips . = = = Testing and demonstration = = = The Su @-@ 27M ( T @-@ 10S @-@ 70 ) prototype first flew on 28 June 1988 piloted by Sukhoi chief test pilot Oleg Tsoi . The first prototype differed slightly from later examples in : retaining standard Su @-@ 27 vertical stabilizers without the cropped top ; lacking a fire @-@ control system ; having a three @-@ tone grey / blue camouflage scheme , along with minor differences . Designated T10M @-@ 1 to T10M @-@ 10 , the first ten prototypes were built by Komsomolsk @-@ on @-@ Amur Aircraft Production Association ( KnAAPO ) in conjunction with Sukhoi ( as the Soviet military @-@ industrial structure separated the aircraft designer and manufacturer ) . They differed slightly , as four were converted from Su @-@ 27s , and the others were new @-@ builds . The second prototype started flying in January 1989 , while the third followed in mid @-@ 1992 . The prototypes were used to validate the canards and new flight @-@ control system . In 1990 , the first prototype was displayed to Ministry of Defence officials at Kubinka Air Base . The aircraft first aerial demonstration occurred on 13 February 1992 , in front of CIS leaders in Machulishi , Minsk , before making its public debut at that year 's Farnborough Airshow . The third prototype , T10M @-@ 3 , appeared at the Dubai Airshow in 1993 , by which time Sukhoi had re @-@ designated its fighter the " Su @-@ 35 " . T10M @-@ 3 demonstrated its dogfight manoeuvres , including the Pugachev 's Cobra , to potential export customers . Viktor Pugachyov subsequently piloted the prototype in a mock fight with an Su @-@ 30MK . The Su @-@ 35 performed at numerous air shows during the following years , including at the 1993 and 1995 MAKS Airshows and the 1994 ILA Berlin Air Show . In addition to Su @-@ 27 conversions , three production Su @-@ 35s were completed in 1996 and delivered to Russian Air Force ( VVS ) for testing . Throughout the Su @-@ 35 's flight test programme , active controls during manoeuvres such as the Pugachev 's Cobra and tailslide could not be maintained . The eleventh Su @-@ 27M ( T10M @-@ 11 ) was built by KnAAPO and delivered in 1995 for the installation of exclusive systems to give it thrust @-@ vectoring capabilities . The resultant Su @-@ 37 technology demonstrator made its first flight in April 1996 . A second Su @-@ 35 was modified into an Su @-@ 37 in the late 1990s . In 2001 , AL @-@ 31F engines with fixed nozzles , an upgraded fly @-@ by @-@ wire controls , and improved cockpit systems were fitted to a Su @-@ 37 for testing . In total , 15 airworthy Su @-@ 35s ( Su @-@ 27M ) were produced , including an Su @-@ 35UB two @-@ seat prototype , along with two static test prototypes . The Su @-@ 35UB , powered by two modified AL @-@ 31FPs with thrust @-@ vectoring nozzles , made its first flight on 7 August 2000 . It was demonstrated to South Korea during that country 's F @-@ X replacement fighter tender , before becoming an avionics testbed . The original Su @-@ 35 never entered serial production due to a lack of funding , and the VVS continued to use its Su @-@ 27 fleet . The Su @-@ 35 's automatic control of canards and the Su @-@ 37 's thrust @-@ vectoring technology were applied to the Sukhoi Su @-@ 30MKI . One of the Su @-@ 35s , T10M @-@ 10 , served as a testbed for the Saturn 117 ( AL @-@ 41F1 ) engine intended for Russia 's upcoming PAK FA fifth @-@ generation jet fighter . = = = Modernization = = = In 2003 , even as Russia aimed to export the Su @-@ 27M , Sukhoi launched a project to produce a fighter to bridge the gap between upgraded variants of the Su @-@ 27 and Su @-@ 30MK , and Russia 's fifth @-@ generation Sukhoi PAK FA . The project 's aim was a second modernization of the Su @-@ 27 airframe ( hence its classification as a " 4 + + generation fighter " ) by incorporating several characteristics that would be implemented on the PAK FA . Additionally , the aircraft was to be an alternative to the Su @-@ 30 family on the export market . The design phase was to take place until 2007 , when it would be available for sale . It was later reported that the programme was launched due to concerns that the PAK FA project would encounter funding shortages . The project 's in @-@ house designation is T @-@ 10BM ( Bolshaya Modernizatsiya , " Big Modernization " ) while the aircraft is marketed as the Su @-@ 35 . While the aircraft maintains a strong superficial resemblance to the Su @-@ 27 , the airframe , avionics , propulsion and weapons systems of the Su @-@ 35 have been thoroughly overhauled . Technological advancements have produced more compact and lighter hardware , such as the radar , shifting the centre of gravity to the aircraft 's rear . These improvements removed the need for canards and saw the abandonment of the " tandem triplane " featured on several Su @-@ 27 derivatives . Also omitted was the Su @-@ 27 's dorsal airbrake , which was replaced by differential deflection of the vertical stabilizers . Other aerodynamic refinements include a height reduction of the vertical stabilizers , a smaller aft @-@ cockpit hump , and shorter rearward @-@ projecting " sting " . The reinforced airframe sees extensive use of titanium alloys , increasing its durability to some 30 years or 6 @,@ 000 service hours , and raising the maximum takeoff weight to 34 @.@ 5 tonnes . Internal fuel capacity was increased by more than 20 % to 11 @.@ 5 tonnes , and could be raised to 14 @.@ 5 tonnes with the addition of drop tanks ; in @-@ flight refueling can also be used to extend missions . Sukhoi has overhauled the avionics suite , at the heart of which is the information management system that enhances man @-@ machine interaction . The system , which has two digital computers , collects and processes data from various tactical and flight @-@ control systems and presents the relevant information to the pilot through the two main multi @-@ function displays , which , together with three secondary MFDs , form the glass cockpit . The aircraft features many other upgrades to its avionics and electronic systems , including digital fly @-@ by @-@ wire flight @-@ control system , and the pilot is equipped with a head @-@ up display and night @-@ vision goggles . The Su @-@ 35 employs an Irbis @-@ E passive electronically scanned array radar that constitutes an essential component of the aircraft 's fire @-@ control system . The radar is capable of detecting a 3 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 32 sq ft ) aerial target at a distance of 400 km ( 250 mi ) , and can track 30 airborne targets and engage eight of them at the same time . Su @-@ 35S uses the N135 Irbis passive antenna array with electronic scanning radar for improved locating . The radar can also map the ground using a variety of modes , including the synthetic aperture mode . The Irbis @-@ E is complemented by an OLS @-@ 35 optoelectronic targeting system that provides laser ranging , TV , Infra @-@ red search and track ( IRST ) functionality . The Su @-@ 35 is compatible with a multitude of long- and short @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , precision and unguided air @-@ to @-@ ground weaponry that include missiles , fuel @-@ air bombs and rockets . A maximum weapon payload of 8 tonnes can be carried on the fourteen hardpoints . The fighter may use missiles with a range of up to 300 km The Su @-@ 35 is powered by a pair of izdeliye ( Product ) 117S ( AL @-@ 41F1S ) turbofan engines . Developed jointly by Sukhoi , NPO Saturn and UMPO , the engine is a heavily upgraded AL @-@ 31F variant , and draws on the design of the fifth @-@ generation PAK FA 's Saturn 117 ( AL @-@ 41F1 ) engines . Its thrust output is estimated at 142 kN ( 31 @,@ 900 lbf ) , 20 kN ( 4 @,@ 500 lbf ) more than the Su @-@ 27M 's AL @-@ 31F . It has a service life of 4 @,@ 000 hours , compared to the AL @-@ 31F 's 1 @,@ 500 ; the two engines feature thrust @-@ vectoring capability . Each thrust vectoring ( TVC ) nozzle has its rotational axis canted at an angle , similar to the configuration on the Su @-@ 30MKI . The thrust vectoring nozzles operate in one plane for pitch , but the canting allows the aircraft to produce both roll and yaw by vectoring each engine nozzle differently . A similar thrust vectoring system is also implemented on the PAK FA . The engine may give the Su @-@ 35 limited supercruise capability , or sustained supersonic speed without the use of afterburners . Radar @-@ absorbent material is applied to the engine inlets and the front stages of the engine compressor to halve the Su @-@ 35 's frontal radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) ; the canopy was also modified to deflect radar waves . = = = Production and flight testing = = = Design work on the Su @-@ 35 had been completed by 2007 , paving the way for KnAAPO to construct the first prototype in the summer of 2007 . Upon completion , Su @-@ 35 @-@ 1 was ferried to the Gromov Flight Research Institute in Zhukovsky Airfield before being placed on static display at that year 's MAKS air show . At the time , Sukhoi General Designer Mikhail Pogosyan commented that the aircraft was in great demand abroad , saying Russia was negotiating with several prospective customers and that there were plans to export the aircraft starting in 2010 . Preparations began for the aircraft 's maiden flight immediately following the air show . Particular efforts were made to debug the flight @-@ control system and test the engine . By mid @-@ February 2008 , Su @-@ 35 @-@ 1 had been rolled out to conduct taxiing tests . On 19 February , Sukhoi test pilot Sergey Bogdan took the aircraft aloft for its first flight from Zhukovsky , accompanied by an Su @-@ 30MK2 acting as a chase plane . During the 55 @-@ minute flight , the Su @-@ 35 reached a height of 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) , and tests were carried out on its stability , controllability and engines . The prototype was put on static display for President Vladimir Putin and Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev the following day . Approximately 40 flights were conducted before the second prototype took to the air on 2 October from KnAAPO 's Dzemgi Airport , again piloted by Sergey Bogdan . The Su @-@ 35 had earlier in July made its first demonstration flight in front of Defence Ministry and foreign officials . At the time , Sukhoi estimated that a total of 160 Su @-@ 35s would be supplied to customers worldwide , in particular those in Latin America , Southeast Asia and the Middle East . Domestically , the VVS Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Colonel General Alexander Zelin stated that the service was seeking enough aircraft , estimated to be 24 – 36 units , to equip " at least two to three regiments " . On 26 April 2009 , the fourth Su @-@ 35 prototype was destroyed at Dzemgi Airport during a taxi run . The aircraft crashed into a barrier at the end of the runway , burned , and was written off . The pilot , Yevgeny Frolov , ejected and was taken to hospital with burns and other injuries . The aircraft was expected to be the third flying prototype , with its first flight scheduled on 24 April , which was rescheduled for 27 April . A commission was opened to investigate the crash , but several sources initially speculated that the incident had been the result of a brake failure or a faulty fuel pump . During the 2009 MAKS air show , the Russian Defence Ministry signed a US $ 2 @.@ 5 billion contract for 64 fighters , which consisted of a 48 @-@ aircraft launch order for the Su @-@ 35S ( " Serial " ) . The Russian government promised to provide Sukhoi an additional US $ 100 million in capital , with additional financial assistance from Sberbank and Vnesheconombank , the latter of which was contracted to provide US $ 109 million to start the production programme . The Su @-@ 35S 's estimated price was $ 40 million each , and the 64 @-@ aircraft contract was the largest aircraft order after the collapse of the Soviet Union . All are expected to be delivered by 2015 . In November 2009 , KnAAPO started manufacturing the first serial aircraft ; Sukhoi estimated that 24 to 30 aircraft would be produced each year from 2010 to 2020 . On 11 October 2010 , the first production Su @-@ 35S had completed general assembly ; at this point the preliminary flight test programme had logged 350 flight hours across 270 flights using the two remaining flying prototypes . Sukhoi confirmed that the aircraft had fully met all specifications and parameters , including maximum speed , height , radar detection range and manoeuvrability . The first Su @-@ 35S took its maiden flight in May 2011 . Following preliminary tests , the Defence Ministry was expected to initiate state joint tests involving six Su @-@ 35s to further scrutinize systems such as weapons . In early 2012 , two aircraft were reportedly planned for delivery in 2011 , eight in 2012 , twelve in 2013 and 2014 , and fourteen in 2015 . In February 2014 , the Russian Air Force received 12 Su @-@ 35S aircraft . By 2014 , 34 of the 48 aircraft originally ordered had been delivered with the remaining 14 due in 2015 . In March 2015 , it was reported that Russia and India signed an agreement to jointly develop a fifth @-@ generation upgrade to the Su @-@ 35 . A Russian industry source stated that the upgraded Su @-@ 35S will cost about US $ 85 million each . A contract for another 50 Su @-@ 35s was signed in August 2015 , but parent company United Aircraft Corporation ( UAC ) stated in January 2016 that delays in finalizing the order was due to a lack of clarity in Russia ’ s 2016 federal budget , which was only signed by Russian President Vladimir Putin in mid @-@ December 2015 . The fighters will be delivered at a rate of 10 aircraft per year starting in 2016 . = = Operational history = = = = = Russia = = = Three production Su @-@ 27Ms were completed and delivered to VVS in 1996 for testing . They were operated by 929th State Flight Test Center ( abbreviated as GLITS in Russian ) at Vladimirovka Air Base , Akhtubinsk , performing weapons trials . During one such flights , a weapon pylon , to which a bomb and rocket were attached , fell into a village in Ryazan ; nobody was hurt . In 2001 , the Air Force decided that the aerobatics team Russian Knights would receive several Su @-@ 27Ms , presumably from GLITS and Sukhoi . After pilots from the team undertook conversion course at Vladimirovka AB , the first of five aircraft was delivered to the team in July 2003 . It was expected that the Su @-@ 27Ms would enhance the flying repertoire of their new owners , but due to various reasons , they were used as a source of spare parts for other aircraft in the demonstration fleet . In late May 2011 , Sukhoi flew the first Su @-@ 35S to the Defence Ministry 's 929th State Flight Test Centre at Akhtubinsk prior to states joint tests conducted to prepare the aircraft for operational service with the VVS . Official trials commenced in mid @-@ August with the two Su @-@ 35 prototypes , before being joined by production aircraft . As of March 2012 , four Su @-@ 35S units were involved in such tests , operating alongside the two flying prototypes . These Su @-@ 35s had by April and August 2012 , completed 500 and 650 test flights , respectively . On 28 December 2012 , Sukhoi delivered a batch of six serial production Su @-@ 35S fighters to the VVS . Defence Ministry officials accepted the aircraft at KnAAPO 's manufacturing plant in Komsomolsk @-@ on @-@ Amur , Russia . Five of the six Su @-@ 35S delivered in December went to the Gromov Flight Research Institute , where in February 2013 an eighteen @-@ month programme began to test the Su @-@ 35 's ability to conduct highly maneuverable short @-@ range combat . The programme consists of three components , which are dogfights ; the use of weapons and the ability to evade enemy fire ; and the ability to destroy helicopters and unmanned aerial vehicles . State @-@ acceptance trials would conclude in 2015 , by which time a second 48 @-@ aircraft order is expected to have been signed with the VVS . Another 12 Su @-@ 35S fighters were delivered in 2013 . In December 2012 , Russian officials commented that the Swifts and Russian Knights aerobatics teams would receive new aircraft to replace the Mikoyan MiG @-@ 29 and Su @-@ 27 , respectively . The Swifts was expected to receive the Su @-@ 30SM and the Russian Knights receive the Su @-@ 35 . Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin commented the upgrade was to " show to the world not only the inimitable skill of our pilots , but also the talent of our aircraft designers ... " Russian Air Force received another 12 Su @-@ 35S fighters on 12 February 2014 to be deployed with an air regiment based in Russia ’ s Far East . In January 2016 , Russia , for the first time in combat conditions , deployed four Su @-@ 35S planes to its Khmeimim base ; on 1 February the Russian defence ministry said the aircraft had begun to participate in the Russian air operations in Syria . = = = China = = = Since the early 1990s , an extensive sales arrangement of the Su @-@ 35 to China has been discussed . Sukhoi officials , in 1995 , announced their proposal to co @-@ produce the Su @-@ 35 with China , contingent on Beijing 's agreement to purchase 120 aircraft . However , it was alleged that the Russian Foreign Ministry blocked the sale of the Su @-@ 35 and Tupolev Tu @-@ 22M bombers over concerns about the arrangements for Chinese production of the Su @-@ 27 . In 2006 , China was showing interest in the modernized Su @-@ 35 , and was negotiating with Moscow for a purchase of the fighter . At the 2007 MAKS air show , a number of Chinese delegates were seen taking photos and videos of the Su @-@ 35 prototypes . In November 2010 , Russia , through Rosoboronexport , was ready to resume talks with China on the sale of the Su @-@ 35 . China reciprocated in 2011 by presenting a proposal on the purchase of the fighter . In March 2012 , the Russian media reported that the two countries were in final contract negotiations for 48 Su @-@ 35s ; the remaining obstacle is reportedly Moscow 's demand that Beijing guarantee proper licensing for its Su @-@ 35 production . China denied this deal because it did not want the Su @-@ 35 , but only shown slight interest in its 117S engine ; at the 2012 Zhuhai Air Show Russia approached China with its 117S engine in a failed attempt to sell Su @-@ 35 . In late 2012 , it was reported that China wanted to purchase only 24 units , which was less than what Russia deemed to be worthwhile , thus stalling negotiations . By late 2012 , the negotiations resumed , this time involving 24 aircraft . During the next three years , negotiations would prove to be protracted , with several false reports claiming that a deal had been reached between the two countries ; for example , in March 2013 , it was reported that both sides had signed an initial agreement for 24 Su @-@ 35s and four submarines prior to Chinese President Xi Jinping 's visit to Russia . Negotiations concluded in November 2015 , when a contract for 24 fighters worth $ 2 billion , was signed . The first aircraft will be delivered to China in 2016 . One motive for China 's purchase of the Su @-@ 35 is its thrust @-@ vectoring 117S engine ; while China has recently developed modern fighters , its engines still lag behind Russia and the West despite heavy investments by China in domestic engine programs during recent years to catch up . According to Russian National Defense magazine , China will not order additional Su @-@ 35s but will instead focus on its domestic fighter programs especially its fifth generation fighters . = = = Potential operators = = = In May 2006 , it was reported that Venezuela planned to purchase dozens of Su @-@ 30 and Su @-@ 35 fighters , and as many as 100 T @-@ 90 tanks . There were unconfirmed reports in October 2008 that the Venezuela government had ordered 24 Su @-@ 35s for the Venezuelan Air Force . In July 2012 , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez repeated his interest in acquiring the Su @-@ 35 fighters . In January 2015 , North Korea has expressed interest in the fighter . But due to the international sanctions imposed on North Korea the delivery of fighters is unlikely in the near future . Also in September 2015 , Indonesia 's Ministry of Defence selected the Su @-@ 35 to replace the Indonesian Air Force 's aging F @-@ 5E Tiger II fleet . Indonesian Air Force intends to initially buy 8 Su @-@ 35S fighters from Russia . Vietnam and Algeria are also interested in this aircraft . In February 2015 , one of the Su @-@ 35 was tested at Tamanrasset Airport in Algeria . According to " Kommersant " , the Algerian military were satisfied with the fighter 's flight characteristics and now Moscow is waiting for a formal application . It is expected that the first phase will focus on the acquisition of at least 12 aircraft . Negotiations have begun with Egypt on the sale of Su @-@ 35 fighters , according to leaked information from Russia 's military @-@ industrial complex . = = = Failed bids = = = = = = = Brazil = = = = In 2001 , Brazil under President Fernando Henrique Cardoso announced the F @-@ X tender to procure a replacement for its aging aircraft including the Dassault Mirage IIID / E and Northrop F @-@ 5 . Sukhoi partnered with Avibras to submit the Su @-@ 27M for the US $ 700 million tender that would see at least twelve aircraft delivered to the Brazilian Air Force . Other contenders were the Mirage 2000 , F @-@ 16 , MiG @-@ 29 , and JAS Gripen . Any contract would have been accompanied by an offset agreement that would see the winning bidder provide input to Brazil 's aviation industry . Had the Su @-@ 35 won , Russia would have purchased 50 Embraer airliners for use by Aeroflot . The Su @-@ 35 and Mirage 2000 were the front @-@ runners to the program , but the former was favoured for its superior flight characteristics . According to the Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies , the Su @-@ 35 would have been the first heavy supersonic fighter to be delivered to Latin America . The tender was suspended for much of 2003 as the newly elected President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva focused more on social welfare . The tender was again suspended in 2005 , pending the availability of new fighters . In 2007 , Russia submitted the modernized Su @-@ 35 for Brazil 's relaunched F @-@ X2 competition . The tender this time attracted the participation of the Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , Lockheed Martin F @-@ 16BR , Saab JAS Gripen NG , Dassault Rafale , and Eurofighter Typhoon . Brazil was looking to purchase at least 36 , and up to 120 , aircraft to replace Northrop F @-@ 5BRs , Alenia / Embraer A @-@ 1Ms , and Dassault Mirage IIIs . In October 2008 , the Brazilian Air Force selected the Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , Dassault Rafale , and Saab Gripen NG as the three finalists . In October 2009 , Rosoboronexport declared that Russia would provide 120 Su @-@ 35s and full technology transfer to Brazil . The Su @-@ 35 was expected re @-@ enter the tender after Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff postponed the programme in January 2011 due to fiscal concerns . In December 2013 , the Brazilian government selected the Gripen NG for procurement . = = = = Others = = = = At the 1996 Seoul Air Show , Russia submitted the Su @-@ 35 ( Su @-@ 27M ) and Su @-@ 37 for South Korea 's F @-@ X procurement programme , a 40 @-@ aircraft requirement to replace the Republic of Korea Air Force 's F @-@ 4D / Es , RF @-@ 4Cs , and F @-@ 5E / Fs . The Su @-@ 35 competed against the Dassault Rafale , Eurofighter Typhoon , and F @-@ 15K Slam Eagle . The proposed Su @-@ 35 featured a phased grid radar and AL @-@ 31FP vectoring @-@ thrust engines ; final assembly would have taken place in South Korea , the offer included a full technology transfer . The US $ 5 billion contract may have been partially financed through a debt @-@ reduction deal on money Russia owed to South Korea . The Su @-@ 35 was reportedly the cheapest aircraft to purchase and maintain , however it was eliminated early in the bidding process , along with the Typhoon . The F @-@ 15K , viewed as the competition 's front @-@ runner due to South Korea 's ties with the United States , was chosen in 2002 . Reports have claimed that , had South Korea not chosen the F @-@ 15K , the United States would have refused to integrate American weapons on the selected aircraft . In 2002 , Sukhoi offered Su @-@ 30 family aircraft to Australia , including the Su @-@ 35 . However Australia opted for the F @-@ 35 to replace the F @-@ 111 and F / A @-@ 18 . Russia has offered the Su @-@ 35 to India , Malaysia , Algeria and Greece ; no firm contracts have materialised , with the first three countries having been occupied with other fighter projects and unlikely to procure the modernized Su @-@ 35 . In 2010 , Libya was expected to sign a contract for twelve Su @-@ 35s as part of a bigger military transaction that would have included S @-@ 300PMU @-@ 2 surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , Kilo @-@ class submarines , and T @-@ 90 tanks . The civil war in Libya and the resulting military intervention caused Rosoboronexport to miss out on US $ 4 billion in arranged contracts as they were never signed . = = Variants = = Su @-@ 27M / Su @-@ 35 Single @-@ seat fighter . Su @-@ 35UB Two @-@ seat trainer . Features taller vertical stabilizers and a forward fuselage similar to the Su @-@ 30 . Su @-@ 35BM Single @-@ seat fighter with upgraded avionics and various modifications to the airframe . Su @-@ 35BM is informal name . Su @-@ 37 Thrust @-@ vectoring demonstrator . Su @-@ 35S Designation of production Su @-@ 35BM version for the Russian Air Force . = = Operators = = Russia Russian Air Force – 48 Su @-@ 35S fighters in inventory as of March 2016 plus another 50 ordered in January 2016.Dzemgi Airport - 24 Centralnaya Uglovaya - 11 Lipetsk Air Base - 6 Akhtubinsk - 6 KnAAPO - 1 on hold China People 's Liberation Army Air Force – 24 Su @-@ 35S fighters ordered in 2015 . = = Specifications ( Su @-@ 35S ) = = Data from KnAAPO , Su @-@ 27 books , Jane 's AWA General characteristics Crew : 1 Length : 21 @.@ 9 m ( 72 @.@ 9 ft ) Wingspan : 15 @.@ 3 m ( 50 @.@ 2 ft , with wingtip pods ) Height : 5 @.@ 90 m ( 19 @.@ 4 ft ) Wing area : 62 @.@ 0 m ² ( 667 ft ² ) Empty weight : 18 @,@ 400 kg ( 40 @,@ 570 lb ) Loaded weight : 25 @,@ 300 kg ( 56 @,@ 660 lb ) at 50 % internal fuel Max. takeoff weight : 34 @,@ 500 kg ( 76 @,@ 060 lb ) Powerplant : 2 × Saturn 117S ( AL @-@ 41F1S ) afterburning turbofan with 3D thrust vectoring nozzle Dry thrust : 8 @,@ 800 kgf ( 86 @.@ 3 kN , 19 @,@ 400 lbf ) each Thrust with afterburner : 14 @,@ 500 kgf ( 142 kN , 31 @,@ 900 lbf ) each Fuel capacity : 11 @,@ 500 kg ( 25 @,@ 400 lb ) internally Performance Maximum speed : At altitude : Mach 2 @.@ 25 ( 2 @,@ 390 km / h , 1 @,@ 490 mph ) At sea level : Mach 1 @.@ 15 ( 1 @,@ 400 km / h , 870 mph ) Range : At altitude : 3 @,@ 600 km ( 1 @,@ 940 nmi ) At sea level : 1 @,@ 580 km ( 850 nmi ) Ferry range : 4 @,@ 500 km ( 2 @,@ 430 nmi ) with 2 external fuel tanks Service ceiling : 18 @,@ 000 m ( 59 @,@ 100 ft ) Rate of climb : > 280 m / s ( > 55 @,@ 000 ft / min ) Wing loading : 408 kg / m ² ( 500 @.@ 8 kg / m ² with full internal fuel ) ( 84 @.@ 9 lb / ft ² 50 % fuel ) Thrust / weight : 1 @.@ 13 at 50 % fuel ( 0 @.@ 92 with full internal fuel ) Maximum g @-@ load : + 9 g Armament Guns : 1 × 30 mm GSh @-@ 301 internal cannon with 150 rounds Hardpoints : 12 hardpoints , consisting of 2 wingtip rails , and 10 wing and fuselage stations with a capacity of 8 @,@ 000 kg ( 17 @,@ 630 lb ) of ordnance and provisions to carry combinations of : Rockets : S @-@ 25L laser @-@ guided rocket S @-@ 25 unguided rocket B @-@ 8 unguided S @-@ 8 rocket pods B @-@ 13 unguided S @-@ 13 rocket pods Missiles : Vympel R @-@ 73E / M , and R @-@ 74M Vympel R @-@ 27R / ER / T / ET Vympel R @-@ 77 – the proposed R @-@ 77M , R @-@ 77T , K @-@ 77M Vympel R @-@ 37M Kh @-@ 29T / L Kh @-@ 31P / A Kh @-@ 59ME Bombs : KAB @-@ 500L laser @-@ guided bomb KAB @-@ 1500L laser @-@ guided bomb FAB @-@ 250 250 @-@ kilogram ( 550 lb ) unguided bombs FAB @-@ 500 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) unguided bombs Other : buddy refueling pod Avionics Irbis @-@ E passive phased array radar OLS @-@ 35 infra @-@ red search and track system L265 Khibiny @-@ M electronic warfare pod

= Led Zeppelin = Led Zeppelin were an English rock band formed in London in 1968 . The group consisted of guitarist Jimmy Page , singer Robert Plant , bassist and keyboardist John Paul Jones , and drummer John Bonham . The band 's heavy , guitar @-@ driven sound , rooted in blues and psychedelia on their early albums , has earned them recognition as one of the progenitors of heavy metal , though their unique style drew from a wide variety of influences , including folk music . After changing their name from the New Yardbirds , Led Zeppelin signed a deal with Atlantic Records that afforded them considerable artistic freedom . Although the group was initially unpopular with critics , they achieved significant commercial success with albums such as Led Zeppelin ( 1969 ) , Led Zeppelin II ( 1969 ) , Led Zeppelin III ( 1970 ) , Led Zeppelin IV ( 1971 ) , Houses of the Holy ( 1973 ) , and Physical Graffiti ( 1975 ) . Their fourth album , which features the track " Stairway to Heaven " , is among the most popular and influential works in rock music , and it helped to secure the group 's popularity . Page wrote most of Led Zeppelin 's music , particularly early in their career , while Plant generally supplied the lyrics . Jones ' keyboard @-@ based compositions later became central to the group 's catalogue , which featured increasing experimentation . The latter half of their career saw a series of record @-@ breaking tours that earned the group a reputation for excess and debauchery . Although they remained commercially and critically successful , their output and touring schedule were limited during the late 1970s , and the group disbanded following Bonham 's death from alcohol @-@ related asphyxia in 1980 . In the decades that followed , the surviving members sporadically collaborated and participated in one @-@ off Led Zeppelin reunions . The most successful of these was the 2007 Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert in London , with Jason Bonham taking his late father 's place behind the drums . Led Zeppelin are widely considered one of the most successful , innovative , and influential rock groups in history . They are one of the best @-@ selling music artists in the history of audio recording ; various sources estimate the group 's record sales at 200 to 300 million units worldwide . With RIAA @-@ certified sales of 111 @.@ 5 million units , they are the second @-@ best @-@ selling band in the United States . Each of their nine studio albums placed in the top 10 of the Billboard album chart and six reached the number @-@ one spot . Rolling Stone magazine described them as " the heaviest band of all time " , " the biggest band of the Seventies " , and " unquestionably one of the most enduring bands in rock history " . They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995 ; the museum 's biography of the band states that they were " as influential " during the 1970s as the Beatles were during the 1960s . = = History = = = = = Formation = = = In 1966 , London @-@ based session guitarist Jimmy Page joined the blues @-@ influenced rock band the Yardbirds to replace bassist Paul Samwell @-@ Smith . Page soon switched from bass to lead guitar , creating a dual lead guitar line @-@ up with Jeff Beck . Following Beck 's departure in October 1966 , the Yardbirds , tired from constant touring and recording , began to wind down . Page wanted to form a supergroup with him and Beck on guitars , and the Who 's Keith Moon and John Entwistle on drums and bass , respectively . Vocalists Steve Winwood and Steve Marriott were also considered for the project . The group never formed , although Page , Beck , and Moon did record a song together in 1966 , " Beck 's Bolero " , in a session that also included bassist @-@ keyboardist John Paul Jones . The Yardbirds played their final gig in July 1968 at Luton College of Technology in Bedfordshire . They were still committed to several concerts in Scandinavia , so drummer Jim McCarty and vocalist Keith Relf authorised Page and bassist Chris Dreja to use " the Yardbirds " name to fulfill the band 's obligations . Page and Dreja began putting a new line @-@ up together . Page 's first choice for the lead singer was Terry Reid , but Reid declined the offer and suggested Robert Plant , a singer for the Band of Joy and Hobbstweedle . Plant eventually accepted the position , recommending former Band of Joy drummer John Bonham . Jones inquired about the vacant position at the suggestion of his wife after Dreja dropped out of the project to become a photographer . Page had known Jones since they were both session musicians and agreed to let him join as the final member . The four played together for the first time in a room below a record store on Gerrard Street in London . Page suggested that they attempt " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " , originally a jump blues song popularised in a rockabilly version by Johnny Burnette , which had been covered by the Yardbirds . " As soon as I heard John Bonham play " , Jones recalled , " I knew this was going to be great ... We locked together as a team immediately " . Before leaving for Scandinavia , the group took part in a recording session for the P. J. Proby album , Three Week Hero . The album 's track " Jim 's Blues " , with Plant on harmonica , was the first studio track to feature all four future members of Led Zeppelin . The band completed the Scandinavian tour as the New Yardbirds , playing together for the first time in front of a live audience at Gladsaxe Teen Clubs in Gladsaxe , Denmark , on 7 September 1968 . Later that month , they began recording their first album , which was based on their live set . The album was recorded and mixed in nine days , and Page covered the costs . After the album 's completion , the band were forced to change their name after Dreja issued a cease and desist letter , stating that Page was allowed to use the New Yardbirds moniker for the Scandinavian dates only . One account of how the new band 's name was chosen held that Moon and Entwistle had suggested that a supergroup with Page and Beck would go down like a " lead balloon " , an idiom for disastrous results . The group dropped the ' a ' in lead at the suggestion of their manager , Peter Grant , so that those unfamiliar with the term would not pronounce it " leed " . The word " balloon " was replaced by " zeppelin " , a word which , according to music journalist Keith Shadwick , brought " the perfect combination of heavy and light , combustibility and grace " to Page 's mind . In November 1968 , Grant secured a $ 143 @,@ 000 advance contract from Atlantic Records , which was then the biggest deal of its kind for a new band . Atlantic were a label with a catalogue of mainly blues , soul , and jazz artists , but in the late 1960s they began to take an interest in British progressive rock acts . Record executives signed Led Zeppelin without having ever seen them . Under the terms of their contract , the band had autonomy in deciding when they would release albums and tour , and had the final say over the contents and design of each album . They would also decide how to promote each release and which tracks to release as singles . They formed their own company , Superhype , to handle all publishing rights . = = = Early years : 1968 – 70 = = = The band began their first tour of the UK on 4 October 1968 , they still were billed as the New Yardbirds , and played their first show as Led Zeppelin at the University of Surrey in Battersea on 25 October . Tour manager Richard Cole , who would become a major figure in the touring life of the group , organised their first North American tour at the end of the year . Their debut album , Led Zeppelin , was released in the US during the tour on 12 January 1969 , and peaked at number 10 on the Billboard chart ; it was released in the UK , where it peaked at number 6 , on 31 March . According to Steve Erlewine , the album 's memorable guitar riffs , lumbering rhythms , psychedelic blues , groovy , bluesy shuffles and hints of English folk , made it " a significant turning point in the evolution of hard rock and heavy metal " . In their first year , Led Zeppelin completed four US and four UK concert tours , and also released their second album , Led Zeppelin II . Recorded mostly on the road at various North American studios , it was an even greater commercial success than their first album , and reached the number one chart position in the US and the UK . The album further developed the mostly blues @-@ rock musical style established on their debut release , creating a sound that was " heavy and hard , brutal and direct " , and which would be highly influential and frequently imitated . Steve Waksman has suggested that Led Zeppelin II was " the musical starting point for heavy metal " . The band saw their albums as indivisible , complete listening experiences , disliking the re @-@ editing of existing tracks for release as singles . Grant maintained an aggressive pro @-@ album stance , particularly in the UK , where there were few radio and TV outlets for rock music . Without the band 's consent , however , some songs were released as singles , particularly in the US . In 1969 an edited version of " Whole Lotta Love " , a track from their second album , was released as a single in the US . It reached number four in the Billboard chart in January 1970 , selling over one million copies and helping to cement the band 's popularity . The group also increasingly shunned television appearances , citing their preference that their fans hear and see them in live concerts . Following the release of their second album , Led Zeppelin completed several more US tours . They played initially in clubs and ballrooms , and then in larger auditoriums as their popularity grew . Some early Led Zeppelin concerts lasted more than four hours , with expanded and improvised live versions of their repertoire . Many of these shows have been preserved as bootleg recordings . It was during this period of intensive concert touring that the band developed a reputation for off @-@ stage excess . In 1970 Page and Plant retired to Bron @-@ Yr @-@ Aur , a remote cottage in Wales , to commence work on their third album , Led Zeppelin III . The result was a more acoustic style that was strongly influenced by folk and Celtic music , and showcased the band 's versatility . The album 's rich acoustic sound initially received mixed reactions , with critics and fans surprised at the turn from the primarily electric arrangements of the first two albums , further fuelling the band 's hostility to the musical press . It reached number one in the UK and US charts , but its stay would be the shortest of their first five albums . The album 's opening track , " Immigrant Song " , was released as a US single in November 1970 against the band 's wishes , reaching the top twenty on the Billboard chart . = = = " The Biggest Band in the World " : 1971 – 75 = = = During the 1970s , Led Zeppelin reached new heights of commercial and critical success that made them one of the most influential groups of the era , eclipsing their earlier achievements . The band 's image also changed as the members began to wear elaborate , flamboyant clothing . Led Zeppelin began travelling in a private jet airliner , a Boeing 720 ( nicknamed the Starship ) , rented out entire sections of hotels ( including the Continental Hyatt House in Los Angeles , known colloquially as the " Riot House " ) , and became the subject of frequently repeated stories of debauchery . One involved John Bonham riding a motorcycle through a rented floor of the Riot House , while another involved the destruction of a room in the Tokyo Hilton , leading to the group being banned from that establishment for life . Although Led Zeppelin developed a reputation for trashing their hotel suites and throwing television sets out of the windows , some suggest that these tales have been exaggerated . According to music journalist Chris Welch , " [ Led Zeppelin 's ] travels spawned many stories , but it was a myth that [ they ] were constantly engaged in acts of wanton destruction and lewd behaviour " . Led Zeppelin released their fourth album on 8 November 1971 . In response to the treatment they had received from critics , particularly after Led Zeppelin III , the band decided to release the fourth album with no title , though it is variously referred to as Led Zeppelin IV , Untitled , IV , or , due to the four symbols appearing on the record label , as Four Symbols , Zoso or Runes . In addition to lacking a title , the original cover featured no band name , as the group wished to be anonymous and to avoid easy pigeonholing by the press . With 37 million copies sold , Led Zeppelin IV is one of the best @-@ selling albums in history , and its massive popularity cemented Led Zeppelin 's status as superstars in the 1970s . By 2006 , it had sold 23 million copies in the United States alone . The track " Stairway to Heaven " , never released as a single , is sometimes quoted as being the most requested and most played album @-@ oriented rock ( AOR ) FM radio song . The group followed up the album 's release with tours of the UK , Australasia , North America , Japan , and the UK again from late 1971 through early 1973 . Led Zeppelin 's next album , Houses of the Holy , was released in March 1973 . It featured further experimentation by the band , who expanded their use of synthesisers and mellotron orchestration . The predominantly orange album cover , designed by the London @-@ based design group Hipgnosis , depicts images of nude children climbing the Giant 's Causeway in Northern Ireland . Although the children are not shown from the front , the cover was controversial at the time of the album 's release . As with the band 's fourth album , neither their name nor the album title was printed on the sleeve . Houses of the Holy topped charts worldwide , and the band 's subsequent concert tour of North America in 1973 broke records for attendance , as they consistently filled large auditoriums and stadiums . At Tampa Stadium in Florida , they played to 56 @,@ 800 fans , breaking the record set by the Beatles ' 1965 Shea Stadium concert and grossing $ 309 @,@ 000 . Three sold @-@ out shows at Madison Square Garden in New York City were filmed for a motion picture , but the theatrical release of this project ( The Song Remains the Same ) was delayed until 1976 . Before the final night 's performance , $ 180 @,@ 000 of the band 's money from gate receipts was stolen from a safe deposit box at the Drake Hotel . In 1974 , Led Zeppelin took a break from touring and launched their own record label , Swan Song , named after an unreleased song . The record label 's logo , based on a drawing called Evening : Fall of Day ( 1869 ) by William Rimmer , features a picture of Apollo . The logo can be found on Led Zeppelin memorabilia , especially T @-@ shirts . In addition to using Swan Song as a vehicle to promote their own albums , the band expanded the label 's roster , signing artists such as Bad Company , the Pretty Things and Maggie Bell . The label was successful while Led Zeppelin existed , but folded less than three years after they disbanded . In 1975 , Led Zeppelin 's double album Physical Graffiti was their first release on the Swan Song label . It consisted of fifteen songs , of which eight had been recorded at Headley Grange in 1974 and seven had been recorded earlier . A review in Rolling Stone magazine referred to Physical Graffiti as Led Zeppelin 's " bid for artistic respectability " , adding that the only bands Led Zeppelin had to compete with for the title " The World 's Best Rock Band " were the Rolling Stones and the Who . The album was a massive commercial and critical success . Shortly after the release of Physical Graffiti , all previous Led Zeppelin albums simultaneously re @-@ entered the top @-@ 200 album chart , and the band embarked on another North American tour , now employing sophisticated sound and lighting systems . In May 1975 , Led Zeppelin played five sold @-@ out nights at the Earls Court Arena in London , at the time the largest arena in Britain . = = = Hiatus from touring and return : 1975 – 77 = = = Following their triumphant Earls Court appearances , Led Zeppelin took a holiday and planned an autumn tour in America , scheduled to open with two outdoor dates in San Francisco . In August 1975 , however , Plant and his wife Maureen were involved in a serious car crash while on holiday in Rhodes , Greece . Plant suffered a broken ankle and Maureen was badly injured ; a blood transfusion saved her life . Unable to tour , he headed to the Channel Island of Jersey to spend August and September recuperating , with Bonham and Page in tow . The band then reconvened in Malibu , California . During this forced hiatus much of the material for their next album , Presence , was written . By this time , Led Zeppelin were the world 's number one rock attraction , having outsold most bands of the time , including the Rolling Stones . Presence , released in March 1976 , marked a change in the Led Zeppelin sound towards more straightforward , guitar @-@ based jams , departing from the acoustic ballads and intricate arrangements featured on their previous albums . Though it was a platinum seller , Presence received a mixed reaction among fans and the music press , with some critics suggesting that the band 's excesses may have caught up with them . Page had begun using heroin during recording sessions for the album , a habit which may have affected the band 's later live shows and studio recordings , although this has been denied by Page . Because of Plant 's injuries , Led Zeppelin did not tour in 1976 . Instead , the band completed the concert film The Song Remains the Same and the accompanying soundtrack album . The film premiered in New York City on 20 October 1976 , but was given a lukewarm reception by critics and fans . The film was particularly unsuccessful in the UK , where , unwilling to tour since 1975 because of their tax exile status , Led Zeppelin faced an uphill battle to recapture the public 's affection . In 1977 , Led Zeppelin embarked on another major concert tour of North America . The band set another attendance record , with an audience of 76 @,@ 229 at their Silverdome concert on 30 April . It was , according to the Guinness Book of Records , the largest attendance to that date for a single act show . Although the tour was financially profitable , it was beset by off @-@ stage problems . On 19 April , over 70 people were arrested as about 1 @,@ 000 fans tried to gatecrash Cincinnati Riverfront Coliseum for two sold @-@ out concerts , while others tried to gain entry by throwing rocks and bottles through glass doors . On 3 June , a concert at Tampa Stadium was cut short because of a severe thunderstorm , despite tickets indicating " Rain or Shine " . A riot broke out , resulting in arrests and injuries . After the 23 July show at the Day on the Green festival at the Oakland Coliseum in Oakland , California , Bonham and members of Led Zeppelin 's support staff were arrested after a member of promoter Bill Graham 's staff was badly beaten during the band 's performance . The following day 's second Oakland concert was the group 's final live appearance in the United States . Two days later , as they checked in at a French Quarter hotel for their 30 July performance at the Louisiana Superdome , Plant received news that his five @-@ year @-@ old son , Karac , had died from a stomach virus . The rest of the tour was immediately cancelled , prompting widespread speculation about Led Zeppelin 's future . = = = Bonham 's death and break @-@ up : 1978 – 80 = = = In November 1978 the group recorded at Polar Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . The resulting album , In Through the Out Door , featured sonic experimentation that again drew mixed reactions from critics . Nevertheless , the album reached number one in the UK and the US in just its second week of release . With this album 's release , Led Zeppelin 's entire catalogue returned to the Billboard Top 200 in the weeks of 27 October and 3 November 1979 . In August 1979 , after two warm @-@ up shows in Copenhagen , Led Zeppelin headlined two concerts at the Knebworth Music Festival , playing to a crowd of approximately 104 @,@ 000 on the first night . A brief , low @-@ key European tour was undertaken in June and July 1980 , featuring a stripped @-@ down set without the usual lengthy jams and solos . On 27 June , at a show in Nuremberg , Germany , the concert came to an abrupt halt in the middle of the third song , when Bonham collapsed onstage and was rushed to hospital . Speculation in the press suggested that his collapse had been the result of excessive alcohol and drug use , but the band claimed that he had simply overeaten . A North American tour , the band 's first since 1977 , was scheduled to commence on 17 October 1980 . On 24 September , Bonham was picked up by Led Zeppelin assistant Rex King to attend rehearsals at Bray Studios . During the journey , Bonham asked to stop for breakfast , where he downed four quadruple vodkas ( between 16 and 24 oz . ) , with a ham roll . After taking a bite of the ham roll he said to his assistant , " breakfast " . He continued to drink heavily after arriving at the studio . The rehearsals were halted late that evening and the band retired to Page 's house — the Old Mill House in Clewer , Windsor . After midnight , Bonham , who had fallen asleep , was taken to bed and placed on his side . At 1 : 45 pm the next day , Benji LeFevre ( Led Zeppelin 's new tour manager ) and John Paul Jones found Bonham dead . The cause of death was asphyxiation from vomit ; an autopsy found no other drugs in his body . Bonham was cremated on 10 October 1980 , and his ashes were buried in the graveyard of St Michael 's Church in Rushock near Droitwich , Worcestershire . A verdict of accidental death was returned at an inquest held on 27 October . The planned North American tour was cancelled , and despite rumours that Cozy Powell , Carmine Appice , Barriemore Barlow , Simon Kirke , or Bev Bevan would join the group as his replacement , the remaining members decided to disband . A 4 December 1980 press statement stated that , " We wish it to be known that the loss of our dear friend , and the deep sense of undivided harmony felt by ourselves and our manager , have led us to decide that we could not continue as we were " . The statement was signed simply " Led Zeppelin " . = = = Post @-@ breakup = = = = = = = 1980s = = = = Following Zeppelin 's dissolution , the first significant project for the members was the Honeydrippers , which Plant initially formed in 1981 , and which released its only album in 1984 . The group featured Page on lead guitar , along with studio musicians and friends of the pair , including Jeff Beck , Paul Shaffer , and Nile Rodgers . Plant focused on a different direction from Zeppelin , playing standards and in a more R & B style , highlighted by a cover of " Sea of Love " that peaked at number three on the Billboard chart in early 1985 . Coda – a collection of Zeppelin outtakes and unused tracks – was issued in November 1982 . It included two tracks from the Royal Albert Hall in 1970 , one each from the Led Zeppelin III and Houses of the Holy sessions , and three from the In Through the Out Door sessions . It also featured a 1976 Bonham drum instrumental with electronic effects added by Page , called " Bonzo 's Montreux " . On 13 July 1985 , Page , Plant , and Jones reunited for the Live Aid concert at JFK Stadium , Philadelphia , playing a short set featuring drummers Tony Thompson and Phil Collins , and bassist Paul Martinez . Collins had contributed to Plant 's first two solo albums while Martinez was a member of Plant 's solo band . The performance was marred by a lack of rehearsal with the two drummers , Page 's struggles with an out @-@ of @-@ tune guitar , poorly functioning monitors , and Plant 's hoarse voice . Page described the performance as " pretty shambolic " , while Plant characterised it as an " atrocity " . The three members reunited again on 14 May 1988 , for the Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert , with Bonham 's son Jason on drums . The result was again disjointed : Plant and Page had argued immediately prior to taking the stage about whether to play " Stairway to Heaven " , Jones ' keyboards were absent from the live television feed . Page described the performance as " one big disappointment " and Plant said " the gig was foul " . = = = = 1990s = = = = The first Led Zeppelin box set , featuring tracks remastered under Page 's supervision , was released in 1990 and bolstered the band 's reputation , leading to abortive discussions among members about a reunion . This set included four previously unreleased tracks , including a version of Robert Johnson 's " Travelling Riverside Blues " . The song peaked at number seven on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart . 1992 saw the release of the " Immigrant Song " / " Hey , Hey , What Can I Do " ( the original B @-@ side ) as a CD single in the US . Led Zeppelin Boxed Set 2 was released in 1993 ; the two box sets together containing all known studio recordings , as well as some rare live tracks . In 1994 , Page and Plant reunited for a 90 @-@ minute " UnLedded " MTV project . They later released an album called No Quarter : Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded , which featured some reworked Led Zeppelin songs , and embarked on a world tour the following year . This is said to be the beginning of a rift between the band members , as Jones was not even told of the reunion . In 1995 , Led Zeppelin were inducted into the United States Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Steven Tyler and Joe Perry of Aerosmith . Jason and Zoë Bonham also attended , representing their late father . At the induction ceremony , the band 's inner rift became apparent when Jones joked upon accepting his award , " Thank you , my friends , for finally remembering my phone number " , causing consternation and awkward looks from Page and Plant . Afterwards , they played one brief set with Tyler and Perry , with Jason Bonham on drums , and then a second with Neil Young , this time with Michael Lee playing the drums . In 1997 , Atlantic released a single edit of " Whole Lotta Love " in the US and the UK , the only single the band released in their homeland , where it peaked at number 21 . November 1997 saw the release of Led Zeppelin BBC Sessions , a two @-@ disc set largely recorded in 1969 and 1971 . Page and Plant released another album called Walking into Clarksdale in 1998 , featuring all new material , but after disappointing sales the partnership dissolved before a planned Australian tour . = = = = 2000s and beyond = = = = 2003 saw the release of the triple live album How the West Was Won , and Led Zeppelin DVD , a six @-@ hour chronological set of live footage that became the best @-@ selling music DVD in history . In July 2007 Atlantic / Rhino and Warner Home Video announced three new Led Zeppelin titles to be released that November . First was Mothership , a 24 @-@ track best @-@ of spanning the band 's career , followed by a reissue of the soundtrack The Song Remains the Same , which included previously unreleased material , and a new DVD . Led Zeppelin also made their catalogue legally available for digital download , becoming one of the last major rock bands to do so . On 10 December 2007 , Led Zeppelin reunited for the Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert at the O2 Arena in London , with Jason Bonham again taking his late father 's place on drums . According to Guinness World Records 2009 , Led Zeppelin set the world record for the " Highest Demand for Tickets for One Music Concert " as 20 million requests for the reunion show were rendered online . Music critics praised the band 's performance and there was widespread speculation about a full reunion . Page , Jones and Jason Bonham were reported to be willing to tour , and to be working on material for a new Led Zeppelin project . Plant continued his touring commitments with Alison Krauss , stating in September 2008 that he would not be recording or touring with the band . Jones and Page reportedly looked for a replacement for Plant , considering singers including Steven Tyler from Aerosmith , and Myles Kennedy of Alter Bridge , but in January 2009 it was confirmed that the project had been abandoned . A film of the O2 performance , Celebration Day , premiered on 17 October 2012 and was released on home video on 19 November . The film grossed $ 2 million in one night , and the live album peaked at number 4 and 9 in the UK and US , respectively . Following the film 's premiere , Page revealed that he had been remastering the band 's discography with the first three albums re @-@ released on 2 June 2014 , containing bonus tracks . = = Musical style = = Led Zeppelin 's music was rooted in the blues . The influence of American blues artists such as Muddy Waters and Skip James was particularly apparent on their first two albums , as was the distinct country blues style of Howlin ' Wolf . Tracks were structured around the twelve @-@ bar blues on every studio album except for one , and the blues directly and indirectly influenced other songs both musically and lyrically . The band were also strongly influenced by the music of the British , Celtic , and American folk revivals . Scottish folk guitarist Bert Jansch helped inspire Page , and from him he adapted open tunings and aggressive strokes into his playing . The band also drew on a wide variety of genres , including world music , and elements of early rock and roll , jazz , country , funk , soul , and reggae , particularly on Houses of the Holy and the albums that followed . The material on the first two albums was largely constructed out of extended jams of blues standards and folk songs . This method led to the mixing of musical and lyrical elements of different songs and versions , as well as improvised passages , to create new material , but would lead to later accusations of plagiarism and legal disputes over copyright . Usually the music was developed first , sometimes with improvised lyrics that might then be rewritten for the final version of the song . From the visit to Bron @-@ Yr @-@ Aur in 1970 , the songwriting partnership between Page and Plant became predominant , with Page supplying the music , largely via his acoustic guitar , and Plant emerging as the band 's chief lyricist . Jones and Bonham then added to the material , in rehearsal or in the studio , as a song was developed . In the later stages of the band 's career , Page took a back seat in composition and Jones became increasingly important in producing music , often composed on the keyboard . Plant would then add lyrics before Page and Bonham developed their parts . Early lyrics drew on the band 's blues and folk roots , often mixing lyrical fragments from different songs . Many of the band 's songs dealt with themes of romance , unrequited love and sexual conquest , which were common in rock , pop and blues music . Some of their lyrics , especially those derived from the blues , have been interpreted as misogynistic . Particularly on Led Zeppelin III , they incorporated elements of mythology and mysticism into their music , which largely grew out of Plant 's interest in legends and history . These elements were often taken to reflect Page 's interest in the occult , which resulted in accusations that the recordings contained subliminal satanic messages , some of which were said to be contained in backmasking ; these claims were generally dismissed by the band and music critics . Susan Fast argues that as Plant emerged as the band 's main lyricist , the songs more obviously reflected his alignment with the West Coast counterculture of the 1960s . In the later part of the band 's career Plant 's lyrics became more autobiographical , and less optimistic , drawing on his own experiences and circumstances . According to musicologist Robert Walser , " Led Zeppelin 's sound was marked by speed and power , unusual rhythmic patterns , contrasting terraced dynamics , singer Robert Plant 's wailing vocals , and guitarist Jimmy Page 's heavily distorted crunch " . These elements mean that they are often cited as one of the progenitors of hard rock and heavy metal and they have been described as the " definitive heavy metal band " , although the band members have often eschewed the label . Part of this reputation depends on the band 's use of distorted guitar riffs on songs like " Whole Lotta Love " and " The Wanton Song " . Often riffs were not doubled by guitar , bass and drums exactly , but instead there were melodic or rhythmic variations ; as in " Black Dog " , where three different time signatures are used . Page 's guitar playing incorporated elements of the blues scale with those of eastern music . Plant 's use of high @-@ pitched shrieks has been compared to Janis Joplin 's vocal technique . Bonham 's drumming was noted for its power , his rapid rolls and his fast beats on a single bass drum . Jones ' basslines have been described as melodic and his keyboard playing added a classical touch to the band 's sound . Page stated that he wanted Led Zeppelin to produce music that had " light and shade " . This began to be more clearly realised beginning with Led Zeppelin III , which made greater use of acoustic instruments . This approach has been seen as exemplified in the fourth album , particularly on " Stairway to Heaven " , which begins with acoustic guitar and recorder and ends with drums and heavy electric sounds . Towards the end of their recording career , they moved to a more mellow and progressive sound , dominated by Jones ' keyboard motifs . They also increasingly made use of various layering and production techniques , including multi @-@ tracking and overdubbed guitar parts . Their emphasis on the sense of dynamics and ensemble arrangement has been seen as producing an individualistic style that transcends any single music genre . Ian Peddie argues that they were " ... loud , powerful and often heavy , but their music was also humorous , self @-@ reflective and extremely subtle " . = = Legacy = = Led Zeppelin are widely considered to be one of the most successful , innovative , and influential bands in the history of rock music . Rock critic Mikal Gilmore said , " Led Zeppelin — talented , complex , grasping , beautiful and dangerous — made one of the most enduring bodies of composition and performance in twentieth @-@ century music , despite everything they had to overpower , including themselves " . Led Zeppelin have influenced hard rock and heavy metal bands such as Deep Purple , Black Sabbath , Rush , Queen , Aerosmith , the Black Crowes , and Megadeth as well as progressive metal bands like Tool and Dream Theater . They influenced some early punk and post @-@ punk bands , among them the Ramones and the Cult . They were also an important influence on the development of alternative rock , as bands adapted elements from the " Zeppelin sound " of the mid @-@ 1970s , including the Smashing Pumpkins , Nirvana , Pearl Jam , Soundgarden , Bands and artists from diverse genres have acknowledged the influence of Led Zeppelin , such as Madonna , Shakira , Lady Gaga , and Katie Melua . Led Zeppelin have been credited with a major impact on the nature of the music business , particularly in the development of album @-@ orientated rock ( AOR ) and stadium rock . In 1988 John Kalodner , then @-@ A & R executive of Geffen Records , remarked that " In my opinion , next to the Beatles they 're the most influential band in history . They influence the way music is on records , AOR radio , concerts . They set the standards for the AOR @-@ radio format with ' Stairway to Heaven , ' having AOR hits without necessarily having Top 40 hits . They 're the ones who did the first real big arena concert shows , consistently selling out and playing stadiums without support . People can do as well as them , but nobody surpasses them " . Andrew Loog Oldham , the former producer and manager of the Rolling Stones , commented on how Led Zeppelin had a major influence on the record business , and the way rock concerts were managed and presented to huge audiences . The band have sold over 200 million albums worldwide according to some sources , while others state that they have sold in excess of 300 million records , including 111 @.@ 5 million certified units in the United States . According to the Recording Industry Association of America , Led Zeppelin are the second @-@ highest @-@ selling band , the fourth highest selling music act in the US , and one of only three acts to earn four or more Diamond albums . Led Zeppelin remain one of the most bootlegged artists in the history of rock music . Led Zeppelin also made a significant cultural impact . Jim Miller , editor of Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll , argues that " on one level , Led Zeppelin represents the final flowering of the sixties ' psychedelic ethic , which casts rock as passive sensory involvement " . Led Zeppelin have also been described as " the quintessential purveyors " of masculine and aggressive " cock rock " , although this assertion has been challenged . The band 's fashion @-@ sense has been seminal ; Simeon Lipman , head of pop culture at Christie 's auction house , has commented that " Led Zeppelin have had a big influence on fashion because the whole aura surrounding them is so cool , and people want a piece of that " . Led Zeppelin laid the foundation for the big hair of 1980s glam metal bands such as Mötley Crüe and Skid Row . Other musicians have also adapted elements from Led Zeppelin 's attitude to clothes , jewellery and hair , such as the hipster flares and tight band T @-@ shirts of Kings of Leon , shaggy hair , clingy T @-@ shirts and bluesman hair of Jack White of the White Stripes , and Kasabian guitarist Sergio Pizzorno 's silk scarves , trilbies and side @-@ laced tight jeans . = = Awards and accolades = = Led Zeppelin have collected many honours and awards throughout the course of their career . They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995 , and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2006 . Among the band 's awards are an American Music Award in 2005 , and the Polar Music Prize in 2006 . Led Zeppelin were the recipient of a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2005 , and four of their recordings have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame . They have been awarded five Diamond albums , as well as fourteen Multi @-@ Platinum , four Platinum and one Gold album in the United States , while in the UK they have five Multi @-@ Platinum , six Platinum , one Gold and four Silver albums . In addition to listing five of their albums among " the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " , Rolling Stone named Led Zeppelin the 14th @-@ greatest artist of all time in 2004 . In 2005 , Page was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in recognition of his charity work , and in 2009 Plant was honoured as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his services to popular music . The band are ranked number one on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock and Classic Rock 's " 50 best live acts of all time " . They were named as the best Rock band in a poll by BBC Radio 2 . They were awarded an Ivor Novello Award for " Outstanding Contribution to British Music " in 1977 , as well as a " Lifetime Achievement Award " at the 42nd Annual Ivor Novello awards ceremony in 1997 . The band were honoured at the 2008 MOJO Awards with the " Best Live Act " prize for their one @-@ off reunion , and were described as the " greatest rock and roll band of all time " . The three surviving members ( Page , Plant , and Jones ) were named as 2012 recipients of Kennedy Center Honors . = = Discography = = = = Members = = Band members Jimmy Page – guitar ( 1968 – 80 ; 1985 , 1988 , 1995 , 2007 ) Robert Plant – lead vocals ( 1968 – 80 ; 1985 , 1988 , 1995 , 2007 ) John Paul Jones – bass guitar , keyboards ( 1968 – 80 ; 1985 , 1988 , 1995 , 2007 ) John Bonham – drums ( 1968 – 80 ) Live performance guests Tony Thompson – drums ( 1985 ) Phil Collins – drums ( 1985 ) Paul Martinez – bass ( 1985 ) Jason Bonham – drums ( 1988 , 1995 , 2007 ) Michael Lee – drums ( 1995 )

= Exile ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) = " Exile " is the fifty @-@ eighth episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the sixth episode of season three . It first aired on October 15 , 2003 on the UPN network in the United States . The episode was written by Phyllis Strong and directed by former Star Trek : Voyager actress Roxann Dawson . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , Ensign Hoshi Sato ( Linda Park ) is contacted telepathically by an alien named Tarquin ( Maury Sterling ) , who offers assistance with the Xindi . Whilst she visits Tarquin at his home , the rest of the crew investigate another mysterious sphere within the expanse . The episode was seen as a take on " Beauty and the Beast " , with Sterling required to wear a full head prosthetic when Tarquin was in his non @-@ human form . Several sets were created in a gothic style to represent Tarquin 's home , while the anomalies created by the Delphic Expanse sphere were added in post production . The episode was the lowest rated so far of season three , having aired at the same time as Major League Baseball playoffs . It received a rating of 2 @.@ 3 , which was 0 @.@ 3 lower than a re @-@ run of " The Xindi " a week later at the same time as the World Series . The critical response was positive , although critics pointed out influences in this episode such as Disney Castles , The Lord of the Rings and The Three Stooges . = = Plot = = Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol , examining gravitational anomaly patterns , calculates the location of a second sphere within the Delphic Expanse ( similar to the one previously seen in " Anomaly " ) , and Enterprise diverts course to investigate . Meanwhile Ensign Sato reports to sickbay , explaining to Doctor Phlox that she has been hearing voices and feels like she is being watched . She is later contacted telepathically by Tarquin , an alien that appears in human form . He explains that he can telepathically read objects , and suggests that Enterprise bring him part of the weapon used to attack Earth ( in " The Expanse " ) . Enterprise soon arrives at Tarquin 's planet . He welcomes Archer and Hoshi and soon agrees to work on reading the weapon fragment , but only if Sato agrees to remain with him . They agree , and Enterprise departs to investigate the second sphere . Tarquin and Sato discuss many subjects and initially the alien seems trustworthy . However she also discovers that he had been watching her telepathically for some time and that she is not the first person to be brought here to provide companionship for him . Meanwhile , Enterprise approaches the sphere , but has to halt its approach due to damage from the spatial anomalies generated by it . The ship sends down a shuttlepod coated with Trellium @-@ D ( retrieved in " Impulse " ) , and is able to approach close enough to take readings . Archer and Trip return to Enterprise and set course to retrieve Sato . Meanwhile , Tarquin attempts to trick her into staying with him permanently , but she refuses and threatens to destroy a device which enhances his telepathic abilities . He reluctantly agrees to let her go , and later provides Enterprise with the co @-@ ordinates for the Xindi colony that is building a part of the weapon . The episode ends as T 'Pol calculates that there are approximately 50 spheres in the expanse region . = = Production = = Both Linda Park and executive producer Rick Berman saw " Exile " as a play on the " Beauty and the Beast " story . Filming began on August 20 , 2003 , overlapping with the final day of shooting for the previous episode , " Impulse " . Shooting ran through to August 29 , the final working day before the Labor Day weekend . As Linda Park was the only member of the main cast to be required for scenes on the final day of shooting , the remaining cast began work on the following episode , " The Shipment " . A number of sets were created for use in this episode , all of which were created to show Tarquin 's home . Although this was only referred to in the script as an " alien sanctuary " , the set designers created an aged gothic @-@ inspired alien castle across five sets . Set decorater Jim Mees added to this design by filling the areas with further gothic artifacts and exotic flowers . The subplot required several effects to be added in post production to show the effects on the Enterprise due to the proximity of the sphere that the ship investigates . These were overseen by special effects supervisor Dan Curry . In order to portray Tarquin , Maury Sterling was required to wear a full head prosthetic while the character was in his true form . However , the majority of the time spent filming was while Tarquin was telepathically communicating with Hoshi , where Sterling appeared as himself . Both the writer and director had close ties to Star Trek : Voyager . Roxann Dawson portrayed Chief Engineer B 'Elanna Torres in that series , but her involvement in the Star Trek franchise has since led to her directing episodes of Enterprise , " Exile " being her sixth credit so far . Dawson had announced that she was due to direct this episode earlier in the year whilst appearing at the Las Vegas Creation convention on August 2 . " Exile " writer and series co @-@ producer Phyllis Strong also wrote episodes of Voyager , and has since gone on to write episodes of Enterprise as well . = = Reception = = " Exile " was first aired in the United States on the UPN network on October 15 , 2003 . It received a 2 @.@ 3 / 4 percentage share among all adults , including 4 percent of all adults watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was the lowest ratings the show had received so far during season three and blame was placed against the episode going up against coverage of the Major League Baseball play @-@ off games . The episode which followed " Exile " during the following week was a repeat of the season premiere , " The Xindi " . It was aired in order to avoid putting new episodes up against a game of the 2003 Baseball World Series on the Fox Network . However , that re @-@ run received a 2 @.@ 6 rating , which was higher than " Exile " from a week earlier . Michelle Erica Green reviewed " Exile " for TrekNation , and found that it reminded her of the Voyager episode " Alter Ego " where a lonely alien contacts Tuvok whilst pretending to be a character on the holodeck . She also thought that Tarquin in particular was reminiscent of Flint from The Original Series episode " Requiem for Methuselah " due to the long life span of the character . She said that Tarquin 's castle reminded her of a Disney Castle while other elements such as his communications device , were similar to something out of The Lord of the Rings . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " , said that " Exile " was a well rounded episode but thought that it did not " venture as far as it could 've and perhaps should 've " . He described the scene where Trip has problems with the shuttlecraft as a " irrelevant but nevertheless great scene that 's kind of brilliant in a Three Stooges kind of way " . He gave the episode a score of three out of four . The only home media release of " Exile " has been as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013 .

= Akodon spegazzinii = Akodon spegazzinii , also known as Spegazzini 's akodont or Spegazzini 's grass mouse , is a rodent in the genus Akodon found in northwestern Argentina . It occurs in grassland and forest at 400 to 3 @,@ 500 m ( 1 @,@ 300 to 11 @,@ 500 ft ) above sea level . After the species was first named in 1897 , several other names were given to various populations now included in A. spegazzinii . They are now all recognized as part of a single , widespread and variable species . Akodon spegazzinii is related to Akodon boliviensis and other members of the A. boliviensis species group . It reproduces year @-@ round . Because it is widely distributed and common , Akodon spegazzinii is listed as " Least Concern " on the IUCN Red List . Akodon spegazzinii is medium in size for the A. boliviensis species group . The coloration of its upperparts varies considerably , from light to dark and from yellowish to reddish brown . The underparts are yellow @-@ brown to gray . The eyes are surrounded by a ring of yellow fur . The skull contains an hourglass @-@ shaped interorbital region ( between the eyes ) and various features of the skull distinguish the species from its close allies . Head and body length is 93 to 196 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 to 7 @.@ 7 in ) and body mass is 13 @.@ 0 to 38 @.@ 0 g ( 0 @.@ 46 to 1 @.@ 34 oz ) . A. spegazzinii has 40 chromosomes . = = Taxonomy = = Akodon spegazzinii was first described in 1897 from Salta Province by Oldfield Thomas on the basis of a collection made in late 1896 or early 1897 by mycologist Carlos Luigi Spegazzini , after whom the species was named . Four years later , Joel Asaph Allen named Akodon tucumanensis from Tucumán Province , comparing it to various species now synonymized under Abrothrix olivaceus . Thomas named an additional species , Akodon alterus , from La Rioja Province in 1919 , and considered it closely related to A. spegazzinii . A fourth species , Akodon leucolimnaeus , was described by Ángel Cabrera from Catamarca Province in 1926 , but after 1932 it was associated with Akodon lactens ( now Necromys lactens ) as a subspecies . In 1961 , Cabrera listed both spegazzinii and tucumanensis as subspecies of Akodon boliviensis , with alterus as a full synonym of A. boliviensis tucumanensis . In 1990 , Philip Myers and colleagues reviewed the Akodon boliviensis species group . They provisionally kept Akodon spegazzinii as a species separate from A. boliviensis , with tucumanensis as a subspecies , and suggested that alterus was likely related to spegazzinii and tucumanensis . Subsequently , the treatment of these species in systematic works became variable . A 1992 paper suggested that alterus and tucumanensis were , at best , very similar to each other , but in 1997 , Michael Mares and colleagues listed each of the three as distinct species in a compendium of the mammals of Catamarca , citing differences in habitat and fur coloration . They were followed by Mónica Díaz and Rubén Bárquez in 2007 , among others . However , in 2000 Díaz and colleagues listed alterus and tucumanensis as subspecies of spegazzinii in a review of the mammals of Salta . Guy Musser and Michael Carleton , in the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World , also considered the three to represent the same species , as did Ulyses Pardiñas and colleagues in a 2006 review of Argentinean Akodontini . Meanwhile , Carlos Galliari and Pardiñas had recognized Akodon leucolimnaeus as a true Akodon , not a Necromys , in 1995 . Although associated with the Akodon boliviensis group , its precise status remained unclear . The common name " Catamarca akodont " was proposed for this species . In 1980 , Julio Contreras and María Rosi identified an Akodon from the province of Mendoza as Akodon varius neocenus ( now Akodon neocenus ) , but the following year , they identified it as a new species , named Akodon minoprioi in a presentation at a scientific meeting . However , this name was never formally validated . In 2000 , Janet Braun and colleagues formally named this species Akodon oenos and allied it to the Akodon varius species group . The specific name , oenos , is Greek for " wine " and refers to the animal 's occurrence in the wine @-@ producing region of Mendoza . The common names " Monte akodont " and " wine grass mouse " were proposed for this species . In 2010 , Pablo Jayat and colleagues reviewed the members of the Akodon boliviensis species group , including A. spegazzinii , in Argentina . They could not find clear differentiation in either morphological or molecular characters between animals belonging to A. alterus , A. leucolimnaeus , A. spegazzinii , and A. tucumanensis , and consequently concluded that they all represent a single species . Although genetic variation is relatively high within A. spegazzinii , there is no clear geographic structure among haplotypes from different regions . The next year , Ulyses Pardiñas and colleagues concluded that A. oenos , which had formerly , and incorrectly , been placed in the A. varius species group , was in fact another synonym of A. spegazzinii . The proliferation of scientific names for this one species occurred because of the terseness of the original description of A. spegazzinii , and a lack of large samples and of appreciation of the substantial variation occurring within A. spegazzinii . According to phylogenetic analysis of sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene , Akodon spegazzinii is most closely related to A. boliviensis and more distantly to other members of the A. boliviensis species group , including Akodon polopi and Akodon sylvanus . The boliviensis group is part of the highly diverse genus Akodon and thereby of the tribe Akodontini , which includes about 90 species of South American rodents . Akodontini is one of several tribes within the subfamily Sigmodontinae and the family Cricetidae , which includes hundreds of mainly small rodents distributed chiefly in Eurasia and the Americas . = = Description = = The species is intermediate in size for the Akodon boliviensis species group ; it is smaller than A. polopi and A. sylvanus , but larger than A. boliviensis and A. caenosus . The more distantly related A. budini and A. simulator , which occur in the same area , are larger . Akodon spegazzinii is variable in coloration , ranging from light to dark and from reddish to yellowish brown . In general , animals in wetter , lower @-@ lying areas are darker , and those in open , dry environments are paler . However , there is also variation within populations , and sometimes young mice are darker and lactating females are more reddish . The formerly recognized species Akodon tucumanensis corresponds to the dark , low @-@ altitude populations , while A. leucolimnaeus and A. alterus represent more reddish , high @-@ altitude animals . The coloration of the upperparts is generally uniform , with some scattered darker hairs . There is a yellow ring around the eyes , which is more prominent than in A. sylvanus . The underparts are not strongly demarcated from the upperparts in color and are yellow @-@ brown to gray . There are some scattered white hairs on the chin . Although this white spot is better developed than in A. sylvanus , A. spegazzinii lacks the conspicuous white spot seen in A. simulator . The color of the feet ranges from white and yellow @-@ brown to gray . Ungual tufts of hairs cover the claws ; these hairs are grayish @-@ brown at the bases and whitish at the tips . The amount of hair on the tail is variable , but it is dark brown above and white to yellow @-@ brown below . High @-@ altitude animals tend to have hairier ears and tails . In the skull , the front part ( rostrum ) is large , but not as long as in A. budini . The skull is more robust than in the very similar Akodon boliviensis , but less so than in A. simulator . The hourglass @-@ shaped interorbital region ( between the eyes ) is narrower than in A. caenosus and not as squared as in A. polopi . Members of the Akodon varius group , with which Akodon oenos was formerly associated , tend to have much broader interorbital regions . The braincase is somewhat inflated and bears well @-@ developed temporal and lambdoid crests relative to the situation in A. caenosus ; Akodon polopi , however , has even better developed crests . Although the zygomatic plates ( plates of bone at the side of the skull ) are variable , their size is generally intermediate for the Akodon boliviensis group and their front margin ranges from straight to a little concave . The zygomatic notches , projections at the front of the plates , are better developed than in A. caenosus and A. sylvanus . The incisive foramina ( openings in the front part of the palate ) are long , sometimes extending between the first upper molars . Tiny posterolateral palatal pits are located at the back of the palate . The back margin of the palate is squared to rounded , with a spine in the middle ( medial process ) sometimes present . The opening behind the palate , the mesopterygoid fossa , is of intermediate width , being narrower than in A. sylvanus , A. simulator , and A. budini but broader than in A. caenosus . The masseteric crests ( crests on the outer sides of the mandibles ) reach their front ends below the front border of the first molars . Usually , the capsular process ( a projection at the back of the mandible housing the root of the lower incisor ) is well @-@ developed . The enamel of the upper incisors is yellowish @-@ orange and the incisors are orthodont ( with their cutting edge perpendicular to the plane of the toothrow ) or slightly opisthodont ( with the cutting edge inclined backwards ) . In contrast , Akodon simulator has more proodont incisors ( with the cutting edge oriented forwards ) and Akodon neocenus has more opisthodont incisors . The molars are more hypsodont ( high @-@ crowned ) than in A. caenosus , but are unlike the very hypsodont molars of A. budini . The molar rows are relatively longer than in A. polopi . There are 13 or 14 thoracic ( chest ) , 7 or 8 lumbar ( abdomen ) , and 23 or 26 caudal ( tail ) vertebrae . The karyotype includes 40 chromosomes , with a fundamental number of 40 major chromosomal arms and resembles that of other members of the A. boliviensis group . Head and body length is 93 to 196 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 to 7 @.@ 7 in ) , averaging 158 mm ( 6 @.@ 2 in ) ; tail length is 46 to 83 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 3 in ) , averaging 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) ; hindfoot length is 18 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 to 0 @.@ 98 in ) , averaging 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) ; ear length is 12 to 21 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 to 0 @.@ 83 in ) , averaging 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) ; and body mass is 13 @.@ 0 to 38 @.@ 0 g ( 0 @.@ 46 to 1 @.@ 34 oz ) , averaging 21 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 76 oz ) . Like other members of the Akodon boliviensis group , individuals of Akodon spegazzinii continue to grow in adulthood . = = Distribution and ecology = = Akodon spegazzinii is found in northwestern Argentina , in the provinces of Salta , Catamarca , Tucumán , La Rioja , and Mendoza , at altitudes of 400 to 3 @,@ 500 m ( 1 @,@ 300 to 11 @,@ 500 ft ) . Although its main distribution is in the northern provinces of Salta , Tucumán , and Catamarca , there are also scattered records from the more southern provinces of La Rioja and Mendoza , where it is likely restricted to patches of wet habitat . Akodon alterus has been reported from Jujuy , but this record was likely based on misidentified specimens of A. boliviensis , and records of Akodon spegazzinii from Jujuy were based on misidentified A. sylvanus . Akodon spegazzinii is known from a paleontological site in Tucumán Province dated to the latest Pleistocene ( Lujanian ) ; it is among the most common species there . The species occurs in the Yungas forest as well as the drier Monte Desert and Puna , where it is found only along streams . In the cloud grasslands of the higher portions of the Yungas , it is the dominant species of sigmodontine rodent . Although reproduction occurs around the year , there is a peak during the summer ( November to April ) . Molting mostly occurs during autumn and winter ( April to August ) . At one locality in Mendoza , Akodon spegazzinii occurs at an estimated density of 21 individuals per hectare ( 8 @.@ 5 per acre ) and has a home range size of about 300 m2 ( 3200 sq ft ) . A number of sigmodontines have been recorded as occurring with A. spegazzinii , including A. caenosus , A. simulator , Neotomys ebriosus , Abrothrix illuteus , Reithrodon auritus , Andinomys edax , and various species of Eligmodontia , Necromys , Calomys , Oligoryzomys , Oxymycterus , and Phyllotis . The tick Ixodes sigelos has been recorded on A. spegazzinii in Tucumán . In addition , the mites Androlaelaps fahrenholzi , Androlaelaps rotundus , and Eulaelaps stabularis and the flea Cleopsylla townsendii are known from the species . = = Conservation status = = Akodon spegazzinii is listed as " Least Concern " on the IUCN Red List in view of its wide distribution and apparently stable population ; in addition , it occurs in several protected areas . However , both Akodon oenos and Akodon leucolimnaeus are listed as " Data Deficient " with a trend of declining populations ; they are said to be threatened by agricultural development .

= Australian Senate committees = The committees of the Australian Senate are committees of Senators , established by the Australian Senate , for purposes determined by that body . Senate committees are part of the operation of the Australian parliament , and have for some decades been involved in maintenance of government accountability to the Australian parliament , particularly through hearings to scrutinise the budget , and through public inquiries on policy questions . = = History of the committees = = The existence of parliamentary committees are mentioned in section 49 of the Constitution of Australia , which makes reference to ' The powers , privileges , and immunities of the Senate and of the House of Representatives , and of the members and the committees of each House ... ' However , the Senate had few committees , engaged in limited activities , until 1970 . A number of domestic committees have operated since the establishment of the parliament , however prior to 1970 the only significant committee to be established was the Regulations and Ordinances Committee in 1932 , one of the legislative scrutiny committees ( see below ) . In 1970 , the present committee system was created , with a series of standing ( permanent ) committees established that mirrored the portfolio activities of government . These reforms significantly enhanced the expertise and power of the Senate : The Senate is now undergoing the most fundamental and dramatic changes witnessed in the Commonwealth Parliament since the States decided to federate 70 years ago . The introduction of a wide @-@ ranging committee system will make the red @-@ carpeted Upper House potentially the most powerful parliamentary chamber in Australia . These reforms were also significant in that they gave to Senate committees the role of examining the budget ( what is referred to as the estimates process or estimates hearings ) , which had hitherto been confined to the Senate and its committee of the whole . The role of the committees was enhanced by three subsequent developments . First , in 1982 the Scrutiny of Bills Committee was established , which , in examining all bills , played a role that complemented that of the examination of all delegated legislation by the Regulations and Ordinances Committee . Second , in 1989 the Senate adopted procedures for the systematic referral of bills to committees , increasing the level of legislative scrutiny taking place within parliament . Third , in 1993 , the committees adopted a more extensive procedure for consideration of the budget , creating a second opportunity each year for Senators to follow up issues identified during the initial budget estimates hearings . These second hearings are referred to as supplementary budget estimates . Though the committee system was restructured in 1994 , 2006 and again in 2009 , the range of functions has remained essentially the same . = = Purposes of committees = = The functions of committees depend on the type of committee and on the work it is undertaking . Most of the committees are established under the Senate 's Standing Orders . = = = Standing committees = = = The Legislative and General Purpose Standing Committees ( often referred to simply as ' standing committees ' ) are established by Standing Order 25 . The standing committees are actually made up of pairs of committees – a legislation committee and a references committee . The legislation committees are responsible for scrutinising bills referred to them by the chamber ; examining the government 's budget and activities ( in what is called the budget estimates process ) ; and for examining departmental annual reports and activities . The references committees are responsible for conducting inquiries into topics referred to them by the chamber . = = = Select committees = = = Select committees are temporary committees , established by the Senate to deal with particular issues . This may occur when a particular group of Senators wishes to examine an issue in depth , or where there is no existing committee suited to addressing a particular topic . Australian Senate select committees have included ones set up to examine the Administration of Indigenous Affairs , and Mental Health . Select committees usually cease to exist upon reporting back to the chamber . One exception to this was the Senate Select Committee on Superannuation which in various forms existed for a decade . = = = Domestic committees = = = Domestic committees are responsible for administering aspects of the Senate 's own affairs . The selection of bills committee meets each sitting fortnight to consider which of the bills coming before the Senate will be referred to committees for detailed consideration . The procedure committee considers " any matter relating to the procedures of the Senate referred to it by the Senate or by the President " . This committee thus regularly examines and reports back to the chamber on suggested changes to the operation of the Senate and its committees , such as what times of day the chamber will sit and what rules should govern its order of business . Established by Standing Order 18 of the Senate , the privileges committee is responsible for reporting on matters of parliamentary privilege referred to it by the Senate . The protections afforded by parliamentary privilege are essential to parliament and its committees to be able to operate effectively . The bulk of the work of the privileges committee 's work is associated with facilitating a ' right of reply ' for people adversely named in the Senate , as well as involving investigations of unauthorised disclosures of Senate committee proceedings , complaints from witnesses in connection with evidence given to committees , and allegedly misleading evidence given to committees . = = = Legislative scrutiny committees = = = The purpose of the scrutiny of bills committee is to assess " legislative proposals against a set of accountability standards that focus on the effect of proposed legislation on individual rights , liberties and obligations , and on parliamentary propriety " . The regulations and ordinances committee performs a similar task , but for all subordinate legislation . = = = Other committees = = = Senators may be members of joint committees : committees jointly established by both chambers of the Australian parliament . In addition , political parties will often have caucus committees comprising members of the parliamentary party ; these committees will often have a policy focus , but are not committees of the parliament and are not bound by any of parliament 's rules of procedures . = = List of committees = = These are the committees of the 43rd Parliament that exist within each category : = = Membership and rules of committees = = The Senate 's committees are formed at the commencement of each new parliament , in accordance with rules set out in the Standing Orders . The committees exist until the first day of the following parliament , in contrast to the lower house committees , which cease to exist as soon as parliament is prorogued for an election . The most important and high profile of the committees are the pairs of standing committees . These each have six members . The chairman of each legislation committee is chosen from amongst the government members , the deputy chair from amongst non @-@ government members . The reverse is the case for the references committees . Because the chair has a casting vote in the event of a committee vote being tied , the government effectively controls the legislation committees , while the non @-@ government parties control the references committees . The membership and rules of committees , including those that operated during the Coalition 's period of control , are shown below : Committees have two types of members : full members and participating members . In the case of standing committees , full members are the six outlined above . In addition , however , any Senator may arrange for the Senate to agree to their being made a participating member of the committee . This gives them the same rights as full members , with the important exception of being unable to vote on motions in private meetings of the committees . The committees are governed by the Standing Orders of the Senate , as well as being able to pass their own resolutions to govern certain aspects of their operations ( such as the processing of correspondence and submissions to inquiries ) . Committees are designed to assist the Senate as a whole . Thus the main formal structure of their work is that the Senate refers something to a committee for examination , and the committee reports back to the Senate on that matter . These reports are tabled during parliamentary sittings , but can also be presented when the Senate is not in session . Committees can gather evidence and will often hold public hearings to assist this process . To gather their evidence committees can ( with exceptions ) travel from place to place to hear evidence . Committees are able to order the production of documents and the appearance of witnesses ( powers that are in practice used very sparingly ) . Most evidence taken by committees ( both written submissions and transcripts of public hearings ) is published , however committees have the power to take evidence confidentially ( in camera ) , and regularly do so . Committees hold both public hearings and conduct business at private meetings . The minutes of private meetings are confidential ( in contrast , for example , to those of New South Wales parliamentary committees ) . The rules governing committees are slightly different when conducting budget estimates hearings . In particular , during estimates hearings , any Senator may ask questions of the officials appearing before the committee ( normally only members can ask questions ) no evidence can be taken on a confidential basis ( normally this is an option available to a committee ) under Standing Orders , Senators may direct questions to any government agency , but only within the portfolio areas for which the committee has oversight . The committee cannot restrict the agencies to which Senators may direct questions ( although the committee can control whether this happens at the public hearing , or whether it must be done in writing afterwards ) . = = The work of Senate committees = = A typical year in the life of a Senate legislation committee will see it conduct eight days of hearings around budget estimates , in three sessions : February ( additional estimates ) , May / June ( the main budget estimates ) and October / November ( supplementary budget estimates ) . In addition , it will typically conduct several inquiries into pieces of legislation being considered by the parliament . A references committee will conduct inquiries into policy issues referred to it by the Senate . Each of these inquiries will usually result in a report tabled in the Senate ( there may be exceptions if an election intervenes during the committee 's deliberations ) . A consolidated list of the reports prepared by all Senate committees since 1970 is published by the Department of the Senate . = = = Inquiries into topics and bills = = = Committee inquiries typically begin with the reference of an issue or a proposed law to the committee for inquiry and report back to the Senate . The committee will make a call for submissions , seeking public input on the matter referred to the committee . It will often publish those submissions to help inform stakeholders of the views that are being put to the committee . A committee will often hold one or more public hearings , at which committee members ask questions of key stakeholders interested in the issue under inquiry . These hearings may be held anywhere in Australia , are often broadcast , and result in a published transcript ( Hansard ) that records the evidence taken . The opportunity to make submissions , and the greater accessibility of the committees compared to parliament itself , can provide disadvantaged individuals and organisations valued opportunities to engage in democratic processes . Committees also frequently ask relevant government agencies to respond to issues raised by submissions or evidence given to the inquiry . Once evidence has been gathered there usually follows a period of research and analysis by the committee . It will then deliver a report to the Senate , which will generally include recommendations . The Commonwealth government is then expected to table a response to the report , stating responses to any recommendations the committee may have made . = = = Scrutiny of the budget = = = Following the introduction of appropriation bills into the Parliament , the expenditure proposed in those bills is referred to Senate legislation committees for inquiry . Such referrals result in what are generally known as budget estimates hearings . Senate standing committees will usually conduct eight days of hearings around budget estimates , in three sessions : February ( additional estimates ) , May / June ( the main budget estimates ) and October / November ( supplementary budget estimates ) . During these hearings ministers , assisted by senior public servants , answer questions put to them by any Senator that relate to the operations and expenditure of departments and agencies that receive federal government funding . In such hearings , ministers from the House of Representatives are represented by a minister who is also a Senator . Budget and management reforms in the 1980s and 1990s saw a change in budgeting , including a greater emphasis on outcomes , and decreasing emphasis on inputs . This has been reflected in the activities of Senate committees , with Senators ' questions being increasingly focussed on the ' results of government activities and away from a concern with inputs ' . = = The Impact of Senate committees = = The impact of the Senate 's committees varies and has been the subject of debate . The work of the committees is frequently more consensual and less partisan than activity in the parliamentary chambers , and unanimous committee reports that agree recommendations across party lines are not uncommon . As a result , these recommendations may contribute to subsequent government policy announcements and occasionally to changes in government actions . The work of the regulations and ordinances committee has led to revisions of subordinate legislation in significant respects . Committee scrutiny of bills has contributed to them being amended or withdrawn . The impact of committees on legislation overall has however been described as ' rather limited ' , particularly as the committees that review bills are controlled by a government majority . Senate committees can be affected by the party composition of the Senate . The Clerk of the Senate , Harry Evans , argued that a government majority of seats in the Senate resulted in limitations on what the committees inquired into , and how readily governments responded to their queries and requests for information . Statistics published by centrist political party the Australian Democrats have been used to support the contention that committee operations have been inhibited by government control of the Senate , particularly in respect of selection of topics for committee inquiry . However Senator Minchin , the leader of the government in the Senate in the mid @-@ 2000s , pointed out that their political rivals had previously cut off debate on more bills in the Senate than had his government . = = = Prominent Senate committee inquiries = = = One of the most high @-@ profile Senate committee inquiries was the Senate Select Committee on a Certain Maritime Incident , which in 2002 investigated what became known as the Children Overboard Affair . The events and subsequent Senate committee inquiries were widely reported , and the transcripts of the inquiry formed the basis of a play , A Certain Maritime Incident . Other high @-@ profile inquiries included the Community Affairs committee 's inquiry into Children in Institutional Care , which brought to wide public notice the experiences of children who had been placed in care in sometimes inhumane circumstances and was directly responsible for state governments and churches making public apologies to the victims of abuse or neglect ; the Select Committee on Mental Health , which contributed to widespread discussion of mental health issues and to a major funding boost for services in 2006 ; and the 2006 inquiry into the Migration Amendment ( Designated Unauthorised Arrivals ) Bill , which contributed to a government decision not to proceed with controversial migration legislation .

= Sarcoscypha occidentalis = Sarcoscypha occidentalis , commonly known as the stalked scarlet cup or the western scarlet cup , is a species of fungus in the family Sarcoscyphaceae of the Pezizales order . Fruit bodies have small , bright red cups up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide atop a slender whitish stem that is between 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . A saprobic species , it is found growing on hardwood twigs , particularly those that are partially buried in moist and shaded humus @-@ rich soil . The fungus is distributed in the continental United States east of the Rocky Mountains , Central America , the Caribbean , and Asia . It is distinguished from the related species S. coccinea and S. austriaca by differences in geographical distribution , fruiting season , and fruit body structure . Phylogenetic analysis has shown that it is most closely related to other Sarcoscypha species that contain large oil droplets in their spores . The species Molliardiomyces occidentalis is an imperfect form of the fungus that lacks a sexually reproductive stage in its life cycle . = = Taxonomy and naming = = The fungus , originally collected from Muskingum County , Ohio , was named Peziza occidentalis by Lewis David de Schweinitz in 1832 . It was assigned its current name by Pier Andrea Saccardo in 1888 . Andrew Price Morgan renamed the species Geopyxis occidentalis in 1902 because of a perceived similarity with Geopyxis hesperidea , but the name change was not adopted by subsequent authors . In 1928 , Fred Jay Seaver overturned Saccardo 's naming and applied the name Plectania to Sarcoscypha coccinea and other red cup fungi . In later taxonomic revisions , Richard P. Korf reinstated the genus name Sarcoscypha . The specific epithet occidentalis , derived from the Latin word for " western " , may refer to the distribution of the species in the western hemisphere . It is commonly known as the stalked scarlet cup or the western scarlet cup . = = Phylogeny = = The phylogenetic relationships in the genus Sarcoscypha were analyzed by Francis Harrington in the late 1990s . The cladistic analysis combined comparison of sequences from the internal transcribed spacer in the non @-@ functional RNA with fifteen traditional morphological characters , such as spore features , fruit body shape , and degree of hair curliness . Based on this analysis , S. occidentalis is part of a clade of evolutionarily related taxa that includes the species S. dudleyi , S. emarginata , S. hosoyae , S. korfiana and S. mesocyatha . All of these species contain large oil droplets in their spores , in contrast to the other major clade of Sarcoscypha ( containing the type species S. coccinea ) , characterized by having smaller , more numerous droplets . The species most closely related to S. occidentalis is S. mesocyatha , known only from Hawaii . = = Description = = Depending on their age , the fruit bodies of S. occidentalis may range in shape from deep cups to saucers to discs in maturity , and they can reach diameters up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) . In young specimens , the edges of the cup are curled inwards , and crenulate ( with small rounded scallops ) ; the cup edges in older specimens become laciniate ( with jagged edges cut into irregular segments ) . The cups rest atop a stem that is small to medium @-@ sized , up to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 – 2 mm thick , and attached centrally or to the side to the underside of the cup . The base of the stem may be covered with translucent " hairs " . The fertile spore @-@ bearing inner surface of the cups , the hymenium , is bright red but fades to yellow or orange when dry . It is smooth or becomes so with time . The fruit bodies are fleshy to rubbery when fresh , but become leathery when dry . The flesh is thin and has no distinctive odor or taste . S. occidentalis is " of no culinary value " . A Jamaican variety has been named ( as Plectania occidentalis var. jamaicensis ) ; it has a pinker hymenium . Exipulum is a term used to refer to the tissue or tissues containing the hymenium of an ascomycete fruit body . The ectal excipulum ( outer tissue layer ) is thin ( 20 – 30 µm thickness ) , made of a tissue type known as texura porrecta , consisting of more or less parallel hyphae all in one direction , with wide lumina and non @-@ thickened walls . The medullary exipulum ( middle tissue layer ) is thick ( 200 – 600 µm ) and made of textura intricata , a tissue layer made of irregularly interwoven hyphae with distinct spaces between the hyphae . The asci ( filamentous structures in which the ascospores develop ) are cylindrical with gradually tapering bases , eight @-@ spored , and measure 240 – 280 by 12 – 15 µm . The ascospores have ellipsoidal to roughly cylindrical shapes , usually with blunt ends , and measure 19 – 22 by 10 – 12 µm . They have smooth surfaces and usually contain two large oil drops . The paraphyses ( sterile , filamentous hyphae present in the hymenium ) are cylindrical , 2 – 3 µm thick , barely enlarged at their apices , straight , and mostly unbranched above . They may sometimes anastomose , but do not form a conspicuous network . The paraphyses contain numerous red granules . = = = Anamorph form = = = Anamorphic or imperfect fungi are those that seem to lack a sexual stage in their life cycle , and typically reproduce by the process of mitosis in structures called conidia . In some cases , the sexual stage — or teleomorph stage — is later identified , and a teleomorph @-@ anamorph relationship is established between the species . The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature permits the recognition of two ( or more ) names for one and the same organisms , one based on the teleomorph , the other ( s ) restricted to the anamorph . The anamorphic state of S. occidentalis is Molliardiomyces occidentalis , described by John W. Paden . This form produces smooth , colorless conidiophores ( specialized stalks that bear conidia ) measuring 20 – 230 by 2 – 3 @.@ 2 µm . The conidia are roughly spherical to ovoid , smooth , translucent ( hyaline ) , and 4 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 0 by 3 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 8 µm . = = = Similar species = = = Sarcoscypha occidentalis is frequently confused with S. coccinea , but is distinguished macroscopically from this species by its smaller fruit bodies , smaller spores , and less hairy exterior . The two also differ in seasonal and geographic distribution : S. coccinea fruits earlier in the year , and is distributed in eastern North America , in the midwest , in the valleys between the Pacific coast and the Sierras and Cascades , as well as Europe , Africa , Australia , and India . Another eastern North American species , S. austriaca , has scarlet fruit bodies up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide , and fruits in the early spring . S. occidentalis may also be mistaken for Microstoma floccosum , which occurs in the same habitat . M. floccosum , however , has taller cups and is covered with stiff white hairs . Another cup @-@ fungus , Scutellinia scutellata , is disc @-@ shaped without a stem , and is fringed with black hairs around its rim . = = Ecology , habitat and distribution = = As a saprobic fungus , Sarcoscypha occidentalis is part of a community of fungi that play an important role in the forest ecosystem by breaking down the complex insoluble molecules cellulose and lignin of wood and leaf litter into smaller oligosaccharides that may be used by a variety of microbes . Fruit bodies of S. coccinea may grow either solitarily , scattered or grouped together on sticks , twigs , and fragments of dead wood , usually somewhat decomposed and partially buried in the top 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of soil and forest litter . It prefers soil that is moist and shaded and has a high content of humus . Like all Sarcoscypha species , it prefers the wood of angiosperms , such as oak , maple , and basswood ; one field guide notes a preference for shagbark hickory . In the United States , it fruits from late spring to early autumn , which contrasts it with S. coccinea , found usually in the spring . The fungus is found in North America east of the Rocky Mountains , and at higher elevations in Central America and the Caribbean . It has also been collected in Japan and Taiwan .

= SMS Frauenlob = SMS Frauenlob ( " His Majesty 's Ship Frauenlob " ) was the eighth member of the ten @-@ ship Gazelle class , built by the Imperial German Navy . She was built by the AG Weser dockyard in Bremen , laid down in 1901 , launched in March 1902 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in February 1903 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Frauenlob was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . Frauenlob spent her entire career in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . She saw action during World War I at the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 , where she badly damaged the British cruiser HMS Arethusa , and at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 . There , in a chaotic night engagement , Frauenlob was hit by a torpedo launched by HMS Southampton , which caused the ship to capsize and sink with the vast majority of her crew . The wreck was discovered in 2000 , and is in remarkably good condition , sitting upright on the ocean floor . = = Construction = = Frauenlob was 105 meters ( 344 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 4 m ( 41 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 99 m ( 16 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 158 t ( 3 @,@ 108 long tons ; 3 @,@ 481 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines manufactured by AG Weser . They were designed to give 8 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) , for a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . The engines were powered by eight coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Frauenlob carried 700 tonnes ( 690 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 256 enlisted men . The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 20 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields . = = History = = Frauenlob was ordered under the contract name " G " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1901 and launched on 22 March 1902 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 17 February 1903 . She was named for the schooner Frauenlob , launched in 1853 , that had been paid for in part by the donations of women from the German lands ; the name means " praise women . " After her commissioning , Frauenlob was assigned to the fleet reconnaissance forces , where she served for the duration of her career . In 1905 , she was assigned to the Cruiser Division , alongside her sister Arcona and the cruisers Hamburg and Friedrich Carl . Frauenlob was recommissioned into the fleet on 2 August 1914 , as a result of the outbreak of World War I. On 28 August 1914 , Frauenlob saw her first action in the Battle of Heligoland Bight . The British Harwich Force , composed of two light cruisers and 33 destroyers under Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt , raided the German picket line in the Heligoland Bight . Frauenlob was stationed to the southwest of the island of Heligoland in support of the picket line . At about 09 : 00 , Frauenlob and the light cruiser Stettin were sent out to reinforce the beleaguered German patrols . Frauenlob shortly thereafter encountered the British cruiser HMS Arethusa and opened fire at 09 : 09 . She quickly found the range and hit the British ship an estimated 25 – 35 times , disabling all but one of her guns and inflicting serious damage . One shell detonated a cordite charge and set Arethusa on fire . The ship 's engine room flooded and her speed fell to 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She turned away to starboard in order to escape from the punishing fire , but Frauenlob kept up with the badly damaged British cruiser until she disappeared in the fog . In return , Frauenlob was hit ten times , but was not seriously damaged ; in all , five men were killed and another thirty @-@ two were wounded . After the engagement ended , Frauenlob took the badly damaged minesweeper T33 under tow and returned her to Heligoland , before proceeding to Wilhelmshaven . By the Battle of Jutland , on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , Frauenlob was assigned to the IV Scouting Group , under the command of Commodore Ludwig von Reuter , which was tasked with screening for the High Seas Fleet . She was not actively engaged in the battle until later on the evening of 31 May ; at around 9 : 15 , the IV Scouting Group encountered the British 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron and briefly engaged them , but due to the poor visibility , only Stettin and München fired for long , and to no effect . Later , during the chaotic night fighting , the battlecruisers Seydlitz and Moltke passed too closely in front of Stettin , which forced the entire Scouting Group to fall out of line , inadvertently bringing them into contact with the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron . A ferocious firefight ensued , at a range of only 730 meters ( 2 @,@ 400 ft ) . Frauenlob opened fire on HMS Southampton and HMS Dublin , as did the rest of the IV Scouting Group . In return , Southampton launched a torpedo that struck Frauenlob at around 22 : 35 , which cut her power and caused serious flooding . British 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) shellfire set the deck alight , and the stricken cruiser quickly capsized and sank , taking twelve officers and 308 men down with her . Only 9 men from her crew survived . = = Wreck = = In 2000 , the wreck was located by Danish divers . The British marine archeologist Innes McCartney led a subsequent dive and confirmed that the wreck sits upright on the sea floor and is largely intact . Skeletal remains from the ship 's crew are scattered around the sunken cruiser . The wreck was positively identified when McCartney 's team recovered the ship 's bell in 2001 , which they donated to the Laboe Naval Memorial near Kiel , where the bell is currently on display .

= Old Melbourne Gaol = The Old Melbourne Gaol is a museum on Russell Street , in Melbourne , Victoria , Australia . It consists of a bluestone building and courtyard , and is located next to the old City Police Watch House and City Courts buildings . It was first constructed starting in 1839 , and during its operation as a prison between 1842 and 1929 , it held and executed some of Australia 's most notorious criminals , including bushranger Ned Kelly and serial killer Frederick Bailey Deeming . In total , 133 people were executed by hanging . Though it was used briefly during World War II , it formally ceased operating as a prison in 1924 ; with parts of the gaol being incorporated into the RMIT University , and the rest becoming a museum . The three @-@ storey museum displays information and memorabilia of the prisoners and staff , including death masks of the executed criminals . At one time the museum displayed Ned Kelly 's skull , before it was stolen in 1978 ; as well as the pencil used by wrongly convicted Colin Campbell Ross to protest his innocence in writing , before being executed . Paranormal enthusiasts claim the museum is haunted , with claims of ghostly apparitions and unexplained voices near cells . = = History = = An allotment of scrubland to the north @-@ east of Melbourne was selected as Port Phillips first permanent gaol . On 1 January 1838 , George Wintle was appointed to be gaoler at the prison at £ 100 a year ; with the site becoming colloquially known as Wintle 's Hotel . Construction of the gaol started in 1839 – 1840 on Collins Street West , but it was considered too small at the time . A second gaol was then built between 1841 and 1844 at the corner of Russell and La Trobe Streets , adjoining the then Supreme court . The first cell block was opened for prisoners in 1845 , but the facilities were considered inadequate ; escapes occurring frequently . The gaol was already crowded by 1850 . With the discovery of gold in 1851 ( when the Port Phillip District became the new Colony of Victoria ) , and the resulting influx of population , law and order became more difficult to maintain . Subsequently , a new wing , with its own perimeter wall , was constructed between 1852 and 1854 ; the building using bluestone instead of sandstone . The design was based on that of British prison engineer Joshua Jebb , and especially the designs for the Pentonville Model Prison in London ( which suited the current prison reform theories at the time ) . The new wing was extended in between 1857 and 1859 , with the boundary wall also being extended during this time . In 1860 , a new north wing was built ; which included entrance buildings , a central hall and chapel . Between 1862 and 1864 , a cell block was built for female prisoners on the western side – it was basically a replica of the present east block ( until this time , female convicts were not kept apart from the male prisoners ) . In 1864 , the perimeter wall , and the gaol overall , was completed ; making it a dominant feature of authority on the Melbourne skyline . At its completion , the prison occupied an entire city block , and included exercise yards , a hospital in one of the yards , a chapel , a bath house and staff accommodation . A house for the chief warders was built on the corner of Franklin and Russell streets , and 17 homes were built for gaolers on Swanston street in 1860 . Artefacts recovered from the area indicate that even the gaolers and their families lived within the gaol walls in the 1850s and 1860s . = = = Operation = = = Much of daily life inside the gaol could be gleaned from sources such as diaries written by John Castieau , governor of the gaol between 1869 and 1884 . During its operation , the gaol was used to house short @-@ term prisoners , lunatics and some of the colony ’ s most notorious and hardened criminals . It also housed up to twenty children at a time – including those imprisoned for petty theft or vagrancy , or simply those staying with a convicted parent . Babies under twelve months old were allowed to be with their mothers . The youngest prisoner was recorded as three @-@ year @-@ old Michael Crimmins , who spent 6 months in the prison in 1857 for being idle and disorderly . In 1851 , the 13- and 14 @-@ year @-@ old O 'Dowd sisters were imprisoned because they had nowhere else to go . Prisoners convicted of serious crime , such as murder , arson , burglary , rape and shooting , would begin their time on the ground floor with a time of solitary confinement . They were also forbidden from communicating with other prisoners , which was strictly enforced by the usage of a silence mask , or calico hood , when outside their cells . They would only be given a single hour of solitary exercise a day , with the remaining 23 hours spent in their cells . Inside the cells , prisoners would be able to lie on a thin mattress over the slate floors . They could only bathe and change clothes once a week , and attend the chapel on Sundays ( with a Bible provided to promote good behaviour ) . Prisoners might only have been allowed to finally socialise with other prisoners towards the end of their sentences . The routine for prisoners was regulated by a system of bells , and enforced by punishments ; prisoners who obeyed the rules would be promoted to the second floor – whereby they would be allowed to work in the yards everyday . Male prisoners would perform hard labour – including breaking rocks , and other duties in the stone quarries , while women would sew , clean and cook . Women would also make shirts and waistcoats for male prisoners , as well as act as domestic servants for the governor and his family . Prisoners who had become trusted , those nearing the completion of their sentence , and debtors , were housed on the third floor communal cells . These top level cells were large , and held up to six prisoners at time ; and were mostly reserved to prisoners convicted of minor crimes such as drunkenness , vagrancy , prostitution or petty theft . = = = Executions = = = During its operation , the gaol was the setting for 133 hangings . The most infamous was that of bushranger Ned Kelly at the age of 25 , on 11 November 1880 . After a two @-@ day trial , Kelly was convicted of killing a police officer . As stated by law at the time , executed prisoners were buried ( without head ) in unmarked graves in the gaol burial yard . The head was normally removed from the body as part of the phrenological study of hanged felons . Historian and associate professor of Wollongong University John McQuilton states that the lack of monitoring for burial processes was odd , given Victorian society 's normally brilliant attention to detail . The first hanging of a woman in Victoria , Elizabeth Scott , was performed in the prison on 11 November 1863 – along with her co @-@ accused , Julian Cross and David Gedge . The last person to be executed was Angus Murray in 1924 , the same year the gaol was closed . = = = = Ned Kelly = = = = Edward " Ned " Kelly , born sometime between June 1854 and June 1855 , was an Irish @-@ Australian bushranger , and was seen by some as merely a cold @-@ blooded killer , while to others he was a folk hero for his defiance of the colonial authorities . As a youth he clashed with the Victoria Police , and after an incident at his home in 1878 , police parties searched for him in the bush . He killed three policemen , and subsequently the colony proclaimed Kelly and his gang wanted outlaws . A final violent confrontation with police took place at Glenrowan on 28 June 1880 . Kelly , dressed in a home @-@ made plate metal armour and helmet , was captured and sent to gaol . He was hanged for murder at the Old Melbourne Gaol in November 1880 . His notoriety affirmed him as a polarising iconic figure in Australian history , folk lore , literature , art and film . He was in cell number 113 at the Old Melbourne Gaol = = = = Colin Campbell Ross = = = = Colin Campbell Ross , an Australian wine @-@ bar owner , was wrongly convicted of the rape and murder of 12 @-@ year @-@ old Alma Tirtschke in December 1921 . The case , dubbed the Gun Alley Murder , was heavily influenced by public hysteria at the time , which ultimately served to condemn him . Despite his pleas of innocence ( including an attempt whereby a letter was thrown over the gaol walls ) , he was executed by hanging in the gaol in April 1922 ( only 115 days after the body was found ) . A new four @-@ strand rope was used for the first time at the execution , and proved to be a failure ; Ross slowly strangled for more than forty minutes before his death . A prison report later ruled that such a rope must never be used again . He was posthumously pardoned on 27 May 2008 . = = = = Frederick Bailey Deeming = = = = Frederick Bailey Deeming was born on 30 July 1853 . At 16 years of age he ran away to sea , and thereafter , he began a long career of crime , largely thieving and obtaining money under false pretences . He was responsible for the murder of his first wife Marie , and his four children , at Rainhill , England , on or about 26 July 1891 , and a second wife , Emily , at Windsor , Melbourne , on 24 December 1891 . Less than three months elapsed between the discovery of Emily Mather ’ s body in Windsor , Melbourne , in March 1892 , and Deeming ’ s execution at the Old Melbourne Gaol for her murder in May 1892 ; a remarkably short time by comparison to modern western legal standards . After his execution , it was reported that over 12 @,@ 000 people cheered on the streets outside , and there was public speculation that Deeming was in fact Jack the Ripper . = = = Closure and re @-@ opening = = = In 1870 , a review of the penal system was conducted , with the recommendation being made to close the gaol and relocate prisoners to more suitable locations . The gaol gradually slowed its operations , and demolished portions of the original site between 1880 and 1924 . In 1924 , the gaol was finally closed . However , in March 1927 , the Old Melbourne Gaol was integrated into part of the new Emily McPherson College , and was used for educational purposes . This necessitated changes to the prison ; in 1929 , despite poor record keeping of prisoner burials , historical evidence suggested the remains of approximately 32 executed prisoners , including Ned Kelly , were exhumed from the Old Melbourne Gaol and buried at mass graves in a quarry at Pentridge . In 1930 , the women 's cell block , walls and several other buildings were demolished , and a further four coffins were believed to have been moved to Pentridge in 1937 . As the Gaol was progressively decommissioned , the building ’ s fabric , including bluestone grave markers of executed prisoners , was incorporated into a sea wall at Brighton in Victoria in the 1930s . The grave marker for Martha Needle , executed in 1894 , has recently been rediscovered after being buried by metres of sand . During World War II , the gaol was used as a military prison for soldiers found to be absent without leave . A new wall was built in the eastern courtyard during this time , so that cell block inmates were separated from the college girls . After the end of the war , the section used for holding prisoners was then used only as a storage facility for the Victoria Police Force , whose headquarters were nearby in Russell Street . In May 1974 , the sections used by the school were remodelled by architects Eggleston , McDonald and Secomb , to act as the schools food and fashion departments . The Emily McPherson College was merged into RMIT University in 1979 , bringing the gaol entrance gates , and other facilities alongside it . In 1990 , RMIT performed work to restore the enclosed balcony to its former 1927 design . In 1994 , RMIT performed further work to landscape the inner courtyard , and in 1995 , removed the temporary war @-@ time pavilion classrooms . As of 2010 , the sections that RMIT owns are collectively known as the " RMIT Building 11 . Architect : Colonial Government Architect " , and include the entrance block and chapel ; with the bath house and chapel serving as art studios . = = Museum = = In 1957 , the National Trust of Australia listed the Old Melbourne Gaol on its heritage register , and a year later marked it as a site that needed to be preserved at all costs . Furthermore , in 1965 , the Melbourne Junior Chamber of Commerce floated the idea of converting it into a museum , for the purposes of tourism . In 1972 , the gaol was reopened as a public museum , under the management of the National Trust of Australia ( Victoria ) . As of 2010 , the gaol is recognised as Victoria 's oldest surviving penal establishment , and attracts approximately 140 @,@ 000 visitors per year . The cells have been filled with information about individual prisoners , which also serve to illustrate the history of Melbourne itself . In addition to historical information , it also includes various memorabilia ; including death masks , an iron mask , and a pair of leather gloves designed to prevent inmates from practising self @-@ abuse . Notably , it still includes Ned Kelly 's death mask , pistol and replica of his suit of armour , as well as the pencil used by Colin Ross to write a letter protesting his innocence , which he threw over the prison walls . Operators also run several features , including the candlelit Hangman 's Night Tour ( with actors portraying prolific and brutal hangman Michael Gateley ) , and the daily Watch House Experience ; an interactive performance in which visitors are treated as the prisoners would have been during its operation . In 2010 , the Old Melbourne Gaol Crime and Justice Experience won the heritage and cultural tourism category at the Qantas Australian Tourism Awards in Hobart . = = = Ned Kelly 's skull = = = A skull , believed to be Ned Kelly 's , was on display in the museum until it was stolen from a glass cabinet in 1978 . Efforts have been taken by scientists and the government to determine the location of the skull , and whether it was authentic to begin with ; it was reported that members of the public may have the remains of bones and teeth taken as souvenirs when graves were exhumed in 1929 . Special interest was directed to finding a photograph of former South Melbourne councillor Alex Talbot holding Ned Kelly 's skull , and information on grave exhume contractor Lee of Lee and Dunn , or his family , who was tasked with delivering Kelly 's skull to the governor . In 2009 , West Australian farmer Tom Baxter handed a skull to authorities , arguing that it was the one stolen from the gaol – while refusing to explain how he obtained it . Former Pentridge prison chaplain Father Peter Norden has stated that he believed the skull handed in could not belong to Kelly , and that it probably belonged to a woman . In 2010 , there was further speculation that the skull actually belonged to Frederick Bailey Deeming , with the Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine claiming that the skull is similar to both Kelly 's and Deeming 's death masks . = = = Haunting = = = The museum is considered haunted by paranormal enthusiasts , including British parapsychologist Darren Done . Done spent a night at the gaol in 2003 , and claimed that he heard unexplained voices , and detected evidence of an electrical interference to suggest paranormal activity . He has since undertaken more research at the gaol , and in 2005 , he claimed to have recorded a ghostly figure with a grotesque visage standing in a doorway at the gaol . Theories suggest that the voice of a woman , claimed to have been heard , might belong to Elizabeth Scott ( the first woman hung at the gaol ) . Notably , none of the reported hauntings are related to that of Ned Kelly . Local enthusiast group GhostSeekers Australia conducts monthly tours to gather data and statistics for paranormal activity ; making use of various monitoring equipment . However , Joe Nickell , a writer for the Skeptical Inquirer , argues that evidence of ghostly phenomena at the site is scant .

= Destruction Derby = Destruction Derby is a vehicular combat racing video game developed by Reflections Interactive and published by Psygnosis . Based on the sport of demolition derby , the game tasks the player with racing and destroying cars to score points . The developers implemented simulated physics to make the results of collisions easier to predict , and they kept the game 's tracks small to increase the number of wrecks . Versions of Destruction Derby were released for MS @-@ DOS , PlayStation and Sega Saturn . A Nintendo 64 version , Destruction Derby 64 , was released in 1999 by Looking Glass Studios and THQ . Critics found Destruction Derby enjoyable and they praised its graphics and car damage system , but the Nintendo 64 and Sega Saturn releases received mixed reviews . The game started the Destruction Derby franchise , beginning with its 1996 sequel , Destruction Derby 2 . = = Gameplay = = Destruction Derby is a vehicular combat racing video game based on the sport of demolition derby . The game contains three vehicles . Collisions in the game affect the controls of each car , limiting their steering and maximum speed . Frontal collisions risk damage to the car 's radiator , which causes the car to overheat and stop running . Four game modes are available : Destruction Derby , Wreckin ' Racing , Stock Car Racing and Time Trial . In Destruction Derby , the player earns points by destroying other cars in a large , trackless arena called The Bowl ; in Stock Car Racing , the player must finish in first place , and no points are awarded for destroying cars . Wreckin ' Racing is a hybrid of the two , in which the player earns points both by winning the race and by destroying other cars . Time Trial is a solo time attack mode . The PlayStation version features system link play for two players , while the MS @-@ DOS version has an online multiplayer mode . Destruction Derby 64 , the game 's Nintendo 64 version , features updated graphics and an increased number of cars and tracks ; and it adds new modes such as capture the flag . The game contains twenty @-@ four cars and more than twelve courses . It also supports split @-@ screen multiplayer for up to four players . = = Development = = The British development studio Reflections Interactive began creating Destruction Derby for the PlayStation in late 1994 . It was published by Sony Computer Entertainment 's Psygnosis branch , which allowed Reflections to receive PlayStation development kits long before that console 's release . The game debuted at the May 1995 Electronic Entertainment Expo , and its initial title was variously reported as Demolition Derby and Demolish ' em Derby . Writers for Edge and Next Generation commented that the game could " trounce " Ridge Racer upon the PlayStation 's release . To make the results of car collisions easier to predict , Reflections implemented simulated physics into Destruction Derby . Director Martin Edmondson believed that the game would otherwise be " completely unplayable " , as with " pool when the collisions are all off " . Producer Tony Parks noted that the physics were simplified to improve performance and to compensate for the PlayStation 's digital controller , and that the team sought a balance between " realism and playability " . Performance was also improved by optimising the game 's graphics , and by reducing the level of detail of objects in the distance . Destruction Derby 's game engine supports up to twenty cars on screen simultaneously , which no console racing game , other than Daytona USA , had achieved until that time . However , a single wire @-@ frame model , differentiated by texture maps , was used for every vehicle . Damage to vehicles is modelled in real @-@ time , based on the speed and angle of the cars involved . The team made the game 's tracks small to " keep the density of the cars on the track very high " , which allowed for large @-@ scale wrecks . Plans were made to support up to eight players with the PlayStation Link Cable . Destruction Derby was published by Sega and developed by Perfect Entertainment for the Sega Saturn , as part of a deal that also brought Wipeout to the console . Due to the limitations of the Saturn , this version lacks transparencies . GameFan 's Ryan Lockhart estimated that the port was " 80 % ready " in the magazine 's August 1996 issue , and it was released in August 1996 . A Nintendo 64 version of Destruction Derby was announced by the UK magazine CTW in 1998 , alongside Nintendo 64 versions of Psygnosis games such as Wipeout and O.D.T .. Destruction Derby 64 was developed by Looking Glass Studios and published by THQ , under license from Psygnosis . At the time , Looking Glass head Paul Neurath said in a press release , " We are delighted to have teamed up with THQ for the launch of Destruction Derby 64 " . Aaron Boulding of IGN commented that the game " had a tough time just making it to the N64 " during its 18 months in production , and noted that " development duties [ ... ] passed from Psygnosis to Looking Glass Studios and publishing [ was ] picked up by THQ . " The game was released in October 1999 . = = Reception = = A writer for GamePro called Destruction Derby " the most raucous racing experience of the fall " . He believed that its " graphics are almost all you could want for a game " of this type , but wrote that " nothing here stands out as graphically spectacular " . He complained that the game does not let players customise cars , and he disliked its lack of split @-@ screen multiplayer . He summarised , " Limited options keep Destruction Derby out of the winner 's circuit , but this rowdy stock @-@ car racer still generates a stadium full of thrashin ' fun . " Victor Lucas of The Electric Playground stated that " the beauty of the game " is the strategy involved in making " calculated strikes " against enemy vehicles , and he wrote , " If you go all out and try to make big noise on the track , more than likely you 'll be limping to the scrap yard in seconds . " He believed that the game 's Stock Car racing mode " is no match for the white knuckle inertia of either Wipeout or Ridge Racer " , and that the demolition derbies in The Bowl were " most fun to be had " in the game . He praised the game 's graphics and physics , and concluded , " Destruction Derby is a winner in every capacity . " Lee Buchanan of PC Gamer US praised " the spectacular visuals that bring to life the most jarring collisions I 've seen on a computer " , and he noted that " [ car ] damage is depicted beautifully " . Like Lucas , he wrote that the player " can 't just mindlessly smash into other cars ; this is thinking man 's destruction " . Although he found the game too easy " even at the toughest difficulty level " , he found this to be a minor issue that did not detract from the experience . He considered the game 's online play to be a high point , and he finished , " Destruction Derby is a blast , and a welcome change of pace from high @-@ end driving simulations . " Peter Olafson of Computer Gaming World called the game " a great simulation " of demolition derbies , and he wrote that the wrecks are " convulsive and realistic " . He believed that the game " has never @-@ before @-@ seen quality that will instantly make it a showpiece game to demonstrate to open @-@ mouthed friends and relatives " , and he considered the car damage to be " especially marvelous — and unprecedented for this sort of game " . However , he found that its " useful life span is surprisingly short " and he hoped for a track editor in its sequel . He summarised , " Despite its limitations , this is a great game , but it has a lot more potential . " Reviewing the game 's Sega Saturn version , Kim Randell of Computer & Video Games noted its " inferior graphics " that do not have " the sheen and glossiness of its PlayStation counterpart " . Randell believed that it was a " haphazard conversion " that was made " much too late " . Erik Reppen of Game Informer wrote that it " doesn 't seem fair to compare " the Nintendo 64 release to the PlayStation version , and he complained that car damage does not hinder performance . He said that it would more accurately be described as " Destruction Derby Arcade " . He found that the game was far too easy for " experienced racers and big fans of the franchise " to enjoy , and finished , " It was fun , but I wouldn 't buy it . " Aaron Boulding of IGN believed that Destruction Derby 64 came too long after the original version , and that it was " a shadow of the outdated PSX game " . He complained about the " bland backgrounds and flat textures " and noted that the graphics are " grainy " and suffer from slowdown ; but he enjoyed the car damage visuals . Boulding liked the split @-@ screen multiplayer and called the new capture the flag mode the game 's best aspect , but he concluded that " even [ these elements ] may not make it worth a rental " . GameFan 's Levi Buchanan praised Destruction Derby 64 as " the best racer for the Nintendo 64 this year " , and he lauded its " simplistic control " as a remedy for the complex controls that he believed had " ruined the PlayStation versions " . He liked its graphics but wrote that its music " isn ’ t too hot " . Buchanan enjoyed its multiplayer component and wrote that " the slowdown when all four join in is minima [ l ] — nice programming on the part of Looking Glass " . Although he complained that the game 's vehicle damage is not " segmented throughout your car " , he concluded by calling the game " pure , unadulterated fun [ that ] has enough tracks and hidden vehicles to keep you playing for a very long time " . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot wrote , " Graphically , Destruction Derby 64 surpasses the old PlayStation games by quite a bit - not that that is a particularly hard thing to do " . He found that its framerate was adequate even in split @-@ screen mode , and concluded that it was " a better game than its PlayStation counterparts " . He finished , " Give it a rent next time you 're rounding up the posse for a day of gaming . " Destruction Derby spawned the Destruction Derby series , and was directly followed by Destruction Derby 2 in 1996 . Later entries include Destruction Derby Raw ( 2000 ) and Destruction Derby : Arenas ( 2004 ) , the last of which was developed by Studio 33 . Destruction Derby was re @-@ released through the PlayStation Network store in 2007 .

= The Boat Race 1863 = The 20th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 28 March 1863 . Oxford won by 15 lengths in a time of 23 minutes 6 seconds . It took the overall record to ten wins each , the first time since the 1836 race that the scores were level . The race was the third to be held on the ebb tide , along the Championship Course in reverse , from Mortlake to Putney . It was the first time since the race was held in the fashion since the 1856 race . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , and since the 21st century , is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1862 race by ten lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with ten victories to Oxford 's nine . According to Drinkwater , neither boat club president was " sensible of their duty to posterity , for they kept no records of the training of the crews " . Both crews arrived at Putney on 21 March , one week before the race , and each put in four practice sessions in the run @-@ up to the main event . Cambridge 's boat was built by Searle . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race . = = Crews = = The Oxford crew averaged over 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) in height , and weighed an average of 11 st 8 @.@ 5 lb ( 73 @.@ 5 kg ) , 2 @.@ 75 pounds ( 1 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their Light Blue opposition . Six of the Oxford crew had represented their university in the previous year 's race , including W. M. Hoare who was rowing at stroke for the third time . The Cambridge boat contained two members of the 1862 crew , including William Cecil Smyly and John Graham Chambers . = = Race = = Oxford , who were clear pre @-@ race favourites , won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . Like the 1856 race , the race was conducted on the ebb tide , and the start was moved to Barker 's Rails , to " give the steamers room between the Aqueduct and the crews " . The start of the race was delayed for around half an hour as a result of a number of steamers impinging upon the course . The future British King , Edward VII , was in attendance . At the time of the race , there was a mild breeze and the water was " perfect , but for the steamers . " Cambridge made the better start , but Oxford 's steady rowing brought them level and within 300 yards ( 270 m ) of the start , they were nearly half @-@ a @-@ length up on the Light Blues . By Craven Steps , they were clear and two lengths up by the Mile Post . Oxford crossed over to row directly in front of Cambridge , and according to MacMichael , " it was evident here that the race was over , barring accidents . " The Dark Blues were three lengths up as they shot Barnes Bridge and won by fifteen lengths . It was Oxford 's third consecutive victory and took the overall total to ten wins each , the first time since the 1856 race that the scores were tied .

= Benedict Arnold ( governor ) = Benedict Arnold ( 21 December 1615 – 19 June 1678 ) was president and then governor of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations , serving for a total of 11 years in these roles . Coming from Somerset , England , he was born and raised in the town of Ilchester , likely attending school in Limington , nearby . In 1635 , at the age of 19 , he accompanied his parents , siblings and other family members on a voyage from England to New England , where they first settled in Hingham in the Massachusetts Bay Colony . In less than a year they moved to Providence on the Narragansett Bay at the request of Roger Williams . In about 1638 they moved once again , about five miles south to the Pawtuxet River , settling on the north side at a place commonly called Pawtuxet . Here they had serious disputes with their neighbors , particularly Samuel Gorton , and as a result put themselves and their lands under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts , a situation lasting for 16 years . Learning the native languages at an early age , Arnold became one of the two leading interpreters in the Rhode Island colony , Roger Williams being the other . He was frequently called upon to interpret during negotiations with the natives , but on one occasion was accused by them of misrepresentation . In 1651 Arnold left Providence and Pawtuxet with his family , settling in Newport where he began his public service which would last continuously until his death . He quickly became a freeman , Commissioner , and Assistant , and in 1657 succeeded Roger Williams as president of the colony , serving for three years . In 1662 he was once again elected President , and during the second year of this term the Royal Charter of 1663 was delivered from England , naming him as the first governor of the colony , and offering broad freedoms and self @-@ determination to the colony . A bold and decisive leader , Arnold was elected for two additional terms as governor , the last time following the devastation of King Philip 's War . He died on 19 June 1678 while still in office , and was buried in the Arnold Burying Ground , located on Pelham Street in Newport . In his will he left to his wife his " stone built wind mill , " which still stands as an important Newport landmark . His many descendants include General Benedict Arnold , best known for his treason during the American Revolutionary War , and Senator Stephen Arnold Douglas who debated Abraham Lincoln in 1858 , and lost to him during the 1860 presidential election . = = Early life = = Born 21 December 1615 in Ilchester , Somerset , England , Benedict Arnold was the second child and oldest son of William Arnold and Christian Peak . Living in the large town of Ilchester , he was familiar with the nearby villages of Northover , from where his grandparents Nicholas and Alice Arnold had come ; Yeovilton , where his Aunt Joane 's husband William Hopkins ( ancestor of Rhode Island Governor Stephen Hopkins ) was from ; and Limington , after which place he would name one of his properties in New England , calling it " Lemmington Farm . " All four of these localities lie within two miles of each other . Arnold was likely educated at the Free Grammar School associated with the parish church in Limington , slightly more than a mile to the east of Ilchester . This ancient school is where Thomas Wolsey was the curate and schoolmaster from 1500 to 1509 . Wolsey later became the Lord Cardinal and Primate of England . At the age of 19 , Arnold accompanied his parents and siblings aboard a ship destined for New England . With his parents , siblings , and other relatives and associates , the Arnolds gathered their baggage and supplies in the spring of 1635 and made the trip from Ilchester to Dartmouth on the coast of Devon . In a family record begun by his father , he wrote " Memorandom my father and his family Sett Sayle from Dartmouth in Old England , the first of May , friday & c . Arrived in New England June 24o Ano 1635 . " The name of the ship on which he sailed was not recorded , nor has it been identified since . It is possible that Stukeley Westcott of Yeovil , five miles south of Ilchester , was also on the same ship , bringing his family including his daughter Damaris , aged 15 , the future wife of Arnold . Upon their arrival in New England , the Arnolds joined a group of settlers from Hingham , Norfolk , England , where they established the new town of Hingham in the Massachusetts Bay Colony . William Arnold received title to a house lot here in September 1635 , but the following spring he and several other settlers were persuaded by Roger Williams to join him in establishing a new settlement on the Narragansett Bay , named Providence . In the family record the younger Arnold wrote , " Memm . We came to Providence to Dwell the 20th of April , 1636 @.@ per me Bennedict Arnold . " Arnold received a house lot on what is now North Main Street in Providence , and his father was granted the second lot south of his . = = Providence and Pawtuxet = = In 1637 Arnold was one of 13 settlers who signed a compact agreeing to subject themselves to any agreements made by a majority of the masters of families . About 1638 he accompanied his father , his brother @-@ in @-@ law William Carpenter and Robert Cole in a move about five miles south to the Pawtuxet River . The settlement , called Pawtuxet , was still within the jurisdiction of Providence ( and later became a part of Cranston , Rhode Island ) . On 17 July 1640 Arnold signed an agreement with 38 other Providence residents to form a more compact government " to preserve the peace and insure the prosperity of a growing community . " It did neither , especially after the arrival of Samuel Gorton in Providence , who Roger Williams wrote was " bewitching and bemadding poor Providence . " In one incident , " Upon the attempt to enforce the execution of an award against Francis Weston made by eight men orderly chosen , Gorton , with many of his followers , assailed the representatives of law and order making a tumultuous hubbub . " In a petition that Arnold wrote , dated 17 November 1741 , he with 12 others formally applied to Massachusetts for help , asking the government there to " lend us a neighborlike helping hand . " Massachusetts replied that they could not help unless the complainants fell under their jurisdiction . Being highly offended by Gorton , who had moved with some of his adherents to Pawtuxet , the Arnolds , Cole , and Carpenter went to Boston , and on 2 September 1642 submitted themselves to the government and jurisdiction of Massachusetts . They were received by the General Court there , and appointed justices of the peace . In doing this , these settlers allowed a foreign jurisdiction into the midst of the Providence government , a condition that would last for 16 years . Gorton , unhappy about being under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts , then moved with his followers another 12 miles further south , settling at a place called Shawomet , beyond the limits of Massachusetts ' jurisdiction . Having already become proficient in the Narragansett and Wampanoag native languages , and harboring an intense dislike of Gorton , Arnold and his father devised a scheme to undermine their adversary , and to simultaneously obtain extensive lands from the local Indians . Gorton had purchased Shawomet from Miantonomi , the chief sachem of the Narragansett people . Two minor sachems , Ponham and Sacononoco , had some control of the lands at Pawtuxet and Shawomet , and Arnold , acting as interpreter , took these chieftains to Governor Winthrop in Boston , and had them submit themselves and their lands to Massachusetts , and claim that the sale of Shawomet to Gorton was done " under duress . " Now with a claim to Shawomet , Massachusetts directed Gorton and his followers to appear in Boston to answer " complaints " made by the two minor sachems . When Gorton refused , Massachusetts sent a party to Shawomet to arrest Gorton and his neighbors . The ensuing trial had nothing to do with the land claims , but instead focused on the writings and beliefs of Gorton , for which he and others in his group were imprisoned . Ultimately , Gorton was released and went to England where he was given legal title to his lands from the Earl of Warwick , and in his honor the settlement of Shawomet was renamed Warwick . Besides Roger Williams , Arnold was the only member of the colony who was highly proficient in the Narragansett and Wampanoag tongues , and he was often called upon to interpret during negotiations . In June 1645 he was sent by the General Court of Massachusetts to the Narragansett people to urge them to desist from engaging in a war with the Mohegans . On 28 July of the same year Arnold and two others were sent out to get the hostile tribes to send deputies to Boston to talk and make peace . This attempt failed , and a month later Arnold would not go back again , as he had been charged with mis @-@ representing the reply of the tribes two months earlier , and Roger Williams went as interpreter in his place . The issue of the Pawtuxet settlers remaining under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts was a constant irritant to Roger Williams , Gorton , and the other Providence and Warwick settlers . At a meeting of the General Court of Rhode Island held at Warwick on 22 May 1649 it was ordered that letters be sent to Arnold and the other Pawtuxet settlers in reference to their subjecting themselves to the Rhode Island colony . This did not happen , and the Pawtuxet settlers continued under Massachusetts for another nine years . Arnold and his father , while not laying claim to the Shawomet lands , nevertheless had extensive land holdings , and in 1650 Arnold paid a tax of five pounds , the highest in the colony , and his father paid three and a half pounds , the second highest amount . In June 1650 Roger Williams wrote to Governor Winthrop in Massachusetts saying that Arnold had bought a house and land at Newport , with the intention to move there . While his reasons for moving were not revealed in his own writings , some historians have suggested that it was mercantile interests that compelled the move , while others have suggested political interests , or wanting to get away from the hostile atmosphere of Providence and Pawtuxet were reasons . = = Newport and politics = = In 1651 Arnold left troubled Providence and Pawtuxet for the politically enlightened island of Aquidneck , settling in Newport . He recorded in the family record , " Memorandum . We came from Providence with our family to Dwell at Newport in Rhode Island the 19th of November , Thursday in afternoon , & arrived ye same night Ano . Domina 1651 " . With only a few exceptions , men from Newport held the reins of power for the first century of Rhode Island history . When the first English settlers came to Aquidneck Island in 1638 , they organized a quarterly court and English @-@ style jury trial . In 1640 Newport established monthly courts , rights of appeal and trial by jury , whereas in Providence there was no court , no judge , and no jury . Newport was by far the most attractive settlement on the Narragansett Bay , with most of its settlers being educated . Significant political events were taking place upon Arnold 's arrival in Newport . William Coddington had been successful in removing the island towns of Newport and Portsmouth from the government with the two mainland towns of Providence and Warwick under a commission he obtained earlier in England , and he was appointed as governor for life of the two island towns in 1651 . Providence , feeling that the Patent of 1643 had been abandoned , sent Roger Williams to England , and those on the island opposed to Coddington sent Dr. John Clarke , accompanied by William Dyer , to have Coddington 's charter annulled . Finding success , Williams and Dyer returned to New England , but Clarke remained in England for the next decade , acting as a diplomat to further the colony 's interests . In February 1653 Dyer brought letters revoking Coddington 's commission , with the authority of the government to proceed under the Patent of 1643 , and the status quo of 1647 . John Sanford succeeded Coddington in 1653 , and with the change of administration came the work leading to the reunification of the four towns under one government . In 1653 Arnold became a freeman of Newport , and from that point forward served in some public capacity every year until his death in 1678 . In 1654 he was selected as one of the commissioners from Newport ( each of the four towns had six ) , and from 1655 to 1656 he was an Assistant . As a member of the Court of Commissioners he was very active , and a member of the most important committees . In 1655 he was appointed by the court with Roger Williams , Samuel Gorton and William Baulston to frame a letter of thanksgiving to the English Lord President of the Council ( on colonial affairs ) , and to present humble acknowledgments and submission of the colony to His Highness , the Lord Protector , Oliver Cromwell , and the letter of reply from Cromwell was placed in the custody of Arnold . In 1657 , at the age of 41 , Arnold was elected as the President of the colony , succeeding Roger Williams in this capacity . = = = Terms as president = = = Arnold became President at a crucial time in Rhode Island 's history . Tremendous political change was occurring in England , and this resulted in significant changes and opportunities for the little colony of Rhode Island , which was constantly being harassed by its larger , predatory neighbors , primarily Massachusetts and Connecticut . Since the overthrow and execution of England 's King Charles I in 1649 , Oliver Cromwell had been running the country , but his death in 1658 marked the restoration of the monarchy , and Charles II ascended to the throne . Rhode Island was quick to adjust to the new political reality , and on 18 October 1660 the General Court of Commissioners met at Warwick , where two letters were read , one from Dr. Clarke telling of the Restoration , and one from His Majesty , containing the royal declaration and proclamation . Leaders in the colony set aside a special day of proclamation , where the citizens could recognize the new king . Arnold , was succeeded as President in 1660 by William Brenton , but continued for many years as a Commissioner , as well as an Assistant from 1660 to 1661 . In these roles he headed a committee to draft and send a new commission to Dr. Clarke , giving due credit to the King 's father , Charles I , for the Patent of 1643 , which gave the Rhode Island colony its official existence . Reference was made of " sundry obstructions " stemming from " claims of neighbors about us , " referring to interests that both the Massachusetts Bay Colony and Connecticut Colony had on the Narragansett lands . The document went on to include Dr. Clarke as the agent and attorney for the colony , and used deferential language toward " his most gracious and regall Majesty , Charles the Second , by the Grace of God , the most mighty and potent King of England . " In this commission , the four towns of the Rhode Island colony declared their " unfayned affection " for the new king . This commission to Dr. Clarke , on behalf of the colony , armed the able diplomat with what he needed to fulfill his mission . He wrote a well @-@ crafted letter on behalf of the colony asking for an experiment in liberty where the colony would become " a Republic of Liberty under Law , in which every man is king and no man subject . " = = = Dealings with the Quakers = = = A 1658 letter from the United Colonies ( Massachusetts , Plymouth , New Haven and Connecticut ) announced the arrival in 1657 of the Quakers , calling them notorious heretics , and calling for their speedy removal from the colonies . The United Colonies wanted the Quakers removed from Newport , and used the threat of withholding trade as leverage for their position . While Arnold was no friend of the Quakers , his reply , endorsed by the four Assistants ( one from each town ) , demonstrated a firm adherence to the Rhode Island doctrine of religious tolerance . He wrote , " Concerning these Quakers ( so @-@ called ) , which are now among us , we have no law among us , whereby to punish any for only declaring by words , & c . , theire mindes and understandings concerning the things and days of God , as to salvation and an eternal condition . " He goes on to say that the Quakers find a " delight to be persecuted by civill [ sic ] powers , " thus gaining more adherents to their cause . He felt that their doctrines tended to be very absolute , " cutting down and overturning relations and civil government among men ... " President Arnold promised Massachusetts Governor Simon Bradstreet that at the next session of the General Assembly the Quakers ' " extravagent outgoinges " would be considered , and he hoped some action would be taken to prevent the " bad effects of their doctrines and endeavors . " At the March 1658 session of the Assembly , the Rhode Island doctrine of " freedom of different consciences " was reaffirmed , and a letter was sent to the Commissioners stating that if troubles arose from harboring Quakers , the matter would be presented to the supreme authority of England . Following this , no further complaints came from the other colonies . = = = Terms as governor = = = In 1662 Arnold was once again elected president of the colony , and in the second year of this term , the result of Clarke 's earlier diplomacy came to fruition with the Royal Charter of 1663 , which historian Thomas Bicknell described as " the grandest instrument of human liberty ever constructed . " Under this instrument Arnold became the first governor of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations , with William Brenton as his Deputy . The earlier governing body , the Court of Commissioners , was replaced with a legislature of ten Assistants and a House of Deputies , with six from Newport , and four each from Providence , Portsmouth and Warwick . One of the first acts performed by Arnold as governor was to address a letter to Governor Winthrop of Connecticut about running a line between the two colonies as provided by the Charter . In 1664 the King 's Commissioners came to Rhode Island to settle claims of jurisdiction over the Narragansett country , specifically addressing rival claims between the Rhode Island and Connecticut colonies over land at Westerly and the settlement at Wickford . While the commissioners were able to forestall a major confrontation , no substantial changes were made , and the disputes between the two colonies would continue for the next fifty years . The King 's Commissioners also appointed Arnold as a justice of the peace and a magistrate of the " King 's Province " ( later Washington County , Rhode Island ) . In the election of 1666 , Arnold retired from office , and was succeeded once again by William Brenton . Nevertheless , he and others were compelled to sit in the Assembly as deputies " as the Court due desire their assistance . " In 1669 Arnold was again chosen as governor , and re @-@ elected in 1670 when the controversy with Connecticut over disputed lands in King 's Province and Westerly became acute . On 11 July of that year Arnold sent a strong letter to Connecticut 's Governor Winthrop informing him of Rhode Island 's determination to appeal to King Charles concerning " invasions and intrusions upon the lands and government of this Colony . " There is no record , however , of this threat being carried through . During this administration , the Quakers were finding the religious tolerance of Rhode Island to be a fertile ground for their missionaries , and they also found a safe haven from other colonies here . The Quakers not only found success in the spread of their religion , but also became a strong political force as well . Arnold was once again elected governor in 1671 , but in 1672 the governorship went to the Quaker Nicholas Easton , and the Quakers would hold the reins of power for three of the next five years . Arnold had , however , left a positive mark on the colony , and after more than ten years of Arnold leadership in the colony , the disorganization and fragmentary governments of the four towns were united and put in order , with courts established and an organized society put into motion . = = = Business and land interests = = = While Arnold 's usefulness had been in great demand for the welfare of the colony , his successful political career was mirrored by equally successful agricultural and mercantile pursuits . While living at Pawtuxet he became agent for arms , ammunition and liquors , and had an establishment on the Warwick side of the river offering Boston goods and provisions in demand at the time . In his book Simplicities Defense , Samuel Gorton complained that Arnold constantly traded with the Indians on the Sabbath day and was too liberal in providing them with powder . He further complained that Arnold would not sell items to the Warwick settlers unless they submitted themselves to the jurisdiction of Massachusetts . The Warwick settlers also complained that he furnished the Indians with strong drink and wine , which was forbidden by the Warwick town council . After leaving the governorship in 1672 , Arnold likely attended to his commercial interests , and he was said to be the wealthiest person in the colony . He had a wharf and warehouse mentioned in his will , and he had commercial interests in the West Indies , evident from a 1674 letter that he wrote to his son @-@ in @-@ law , Roger Goulding , urging him to complete his ( Arnold 's ) business in the Barbados . Arnold held several parcels of land in and around Newport , one of which he called his " Lemmington Farm , " which was named after the village of Limington in his native Somerset , England . In 1657 he was one of about a hundred individuals who purchased Conanicut Island , the second largest island in the Narragansett Bay where the town of Jamestown is currently located . He also , with John Greene acquired Goat Island and Coaster 's Harbor Island , which later became the property of the town of Newport . Sometime after January 1658 he and six others each had a one @-@ seventh interest in a company that bought a large tract of land in the Narragansett country known as the Pettaquamscutt Purchase , a tract that would later become South Kingstown , Rhode Island . He held this until his death , when the property was bequeathed to his three sons , Benedict , Josiah , and Oliver . He also owned two parcels of land in Newport , one where his wharf and warehouse were located , and the other the site of his mansion house . = = = King Philip 's War = = = From 1675 to 1676 , King Philip 's War , " the most disastrous conflict to ever devastate New England , " left the mainland towns of Rhode Island in ruins . This confrontation between many indigenous people and the English settlers was named for Metacomet , sachem of the Wampanoags , who was also called King Philip . Though much more at peace with the Indians than the other colonies , because of geography , the Rhode Island colony took the brunt of damage from this conflict , and the settlements of Warwick and Pawtuxet were totally destroyed , with much of Providence destroyed as well . Several of Arnold 's relatives who lived in these areas fled to Long Island , and his aged father had been moved from Pawtuxet to his brother 's garrison house , but nevertheless did not survive the conflict . In April 1676 it was voted by the Assembly " that in these troublesome times and straits in this Colony , this Assembly desiring to have the advice and concurrence of the most judicious inhabitants , if it may be had for the good of the whole , do desire at their next sitting the company and counsel of Mr. Benedict Arnold ... " and 15 others . Quakers were noted for their pacifism , and the Quaker governor , Walter Clarke , was in office during the conflict . Even though the war had ended , in the election of 1677 the so @-@ called " war party " was successful , and Arnold was voted back into office as governor . During this term his health began to fail , and though ill , Arnold was still re @-@ elected in May 1678 . He was too ill to leave his house , and his deputy governor , John Cranston , along with two assistants and a recorder , transacted the colony 's business by visiting him at home . His health did not improve , and within a month of his latest election to governor , he was dead . = = Death and legacy = = Arnold wrote his will on 24 December 1677 , during his last full term as governor . A codicil to the will was written the following February , and the governor died in June while still in office . On 29 June Samuel Hubbard of Newport wrote a letter to Dr. Edward Stennett of London , saying " Our Governor died the 19th day of June , 1678 , buried 20th day , all this island was invited , many others was [ sic ] there , judged near a thousand people , brother Hiscox spoke there excellently led forth , I praise God . " In his will Governor Arnold gave to his wife , for life , certain land with mansion house and " stone built wind mill . " While there are romantic legends of early norse men coming to Newport and building the stone structure that continues to stand in the city , the strongest evidence suggests that the structure was the base of Arnold 's windmill mentioned in his will . Benedict Arnold , his wife , and many of his family are buried in the Arnold Burying Ground located on Pelham Street in Newport . For many years the cemetery was buried under a garden in the back yard of a residence , but in 1949 a major renovation began whereby all the stones were unearthed , cleaned , and returned to their original positions . While there is no inscription on the slabs covering the graves of the governor and his wife , his grave is marked with a governor 's medallion . Lieutenant Governor and Rhode Island historian Samuel G. Arnold wrote of him , " That he was no friend of the doctrines , or advocate of the conduct of the followers of Fox [ Quakers ] is evident from his writings ; but that like Williams , he recognized the distinction between persecution and opposition , between legal force and moral suasion as applied to matters of opinion , is equally apparent . In politics and in theology he was alike the opponent of Coddington and the friend of John Clarke and throughout his long and useful life he displayed talents of a brilliant order which were ever employed for the welfare of his fellow men . " = = Family and descendants = = Arnold was married on 17 December 1640 to Damaris , the daughter of Stukeley Westcott and Julianna Marchante . They had nine children : Benedict , Caleb , Josiah , Damaris , William , Penelope , Oliver , Godsgift , and Freelove . All but William grew to adulthood , married , and had children . His son Caleb , a physician , married Abigail Wilbur , who was the daughter of Samuel Wilbur , Jr . , and the granddaughter of both Samuel Wilbore [ Sr. ] and John Porter , two signers of the compact establishing the town of Portsmouth with Anne Hutchinson . Notable descendants of Benedict Arnold , through his son Benedict , include his 2nd great @-@ grandson , also named Benedict Arnold , one of the great generals of the American Revolutionary War who was best known for his treason to the American cause when he switched sides to fight with the British . Descendants through his son Caleb Arnold include Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry , American hero of the Great Lakes during the War of 1812 and his younger brother Commodore Matthew C. Perry , who compelled the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854 ; and Senator Stephen Arnold Douglas who debated Abraham Lincoln in 1858 before a senate race and later lost to him in the 1860 presidential election . Rhode Island colonial Deputy Governor George Hazard is another descendant . The rodeo champion , western artist and inventor Earl W. Bascom is also a descendant . = = Ancestry of Benedict and Damaris Arnold = =

= William G. Farrow = William Glover Farrow ( 24 September 1918 – 15 October 1942 ) was a lieutenant in the United States Army Air Corps who participated in the Doolittle Raid . Born to Isaac and Jessie Farrow , he graduated from high school in 1935 and attended the University of South Carolina . Farrow joined the Air Corps training program in November 1940 , and was commissioned in July 1941 . In February 1942 , he volunteered to participate in the Doolittle Raid , which took place in April of that year . Farrow was captured by the Japanese after the completion of his bombing mission . He was tried and , along with two other crew members , sentenced to death and executed by firing squad . His ashes were recovered and interred in the Arlington National Cemetery in 1946 , and he posthumously received multiple awards . = = Early life = = William Farrow was born in Darlington , South Carolina , on 24 September 1918 . His father Isaac was employed at a cigarette company in Raleigh , North Carolina ; his mother Jessie , born in 1897 , was the daughter of a wealthy tobacco warehouse owner . At age sixteen , William became an Eagle Scout . He graduated from St. John 's High School in May 1935 , and went on to attend the University of South Carolina . During the fall of 1939 , he received his pilot training at the Hawthorne School of Aeronautics in Orangeburg , South Carolina . On 23 November 1940 , Farrow joined the United States Army Air Corps ' Aviation Cadet Program . In July of the following year , he obtained his aviator badge and a commission as a second lieutenant at Kelly Field in Texas . Following his completion of the B @-@ 25 Mitchell training program , he was sent to Pendleton Field in Oregon as a member of the 34th Bomb Squadron . = = Doolittle Raid = = In February 1942 , following the squadron 's transfer to Columbia Army Air Base in January , Farrow volunteered to participate in the Doolittle Raid , an attempt to retaliate against the Japanese as a result of their attack on Pearl Harbor . At the time , however , the mission was secret and its target unknown to the volunteers . On 1 April 1942 , after training in various places around the United States , the crews and their respective aircraft departed from San Francisco aboard the USS Hornet ( CV @-@ 8 ) . The mission took place on 18 April . The B @-@ 25 which Farrow piloted , named Bat out of Hell , was the sixteenth and final aircraft to depart from the Hornet . After the aircraft 's targets in Nagoya , which included an oil tank and aircraft factory , had been bombed , Farrow intended to land in Chuchow . However , the Japanese had deactivated the beacon that Farrow was using for direction . = = Capture and death = = Sixteen hours after departure from the Hornet , the aircraft 's fuel exhausted , Farrow and his crew bailed out near Japanese @-@ controlled Nanchang , China . The Japanese captured Farrow and all members of his crew , and subjected them to imprisonment , interrogation , and torture . The men were subsequently tried and sentenced to death . Most of the crew members ' sentences were commuted to life imprisonment by the Emperor of Japan , but the sentences of three men , including Farrow , stood . The night before their execution , the men were permitted to write final letters . The International Red Cross was to mail the letters after receiving them from the Japanese . The Japanese , however , did not pass on the letters , and they were never mailed . Farrow wrote letters to his mother and to a friend , Lt. Ivan Ferguson . In the letter addressed to his mother , Farrow wrote : You have given much , so much more to me than I have returned , but such is the Christian way . You are and always will be a real angel . Be brave and strong for my sake . I love you , Mom , from the depths of a full heart ... Don 't let this get you down . Just remember God will make everything right and that I 'll see you all again in the hereafter ... So let me implore you to keep your chin up . Be brave and strong for my sake . P.S. My insurance policy is in my bag in a small tent in Columbia . Read Thanatopsis by Bryant if you want to know how I am taking this . My faith in God is complete , so I am unafraid . At dawn on 15 October , the men were taken to a public cemetery near Shanghai , where they were shot by a Japanese firing squad . Following the bodies ' cremation , the ashes were taken to a mortuary . After the war ended , the men 's ashes were recovered and their letters found in a secret file of the War Ministry Building in Tokyo . In 1946 , Farrow was interred with honors at the Arlington National Cemetery , Section 12 , Grave 157 . = = Honors = = Farrow was posthumously given multiple awards . These included the Order of the Sacred Tripod ( 寶鼎勳章 ) of the Republic of China , the Distinguished Flying Cross , and the Purple Heart . He was also awarded the Prisoner of War Medal , which , by authorization of Congress in 1985 , was given to all members of the United States Armed Forces who had been a prisoner of war after 5 April 1917 .

= 1st Sustainment Brigade ( United States ) = The 1st Sustainment Brigade is a sustainment brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Riley , Kansas . It provides logistics support to the 1st Infantry Division . Activated in 2007 , the unit is a modular brigade capable of a variety of actions . Though assigned to the 1st Infantry Division on a permanent basis , it is capable of independent operations and taking on subordinate units to fulfill large scale sustainment operations for the United States Army . Formed from the Division Support Command of the 1st Infantry Division , the Brigade carries the lineage and honors of the division dating back to World War I campaigns as early as 1917 . Having also seen action in World War II , the Vietnam War , and the Gulf War , the brigade has numerous awards and decorations from its previous designation . The brigade has also seen three tours in Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . = = Organization = = The 1st Sustainment Brigade ( 1SB ) in garrison at Fort Riley is composed of four subordinate battalions . The 1st Special Troops Battalion ( STB ) contains a Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) , 267th Signal Company , and the 24th Transportation Company . The 1st STB and the 541st Combat Sustainment Support Battalion are permanently assigned to the 1SB . The 1SB has an Administrative Control Minus ( ADCON- ) Training and Readiness ( TRA ) relationship with the 84th Explosive Ordnance Demolition ( EOD ) Battalion and the 1st Infantry Division Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion ( 1DHHB ) . Thanks to the brigade 's modular design , it is also capable of gaining additional subordinate units upon deployment to a theater of operations . = = History = = = = = Origins = = = The 1st Infantry Division Support Command ( DISCOM ) traces its origins to World War I , where in 1917 , the Division Trains were formed to support the newly formed 1st Infantry Division . In 1921 , the Division trains were consolidated into the Special Troops , 1st Infantry Division . After World War I , the Special Troops deployed to Fort Riley , Kansas . Three of the DISCOM 's former subordinate battalions , the 101st Forward Support Battalion ( FSB ) and 201st Forward Support Battalions , and the 701st Main Support Battalion , served in World War I , but with different divisions . These units deployed back to Germany to support the 1st Infantry Division during World War II , and participated in all eight campaigns credited to the 1st Infantry Division . In 1955 , the Division and its support organizations returned to Fort Riley , Kansas . In 1965 , the division deployed to South Vietnam , as a part of the Vietnam War buildup . DISCOM units supported the Division in all of the eleven campaigns it participated in while deployed to South Vietnam . After Vietnam , the DISCOM underwent many changes . The Division Material Management Center ( DMMC ) was established , and the Finance and Personnel Services Companies ( PSC ) were reorganized into battalion commands . In 1990 , the DISCOM deployed again , this time to Southwest Asia in support of Operation Desert Storm . In 1996 , the DISCOM , deployed to Europe for a third time and consisted of the 101st FSB at Fort Riley , Kansas , the 201st FSB in Vilseck , Germany , the 701st MSB in Kitzingen , Germany , the 601st Aviation Support Battalion ( ASB ) in Katterbach , Germany , and the Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) , also in Kitzingen . = = = Operation Iraqi Freedom = = = In 2003 , the DISCOM was deployed to Turkey in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom I. The DISCOM simultaneously supported peacekeeping operations in the Balkans and deployed a logistics task force to support Operation Iraqi Freedom I throughout Iraq . In 2004 , the DISCOM redeployed to Southwest Asia in Support of Operation Iraqi Freedom II . In addition to the organic DISCOM units , the 225th Forward Support Battalion from Hawaii and the 230th Support Battalion from North Carolina deployed to support logistical operations for Task Force Danger . Finally , in 2005 , the DISCOM redeployed to Germany to reconstitute and prepare for future contingency operations . The DISCOM was awarded the Meritorious Unit Commendation for its contributions during Operation Iraqi freedom II . As of January 2006 , the DISCOM consisted of the 201st Field Support Battalion in Vilseck , Germany , the 701st Maneuver Support Battalion in Kitzingen , Germany , the 299th Field Support Battalion in Schweinfurt Germany , the 601st Aviation Support Battalion in Katterbach , Germany , and the Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) , also in Kitzingen . Over the months between January 2006 and July 2006 the 601st [ 1 ] returned to Fort Riley , the 701st was inactivated , the 299th was task organized to the 2nd Brigade Combat Team in preparation for another deployment to Operation Iraqi Freedom , and the 201st was task organized under the 3rd Brigade Combat Team and later deactivated . The DISCOM HHC was re @-@ deployed to Fort Riley Kansas in August 2006 to build the 1st Sustainment Brigade . For a brief period , the DISCOM gained administrative control over the 97th Military Police Battalion , the 541st CSSB , the Band , and the 101st Military Intelligence Battalion . The 101st was in @-@ activated in December 2006 , the 541st and 97th were deployed and task organized away from the DISCOM . In November 2006 , the brigade reviewed its own Shoulder Sleeve Insignia ( SSI ) and Distinctive Unit Insignia . These items were based heavily on the SSI of the 1st Infantry Division . Later that month , the Brigade was informed that it would be deployed to Iraq again in 2007 . The 1st Sustainment Brigade ( SB ) was activated on 15 February 2007 at 10 : 00 am local time at Fort Riley , Kansas . It is a scalable tailorable Sustainment Brigade , with a mission statement of : Plans , synchronizes , monitors , and executes distribution operations . Conducts sustainment operations within assigned area of operation . Conducts Theater Opening and / or Theater Distribution operations when directed . Provides support to joint , interagency , and multinational forces as directed . The brigade deployed to Iraq again in late 2007 , operating in the areas such as those around Central Iraq . The brigade 's headquarters during this time has been Camp Taji . The brigade made history on 16 June 2008 when it heralded the return of the battlefield promotion system in the US Army . The system , which was previously discontinued , was part of a pilot program that the Army was looking at to bring battlefield promotions back . Soldiers of the brigade were also some of the first to use the MRAP , or Mine Resistant Ambush Protected vehicle . The soldiers used the vehicles to train other soldiers on use of the vehicle , particularly leaders of the 10th Sustainment Brigade , which replaced the 1st Sustainment Brigade in late 2008 . The 1st Sustainment Brigade provides a full spectrum support including : configuring for , distributions and retrogrades to and from maneuver Brigade Combat Teams , other support brigades , and to joint interagency and multinational elements as directed . The 1st SB supports Early Entry Operations or Hub operations with augmentation , providing postal , replacement , and casualty operations as well as essential personnel services and Trial Defense Services on an area basis . The brigade is assigned as the sustainment unit of the 1st Infantry Division , however it can also operate independently , being assigned other units and other missions independent of the division . = = Honors = = As it was a part of the 1st Infantry Division 's command , the Brigade received campaign participation credit and awards for all of the same conflicts as the Division Headquarters up until it became an independent unit in 2006 . Thereafter , it retained separate lineage . = = = Unit Decorations = = = = = = Campaign Streamers = = =

= SMS Sperber = SMS Sperber ( " His Majesty 's Ship Sperber — Sparrowhawk " ) was an unprotected cruiser built for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) , the second member of the Schwalbe class . She had one sister ship , Schwalbe . Sperber was built at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Dockyard ) in Danzig ; her keel was laid down in September 1887 and her completed hull was launched in August 1888 . She was commissioned for service in April 1889 . Designed for colonial service , Sperber was armed with a main battery of eight 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and had a cruising radius of over 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) ; she also had an auxiliary sailing rig to supplement her steam engines . Sperber spent the majority of her career overseas . She briefly served in German East Africa in late 1889 and early 1890 , before being transferred to the South Seas Station in German New Guinea . She remained there for three years before being transferred to German Southwest Africa from early 1894 to late 1896 . She was decommissioned in Germany in December 1896 and overhauled before recommissioning for another tour abroad in December 1902 . She briefly spent time in the East @-@ American Station off Venezuela in early 1903 and East Africa from July to October of that year , before being assigned to the East Asia Squadron by the end of the year . After spending 1904 in Chinese waters , Sperber was reassigned to Southwest Africa , where she remained until 1911 . She returned to Germany at the end of the year and was decommissioned a second time , but was thereafter used as a target ship until 1918 . She was later sold for scrap in 1920 and broken up in Hamburg . = = Design = = Sperber was 66 @.@ 9 meters ( 219 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 9 @.@ 36 m ( 30 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 359 t ( 1 @,@ 338 long tons ; 1 @,@ 498 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . These provided a top speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 290 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 090 km ; 3 @,@ 790 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . To supplement the steam engines , she was fitted with a barquentine rig . Sperber had a crew of 9 officers and 108 enlisted men . The ship was armed with eight 10 @.@ 5 cm K L / 35 guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 765 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 8 @,@ 200 m ( 26 @,@ 900 ft ) . Four guns were mounted on each broadside . The gun armament was rounded out by five 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) revolver cannons . = = Service history = = Sperber was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig in September 1887 . She was launched on 23 August 1888 , and then @-@ Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) Franz Mensing gave the launching speech . She began her sea trials on 2 April 1889 , which lasted until 7 June ; after completion of the trials , she was temporarily decommissioned . She was thereafter assigned to the South Seas Station in German New Guinea to replace the gunboats Adler and Eber , which had been destroyed by the 1889 Apia cyclone . On 20 August , Sperber was recommissioned for her new assignment , and she departed Kiel on 4 September , bound for the Pacific . While coaling in Aden on 13 October , the cruiser received orders to head to German East Africa , which was gripped by the Abushiri Revolt . There , she was to replace the old sail corvette Leipzig and the aviso Pfeil . = = = First deployment abroad = = = Sperber arrived in Zanzibar on 26 October ; four days earlier , the protectorate of Wituland had been granted to Germany . Sperber 's first assignment upon reaching East Africa was to conduct a formal survey of the border between Wituland and British Kenya . Sperber was also to conduct the formal flag raising in the new protectorate . Starting on 1 November , Sperber joined the fight against the rebels . In early December , Sperber and her sister ship Schwalbe were present at ceremonial reception of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition at Bagamoyo . Both ships were also involved with settling the border of Wituland on 27 – 29 December . In mid @-@ January 1890 , Pfeil , Leipzig , and Sophie left East Africa , leaving Schwalbe , Sperber , and Carola on the station . On 22 April , Sperber was finally released to resume her original assignment to the South Seas Station . She met Alexandrine in Australia and visited the ports of Melbourne and Sydney , where she underwent an overhaul . Sperber finally arrived in Apia in German Samoa on 30 July . She thereafter took Friedrich Biermann , the Imperial Commissioner for the Marshall Islands , on a tour of the islands . The cruiser returned to Apia on 5 October . In January 1891 , Sperber 's commander presided over the unveiling of a monument to the German sailors who had been killed at the Battle of Vailele in December 1888 . The cruiser then departed for Sydney for another overhaul , which lasted from 24 January to 21 March . After the repair work was completed , Sperber went on a tour of Germany 's colonies in the Pacific , including the Bismarck Archipelago , the Marshalls , and Butaritari . She was back in Apia by 6 June , where she remained stationed until 15 December . The new unprotected cruiser Bussard joined her there on 13 December . In February 1892 , Sperber left for another overhaul in Sydney . While en route , she had to stop at Tabiteuea in the Gilbert Islands and send a landing party ashore to punish locals who had attacked German businessmen there . The overhaul lasted from 3 March to 3 May , after which Sperber went on another tour of the islands , including the Marshalls , Butaritari , and Matupit Island . At Matupit the Deputy Chancellor , Georg Schmiele , came aboard the ship . Sperber was back in Apia by 17 May , and she remained there until 1 November , when she left for another tour , which included stops at Nukufetau , Herbertshöhe — the capital of German New Guinea — and Friedrich Wilhelmshafen . Another period of dockyard work at Sydney followed from 6 February 1893 to 18 April . In the meanwhile , unrest in Samoa broke out , under the leadership of King Mata 'afa Iosefo . He was arrested , however , which caused the movement to disperse ; after she returned from Sydney , Sperber was tasked with taking Mata 'afa into exile on Jaluit Atoll . The unprotected cruiser Falke , which had been assigned to German Southwest Africa , was ordered to replace Sperber in November 1893 . Sperber was in turn ordered to return to Germany , and she departed the South Seas Station on 6 November . While en route , however , her orders were changed and she was instead sent to Southwest Africa . She stopped in Cape Town , South Africa for an overhaul , and finally arrived in Kamerun on 28 May 1894 . Her shallower draft , compared to her predecessor Falke , permitted her to routinely cross the sandbar in the mouth of the Kamerun River . At this time , the only other German warship on the station was the gunboat Hyäne , though the government steamer Nachtigal and the hulked gunboat Cyclop were also available in the colony . Sperber was thereafter responsible for conducting patrols of the colony . She visited Cape Town on 10 November 1895 , and while on her way there , she carried a granite copy of the padrão that had been placed there by the Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão in the late 15th century . The original stone monument had been transported back to Berlin for preservation in 1893 by Falke . A short period of dockyard maintenance lasted from 17 to 29 February 1896 . On 6 March , she was sent to Swakopmund in response to an uprising by the local population . She send a landing party ashore to help the Schutztruppen ( Protection force ) secure the city . From 23 March to 9 April , Sperber went to Mossamedes for a period of rest for her crew . On 22 September , she departed Southwest Africa and headed for Germany ; she arrived in Kiel on 18 November and was decommissioned on 7 December . Starting in early 1898 , Sperber was taken into drydock for a major overhaul . The work lasted until August , and she was placed back in reserve once it was completed . = = = Second deployment abroad = = = On 16 December 1902 , the ship was again commissioned for service abroad , this time to reinforce the East @-@ American Station in Central and South America . She left Kiel on 5 January 1903 and arrived in Willemstad in Curaçao . The Venezuela Crisis of 1902 – 03 was by that time winding down , and so apart from visits to a few Venezuelan ports , her presence was unnecessary . Instead , she was ordered to German East Africa in late February . Sperber left the East @-@ American Station on 22 March and steamed through the Mediterranean Sea , arriving in Dar es Salaam on 1 July . She was there only briefly , before she was again transferred , this time to the East Asia Squadron on 9 October . She arrived in Singapore on 23 November and continued on to the mouth of the Yangtze in China , where she was stationed at the time . From there , she went to Shanghai on 15 May 1904 , and visited several Chinese ports , followed by an overhaul from August to December in Germany 's concession at Tsingtao . In early 1905 , Sperber visited ports in southern China , where she received orders to return to Southwest Africa . She went Tsingtao on 24 April before departing for Africa , arriving in Douala on 26 July . There , she met the gunboat Habicht . On 27 January 1907 , Sperber was present in Lomé for the opening of the first railroad line in German Togoland . Between 1908 and 1909 , she conducted an extensive survey of the west @-@ African coast . In February 1909 , she visited the ruins of Groß Friedrichsburg , the old capital of the Brandenburger Gold Coast , a colony founded by Frederick William I of Prussia in the 17th century . She thereafter returned to survey work in Kamerun and Southwest Africa . On 6 March 1910 , she was transferred to German East Africa to replace Bussard . While en route , her crew helped to put out a major fire in Lüderitz Bay on 15 April . After arriving in East Africa , Sperber conducted the normal routine of visiting ports in the colony . She went to Cape Town for an overhaul from 26 October to 3 December . On 6 March 1911 , she received orders to return to Germany for a second time . She arrived in Wilhelmshaven on 29 June , and was decommissioned again on 6 July . She was stricken from the naval register on 16 March 1912 and was thereafter used as a target ship until 1918 . She was sold on 7 August 1920 and broken up for scrap in Hamburg in 1922 .

= Typhoon Paka = Typhoon Paka , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Rubing , was the last tropical cyclone in the 1997 Pacific Ocean hurricane and typhoon season , and was among the strongest Pacific typhoons in the month of December . Paka , which is the Hawaiian name for Pat , developed on November 28 from a trough well to the southwest of Hawaii . The storm tracked generally westward for much of its duration , and on December 7 it crossed into the western Pacific Ocean . Much of its track was characterized by fluctuations in intensity , and on December 10 the cyclone attained typhoon status as it crossed the Marshall Islands . On December 16 , Paka struck Guam and Rota with winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) , and it strengthened further to reach peak winds on December 18 over open waters . Subsequently , it underwent a steady weakening trend , and on December 23 Paka dissipated . Typhoon Paka first impacted the Marshall Islands , where it dropped heavy rainfall and left US $ 80 million in damages . Later , it passed just north of Guam , where strong winds destroyed about 1 @,@ 500 buildings and damaged 10 @,@ 000 more ; 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , and the island experienced a complete power outage following the typhoon . Damage on the island totaled US $ 500 million , which warranted the retirement of its name . Paka also caused minor damage in the Northern Mariana Islands , and overall the typhoon caused no reported fatalities . = = Meteorological history = = As the weather synoptics of the northern Pacific Ocean transitioned into a late @-@ fall to early winter @-@ type pattern , convection from the monsoon trough extended to the east of the International Date Line . During late November , a westerly disturbance developed into twin troughs on opposite sides of the equator ; the one in the Southern Hemisphere ultimately developed into Tropical Cyclone Pam , while the one in the Northern Hemisphere formed into an area of convection about 2000 km ( 1240 mi ) southwest of Hawaii . The disturbance gradually organized as it drifted north @-@ northeastward , and on November 28 it developed into Tropical Depression Five @-@ C about 465 km ( 290 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Palmyra Atoll . Operationally , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) did not begin issuing warnings on the system until December 2 . The tropical depression continued drifting north @-@ northeastward , and failed to strengthen significantly . It turned to the west on December 1 , due to the presence of a strong anticyclone to its north with a ridge extending westward past the International Date Line . On December 2 , based on satellite estimates , the CPHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Paka while located about 1000 km ( 625 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Johnston Atoll . Due to the presence of high clouds across the area , forecasters had difficulty at times in locating the low @-@ level circulation . After becoming a tropical storm , Paka remained nearly stationary for about two days before resuming a slow motion to the west @-@ southwest . It steadily intensified due to warm water temperatures , and on December 3 the storm attained winds of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . The next day , however , it encountered dry air and began weakening ; by December 6 , the winds had decreased to minimal tropical storm status for about 12 hours . Subsequently , Paka began to re @-@ intensify , and on December 7 the storm crossed the International Date Line into the western North Pacific Ocean with winds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Upon entering the western North Pacific Ocean , tropical cyclone warning duties transferred from the CPHC to the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) , and the JMA first assessed Paka as a 65 km ( 40 mph ) storm . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) unofficially assumed warning duties for interests in the United States Department of Defense . Paka continued to intensify after crossing the date line , and from late on December 7 through early the following day it remained a strong tropical storm . However , upper @-@ level wind shear increased , and it again weakened . At 1200 UTC on December 9 , the JTWC assessed Paka as an 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) tropical storm and forecast it to continue weakening . By December 10 , the shear had begun to decrease as the storm moved through the Marshall Islands , and that night the JTWC upgraded Paka to typhoon status . Paka officially attained typhoon status when JMA classified it with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) at 0000 UTC on December 11 . After attaining typhoon status , Paka strengthened fairly quickly , and by December 12 it reached sustained winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) for a ten @-@ minute ( 10 min ) duration , or 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) over a one @-@ minute ( 1 min ) duration . Subsequently , it briefly weakened as its forward motion increased . However , Paka again re @-@ intensified , and at 1200 UTC on December 14 it attained the unofficial ranking of super typhoon status while over the open Pacific Ocean . At the same time , the JMA classified it with 10 min sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . After reaching its initial peak intensity , Typhoon Paka began to weaken as it approached the southern Mariana Islands ; the NEXRAD Doppler weather radar from Guam revealed the presence of a primary eyewall of 74 km ( 46 mi ) in diameter , with a fragmented inner wall cloud of 19 km ( 11 mi ) in diameter . Additionally , satellite imagery indicated an eyewall mesovortex within the eye of the typhoon . It slowed and began to re @-@ intensify as it continued westward , and at 0530 UTC on December 16 the northern portion of the outer eyewall of Paka passed over the island of Rota ; 20 minutes later , the southern portion of the inner wall cloud moved across northern Guam . As it tracked through the Rota Channel , the center of Paka passed about 8 km ( 5 mi ) north of the northern tip of Guam , its closest approach to the island . Typhoon Paka continued to steadily intensify after passing the Marianas Islands , and late on December 17 it reached its peak intensity of 185 km / h ( 115 mph 10 min sustained ) while located 440 km ( 275 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Guam . Early on December 18 , the JTWC assessed it as attaining peak winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph 1 min winds ) . On December 19 , it entered the area of responsibility of the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration , or PAGASA , and was named Rubing . Shortly thereafter , Paka moved through an area of progressively increasing wind shear , which resulted in a steady weakening trend . By December 21 , winds decreased to tropical storm status . The next day , it degenerated into a tropical depression before it dissipated on December 23 . = = Preparations and impact = = = = = Marshall Islands = = = Prior to the typhoon passing through the Marshall Islands , several hundred residents on the island of Ebeye fled to safer structures . The threat of Paka prevented Continental Micronesia from flying in or out of the area . Paka entered the Marshall Islands between Mili and Majuro as a tropical storm on December 10 , and after strengthening into a typhoon , it left the archipelago on December 14 . The cyclone affected several islands in the nation , and the Majuro and Kwajalein atolls reported wind gusts in excess of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . On Jaluit Atoll , the typhoon dropped 217 mm ( 8 @.@ 54 in ) of precipitation in six hours , with a total of about 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) recorded in 30 hours . Strong waves inundated low @-@ lying islands , which flooded crops with salt water . The combination of the wind and flooding caused severe damage to banana , papaya , and lime trees across the territory . Typhoon Paka damaged 70 % of the houses on Ailinglaplap Atoll , and most of the coconut trees on the atoll were left toppled or damaged . Strong winds left large portions of Ebeye island without electricity or telephone . The typhoon caused no reported deaths or injuries in the region , and damage was estimated at US $ 80 million . = = = Guam = = = The Guam National Weather Service issued a typhoon watch on December 14 , which was upgraded to a typhoon warning the next day . The Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport was closed during the passage of Paka , with only emergency flights permitted . Passing a short distance north of the island , Typhoon Paka produced strong winds across northern Guam , though reliable wind reports are incomplete due to the long duration and intensity of the winds . The highest reading believed to be reliable was at Apra Harbor . There , a station recorded a wind gust of 277 km / h ( 171 mph ) before the sensor failed as winds shifted to the southwest ; since the winds from the southwest were stronger and of greater duration , officials believe gusts there reached 297 km / h ( 184 mph ) . Additionally , Andersen Air Force Base recorded a peak wind gust of 381 km / h ( 236 mph ) , which at the time was considered the highest wind speed on record , surpassing the 1934 world record of 372 km / h ( 231 mph ) on Mount Washington in New Hampshire . However , a subsequent wind survey of the area discarded the reading at the base , as it was considered unreliable . As microbarographs are less exposed than wind sensors , pressure readings on the island are considered accurate ; the lowest reading on the island was 948 hPa ( 27 @.@ 99 inHg ) at Andersen Air Force Base . In two days , the typhoon dropped about 533 mm ( 21 in ) of precipitation on the northern portion of the island , or about 89 % of the monthly rainfall total . Waves along northern Guam reached about 11 m ( 35 ft ) in height . The strong winds from Paka left around 1 @,@ 500 buildings destroyed on the island , of which 1 @,@ 160 were single @-@ family homes . A further 10 @,@ 000 buildings sustained damage to some degree , with 60 % of the homes on the island reporting major damage . In all , about 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless due to the typhoon . Additionally , an estimated 30 – 40 % of the public buildings received major damage . Buildings on the island made of reinforced concrete fared well , as opposed to light metal @-@ frame structures , which more often than not were destroyed . Large tourist hotels near Hagåtña , on which Guam is dependent , received generally minor damage , such as broken windows and damaged power generators . A complete island @-@ wide power outage followed the typhoon ; damage to the main electrical transmission and distribution system was estimated at USD16 million . Following the passage of the typhoon , 25 % of the homes on Guam were left without water . Telephone service remained working after the storm , due to most lines being underground . Strong waves washed away a few coastal roads in the northern portion of the island , leaving them temporarily closed . The waves surpassed the seawall at Apra Harbor , damaging the road and infrastructure of the seaport ; many boats were washed ashore after breaking from their moorings . Strong winds damaged a radar system and lights along the runway of the Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport , though most airport facilities received light damage . Andersen Air Force Base also sustained heavy damage , with hundreds of downed trees and many facilities left damaged . Across Guam , damage was estimated at USD500 million . About 100 people were injured , but the typhoon caused no deaths on the island . = = = Northern Mariana Islands = = = A typhoon watch was issued for Rota , Tinian , and Saipan on December 14 , which was upgraded to a typhoon warning the next day . Because Paka was intensifying while passing to the south of Rota , the first wind , or northeast through east winds , was less severe than the second wind from the southeast . Sustained winds on the island reached 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) , with gusts reaching 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Many trees in the mountainous portion of the island were left defoliated , which limited nesting and foraging sites for the endangered bridled white @-@ eye bird . While passing to the south of the island , Paka dropped 250 – 300 mm ( 10 – 12 in ) of rain . Damage on the island totaled $ 4 @.@ 4 million ( 1997 USD , $ 6 @.@ 4 million 2015 USD ) . The typhoon also produced above @-@ normal precipitation on Saipan . = = Aftermath = = Following the passage of the typhoon in the Ailinglaplap Atoll in the Marshall Islands , residents experienced severe food shortages due to damaged crops and little rainfall . Experts estimated the entire redevelopment of its fauna would require more than a decade . As a result of the crop shortage , large @-@ scale evacuations of the islands ' residents were considered . Officials in the nation requested assistance from the Federal Emergency Management Agency of the United States , and on March 20 , 1998 , the area was declared a disaster area ; the declaration allowed for the usage of emergency funds . On December 17 , 1997 , President Bill Clinton declared Guam a federal disaster area , making it eligible for federal assistance . One week later , a disaster declaration was ordered for the Northern Mariana Islands . Ultimately , FEMA received 14 @,@ 770 Individual Assistance Applications from residents on Guam . In turn , FEMA provided the residents with over $ 27 million in assistance ( 1997 USD , $ 39 million 2015 USD ) . The entire island of Guam was left without power after Paka . Water and sewage systems on Guam were directly affected minimally by the typhoon . With the usage of power generators , most areas of the island had water pumping capabilities within a few days after the typhoon . The Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport was partially reopened to daytime flights a day after the typhoon , and by a week after the passage of Paka the airport was fully re @-@ opened . = = = Retirement = = = Due to the heavy damage from the typhoon , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center requested the retirement of the name in April 2006 ; the name Paka was replaced with Pama .

= M @-@ 311 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 311 is a 13 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 22 @.@ 0 km ) state trunkline highway in Calhoun County in the US state of Michigan that runs from the intersection of M @-@ 60 in Burlington north to I @-@ 94 at Exit 104 in Emmett Township . It was previously an unsigned state trunkline , meaning that no reassurance markers were used to identify the highway . The route mainly consists of 11 Mile Road , which was a county road prior to the 1998 rationalization process . = = Route description = = M @-@ 311 follows 11 Mile Road between M @-@ 60 and I @-@ 94 . In the village of Burlington , M @-@ 311 is known as Marshall Street . There is a jog in 11 Mile Road as it runs northwesterly between Q Drive and O Drive . At N Drive , M @-@ 311 / 11 Mile Road turns along N Drive a short distance before turning back northward . Near D Drive , 11 Mile Road passes Hyde Lake . M @-@ 311 crosses the Kalamazoo River just south of I @-@ 94 . All of M @-@ 311 is two @-@ lane , rural highway in forest lands and farm fields , and none of it is listed on the National Highway System . = = History = = M @-@ 311 was created on October 1 , 1998 as a part of Governor John Engler 's Rationalization process . The original routing started at BL I @-@ 94 / Michigan Avenue and Raymond Avenue . It followed Raymond Avenue to Emmet Street before turning east to Cooper Avenue . From Cooper Avenue , M @-@ 311 turned east again on N Drive North until meeting 11 Mile Road . There it followed 11 Mile Road south to M @-@ 60 in Burlington . Since the original transfer , all of M @-@ 311 north of I @-@ 94 was returned to Calhoun County control . This eliminated the section that made a " U @-@ turn " . Since December 2009 , the highway has been signed in the field . = = Major intersections = = The entire highway is in Calhoun County .

= 2009 Checker Auto Parts 500 = The 2009 Checker O 'Reilly Auto Parts 500 was the thirty @-@ fifth and penultimate stock car race of the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series and the ninth in the ten @-@ race season @-@ ending Chase for the Sprint Cup . It was held on November 15 , 2009 at Phoenix International Raceway , in Avondale , Arizona before a crowd of 90 @,@ 000 . The 312 @-@ lap race was won by Jimmie Johnson of the Hendrick Motorsports team after starting from third position . Jeff Burton finished second and Denny Hamlin came in third . Martin Truex , Jr. won the pole position , although he was passed by Kurt Busch by the end of the first lap . Fifty @-@ six laps later , Johnson became the leader of the race . Many Chase for the Sprint Cup participants , including Jeff Gordon and Mark Martin ran in the top ten for most of the race . Johnson maintained the first position to lead the most laps of 238 , and to win his seventh race of the season . There were four cautions and nine lead changes among four different drivers during the course of the race . The race was Johnson 's seventh win of the 2009 season , and the forty @-@ seventh of his career . The result kept Johnson in the lead of the Drivers ' Championship , one @-@ hundred and eight points ahead of Mark Martin and one @-@ hundred and sixty nine in front of Jeff Gordon . Chevrolet maintained their lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , fifty @-@ eight ahead of Toyota , ninety @-@ five in front of Ford and one @-@ hundred and eight ahead of Dodge . The race attracted 5 @.@ 17 million television viewers . = = Report = = = = = Background = = = Phoenix International Raceway is one of five short tracks to hold NASCAR races , the others being Richmond International Raceway , Dover International Speedway , Bristol Motor Speedway , and Martinsville Speedway . The standard track at Phoenix International Raceway is a four @-@ turn short track oval that is 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at eleven degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , was banked at three degrees . The back stretch , which has a dogleg shape instead of a straight , has nine degrees of banking . Before the race , Jimmie Johnson led the Drivers ' Championship with 6 @,@ 297 points , and Mark Martin stood in second with 6 @,@ 224 points . Jeff Gordon followed in third with 6 @,@ 185 points , fifty @-@ nine ahead of Kurt Busch , and ninety @-@ eight in front of Tony Stewart in fourth and fifth . Juan Pablo Montoya with 6 @,@ 061 was eleven points ahead of Greg Biffle , as Denny Hamlin with 5 @,@ 975 points , was two ahead of Ryan Newman , and seventy @-@ seven in front of Kasey Kahne . Carl Edwards and Brian Vickers in eleventh and twelfth with 5 @,@ 857 and 5 @,@ 777 points rounded out the contenders for the Chase for the Sprint Cup . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet were leading with 247 points , fifty @-@ five ahead of their rival Toyota . Ford , with 158 points , were seven points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third . Johnson was the race 's defending champion . = = = Practice and qualifying = = = Two practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — both on Saturday . A practice session scheduled for Friday morning was cancelled because of rain . The first session lasted 45 minutes , and the second and final session lasted 60 minutes . Although forty @-@ six drivers were entered in the qualifier ; according to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure , only forty @-@ three could race . Each driver ran two laps , with the starting order determined by the competitor 's fastest times . Martin Truex , Jr. clinched his third pole position of the season , with a time of 26 @.@ 643 . He was joined on the grid 's front row by Kurt Busch . Johnson qualified third , Kahne took fourth , and Hamlin started fifth . Biffle , Kyle Busch , Stewart , Casey Mears and Martin completed the top ten positions . The three drivers that failed to qualify were Regan Smith , Kevin Conway and Brandon Ash . After the qualifier Truex said , " ( Today ) we were pretty good in practice . This is a weird track where you go out in practice , then expect to pick up a half @-@ second somehow ( in qualifying ) . We did . It 's strange , but it felt good . " In the first practice session , Sam Hornish , Jr. was fastest , placing ahead of Kahne in second , and Kyle Busch in third . Biffle was fourth fastest , and Hamlin placed fifth . Montoya , Johnson , Martin , Stewart and Gordon rounded out the top ten fastest drivers in the session . Of the other drivers in the chase , Vickers was fifteenth fastest , while Newman placed seventeenth . Later that day , Johnson was fastest in the second and final practice session , ahead of Martin in second , and Dale Earnhardt , Jr. in third . Truex was fourth quickest , and Kurt Busch took fifth . Jeff Burton managed sixth . Gordon , Jamie McMurray , Joey Logano and Kahne followed in the top ten . Other chase drivers included Montoya in seventeenth and Edwards in twenty @-@ third . Kahne scraped the turn two wall and sustained minor damage to his right @-@ hand quarter . = = = Race = = = The race , the thirty @-@ fifth of a total of thirty @-@ six in the 2009 season , began at 3 : 15 p.m. EST and was televised in the United States on ESPN . Around the start of the race , weather conditions were sunny . Phoenix International Raceway chaplin Ken Bowers began pre @-@ race ceremonies by giving the invocation . Former J Records recording artist Tyrese Gibson performed the national anthem , and Senator John McCain commanded the drivers to start their engines . No driver had to move to rear of the grid at the start of the race . Truex retained his pole position lead into the first lap . On the same lap , Kurt Busch passed Truex to become the new race leader . One lap later , Martin , who started tenth , fell to eleventh . On the 4th lap , Hornish had moved up to seventh position after passing Kyle Busch and Gordon . Two laps later , Montoya moved into the sixteenth position , as Martin passed Stewart for tenth on lap 7 . By the 9th lap , Kurt Busch had a one @-@ second lead over Truex One lap later , Kurt Busch increased his lead to 1 @.@ 5 seconds . On lap 13 , Martin passed Kyle Busch to claim ninth . Two laps later , Martin moved into eighth . Gordon who began the race in fourteenth , had moved up eight positions to sixth by lap 22 . Three laps later , Truex had reduced Kurt Busch 's lead to one second , as Martin moved into seventh on lap 28 . One lap later , Kurt Busch extended his lead over Truex to 1 @.@ 6 seconds , as Gordon moved into fifth position . On lap 33 , Johnson passed Truex for second ; Martin passed Gordon to claim fifth on lap 38 . Four laps later , Johnson closed to half a second from Kurt Busch . Twelve laps later , Earnhardt dropped to twentieth position . On lap 57 , Johnson passed Kurt Busch to claim the lead , with Martin moving to fourth one lap later . By lap 60 , Johnson built up a 1 @.@ 5 second lead over Kurt Busch , while Hamlin moved into the third position . Green flag pit stops took place from lap 65 to 73 ; Kurt Busch reclaimed the lead at the end of the cycle . On lap 90 , Johnson passed Kurt Busch to take over the lead position . One lap later , Hamlin took over fifth position . On the 102nd lap , Martin and Gordon moved into third and fourth respectively . Four laps later , Montoya moved into fourth . Having started on pole position , Truex clinched sixth position on lap 107 . On lap 115 , the pace car moved on track because debris was spotted on the track . During the caution , most of the leaders made pit stops . Johnson maintained his lead on the restart , followed by Martin and Gordon . Also , the second caution was prompted when Michael Waltrip damaged his car on that restart , Brad Keselowski was hit from behind and David Ragan spun sideways . None of the leaders chose to make pit stops , as the clean @-@ up crew came on track to clear debris and fluids . Johnson held the lead at the lap 127 restart . Gordon accelerated slower than the leaders and dropped to sixth position by the next lap . On lap 129 , Kyle Busch and Gordon made contact , but both managed to continue , without damaging their cars . By the next lap , Hamlin passed Martin for second position . On lap 134 , Johnson had a 1 @.@ 5 second lead , as Clint Bowyer moved into the fifth position . By the 138th lap , Johnson 's lead was increased to 2 seconds . Kurt Busch and Montoya moved into fourth and ninth positions respectively on lap 141 . By the 150th lap , Johnson had built up a 2 @.@ 7 second lead over Hamlin . On lap 162 , Johnson 's lead of 3 @.@ 4 seconds was reduced to nothing when debris was spotted on the track , causing a caution . During the caution , some of the leaders elected to make pit stops . Johnson remained the leader on the restart , ahead of Bowyer and Hamlin . Two laps later , a multi @-@ car collision occurred on the front straightway as Earnhardt lost control of his car , and collected Logano , Scott Speed , Hornish , Bobby Labonte , Kenseth , Stewart , Vickers and Keselowski . The damaged cars headed to the pit road during the caution as crews cleaned up debris . Johnson maintained his lead at the restart . On lap 179 , Earnhardt headed for his garage because of an oil leak . Three laps later , Vickers and Labonte retired from the race , and Gordon dropped to tenth position . By the 186th lap , Johnson rebuilt his lead to 2 @.@ 3 seconds , as Bowyer passed Gordon to claim third . Five laps later , Martin and Gordon moved into sixth and ninth positions respectively . Johnson 's lead over Kurt Busch was three seconds by lap 196 . Four laps later , Edwards moved up to eighteenth position , while Montoya moved to eighth , one lap later . By lap 203 , Johnson mainained a 3 @.@ 4 second lead , while Burton was passed by Martin for fifth position five laps later . Johnson 's lead was increased to 4 @.@ 3 seconds by the 215th lap . On lap 219 , Hamlin moved into the third position , and one lap later , Martin moved up another place to fourth . On lap 222 , Johnson increased his lead over Kurt Busch to almost five seconds . Six laps later , Earnhardt rejoined the race . Green flag pit stops began on lap 240 ; Johnson made a pit stop on lap 242 , giving the lead to Kenseth . After pit stops , Johnson regained the first position . By lap 277 , the drivers reported their cars becoming loose as track temperatures began to drop . Twelve laps later , Burton passed Hamlin for the second position . On lap 296 , Gordon passed Ambrose to claim ninth , while Truex moved into the fifth position . By lap 302 , Johnson maintained a 1 @.@ 8 second lead over Burton . Two laps later , David Reutimann moved back into the top ten after passing Ambrose , while Kurt Busch moved up to sixth on lap 310 . Johnson maintained his lead to win his seventh race of the 2009 season . Burton finished second , ahead of Hamlin in third , Martin in fourth , and Truex in fifth . Kurt Busch , Bowyer , Montoya , Gordon and Reutimann rounded out the top ten finishers . = = = Post @-@ race = = = Johnson appeared in victory lane to celebrate his seventh win of the season in front of 90 @,@ 000 who attended the race . Johnson also earned $ 267 @,@ 001 in race winnings . Afterward , he said , " I guess it could have been a statement we were sending . There was a lot of pressure . All week long , we wondered if we could step up like we did today . I 'm very proud how we rose to the occasion . " , he continued , " When I go home tonight , I 'm going to be ( mentally ) driving laps , what I think I need to do in qualifying trim so I can put my best effort in on Friday . Same thing for race practice on Saturday , and go racing Sunday . Texas was such a good lesson . And I hope that the points we lost in Texas isn 't what keeps us from winning this championship . " Burton , who finished second , was happy with his performance , " [ New crew chief ] Todd Berrier has come in and done a great job , the team ’ s done a great job . We had one hiccough early on pit road but the rest of them we picked out our spots every single time , and that ’ s what it takes ; it takes a team effort . " In the subsequent post @-@ race press conference , Hamlin said , " Anytime that Jimmie is down is not usually because of performance , it 's usually because of an incident like last week . There was no doubt in my mind they were going to come this week and make a statement . Obviously leading all the laps pretty much and winning the race sends a statement out there that he is the best , that they 're not going to be denied this year . " The race result left Johnson maintaining the lead in the Drivers ' Championship with 6 @,@ 492 points . After the race , Martin who finished fourth , was less optimistic about his championship chances , " We 've still got to go to Homestead and run like this again because we 've still got that threat behind us , Jeff Gordon , especially . " Gordon maintained third with 6 @,@ 323 points , forty @-@ two ahead of Kurt Busch and one @-@ hundred and sixteen in front of Stewart . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained the lead with 256 points . Toyota remained second with 198 points . Ford followed with 161 points , six ahead of Dodge in fourth . 5 @.@ 17 million people watched the race on television . The race took two hours , forty @-@ nine minutes and twenty @-@ six seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 1 @.@ 033 seconds . = = Results = = = = = Qualifying = = = = = = Race = = = = = Standings after the race = =

= Hurricane Pauline = Hurricane Pauline was one of the deadliest Pacific hurricanes to make landfall in Mexico . The sixteenth tropical storm , eighth hurricane , and seventh major hurricane of the 1997 Pacific hurricane season , Pauline developed out of a tropical wave from Africa on September 16 , 1997 , moving across South America and into the Pacific Ocean . On October 5 , the depression intensified into a tropical storm early the next day and by October 7 , Pauline had reached hurricane intensity . It initially moved eastward , then turned northwestward and quickly strengthened to reach peak winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . It paralleled the Mexican coastline a short distance offshore before weakening and making landfall near Puerto Angel , on October 9 , and dissipated the next day . Hurricane Pauline produced torrential rainfall along the Mexican coastline , peaking at 32 @.@ 62 inches ( 930 mm ) in Puente Jula . Intense flooding and mudslides in some of the poorest areas of Mexico killed between 230 and 500 people , making it one of the deadliest Eastern Pacific storms in recorded history . The passage of the hurricane destroyed or damaged tens of thousands of houses , leaving around 300 @,@ 000 people homeless and causing $ 447 @.@ 8 million in damage ( 1997 USD ) . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave exited the coast of Africa on September 16 . It traversed steadily westward , with the southern portion of the wave axis moving across northern South America . On September 26 the wave entered the eastern Pacific Ocean near Panama , and slowly organized . A weak low @-@ level trough extended from the Caribbean Sea to south of Mexico , disrupting the normal flow of westward steering currents . On October 3 , the tropical wave developed a distinct area of deep convection , and began to drift eastward to the south of Mexico . Two days later a low @-@ level circulation formed , and midday on October 5 the system developed into Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E while located about 250 miles ( 410 km ) south @-@ southwest of Huatulco in the state of Oaxaca . With an absence of vertical wind shear , the depression drifted just south of due east and steadily organized . The system developed banding features and a central dense overcast , and early on October 6 the depression intensified into a tropical storm and was named Pauline while located about 295 miles ( 475 km ) south @-@ southeast of Salina Cruz , Oaxaca . A strong high pressure system eroded the trough over southeastern Mexico , which turned Pauline to the northeast . An eye feature developed late on October 6 , and early the next day Pauline intensified into a hurricane about 265 miles ( 425 km ) southeast of Salina Cruz after turning to the north and northwest . Pauline rapidly intensified after becoming a hurricane with favorable conditions for continued development , and 18 hours after becoming a hurricane it attained a peak intensity of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . The winds of the hurricane weakened slightly to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , but on October 8 Pauline re @-@ strengthened to reach winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) a short distance off the coast of Mexico . The hurricane turned more to the west @-@ northwest while paralleling the southern coast of Oaxaca , and Pauline quickly weakened due to interaction with the mountainous terrain before landfall near Puerto Ángel as a 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) hurricane early on October 9 . The tropical cyclone continued to weaken as it paralleled the coast a short distance inland . On October 10 , Pauline dissipated over the state of Jalisco . = = Preparations = = Early forecasts underestimated the peak intensity of Pauline by 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . On October 7 , about 41 hours before landfall , the government of Mexico issued a hurricane warning from Tapachula in Chiapas to Punta Maldonado in Guerrero . Shortly after Pauline made landfall , the warning was extended northwestward to Manzanillo , Colima , and later to Puerto Vallarta , Jalisco . Pauline 's turn to the west @-@ northwest near landfall was unexpected , resulting in hurricane conditions with only a few hours notice in some areas . Authorities in El Salvador declared a national state of alert in response to the potential threat from the hurricane . Residents in flood @-@ prone areas were warned of potential flash flooding . As the hurricane turned sharply to the northwest , there are no reports of damage or deaths from Pauline in the country . Officials in Puerto Madero closed port facilities to all ships , excluding ships in open seas seeking shelter . The government ultimately closed six major ports between Acapulco and Puerto Madero . State authorities in Oaxaca opened 75 emergency shelters and prepared 50 schools to house 10 @,@ 000 people . = = Impact = = Few surface observations were taken during the passage of the hurricane , though officials reported that southern Mexico experienced the brunt of the storm . Puerto Escondido , Oaxaca , near where Pauline made landfall , reported a peak wind gust of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) several hours before the hurricane moved through the area ; no reports were available after that time . An anemometer in Acapulco reported a wind gust of 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) with sustained winds of 46 mph ( 75 km / h ) . However , officials estimate Pauline might have been a hurricane while passing through the area . The hurricane produced very heavy rainfall along its path , with many areas receiving more than 15 inches ( 381 mm ) . According to the Comision Nacional del Agua , precipitation was recorded at 2 @,@ 132 sites . The two highest reported rainfall totals are 27 @.@ 1 inches ( 688 mm ) at San Luis Actlan , and 32 @.@ 62 inches ( 930 mm ) at Puente Jula , near Paso Overjas . This made Pauline the wettest tropical cyclone in the history of Guerrero . In Acapulco , the hurricane dropped 16 @.@ 9 in ( 430 mm ) of rainfall in 24 hours . This broke the city precipitation record set originally in 1974 ; the 1997 total represented about 25 % of the city 's annual rainfall . Seas of about 30 ft ( 9 m ) were reported along the Oaxaca coastline while the hurricane made landfall . Hurricane Pauline lightly affected the state of Chiapas , but severely affected Oaxaca and Guerrero , two of the poorest regions of Mexico . The area most impacted was the region in and around Acapulco . Throughout the country , Hurricane Pauline resulted in $ 447 @.@ 8 million in damage ( 1997 USD ) . A report issued by the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs reported 137 deaths three days after Hurricane Pauline . Four days after the passage of the hurricane , a Reuters news report stated there were 173 dead with about 200 missing , while the government of Mexico issued a statement reporting 149 deaths . Ultimately , media reports indicated a death toll of at least 230 people , and the Mexican Red Cross estimated 400 dead and at least 1 @,@ 900 missing . The Church World Service estimated at least 500 people were killed . Relief Web suggests that 217 fatalities were reported and 600 @,@ 000 people were impacted . Approximately 300 @,@ 000 people were left homeless due to the storm . = = = Environment = = = The hurricane caused severe damage to the environment ; 200 square miles ( 700 km ² ) of low @-@ lying rainforest and pine and evergreen oak woodlands were greatly damaged in southern Mexico . Strong waves produced severe beach erosion in some locations . The erosion affected two nesting cycles for the Olive Ridley turtle , destroying about 40 million eggs . Nearly 806 @,@ 000 nests were affected , and about 50 % of these were wiped out . The deadliest and most intense hurricane to hit southern Mexico since 1959 , the hurricane was the first documented hurricane strike on Pacific coral reefs . Crop damage was extreme , and 400 @,@ 000 bags of coffee were lost . In the days after the hurricane , soybean and wheat prices increased . In all , Hurricane Pauline had a large effect on fauna in Southern Mexico . = = = Oaxaca = = = A state of emergency was declared for the state of Oaxaca shortly after Pauline made landfall . Abundant rainfall caused the River Los Perros to overflow its capacity , flooding 50 municipalities in Oaxaca . The flooding damaged 12 bridges , of which two were destroyed , and cut off some areas of electricity , drinking water , and telecommunications for several days . The passage of the hurricane affected thousands of houses , leaving roughly 250 @,@ 000 homeless in the state . At least 110 people died in the state , with hundreds of thousands of residents and 1 @,@ 278 communities being affected . Strong winds from the hurricane downed trees and power lines throughout southern Oaxaca . The storm temporarily isolated Puerto Ángel , Oaxaca and a navy base thereby cutting off communications from the rest of Mexico . In Huatulco , the winds blew down antennas at the local television station and destroyed at least 30 cardboard houses . A community near the airport of the city was hit hard , with several people left homeless . Heavy rainfall from the storm caused severe flooding in portions of Oaxaca and neighboring Chiapas . A total of about 500 entire communities were destroyed in Oaxaca ; the areas worst affected were Zapotecos , Chatino , and Mixtecos . = = = Guerrero = = = Heavy rainfall led to severe mudslides and flooding throughout southern Guerrero . Entire communities were nearly destroyed , with some remaining flooded for a week after the hurricane . The flooding washed out or destroyed thousands of acres of crops , and killed thousands of cattle . The flooding and mudslides isolated more than 45 @,@ 000 people from the outside world . The passage of the hurricane resulted in damage to houses , bridges , and electrical and water supply . About 400 mm ( 16 in ) fell in the city in a three @-@ hour span , resulting in rivers overflowing its banks . About 1 @,@ 100 vessels were stranded at port , and 35 ships sunk . Damage to the coffee industry was $ 80 million ( 1997 USD ) . One environmental agency remarked that it will take 15 years for coffee crops to recover . According to one preliminary estimate , 123 people died in Guerrero , primarily in Acapulco . Over 200 were missing by four days after the hurricane due to being washed out to sea or buried in mudslides . A total of 50 @,@ 000 people were left homeless across the state . Striking the week after Tropical Storm Olaf , previously wet grounds combined with heavy rainfall from Pauline resulted in severe mudslides and flash flooding in shanty towns around Acapulco Bay . There , around 5 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed with another 25 @,@ 000 damaged , with 10 @,@ 000 people left homeless in and around the city . The luxury resort hotels near the beach were largely unaffected by the hurricane , though residents in the shanty towns lost what little they had . Much of the city was covered in mud , and 70 percent of Acapulco was without water as a result of the hurricane . Most of the city 's one million residents were left without power or telephone service . Overall , total damage was nearly $ 300 million pesos . = = Aftermath = = Volunteers from the Mexican Red Cross quickly went to disaster areas with search and rescue teams , including using specially trained dogs to search for hurricane victims trapped under muddy areas of Acapulco . By four days after the storm each team was finding one or two corpses per day , with officials stating the search could take weeks . In Guerrero , the teams rescued a total of 35 people from hazard . Hours after the hurricane passed through the area , relief works traveled by boat through flooded areas to assist the worst @-@ hit areas . The Red Cross provided food , water , clothing , blankets , water purification supplies , milk powder and other non @-@ perishable foods , and medical supplies to those staying in government shelters in Oaxaca , Guerrero , and Chiapas . The Mexican Red Cross also set up shelters to house and feed hundreds of displaced people , and by four days after the storm , the Red Cross distributed 100 tonnes of relief supplies to hurricane victims . Medical workers were also deployed to the area to aid the injured . Officials set up emergency water purification plants in Acapulco , though water remained largely unavailable . Water trucks were sent to the city , with thousands standing in line for fresh water . Tourists in luxury hotels of Acapulco , for the most part generally unaffected by the hurricane , and rapidly recovered while other parts of the city remained devastated . Hotels were forced to use bottled water and ration their available water to as little as possible to provide water for the rest of the city . Extreme price gouging occurred in the city following the hurricane , with one consumer protection official reporting shopkeepers charging 200 percent more for milk , 500 percent more for tortillas , and 1000 percent more than usual for water . Even though the government was blamed for lack of warnings and water shortages , Ernesto Zedillo , the president of Mexico at that time , cut his vacation in Europe short to respond to the catastrophe . Government officials set up 39 aid centers for Acapulco citizens , though some residents were unable to get food and water . Some residents suspected than the President and his Institutional Revolutionary Party of taking aid supplies for their own purposes . The president promised to seek charges and decided to close aid centers in favor of opening soup kitchens . Despite having the food , the Mexican army did not set up the kitchens , nor was aid distributed at the aid centers . Most of Acapulco remained closed for at least a week after the hurricane . Initially , authorities around Acapulco gave preference to clean up tourist areas , which resulted in the scenic highway from the hotels to the airport being quickly fixed . Tourism greatly decreased following the hurricane , causing some hotels to charge 40 percent less than normal in an attempt to bring people back . One airline offered two plane tickets for the price of one from Mexico City to Acapulco . Most hotels were almost completely back to normal around a month after the hurricane . = = = Donations = = = The governments of Oaxaca and Guerrero asked UNICEF for assistance , specifically water tanks , water pumps , and construction material . International aid initially focused almost solely on the damage in Acapulco . By a week after the hurricane , 500 communities in Oaxaca remained isolated and without assistance , with several large communities in Guerrero not receiving any material aid by a week after the hurricane . The Adventist Development and Relief Agency organized about 7 tons of food and clothing , and sent a bus of 40 people to help isolated villages in southern Mexico . Around ten days after the hurricane struck , 20 @,@ 000 people were still isolated from emergency crews and relief works , causing the president to suspect people could begin starving to death . Helicopters were initially sent to the remote areas , though severe fog and heavy rainfall after the hurricane grounded the operations . The government worked to bring food to remote mountain communities , though officials noted the serious risk in doing so . Three days after the hurricane , the American Red Cross sent an initial donation of $ 25 @,@ 000 ( 1997 USD ) , and also sent plastic sheets for temporary roofing and cleaning supplies such as mops , brooms , buckets , sponges , bleach , and cleaning chemicals . Local chapters also offered assistance . The chapter in San Antonio , Texas sent cleaning kits , and the chapter in Los Angeles delivered 2 @,@ 000 comfort kits containing hygiene supplies and crossword puzzles for children . The German Red Cross also offered assistance . = = = Diseases = = = The floodwaters from the hurricane combined with raw sewage in many poor areas of southwestern Mexico , leading to a widespread threat for a spread of tropical diseases . As a result , government health workers opened vaccination centers in several cities along the Guerrero and Oaxaca coasts . Thousands were inoculated for typhoid fever and tetanus . Officials noted a potential threat for dengue and cholera as a result of the spoiled water . Health workers also stated mosquitos possessing malaria and dengue fever were likely to breed in large areas of leftover water . In Acapulco , about two days after the hurricane passed , the first day of sun in a week evaporated the areas of leftover water , spreading dust across the region with the deadly diseases . Residents were warned to boil their food and water for 30 minutes due to the threat for contamination by the dust . At least twenty cases of cholera and at least six cases of dengue fever were reported . Most significantly , there were 14 @,@ 630 cases of malaria in 616 villages in Oaxaca due to Pauline ; this represented about 80 % of the malaria cases in Mexico during 1998 . Army soldiers distributed chlorine tablets to disinfect water pools and wheelbarrows to remove rotting mud and sewage from their damaged homes . Two C @-@ 130 Hercules planes and twenty helicopters airlifted food and water to smaller villages south of Acapulco that were stranded for nearly a week after the hurricane . = = = Retirement = = = Less than a month after Pauline , Hurricane Rick struck the same general region , which brought additional rainfall and hampered relief efforts . Compared to Pauline , however , damage was minimal . Because of the high death tolls and the extent of damage in Mexico , The name Pauline was retired in the spring of 1998 by the World Meteorological Organization and will never again be used for a Pacific hurricane . It was replaced by Patricia in the 2003 season .

= Junko Sakurada = Junko Sakurada ( 桜田 淳子 , Sakurada Junko , born 1958 ) is a Japanese singer and actress . She was part of a music trio in 1973 , which included Momoe Yamaguchi and Masako Mori . Sakurada then became successful in a solo music career , with 18 top ten singles in the 1970s . Her acting career ran from 1973 to 1993 . She received multiple awards for her acting roles , including the Hochi Film Award , Award of the Japanese Academy , Kinema Junpo Award , and Mainichi Film Concours . Following her marriage , in a Blessing ceremony of the Unification Church in 1992 , she retired from performing . = = Biography = = Sakurada was born in 1958 . She is a singer and actress . In 1973 , she was part of " a hit female trio " , which also included musicians Momoe Yamaguchi and Masako Mori . The music trio became popular as part of the television program Producing the Stars ( Star Tanjō ! ) ; they were known as " The Trio of Third @-@ Year Junior High School Students " ( " Hana no Chu 3 Trio " ) . According to Japan Pop ! : Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture , after this experience in a music group , she went off on her own to develop a solo music career , and became a megastar . Cruising the Anime City : An Otaku Guide to Neo Tokyo described Sakurada as a 1970s music idol , like Pink Lady and Linda Yamamoto . Throughout the 1970s she released a string of hit singles ; nine top 5 singles , and in total eighteen top 10 singles of which Hajimete No Dekigoto ( First Affair ) sold best , grossing over 527 @,@ 000 copies according to Oricon and peaking at number one . After winning the 4th edition of the Star Tanjō ! contest in 1972 , with highest ever points and jury votes , she released her first single in February 1973 called " Tenshi Mo Yume Miru " ( The Dreams of an Angel ) which was written by Yu Aku , and sold over 120 @,@ 000 copies while peaking at number 12 . With the release of her third single , " Watashi No Aoi Tori " ( My Bluebird ) , she won the prestigious Best Newcomer award the 15th edition of the Japan Record Award . In the winter of 1973 following 1974 the single " Hana Monogatari " ( Flower Fairy Tales ) was her first top ten hit single , which sold over 237 @,@ 000 copies . She participated for the first time at the 25th edition of the Kōhaku Uta Gassen festival in 1974 , with her hit single " Kiiroi Ribbon " ( Yellow Ribbon ) . She would perform for a total of 9 times at the festival . In that same year she also performed in Finland . Following the success of her single " Hajimete No Dekigoto " , the song " Hitori Aruki " ( Walking Alone ) ( which was the theme song for her first ever movie production " Spoon Ippai No Shiawase " ( Spoonful of Happiness ) was released in March 1975 and peaked at number 4 , grossing over 350 @,@ 000 copies . She was the best selling Japanese female musical artist of 1975 , and 4th best selling of 1976 . In the summer of 1975 the single " Juushichi No Natsu " ( Seventeen Summers ) was released , and became her second best selling single ; grossing over 404 @,@ 000 copies and peaking at number 2 on the Oricon charts . At the 17th edition of the Japan Record Awards " Juushichi No Natsu " won her the award for most popular artist voted by the public . In the fall of the same year she was awarded at the 6th edition of the Japan Music Awards for her single " Tenshi No Kuchibiru " ( Lips of an Angel ) , which sold over 281 @,@ 000 copies and peaked at number 4 on the charts . After scoring a string of hits in 1976 and 1977 ( most notably " Natsu Ni Giyojin " ( Beware of the Summer ) which sold 360 @,@ 000 copies , " Ki Ga Tsuite Yo " ( I Noticed ) which sold 286 @,@ 000 copies and " Kimagure Venus " ( Whimsical Venus ) which sold 210 @,@ 000 copies ) she was again awarded at the 20th edition of the Japan Record Awards for her single " Shiawase Shibai " ( Pretending to be Happy ) which sold over 366 @,@ 000 copies and peaked at number 3 on the charts ( penned by Miyuki Nakajima ) with a gold medal . She would score her last top 10 hit single in the summer of 1978 with the disco inspired single " Lipstick " , and would release her last single and album in 1983 . Several of her singles have also been featured on the Japanese music show " The Best Ten " , which aired from 1978 up to 1989 . These include " Shiawase Shibai " ( peaking at no . 3 ) , " Oi Kakete Yokohama " ( peaking at no . 10 ) , " Lipstick " ( peaking at no . 8 ) , " Hatachi Ni Nareba " ( peaking at no . 11 ) , " Fuyu Iro No Machi " ( peaking at no . 20 ) , and " Santa Monica No Kaze " ( peaking at no . 17 ) . Sakurada 's acting career began in 1973 and lasted through 1993 , with roles in 13 films and many television dramas . She received multiple awards for her acting roles , including the Hochi Film Award , Award of the Japanese Academy , Kinema Junpo Award , and Mainichi Film Concours . In 1991 , her memoir , Gift God Gave Me , was published and the media reported that she had become a " movie heartthrob " . Sakurada is a member of the Unification Church founded by Sun Myung Moon in Seoul , South Korea in 1954 . According to The Washington Times , which is owned by the Unification Church affiliated News World Communications , Sakurada joined the church in 1977 . In August 1992 , Sakurada took part in a Blessing ceremony of the Unification Church in Seoul , South Korea along with 10 @,@ 000 other couples representing 131 nations . Her husband is a Japanese businessman who is also a Unification Church member and an official within the church . Sakurada said to journalists that she felt " very happy " to have married a husband selected for her by Moon . According to The Australian , " Ms Sakurada disappeared from public life soon after the ceremony . " One of Sakurada 's last roles as a star was in the television piece Don 't Call Me Auntie ( Obasan Nante Yobanai de ) on NHK . According to The Daily Yomiuri , " This was one of Junko Sakurada 's last starring roles before she fell out of favor with the public . Since she took part in the Rev. Moon 's Unification Church mass marriage in Seoul in August , it is said that her commercial contracts have evaporated . " In 1999 a church spokesperson said : " Ms Sakurada is living happily with her husband and three children . She does not want to talk to the press . " In November 2006 , she released a book titled " Aisuru Jun Van Deta " . = = Works = = = = = Music = = = Watashi No Aoi Tori ( 1973 ) , winner of the newcomer 's prize at the Japan Record Awards Hana Monogatari ( 1973 ) , rose to the Oricon best ten Hajimete no Dekigoto ( 1975 ) , reached Oricon # 1 Natsu Ni Goyōjin ( 1976 ) , prizewinning performance Kimagure Venus ( 1977 ) , nominated for a Japan Record Award Shiawase Shibai ( 1977 ) , gold medal at Japan Record Awards Lipstick ( 1978 ) Santa Monica No Kaze ( 1979 ) , won Producers ' Association award at Japan Song Awards Keshō ( 1981 ) Kōhaku Uta Gassen Kiiroi Ribbon ( 黄色いリボン ) ( 1974 ) Hajimete no Dekigoto ( はじめての出来事 ) ( 1975 ) Natsu ni go Yōjin ( 夏にご用心 ) ( 1976 ) Kimagure Venus ( 気まぐれヴィーナス ) ( 1977 ) Shiawase Shibai ( しあわせ芝居 ) ( 1978 ) Santa Monica no Kaze ( サンタモニカの風 ) ( 1979 ) Utsukushii Natsu ( 美しい夏 ) ( 1980 ) This is a " Boogie " ( 1981 ) Sērāfuku to Kikanjū ( セーラー服と機関銃 , Sailor Suit and Machine Gun ) ( 1982 ) Charted Singles Studio albums Live Albums Greatest Hits Releases = = = Film = = = Spoon Ippai no Shiawase ( スプーン一杯の幸せ , Spoonful of Happiness ) ( Shochiku , 1975 ) Otoko wa Tsurai yo Katsushika Risshihen ( 男はつらいよ 葛飾立志篇 ) ( Toho , 1975 ) Hana no Kō ni Torio - Hatsukoi Jidai ( 花の高二トリオ ・ 初恋時代 ) ( Shochiku , 1975 ) Isho - Shiroi Shōjo ( 遺書 ・ 白い少女 ) ( Shochiku , 1976 ) Wakai Hito ( 若い人 , Youth ) ( Toho , 1976 ) Aijō no Sekkei ( 愛情の設計 , Love 's Plans ) ( Shochiku , 1977 ) Ai no Arashi no Naka de ( 愛の嵐の中で , In the Storm of Love ) ( Toho , 1978 ) Byōinzaka no Kubikukuri no Ie ( 病院坂の首縊りの家 ) ( Toho , 1979 ) Dōran ( 動乱 , Turbulence ) ( Toei , 1980 ) Itazu ( イタズ ) ( Toei , 1987 ) Umi e see you ( 海へ see you , Across the Sea to See You ) ( Toho , 1988 ) Zennin no Jōken ( 善人の条件 , Good Person 's Terms ) ( Shochiku , 1989 ) Hana no Furu Gogo ( 花の降る午後 , Afternoon of Falling Flowers ) ( Toho , 1989 ) Aurora no Shita de ( オーロラの下で , Beneath the Aurora ) ( Toei , 1990 ) Shiroi Te ( 白い手 , White Hand ) ( Toho , 1990 ) Mandara - Wakai Hi no Kōbōdaishi ( 曼荼羅 若き日の弘法大師 , Mandala - Kōbō @-@ Daishi 's Youth ) ( Toho @-@ Towa , 1991 ) Ohikkoshi ( お引越し , Moving ) ( Kadokawa Pictures , 1993 ) = = = Television = = = Dokkoi Taisaku ( どっこい大作 ) ( TV Asahi , 1973 ) Tentsukuten ( てんつくてん ) ( Nippon Television , 1974 ) Wakai ! Sensei ( 若い ! 先生 , Young ! Teacher ) ( TBS , 1974 ) Tonari no Tonari ( となりのとなり , Near to Nearby ) ( Nippon Television , 1974 – 1975 ) Akogare Kyōdō Tai ( あこがれ共同隊 , Aspiring Collaboration Party ) ( TBS , 1975 ) Edo Professional - Hissatsu Shōbainin ( 江戸プロフェッショナル ・ 必殺商売人 , Edo Professional - Expert Assassin ) opening narrator ( ABC ( of Asahi ) and Shochiku , 1978 ) Kataguruma ( かたぐるま ) ( Nippon Television , 1978 ) Ai no Kyōiku ( 愛の教育 , Education in Love ) ( TBS , 1980 ) Tamanegi Muitara ... ( 玉ねぎむいたら … , Peeling the Onion ... ) ( TBS , 1981 ) Machi : Wakamono @-@ tachi wa Ima ( 街 ～ 若者たちは今 , Town : Young People , Now ) ( NHK , 1982 ) Hara Peko Dōshi ( はらぺこ同志 , Hara Peko Comrade ) ( TBS , 1982 ) Mito Kōmon ( 水戸黄門 , Mito Kōmon ) ( TBS and C.A.L , 1982 ) Gekai Kido Shūhei ( 外科医 城戸修平 , Surgeon Shūhei Kido ) ( TBS , 1983 ) Ōoku ( 大奥 , Ōoku ) ( KTV , 1984 ) 25 @-@ sai @-@ tachi : Ayaui Yokan ( 25歳たち ～ 危うい予感 , We 're 25 : Uncertain Premonition ) } ( NTV , 1984 ) Yurusenai Kekkon ( 許せない結婚 , Disallowed Marriage ) ( TBS , 1985 ) Kisetsu Hazure no Shinkirō ( 季節はずれの蜃気楼 , Season 's End Mirage ) ( NHK , 1985 ) Miotsukushi ( 澪つくし ) ( NHK morning drama , 1985 ) Suiyōbi Drama Special ( 水曜ドラマスペシャル , Wednesday Drama Special ) ( TBS Telepack , 1986 ) Dokuganryū Masamune ( 独眼竜政宗 ) as Princess Mego , wife of Masamune ( NHK Taiga drama , 1987 ) New York Koi Monogatari ( ニューヨーク恋物語 , New York Love Story ) ( CX , 1988 ) Ikenaka Genta 80 @-@ kiro ( 池中玄太80キロ , Genta Ikenana , 80km ) ( NTV , 1989 ) Yonimo Kimyō na Monogatari ( 世にも奇妙な物語 , Strange Tales of the World ) ( CX , 1990 ) Otoko to Onna no Mystery ( 男と女のミステリー , The Mystery of Man and Woman ) ( CX , 1991 ) Yonimo Kimyō na Monogatari ( 世にも奇妙な物語 , Strange Tales of the World ) - 8 hours 50 minutes ( CX , 1991 ) Kayō Mystery Gekijō ( 火曜ミステリー劇場 , Tuesday Mystery Theatre ) （ ANB , 1991 ） Izakaya Chōchi ( 居酒屋兆治 ) ( CX , 1992 ) Waratte Iitomo ! ( 笑っていいとも ! , It 's Okay to Laugh ! ) ( four appearances ) = = Awards and nominations = =

= Brigham Young University = Brigham Young University ( often referred to as BYU or , colloquially , The Y ) is a private research university located in Provo , Utah , United States . It is owned and operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) , and , excluding online students , is the largest of any religious university and the third largest private university in the United States , with 29 @,@ 672 on @-@ campus students . Approximately 99 percent of the students are members of the LDS Church , and one @-@ third of its US students are from Utah . Students attending BYU are required to follow an honor code , which mandates behavior in line with LDS teachings such as academic honesty , adherence to dress and grooming standards , and abstinence from extramarital sex and from the consumption of drugs and alcohol . Many students ( 88 percent of men , 33 percent of women ) either delay enrollment or take a hiatus from their studies to serve as Mormon missionaries . ( Men typically serve for two @-@ years , while women serve for 18 months . ) An education at BYU is also less expensive than at similar private universities , since " a significant portion " of the cost of operating the university is subsidized by the church 's tithing funds . BYU offers programs in liberal arts , engineering , agriculture , management , physical and mathematical sciences , nursing and law . The university is broadly organized into 11 colleges or schools at its main Provo campus , with certain colleges and divisions defining their own admission standards . The university also administers two satellite campuses , one in Jerusalem and one in Salt Lake City , while its parent organization , the Church Educational System ( CES ) , sponsors sister schools in Hawaii and Idaho . The university 's primary focus is on undergraduate education , but it also has 68 master 's and 25 doctoral degree programs . BYU 's athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are collectively known as the BYU Cougars . Their college football team is an NCAA Division I Independent , while their other sports teams compete in either the West Coast Conference or Mountain Pacific Sports Federation . BYU 's sports teams have won a total of fourteen national championships . = = History = = = = = Early days = = = Brigham Young University 's origin can be traced back to 1862 when a man named Warren Dusenberry started a Provo school in a prominent adobe building called Cluff Hall , which was located in the northeast corner of 200 East and 200 North . On October 16 , 1875 , Brigham Young , then president of the LDS Church , personally purchased the Lewis Building after previously hinting that a school would be built in Draper , Utah , in 1867 . Hence , October 16 , 1875 , is commonly held as BYU 's founding date . Said Young about his vision : " I hope to see an Academy established in Provo ... at which the children of the Latter @-@ day Saints can receive a good education unmixed with the pernicious atheistic influences that are found in so many of the higher schools of the country . " The school broke off from the University of Deseret and became Brigham Young Academy , with classes commencing on January 3 , 1876 . Warren Dusenberry served as interim principal of the school for several months until April 1876 when Brigham Young 's choice for principal arrived — a German immigrant named Karl Maeser . Under Maeser 's direction the school educated many luminaries including future U.S. Supreme Court Justice George Sutherland and future U.S. Senator Reed Smoot among others . The school , however , did not become a university until the end of Benjamin Cluff , Jr 's term at the helm of the institution . At that time , the school was also still privately supported by members of the community and was not absorbed and sponsored officially by the LDS Church until July 18 , 1896 . A series of odd managerial decisions by Cluff led to his demotion ; however , in his last official act , he proposed to the Board that the Academy be named " Brigham Young University " . The suggestion received a large amount of opposition , with many members of the Board saying that the school wasn 't large enough to be a university , but the decision ultimately passed . One opponent to the decision , Anthon H. Lund , later said , " I hope their head will grow big enough for their hat . " In 1903 , Brigham Young Academy was dissolved , and was replaced by two institutions : Brigham Young High School , and Brigham Young University . ( The BY High School class of 1907 was ultimately responsible for the famous giant " Y " that is to this day embedded on a mountain near campus . ) The Board elected George H. Brimhall as the new President of BYU . He had not received a high school education until he was forty . Nevertheless , he was an excellent orator and organizer . Under his tenure in 1904 the new Brigham Young University bought 17 acres ( 69 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land from Provo called " Temple Hill " . After some controversy among locals over BYU 's purchase of this property , construction began in 1909 on the first building on the current campus , the Karl G. Maeser Memorial . Brimhall also presided over the University during a brief crisis involving the theory of evolution . The religious nature of the school seemed at the time to collide with this scientific theory . Joseph F. Smith , LDS Church president , settled the question for a time by asking that evolution not be taught at the school . A few have described the school at this time as nothing more than a " religious seminary " . However , many of its graduates at this time would go on to great success and become well renowned in their fields . = = = Expansion = = = Franklin S. Harris was appointed the university 's president in 1921 . He was the first BYU president to have a doctoral degree . Harris made several important changes to the school , reorganizing it into a true university , whereas before , its organization had remnants of the Academy days . At the beginning of his tenure , the school was not officially recognized as a university by any accreditation organization . By the end of his term , the school was accredited under all major accrediting organizations at the time . He was eventually replaced by Howard S. McDonald , who received his doctorate from the University of California . When he first received the position , the Second World War had just ended , and thousands of students were flooding into BYU . By the end of his stay , the school had grown nearly five times to an enrollment of 5 @,@ 440 students . The university did not have the facilities to handle such a large influx , so he bought part of an Air Force Base in Ogden , Utah and rebuilt it to house some of the students . The next president , Ernest L. Wilkinson , also oversaw a period of intense growth , as the school adopted an accelerated building program . Wilkinson was responsible for the building of over eighty structures on the campus , many of which still stand . During his tenure , the student body increased six times , making BYU the largest private school at the time . The quality of the students also increased , leading to higher educational standards at the school . Finally , Wilkinson reorganized the LDS Church units on campus , with ten stakes and over 100 wards being added during his administration . Dallin H. Oaks replaced Wilkinson as president in 1971 . Oaks continued the expansion of his predecessor , adding a law school and proposing plans for a new School of Management . During his administration , a new library was also added , doubling the library space on campus . Jeffrey R. Holland followed as president in 1980 , encouraging a combination of educational excellence and religious faith at the university . He believed that one of the school 's greatest strengths was its religious nature and that this should be taken advantage of rather than hidden . During his administration , the university added a campus in Jerusalem , now called the BYU Jerusalem Center . In 1989 , Holland was replaced by Rex E. Lee . Lee was responsible for the Benson Science Building and the Museum of Art on campus . A cancer victim , Lee is memorialized annually at BYU during a cancer fundraiser called the Rex Lee Run . Shortly before his death , Lee was replaced in 1995 by Merrill J. Bateman . Bateman was responsible for the building of 36 new buildings for the university both on and off campus , including the expansion of the Harold B. Lee Library . He was also one of several key college leaders who brought about the creation of the Mountain West Conference , which BYU 's athletics program joined — BYU previously participated in the Western Athletic Conference . A BYU satellite TV network also opened in 2000 under his leadership . Bateman was also president during the September 11th attacks in 2001 . The planes crashed on a Tuesday , hours before the weekly devotional normally held at BYU . Previous plans for the devotional were altered , as Bateman led the student body in a prayer for peace . Bateman was followed by Cecil O. Samuelson in 2003 . Samuelson was succeeded by Kevin J Worthen in 2014 . = = Academics = = = = = Admissions and demographics = = = BYU accepted 49 percent of the 11 @,@ 423 people who applied for admission in the summer term and fall semester of 2013 . The average GPA for these admitted students was 3 @.@ 82 . U.S. News and World Report describes BYU 's selectivity as being " more selective " and compares it with such universities as the University of Texas at Austin and The Ohio State University . In addition , BYU is ranked 26th in colleges with the most freshman Merit Scholars , with 88 in 2006 . BYU has one of the highest percentage of accepted applicants that go on to enroll ( 78 percent in 2010 ) . Students from every state in the U.S. and from many foreign countries attend BYU . ( In the 2005 @-@ 6 academic year , there were 2 @,@ 396 foreign students , or eight ( 8 ) percent of enrollment . ) Slightly more than 98 percent of these students are active members of the LDS Church . In 2006 , 12 @.@ 6 percent of the student body reported themselves as ethnic minorities , mostly Asians , Pacific islanders and Hispanics . = = = Graduation honors = = = Undergraduate students may qualify for graduation honors . University Honors is the highest distinction BYU awards its graduates . Administered by the Honors Program , the distinction requires students to complete an honors curriculum requirement , a Great Questions requirement , an Experiential Learning requirement , an honors thesis requirement , and a graduation portfolio that summarizes the student 's honors experiences . The university also awards Latin scholastic distinctions separately from the Honors Program : summa cum laude ( top 1 percent ) , magna cum laude ( top 5 percent ) , and cum laude ( top 10 percent ) . The university additionally recognizes Phi Kappa Phi graduation honors . = = = Rankings = = = For 2016 , U.S. News & World Report ranked BYU as tied for 66th for national universities in the United States . A 2013 Quarterly Journal of Economics study of where the nation 's top high school students choose to enroll ranked BYU No. 21 in its peer @-@ reviewed study . The Princeton Review has ranked BYU the best value for college in 2007 , and its library is consistently ranked in the nation 's top ten — No. 1 in 2004 and No. 4 in 2007 . BYU is also ranked No. 19 in the U.S. News and World Report 's " Great Schools , Great Prices " lineup , and No. 12 in lowest student @-@ incurred debt . Due in part to the school 's emphasis on undergraduate research , in rankings for 2008 @-@ 2009 , BYU was ranked No. 10 nationally for the number of students who go on to earn PhDs , No. 1 nationally for students who go on to dental school , No. 6 nationally for students who go on to law school , and No. 10 nationally for students who go on to medical school . BYU is designated as a research university with high research activity by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching . ] ] Forbes Magazine ranked it as the No. 1 " Top University to Work For in 2014 " and as the best college in Utah . In 2009 , the university 's Marriott School of Management received a No. 5 ranking by BusinessWeek for its undergraduate programs , and its MBA program was ranked by several sources : No. 22 ranking by BusinessWeek , No. 16 by Forbes , and No. 29 by U.S. News & World Report . Among regional schools the MBA program was ranked No. 1 by The Wall Street Journal 's most recent ranking ( 2007 ) , and it was ranked No. 92 among business schools worldwide in 2009 by Financial Times . For 2009 , the university 's School of Accountancy , which is housed within the Marriott School , received two No. 3 rankings for its undergraduate program — one by Public Accounting Report and the other by U.S. News & World Report . The same two reporting agencies also ranked the school 's MAcc program No. 3 and No. 8 in the nation , respectively . In 2010 , an article in the Wall Street Journal listing institutions whose graduates were the top @-@ rated by recruiters ranked BYU No. 11 . Using 2010 fiscal year data , the Association of University Technology Managers ranked BYU No. 3 in an evaluation of universities creating the most startup companies through campus research . = = = Notable research and awards = = = Scientists associated with BYU have created some notable inventions . Philo T. Farnsworth , inventor of the electronic television , received his education at BYU , and later returned to do fusion research , receiving an honorary degree from the university . Harvey Fletcher , also an alumnus of BYU , inventor of stereophonic sound , went on to carry out the now famous oil @-@ drop experiment with Robert Millikan , and was later Founding Dean of the BYU College of Engineering . H. Tracy Hall , inventor of the man @-@ made diamond , left General Electric in 1955 and became a full professor of chemistry and Director of Research at BYU . While there , he invented a new type of diamond press , the tetrahedral press . In student achievements , BYU Ad Lab teams won both the 2007 and 2008 L 'Oréal National Brandstorm Competition , and students developed the Magnetic Lasso algorithm found in Adobe Photoshop . In prestigious scholarships , BYU has produced 10 Rhodes Scholars , four Gates Scholars in the last six years , and in the last decade has claimed 41 Fulbright scholars and 3 Jack Kent Cooke scholars . = = = International focus = = = Over three quarters of the student body has some proficiency in a second language ( numbering 107 languages in total ) . This is partially due to the fact that 45 percent of the student body at BYU has been missionaries for LDS Church , and many of them learned a foreign language as part of their mission assignment . During any given semester , about one @-@ third of the student body is enrolled in foreign language classes , a rate nearly four times the national average . BYU offers courses in over 60 different languages , many with advanced courses that are seldom offered elsewhere . Several of its language programs are the largest of their kind in the nation , the Russian program being one example . The university was selected by the United States Department of Education as the location of the national Middle East Language Resource Center , making the school a hub for experts on that region . It was also selected as a Center for International Business Education Research , a function of which is to train business employees in international languages and relations . Beyond this , BYU also runs a very large study abroad program , with satellite centers in London , Jerusalem , and Paris , as well as more than 20 other sites . Nearly 2 @,@ 000 students take advantage of these programs yearly . In 2001 , the Institute of International Education ranked BYU as the number one university in the U.S. to offer students study abroad opportunities . The BYU Jerusalem Center , which was closed in 2000 due to student security concerns related to the Second Intifada and , more recently , the 2006 Israel @-@ Lebanon conflict , was reopened to students in the Winter 2007 semester . A few special additions enhance the language @-@ learning experience . For example , BYU 's International Cinema , featuring films in several languages , is the largest and longest @-@ running university @-@ run foreign film program in the country . As already noted , BYU also offers an intensive foreign language living experience , the Foreign Language Student Residence . This is an on @-@ campus apartment complex where students commit to speak only their chosen foreign language while in their apartments . Each apartment has at least one native speaker to ensure correct language usage . = = = Academic freedom issues = = = In 1992 , the university drafted a new Statement on Academic Freedom , specifying that limitations may be placed upon " expression with students or in public that : ( 1 ) contradicts or opposes , rather than analyzes or discusses , fundamental Church doctrine or policy ; ( 2 ) deliberately attacks or derides the Church or its general leaders ; or ( 3 ) violates the Honor Code because the expression is dishonest , illegal , unchaste , profane , or unduly disrespectful of others . " These restrictions have caused some controversy as several professors have been disciplined according to the new rule . The American Association of University Professors has claimed that " infringements on academic freedom are distressingly common and that the climate for academic freedom is distressingly poor . " The new rules have not affected BYU 's accreditation , as the university 's chosen accrediting body allows " religious colleges and universities to place limitations on academic freedom so long as they publish those limitations candidly " , according to associate academic vice president Jim Gordon . The AAUP 's concern was not with restrictions on the faculty member 's religious expression but with a failure , as alleged by the faculty member and AAUP , that the restrictions had not been adequately specified in advance by BYU : " The AAUP requires that any doctrinal limitations on academic freedom be laid out clearly in writing . We [ AAUP ] concluded that BYU had failed to do so adequately . " = = Organization and administration = = Brigham Young University is a part of the Church Educational System of LDS Church . It is organized under a Board of Trustees , with the President of the Church ( currently Thomas S. Monson ) as chairman . This board consists of the same people as the Church Board of Education , a pattern that has been in place since 1939 . Prior to 1939 , BYU had a separate board of trustees that was subordinate to the Church Board of Education . The President of BYU , currently Kevin J Worthen , reports to the Board , through the Commissioner of Education . The university operates under 11 colleges or schools , which collectively offer 194 bachelor 's degree programs , 68 master 's degree programs , 25 PhD programs , and a Juris Doctor program . BYU also manages some courses and majors through the David M. Kennedy Center for International Studies and " miscellaneous " college departments , including Undergraduate Education , Graduate Studies , Independent Study , Continuing Education , and the Honors Program . BYU 's Winter semester ends earlier than most universities in April since there is no Spring break , thus allowing students to pursue internships and other summer activities earlier . A typical academic year is broken up into two semesters : Fall ( September – December ) and Winter ( January – April ) , as well as two shorter terms during the summer months : Spring ( May – June ) and Summer ( July – August ) . = = Campus = = The main campus in Provo , Utah , United States sits on approximately 560 acres ( 2 @.@ 3 km2 ) nestled at the base of the Wasatch Mountains and includes 295 buildings . The buildings feature a wide variety of architectural styles , each building being built in the style of its time . The grass , trees , and flower beds on BYU 's campus are impeccably maintained . Furthermore , views of the Wasatch Mountains , ( including Mount Timpanogos ) can be seen from the campus . BYU 's Harold B. Lee Library ( also known as " HBLL " ) , which The Princeton Review ranked as the No. 1 " Great College Library " in 2004 , has approximately 8 ½ million items in its collections , contains 98 miles ( 158 km ) of shelving , and can seat 4 @,@ 600 people . The Spencer W. Kimball Tower , shortened to SWKT and pronounced Swicket by many students , is home to several of the university 's departments and programs and is the tallest building in Provo , Utah . Furthermore , BYU 's Marriott Center , used as a basketball arena , can seat over 22 @,@ 000 and is one of the largest on @-@ campus arenas in the nation . Interestingly absent on the campus of this church owned university is a campus chapel . Notwithstanding , each Sunday LDS Church services for students are conducted on campus , but due to the large number of students attending these services , nearly all of the buildings and possible meeting spaces on campus are utilized ( in addition , many students attend services off campus in LDS chapels in the surrounding communities ) . = = = Museums = = = The campus is home to several museums containing exhibits from many different fields of study . BYU 's Museum of Art , for example , is one of the largest and most attended art museums in the Mountain West . This Museum aids in academic pursuits of students at BYU via research and study of the artworks in its collection . The Museum is also open to the general public and provides educational programming . The Museum of Peoples and Cultures is a museum of archaeology and ethnology . It focuses on native cultures and artifacts of the Great Basin , American Southwest , Mesoamerica , Peru , and Polynesia . Home to more than 40 @,@ 000 artifacts and 50 @,@ 000 photographs , it documents BYU 's archaeological research . The BYU Museum of Paleontology was built in 1976 to display the many fossils found by BYU 's Dr. James A. Jensen . It holds many artifacts from the Jurassic Period ( 210 @-@ 140 million years ago ) , and is one of the top five collections in the world of fossils from that time period . It has been featured in magazines , newspapers , and on television internationally . The museum receives about 25 @,@ 000 visitors every year . The Monte L. Bean Life Science Museum was formed in 1978 . It features several forms of plant and animal life on display and available for research by students and scholars . The campus also houses several performing arts facilities . The de Jong Concert Hall seats 1282 people and is named for Gerrit de Jong Jr . The Pardoe Theatre is named for T. Earl and Kathryn Pardoe . Students use its stage in a variety of theatre experiments , as well as for Pardoe Series performances . It seats 500 people , and has quite a large stage with a proscenium opening of 19 by 55 feet ( 17 m ) . The Margetts Theatre was named for Philip N. Margetts , a prominent Utah theatre figure . A smaller , black box theater , it allows a variety of seating and staging formats . It seats 125 , and measures 30 by 50 feet ( 15 m ) . The Nelke Theatre , named for one of BYU 's first drama teachers , is used largely for instruction in experimental theater . It seats 280 . = = = Student housing = = = Single students have four options for on @-@ campus housing : Heritage Halls , Helaman Halls , Wyview Park , and the FLSR . Married students can live in Wymount Terrace . Heritage Halls is a twenty @-@ four @-@ building housing complex on campus which offers apartment @-@ style living . The halls house both male and female students , divided by gender into separate buildings . Each building has ten to fourteen units capable of housing six people each . Helaman Halls is a slightly newer complex which underwent a 12 @-@ year renovation between 1991 and 2004 . Helaman Halls is a nine @-@ building ( ninth opened in the summer of 2010 ) , dormitory @-@ style living area . Residents share a room ( larger than Heritage Halls ) with one other resident , but do not have their own kitchen and use shared bathrooms . Residents are required to have a meal plan , and eat at the newly remodeled Commons at the Cannon Center . Wyview Park was originally built for families in 1996 , but this changed in 2006 when the complex began housing single students in order to counteract loss of singles ' housing in other areas . Wyview Park has 30 buildings that offer apartment @-@ style living for students , along with the option for shared or single rooms . The Foreign Language Student Residence complex has twenty @-@ five apartments where students speak exclusively in a selected foreign language . The immersion experience is available in nine languages , and students are accompanied by a native resident throughout the year to enhance the experience . Married students can house in Wymount Terrace , which contains a total of 462 apartments in 24 buildings . Branches of the BYU Creamery provide basic food and general grocery products for students living in Heritage Halls , Helaman , Wymount , Wyview , and the FLSR . Helaman Halls is also served by a central cafeteria called the Cannon Center . The creamery , begun in 1949 , has become a BYU tradition and is also frequented by visitors to the university and members of the community . It was the first on @-@ campus full @-@ service grocery store in the country . = = = Sustainability = = = BYU has designated energy conservation , products and materials , recycling , site planning and building design , student involvement , transportation , water conservation , and zero waste events as top priority categories in which to further its efforts to be an environmentally sustainable campus . The university has stated that " we have a responsibility to be wise stewards of the earth and its resources . " BYU is working to increase the energy efficiency of its buildings by installing various speed drives on all pumps and fans , replacing incandescent lighting with fluorescent lighting , retrofitting campus buildings with low @-@ E reflective glass , and upgraded roof insulation to prevent heat loss . The student groups BYU Recycles , Eco @-@ Response , and BYU Earth educate students , faculty , staff , and administrators about how the campus can decrease its environmental impact . BYU Recycles spearheaded the recent campaign to begin recycling plastics , which the university did after a year of student campaigning . = = Performing arts = = = = = Dance = = = The BYU Ballroom Dance Company is known as one of the best formation ballroom dance teams in the world , having won the U.S. National Formation Dance Championship every year since 1982 . BYU 's Ballroom dance team has won first place in Latin or Standard ( or both ) many times when they have competed at the Blackpool Dance Festival , and they were the first U.S. team to win the formation championships at the famed British Championships in Blackpool , England in 1972 . The NDCA National DanceSport championships have been held at BYU for several years , and BYU holds dozens of ballroom dance classes each semester and is consequently the largest collegiate ballroom dance program in the world . In addition , BYU has a number of other notable dance teams and programs . These teams include the Theatre Ballet , Contemporary Dance Theatre , Living Legends , and International Folk Dance Ensemble . The Living Legends perform Latin , Native American , and Polynesian dancing . BYU boasts one of the largest dance departments in the nation . Many students from all different majors across campus participate in various dance classes each semester . = = = Music = = = The Young Ambassadors are a song and dance performing group with a 50 @-@ year history at BYU . Prior to 1970 the group was known as Curtain Time USA . In the 1960s their world tour stops included Lebanon , Jordan , and Iraq . The group first performed as the Young Ambassadors at Expo ' 70 in Japan , and has since performed in over 56 nations . The royalty of Thailand and Jordan , along with persons of high office in countries such as India , have been among their audiences . The BYU Opera Workshop gave the first North American performance of the Ralph Vaughan Williams opera The Pilgrim 's Progress in April 1968 , directed by Max C. Golightly . BYU 's Wind Symphony and Chamber Orchestra have toured many countries including Denmark , Hong Kong , Russia , the British Isles , and Central Europe . The Symphonic Band is also an ensemble dedicated to developing the musician , but with a less strenuous focus on performance . Additionally , BYU has a marching band program called the Cougar Marching Band . BYU has a choral program with over 500 members . The four BYU auditioned choirs include the 40 @-@ member BYU Singers , the 90 @-@ member BYU Concert Choir , the 200 @-@ member BYU Men 's Chorus ( the largest male collegiate choir in the U.S. ) , and the 190 @-@ member BYU Women 's Chorus . Both the BYU Men 's Chorus and BYU Singers have toured across the United States and around the globe . Each of the four groups has recorded several times under BYU 's label Tantara Records . = = Athletics = = BYU has 21 NCAA varsity teams . Nineteen of these teams played mainly in the Mountain West Conference from its inception in 1999 until the school left that conference in 2011 . Prior to that time BYU teams competed in the Western Athletic Conference . All teams are named the " Cougars " , and Cosmo the Cougar has been the school 's mascot since 1953 . The school 's fight song is the Cougar Fight Song . Because many of its players serve on full @-@ time missions for two years ( men when they 're 18 , women when 19 ) , BYU athletes are often older on average than other schools ' players . The NCAA allows students to serve missions for two years without subtracting that time from their eligibility period . This has caused minor controversy , but is largely recognized as not lending the school any significant advantage , since players receive no athletic and little physical training during their missions . BYU has also received attention from sports networks for refusal to play games on Sunday , as well as expelling players due to honor code violations . Beginning in the 2011 season , BYU football competes in college football as an independent . In addition , most other sports now compete in the West Coast Conference . Teams in swimming and diving and indoor track and field for both men and women joined the men 's volleyball program in the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation . For outdoor track and field , the Cougars became an Independent . Softball returned to the Western Athletic Conference , but spent only one season in the WAC ; the team moved to the Pacific Coast Softball Conference after the 2012 season . The softball program may move again after the 2013 season ; the July 2013 return of Pacific to the WCC will enable that conference to add softball as an official sport . Most recently BYU had a standout basketball player , Jimmer Fredette , who in 2011 was named NCAA player of the year for basketball and led the nation in scoring . The BYU men 's lacrosse club team competes in the Rocky Mountain Lacrosse Conference of the Men 's Collegiate Lacrosse Association ( MCLA ) , = = Student life = = = = = LDS atmosphere = = = BYU 's stated mission " is to assist individuals in their quest for perfection and eternal life . " BYU is thus considered by its leaders to be at heart a religious institution , wherein , ideally , religious and secular education are interwoven in a way that encourages the highest standards in both areas . This weaving of the secular and the religious aspects of a religious university goes back as far as Brigham Young himself , who told Karl G. Maeser when the Church purchased the school : " I want you to remember that you ought not to teach even the alphabet or the multiplication tables without the Spirit of God . " BYU has been considered by some Latter @-@ day Saints , as well as some university and church leaders , to be " The Lord 's university " . This phrase is used in reference to the school 's mission as an " ambassador " to the world for the LDS Church and thus , for Jesus Christ . In the past , some students and faculty have expressed dissatisfaction with this nickname , stating that it gives students the idea that university authorities are always divinely inspired and never to be contradicted . Leaders of the school , however , acknowledge that the nickname represents more a goal that the university strives for and not its current state of being . Leaders encourage students and faculty to help fulfill the goal by following the teachings of their religion , adhering to the school 's honor code , and serving others with the knowledge they gain while attending . BYU mandates that its students who are members of the LDS Church be religiously active . Both LDS and Non @-@ LDS students are required to provide an endorsement from an ecclesiastic leader with their application for admittance . Over 900 rooms on BYU campus are used for the purposes of LDS Church congregations . More than 150 congregations meet on BYU campus each Sunday . " BYU 's campus becomes one of the busiest and largest centers of worship in the world " with about 24 @,@ 000 persons attending church services on campus . Some 97 percent of male BYU graduates and 32 percent of female graduates took a hiatus from their undergraduate studies at one point to serve as LDS missionaries . In October 2012 , the LDS Church announced at its general conference that young men could serve a mission after they turn 18 and have graduated from high school , rather than after age 19 under the old policy . Many young men would often attend a semester or two of higher education prior to beginning missionary service . This policy change will likely impact what has been the traditional incoming freshman class at BYU . Female students may now begin their missionary service anytime after turning 19 , rather than age 21 under the previous policy . For males , a full @-@ time mission is two years in length , and for females it lasts 18 months . = = = Honor code = = = All students and faculty , regardless of religion , are required to agree to adhere to an honor code . Early forms of the Church Educational System Honor Code are found as far back as the days of the Brigham Young Academy and early school President Karl G. Maeser . Maeser created the " Domestic Organization " , which was a group of teachers who would visit students at their homes to see that they were following the schools moral rules prohibiting obscenity , profanity , smoking , and alcohol consumption . The Honor Code itself was not created until about 1940 , and was used mainly for cases of cheating and academic dishonesty . President Wilkinson expanded the Honor Code in 1957 to include other school standards . This led to what the Honor Code represents today : rules regarding chastity , dress , grooming , drugs , and alcohol . A signed commitment to live the honor code is part of the application process , and must be adhered by all students , faculty , and staff . Students and faculty found in violation of standards are either warned or called to meet with representatives of the Honor Council . In certain cases , students and faculty can be expelled from the school or lose tenure . Both LDS and non @-@ LDS students are required to meet annually with a Church leader to receive an ecclesiastical endorsement for both acceptance and continuance . Controversy has grown in since 2014 surrounding the school 's honor code , as evidenced by growing national attention paid by national news media and the American Bar Association . Various LGBT advocacy groups have protested the honor code and criticized it as being anti @-@ gay , and The Princeton Review ranked BYU as the 3rd most LGBT @-@ unfriendly school in the United States . Beginning in 2014 and continuing through 2016 , several students have alleged that when they reported being raped , the school punished them for violating the honor code . Some students report that , having been victimized by a rapist , they are told they are now sinners . The atmosphere further prevents some students from being willing to tell the police of the crimes , a situation that local police have publicly deplored . = = = Culture and activities = = = BYU 's social and cultural atmosphere is unique . The high rate of enrollment at the university by members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( more than 98 percent ) results in an amplification of LDS cultural norms ; BYU was ranked by The Princeton Review in 2008 as 14th in the nation for having the happiest students and highest quality of life . However , the quirkiness and sometimes " too nice " culture is often caricatured , for example , in terms of marrying early and being very conservative . One of the characteristics of BYU most often pointed out is its reputation for emphasizing a " marriage culture " . Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints highly value marriage and family , especially marriage within the faith . Approximately 51 percent of the graduates in BYU 's class of 2005 were married . This is compared to a national marriage average among college graduates of 11 percent . BYU students on average marry at the age of 22 , according to a 2005 study , while the national average age is 25 years for men and 27 years for women . Many visitors to BYU , and Utah Valley as a whole , report being surprised by the culturally conservative environment . Brigham Young University 's Honor Code , which all BYU students agree to follow as a condition of studying at BYU , prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages , tobacco , etc . As mentioned earlier , The Princeton Review has rated BYU the " # 1 stone cold sober school " in the nation for several years running , an honor which the late LDS Church president Gordon B. Hinckley had commented on with pride . BYU 's 2014 " # 1 stone cold " sober rating marked the 17th year in a row that the school had earned that rating . BYU has used this and other honors awarded to the school to advertise itself to prospective students , showing that BYU is proud of the rating . According to the Uniform Crime Reports , incidents of crime in Provo are lower than the national average . Murder is rare , and robberies are about 1 / 10 the national average . Business Insider rated BYU as the # 1 safest college campus in the nation . Many on @-@ campus student activities and clubs are organized by BYUSA , the university 's official student association . A popular comedy club is Divine Comedy . BYU sponsors a question @-@ answering service known as the " 100 Hour Board " . Previously an actual physical bulletin @-@ board located in the Wilkinson Student Center , it is currently hosted online : anyone with an account can go onto the website and ask a question , with topics ranging from BYU academic questions to questions about relationships or Church doctrine . The questions are answered in 100 hours by pseudo @-@ anonymous BYU students . It has been affiliated with The Universe since 2006 . = = Media = = The BYU Broadcasting Technical Operations Center is an HD production and distribution facility that is home to local PBS affiliate KBYU @-@ TV , local classical music station KBYU @-@ FM Classical 89 , BYU Radio , BYU Radio Instrumental , BYU Radio International , BYUtv and BYU Television International with content in Spanish and Portuguese ( both available via terrestrial , satellite , and internet signals ) . BYUtv is also available via cable throughout some areas of the United States . The BYU Broadcasting Technical Operations Center is home to three television production studios , two television control rooms , radio studios , radio performance space , and master control operations . The university produces a weekly newspaper called The Universe ( it was published daily until 2012 ) , maintains an online news site that is regularly updated called The Digital Universe and has a daily news program broadcast via KBYU @-@ TV . The university also has a recording label called Tantara Records which is run by the BYU School of Music and promotes the works of student ensembles and faculty . = = Alumni = = As of November 2007 , BYU has approximately 362 @,@ 000 living alumni . Alumni relations are coordinated and activities are held at the new Gordon B. Hinckley Alumni and Visitors Center . Over 21 BYU graduates have served in the U.S. Senate and U.S. House of Representatives , such as former Dean of the U.S. Senate Reed Smoot ( class of 1876 ) . Cabinet members of American presidents include former Secretary of Agriculture to President Dwight D. Eisenhower , Ezra Taft Benson ' 26 and Rex E. Lee ' 60 , who was United States Solicitor General under President Ronald Reagan . Mitt Romney , former Governor of Massachusetts and 2012 Republican Presidential Candidate , class of 1971 . BYU alumni in academia include former Dean of the Harvard Business School Kim B. Clark , two time world 's most influential business thinker Clayton M. Christensen , Michael K. Young ' 73 , current president of the University of Washington , Matthew S. Holland , current president of Utah Valley University , Stan L. Albrecht , current president of Utah State University , Teppo Felin , Professor at the University of Oxford , and Stephen D. Nadauld , previous president of Dixie State University . The University also graduated Nobel Prize winner Paul D. Boyer , as well as Philo Farnsworth ( inventor of the electronic television ) and Harvey Fletcher ( inventor of the hearing aid ) . Four of BYU 's thirteen presidents were alumni of the University . Additionally , alumni of BYU who have served as business leaders include Citigroup CFO Gary Crittenden ' 76 , former Dell CEO Kevin Rollins ' 84 , Deseret Book CEO Sheri L. Dew , and Matthew K. McCauley , CEO of children 's clothing company Gymboree . In literature and journalism , BYU has produced several best @-@ selling authors , including Orson Scott Card ' 75 , Brandon Sanderson ' 00 & ' 05 , Ben English ' 98 , and Stephenie Meyer ' 95 . BYU also graduated American activist and contributor for ABC News Elizabeth Smart @-@ Gilmour . Other media personalities include former CBS News correspondent Art Rascon , award @-@ winning ESPN sportscaster and former Miss America Sharlene Wells Hawkes ' 86 and former co @-@ host of CBS 's The Early Show Jane Clayson Johnson ' 90 . In entertainment and television , BYU is represented by Jon Heder ' 02 ( best known for his role as Napoleon Dynamite ) , writer @-@ director Daryn Tufts ' 98 , Golden Globe @-@ nominated Aaron Eckhart ' 94 , animator and filmmaker Don Bluth ' 54 , Jeopardy ! all @-@ time champion Ken Jennings ' 00 , and Richard Dutcher , the " Father of Mormon Cinema . " In the music industry BYU is represented by lead singer of the Grammy Award winning band Imagine Dragons Dan Reynolds , multi @-@ platinum selling drummer Elaine Bradley from the band Neon Trees , crossover dubstep violinist Lindsey Stirling , former American Idol contestant Carmen Rasmusen , Mormon Tabernacle Choir director Mack Wilberg and pianist Massimiliano Frani . BYU has also produced many religious leaders . Among the alumni are several LDS Church general authorities , including two church presidents : Ezra Taft Benson ' 26 , and Thomas S. Monson ' 74 ) , six apostles ( Neil L. Andersen , D. Todd Christofferson ' 69 , David A. Bednar ' 76 , Jeffrey R. Holland ' 65 & ' 66 , Dallin H. Oaks ' 54 , and Reed Smoot 1876 ) , and two general presidents of the Relief Society ( Julie B. Beck ' 73 and Belle Spafford ' 20 ) . A number of BYU alumni have found success in professional sports , representing the University in 7 MLB World Series , 5 NBA Finals , and 25 NFL Super Bowls . In baseball , BYU alumni include All @-@ Stars Rick Aguilera ' 83 , Wally Joyner ' 84 , and Jack Morris ' 76 . Professional basketball players include three @-@ time NBA champion Danny Ainge ' 81 , 1952 NBA Rookie of the Year and 4 @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star Mel Hutchins ' 51 , three @-@ time Olympic medalist and Hall of Famer Krešimir Ćosić ' 73 , and consensus 2011 national college player of the year Jimmer Fredette ' 11 , currently with the New York Knicks organization . BYU also claims notable professional football players including two @-@ time NFL MVP and Super Bowl MVP and Pro Football Hall of Fame quarterback Steve Young ' 84 & J.D. ' 96 , Heisman Trophy winner Ty Detmer ' 90 , and two @-@ time Super Bowl winner Jim McMahon . In golf , BYU alumni include two major championship winners : Johnny Miller ( ' 69 ) at the 1973 U.S. Open and 1976 British Open and Mike Weir ( ' 92 ) at the 2003 Masters .

= Ron Swanson = Ronald Ulysses " Ron " Swanson is a fictional character portrayed by Nick Offerman from the situation comedy television series Parks and Recreation on NBC , created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur . In the series , Ron is the director of the Parks and Recreation department of fictional Pawnee , Indiana , and the immediate superior of series protagonist Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) until Knope 's election to the Pawnee City Council at the end of Season 4 . In demeanor , political philosophy and work ethic , Knope and Swanson are very nearly polar opposites : where Knope is sunny and outgoing , decidedly liberal and constantly working , Swanson is distant , and as a staunch libertarian , is a strong advocate for small government — stating his belief that government should be privatized — and therefore believes that the parks department should not even exist . Ron , who has an extremely deadpan and masculine personality , actively works to make city hall less effective and despises interacting with the public . He loves meat , woodworking , hunting , whisky , and breakfast foods . He hates and fears his two ex @-@ wives , both named Tammy , one of whom is played by Offerman 's real @-@ life wife , Megan Mullally . Ron claims not to be interested in the personal lives of those around him but actually cares a great deal about his colleagues , and has a particularly strong respect for Leslie . Conceived by series creators Michael Schur and Greg Daniels , Ron has been a central character since the pilot episode of Parks and Recreation . Offerman had some input into the character 's creation , and some aspects of Ron 's personality were inspired by the actor , like his affinity for woodworking and 16 @-@ year @-@ old Lagavulin Single Malt Scotch . The traits of the character were also partially inspired by a real @-@ life Libertarian elected official in Burbank , California . Offerman 's portrayal of Ron Swanson has received critical acclaim . The character developed a cult following and is widely considered the breakout character of the series . Schur called Ron " our cast MVP . " He was described by some critics as one of the best characters in a situation comedy in decades , and has been called the best comedic character on television since Cosmo Kramer of Seinfeld . Ron 's platonic relationship with Leslie has been compared to that of Mary Richards and Lou Grant in The Mary Tyler Moore Show . Offerman received several award nominations for the role , and won the TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Comedy , tying with Ty Burrell of Modern Family . = = Background = = Despite Ron being a very private person , including getting his birthdate redacted from all public documents , his background does occasionally come up . He was born in a small town to Tamara Swanson ( referred to as " Tammy 0 " by Ron ) and a father unnamed in the series . He grew up on a farm in a small town and is shown to have enjoyed woodworking from an early age , building his first chair at age five . Ron is opposed to child labor laws , stating he got his first job at a sheet metal factory at age nine and , in two weeks , was running the floor . Ron says that at age eleven , he was offered a higher paying job at the tannery and attempted to do both jobs while going to middle school before realizing it would be better to only work at the sheet metal factory . Ron claimed that , at age 12 , he went to prom and was working at a quarry . Ron moved in with his first wife , Tammy 1 , who worked at the hospital he was born at and was his math and Sunday school teacher , when he was fifteen ; he has said that although the circumstances were considered scandalous , people were too afraid of her to say anything . Ron said that at age eighteen , his father wanted him to work at the steel mill , but he chose to go to college instead . Ron Swanson had been director of Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department for six years at the time Parks and Recreation began . A staunch Libertarian , with a distinctive mustache , Ron is an extremely strong advocate for small government ; despite working in a city hall job , he believes all government is a waste of taxpayer money . Ron believes the park system should be privatized and run entirely by corporations for profit , as exemplified by the business model of the Chuck E. Cheese 's chain of family entertainment centers . He advocates for program cuts wherever possible , and purposely tries to hire people who are bad at their jobs so they will slow down the government . Ron puts almost no effort into his job , and lets his deputy director Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) do the vast majority of the work . Ron particularly despises talking to members of the public , which is why he deliberately designed his office to be uninviting to visitors , in part by mounting a double @-@ barreled , sawed @-@ off shotgun on a swivel atop his desk aimed at the guest chair , so it will be pointed at anyone who wants to speak to him , a claymore mine ( front @-@ pointed toward enemy ) , and a Czech hedgehog . Despite his lack of interest in the job , Ron occasionally demonstrates he is a good manager who recognizes the abilities of his co @-@ workers . He claims not to be interested in the personal lives of those around him , and that his best friend was a co @-@ worker he knew for three years without ever learning his name . However , Ron cares more about his colleagues than he lets on and often helps them in spite of himself . Despite sharing a nearly opposite view on the role of government , Ron gets along well with Knope , and the two share a strong mutual respect . Although Leslie had considered a job offer in the neighboring town of Eagleton , she stays based on advice from Ron that , no matter how many job offers she gets , Pawnee will always be her hometown . Ron also developed a grudging , avuncular affection for April 's husband , Andy Dwyer , and decided to give him the " Ron Swanson Scholarship " ( $ 940 ) so Andy can attend one college course : Women 's Studies , after Andy and April couldn 't afford to pay it . In the voiceover while Ron drops Andy off for his first day of class , he recalls his own first day of college when his father dropped him off at the steel mill . His father thought he shouldn 't bother with college , but Ron hitched a ride to the school and went anyway . Ron speaks in a deadpan tone of voice and seldom expresses any kind of emotion . He adheres to many stereotypically masculine traits . He claims to have only cried twice : once when he was hit by a bus at age 7 ; secondly when miniature horse Li 'l Sebastian died . Ron is an outdoor enthusiast who loves hunting , fishing , camping , and woodworking . For years , Ron has used a park ranger station in the woods as a lodge for private hunting trips with his male colleagues at city hall . He describes fishing as " like yoga , except I still get to kill something . " He is particularly attracted to brunettes and what he describes as " strong , self @-@ possessed women at the top of their fields , " with professional athletes Steffi Graf and Sheryl Swoopes among his ideal women . He loves breakfast foods and red meats ; among the types of food he enjoys are bacon @-@ wrapped shrimp , fried turkey legs inside a grilled hamburger , and bacon @-@ wrapped turkey legs , which are known in Pawnee as " The Swanson . " He also drinks heavily but seldom feels the effects of alcohol or gets hung over . He primarily drinks scotch whisky , claiming that " Clear alcohols are for rich women on diets . " He is an extremely private person , going so far as to redact his birthday from government documents to keep others from holding parties for him ( though he did reluctantly provide it as " springtime " on a hospital admission form ) . Ron knows almost nothing about popular culture ; he recognizes the name Julia Roberts only as the " toothy gal from Mystic Pizza , " and he once confused the Star Wars film franchise with Harry Potter . He enjoys the music of Willie Nelson , being shown listening to " Hello Walls " and " Buddy " during the series . Ron is extremely concerned with the image people have of him and once refused to seek treatment for a hernia , and he instead chose to remain immobile at his desk all day and night ; until April offered to take him to the hospital . Before the start of Parks and Recreation , Ron has two ex @-@ wives , both of whom are named Tammy , which is also the name of Ron 's mother . Ron despises and fears both of his ex @-@ wives , and they are among the few individuals in the world who can break Ron 's usually unwavering stoicism . Nevertheless , Ron shares an extremely passionate sexual connection with his second ex @-@ wife ; he compared having sex with her to " doing peyote and sneezing , slowly , for six hours , " and added , " That woman really knows her way around a penis . " Ron is so susceptible to Tammy 2 's sexual temptations that he made a video @-@ tape warning himself about her to play in case he ever got back together with her . Ron plays the saxophone , and secretly performs at out @-@ of @-@ town jazz clubs under the name Duke Silver , which he keeps secret from his colleagues in Pawnee . He wears a trilby hat and suit jacket while playing , fronts a band called the Duke Silver Trio , and has released such albums as Memories of Now , Smooth as Silver , and Hi Ho , Duke . His music is especially popular with older women ( among them being April 's mother ) , who find Duke Silver extremely attractive . = = Storyline = = = = = Season One = = = Ron Swanson made his first appearance in the pilot episode of Parks and Recreation , where he repeatedly denies Leslie 's requests to pursue turning a construction pit into a park because he does not believe the parks department should build parks at all . He agrees to green @-@ light the project only when city planner Mark Brendanawicz ( Paul Schneider ) secretly cashes in an unspecified favor in exchange for the approval . In a deleted scene from the episode " Canvassing , " Ron tries to leave government employment for a previously offered job at an Internet flower company . However , when he finds that business is now doing extremely poorly , Ron sadly realizes he will be in his government job for a long time . In the episode " Boys ' Club , " Ron attends a disciplinary hearing with Leslie after she gets in trouble when the underage April Ludgate ( Aubrey Plaza ) is seen drinking alcohol on a video on the Pawnee website . Ron interrupts half @-@ way through the review , defends Leslie and angrily berates the panel for aggressively questioning her . Although Ron claims he did it only due to his hatred for bureaucratic procedures , it is implied that he really did so out of respect for Leslie . = = = Season Two = = = In " Practice Date , " when the parks department employees hold a contest to find who can learn the biggest secrets about each other , Ron discovers Tom 's marriage to the attractive surgeon Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) is actually a green card marriage . Ron promises he will keep Tom 's arrangement a secret . Later , Tom discovers Ron playing the saxophone at a bar in his Duke Silver persona . Tom agrees to keep Ron 's secret as well . Later in the season , when Tom 's divorce with Wendy is finalized in " Tom 's Divorce , " Ron politely asks whether Tom would mind if he asked Wendy out himself , and explains , " Looking at her , I feel like she might be the perfect spooning size for me . " Tom outwardly claims to be fine with it but , unbeknownst to Ron , is secretly upset because he actually harbors real romantic feelings for Wendy . Ron 's second ex @-@ wife , Pawnee library director Tammy ( Megan Mullally ) , appeared in the episode " Ron and Tammy , " where Tammy tricks Leslie into arranging a reunion meeting with Ron under the guise of wishing to work out her differences with him . In fact , Tammy schemed to get Ron to give her the rights to land Leslie plans to turn into a park , so Tammy can build a library branch there instead . During their meeting , Ron and Tammy start loudly arguing , but eventually have passionate sex and get back together . Unable to resist Tammy 's charms , Ron asks Leslie to break up with Tammy for him . When Leslie stands up to Tammy in Ron 's defense , he is moved by what he describes as the first time any woman has put his needs before her own , and it gives him the strength to finally break up with Tammy . In " Hunting Trip , " Leslie insists that Ron take her and the other female parks department employees on one of his private hunting expeditions at the park ranger cabin . Ron begrudgingly agrees , but is frustrated to learn that Leslie is in fact an excellent hunter who overshadows his own abilities . During this trip , Ron is shot in the back of the head by misfired birdshot , and becomes hallucinatory and furious after taking multiple painkillers with alcohol . He initially accuses Leslie of shooting him based on her desire to prove herself , but later learns Tom was at fault and that Leslie took the blame to keep Tom from being arrested for hunting without a license . Ron is strongly impressed that Leslie defended Tom this way , and refers to her as " a stand @-@ up guy , " which leaves Leslie overjoyed . In " The Set Up , " a new city @-@ wide effort is implemented to make government officials more accessible to Pawnee residents , an idea which Ron condemns as " my hell . " As a result , he seeks to hire an assistant who will shield him from the public and allow him to continue doing nothing . After interviewing several candidates , he chooses April Ludgate , convinced her constant apathy and negative attitude will suit him perfectly . Their relationship proves very harmonious until the episode " 94 Meetings , " when April accidentally schedules nearly 93 meetings not counting one with her , on a single day . April previously kept people who wanted to meet with Ron away by scheduling them for a meeting on March 31 , a date she wrongly believed was nonexistent . When March 31 actually comes around , Ron has to enroll help from others in the park department to handle the meetings . He becomes so furious with April that she quits , but Ron later apologizes and hires her back . In " The Master Plan , " state auditors Chris Traeger ( Rob Lowe ) and Ben Wyatt ( Adam Scott ) arrive in Pawnee and announce that due to the city 's crippling budget problems , they have to slash each department budget by up to 50 percent and briefly shut down the government completely . While Leslie is horrified , the anti @-@ government Ron is delighted by the idea , becoming so giddy that he asks the auditors what cuts they will be making and if he can be allowed to " watch while eating pork cracklins . " In the season finale , " Freddy Spaghetti , " Ron is assigned to a committee tasked with identifying budget cuts , a job which he enjoys thoroughly . However , when Ben and Chris reveal they are considering firing Leslie , Ron passionately defends her and insists they should fire him instead . During the final scene of the episode and season , Tom spots Ron and Wendy together in city hall and realizes with horror that they are now dating . = = = Season Three = = = The third season opens with Ron seen begrudgingly returning to his city hall job after the Pawnee government has been shut down for three months . Ron starts to become a father figure of sorts to April and Andy ( Chris Pratt ) during the third season , despite his insistence that " I 'm not interested in caring about people . " When April is hospitalized with influenza in " Flu Season , " she starts to explain her relationship problems with Andy , but Ron insists he does not want to know about her private affairs . However , after Ron hires Andy to be her temporary replacement , the two spend the day bonding and Ron , against his better judgment , tells Andy that April is in the hospital and that he should visit her . Later in the season , in " Media Blitz , " Ron gets even further involved by chastising April for leading Andy on , and urges her to either forgive Andy or move on . His advice ultimately helps April decide to forgive Andy . Ron finds himself very happy in his relationship with Wendy , although it creates tension between him and Tom . This tension culminates in " Ron & Tammy : Part Two , " when Tom brings Tammy to a party as his date simply to aggravate Ron . This occurs , however , the same day that Wendy and Ron break up , after she decides she must move back to Canada to care for her ailing parents . Ron and Tammy end up having a wild night of drinking and sex , in which Ron gets cornrows , he and Tammy get re @-@ married and the two end up in jail . The parks department employees hold an intervention to try to convince Ron to leave Tammy , but their efforts are unsuccessful . After Tom reveals that Tammy only went to the party with him to make Ron miserable , Tammy brutally beats up Tom . This makes Ron remember how horrible Tammy is and he leaves her , thus ending their marriage for a second time , and Ron and Tom later reconcile . Shortly after Leslie successfully relaunches the Pawnee harvest festival , she struggles to find any new ideas for future parks project . She becomes so stressed that Ron , in the episode " Camping , " locks her in a room and refuses to let her out until she gets some sleep . She awakens the next day refreshed and full of ideas . Ron attends Andy and April 's wedding in " Andy and April 's Fancy Party , " where he has the first dance with April . When Leslie grows concerned they are rushing into their marriage , Ron insists it is not her place to say what works for them , and offers the advice : " Leslie I got married twice , both times I was a lot older than those two and both marriages ended in divorce ... and a burning effigy . Who 's to say what works ? You find somebody you like , and you roll the dice , its all anyone can do . " At which point Leslie Knope replies " Wait , weren 't you married 3 times ? " To which Ron replies " My God you 're right . I get to burn another effigy . " In " Eagleton , " Leslie discovers Ron 's birthday , which he previously kept secret , and he fearfully suspects Leslie is planning an extravagant party for him . However , her surprise party for Ron is instead a quiet , private one more appropriate for Ron 's personality : an evening alone with a steak , scotch , and copies of his favorite movies . When city manager Chris Traeger tries to remove red meat from the city hall cafeteria as part of a government @-@ wide health initiative in " Soulmates , " Ron intervenes by challenging Chris to a cook @-@ off . Chris agrees to abandon his plan if Ron 's regular hamburgers are deemed better than his lean meat turkey burgers . Although Ron exerts little effort compared to Chris , his burgers easily win the contest . In " Road Trip , " Ron reluctantly agrees to be interviewed by a young girl for her school assignment , during which he explains his libertarian beliefs about small government , and illustrates the concept of taxes by eating 40 percent of her lunch . The two bond , and he ends the day by giving her a claymore landmine as a gift . Ron gets in trouble the next day when the girl 's mother explains her daughter 's assignment was " Why Government Matters , " and that Lauren simply wrote " It doesn 't . " Ron learns in the third season finale , " Li 'l Sebastian , " that Leslie and Ben are secretly having an affair despite Chris ' ban on workplace romances , and he warns them they are risking a political scandal that could cost them their jobs . Later , at the funeral of Pawnee 's celebrity miniature horse Li 'l Sebastian , Ron is nearly killed as a result of Leslie and Ben 's affair . When their efforts to hide their relationship accidentally cause Li 'l Sebastian 's eternal flame to be filled with lighter fluid instead of propane , Ron creates a massive fireball when he lights it , which burns off his eyebrows and part of his mustache . The season ends as a horrified Ron learns that his first ex @-@ wife , Tammy , has arrived to see him ; the news is enough to make his second ex @-@ wife , also named Tammy , run away in horror . = = = Season Four = = = In " I 'm Leslie Knope , " Ron grabs an emergency survival bag and flees to live in the wilderness after learning that his first ex @-@ wife Tammy 1 ( Patricia Clarkson ) has arrived in town . When Leslie 's campaign managers decide to announce her candidacy for city council sooner than expected , she panics and also flees to the wilderness to hide out with Ron . Together they realize they cannot run from their problems and they both return to the parks department . Tammy 1 , who is an IRS agent , later meets up with Ron in his office and serves him audit papers . In " Ron and Tammys " Tammy 1 assumes control of Ron , turning him into a mustache @-@ less pushover in an effort to remarry him and take all his hidden gold . This is quite the difference compared to the influence Ron 's latest ex ( Tammy 2 ) has over him . While Tammy 1 has an ice cold personality and reduces Ron into submissiveness and quietude , Tammy 2 causes Ron to make highly irrational decisions that end up jeopardizing his position at the Parks office . Tammy 2 also tries to assume control of Ron through using manipulation of her body . Ron is saved from the grasp of Tammy 1 after his own mother , who is also ironically a Tammy- her name is Tamara ( he refers to her as Tammy 0 ) to restore her son . He snaps back to his old self after witnessing a drinking contest between Tammy 1 and Tammy 0 . They then drink in order to win control over Ron . Leslie also enters this competition in hopes of freeing him of the Tammys , however she ends up failing miserably due to the high alcohol content of Swanson family mash and is the first one out of the contest . In the end , Ron finally comes to his senses and stands up for himself and tells both Tammys to leave . = = = Season Five = = = In " How a Bill becomes a Law , " Ron meets Diane Lewis ( Lucy Lawless ) who had been ignored when asking about filling in a pothole . Ron becomes a friend of hers and , in " Halloween Surprise , " he takes her two daughters out trick @-@ or @-@ treating and they begin dating . In " Women in Garbage , " while babysitting Diane 's daughters , he admits to Ann he loves Diane . Later in the episode , she admits she also loves him . In the fifth season finale " Are You Better off ? , " Andy is talking to Ron about a pregnancy test he found when Diane comes in and says she needs to talk to him , leaving the question if she is pregnant in a cliffhanger . = = = Season Six = = = In the sixth season premiere " London , " Diane reveals that she is pregnant . Ron proposes , and she accepts on the condition they not have a huge wedding . They immediately get married on the fourth floor . Later in the season it is revealed that Diane gave birth to Ron 's son , whom they named John . During The Unity Concert in the season finale , Ron 's alias Duke Silver is revealed to the public when he takes the stage with Mouse Rat . = = = Season Seven = = = Three years after Season 6 , at the start of Season 7 ( 2017 ) , is it revealed that Leslie and Ron have developed an apparent hatred for each other . Both have left the Parks Department , with Ron having started his own construction company . Both are competing in a bidding war for a piece of land in Pawnee owned by the Newport family . Leslie wishes to turn it into a national park , while Ron 's company has partnered with GRYZZL to turn it into a new corporate campus . After a function where the two teams present their proposals , Leslie and Ron have a bitter exchange of words , prompting Ben and the rest of the team to lock the both of them in the Parks Department overnight , during which the two reconcile their differences . After much prying , Leslie learns the real story from Ron 's side . After she took Jerry and April to work with her , and Tom and Donna left to run their businesses , Ron didn 't recognize anyone he worked with anymore , prompting him to make an unthinkable decision : to ask Leslie for a job in the federal government , so he could work with people he knew again . However he reminds Leslie how she unknowingly stood him up for lunch due to her new hectic life , which he felt was the " punctuation mark on a sentence that had already been written . " So Ron left the Parks Department and began his construction company . He and Leslie are eventually able to settle their differences and rekindle their friendship . In a series of flash @-@ forwards in the final episode , it is shown that Ron decides to leave his now @-@ successful construction company . He is shown talking to Ben Wyatt about having diversified his funds by selling half his gold . The flash @-@ forward reveals that Ron purchased 51 % interest in the Lagavulin Distillery . Feeling his life lacks purpose , he asks Leslie for advice and she arranges for him to be the new superintendent of the Pawnee National Park . One of the last shots of Ron in the series features him " at work , " happily paddling a canoe around the lake in the park to the tune of " Buddy " by Willie Nelson . = = Development = = Ron Swanson was created by Parks and Recreation creators Greg Daniels and Michael Schur , although Nick Offerman himself had some input into the character 's creation . Offerman said in July 2012 that " NBC really resisted giving me this part . It took five months for me from the time Mike Schur and Greg Daniels said they wanted me to play this part . NBC insisted on auditioning every other guy in the country , and then they finally acquiesced . " The character 's traits were partially inspired by a real @-@ life Libertarian elected official that Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Michael Schur encountered in Burbank while researching for the show , who favored as little government interference as possible and admitted , " I don 't really believe in the mission of my job . ... I 'm aware of the irony . " Ron is also partially inspired by political appointees of President George W. Bush who were perceived to be opposed to the branch of government they were overseeing . Ron 's signature mustache was one of the first ideas conceived for the character . Offerman said the deadpan style of humor he uses for Ron Swanson was cultivated during his youth , when he was an altar boy : " I would read things with the utmost sincerity , and my cousin would be cracking up because he knew I was full of shit . " Many aspects of Ron 's character are based on those of Nick Offerman in real life , such as his woodworking abilities ; Offerman runs an independent carpentry business called Offerman Woodshop . Offerman also plays saxophone in real life , just as Ron does , although the Parks and Recreation writers did not know this when they wrote this element of his character . Offerman 's real @-@ life training in stage combat and Kabuki dance were the partial inspiration for self @-@ defense classes Ron offered his parks department colleagues in " Park Safety . " Ron 's second ex @-@ wife Tammy , who first appeared in the episode " Ron and Tammy , " was played by comedian and actress Megan Mullally , Offerman 's real @-@ life wife . The idea of Ron hating his ex @-@ wife Tammy was established early in the creation of the character , and it was Schur who conceived the idea of casting Mullally , an idea to which Offerman was extremely responsive . Ron became more heavily involved in Parks and Recreation storylines during the second season , and Offerman largely credited Schur with the development of the character . Schur has described Offerman as a " once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ generation comedic performer , " and " our cast MVP , and in many ways our cast leader . " He compared Ron to a " 19th @-@ century rugged individualist , " and said of creating the character , " A lot of the credit has to go to Nick Offerman . In real life , he 's an incredibly interesting guy , and at the very least , it 's much easier to play an interesting guy when you 're an interesting guy . " Offerman said his own sense of humor fuels much of the character , along with those of Schur , Greg Daniels , and the writing staff ; he added : " I never dreamed that I could prosper with my perverse sense of humor on a network show . " Schur said the staff liked writing for Ron because " he 's a great mix of a superhero , and also a deeply flawed , and very human and vulnerable person . " = = Reception = = = = = Reviews = = = The character of Ron Swanson received critical acclaim ; he developed a cult following and is widely considered the show 's breakout character . Joel Keller of TV Squad called Ron " one of the more inspired sitcom characters of the last decade , " Zap2it writer Joel Keller called him one of the best sitcom characters since Cosmo Kramer of Seinfeld , and Geoff Berkshire of Variety said that the character would " go down in TV history as one of the all @-@ time comedy greats . " Gabriel Perna of International Business Times wrote , " Offerman 's Ron Swanson is one of the main reasons to watch Parks and Recreation . Considering how funny the show is and the scope of its cast , that says a lot . " Likewise , Gail Pennington , television critic with the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch , called Nick Offerman " the funniest guy on TV , " and TV Fanatic writer Eric Hochberger said , " There 's certain character I watch this show for : Ron Swanson . " Jonah Weiner of Slate.com said Ron " has regularly stolen his scenes " and that Offerman has " a gift for understated physical comedy , " and Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said Offerman was not only funny , but capable of expressing a surprising range of emotions . During the second season , HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall called Ron " easily the show 's best creation so far , " and during the third season he wrote , " Ron being both awesome and hilarious is something Nick Offerman and these writers can do in their sleep by now . " Sal Basile of UGO Networks wrote , " How anyone can make Ron Swanson of Parks and Recreation likable is beyond us , but Offerman does it effortlessly . Before we knew it we couldn 't wait to see Swanson 's reactions to the slightest of problems . " Matt Fowler of IGN was critical of Ron at the start of the show , and called him " a bit of the dud ( who ) offers little to the show , and almost just stand to sour the whole thing . " However , by the second season , Fowler said the character had improved and became " an absolute stand @-@ out in the series . " Several reviewers have praised the platonic relationship between Ron and Leslie , which has been compared to that of Mary Richards and Lou Grant in The Mary Tyler Moore Show . The second season episode " Ron and Tammy , " which predominantly featured Ron and his second ex @-@ wife , is widely considered one of the best Parks and Recreation episodes . Offerman was particularly praised for his subtle minimalism and facial expressions , particularly the use of his eyebrows . Based on a line from " The Stakeout , " when Ron says , " I was born ready . I 'm Ron fucking Swanson , " he is often referenced by fans and even reviewers as " Ron Fucking Swanson . " Fans created websites based on him like " Cats That Look Like Ron Swanson , " and after Ron misunderstood a turkey burger to be " a fried turkey leg inside a grilled hamburger , " the cooking website Eater.com created and posted a recipe for that exact food . An image of a fake flavor of Ron Swanson @-@ themed Ben & Jerry 's ice cream , called " All of the Bacon & Eggs You Have , " was designed and circulated on the Internet . The Ben & Jerry 's corporation responded positively to the image , and said in a statement , " Ron 's beliefs are in accordance with those of Ben & Jerry 's – where two scoops of government can help the less fortunate and truly be a servant to the community and its citizens . " Paste ranked him No. 2 in its list of the 20 Best Characters of 2011 , saying : " In four seasons , Ron has become the standout in a cast of incredible characters , and already seems poised to join the elite list of TV ’ s greatest comedic characters . " = = = Awards = = = In 2010 , Nick Offerman received a Television Critics Association Award nomination for Individual Achievement in Comedy for his performance as Ron Swanson , although the award was ultimately given to Jane Lynch for her performance in the musical comedy @-@ drama Glee . Also that year , Nick Offerman received a nomination for Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy from Entertainment Weekly 's Ewwy Awards . Despite critical success , Offerman never received a Emmy Award nomination for this role . Several reviewers expressed particular surprise that he did not receive a nomination for the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards in 2011 , which many considered the biggest snub of the season . Amy Poehler in particular was outraged by Offerman 's snub , and said it was " a hot load of bullshit that [ Offerman ] didn 't get nominated . " Multiple other actors , including Michelle Forbes and Ty Burrell ( the latter of which received a nomination in , and eventually won , the category Offerman was competing in ) stated that they believed Offerman should have been nominated , and Burrell added that Offerman deserved the nomination more than he .

= Hurricane Winifred ( 1992 ) = Hurricane Winifred was the last tropical cyclone to make landfall in the busy 1992 Pacific hurricane season . Impacting western Mexico , especially Colima and Michoacán , Hurricane Winifred brought heavy rain and destruction to the area . Rains flooded farms and roads , and caused more than $ 5 million ( 1992 USD , $ 8 @.@ 43 million 2016 USD ) in damage and a total of three people were killed . The last major hurricane of its season , Winifred existed in October 1992 . It formed southeast of Acapulco on October 6 as the twenty @-@ fourth east Pacific tropical cyclone of its season , and recurved as it strengthened . It peaked as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It made landfall southeast of Manzanillo , Colima and dissipated inland . = = Meteorological history = = On October 1 , a disorganized area of thunderstorms existed south of Panama . It gradually headed west @-@ northwestward , slowly organized , and developed deep and concentrated convection . The disturbed area had become organized enough to be considered a tropical depression . Numbered Twenty @-@ Four @-@ E , the cyclone was located about 460 mi ( 740 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco . It moved towards the west @-@ northwest at a speed of about 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) , and by the time it was located about 550 km ( 340 mi ) south of Zihuatanejo , it had intensified into Tropical Storm Winifred . Winifred steadily became more organized , and late on October 7 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) was anticipating Winifred to reach hurricane intensity within the next 36 hours . A large cyclone , Winifred continued to intensify . Its forward speed decreased as it started to turn to the northwest . By October 8 , Winifred become a hurricane while located approximately 340 mi ( 550 km ) south @-@ southeast of Manzanillo . A small eye became evident on satellite imagery , and thus the winds increased to 85 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Winifred then intensified into a moderate Category 2 hurricane on October 9 . Although the eye briefly disappeared , slight intensification was anticipated . The hurricane was curved north by an upper @-@ level trough . Winifred peaked in intensity as a major hurricane ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Scale ) . At this time , Winifred , had central pressure of 960 mb ( 28 inHg ) and winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . This made Winifred the final hurricane – major or otherwise – of the 1992 Pacific hurricane season . However , it was operationally believed to have peaked as a Category 2 hurricane ; the NHC did not issue any advisories with winds any higher than 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . Hurricane Winifred re @-@ curved to the north @-@ northeast , increased in forward speed , and slightly weakened as it approached land . On October 9 , it made landfall about east @-@ southeast of Manzanillo . At the time it was a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a central pressure of 975 mb ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Hurricane Winifred quickly weakened after landfall , and weakened to a tropical storm less than three hours later , which was early on October 10 . Later on October 10 , Winifred weakened to a tropical depression , before dissipating over the mountains of central Mexico . = = Preparations and impact = = Five thousand people were evacuated to emergency shelters as Winifred neared . With the approach of the hurricane , watches and warnings were issued . On October 9 a tropical storm warning was issued from Zihuatanejo to Cabo Corrientes . At the same time , a hurricane watch went into effect in the same area . The watch was later replaced with a hurricane warning 12 hours later . On October 10 , all watches and warnings were dropped . Starting on October 8 , Hurricane Winifred caused rainfall over an extensive area of Mexico . The highest point maximum reported was of 16 @.@ 7 in ( 420 mm ) at Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán , a point to the right of its track . That rain caused flooding , which was blamed for three deaths . Damage was heaviest in the states of Colima and Michoacán . In areas of the former , utilities were knocked out . Waves flooded portions of Highway 200 between Zihuatenajo , Ixtapa , and Lázaro Cárdenas . Other roads were also flooded . Waves 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) forced the closure of Playa de Oro International Airport and port facilities in Manzanillo . Throughout the affected area , trees were blown down on cars , roughly 1 @,@ 500 houses were damaged , as were hotels and restaurants . About 84 @,@ 000 ha ( 210 @,@ 000 acres ) of farmland were damaged , especially those of plantains and corn . Carlos de la Madrid Virgen , the Governor of Colima , estimated that the total damage in his state was 16000 pesos ( 1992 MXP ) or $ 5 million ( 1992 USD , $ 8 @.@ 43 million 2016 USD ) . Elsewhere , Winifred forced a temporary closure of the port of Acapulco .

= Rodeløkka Line = The Rodeløkka Line ( Norwegian : Rodeløkkalinjen ) is a former line of the Oslo Tramway of Norway . It was in use from 1900 to 1961 , serving the neighborhood of Rodeløkka . After closing , the southern part of the line was designated as part of the Sinsen Line . The Rodeløkka Line was built by Kristiania Kommunale Sporveie ( KKS ) in 1900 , and was subsequently taken over by Kristiania Sporveisselskab ( KSS ) in 1905 . In 1924 , the ownership was transferred to Oslo Sporveier . It was served by Line 9 until 1949 , when it was replaced by a bus service . In 1955 , a new route from Carl Berners plass to Rodeløkka was built , and the line was served by Line 13 until 1961 , when the service was terminated . The tracks were removed between 1962 and 1964 . = = Route = = In 1899 , Oslo Municipality established KKS to build and operate three tram lines . The second line to open was the Rodeløkka Line on 23 March 1900 , which connected to the KSS @-@ owned Grünerløkka – Torshov Line at Nybrua near Hausmanns gate . The line was built as double track until Tromsøgata . It ran along Trondheimsveien before it branched off at Helgesens gate towards Rodeløkka ; it followed Rathkes gate , Verksgata and Københavnsgata before reaching Dælenenggata . Here , a small depot was built with place for six cars . On 26 January 1901 , a new connection line through Dronningens gate was built from Tollbugata to Kirkeristen , and the company no longer needed to lease tracks from Kristiania Elektriske Sporvei in the city center . KKS was bought by KSS in 1905 . The Sinsen Line opened on 1 February 1923 as a branch of the Rodeløkka Line , which continued along Trondheimsveien to Carl Berners plass . The entire Rodeløkka Line was rebuilt with double track in 1938 . In December 1940 , a service extension of the Rodeløkka Line was built from Rodeløkka to Søndre Åsen , operated by the Oslo trolleybus , remaining in service until 14 January 1945 . The tram service on the Rodeløkka Line was terminated on 6 February 1949 , and replaced with bus line 27 , although the tracks were kept . A new line to Rodeløkka was opened on 3 January 1955 . The bus operation had been more expensive than the tram , and a double track line was built from Carl Berners plass through Dælenenggata to Rodeløkka . The balloon loop was built around the block of Dælenengata , Fagerheimgata , Marstrandgata and Københavngata . The line was connected to the old Rodeløkka Line with a triangular loop in Københavngata . On 23 April 1961 , all traffic on the Rodeløkka Line was terminated . The tracks were removed between 1962 and 1964 . = = Service = = The line was originally connected to Egertorget via Stortorvet . After the line was taken over by KSS , it was given service number 9 and operated with a twelve @-@ minute headway , connecting via the city center to Skøyen on the Skøyen Line . When the Sinsen Line opened , the souther part of the Rodeløkka was also served by Line 13 , which gave a six @-@ minute headway south of Helgesens gate . From 29 June 1924 , after the takeover of Oslo Sporveier , the headway was changed to fifteen minutes . From 29 May 1927 , Line 13 was replaced with Line 12 , and from 19 June , Line 9 became Line 17 , which continued along the Ullevål Hageby Line on the other side of the city center . From 19 January 1937 , the Sinsen service was also operated by Line 3 . From 10 December 1939 , Gullfisk trams were put into service on the Sinsen services . With the reopening of the Rodeløkka Line in 1955 , the service was taken over by Line 13 , which used SM53 trams . Ridership on the new line was less than predicted , and from 1959 , the line was only served during rush @-@ hour and started to turn at the Eastern Railway Station in the city center .

= No Surrender ( 2005 ) = No Surrender ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , which took place on July 17 , 2005 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first under the No Surrender chronology and the seventh event in the 2005 TNA PPV schedule . Nine professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match were featured on the card . The main event was a No Surrender Dog Collar match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , in which then @-@ champion Raven defended the title against Abyss . Raven won the match , thus retaining the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . The TNA X Division Championship was defended by Christopher Daniels against Petey Williams . Daniels retained the championship in the encounter . On the undercard , A.J. Styles defeated Sean Waltman with Jerry Lynn as the Special Guest Referee . Monty Brown and The Outlaw defeated the 3Live Kru ( Konnan and Ron Killings ) in a Tag Team Street Fight also on the card . No Surrender is marked by the debut of Rhino in TNA . Jason Clevett of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the show an 8 out of 10 , equal with the 2006 event 's ranking of 8 out of 10 also by Clevett . = = Production = = = = = Background = = = TNA announced in late @-@ April 2005 that they were planning to host a PPV titled No Surrender on July 17 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . Prior to No Surrender , TNA 's television contract with Fox Sports Net ended . This left TNA without a broadcaster for several weeks . As a result , TNA began airing weekly episodes of their television program TNA Impact ! on their official website in order to build storylines and promote the No Surrender PPV event . In an article by TNA columnist Bill Banks , it was reported that some " new talent " could debut at No Surrender . TNA released a poster promoting the event featuring A.J. Styles , Chris Harris , Christopher Daniels , and Jeff Jarrett at some point beforehand . = = = Storylines = = = No Surrender featured nine professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match that involved wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines portraying villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters ; these scripted events built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches . The main event at No Surrender was a No Surrender Dog Collar match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship between then @-@ champion Raven and the challenger Abyss . On the June 24 episode of Impact ! , James Mitchell returned to the promotion in a backstage segment with Abyss . Mitchell propositioned Abyss on the idea of an NWA World Heavyweight Championship match , which Abyss agreed to , creating a partnership between the two . With Mitchell as Abyss ' new manager , Abyss attacked Raven later during the show , setting up a match between the two at the PPV . Raven challenged Abyss to a Dog Collar match with " No Surrender " rules in which the only way to win was by pinfall at No Surrender on the July 1 episode of Impact ! , which was accepted . During the July 15 episode of Impact ! , Cassidy Reilly pledged his allegiance to Raven for past experiences in which Raven had saved him , going on to state he would be there to help Raven anytime he needed it . The TNA X Division Championship was defended in another high profiled match on the card . Then @-@ champion Christopher Daniels was pitted against Petey Williams in the contest . On the July 1 episode of Impact ! , Terry Taylor held an interview with Daniels . During this time , Daniels announced he had defeated the best Mexican Luchador in Shocker and the best American wrestlers in Chris Sabin and Michael Shane to retain the X Division Championship . At this time , Canadian wrestler Petey Williams entered and challenged Daniels to a title defense at No Surrender , which Daniels accepted . A.J. Styles challenged Sean Waltman with Jerry Lynn as the Special Guest Referee in another encounter promoted for No Surrender . At TNA 's previous PPV event Slammiversary on June 19 , then @-@ champion Styles defended the NWA World Heavyweight Championship in a King of the Mountain match against Abyss , Monty Brown , Raven , and Waltman . Waltman and Styles created an alliance during the match , which ended when Waltman turned on Styles , costing him the championship as Raven went on to win the match . Styles and Waltman had a confrontation on the July 1 episode of Impact ! , which was stopped by Lynn . Styles asked for a match against Waltman from NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zbyszko on the July 8 episode of Impact ! . Zbyszko granted Styles his request only after making Lynn the Special Guest Referee . A Tag Team Street Fight pitting the 3Live Kru ( Konnan and Ron Killings ) against the team of Monty Brown and The Outlaw was promoted for the undercard . On the June 24 episode of Impact ! , Brown and The Outlaw attacked Konnan and Killings during an interview with TNA commentator Mike Tenay . Brown and The Outlaw proceeded to parody Konnan , Killings , and 3Live Kru member B.G. James leading up to No Surrender . Following a fight between Konnan , Killings , Brown , and The Outlaw on the July 15 episode of Impact ! , Tenay announced the two teams were scheduled for a Street Fight at No Surrender . = = Event = = = = = Pre @-@ Show = = = TNA held a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show prior to the event , during which Shocker was pitted against Jerrelle Clark . Shocker won the bout at 4 minutes and 16 seconds with a roll @-@ up pin . = = = Miscellaneous = = = No Surrender featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash , for main event only , and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Shane Douglas handled the interview duties for the event . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , Jeff Jarrett , Jimmy Hart , Traci , James Mitchell , and Rhino all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments . = = = Preliminary matches = = = The event opened with a tag team match between America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ; AMW ) and the team of Alex Shelley and Michael Shane , who were accompanied by Traci . The duration of the bout was 11 minutes and 47 seconds . At one point , Storm lifted up Shane , so Harris could dive off the top rope and bash him in the chest with his forearm . Later , Storm was thrown out of the ring but held on to the top rope . He attempted to pull himself back in , however , Shelley dropkicked him from inside the ring , knocking him to the outside . AMW won the match after Storm pinned Shelley following a kick to the chin . TNA held a Four Way match for the last spot in the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament between Elix Skipper , Mikey Batts , Shark Boy , and Sonjay Dutt . The competition lasted 8 minutes and 22 seconds . Elix Skipper performed his signature maneuver the Sudden Death on Batts near the end . He attempted a cover but was stopped by Shark Boy . Shark Boy then went for a cover , who was stopped by Dutt . Dutt then performed his signature aerial maneuver the Hindu Press , landing on Batts to gain the victory and enter the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament . David Young and Simon Diamond fought Apolo and Sonny Siaki in the third encounter . It lasted 5 minutes and 32 seconds . Close to the end , Davidlifted up and slammed Siaki back @-@ first into the mat with a Spinebuster . The referee refused to count the pin , deeming that David was not the eligible man . This allowed Apolo to lift up and slam David face @-@ first into the mat to win the match . In the fourth match , Samoa Joe was pitted against Chris Sabin . Joe performed his signature Muscle Buster maneuver and then placed Sabin in his signature submission hold the Coquina Clutch . Instead of submitting , Sabin instead passed out in storyline , with the referee lifting and raising his arm three times before giving the victory to Joe at 14 minutes and 2 seconds . A Six Man Tag Team match between Team Canada ( A @-@ 1 , Bobby Roode , and Eric Young ) and the team of Lance Hoyt and The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) , who were accompanied by Jimmy Hart , was next . The match duration was 14 minutes and 44 seconds . Douglas scored a near @-@ fall after Hoyt slammed Eric back @-@ first to the mat . The Naturals set up for their Natural Disaster tag team maneuver on Eric , however , Roode entered and bashed Douglas and Stevens with a megaphone . Eric then covered Douglas for the win . = = = Main event matches = = = The sixth contest was a Tag Team Street Fight pitting the team of Monty Brown and The Outlaw against the 3Live Kru ( Konnan and Ron Killings ) . A Street Fight is fought under no disqualification rules , which is won either by a pinfall or submission . The Outlaw requested to be called by a new name before the contest , Kip James . The Outlaw was busted open during the bout . Multiple referees had to be replaced for the match , due to reoccurring attacks on them by The Outlaw . Brown won the encounter after performing his signature Pounce maneuver on Killings , knocking him across the ring onto the mat , at 5 minutes and 20 seconds . After the contest , B.G. James entered the ring where The Outlaw offered James a chair to hit Konnan with , which James declined . Jerry Lynn was Special Guest Referee for the next encounter between A.J. Styles and Sean Waltman . Styles bleed from the nose during the match . Styles gained a near @-@ fall on Waltman after performing his signature Styles Clash maneuver and slamming Waltman face @-@ first into the mat . Waltman also gained a near @-@ fall following his signature X @-@ Factor maneuver and forcing Styles face @-@ first into the mat . Later , Styles jumped from the ring apron over the top rope and Waltman in a sunset flip . Waltman held onto the ropes , trying to prevent a pin attempt , until Lynn kicked his hands off the top rope . Styles then rolled through and lifted Waltman up to perform the Styles Clash at 14 minutes and 37 seconds to win the competition . The TNA X Division Championship was defended by Christopher Daniels against Petey Williams , who was accompanied by A @-@ 1 . The duration was 16 minutes and 24 seconds . During the match , Williams put Daniels in his Sharpshooter submission hold , which Williams was forced to released when Daniels grabbed the bottom rope . A @-@ 1 tossed Williams a chain to bash Daniels with . However , Daniels had his own chain which he used to punch Williams with and followed by performing his signature Best Moonsault Ever maneuver , splashing onto Williams , to retain the championship . The main event was a No Surrender Dog Collar match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship between then @-@ champion Raven and the challenger Abyss , who was accompanied by James Mitchell . The encounter lasted 19 minutes and 17 seconds . In a Dog Collar match , both competitors are tied together at the neck by a long steel chain that is attached to a dog collar . The match is fought under no disqualification rules ; in this case the only way to win was by pinfall . Abyss crashed through a table at ringside after Raven pushed him off the stage . Abyss removed the collar during the match and retrieved a bag of thumbtacks . He then poured them over the mat and ripped Raven 's shirt off , before attempting to slam him into them . Cassidy Reilly interfered in the contest stopping Abyss . Later , Cassidy was shoved off the ring apron by Abyss and he crashed through a table . Raven followed by slamming Abyss back @-@ first into the tacks with a powerbomb and covered for a near @-@ fall . Abyss also gained a near @-@ fall on Raven after slamming him into the mat back @-@ first with his signature Black Hole Slam maneuver . Raven finally won the contest following forcing Abyss head @-@ first into thumbtacks with his signature Raven Effect DDT maneuver to retain the championship . Following the bout , a segment took place between Raven and Jeff Jarrett , which ended when Rhino made his TNA debut and tackled Raven with his signature Gore maneuver . = = Reception = = A total of 775 people attended No Surrender . Canadian Online Explorer writer Jason Clevett rated the entire event an 8 out of 10 , which was equal with the 8 of 10 given to the 2006 No Surrender by Clevett . No Surrender 's rating was higher than TNA 's previous event Slammiversary , which was given a 7 out of 10 by Clevett . Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's The Great American Bash PPV event held on July 24 , No Surrender was rated higher , as Bob Kapur gave The Great American Bash a 5 out of 10 . Clevett felt that No Surrender proved that " when everything clicks they [ TNA ] can put on a fantastic show that gives fans their money 's worth . " A.J. Styles versus Sean Waltman , Samoa Joe versus Chris Sabin , and the X Division Championship match were signaled out by Clevett as three " fantastic matches on a solid undercard . " Clevett gave his highest match rating of 9 out of 10 in his review to the Joe versus Sabin bout . He gave his lowest rating of 3 out of 10 to the Tag Team Street Fight . The main event , Styles versus Waltman , and the X Division Championship matches were all given an 8 out of 10 by Clevett . Regarding the Dog Collar match , Clevett thought it was a " bloody and violent encounter , as one would expect with those two in the ring . " When commenting on the Styles versus Waltman encounter , Clevett thought it " was undoubtable Waltman 's best match in years " . Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch rated the main event , Styles versus Waltman , and Joe versus Sabin all 3 and a half stars out of 5 . However , the X Division Championship match received a 3 and a three @-@ fourths stars out of 5 , his highest rating of the review . He gave the lowest ranking to the Tag Team Street Fight , at a half of a star . Keller commented on the main event as being " what you 'd expect , and that 's not a bad thing " . Keller thought the Styles versus Waltman bout was a " very good match , the best from Waltman in years " . James Caldwell , also of the Pro Wrestling Torch , published a review of the show . In his review he stated that the main event was a " good car wreck match " , which " told a good story based on the storyline entering the match " . Regarding the X Division Championship bout , Caldwell thought that " both men worked a solid match " . " A good wrestling match that showed Waltman still has it . " , said Caldwell as he commented on the Styles versus Waltman encounter . Caldwell believed that Joe versus Sabin was a " damn good match " . TNA released a DVD counting down the top 50 moments in their history in 2007 , with Rhino 's debut listed at number 36 . = = Aftermath = = Following No Surrender , Raven went on to feud with Jeff Jarrett and Rhino . Jarrett and Rhino attacked Raven on the July 22 episode of Impact ! , claiming he had no allies to help him . On the July 29 episode of Impact ! , Jarrett and Rhino attacked Cassidy Riley as well , until Raven announced he had chosen a partner to team with him in a Tag Team match to face Jarrett and Rhino at TNA 's next PPV event Sacrifice on August 14 . Sabu then appeared attacking Jarrett and Rhino with Raven . At Sacrifice , NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zbyszko added a stipulation to the encounter , in which if Jarrett pinned Raven he would earn a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match , however , if Raven pinned Jarrett then he would not garner one for an entire year . The team of Jarrett and Rhino won the contest at the event , with Rhino gaining the pinfall victory . Abyss began a feud with Lance Hoyt after No Surrender , when Abyss attacked Hoyt on the July 22 episode of Impact ! . In return Hoyt attacked Abyss on the August 5 episode of Impact ! , setting up a match between the two at Sacrifice . Abyss won the match at the event . TNA held the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament in the weeks following No Surrender leading up to Sacrifice . It was a single @-@ elimination tournament which involved eight men , A.J. Styles , Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , Michael Shane , Petey Williams , Samoa Joe , Shocker , and Sonjay Dutt . The winner of the tournament would become number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship held by Christopher Daniels . Daniels provided commentary to each of the encounters on the July 22 , July 29 , August 5 , and August 10 episodes of Impact ! , as well as the Finals at Sacrifice . Daniels unofficially named the tournament the Christopher Daniels Invitational . The tournament came down to Joe and Styles in the Finals at Sacrifice , which Joe won after interference from Daniels . Sean Waltman and Jerry Lynn sparked a rivalry after No Surrender due to Lynn 's interference in Waltman 's bout against Styles , with the two facing at Sacrifice . The storyline revolving around this match began on the July 22 episode of Impact ! , where Waltman accused Lynn of trying to steal his spotlight in a backstage segment , while Lynn took credit for Waltman 's success in the industry for helping Waltman get his start . Lynn defeated Waltman at the event . The 3Live Kru ( Konnan and Ron Killings ) and the team of Monty Brown and The Outlaw fought at Sacrifice , this time with B.G. James as Special Guest Referee . Due to The Outlaw attacking several referees during the Street Fight at No Surrender , TNA officials refused to referee a rematch between the two teams at Sacrifice . As such , this forced Zbyszko to name B.G. as the Special Guest Referee on the July 29 episode of Impact ! . The 3Live Kru were the victors at Sacrifice . = = Results = =

= M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage = The M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage , also known as the M16 Half @-@ track , was an American self @-@ propelled anti @-@ aircraft weapon built during World War II . It was equipped with four 0 @.@ 5 inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning machine guns in a M45 Quadmount . 2700 were produced by White Motor Company from May 1943 to March 1944 , with 568 M13 MGMCs and 109 T10 Half @-@ tracks being converted into M16s as well . The chassis was derived from the T1E2 chassis , an earlier version of the M13 . Based on an M3 Half @-@ track chassis , it replaced the M13 MGMC half @-@ track after early 1944 . As aircraft became more advanced , the usefulness of the M16 was reduced . In the Korean War , it was relegated primarily to the ground @-@ support role , being put out of service in the U.S. Army in 1951 . Nicknamed the " Meat Chopper " , the M16 was famous for downing low @-@ flying aircraft , making it extremely popular with soldiers . It was used by the United States Army , the British Commonwealth , and South Korea . A similar version of the M16 , the M17 , was based on the M5 Half @-@ track and exported via Lend @-@ Lease to the Soviet Union . = = Specifications = = The specifications of the M16 were similar to those of the M3 Half @-@ track . It was 21 ft 4 in ( 6 @.@ 5 m ) long ( with a wheelbase of 135 @.@ 5 in ( 3 @.@ 44 m ) ) , 7 ft 1 in ( 2 @.@ 16 m ) wide , and 7 ft 8 in ( 2 @.@ 34 m ) high and weighed 9 @.@ 9 short tons ( 9 t ) . It had suspension consisting of vertical volute spring suspension for the tracks and leaf springs for the wheels . It was powered by a 128 horsepower ( 95 kW ) White 160AX 386 cubic inch ( 6 @,@ 300 cc ) 6 @-@ cylinder gasoline engine . It had a compression ratio of 6 @.@ 3 : 1 and a 60 US gallon ( 230 l ) fuel tank . It could reach a top speed of 41 @.@ 7 mph ( 67 @.@ 1 km / h ) and a range of 175 miles ( 282 km ) and a power to weight ratio of 15 @.@ 8 horsepower per tonne . It had a main armament of four 0 @.@ 5 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns in a M45 Quadmount and 12 millimeters of armor on the front and the sides . = = Development = = The M16 was an improvement on the twin .50 caliber M2 Browning heavy machine gun equipped M13 MGMC and M14 MGMC ( built on an M3 and M5 Half @-@ track chassis respectively ) . It was based on an earlier model of the M13 ( the T1E2 ) , but the M33 Maxson mount was replaced with the M45 Quadmount and the M2 Half @-@ track chassis was replaced by the M3 chassis . This prototype was originally designated as the T61 MGMC , but after trials at Aberdeen it was accepted as the M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage . A few corrections were made on a pilot vehicle in early 1943 ( including the addition of a gun shield ) before production started . A total of 2 @,@ 877 were produced by the White Motor Company during the period from May 1943 to March 1944 , while 568 M13s and 109 T10 Half @-@ tracks were also converted into M16s . Further production of the M13 and M14 was ceased in favor of production of the M16 and M17 ( an M16 built on a M5 Half @-@ track chassis ) . = = Service history = = The M16 Multiple Gun Carriage entered service in early 1944 , with the M13 taken out of action soon after . The M16 was nicknamed " The Meat Chopper " for its deadly firepower , and was extremely popular with troops . In addition to its anti @-@ aircraft role , the M16 was used in an infantry support role , frequently accompanied by the M15 Half @-@ track . The M17 MGMC primarily served with the Soviet Union as part of Operation Bagration and a few other battles . The M16 saw service with U.S. forces in the Italian Campaign , and Operation Overlord , the Battle of Arracourt , and the Ardennes Offensive in northern Europe . Small numbers were supplied to the United Kingdom and France under Lend @-@ Lease . The vehicle was also used widely in the Korean War by the South Korean army , the United States Marine Corps , and the U.S. Army . As aircraft became more advanced over the M16 's lifetime , its role as a mobile anti @-@ aircraft weapon became limited . During the Korean War , it served mainly in the ground @-@ support role , at which it was highly effective . In late 1951 , it was declared as " limited standard " and largely taken out of service from the U.S. Army in Korea , although a few examples served until the end of the war . It was declared obsolete by the U.S. Army in 1958 . = = Operators = = United States – United States Army , U.S. Marine Corps United Kingdom - Two received through the Lend @-@ Lease program Free French Forces - Seventy received through the Lend @-@ Lease program Wehrmacht – Captured from the U.S. Japan Ground Self @-@ Defense Force – Lent by the U.S. Republic of Korea Army – Lent by the U.S. = = Variants = = M16 – A T1E2 with a M45D Quad @-@ mount and a M3 Half @-@ track chassis . M16A1 – An M16 with a M3A1 Half @-@ track chassis equipped the M45F Quad @-@ mount . M16A2 – M16s with the M45D Quad @-@ mount replaced with the M45F Quad @-@ mount . M17 MGMC – M5 Half @-@ tracks with the M45F Quad @-@ mount supplied under Lend Lease to the USSR . A total of 1 @,@ 000 were produced by International Harvester from December 1943 to March 1944 . Up to half of the Soviet Union 's air defense forces consisted of M17s .

= Barney Gilligan = Andrew Bernard " Barney " Gilligan ( January 3 , 1856 – April 1 , 1934 ) was a professional baseball player whose career spanned 12 seasons , 11 of which were spent with the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Cleveland Blues ( 1879 – 1880 ) , Providence Grays ( 1881 – 1885 ) , Washington Nationals ( 1886 – 1887 ) , and Detroit Wolverines ( 1888 ) . Gilligan , who predominately played as a catcher , also played as an outfielder and a shortstop . Over his career , Gilligan compiled a career batting average of .207 with 217 runs scored , 388 hits , 68 doubles , 23 triples , three home runs , and 167 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 523 games played . Although the majority of his career was spent in the major leagues , Gilligan also played in minor league baseball . He made his MLB debut at the age of 19 and was listed as standing 5 feet 6 inches ( 168 cm ) and weighing 130 pounds ( 59 kg ) . = = Early life = = Andrew Bernard Gilligan was born in Cambridge , Massachusetts on January 3 , 1856 . He was the sixth child of seven born to Patrick Gilligan , a laborer , and Sarah Gilligan . Both Patrick and Sarah had immigrated to the United States from Northern Ireland . = = Professional career = = Gilligan began his professional career playing right field in 1874 for the New York Flyaways , an amateur baseball club . He continued his professional baseball career in 1876 and 1877 . In 1878 , Gilligan played for various minor @-@ league clubs such as the Somerville Unions of Somerville , Massachusetts , and the Charlestown Alerts of Charlestown , Massachusetts . In his first full MLB season , Gilligan played for the Cleveland Blues . After his first game with the Blues , the Cleveland Leader stated " Gilligan caught exceedingly well taking some fine pickups . " Over 52 games played , Gilligan batted a career @-@ low .171 with 11 RBI and six doubles . Defensively , he played 27 games as catcher and 23 as an outfielder . Next season , Gilligan continued to play for the Blues , serving as backup catcher to Doc Kennedy before leaving the team at the end of the season to sign with the Providence Grays . With the Grays , he served again as a backup catcher before the starter ( Emil Gross ) became injured ; on the season , Gilligan batted .219 with 20 RBI . Next year , in 1882 , Gilligan became the starting catcher for the Grays ; his backup , Sandy Nava , was the first Mexican @-@ American baseball player . When the season was over , the Grays finished 52 – 32 , second in the National League ( NL ) , under manager Harry Wright . By 1883 , Gilligan had become the Grays starting catcher . Despite breaking his finger and missing two weeks in May , Gilligan led the National League in assists as a catcher , while his team finished third in the NL . He continued his tenure with the Grays the following season . Gilligan played in a career @-@ high 82 games , while also recording career highs in RBI ( 38 ) , strikeouts ( 41 ) , and on @-@ base percentage ( .325 ) and leading MLB in defensive games as a catcher ( 81 ) . After finishing at the top of the NL , the Grays played in the 1884 World Series against the New York Metropolitans of the American Association . Gilligan went 4 – for – 9 over the three @-@ game series , with the Grays defeating the Metropolitans three games to none . After spending the 1885 season with the Grays , and tying Andy Cusick for the MLB lead in errors committed as a catcher , the Grays management sold out in November of that year . The NL bought the Grays for $ 6 @,@ 000 , while Gilligan was assigned to the Washington Nationals . He served as captain of the team for the 1886 season , catching 71 games and batting .190 . Before the 1887 season , he established a restaurant in the District of Columbia . In 1887 , Gilligan was fined $ 25 for binge drinking and missing a game for the Nationals . The next season , Gilligan was released by the team . In his final MLB season , Gilligan signed with the Detroit Wolverines . He played in one game for the team , going 1 – for – 5 with a run and a strikeout . Later that year , Gilligan signed with the Lynn Shoemakers , appearing in 11 games before joining the Manchester Maroons for three games . For the next three years , Gilligan continued to play minor league baseball . His career MLB batting average ( .207 ) is tied with John Henry for the seventh lowest all @-@ time among batters with at least 1 @,@ 000 at bats . = = After baseball = = After retiring from baseball , Gilligan lived in Lynn , Massachusetts , with his wife , Sara . He worked as a garbage collector before dying of erysipelas on April 1 , 1934 . Gilligan was interred at Pine Grove Cemetery in Lynn .

= Blanton Collier = Blanton Long Collier ( July 2 , 1906 – March 22 , 1983 ) was an American football head coach who coached at the University of Kentucky between 1954 and 1961 and for the Cleveland Browns in the National Football League ( NFL ) between 1963 and 1970 . His 1964 Browns team won the NFL championship and remains the second most recent Cleveland professional sports team to win a title . Collier grew up in Paris , Kentucky and attended Paris High School . After graduating from Georgetown College , he returned to his old high school to teach and coach sports for 16 years . Collier left the position to join the U.S. Navy in 1943 during World War II . At a naval base outside of Chicago he met Paul Brown , who was coaching a service football team there . After the war , Brown hired Collier as an assistant coach for the Browns , a team under formation in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . After seven years as Brown 's top aide , a span over which the Cleveland team won five league championships , Collier took a job as head football coach at the University of Kentucky in 1954 . His Kentucky Wildcats teams amassed a 41 – 36 – 3 win @-@ loss @-@ tie record over eight seasons . Collier was fired after the 1961 season and Brown re @-@ hired him as an assistant . Art Modell , the owner of the Browns , then fired Brown in 1963 and gave the head coaching job to Collier . Under Collier , the Browns reached the NFL championship game four times and won once , in 1964 . Struggling with hearing loss , Collier retired after the 1970 season , although he remained a scout and quarterbacks coach for several more years . He was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 1976 and retired to Texas , where he died in 1983 . Collier was well @-@ liked by players and renowned as a good sportsman and student of the game . The Kentucky chapter of the NFL Players Association in 2007 established the Blanton Collier Award in his honor . The Paris High School football field is named after him . = = Early life and college career = = Collier was born in Millersburg , Kentucky to O.H. and Eva ( née Long ) Collier . He attended Paris High School in Paris , Kentucky , where he played football and basketball . He worked as a tobacco @-@ picker in the summers during high school . After graduating , he enrolled at Kentucky 's Georgetown College , playing on the school 's football team and earning a bachelor of arts degree in 1927 . = = High school and assistant coaching career = = Collier went to work at Paris High School in 1928 as a mathematics teacher and coached several of the school 's sports teams . He got the nickname " George " when he was a teacher because he affectionately called most of his male students " George " and most of his female students " Martha " . He married Mary Varder from Paris in 1930 and spent 16 years working at the high school before enlisting in the U.S. Navy in 1943 during World War II . Collier 's Paris football team had an overall win @-@ loss @-@ tie record of 73 – 50 – 10 . Collier was 37 years old when he joined the military ; although he likely could have avoided enlisting because he was a teacher and had a family , he felt serving in the war was his duty . Collier was assigned to the Great Lakes Naval Training Station outside of Chicago , where he was a survival swimming instructor . It was in the Navy that Collier first had trouble with his hearing , a problem that dogged him later in life . He was once called to report to his ship over a loudspeaker but did not hear it . Doctors thought his hearing may have been damaged by teaching swimming in a tidal pool or from practicing on the shooting range . " It never became an issue until the Navy , when they figured he had less than 40 % of a normal person 's hearing , " his daughter Kay Collier @-@ Slone said in 1997 . To compensate for his hearing loss , Collier became an expert lip @-@ reader . At Great Lakes , Collier went regularly to observe the practices of the station 's service football team , the Great Lakes Bluejackets . There he met Paul Brown , who had left a head coaching job at Ohio State University to serve in the Navy and lead the Bluejackets team . Collier took notes and hoped to pick up some football knowledge he could use when he returned to Paris . Brown , however , noticed Collier 's dedication and brought him onto his staff as a volunteer assistant . In 1945 , Brown was hired by Arthur B. McBride as the first coach of the Cleveland Browns , a team under formation in the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . Brown hired Collier as a backfield coach for the team , which was set to begin play in 1946 . Initially his specialty was pass defense , but Brown soon rewarded Collier 's extensive football knowledge with a broader assistant coaching assignment . Collier served under Brown from 1946 to 1953 , a period in which the team won all four titles in the AAFC before moving to the National Football League ( NFL ) in 1950 . That season the Browns captured the NFL title and then reached but lost the following three championship games . Collier 's coaching style was the opposite of Brown 's ; Brown was a disciplinarian whose stern nature and aloofness often brought him into conflict with players , while Collier was a friendly , warm man whose patience and studiousness endeared him to players . " Everything had to be perfect ; he was a stickler on perfection – but at the same time , he had great patience , " Browns quarterback Otto Graham said in 2007 . After the 1946 season , Brown asked Collier to analyze every play run by the offense , and Collier came up with a detailed breakdown of why each play succeeded or failed . This was the genesis of an annual grading system Collier developed to evaluate players ' performance . The Browns used it for many years . = = University of Kentucky = = When University of Kentucky head football coach Bear Bryant left for Texas A & M University after the 1953 season , Collier accepted an offer to succeed him . He stayed at Kentucky for eight years , a span during which the Wildcats football team had a 41 – 36 – 3 record , including a 5 – 2 – 1 record against arch @-@ rival Tennessee . Notable wins included a 1954 victory at Georgia Tech , then ranked 15th in the AP Poll , and defeats of eighth @-@ ranked Ole Miss in 1955 and 12th @-@ ranked Tennessee in 1957 . In 1954 , Collier was named the coach of the year in the Southeastern Conference . Despite a winning record , Collier was fired in January 1962 , when he was making $ 17 @,@ 500 per year ( $ 136 @,@ 900 in 2016 dollars ) . He was replaced a week later by Charlie Bradshaw , an assistant to Bear Bryant at Alabama . Bryant had led the Wildcats to appearances in three major bowl games , but Collier never led the Wildcats to a bowl during his tenure . His best record was in his first year , when the team finished 7 – 2 . Kentucky 's football program was overshadowed by its successful basketball program during Collier 's tenure . Collier was also criticized for his poor recruiting skills , a crucial factor for college coaches . Many fans wrote the university to complain about him and his staff . Still , several future star coaches served as assistants under Collier at Kentucky , including Don Shula , Chuck Knox , Howard Schnellenberger and Bill Arnsparger . Standout players under Collier included All @-@ Americans Lou Michaels and Schnellenberger . = = Cleveland Browns = = After losing his job at Kentucky , Collier said he was unsure what he would do next . " Right now I feel I would like to remain in football if the opportunity presents itself , " he said . Two weeks later , Brown brought him back onto the Cleveland Browns staff as an offensive assistant . Collier and Brown had remained close friends during his time at Kentucky . Collier attended the Browns ' training camps in Ohio during the summers , and Brown 's family visited Collier on occasion in Lexington . Collier said he was happy to be back with the Browns , saying it was " like returning home " . Brown praised Collier 's teaching and called him a " scientific football man " and " one of my closest friends " . By the time Collier rejoined the Browns , the team was in the throes of a transition . Art Modell had bought the club in 1961 and was locked in a bitter power struggle with Brown . The two men came into conflict over Brown 's autocratic coaching style and his failure to notify Modell about personnel decisions . Without informing Modell , Brown in 1962 traded away star halfback Bobby Mitchell for the right to draft Ernie Davis , a back who won the Heisman Trophy and surpassed Jim Brown 's rushing records at Syracuse University . Davis died of leukemia before he played a down for the Browns . Brown 's relationship with Jim Brown , the team 's star fullback , was another source of tension between Modell and Paul Brown . Jim Brown grew increasingly independent as he rose to fame . He started a weekly radio show , which grated against Paul Brown 's emphasis on discipline and teamwork over individualism . Other players , including quarterback Milt Plum , openly questioned Paul Brown 's coaching and his control over the team 's play @-@ calling . Brown made some changes as a result of the pressure from his players and Modell , and allowed Collier to put into place a " check off system " that allowed the quarterback to run several approved alternative plays to the ones Brown called . When Collier was praised in the Cleveland Press for instituting the system successfully , however , Brown put an end to it . " The players believed that Paul was upset when Blanton received some good press , " former Browns quarterback Jim Ninowski said in 1997 . " Paul just junked Blanton 's system , as if to say , ' Hey , I 'm running the show now ' . " As Collier grew apart from Brown , he became closer to Modell , who enjoyed discussing football minutiae with him . After a 7 – 6 – 1 season in 1962 , Modell fired Brown and offered the head coaching job to Collier . Collier told Modell he first needed the blessing of his wife and of Brown , to whom he still felt a sense of loyalty . He called Brown , who told him he had to take the job because he had a family to support . Collier accepted a three @-@ year contract that would pay him $ 35 @,@ 000 a year ( $ 270 @,@ 527 in 2016 dollars ) . In contrast with Brown , Collier was almost universally liked by players and other coaches . He was soft @-@ spoken , which was unusual for a head coach , but he earned the respect of the team with his extensive knowledge and his willingness to give players more freedom than Brown ever did . One significant difference was his approach to play @-@ calling . Like Brown , Collier served as his own play @-@ caller . However , he let Frank Ryan , who replaced Plum as the team 's starting quarterback in 1963 , change plays at the line of scrimmage and allowed more flexibility in pass routes and blocking schemes . The changes paid off . In 1963 , the team finished 10 – 4 , and Jim Brown broke the NFL 's single @-@ season rushing record with 1 @,@ 863 yards . Brown was also voted the league 's Most Valuable Player . Cleveland , however , finished a game behind the New York Giants and did not reach the championship game . The Browns had started out 6 – 0 but faltered after racial divisions cropped up within the team . Some black players believed white teammates were getting to play ahead of them because of their race . Toward the end of the season , Collier met with the team 's leaders and told them the racism had to stop . After the season , he traded away players he thought were sowing discord and opened up a dialogue with those who remained to stamp out the tension . = = = 1964 championship = = = Cleveland climbed back to the top of the Eastern Conference in 1964 with a 10 – 3 – 1 record behind Jim Brown 's league @-@ leading 1 @,@ 446 yards of rushing and reached the championship game against the Baltimore Colts . Most sportswriters predicted an easy win for the Colts , who led the league in scoring behind quarterback Johnny Unitas and halfback Lenny Moore . The Browns ' defense , moreover , was suspect . The team gave up 20 more first downs than any other in the league . The teams , however , had not faced each other for three years . Before the game , Collier and Colts coach Don Shula agreed to give each other full access to video of regular @-@ season games . Ever the student , Collier took full advantage of the opportunity . The Browns had run what was dubbed a " rubber band " pass defense , allowing short throws while trying to prevent big plays . The Colts ' top receivers , however , Raymond Berry and Jimmy Orr , were not fast . They tended to pick apart defenses with short , tactical completions , which led Collier to institute a man @-@ to @-@ man pass defense for the game . This , he figured , would buy more time for the defensive line and force Unitas to scramble — not his forte . The strategy worked , and in Cleveland Municipal Stadium two days after Christmas , the Browns beat the Colts 27 – 0 . The Browns scored 10 points in the third quarter and a further 17 in the fourth , clinching the team 's first title since Otto Graham 's departure after the 1955 season . The Browns ended with an 11 – 3 record the following year and comfortably won the East for the second year in a row . That set up a second straight appearance in the NFL Championship game in Green Bay against the Packers . The teams battled it out on a slippery , mucky Lambeau Field on January 2 , 1966 . While score was close early on , Vince Lombardi 's team held the Browns scoreless in the second half , winning 23 – 12 in an upset on a Paul Hornung touchdown . Despite Jim Brown 's retirement after the 1965 season , the Browns had another four consecutive winning seasons and advanced to the NFL championship game in 1968 and 1969 under Collier , but lost both times . Plagued by hearing problems , the 64 @-@ year @-@ old coach announced his retirement before the end of the 1970 season , which the Browns finished with a 7 – 7 record . Collier told Modell that he could no longer hear his players , and it was difficult to read their lips through new face masks that obscured their mouths . Modell tried to help by getting Collier to try new hearing aids and even sent him for acupuncture treatment , but none of it worked . Collier struggled during press conferences because he often could not hear what reporters were asking and answered the wrong questions . In eight years as coach , Collier led Cleveland to a championship and a 76 – 34 – 2 record . Nick Skorich , who came to the Browns as offensive coordinator in 1964 , was named as his replacement in 1971 . = = Later life and death = = Collier continued to work with the Browns after he stepped down , serving as a scout and quarterbacks coach until leaving the game for good in 1976 . He was the coach of the college team in the 1971 College All @-@ Star Game , a now @-@ defunct matchup between the NFL champion and a selection of the best college players from around the country , replacing former Browns quarterback Otto Graham . Georgetown College in 1970 awarded him an honorary doctorate of laws degree . Collier was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 1976 and retired to a house on a lake in Texas , where he played golf and visited with friends and family . He died of the disease in 1983 . His wife died in 1996 and was buried next to him in Paris , Kentucky . Collier and his wife had three daughters , Carolyn , Jane and Kay . = = Legacy = = Collier was recognized after his death for his sportsmanship , intelligence and mild manners . He was inducted into the University of Kentucky College of Education hall of fame in 2001 . In 2007 , the Kentucky chapter of the NFL Players Association established a Blanton Collier Award given annually to a football player or players who excel both on and off the field . Past winners include Tony Dungy , Jim Brown , Gale Sayers and the Manning family : Archie , Olivia , Cooper , Peyton and Eli . A group of former Kentucky players in 2008 started the Blanton Collier Sportsmanship Group , which promotes ethics , education and integrity in sports . The non @-@ profit organization now oversees the Blanton Collier Award . The football stadium at Paris High School is named after Collier . = = Head coaching record = = = = = College = = = = = = NFL = = =

= 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony = The closing ceremony of the London 2012 Summer Olympics , also known as A Symphony of British Music , was held on 12 August in the Olympic Stadium . The closing ceremony was created by Kim Gavin , Es Devlin , Stephen Daldry , David Arnold and Mark Fisher . The worldwide broadcast began at 21 : 00 BST ( UTC + 1 ) and finished at 00 : 11 , lasting three hours and eleven minutes . The stadium had been turned into a giant representation of the Union Flag , designed by Damien Hirst . Around 4 @,@ 100 people partook in the ceremony ; which reportedly cost £ 20 million . The 2012 Summer Olympics were officially closed by Jacques Rogge , who called London 's games " happy and glorious . " The ceremony included a handover to the next host city for the 2016 Summer Olympics , Rio de Janeiro and saw the Olympic flame extinguished and the Olympic flag lowered . The main part of the evening featured a one @-@ hour symphony of British Music as a number of British Pop acts appeared . Tributes to John Lennon and Freddie Mercury and the fashion industry were included in the section . Rio marked the handover with an eight @-@ minute section known as " Embrace " created by Cao Hamburger and Daniela Thomas , featuring Pelé . Sebastian Coe gave a speech , and the volunteers of London 2012 were thanked . An average of 23 @.@ 2 million viewers in the United Kingdom watched the event , with an estimated 750 million worldwide . Critics were generally positive , but noted that it was not as good as the opening ceremony . Some of the foreign reviews questioned whether everyone would have understood the nods to British film and television . George Michael was roundly criticised for his song choice while Kate Moss , Naomi Campbell and Russell Brand were criticised for not demonstrating the Olympic ethos in their past behaviour . Some performers were initially reluctant to appear , and other high @-@ profile acts turned down invitations to perform at the ceremony . NBC in America and Prime TV in New Zealand were criticised by viewers for their broadcasts of the ceremony . There was also a concert in Hyde Park to close the Olympics , featuring Blur , New Order , and The Specials . = = Production = = The creative director and choreographer was Kim Gavin , with Es Devlin responsible for design and David Arnold as musical director . When Arnold was announced in his role he said that doing the closing ceremony was an honour and a once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime opportunity . While Gavin stated that he was really excited and honoured to be involved . Davlin said that she was delighted to be part of the " greatest show on earth " . Hugh Robertson , Minister for Sport and the Olympics , stated that he was delighted to have a high @-@ quality team working on the ceremony . While Boris Johnson stated that we have the best of British creating the bookends to our Games . Stephen Daldry was the executive producer and Mark Fisher was in charge of production design . The ceremony cost £ 20 million , with the artists paid just £ 1 for contractual purposes . Around 4 @,@ 100 performers took part , comprising 3 @,@ 500 adult volunteers , 380 schoolchildren from the six original host boroughs , and 250 professionals . There had been around 15 rehearsals for the volunteers at the Three Mills Studio and at a full @-@ scale site in Dagenham , East London . Gavin said that “ the show we are putting on is very shiny , it 's very colourful . We don 't want to bang on about our culture . We just want to have fun . ” Es Devlin added that it " has to make sense in Bognor and Bogotá . " She said that the creators had happily indulged in the chance to " visually draw on everything " that British imagination can offer . David Arnold said “ It 's going to be beautiful , cheeky , cheesy , camp , silly and thrilling " , and added that " we could have done this 15 times over , and not had the same show , and it would still have been full of amazing British music " . He thought that it should be the " greatest after party " and was “ really a celebration of Britishness in terms of [ all ] the arts " . Arnold himself had devoted two years working on the ceremony and had turned down all other work including Skyfall , but said that it was the " most fun " he had " ever had in music " . In the handover section Rio aimed to express " multicultural embrace . " Daniela Thomas stated that Rio " want to show you how sophisticated we mix things , what we do with the things you believe we are , how we mix with pop culture . " The representation of the Union Flag used as an arena centrepiece was designed by Damien Hirst to celebrate the " anarchy and diversity of British pop art , and by extension the energy and multiplicity of contemporary British culture " . Hirst had been approached in November 2011 and agreed to do the design ; he called his artwork Beautiful Union Jack Celebratory Patriotic Olympic Explosion in an Electric Storm Painting . 176 photographs made up one centimetre of the stadium artwork with graphic designers having spent three months creating super @-@ high @-@ resolution images before printing . Some performers had declined to perform , including The Rolling Stones , David Bowie , Sex Pistols , Kate Bush and The Libertines . According to industry insiders The Who apparently refused twice , and only agreed once they had announced a US tour . The Spice Girls were said to be reluctant to appear , feeling that the event was being staged at minimal cost , before their manager Simon Fuller persuaded them to perform . Noel Gallagher turned down the chance to perform after first being asked to play acoustically and then to mime to " Wonderwall " . The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh were not scheduled to attend as there is no formal role for the Head of State during the ceremony . The royal family was represented by Prince Harry , the Princess Royal and the Duchess of Cambridge . = = Performance synopsis = = = = = Rush Hour ( 21 : 00 – 21 : 09 ) = = = The ceremony began after a filmed countdown showing numbers from around London on such locations as road signs , 10 Downing Street and the Palace of Westminster clock tower , with a camera panning up the River Thames over Tower Bridge before turning left towards the stadium . The audience then completed a 10 @-@ second countdown to the start of the ceremony , to the chimes of Big Ben . The arena had been transformed into a huge representation of the Union Flag in black and white , with ramps and famous London landmarks such as the London Eye , Big Ben , Battersea Power Station and the Gherkin . Newspaper cutouts on both the set and road vehicles sought to show a " day in the life of London " , with words from British literary figures such as William Shakespeare , J. R. R. Tolkien and Poet Laureate Carol Ann Duffy . Emeli Sandé appeared on a truck and sang a verse and the chorus of " Read All About It , Pt . III " . The Urban Voices Collective ( the choir for the ceremony ) sang The Beatles ' " Because " , which merged into cellist Julian Lloyd Webber ( sat upon the Royal Albert Hall ) playing Elgar 's Salut d 'amour , accompanied by Stomp performing on household items such as pots , pans and dustbins while suspended on the sculptures of the landmarks . = = = God Save the Queen = = = At the same time , Winston Churchill ( Timothy Spall ) appeared at the top of Big Ben and reprised Caliban 's " Be not afeard " speech from The Tempest , first read by Kenneth Branagh in the opening ceremony . More paper @-@ covered motor vehicles entered . After Churchill finished his speech , people dressed in newspaper print began to fill the arena , ranging from office workers to school children . The beat of the music got faster and noisier , symbolising the London rush hour . As the noise reached a crescendo , Churchill cried out for all to stop , bringing this section to an end . Prince Henry of Wales ( Prince Harry ) , representing the Queen , arrived with the President of the International Olympic Committee Jacques Rogge . The London Symphony Orchestra and the Urban Voice Choir performed the national anthem of the United Kingdom whilst the Union flag was raised by the armed forces and the performers waved mini Union flags in the stadium . Once the flag was raised Hirst 's artwork was revealed as the grey clouds were removed . = = = Street Party ( 21 : 09 – 21 : 20 ) = = = This section started off with footage of Michael Caine in The Italian Job counting down from five , whereupon the Reliant Regal from Only Fools and Horses exploded with Del Boy and Rodney jumping out dressed as Batman and Robin . Caine 's words , You were only supposed to blow the bloody doors off ! , echoed around the stadium . All the lorries had the newspaper removed and a colourful street party erupted , while Madness performed " Our House " . This was followed by the Massed Bands of the Household Division marching whilst playing Blur 's " Parklife " . Entering on rickshaws , the Pet Shop Boys performed their hit " West End Girls " , and then One Direction performed " What Makes You Beautiful " from the back of a lorry . Next there was another performance by Stomp . = = = Waterloo Sunset ( 21 : 20 – 21 : 30 ) = = = The centre of the arena was then cleared to reveal Britain 's Got Talent 2010 winners Spelbound , who performed gymnastics to The Beatles " A Day in the Life " , were inspired by the idea of a commuter on the way to work , by forming a bed and a London Bus . Ray Davies of The Kinks arrived in a black cab and played " Waterloo Sunset " , as Spelbound continued and local school children formed the Thames . The section closed with Sandé reprising " Read All About It ( Pt . III ) " as a montage of athletes crying in victory or defeat was shown on the screens . = = = Parade of Athletes ( 21 : 30 – 21 : 53 ) = = = Greece led the Entrance of the Flags , as all 204 flags filed in to the strains of " Parade of the Athletes " ( composed by Arnold ) and marched up the central cross of the union flag , with Great Britain bringing up the rear . Meanwhile , volunteer marshals wearing blue suits and blue bowler hats with light bulbs on top marched into the stadium . The athletes then walked in from the several entrances , with some filtering down through the lower stands . As the same time Elbow performed " Open Arms " and " One Day Like This " . The volunteer marshals helped to usher the athletes into pens between the ramps of the arena . As the last athletes streamed into the stadium and the flags were moved by volunteers closer to the Olympic Flame , a reprise of some of the songs from the opening section was played . = = = Here Comes the Sun ( 21 : 53 – 22 : 07 ) = = = 16 dhol drummers opened this segment as the performers entered carrying 303 white boxes to symbolise every event in the Olympic Games . The drumming merged into the newly recorded version of Kate Bush 's " Running Up That Hill ( A Deal With God ) " , as performers arranged the boxes to form a pyramid while video highlights from the previous 16 days of competition were shown on the screens . This was followed by the victory ceremony for the Men 's Marathon , by tradition the final medal ceremony of the Games . Rogge and Lamine Diack , president of the International Association of Athletics Federations , awarded the medals before the Ugandan national anthem was played . Six athletes including Katherine Grainger and Katie Taylor presented flowers to six volunteers in a symbolic recognition of the 70 @,@ 000 volunteers ' contribution to the Games . This part of the ceremony was accompanied by The Beatles ' " Here Comes the Sun " . = = = A Symphony of British Music ( 22 : 07 – 23 : 21 ) = = = The section commenced with Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " being played and a graphic equaliser being shown on the pixel screen . John Lennon then appeared on the big screens and was joined by Choirs of Liverpool in singing " Imagine " as a bust of Lennon 's face was created . Balloons were released at the end of this and George Michael followed singing " Freedom ! ' 90 " and " White Light " . A group of mods on scooters followed invading the arena ; one of them carried Ricky Wilson to the stage where his band the Kaiser Chiefs proceeded to cover The Who 's " Pinball Wizard " ; during the song the scooters continued to circle the arena . Several extracts of David Bowie songs followed , accompanied by images of Bowie ; this continued until eight billboards with artwork of models on arrived in the stadium , representing the British fashion industry . The artwork was dropped to reveal the models standing behind : Naomi Campbell ( wearing Alexander McQueen ) , Lily Cole ( wearing Erdem ) , Karen Elson ( wearing Burberry ) , Lily Donaldson ( wearing Vivienne Westwood ) , Jourdan Dunn ( wearing Jonathan Saunders ) , David Gandy ( wearing Paul Smith ) , Georgia May Jagger ( wearing Victoria Beckham ) , Kate Moss ( wearing Alexander McQueen ) and Stella Tennant ( wearing Christopher Kane ) . The models concluded the section by turning the struts of the Union Flag into a catwalk as they proceeded to the centre , walking to Bowie 's 1980 single " Fashion " . A wooden boat was then carried in ; on board was Annie Lennox who proceeded to sing " Little Bird " . Ed Sheeran followed and was joined by Richard Jones of The Feeling , Nick Mason of Pink Floyd and Mike Rutherford of Genesis and Mike + The Mechanics , to cover the Floyd 's " Wish You Were Here " . Near the end of the song a performer appeared on a tightrope above the stadium , walked along it , and shook hands with a mannequin , which then burst into flames ( referencing the cover of Floyd 's 1975 album Wish You Were Here ) . A psychedelic bus then enters with Russell Brand sitting on top singing " Pure Imagination " from " Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory " then segues into " I Am the Walrus " ; before introducing Fatboy Slim , who played " Right Here Right Now " and " The Rockafeller Skank " ; as the bus slowly transformed into a large inflatable Octopus . Three convertible Rolls @-@ Royce Phantom Drophead Coupés then arrived ; the roof of the first was taken down to reveal Jessie J who sang her hit " Price Tag " , as the cars did a lap of the stadium . Jessie J provided guest vocals as the next car had its roof removed , to show Tinie Tempah who sang " Written in the Stars " . The third car carried Taio Cruz who sang " Dynamite " . All three then left the cars to combine to cover the Bee Gees ' " You Should Be Dancing " . A number of black cabs entered the stadium , five of which lit up with LED lights , each decorated with the Spice Girls ' individual trademark emblems , ( Posh : sparkling black , Sporty : go @-@ faster stripes , Scary : leopard print , Baby : pink and Ginger : The Union Flag ) . The Spice Girls emerged from the cabs and performed " Wannabe " and " Spice Up Your Life " . Halfway through their performance , they ascended onto the roofs of the cabs and proceeded to race around the stadium whilst singing and dancing from the roofs . Beady Eye followed by performing Oasis 's " Wonderwall " . " Mr. Blue Sky " by Electric Light Orchestra was played as a tribute to aviation was performed . Near the end of this song a human cannonball " died " and out rolled Eric Idle , who sang " Always Look on the Bright Side of Life " , accompanied variously by nuns on roller @-@ skates , Morris dancers ( Blackheath Morris and Rag Morris ) , Roman soldiers , Punjabi bhangra musicians dancers ( VP Bhangra ) , and bagpipes ( Reading Scottish Pipe Band , led by Pipe Major Ron Paterson ) before a human cannonball was fired across the arena . Muse then appeared and proceeded to sing the official song of London 2012 , " Survival " . In the darkness four trucks with screens on them entered and went to the centre of the stadium . Freddie Mercury then appeared on these and other screens around the stadium . Displayed was a vocal improvisation taken from Queen 's 1986 Wembley Stadium concert , before his bandmate Brian May performed part of the " Brighton Rock " guitar solo . May was then joined by Roger Taylor to re @-@ form Queen , as Jessie J , who wore a long yellow jacket in homage to Mercury accompanied the pair for " We Will Rock You . " More fireworks ended this section . = = = The Road to Rio ( 23 : 21 – 23 : 30 ) = = = The section began with the Greek national anthem being played and raising of the flag ; followed by the Olympic anthem and the lowering of the flag . The Mayor of London , Boris Johnson , then handed the Olympic Flag to Jacques Rogge , who in turn passed it to Eduardo Paes , the Mayor of Rio de Janeiro . This was followed by the Brazilian national anthem and raising of the flag . The Olympic Flag was raised again in Sochi on 7 February 2014 at the opening ceremony of the 2014 Winter Olympics . = = = Embrace ( 23 : 30 – 23 : 38 ) = = = Rio then provided an eight @-@ minute segment to introduce the world to its city , created by Cao Hamburger and Daniela Thomas entitled " Embrace " . The showcase presented both indigenous and Latin culture , as well as some mock Rio Carnival performers , and began with the street cleaner Renato Sorriso dancing samba joined by sailor Robert Scheidt . The section continued with a Carnival @-@ eqsue Samba parade as various artists performed , including singers Marisa Monte ( dressed as African water goddess Yemanja ) , BNegão and Seu Jorge , with an appearance by model Alessandra Ambrosio . Jorge Mautner and Heitor Villa @-@ Lobos both received tributes . It concluded with an appearance by Pelé , who was wearing a Brazilian football shirt with his name and the number 10 on the back and a 3D model of Rio 's logo . Brazil 's section finished with a fireworks display . = = = Closing of the Games ( 23 : 38 – 23 : 48 ) = = = Sebastian Coe and Jacques Rogge then appeared on a stage that was in the form of an arrow pointing towards Rio . Coe thanked all of the people who had helped make the Olympics happen . He said that the volunteers , who received another huge cheer , had the right to say " I made London , 2012 " . Coe thanked the country for getting behind the Games , and recalled his words from the Opening Ceremony " these will be a games for everyone " , concluding " these were a games by everyone . " He went on to thank the athletes and say that " the spirit of these Olympics will inspire a generation " , before concluding that " when our time came , Britain , we did it right ! " . Rogge thanked Coe and his London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games team , saying that they had done a " superb job " . He said " we are indebted to so many tonight " , thanking the " wonderful volunteers , the much needed heroes of these Games " , as well as the British public and the athletes . Rogge said that the athletes had earned the right to be called ' Olympians ' due to the fair play and graciousness that they had shown , and he looked forward to the Paralympic Games . Rogge concluded by calling the Games " happy and glorious " , before proceeding to close the competition and calling upon the youth of the world to assemble in Rio in 2016 , ending with " Thank you , London ! " . = = = Spirit of the Flame ( 23 : 48 – 00 : 00 ) = = = The arms holding the copper petals that formed the Olympic cauldron were part @-@ lowered , and fireworks set off behind ; when the smoke had cleared , a phoenix was seen above the flames . Take That then performed " Rule the World " . Darcey Bussell followed flying down from the top of the stadium in a guise of a phoenix and was joined by four male principal dancers from The Royal Ballet , Gary Avis , Jonathan Cope , Nehemiah Kish and Ed Watson and over 200 ballerinas , who proceeded to perform a dance called ' the spirit of the flame ' , after which the Olympic Flame was extinguished . = = = Finale ( 00 : 00 – 00 : 07 ) = = = The closing act of the ceremony was The Who , who performed a medley of the songs " Baba O 'Riley " , " See Me , Feel Me " and " My Generation " as a montage of images of Games volunteers and Londoners appeared on the big screen . All star performers also appeared on the stage behind the band , while participants in the ceremony also marched through the centrestage towards The Who . The set concluded to massive fireworks set off in the stadium and around the Olympic Park . = = Technical aspects = = A total of 634 @,@ 500 individual LED pixels were used to create 27 images lasting 75 minutes . The pixels were created by Crystal CG and each animation was constructed by a team of six , whilst a team of eight created the Rio segment . Images , including catwalk models in high @-@ end fashions , drifting clouds over London , and flicking paint onto rooftop canvases , had been shot for the effects . The broadcast of the Olympic closing ceremony featured 1080p and side @-@ by @-@ side 1080i 3D on various TV channels and online . = = Ratings and reviews = = An estimated worldwide television audience of 750 million watched the event . Early data suggested that the British TV audience averaged 23 @.@ 2 million and hit a peak of 26 @.@ 2 million at 21 @.@ 35 . The Daily Telegraph commented during the ceremony that , although fun , it lacked " top drawer " performers , and that Annie Lennox was " utterly underwhelming . " However One Direction , Jessie J , Tinie Tempah and Taio Cruz " shone " , while the Spice Girls " got the exuberant tone exactly right " . Tom Sutcliffe writing for The Independent said that it was " slick , impressive , often visually startling " and " eccentric , bewildering – and shameless good fun " . He added that " where Danny Boyle 's opening show had been a statement of intent and national values , this was an hour @-@ long advert for British stadium rock @-@ show design . " The Guardian writer Michael Billington wrote that he was not sure how to review " a mix of pageant , pop @-@ concert , street @-@ party and presentation ceremony . " He added that it communicated the " energy of British popular culture over the past few decades and the gaiety of our Olympic ceremonies . " Billington praised Boyle , Devlin and Daldry , who had done a " tremendous job in lending what might have been orthodox Olympic rituals a blast of theatrical vitality . " While Alexis Petridis writing for the same paper said that the lack of a " gasp inducing moment " spoilt the show . Jan Moir of the Daily Mail queried whether the ceremony truly reflected Britain 's musical heritage and described the opening section as " dull , dull , dull " . She asked " how could anyone follow the Opening Ceremony for entertainment ? " , challenged " the logic " of clips of artists such as Bush and Bowie who had " declined to appear " , and said that the fashion section was " dreary " . NZ Herald 's Troy Rawhiti @-@ Forbes wrote that there were " touches of brilliance , beauty , and bewilderment - often at the same time . " However he called Russell Brand " tuneless " , and during George Michael 's performance he thought that " if there had been remote controls here in the stadium , people might have been reaching for them . " His " undisputed champions " of the night were the Spice Girls and The Who . David Rooney of the Hollywood Reporter noted that the show " had something for every generation " and was an " all @-@ star ... crowd @-@ pleaser . " However he wonders whether non @-@ British viewers would have understood references to The Italian Job and Only Fools and Horses . Rooney concludes that the " Rio preview and the rousing Britpop marathon that preceded it were a reminder that the Olympics are as much about spectacle as sport . " Gary Barlow was called " inspirational , brave and a consummate professional " after performing despite losing his fourth child on 4 August . However , George Michael attracted some criticism for singing his new song " White Light " at the ceremony . Critics saw this as shameless promotion . Michael replied that it was his one chance to thank his supporters , which he didn 't regret . It was his first appearance since almost dying from pneumonia and " White Light " was about that experience . Appearances by Russell Brand , Naomi Campbell and Kate Moss were also seen as controversial , as their previous behaviour had not always reflected Olympic ideals . As with the opening ceremony , United States broadcaster NBC was criticised for its coverage , as omitting performers less @-@ known in the US . John Clarke , writing for Forbes , said it was wrong not to air performances from Ray Davies and Muse , as well as delaying the performance from The Who by an hour to broadcast the pilot of the sitcom Animal Practice followed by the late local news . While in New Zealand , Prime TV were also criticised for delayed coverage , running 20 minutes behind Sky Sport . In the Philippines , TV5 was also criticised because it only aired the first hour of coverage of the ceremony and highlights were incorporated into its morning news programme , Good Morning Club . = = Music = = Many artists appeared live , yet others were recordings . Emeli Sandé – " Read All About It ( Part III ) " Urban Voices Collective – " Because " Julian Lloyd Webber featuring London Symphony Orchestra – " Salut d 'Amour " London Symphony Orchestra - " God Save the Queen " Madness featuring the Hackney Colliery Band – " Our House " Massed Bands of the Guards Division – " Parklife " Pet Shop Boys – " West End Girls " One Direction – " What Makes You Beautiful " The Beatles – " A Day in the Life " Ray Davies – " Waterloo Sunset " Emeli Sandé – " Read All About It ( Part III ) " [ Reprise ] London Symphony Orchestra – " Parade of Nations / Athletes " ( David Arnold cover ) Elbow featuring Urban Voices Collective & London Symphony Orchestra – " Open Arms " , " One Day Like This " Madness featuring Hackney Colliery Band – " Our House " [ Reprise ] Household Division Ceremonial State Band – " Parklife " ( Blur cover ) [ Reprise ] Pet Shop Boys – " West End Girls " [ Reprise ] One Direction – " What Makes You Beautiful " [ Reprise ] Kate Bush – " Running Up that Hill ( A Deal with God ) ( 2012 Remix ) " David Arnold – " Medal Ceremony " London Symphony Orchestra – " Oh Uganda , Land of Beauty " Urban Voices Collective – " Here Comes the Sun " ( The Beatles cover ) Queen – " Bohemian Rhapsody " Liverpool Philharmonic Youth Choir featuring John Lennon – " Imagine " George Michael – " Freedom ' 90 " , " White Light " Kaiser Chiefs – " Pinball Wizard " David Bowie – " Space Oddity " , " Changes " , " Ziggy Stardust " , " The Jean Genie " , " Rebel Rebel " , " Diamond Dogs " , " Young Americans " , " Let 's Dance " , " Fashion " Annie Lennox – " Little Bird " Ed Sheeran featuring Nick Mason , Mike Rutherford and Richard Jones – " Wish You Were Here " Russell Brand featuring London Symphony Orchestra – " Pure Imagination " Russell Brand featuring Bond – " I Am the Walrus " ( The Beatles cover ) Fatboy Slim – " Right Here , Right Now " , " The Rockafeller Skank " Jessie J – " Price Tag " Tinie Tempah featuring Jessie J – " Written in the Stars " Taio Cruz – " Dynamite " Jessie J , Tinie Tempah and Taio Cruz – performing " You Should Be Dancing " ( The Bee Gees Cover ) Spice Girls – " Wannabe " , " Spice Up Your Life " Beady Eye – " Wonderwall " Electric Light Orchestra – " Mr. Blue Sky " Eric Idle accompanied by soprano Susan Bullock ( as Britannia ) , Hackney Colliery Band , London Welsh Rugby Club , Reading Scottish Pipe Band and Blackheath Morris Men – " Always Look on the Bright Side of Life " Muse – " Survival " Freddie Mercury – " Vocal Improvisation " ( Live at Wembley Stadium ) Queen – " Brighton Rock " Queen featuring Jessie J – " We Will Rock You " London Symphony Orchestra – " Ýmnos is tin Eleftherían " London Symphony Orchestra featuring London Welsh Male Voice Choir and London Welsh Rugby Club Choir – " Olympic Hymn " London Symphony Orchestra – " Hino Nacional Brasileiro " Marisa Monte – " Bachianas Brasileiras No. 5 " BNegão – " Maracatu Atômico " ( Jorge Mautner cover ) Seu Jorge – " Nem vem que não tem " ( Wilson Simonal cover ) Marisa Monte featuring BNegão and Seu Jorge – " Aquele Abraço " ( Gilberto Gil cover ) London Symphony Orchestra – " Extinguishing the Flame " Take That – " Rule the World " John Barry – " The John Dunbar Theme " from Dances with Wolves David Arnold – " Spirit of the Flame " The Who – a medley composed of " Baba O 'Riley , " " See Me , Feel Me " and " My Generation " 54 bands played live and were recorded in total .

= Clay Walker = Ernest Clayton " Clay " Walker , Jr . ( born August 19 , 1969 ) is an American country music artist . He made his debut in 1993 with the single " What 's It to You " , which reached Number One on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks ( now Hot Country Songs ) chart , as did its follow @-@ up , 1994 's " Live Until I Die " . Both singles were included on his self @-@ titled debut album , released in 1993 via Giant Records . He stayed with the label until its 2001 closure , later recording for Warner Bros. Records and RCA Records before joining his current label , Asylum @-@ Curb Records , in 2007 . Clay Walker has released a total of 11 albums , including a greatest hits package and an album of Christmas music . His first four studio albums all achieved platinum certification in the United States and his greatest hits collection and fifth studio album were each certified gold . He has charted 30 country singles , including six Number Ones : " What 's It to You " , " Live Until I Die " , Dreaming with My Eyes Open " , " If I Could Make a Living " , " This Woman and This Man " , and " Rumor Has It " . His most recent album , She Won 't Be Lonely Long , was released in mid @-@ 2010 . = = Biography = = Ernest Clayton Walker Jr. was born on August 19 , 1969 in Beaumont , Texas to Ernest and Danna Walker . The oldest of five children , Walker lived in Vidor with his father , who gave him a guitar when he was nine years old . Walker began entering talent competitions at age fifteen . After leaving his shift as nighttime desk clerk at a Super 8 Motel , he stopped at a local radio station to deliver a tape of a song that he had written . Although the morning disc jockey told him that the station 's policies prohibited playing self @-@ submitted tapes , he played Walker 's song and said that it was " too good to pass up . " After graduating from Vidor High School in 1986 , Walker began working at a Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company plant . At nineteen , he also began touring as a musician , playing various local clubs and eventually finding work as the house singer at a bar in Beaumont called the Neon Armadillo . In November 1992 , he was discovered by James Stroud , a record producer who was also the president of Warner Music Group subsidiary Giant Records . Walker signed to Giant late in the year . = = Musical career = = Walker released his self @-@ titled debut album in 1993 under Stroud 's production . Its first single was " What 's It to You ; " written by Robert Ellis Orrall and Curtis Wright , this song reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks ( now Hot Country Songs ) charts and number 73 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Its followup " Live Until I Die " ( which Walker wrote ) , was released late in the year and became his second consecutive No. 1 in early 1994 . After those two singles came the number 11 " Where Do I Fit in the Picture " , which was originally the B @-@ side of " What 's It to You . " The album accounted for a third No. 1 hit in " Dreaming with My Eyes Open " , a song that was also featured on the soundtrack to the 1994 film The Thing Called Love . An additional cut from the album , " White Palace , " charted at number 67 on the country charts without being released as a single . Clay Walker was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of one million copies . It peaked at number 8 on Top Country Albums , number 2 on Top Heatseekers and number 52 on the Billboard 200 . Larry Powell of Allmusic gave the album a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating , saying that Walker had a " high @-@ energy " voice reminiscent of Conway Twitty . Walker also received two award nominations in 1994 : Star of Tomorrow award from TNN / Music City News and Top New Male Vocalist from the Academy of Country Music . = = = 1994 – 96 : If I Could Make a Living and Hypnotize the Moon = = = If I Could Make a Living was the title of Walker 's second album , released in 1994 . It produced two more No. 1 singles in the title track ( co @-@ written by Alan Jackson , Keith Stegall , and Roger Murrah ) and 1995 's " This Woman and This Man " . The latter song spent two weeks at No. 1 , becoming his first multi @-@ week No. 1 hit . Then came the number 16 " My Heart Will Never Know " . If I Could Make a Living went platinum in May 1995 , reaching number 2 on the country albums chart . Gordon Ely of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch gave a favorable review , saying that " Walker has broken loose from Nashville 's most recent crop of carefully crafted cowboys . " Walker also began touring in 1995 as a headlining act , in support of the album . Late in 1995 , Walker released his third studio album , titled Hypnotize the Moon . Although none of its singles reached No. 1 , Hypnotize the Moon produced two consecutive number 2 hits in " Who Needs You Baby " ( which Walker co @-@ wrote ) and the title track , followed by the number 5 " Only on Days That End in ' Y ' " and the number 18 " Bury the Shovel " . Hypnotize the Moon was certified platinum in 1996 , making for Walker 's third consecutive platinum album . This album received a four @-@ star rating from Stephen Thomas Erlewine , who said that it was his " most assured , cohesive album to date " and that he gave a " consistently excellent performance . " Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly thought that Walker did not show a distinct musical personality , but considered the song selection strong and gave it a B + . Richard McVey II of Country Standard Time considered it a " throwback " in sound to Walker 's debut , while USA Today said that it lacked the " verve " of that album . = = = 1996 – 97 : Rumor Has It = = = Having just completed the tracks for his fourth album in 1996 , Walker was playing basketball with a friend , when he began to experience numbness , facial spasms , and double vision . Magnetic resonance imaging revealed that he had multiple sclerosis ( MS ) . Walker subsequently began changing his diet and treating the disease with a daily injection of Copaxone , sending his MS into an arrested state . Also in early 1996 , Nu Millennia Media released Self Portrait , which included five of Walker 's songs in an interactive CD @-@ ROM format and 30 minutes of video footage . He then released his fourth album , 1997 's Rumor Has It , which he co @-@ produced with Stroud . Its title track , the first single , became his sixth and final No. 1 single that year . Other singles from the album included the number 18 " One , Two , I Love You " and the Top 5 hits " Watch This " and " Then What ? " at number 4 and number 2 , respectively . The latter also reached number 65 on the Hot 100 , making for his first entry on that chart since " What 's It to You . " As with his three previous studio albums , Rumor Has It was certified platinum . Larry Stephens of Country Standard Time gave this album a mostly @-@ negative review , calling the songs " cookie @-@ cutter " outside " I Need a Margarita " . Thom Owens of Allmusic also thought that it was formulaic , but said that Walker was " able to make even mediocre material sound good " , rating it three stars out of five . = = = 1998 – 2000 : Greatest Hits and Live , Laugh , Love = = = In April 1998 , Walker charted with a live rendition of Earl Thomas Conley 's 1983 single " Holding Her and Loving You " . This rendition spent nine weeks on the charts and peaked at number 68 . One month later , he debuted his sixteenth single , " Ordinary People " . Peaking at number 35 , it was one of two new songs included on his Greatest Hits album ; the other new track , " You 're Beginning to Get to Me " , made its debut in August 1998 and peaked at number 2 on the country chart and number 39 on the Hot 100 in January 1999 , the same month in which Greatest Hits was certified gold . Also in 1998 , Walker performed a sold @-@ out show at the Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo . Doug Johnson , who succeeded Stroud as Giant Records ' president , produced Walker 's 1999 album Live , Laugh , Love . Regarding its production and promotion , the label 's senior director of marketing Connie Baer said that she wanted to raise Walker 's profile as an artist , as both she and Johnson thought that he did not have the same level of recognition as other artists with similar album sales and chart success . This album was led off by the number 16 country and number 74 pop hit " She 's Always Right " , which was co @-@ written by Lonestar 's lead singer Richie McDonald . After this song came the title track at number 11 country and number 65 pop . " The Chain of Love " , written by Rory Lee Feek and Jonnie Barnett , was the album 's third and most successful single , reaching number 3 country and number 40 on the Hot 100 . Both it and " Once in a Lifetime Love " , the fourth single , first charted from unsolicited airplay received while " Live , Laugh , Love " was climbing the charts . " Once in a Lifetime Love " , upon its release , became his lowest @-@ peaking single release , reaching number 50 . The album also included a studio version of the Earl Thomas Conley cover . Erlewine gave the album three stars on Allmusic , where he wrote that it " never really distinguishes itself from its predecessors " but " has its moments . " Brian Wahlert of Country Standard Time also thought that the album was inconsistent , saying that " She 's Always Right " , " The Chain of Love " , and the Conley cover were its strongest tracks , but that the rest " treads no new ground . " Deborah Evans Price of Billboard was more favorable , saying that it showed the energy of his live shows , and that he " cut loose " with soul singing on " This Time Love . " In late 2000 , Walker recorded two tracks on Believe : A Christmas Collection , a multi @-@ artist Christmas music album released by Giant . These two tracks — a cover version of Elvis Presley 's " Blue Christmas " and the original song " Cowboy Christmas " — both made appearances on the country chart , reaching number 51 and number 70 , respectively . = = = 2001 – 02 : Say No More and Christmas = = = Walker released his twenty @-@ third single , " Say No More " , for Giant in early 2001 . It was the first single release from his sixth studio album of the same name , peaking at number 33 on the country chart ; the only other single , the Jerry Kilgore co @-@ write " If You Ever Feel Like Lovin ' Me Again " , reached number 27 . The latter song was promoted by Giant 's parent company , Warner Bros. Records Nashville , as Giant had closed in late 2001 . Walker co @-@ produced the album with veteran producers Byron Gallimore and Blake Mevis , and session guitarist Brent Mason . The album also included a song that Walker wrote in high school , and a cover of Ritchie Valens 's " La Bamba . " Maria Konicki Dinoia of Allmusic rated it three stars , with her review saying that " the sensitivity on this album is so expressive that it makes you want to run right out and hug the one you love . " Country Standard Time critic Mike Clark considered it a transition to a more country pop @-@ oriented sound , describing the album as being " full of bad lyrics and overwrought production clichés . " In 2002 , Walker wrote and recorded a song for the National Football League 's expansion team , the Houston Texans . Titled " Football Time in Houston , " the song was used as the team 's official fight song during its inaugural season . In an interview with CMT , he said that he donated the song to the city of Houston , and that he sings " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " at the team 's opening game every season . Although he had left Warner Bros. for RCA Records ' Nashville division in May 2002 , Warner Bros. released a Christmas music album entitled Christmas in September of the same year . It included a cover of José Feliciano 's " Feliz Navidad " , which Walker took to number 49 on the country chart in January 2003 . = = = 2003 – 04 : A Few Questions = = = Walker 's first single release for RCA , " A Few Questions " , debuted in April 2003 . The song spent twenty @-@ seven weeks on the country charts and peaked at number 9 , making for his first top ten entry since " The Chain of Love " three years previous . This was the first single from his only RCA album , also titled A Few Questions , which he produced with Jimmy Ritchey . Its second single , " I Can 't Sleep , " also peaked at number 9 in early 2004 . This song featured backing vocals from Chely Wright , with whom Walker wrote it . The third and final single was the number 31 " Jesus Was a Country Boy " , which Walker wrote with Rivers Rutherford . A Few Questions accounted for his second @-@ highest peak on the country albums charts , reaching number 3 . Erlewine rated this album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five on Allmusic . He considered the album more country pop @-@ oriented than Walker 's work for Giant , saying that this change in sound made it not " feel like a Clay Walker album . " Dan McIntosh gave a mostly @-@ negative review for Country Standard Time , where he wrote that " even his passionate singing cannot rise above this album 's predictable lyrics and lame arrangements . " = = = 2005 – 08 : Fall = = = Walker was signed his third record deal in July 2005 , this time with the Asylum @-@ Curb division of Curb Records . His first single for the label , " ' Fore She Was Mama , " reached a peak of number 21 in March 2007 . It was included on his album Fall , which was produced by Keith Stegall . The album 's title cut , " Fall , " was written by Clay Mills along with former Mercury Records artist Shane Minor and former Exile member Sonny LeMaire . It was the second single release from Fall , going to number 5 on the country charts and number 55 on the Hot 100 . The album 's third and final single was " She Likes It in the Morning " , with a number 43 country peak . Fall also included a duet with Freddy Fender , the first duet of Walker 's career , on a cover of Fender 's debut single " Before the Next Teardrop Falls . " Walker and Fender recorded this duet in early 2006 ; Fender died of lung cancer in October of the same year . Erlewine gave a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating , saying that Stegall 's production gave it a more traditional sound in comparison to A Few Questions , and that , despite having some " sappy " songs , it was his " most enjoyable collection in some time . " Engine 145 reviewer Brady Vercher rated it three stars out of five , praising Walker 's vocal performance but saying that the song selection " seemed to be lacking in everything but fluff . " Country Standard Time reviewer Jeffrey B. Remz wrote that Walker showed " a very pleasant country voice with a good sense of emotion " and that the production was more country @-@ sounding than most mainstream acts , but said that it had several " generic " songs . = = = 2009 – present : She Won 't Be Lonely Long and Best Of Clay Walker = = = Walker 's second album for Asylum @-@ Curb was first announced in June 2009 . Its first single , " She Won 't Be Lonely Long " , was given an official release date of December 2009 , although it had already entered the country charts in late November . In advance of his ninth album , Walker released an extended play titled She Won 't Be Lonely Long . The album , also titled She Won 't Be Lonely Long , was released on June 8 , 2010 . It includes a cover of Alabama 's 1980 single " Feels So Right " with a backing vocal from Alabama 's lead singer , Randy Owen . Allmusic reviewer Thom Jurek praised the album for its " straight @-@ up , mainstream contemporary country " sound but said that it did not reflect a change in sound from Fall . " She Won 't Be Lonely Long " peaked at number 4 on the country chart in mid @-@ 2010 . The album 's second single , " Where Do I Go from You " , was released to radio on August 2 , 2010 , with " Like We Never Said Goodbye " following in late 2011 . The album 's fourth single , " Jesse James " was released in 2012 under Curb 's Sidewalk Records imprint . The first compilation album for Asylum @-@ Curb titled Best Of Clay Walker was released in February 2014 . It contains 10 songs , 7 of them are new recordings of his greatest hits originally recorded for Giant label in the 1990s . No single was released from the album . " Rock the Radio " will be Clay 's next release in 2015 . On September 11 , 2015 , Clay released " Right Now , " a track presumably from his upcoming album . = = Musical image and influences = = In 1994 , Bob Cannon of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Walker 's image of a " Resistol hat , sturdy cowpoke face , and very tight jeans " seemed to be from a " Country Music Handbook for Success , " but also said that he " ignores the danger of being dismissed as just another hunk in a hat . " Walker has been compared to Mark Chesnutt and Tracy Byrd , both of whom are also Beaumont , Texas natives who began their careers shortly before Walker did . Of the comparison among the three , Rick Koster wrote in the book Texas Music that Walker 's success came more quickly than that of Chesnutt or Byrd . Kurt Wolff and Orla Duane , authors of Country Music : The Rough Guide , said that he " had loads of youthful energy , a golden Texas twang , and , of course , plenty of boyish good looks . " They also called his music " relatively tame " but said that " his Texas bar @-@ room roots remain clearly visible in his voice and songs . " Regarding Walker 's onstage persona , former Warner Bros. executive Bill Mayne told Billboard magazine in 1997 that Walker has " maintained a low profile " but that he " really touches people and connects . " Walker described his voice to CMT as " raspy [ and ] rugged . " He cites George Jones ( also a Beaumont native ) as a primary influence , as well as James Taylor and Bob Seger ; he has also said that , because he grew up in a largely African @-@ American neighborhood , his singing style was influenced by rhythm and blues music . In addition , he said that after his diagnosis , he realized that " you need to love your family " and said that , because he considered his songs positive in nature , he felt that he could connect to younger listeners . = = Personal life = = Before the release of his first single , Walker married a rodeo queen named Lori Jayne Lampson . They had two daughters : MaClay DaLayne , born on January 14 , 1996 , and Skylor ClayAnne , born on May 14 , 1999 . The couple divorced in 2003 . He married model Jessica Craig on September 28 , 2007 and had three more children with her : a son named William Clayton , born August 5 , 2008 , and a daughter named Mary Elizabeth , born December 27 , 2009 @.@ and son Elijah Craig born June ( Fathers Day 2013 ) Walker has participated in several forms of charity to help raise awareness of Multiple Sclerosis following his diagnosis in 1996 , including his own non @-@ profit charity , Band Against MS , which he founded in 2003 . In 2008 , he received a Humanitarian Award for his charitable efforts in relations to MS and participated in a charity golf tournament benefiting his organization . = = Discography = = = = = Albums = = = Clay Walker ( 1993 ) If I Could Make a Living ( 1994 ) Hypnotize the Moon ( 1995 ) Rumor Has It ( 1997 ) Greatest Hits ( 1998 ) Live , Laugh , Love ( 1999 ) Say No More ( 2001 ) Christmas ( 2002 ) A Few Questions ( 2003 ) Fall ( 2007 ) She Won 't Be Lonely Long ( 2010 ) Best Of ( 2014 ) = = = Number @-@ one singles = = = " What 's It to You " ( 1993 ) " Live Until I Die " ( 1993 – 1994 ) " Dreaming with My Eyes Open " ( 1994 ) " If I Could Make a Living " ( 1994 ) " This Woman and This Man " ( 1995 ) " Rumor Has It " ( 1997 ) = = Awards = =

= Bulgaria = Bulgaria ( / bʌlˈɡɛəriə , bʊl- / ; Bulgarian : България , tr . Bǎlgariya ) , officially the Republic of Bulgaria ( Bulgarian : Република България , tr . Republika Bǎlgariya , pronounced [ rɛˈpublikɐ bɐɫˈɡarijɐ ] ) , is a country in southeastern Europe . It is bordered by Romania to the north , Serbia and Macedonia to the west , Greece and Turkey to the south , and the Black Sea to the east . With a territory of 110 @,@ 994 square kilometres ( 42 @,@ 855 sq mi ) , Bulgaria is Europe 's 16th @-@ largest country . Organised prehistoric cultures began developing on current Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period . Its ancient history saw the presence of the Thracians , Greeks and Romans . The emergence of a unified Bulgarian state dates back to the establishment of the First Bulgarian Empire in 681 AD , which dominated most of the Balkans and functioned as a cultural hub for Slavs during the Middle Ages . With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396 , its territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five centuries . The Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 78 led to the formation of the Third Bulgarian State . The following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours , which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both world wars . In 1946 it became a one @-@ party socialist state as part of the Soviet @-@ led Eastern Bloc . In December 1989 the ruling Communist Party allowed multi @-@ party elections , which subsequently led to Bulgaria 's transition into a democracy and a market @-@ based economy . Bulgaria 's population of 7 @.@ 4 million people is predominantly urbanised and mainly concentrated in the administrative centres of its 28 provinces . Most commercial and cultural activities are centred on the capital and largest city , Sofia . The strongest sectors of the economy are heavy industry , power engineering , and agriculture , all of which rely on local natural resources . The country 's current political structure dates to the adoption of a democratic constitution in 1991 . Bulgaria is a unitary parliamentary republic with a high degree of political , administrative , and economic centralisation . It is a member of the European Union , NATO , and the Council of Europe ; a founding state of the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ( OSCE ) ; and has taken a seat at the UN Security Council three times . = = History = = = = = Prehistory and antiquity = = = Human activity in the lands of modern Bulgaria can be traced back to the Paleolithic . Animal bones incised with man @-@ made markings from Kozarnika cave are assumed to be the earliest examples of symbolic behaviour in humans . Organised prehistoric societies in Bulgarian lands include the Neolithic Hamangia culture , Vinča culture and the eneolithic Varna culture ( fifth millennium BC ) . The latter is credited with inventing gold working and exploitation . Some of these first gold smelters produced the coins , weapons and jewellery of the Varna Necropolis treasure , the oldest in the world with an approximate age of over 6 @,@ 000 years . This site also offers insights for understanding the social hierarchy of the earliest European societies . Thracians , one of the three primary ancestral groups of modern Bulgarians , began appearing in the region during the Iron Age . In the late 6th century BC , the Persians conquered most of present @-@ day Bulgaria. and kept it until 479 BC . With influence from the Persians , the bulk of the Thracian tribes were united in the Odrysian kingdom in the 470s BC by king Teres , but were later subjugated by Alexander the Great and by the Romans in 46 AD . After the division of the Roman Empire in the 5th century the area fell under Byzantine control . By this time , Christianity had already spread in the region . A small Gothic community in Nicopolis ad Istrum produced the first Germanic language book in the 4th century , the Wulfila Bible . The first Christian monastery in Europe was established around the same time by Saint Athanasius in central Bulgaria . From the 6th century the easternmost South Slavs gradually settled in the region , assimilating the Hellenised or Romanised Thracians . = = = First Bulgarian Empire = = = In 680 Bulgar tribes under the leadership of Asparukh moved south across the Danube and settled in the area between the lower Danube and the Balkan , establishing their capital at Pliska . A peace treaty with Byzantium in 681 marked the beginning of the First Bulgarian Empire . The Bulgars gradually mixed up with the local population , adopting a common language on the basis of the local Slavic dialect . Succeeding rulers strengthened the Bulgarian state throughout the 8th and 9th centuries . Krum doubled the country 's territory , killed Byzantine emperor Nicephorus I in the Battle of Pliska , and introduced the first written code of law . Paganism was abolished in favour of Eastern Orthodox Christianity under Boris I in 864 . This conversion was followed by a Byzantine recognition of the Bulgarian church and the adoption of the Cyrillic alphabet developed at Preslav which strengthened central authority and helped fuse the Slavs and Bulgars into a unified people . A subsequent cultural golden age began during the 34 @-@ year rule of Simeon the Great , who also achieved the largest territorial expansion of the state . Wars with Magyars and Pechenegs and the spread of the Bogomil heresy weakened Bulgaria after Simeon 's death . Consecutive Rus ' and Byzantine invasions resulted in the seizure of the capital Preslav by the Byzantine army in 971 . Under Samuil , Bulgaria briefly recovered from these attacks , but this rise ended when Byzantine emperor Basil II defeated the Bulgarian army at Klyuch in 1014 . Samuil died shortly after the battle , and by 1018 the Byzantines had ended the First Bulgarian Empire . = = = Second Bulgarian Empire = = = After his conquest of Bulgaria , Basil II prevented revolts and discontent by retaining the rule of the local nobility and by relieving the newly conquered lands of the obligation to pay taxes in gold , allowing them to be paid in kind instead . He also allowed the Bulgarian Patriarchate to retain its autocephalous status and all its dioceses , but reduced it to an archbishopric . After his death Byzantine domestic policies changed and a series of unsuccessful rebellions broke out , the largest being led by Peter Delyan . In 1185 Asen dynasty nobles Ivan Asen I and Peter IV organised a major uprising which resulted in the re @-@ establishment of the Bulgarian state . Ivan Asen and Peter laid the foundations of the Second Bulgarian Empire with Tarnovo as the capital . Kaloyan , the third of the Asen monarchs , extended his dominion to Belgrade and Ohrid . He acknowledged the spiritual supremacy of the pope and received a royal crown from a papal legate . The empire reached its zenith under Ivan Asen II ( 1218 – 1241 ) , when commerce and culture flourished . The strong economic and religious influence of Tarnovo made it a " Third Rome " , unlike the already declining Constantinople . The country 's military and economic might declined after the Asen dynasty ended in 1257 , facing internal conflicts , constant Byzantine and Hungarian attacks and Mongol domination . By the end of the 14th century , factional divisions between the feudal landlords and the spread of Bogomilism had caused the Second Bulgarian Empire to split into three tsardoms — Vidin , Tarnovo and Karvuna — and several semi @-@ independent principalities that fought each other , along with Byzantines , Hungarians , Serbs , Venetians and Genoese . By the late 14th century the Ottoman Turks had started their conquest of Bulgaria and had taken most towns and fortresses south of the Balkan mountains . = = = Ottoman rule = = = Tarnovo was captured by the Ottomans after a three @-@ month siege in 1393 . After the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 brought about the fall of the Vidin Tsardom , the Ottomans conquered all Bulgarian lands south of the Danube . The nobility was eliminated and the peasantry was enserfed to Ottoman masters , with much of the educated clergy fleeing to other countries . Under the Ottoman system , Christians were considered an inferior class of people . Thus , Bulgarians , like other Christians , were subjected to heavy taxes and a small portion of the Bulgarian populace experienced partial or complete Islamisation , and their culture was suppressed . Ottoman authorities established the Rum Millet , a religious administrative community which governed all Orthodox Christians regardless of their ethnicity . Most of the local population gradually lost its distinct national consciousness , identifying as Christians . However , the clergy remaining in some isolated monasteries kept it alive , and that helped it to survive as in some rural , remote areas , as well as in the militant Catholic community in the northwestern part of the country . Several Bulgarian revolts erupted throughout the nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule , most notably the Habsburg @-@ backed Tarnovo uprisings in 1598 and in 1686 , the Chiprovtsi Uprising in 1688 and Karposh 's Rebellion in 1689 . In the 18th century , the Enlightenment in Western Europe provided influence for the initiation of a movement known as the National awakening of Bulgaria . It restored national consciousness and became a key factor in the liberation struggle , resulting in the 1876 April Uprising . Up to 30 @,@ 000 Bulgarians were killed as Ottoman authorities put down the rebellion . The massacres prompted the Great Powers to take action . They convened the Constantinople Conference in 1876 , but their decisions were rejected by the Ottomans . This allowed the Russian Empire to seek a solution by force without risking military confrontation with other Great Powers , as had happened in the Crimean War . In 1877 Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire and defeated its forces with the help of Bulgarian volunteers . = = = Third Bulgarian state = = = The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on 3 March 1878 by Russia and the Ottoman Empire , and included a provision to set up an autonomous Bulgarian principality roughly on the territories of the Second Bulgarian Empire . The other Great Powers immediately rejected the treaty out of fear that such a large country in the Balkans might threaten their interests . It was superseded by the subsequent Treaty of Berlin , signed on 13 July , provided for a much smaller state comprising Moesia and the region of Sofia , leaving large populations of Bulgarians outside the new country . This played a significant role in forming Bulgaria 's militaristic approach to foreign affairs during the first half of the 20th century . The Bulgarian principality won a war against Serbia and incorporated the semi @-@ autonomous Ottoman territory of Eastern Rumelia in 1885 , proclaiming itself an independent state on 5 October 1908 . In the years following independence , Bulgaria increasingly militarised and was often referred to as " the Balkan Prussia " . Between 1912 and 1918 , Bulgaria became involved in three consecutive conflicts — two Balkan Wars and World War I. After a disastrous defeat in the Second Balkan War , Bulgaria again found itself fighting on the losing side as a result of its alliance with the Central Powers in World War I. Despite fielding more than a quarter of its population in a 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army and achieving several decisive victories , at Doiran and Dobrich , the country capitulated in 1918 . The war resulted in significant territorial losses , and a total of 87 @,@ 500 soldiers killed . More than 253 @,@ 000 refugees immigrated to Bulgaria from 1912 to 1929 due to the effects of these wars , placing additional strain on the already ruined national economy . The political unrest resulting from these losses led to the establishment of a royal authoritarian dictatorship by Tsar Boris III ( 1918 – 1943 ) . Bulgaria entered World War II in 1941 as a member of the Axis but declined to participate in Operation Barbarossa and saved its Jewish population from deportation to concentration camps . The sudden death of Boris III in the summer of 1943 pushed the country into political turmoil as the war turned against Germany and the communist guerrilla movement gained momentum . The government of Bogdan Filov subsequently failed to achieve peace with the Allies . Bulgaria did not comply with Soviet demands to expel German forces from its territory , resulting in a declaration of war and an invasion by the USSR in September 1944 . The communist @-@ dominated Fatherland Front took power , ended participation in the Axis and joined the Allied side until the war ended . The left @-@ wing uprising of 9 September 1944 led to the abolition of monarchic rule , but it was not until 1946 that a one @-@ party people 's republic was established . It became a part of the Soviet sphere of influence under the leadership of Georgi Dimitrov ( 1946 – 1949 ) , who laid the foundations for a rapidly industrialising Stalinist state which was also highly repressive with thousands of dissidents executed . By the mid @-@ 1950s standards of living rose significantly , while political repressions were lessened . By the 1980s both national and per capita GDPs quadrupled , but the economy remained prone to debt spikes , the most severe taking place in 1960 , 1977 and 1980 . The Soviet @-@ style planned economy saw some market @-@ oriented policies emerging on an experimental level under Todor Zhivkov ( 1954 – 1989 ) . His daughter Lyudmila bolstered national pride by promoting Bulgarian heritage , culture and arts worldwide . In an attempt to erase the identity of the ethnic Turk minority , an assimilation campaign was launched in 1984 which included closing mosques and forcing ethnic Turks to adopt Slavic names . These policies ( combined with the end of communist rule in 1989 ) resulted in the emigration of some 300 @,@ 000 ethnic Turks to Turkey . Under the influence of the collapsing of the Eastern Bloc , on 10 November 1989 the Communist Party gave up its political monopoly , Zhivkov resigned , and Bulgaria embarked on a transition to a parliamentary democracy . The first free elections in June 1990 were won by the Bulgarian Socialist Party ( BSP , the freshly renamed Communist Party ) . A new constitution that provided for a relatively weak elected president and for a prime minister accountable to the legislature was adopted in July 1991 . The new system initially failed to improve living standards or create economic growth — the average quality of life and economic performance remained lower than under communism well into the early 2000s . A 1997 reform package restored economic growth , but living standards continued to suffer . After 2001 economic , political and geopolitical conditions improved greatly , and Bulgaria achieved high Human Development status . It became a member of NATO in 2004 and participated in the War in Afghanistan . After several years of reforms it joined the European Union in 2007 despite continued concerns about government corruption . = = Geography = = Bulgaria occupies a portion of the eastern Balkan peninsula , bordering five countries — Greece and Turkey to the south , Macedonia and Serbia to the west , and Romania to the north . The land borders have a total length of 1 @,@ 808 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 123 mi ) , and the coastline has a length of 354 kilometres ( 220 mi ) . Its total area of 110 @,@ 994 square kilometres ( 42 @,@ 855 sq mi ) ranks it as the world 's 105th @-@ largest country . Bulgaria 's geographic coordinates are 43 ° N 25 ° E. The most notable topographical features are the Danubian Plain , the Balkan Mountains , the Thracian Plain , and the Rhodope Mountains . The southern edge of the Danubian Plain slopes upward into the foothills of the Balkans , while the Danube defines the border with Romania . The Thracian Plain is roughly triangular , beginning southeast of Sofia and broadening as it reaches the Black Sea coast . The Balkan mountains run laterally through the middle of the country . The mountainous southwest of the country has two alpine ranges — Rila and Pirin , which border the lower but more extensive Rhodope Mountains to the east . Bulgaria is home to the highest point of the Balkan peninsula , Musala , at 2 @,@ 925 metres ( 9 @,@ 596 ft ) and its lowest point is sea level . Plains occupy about one @-@ third of the territory , while plateaus and hills occupy 41 per cent . The country has a dense network of about 540 rivers , most of which are relatively small and with low water levels . The longest river located solely in Bulgarian territory , the Iskar , has a length of 368 kilometres ( 229 mi ) . Other major rivers include the Struma and the Maritsa in the south . Bulgaria has a dynamic climate , which results from its being positioned at the meeting point of Mediterranean and continental air masses and the barrier effect of its mountains . Northern Bulgaria averages 1 ° C ( 1 @.@ 8 ° F ) cooler and registers 200 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) more precipitation annually than the regions south of the Balkan mountains . Temperature amplitudes vary significantly in different areas . The lowest recorded temperature is − 38 @.@ 3 ° C ( − 36 @.@ 9 ° F ) , while the highest is 45 @.@ 2 ° C ( 113 @.@ 4 ° F ) . Precipitation averages about 630 millimetres ( 24 @.@ 8 in ) per year , and varies from 500 millimetres ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) in Dobrudja to more than 2 @,@ 500 millimetres ( 98 @.@ 4 in ) in the mountains . Continental air masses bring significant amounts of snowfall during winter . = = = Environment = = = Bulgaria adopted the Kyoto Protocol and achieved the protocol 's objectives by reducing carbon dioxide emissions from 1990 to 2009 by 30 percent . However , pollution from factories and metallurgy works and severe deforestation continue to cause major problems to the health and welfare of the population . In 2013 , air pollution in Bulgaria was more severe than any other European country . Urban areas are particularly affected by energy production from coal @-@ based powerplants and automobile traffic , while pesticide usage in the agriculture and antiquated industrial sewage systems produce extensive soil and water pollution with chemicals and detergents . Bulgaria is home to Maritsa Iztok @-@ 2 , a lignite @-@ fired power station causing the highest damage costs to health and the environment in the entire European Union according to the European Environment Agency . It is the only EU member which does not recycle municipal waste , although an electronic waste recycling plant opened in June 2010 . The situation has improved in recent years , and several government @-@ funded programs have been put into place in an attempt to reduce pollution levels . According to Yale University 's 2012 Environmental Performance Index , Bulgaria is a " modest performer " in protecting the environment . Over 75 % of surface rivers meet the standards for good quality . An improvement of water quality began in 1998 and has maintained a sustainable trend of moderate improvement . = = = Biodiversity = = = The interaction of climatic , hydrological , geological and topographical conditions have produced a relatively wide variety of plant and animal species . Bulgaria is one of the countries with highest biodiversity in Europe . Bulgaria 's biodiversity is conserved in three national parks , 11 nature parks and 16 biosphere reserves . Nearly 35 per cent of its land area consists of forests , where some of the oldest trees in the world , such as Baikushev 's pine and the Granit oak , grow . Most of the plant and animal life is central European , although representatives of Arctic and alpine species are present at high altitudes . Its flora encompass more than 3 @,@ 800 species of which 170 are endemic and 150 are considered endangered . A checklist of larger fungi of Bulgaria reported that more than 1 @,@ 500 species occur in the country . Animal species include owls , rock partridges , wallcreepers and brown bears . The Eurasian lynx and the eastern imperial eagle have small , but growing populations . In 1998 , the Bulgarian government approved the National Biological Diversity Conservation Strategy , a comprehensive programme seeking the preservation of local ecosystems , protection of endangered species and conservation of genetic resources . Bulgaria has some of the largest Natura 2000 areas in Europe covering 33 @.@ 8 % of its territory . = = Politics = = Bulgaria is a parliamentary democracy in which the most powerful executive position is that of prime minister . The political system has three branches — legislative , executive and judicial , with universal suffrage for citizens at least 18 years old . The Constitution of Bulgaria provides also possibilities of direct democracy . Elections are supervised by an independent Central Election Commission that includes members from all major political parties . Parties must register with the commission prior to participating in a national election . Normally , the prime minister @-@ elect is the leader of the party receiving the most votes in parliamentary elections , although this is not always the case . Political parties gather in the National Assembly , which consists of 240 deputies elected to four @-@ year terms by direct popular vote . The National Assembly has the power to enact laws , approve the budget , schedule presidential elections , select and dismiss the Prime Minister and other ministers , declare war , deploy troops abroad , and ratify international treaties and agreements . The president serves as the head of state and commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces , and has the authority to return a bill for further debate , although the parliament can override the presidential veto by a simple majority vote of all members of parliament . GERB @-@ backed Rosen Plevneliev is the elected President of Bulgaria after the presidential elections in 2011 in which he received 52 @.@ 5 per cent of the votes on the second round against 47 @.@ 5 per cent for his then @-@ Socialist Party opponent Ivaylo Kalfin . Until February 2013 GERB had 117 seats in the National Assembly , ruling as a minority government without support from the other political parties in the parliament . The government resigned on 20 February 2013 after nationwide protests caused by high costs of utilities , low living standards and the failure of the democratic system . The protest wave was marked by self @-@ immolations , spontaneous demonstrations and a strong sentiment against political parties . As a consequence , the Parliament was dissolved and a new provisional government was set up by the President . The subsequent snap elections in May 2013 elections resulted in a narrow GERB win . However , with no support from the other three political parties that entered the parliament , on 24 May , GERB leader Borisov returned the president 's mandate to try and form a government . The Bulgarian Socialist Party nominated ex @-@ Finance Minister Plamen Oresharski for the post of Prime Minister in May 2013 . Only two weeks after its initial formation the Oresharski government came under opposition criticism and had to deal with large @-@ scale protests some with more than 11 000 participants . The government survived five votes of no @-@ confidence before voluntarily resigning on 23 July 2014 . On 6 August , a caretaker government led by Georgi Bliznashki was sworn into office and the Oresharski government was officially dissolved . A new round of parliamentary elections on 5 October 2014 again resulted in a GERB victory with around a third of the vote . A total of eight parties won seats , the first time since the beginning of democratic elections in 1990 that more than seven parties entered parliament . After being tasked by President Rosen Plevneliev to form a government , Borisov 's GERB formed a coalition and members of the parties in the Reformist Bloc ( Democrats for a Strong Bulgaria ( DSB ) , Union of Democratic Forces ( SDS ) , Bulgaria for Citizens Movement ( DBG ) and Bulgarian Agrarian National Union ( BZNS ) ) were chosen for Minister positions . The vice chairman of the Alternative for Bulgarian Revival party Ivaylo Kalfin was voted for Depute Prime Minister and Minister of Labor and Social Policy . Bulgaria has a typical civil law legal system . The judiciary is overseen by the Ministry of Justice . The Supreme Administrative Court and Supreme Court of Cassation are the highest courts of appeal and oversee the application of laws in subordinate courts . The Supreme Judicial Council manages the system and appoints judges . Bulgaria 's judiciary , along with other institutions , remains one of Europe 's most corrupt and inefficient . Law enforcement is carried out by organisations mainly subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior . The National Police Service ( NPS ) combats general crime , maintains public order and supports the operations of other law enforcement agencies . NPS fields 27 @,@ 000 police officers in its local and national sections . The Ministry of Interior also heads the Border Police Service and the National Gendarmerie — a specialised branch for anti @-@ terrorist activity , crisis management and riot control . Counterintelligence and national security are the responsibility of the State Agency for National Security , established in 2008 . = = = Administrative divisions = = = Bulgaria is a unitary state . Since the 1880s , the number of territorial management units has varied from seven to 26 . Between 1987 and 1999 the administrative structure consisted of nine provinces ( oblasti , singular oblast ) . A new administrative structure was adopted in parallel with the decentralisation of the economic system . It includes 27 provinces and a metropolitan capital province ( Sofia @-@ Grad ) . All areas take their names from their respective capital cities . The provinces subdivide into 264 municipalities . Municipalities are run by mayors , who are elected to four @-@ year terms , and by directly elected municipal councils . Bulgaria is a highly centralised state , where the national Council of Ministers directly appoints regional governors and all provinces and municipalities are heavily dependent on it for funding . = = = Foreign relations = = = Bulgaria became a member of the United Nations in 1955 and since 1966 has been a non @-@ permanent member of the Security Council three times , most recently from 2002 to 2003 . Bulgaria was also among the founding nations of the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ( OSCE ) in 1975 . It joined NATO on 29 March 2004 , signed the European Union Treaty of Accession on 25 April 2005 , and became a full member of the European Union on 1 January 2007 . Polls carried out seven years after the country 's accession to the EU found only 15 % of Bulgarians felt they had personally benefited from membership , with almost 40 % of the population saying they would not bother to vote in the 2014 EU elections . Euro @-@ Atlantic integration became a priority for the country since the fall of Communism , although the Communist leadership also had aspirations of leaving the Warsaw Pact and joining the European Communities by 1987 . Bulgaria 's relationship with its neighbours since 1990 has generally been good . The country also plays an important role in promoting regional security . Bulgaria has an active tripartite economic and diplomatic collaboration with Romania and Greece , maintains strong relations with EU members , the United States , and Russia , and continues to improve its traditionally good ties with China and Vietnam . The HIV trial in Libya , which followed after the imprisonment of several Bulgarian nurses in Benghazi in 1998 , had a significant impact on relations between Bulgaria , the European Union , and Libya . It resulted in the release of the nurses by Muammar Gaddafi 's government , which was granted a contract to receive a nuclear reactor and weapons supplies from France in exchange . = = = Military = = = Bulgaria hosted six KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker aircraft and 200 support personnel for the war effort in Afghanistan in 2001 , which was the first stationing of foreign forces on its territory since World War II . International military relations were further expanded in April 2006 , when Bulgaria and the United States signed a defence cooperation agreement providing for the usage of Bezmer and Graf Ignatievo air bases , the Novo Selo training range , and a logistics centre in Aytos as joint military training facilities . The same year Foreign Policy magazine listed Bezmer Air Base as one of the six most important overseas facilities used by the USAF due to its proximity to the Middle East . A total of 756 troops are deployed abroad as part of various UN and NATO missions . Historically , Bulgaria deployed significant numbers of military and civilian advisors in Soviet @-@ allied countries , such as Nicaragua and Libya ( more than 9 @,@ 000 personnel ) . Domestic defence is the responsibility of the all @-@ volunteer military of Bulgaria , consisting of land forces , navy and air force . The land forces consist of two mechanised brigades and eight independent regiments and battalions ; the air force operates 106 aircraft and air defence systems in six air bases , and the navy operates a variety of ships , helicopters and coastal defence measures . Following a series of reductions beginning in 1990 , the number of active troops contracted from 152 @,@ 000 in 1988 to about 32 @,@ 000 in the 2000s , supplemented by a reserve force of 302 @,@ 500 soldiers and officers and 34 @,@ 000 paramilitary servicemen . The inventory is mostly of Soviet origin , such as MiG @-@ 29 fighters , SA @-@ 10 Grumble SAMs and SS @-@ 21 Scarab short @-@ range ballistic missiles . By 2020 the government will spend $ 1 @.@ 4 billion for the deployment of new fighter jets , communications systems and cyber warfare capabilities . Total military spending in 2009 cost $ 819 million . = = Economy = = Bulgaria has an emerging market economy in the upper middle income range , where the private sector accounts for more than 80 per cent of GDP . From a largely agricultural country with a predominantly rural population in 1948 , by the 1980s Bulgaria had transformed into an industrial economy with scientific and technological research at the top of its budgetary expenditure priorities . The loss of COMECON markets in 1990 and the subsequent " shock therapy " of the planned system caused a steep decline in industrial and agricultural production , ultimately followed by an economic collapse in 1997 . The economy largely recovered during a period of rapid growth several years later , but the average salary remains one of the lowest in the EU at 952 leva ( € 488 ) per month in March 2016 . More than a fifth of the labour force are employed on a minimum wage of € 1 per hour . Wages , however , account for only half of the total household income , owing to the substantial informal economy which amounts to almost 32 % of GDP . Bulgarian PPS GDP per capita stood at 47 per cent of the EU average in 2014 according to Eurostat data , while the cost of living was 48 per cent of the average . The currency is the lev , which is pegged to the euro at a rate of 1 @.@ 95583 levа for 1 euro . Bulgaria is not part of the eurozone and has abandoned its plans to adopt the euro . Economic indicators have worsened amid the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis . After several consecutive years of high growth , GDP contracted 5 @.@ 5 per cent in 2009 and unemployment remains above 12 per cent . Industrial output declined 10 per cent , mining by 31 per cent , and ferrous and metal production marked a 60 per cent drop . Positive growth was restored in 2010 , although investments and consumption continue to decline steadily due to rising unemployment . The same year , intercompany debt exceeded € 51 billion , meaning that 60 per cent of all Bulgarian companies were mutually indebted . By 2012 , it had increased to € 83 billion , or 227 per cent of GDP . The government implemented strict austerity measures with IMF and EU encouragement to some positive fiscal results , but the social consequences of these measures have been " catastrophic " according to the International Trade Union Confederation . Corruption remains another obstacle to economic growth . Bulgaria is one of the most corrupt European Union members and ranks 75th in the Corruption Perceptions Index . Weak law enforcement and overall low capacity of civil service remain as challenges in curbing corruption . However , fighting against corruption has become the focus of the government because of the EU accession , and several anti @-@ corruption programs have been undertaken by different government agencies . Economic activities are fostered by the lowest personal and corporate income tax rates in the EU , and the second @-@ lowest public debt of all member states at 16 @.@ 5 per cent of GDP in 2012 . In 2013 , GDP ( PPP ) was estimated at $ 119 @.@ 6 billion , with a per capita value of $ 16 @,@ 518 . Sofia and the surrounding Yugozapaden planning area are the most developed region of the country with a per capita PPS GDP of $ 27 @,@ 282 in 2011 . Bulgaria is a net receiver of funds from the EU . The absolute amount of received funds was € 589 million in 2009 . The labour force is 2 @.@ 45 million people , of whom 7 @.@ 1 per cent are employed in agriculture , 35 @.@ 2 per cent are employed in industry and 57 @.@ 7 per cent are employed in the services sector . Extraction of metals and minerals , production of chemicals , machinery and vehicle components , petroleum refining and steel are among the major industrial activities . Mining and its related industries employ a total of 120 @,@ 000 people and generate about five per cent of the country 's GDP . Bulgaria is Europe 's sixth @-@ largest coal producer . Local deposits of coal , iron , copper and lead are vital for the manufacturing and energy sectors . Almost all top export items of Bulgaria are industrial commodities such as oil products , copper products and pharmaceuticals . Bulgaria is also a net exporter of agricultural and food products , of which two @-@ thirds go to OECD countries . It is the largest global producer of perfumery essential oils such as lavender and rose oil . Agriculture has declined significantly in the past two decades . Production in 2008 amounted to only 66 per cent of that between 1999 and 2001 , while cereal and vegetable yields have dropped by nearly 40 per cent since 1990 . Of the services sector , tourism is the most significant contributor to economic growth . In recent years , Bulgaria has emerged as a travelling destination with its inexpensive resorts and beaches outside the reach of the tourist industry . Lonely Planet ranked it among its top 10 destinations for 2011 . Most of the visitors are British , Romanian , German and Russian . The capital Sofia , the medieval capital Veliko Tarnovo , coastal resorts Golden Sands and Sunny Beach and winter resorts Bansko , Pamporovo and Borovets are some of the locations most visited by tourists . = = = Science and technology = = = Bulgaria spends 0 @.@ 25 per cent of GDP on scientific research , thus having one of the lowest R & D budgets in Europe . Chronic underinvestment in research since 1990 forced many scientific professionals to leave the country . As a result , Bulgaria scores low in terms of innovation , competitiveness and high @-@ value added exports . Principal areas of research and development are energy , nanotechnology , archaeology and medicine . The Bulgarian Academy of Sciences ( BAS ) is the leading scientific establishment and employs most Bulgarian researchers in its numerous institutes . It has been active in the field of space science with RADOM @-@ 7 radiation monitoring experiments on the International Space Station and Chandrayaan @-@ 1 , and domestically developed space greenhouses on the Mir space station . Bulgaria became the sixth country in the world to have an astronaut in space with Georgi Ivanov 's flight on Soyuz 33 in 1979 . Bulgaria is an active member of CERN and has contributed to its activities with nearly 200 scientists since its accession in 1999 . In the 1980s Bulgaria was known as the " Silicon Valley of the Eastern Bloc " because of its large @-@ scale computing technology exports to COMECON states . The ICT sector generates 10 per cent of GDP and employs the third @-@ largest contingent of ICT specialists in the world . A National Centre for Supercomputing Applications ( NCSA ) operates the only supercomputer in Southeastern Europe . The Bulgarian Academy of Sciences is planning to buy another supercomputer in 2015 which will be used together with Hi @-@ Tech SME 's . Internet usage has increased rapidly since 2000 — the number of users grew from 430 @,@ 000 to 3 @.@ 4 million ( 48 per cent penetration rate ) in 2010 . Telephone services are widely available , and a central digital trunk line connects most regions . More than 90 per cent of fixed lines are served by the Bulgarian Telecommunications Company ( BTC ) , while mobile services are provided by three operators — Mtel , GLOBUL and BTC / Vivacom . = = = Infrastructure = = = Bulgaria 's strategic geographic location and well @-@ developed energy sector make it a key European energy centre despite its lack of significant fossil fuel deposits . Nearly 34 percent of its electricity is produced by the nuclear power station at Kozloduy and public opinion strongly supports nuclear energy development . The rapid expansion of alternative energy sources such as wind and solar power stations make Bulgaria one of the fastest @-@ growing wind energy producers in the world . The country aims to produce 16 percent of its electricity from renewable energy sources by 2020 . The national road network has a total length of 40 @,@ 231 kilometres ( 24 @,@ 998 mi ) , of which 39 @,@ 587 kilometres ( 24 @,@ 598 mi ) are paved , but nearly half fall into the lowest international rating for paved roads . Railroads are a major mode of freight transportation , although highways carry a progressively larger share of freight . Bulgaria has 6 @,@ 238 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 876 mi ) of railway track and currently a total of 81 km of high @-@ speed lines are in operation . Rail links are available with Romania , Turkey , Greece , and Serbia , and express trains serve direct routes to Kiev , Minsk , Moscow and Saint Petersburg . Sofia and Plovdiv are the country 's air travel hubs , while Varna and Burgas are the principal maritime trade ports . Varna is also scheduled to be the first station on EU territory to receive natural gas through the South Stream pipeline . = = Demographics = = The population of Bulgaria is 7 @,@ 364 @,@ 570 people according to the 2011 national census . The majority of the population , or 72 @.@ 5 per cent , reside in urban areas ; approximately one @-@ sixth of the total population is concentrated in Sofia . Bulgarians are the main ethnic group and comprise 84 @.@ 8 per cent of the population . Turkish and Roma minorities comprise 8 @.@ 8 and 4 @.@ 9 per cent , respectively ; some 40 smaller minorities comprise 0 @.@ 7 per cent , and 0 @.@ 8 per cent do not self @-@ identify with an ethnic group . All ethnic groups speak Bulgarian , either as a first or as a second language . Bulgarian is the only language with official status and native for 85 @.@ 2 per cent of the population . The oldest written Slavic language , Bulgarian is distinguishable from the other languages in this group through certain grammatical peculiarities such as the lack of noun cases and infinitives , and a suffixed definite article . Government estimates from 2003 put the literacy rate at 98 @.@ 6 per cent , with no significant difference between the sexes . Educational standards have been traditionally high , although still far from European benchmarks and in continuing deterioration for the past decade . Bulgarian students were among the highest @-@ scoring in the world in terms of reading in 2001 , performing better than their Canadian and German counterparts ; by 2006 , scores in reading , math and science had deteriorated . State expenditures for education are far below the European Union average . The Ministry of Education , Youth and Science partially funds public schools , colleges and universities , sets criteria for textbooks and oversees the publishing process . The State provides free education in primary and secondary public schools . The educational process spans through 12 grades , where grades one through eight are primary and nine through twelve are secondary level . High schools can be technical , vocational , general or specialised in a certain discipline , while higher education consists of a 4 @-@ year bachelor degree and a 1 @-@ year master 's degree . The Constitution of Bulgaria defines it as a secular state with guaranteed religious freedom , but designates Orthodoxy as a " traditional " religion . The Bulgarian Orthodox Church gained autocephalous status in 927 AD , and currently has 12 dioceses and over 2 @,@ 000 priests . More than three @-@ quarters of Bulgarians subscribe to Eastern Orthodoxy . Sunni Muslims are the second @-@ largest community and constitute 10 per cent of the religious makeup , although a majority of them do not pray and find the use of Islamic veils in schools unacceptable . Less than three per cent are affiliated with other religions , 11 @.@ 8 per cent do not self @-@ identify with a religion and 21 @.@ 8 per cent refused to state their beliefs . Bulgaria has a universal healthcare system financed by taxes and contributions . The National Health Insurance Fund ( NHIF ) pays a gradually increasing portion of the costs of primary healthcare . Projected healthcare expenditures for 2013 amount to 4 @.@ 1 per cent of GDP . The number of doctors is above the EU average with 181 physicians per 100 @,@ 000 people , but distribution by fields of practice is uneven , there is a severe shortage of nurses and other medical personnel , and the quality of most medical facilities is poor . Personnel shortages in some fields are so severe that patients resort to seeking treatment in neighboring countries . Bulgaria ranks 113th globally by average life expectancy , which stands at 73 @.@ 6 years for both genders . The primary causes of death are similar to those in other industrialised countries , mainly cardiovascular diseases , neoplasms and respiratory diseases . Bulgaria is in a state of demographic crisis . It has had negative population growth since the early 1990s , when the economic collapse caused a long @-@ lasting emigration wave . Some 937 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 people — mostly young adults — left the country by 2005 . The total fertility rate ( TFR ) was estimated in 2013 at 1 @.@ 43 children born / woman , which is below the replacement rate of 2 @.@ 1 . A third of all households consist of only one person and 75 @.@ 5 per cent of families do not have children under the age of 16 . Consequently , population growth and birth rates are among the lowest in the world while death rates are among the highest . The majority of children are born to unmarried women ( of all births 57 @.@ 4 per cent were outside marriage in 2012 ) . = = Culture = = Traditional Bulgarian culture contains mainly Thracian , Slavic and Bulgar heritage , along with Greek , Roman , Ottoman , Persian and Celtic influences . Nine historical and natural objects have been inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites : the Madara Rider , the Thracian tombs in Sveshtari and Kazanlak , the Boyana Church , the Rila Monastery , the Rock @-@ hewn Churches of Ivanovo , Pirin National Park , Sreburna Nature Reserve and the ancient city of Nesebar . Nestinarstvo , a ritual fire @-@ dance of Thracian origin , is included in the list of UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage . Fire is an essential element of Bulgarian folklore , used to banish evil spirits and diseases . Bulgarian folklore personifies illnesses as witches and has a wide range of creatures , including lamya , samodiva ( veela ) and karakondzhul . Some of the customs and rituals against these spirits have survived and are still practised , most notably the kukeri and survakari . Martenitsa is also widely celebrated . Slavic culture was centred in both the First and Second Bulgarian Empires during much of the Middle Ages . The Preslav , Ohrid and Tarnovo literary schools exerted considerable cultural influence over the Eastern Orthodox world . Many languages in Eastern Europe and Asia use Cyrillic script , which originated in the Preslav Literary School around the 9th century . The medieval advancement in the arts and letters ended with the Ottoman conquest when many masterpieces were destroyed , and artistic activities did not re @-@ emerge until the National Revival in the 19th century . After the Liberation , Bulgarian literature quickly adopted European literary styles such as Romanticism and Symbolism . Since the beginning of the 20th century , several Bulgarian authors , such as Ivan Vazov , Pencho Slaveykov , Peyo Yavorov , Yordan Radichkov and Tzvetan Todorov have gained prominence . In 1981 Bulgarian @-@ born writer Elias Canetti was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature . Bulgarian folk music is by far the most extensive traditional art and has slowly developed throughout the ages as a fusion of Eastern and Western influences . It contains Far Eastern , Oriental , medieval Eastern Orthodox and standard Western European tonalities and modes . The music has a distinctive sound and uses a wide range of traditional instruments , such as gadulka , gaida ( bagpipe ) , kaval and tupan . One of its most distinguishing features is extended rhythmical time , which has no equivalent in the rest of European music . The State Television Female Vocal Choir is the most famous performing folk ensemble , and received a Grammy Award in 1990 . Bulgaria 's written musical composition can be traced back to the early Middle Ages and the works of Yoan Kukuzel ( c . 1280 – 1360 ) . Classical music , opera and ballet are represented by composers Emanuil Manolov , Pancho Vladigerov and Georgi Atanasov and singers Ghena Dimitrova , Boris Hristov and Nikolay Gyaurov . Bulgarian performers have gained popularity in several other genres like progressive rock ( FSB ) , electropop ( Mira Aroyo ) and jazz ( Milcho Leviev ) . The religious visual arts heritage includes frescoes , murals and icons , many produced by the medieval Tarnovo Artistic School . Vladimir Dimitrov , Nikolay Diulgheroff and Christo are some of the most famous modern Bulgarian artists . Film industry remains weak : in 2010 , Bulgaria produced three feature films and two documentaries with public funding . Cultural events are advertised in the largest media outlets , including the Bulgarian National Radio , and daily newspapers Dneven Trud , Dnevnik and 24 Chasa . While major sections of Bulgaria 's media are controlled by state entities , including Bulgarian National Television , the Bulgarian National Radio , and the Bulgarian Telegraph Agency , reporting is generally deemed to be unbiased by direct government interference , although there is no specific legislation to maintain this . Written media has no legal restrictions , and a large number of private television and radio stations also exist . Despite this , traditional Bulgarian media outlets are experiencing negative economic and political pressures , and instances of self @-@ censorship have emerged . Meanwhile , internet media is growing in popularity due to its lack of censorship and the diversity of content and opinions it presents . Bulgarian cuisine is similar to those of other Balkan countries and demonstrates a strong Turkish and Greek influence . Yogurt , lukanka , banitsa , shopska salad , lyutenitsa and kozunak are among the best @-@ known local foods . Oriental dishes such as moussaka , gyuvech , and baklava are also present . Meat consumption is lower than the European average , given a notable preference for a large variety of salads . Rakia is a traditional fruit brandy which was consumed in Bulgaria as early as the 14th century . Bulgarian wine is known for its Traminer , Muskat and Mavrud types , of which up to 200 @,@ 000 tonnes are produced annually . Until 1989 , Bulgaria was the world 's second @-@ largest wine exporter . Bulgaria performs well in sports such as wrestling , weight @-@ lifting , boxing , gymnastics , volleyball , football and tennis . The country fields one of the leading men 's volleyball teams , ranked sixth in the world according to the 2013 FIVB rankings . Football is by far the most popular sport . Some famous players are AS Monaco forward Dimitar Berbatov and Hristo Stoichkov , winner of the Golden Boot and the Golden Ball and the most successful Bulgarian player of all time . Prominent domestic clubs include PFC CSKA Sofia and PFC Levski Sofia . The best performance of the national team at FIFA World Cup finals came in 1994 , when it advanced to the semi @-@ finals by defeating consecutively Greece , Argentina , Mexico and Germany , finishing fourth . Bulgaria has participated in most Olympic competitions since its first appearance at the 1896 games , when it was represented by Charles Champaud . The country has won a total of 218 medals : 52 gold , 86 silver , and 80 bronze , which puts it in 24th place in the all @-@ time ranking .

= Ming dynasty = The Ming dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China — then known as the Empire of the Great Ming — for 276 years ( 1368 – 1644 ) following the collapse of the Mongol @-@ led Yuan dynasty . The Ming , described by some as " one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history , " was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Han Chinese . Although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng ( who established the Shun dynasty , soon replaced by the Manchu @-@ led Qing dynasty ) , regimes loyal to the Ming throne – collectively called the Southern Ming – survived until 1683 . The Hongwu Emperor ( ruled 1368 – 98 ) attempted to create a society of self @-@ sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid , immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his dynasty : the empire 's standing army exceeded one million troops and the navy 's dockyards in Nanjing were the largest in the world . He also took great care breaking the power of the court eunuchs and unrelated magnates , enfeoffing his many sons throughout China and attempting to guide these princes through the Huang Ming Zu Xun , a set of published dynastic instructions . This failed spectacularly when his teenage successor , the Jianwen Emperor , attempted to curtail his uncles ' power , prompting the Jingnan Campaign , an uprising that placed the Prince of Yan upon the throne as the Yongle Emperor in 1402 . The Yongle Emperor established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it Beijing , constructed the Forbidden City , and restored the Grand Canal and the primacy of the imperial examinations in official appointments . He rewarded his eunuch supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar @-@ bureaucrats . One , Zheng He , led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia and the eastern coasts of Africa . The rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances ; the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449 Tumu Crisis ended them completely . The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade and connected and fortified the Great Wall of China into its modern form . Wide @-@ ranging censuses of the entire empire were conducted decennially , but the desire to avoid labor and taxes and the difficulty of storing and reviewing the enormous archives at Nanjing hampered accurate figures . Estimates for the late @-@ Ming population vary from 160 to 200 million , but necessary revenues were squeezed out of smaller and smaller numbers of farmers as more disappeared from the official records or " donated " their lands to tax @-@ exempt eunuchs or temples . Haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from " Japanese " pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves . By the 16th century , however , the expansion of European trade — albeit restricted to islands near Guangzhou like Macau — spread the Columbian Exchange of crops , plants , and animals into China , introducing chili peppers to Sichuan cuisine and highly productive corn and potatoes , which diminished famines and spurred population growth . The growth of Portuguese , Spanish , and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced a massive influx of Japanese and American silver . This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy , whose paper money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted . While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created , the heterodoxy introduced by Wang Yangming permitted a more accommodating attitude . Zhang Juzheng 's initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture produced by the Little Ice Age joined changes in Japanese and Spanish policy that quickly cut off the supply of silver now necessary for farmers to be able to pay their taxes . Combined with crop failure , floods , and epidemic , the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng , who was defeated by the Manchu @-@ led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty . = = History = = = = = Founding = = = = = = = Revolt and rebel rivalry = = = = The Mongol @-@ led Yuan dynasty ( 1271 – 1368 ) ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty . Explanations for the demise of the Yuan include institutionalized ethnic discrimination against Han Chinese that stirred resentment and rebellion , overtaxation of areas hard @-@ hit by inflation , and massive flooding of the Yellow River as a result of the abandonment of irrigation projects . Consequently , agriculture and the economy were in shambles , and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River . A number of Han Chinese groups revolted , including the Red Turbans in 1351 . The Red Turbans were affiliated with the White Lotus , a Buddhist secret society . Zhu Yuanzhang was a penniless peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352 ; he soon gained a reputation after marrying the foster daughter of a rebel commander . In 1356 , Zhu 's rebel force captured the city of Nanjing , which he would later establish as the capital of the Ming dynasty . With the Yuan dynasty crumbling , competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to establish a new dynasty . In 1363 , Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his arch rival and leader of the rebel Han faction , Chen Youliang , in the Battle of Lake Poyang , arguably the largest naval battle in history . Known for its ambitious use of fire ships , Zhu 's force of 200 @,@ 000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size , claimed to be 650 @,@ 000 @-@ strong . The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction , leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful Yangtze River Valley and cementing his power in the south . After the dynastic head of the Red Turbans suspiciously died in 1367 while a guest of Zhu , there was no one left who was remotely capable of contesting his march to the throne , and he made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the Yuan capital Dadu ( present @-@ day Beijing ) in 1368 . The last Yuan emperor fled north to Shangdu , and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in Dadu to the ground ; the city was renamed Beiping in the same year . Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu , or " Vastly Martial " , as his era name . = = = = Reign of the Hongwu Emperor = = = = Hongwu made an immediate effort to rebuild state infrastructure . He built a 48 km ( 30 mi ) long wall around Nanjing , as well as new palaces and government halls . The History of Ming states that as early as 1364 Zhu Yuanzhang had begun drafting a new Confucian law code , the Da Ming Lü , which was completed by 1397 and repeated certain clauses found in the old Tang Code of 653 . Hongwu organized a military system known as the weisuo , which was similar to the fubing system of the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . In 1380 Hongwu had the Chancellor Hu Weiyong executed upon suspicion of a conspiracy plot to overthrow him ; after that Hongwu abolished the Chancellery and assumed this role as chief executive and emperor , a precedent mostly followed throughout the Ming period . With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects , Hongwu established the Jinyiwei , a network of secret police drawn from his own palace guard . Some 100 @,@ 000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule . The Hongwu emperor issued many edicts forbidding Mongol practices and proclaiming his intention to purify China of barbarian influence . However , he also sought to use the Yuan legacy to legitimize his authority in China and other areas ruled by the Yuan . He adopted many Yuan military practices , recruited Mongol soldiers , and continued to request Korean concubines and eunuchs . = = = = South @-@ Western frontier = = = = In Qinghai , the Salar Muslims voluntarily came under Ming rule , their clan leaders capitulating around 1370 . Uyghur troops under Uyghur general Hala Bashi suppressed the Miao Rebellions of the 1370s and settled in Changde , Hunan . Hui Muslim troops also settled in Changde , Hunan after serving the Ming in campaigns against other aboriginal tribes . In 1381 , the Ming dynasty annexed the areas of the southwest that had once been part of the Kingdom of Dali following the successful effort by Hui Muslim Ming armies to defeat Yuan @-@ loyalist Mongol and Hui Muslim troops holding out in Yunnan province . The Hui troops under General Mu Ying , who was appointed Governor of Yunnan , were resettled in the region as part of a colonization effort . By the end of the 14th century , some 200 @,@ 000 military colonists settled some 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 mu ( 350 @,@ 000 acres ) of land in what is now Yunnan and Guizhou . Roughly half a million more Chinese settlers came in later periods ; these migrations caused a major shift in the ethnic make @-@ up of the region , since formerly more than half of the population were non @-@ Han peoples . Resentment over such massive changes in population and the resulting government presence and policies sparked more Miao and Yao revolts in 1464 to 1466 , which were crushed by an army of 30 @,@ 000 Ming troops ( including 1 @,@ 000 Mongols ) joining the 160 @,@ 000 local Guangxi ( see Miao Rebellions ( Ming dynasty ) ) . After the scholar and philosopher Wang Yangming ( 1472 – 1529 ) suppressed another rebellion in the region , he advocated single , unitary administration of Chinese and indigenous ethnic groups in order to bring about sinification of the local peoples . = = = = Campaign in the North @-@ East = = = = After the overthrow of the Mongol Yuan dynasty by the Ming dynasty in 1368 , Manchuria remained under control of the Mongols of the Northern Yuan dynasty based in Mongolia . Naghachu , a former Yuan official and a Uriankhai general of the Northern Yuan dynasty , won hegemony over the Mongol tribes in Manchuria ( Liaoyang province of the former Yuan dynasty ) . He grew strong in the northeast , with forces large enough ( numbering hundreds of thousands ) to threaten invasion of the newly founded Ming dynasty in order to restore the Mongols to power in China . The Ming decided to defeat him instead of waiting for the Mongols to attack . In 1387 the Ming sent a military campaign to attack Naghachu , which concluded with the surrender of Naghachu and Ming conquest of Manchuria . The early Ming court could not , and did not , aspire to the control imposed upon the Jurchens in Manchuria by the Mongols , yet it created a norm of organization that would ultimately serve as the principal vehicle for the relations with peoples along the northeast frontiers . By the end of the Hongwu reign , the essentials of a policy toward the Jurchens had taken shape . Most of the inhabitants of Manchuria , except for the wild Jurchens , were at peace with China . The Ming had created many guards ( 衛 , wei ) in Manchuria , but the creation of a guard did not necessarily imply political control . In 1409 , the Ming dynasty under Yongle Emperor established the Nurgan Regional Military Commission on the banks of the Amur River , and Yishiha , a eunuch of Haixi Jurchen derivation , was ordered to lead an expedition to the mouth of the Amur to pacify the Wild Jurchens . After the death of Yongle Emperor , the Nurgan Regional Military Commission was abolished in 1435 , and the Ming court ceased to have substantial activities there , although the guards continued to exist in Manchuria . By the late Ming period , Ming political presence in Manchuria had waned considerably . = = = = Relations with Tibet = = = = The Mingshi – the official history of the Ming dynasty compiled by the Qing dynasty in 1739 – states that the Ming established itinerant commanderies overseeing Tibetan administration while also renewing titles of ex @-@ Yuan dynasty officials from Tibet and conferring new princely titles on leaders of Tibetan Buddhist sects . However , Turrell V. Wylie states that censorship in the Mingshi in favor of bolstering the Ming emperor 's prestige and reputation at all costs obfuscates the nuanced history of Sino @-@ Tibetan relations during the Ming era . Modern scholars debate whether the Ming dynasty had sovereignty over Tibet . Some believe it was a relationship of loose suzerainty that was largely cut off when the Jiajing Emperor ( r . 1521 – 67 ) persecuted Buddhism in favor of Daoism at court . Others argue that the significant religious nature of the relationship with Tibetan lamas is underrepresented in modern scholarship . Others note the Ming need for Central Asian horses and the need to maintain the tea @-@ horse trade . The Ming sporadically sent armed forays into Tibet during the 14th century , which the Tibetans successfully resisted . Several scholars point out that unlike the preceding Mongols , the Ming dynasty did not garrison permanent troops in Tibet . The Wanli Emperor ( r . 1572 – 1620 ) attempted to reestablish Sino @-@ Tibetan relations in the wake of a Mongol @-@ Tibetan alliance initiated in 1578 , an alliance which affected the foreign policy of the subsequent Manchu Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) in their support for the Dalai Lama of the Yellow Hat sect . By the late 16th century , the Mongols proved to be successful armed protectors of the Yellow Hat Dalai Lama after their increasing presence in the Amdo region , culminating in the conquest of Tibet by Güshi Khan ( 1582 – 1655 ) in 1642 , establishing the Khoshut Khanate . = = = Reign of the Yongle Emperor = = = = = = = Rise to power = = = = The Hongwu Emperor specified his grandson Zhu Yunwen as his successor , and he assumed the throne as the Jianwen Emperor ( 1398 – 1402 ) after Hongwu 's death in 1398 . The most powerful of Hongwu 's sons , Zhu Di , then the militarily mighty disagreed with this , and soon a political showdown erupted between him and his nephew Jianwen . After Jianwen arrested many of Zhu Di 's associates , Zhu Di plotted a rebellion that sparked a three @-@ year civil war . Under the pretext of rescuing the young Jianwen from corrupting officials , Zhu Di personally led forces in the revolt ; the palace in Nanjing was burned to the ground , along with Jianwen himself , his wife , mother , and courtiers . Zhu Di assumed the throne as the Yongle Emperor ( 1402 – 1424 ) ; his reign is universally viewed by scholars as a " second founding " of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father 's policies . = = = = New capital and foreign engagement = = = = Yongle demoted Nanjing to a secondary capital and in 1403 announced the new capital of China was to be at his power base in Beijing . Construction of a new city there lasted from 1407 to 1420 , employing hundreds of thousands of workers daily . At the center was the political node of the Imperial City , and at the center of this was the Forbidden City , the palatial residence of the emperor and his family . By 1553 , the Outer City was added to the south , which brought the overall size of Beijing to 4 by 4 ½ miles . Beginning in 1405 , the Yongle Emperor entrusted his favored eunuch commander Zheng He ( 1371 – 1433 ) as the admiral for a gigantic new fleet of ships designated for international tributary missions . The Chinese had sent diplomatic missions over land since the Han dynasty ( 202 BCE – 220 CE ) and engaged in private overseas trade , but these missions were unprecedented in grandeur and scale . To service seven different tributary voyages , the Nanjing shipyards constructed two thousand vessels from 1403 to 1419 , including treasure ships measuring 112 m ( 370 ft ) to 134 m ( 440 ft ) in length and 45 m ( 150 ft ) to 54 m ( 180 ft ) in width . Yongle also used woodblock printing to spread Chinese culture , and used the military ( especially cavalry ) to expand China 's borders . This included the brief occupation of Vietnam , from the initial invasion in 1406 until the Ming withdrawal in 1427 as a result of protracted guerrilla warfare led by the subsequent founder of the Vietnamese Lê dynasty . = = = Tumu Crisis and the Ming Mongols = = = The Oirat leader Esen Tayisi launched an invasion into Ming China in July 1449 . The chief eunuch Wang Zhen encouraged the Zhengtong Emperor ( r . 1435 – 49 ) to lead a force personally to face the Oirats after a recent Ming defeat ; the emperor left the capital and put his half @-@ brother Zhu Qiyu in charge of affairs as temporary regent . On 8 September , Esen routed Zhengtong 's army , and Zhengtong was captured — an event known as the Tumu Crisis . The Oirats held the Zhengtong Emperor for ransom . However , this scheme was foiled once the emperor 's younger brother assumed the throne under the era name Jingtai ( r . 1449 – 57 ) ; the Oirats were also repelled once the Jingtai Emperor 's confidant and defense minister Yu Qian ( 1398 – 1457 ) gained control of the Ming armed forces . Holding the Zhengtong Emperor in captivity was a useless bargaining chip for the Oirats as long as another sat on his throne , so they released him back into Ming China . The former emperor was placed under house arrest in the palace until the coup against the Jingtai Emperor in 1457 known as the " Wresting the Gate Incident " . The former emperor retook the throne under the new era name Tianshun ( r . 1457 – 64 ) . Tianshun proved to be a troubled time and Mongol forces within the Ming military structure continued to be problematic . On 7 August 1461 , the Chinese general Cao Qin and his Ming troops of Mongol descent staged a coup against the Tianshun Emperor out of fear of being next on his purge @-@ list of those who aided him in the Wresting the Gate Incident . Cao 's rebel force managed to set fire to the western and eastern gates of the Imperial City ( doused by rain during the battle ) and killed several leading ministers before his forces were finally cornered and he was forced to commit suicide . While the Yongle Emperor had staged five major offensives north of the Great Wall against the Mongols and the Oirats , the constant threat of Oirat incursions prompted the Ming authorities to fortify the Great Wall from the late 15th century to the 16th century ; nevertheless , John Fairbank notes that " it proved to be a futile military gesture but vividly expressed China 's siege mentality . " Yet the Great Wall was not meant to be a purely defensive fortification ; its towers functioned rather as a series of lit beacons and signalling stations to allow rapid warning to friendly units of advancing enemy troops . = = = Decline and fall of the Ming dynasty = = = = = = = Reign of the Wanli Emperor = = = = The financial drain of the Imjin War in Korea against the Japanese was one of the many problems — fiscal or other — facing Ming China during the reign of the Wanli Emperor ( 1572 – 1620 ) . In the beginning of his reign , Wanli surrounded himself with able advisors and made a conscientious effort to handle state affairs . His Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng ( 1572 – 82 ) built up an effective network of alliances with senior officials . However , there was no one after him skilled enough to maintain the stability of these alliances ; officials soon banded together in opposing political factions . Over time Wanli grew tired of court affairs and frequent political quarreling amongst his ministers , preferring to stay behind the walls of the Forbidden City and out of his officials ' sight . Scholar @-@ officials lost prominence in administration as eunuchs became intermediaries between the aloof emperor and his officials ; any senior official who wanted to discuss state matters had to persuade powerful eunuchs with a bribe simply to have his demands or message relayed to the emperor . = = = = Role of eunuchs = = = = The Hongwu Emperor forbade eunuchs to learn how to read or engage in politics . Whether or not these restrictions were carried out with absolute success in his reign , eunuchs during the Yongle Emperor 's reign and afterwards managed huge imperial workshops , commanded armies , and participated in matters of appointment and promotion of officials . The eunuchs developed their own bureaucracy that was organized parallel to but was not subject to the civil service bureaucracy . Although there were several dictatorial eunuchs throughout the Ming , such as Wang Zhen , Wang Zhi , and Liu Jin , excessive tyrannical eunuch power did not become evident until the 1590s when the Wanli Emperor increased their rights over the civil bureaucracy and granted them power to collect provincial taxes . The eunuch Wei Zhongxian ( 1568 – 1627 ) dominated the court of the Tianqi Emperor ( r . 1620 – 1627 ) and had his political rivals tortured to death , mostly the vocal critics from the faction of the Donglin Society . He ordered temples built in his honor throughout the Ming Empire , and built personal palaces created with funds allocated for building the previous emperor 's tombs . His friends and family gained important positions without qualifications . Wei also published a historical work lambasting and belittling his political opponents . The instability at court came right as natural calamity , pestilence , rebellion , and foreign invasion came to a peak . The Chongzhen Emperor ( r . 1627 – 44 ) had Wei dismissed from court , which led to Wei 's suicide shortly after . = = = = Economic breakdown and natural disasters = = = = During the last years of the Wanli era and those of his two successors , an economic crisis developed that was centered on a sudden widespread lack of the empire 's chief medium of exchange : silver . The Portuguese first established trade with China in 1516 , trading Japanese silver for Chinese silk , and after some initial hostilities gained consent from the Ming court in 1557 to settle Macau as their permanent trade base in China . Their role in providing silver was gradually surpassed by the Spanish , while even the Dutch challenged them for control of this trade . Philip IV of Spain ( reigned 1621 – 1665 ) began cracking down on illegal smuggling of silver from New Spain and Peru across the Pacific through the Philippines towards China , in favor of shipping American @-@ mined silver through Spanish ports . In 1639 the new Tokugawa regime of Japan shut down most of its foreign trade with European powers , cutting off another source of silver coming into China . These events occurring at roughly the same time caused a dramatic spike in the value of silver and made paying taxes nearly impossible for most provinces . People began hoarding precious silver as there was progressively less of it , forcing the ratio of the value of copper to silver into a steep decline . In the 1630s a string of one thousand copper coins equaled an ounce of silver ; by 1640 that sum could fetch half an ounce ; and , by 1643 only one @-@ third of an ounce . For peasants this meant economic disaster , since they paid taxes in silver while conducting local trade and crop sales in copper . Famines became common in northern China in the early 17th century because of unusually dry and cold weather that shortened the growing season — effects of a larger ecological event now known as the Little Ice Age . Famine , alongside tax increases , widespread military desertions , a declining relief system , and natural disasters such as flooding and inability of the government to properly manage irrigation and flood @-@ control projects caused widespread loss of life and normal civility . The central government , starved of resources , could do very little to mitigate the effects of these calamities . Making matters worse , a widespread epidemic spread across China from Zhejiang to Henan , killing an unknown but large number of people . The deadliest earthquake of all time , the Shaanxi earthquake of 1556 , occurred during the Jiajing Emperor 's reign , killing approximately 830 @,@ 000 people . = = = = Rise of the Manchu = = = = A Jurchen tribal leader named Nurhaci ( r . 1616 – 26 ) , starting with just a small tribe , rapidly gained control over all the Manchurian tribes . During the Japanese invasions of Korea in the 1590s , he offered to lead his tribes in support of the Ming and Joseon army . This offer was declined , but he was granted honorific Ming titles for his gesture . Recognizing the weakness of Ming authority north of their border , he united all of the adjacent northern tribes and consolidated power in the region surrounding his homeland as the Jurchen Jin dynasty had done previously . In 1610 , he broke relations with the Ming court , and in 1618 demanded a tribute from them to redress " Seven Grievances " . By 1636 , Nurhaci 's son Huang Taiji renamed his dynasty from the " Later Jin " to the " Great Qing " at Shenyang , which had fallen to Qing forces in 1621 and was made their capital in 1625 . Huang Taiji also adopted the Chinese imperial title huangdi , declared the Chongde ( " Revering Virtue " ) era , and changed the ethnic name of his people from " Jurchen " to " Manchu " . In 1638 the Manchu defeated and conquered Ming China 's traditional ally Joseon with an army of 100 @,@ 000 troops in the Second Manchu invasion of Korea . Shortly after , the Koreans renounced their long @-@ held loyalty to the Ming dynasty . = = = = Rebellion , invasion , collapse = = = = A peasant soldier named Li Zicheng mutinied with his fellow soldiers in western Shaanxi in the early 1630s after the Ming government failed to ship much @-@ needed supplies there . In 1634 he was captured by a Ming general and released only on the terms that he return to service . The agreement soon broke down when a local magistrate had thirty @-@ six of his fellow rebels executed ; Li 's troops retaliated by killing the officials and continued to lead a rebellion based in Rongyang , central Henan province by 1635 . By the 1640s , an ex @-@ soldier and rival to Li — Zhang Xianzhong ( 1606 – 47 ) — had created a firm rebel base in Chengdu , Sichuan , while Li 's center of power was in Hubei with extended influence over Shaanxi and Henan . In 1640 , masses of Chinese peasants who were starving , unable to pay their taxes , and no longer in fear of the frequently defeated Chinese army , began to form into huge bands of rebels . The Chinese military , caught between fruitless efforts to defeat the Manchu raiders from the north and huge peasant revolts in the provinces , essentially fell apart . Unpaid and unfed , the army was defeated by Li Zicheng — now self @-@ styled as the Prince of Shun — and deserted the capital without much of a fight . On 26 May 1644 , Beijing fell to a rebel army led by Li Zicheng when the city gates were treacherously opened from within . During the turmoil , the last Ming emperor hanged himself on a tree in the imperial garden outside the Forbidden City . Seizing opportunity , the Eight Banners crossed the Great Wall after the Ming border general Wu Sangui ( 1612 – 1678 ) opened the gates at Shanhai Pass . This occurred shortly after he learned about the fate of the capital and an army of Li Zicheng marching towards him ; weighing his options of alliance , he decided to side with the Manchus . The Eight Banners under the Manchu Prince Dorgon ( 1612 – 50 ) and Wu Sangui approached Beijing after the army sent by Li was destroyed at Shanhaiguan ; the Prince of Shun 's army fled the capital on the fourth of June . On 6 June , the Manchus and Wu entered the capital and proclaimed the young Shunzhi Emperor ruler of China . After being forced out of Xi 'an by the Qing , chased along the Han River to Wuchang , and finally along the northern border of Jiangxi province , Li Zicheng died there in the summer of 1645 , thus ending the Shun dynasty . One report says his death was a suicide ; another states that he was beaten to death by peasants after he was caught stealing their food . Scattered Ming remnants held out after 1644 , including that of Koxinga ( Zheng Chenggong ) who established the Kingdom of Tungning on Taiwan ( Formosa ) . Despite the loss of Beijing and the death of the emperor , Ming power was by no means totally destroyed . Nanjing , Fujian , Guangdong , Shanxi , and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance . However , there were several pretenders for the Ming throne , and their forces were divided . Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing until 1662 , when the last southern Ming Emperor died , the Yongli Emperor , Zhu Youlang . The last Ming Princes to hold out were the Prince of Ningjing Zhu Shugui and the son of Zhu Yihai , the Prince of Lu Zhu Honghuan ( 朱弘桓 ) who stayed with Koxinga 's Ming loyalists in the Kingdom of Tungning until 1683 . Zhu Shugui was acting in the name of the dead Yongli Emperor . The Qing then sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives . Koxinga 's grandson Zheng Keshuang was rewarded by the Qing Emperor with the title " Duke of Haicheng " ( 海澄公 ) and he and his soldiers were inducted into the Eight Banners . The Qing used Koxinga 's former rattan shield troops ( Tengpaiying ) 藤牌营 who were placed in the Eight Banners against Russian Cossacks at Albazin . In 1725 the Qing Yongzheng Emperor bestowed the hereditary title of Marquis on a descendant of the Ming dynasty Imperial family , Zhu Zhilian ( 朱之璉 ) , who received a salary from the Qing government and whose duty was to perform rituals at the Ming tombs , and was also inducted the Chinese Plain White Banner in the Eight Banners . Later the Qianlong Emperor bestowed the title Marquis of Extended Grace posthumously on Zhu Zhilian in 1750 , and the title passed on through twelve generations of Ming descendants until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912 . The last Marquis of Extended Grance was Zhu Yuxun ( 朱煜勳 ) . In 1912 , after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution , some advocated that a Han be installed as Emperor , either the descendant of Confucius , who was the Duke Yansheng , or the Ming dynasty Imperial family descendant , the Marquis of Extended Grace . = = Government = = = = = Province , prefecture , subprefecture , county = = = The Ming emperors took over the provincial administration system of the Yuan dynasty , and the thirteen Ming provinces are the precursors of the modern provinces . Throughout the Song dynasty , the largest political division was the circuit ( lu 路 ) . However , after the Jurchen invasion in 1127 , the Song court established four semi @-@ autonomous regional command systems based on territorial and military units , with a detached service secretariat that would become the provincial administrations of the Yuan , Ming , and Qing dynasties . Copied on the Yuan model , the Ming provincial bureaucracy contained three commissions : one civil , one military , and one for surveillance . Below the level of the province ( sheng 省 ) were prefectures ( fu 府 ) operating under a prefect ( zhifu 知府 ) , followed by subprefectures ( zhou 州 ) under a subprefect . The lowest unit was the county ( xian 縣 ) , overseen by a magistrate . Besides the provinces , there were also two large areas that belonged to no province , but were metropolitan areas ( jing 亰 ) attached to Nanjing and Beijing . = = = Institutions and bureaus = = = = = = = Institutional trends = = = = Departing from the main central administrative system generally known as the Three Departments and Six Ministries system , which was instituted by various dynasties since late Han ( 202 BCE – 220 CE ) , the Ming administration had only one Department , the Secretariat , that controlled the Six Ministries . Following the execution of the Chancellor Hu Weiyong in 1380 , the Hongwu Emperor abolished the Secretariat , the Censorate , and the Chief Military Commission and personally took charge of the Six Ministries and the regional Five Military Commissions . Thus a whole level of administration was cut out and only partially rebuilt by subsequent rulers . The Grand Secretariat , at the beginning a secretarial institution that assisted the emperor with administrative paperwork , was instituted , but without employing grand counselors , or chancellors . The Hongwu Emperor sent his heir apparent to Shaanxi in 1391 to " tour and soothe " ( xunfu ) the region ; in 1421 the Yongle Emperor commissioned 26 officials to travel the empire and uphold similar investigatory and patrimonial duties . By 1430 these xunfu assignments became institutionalized as " grand coordinators " . Hence , the Censorate was reinstalled and first staffed with investigating censors , later with censors @-@ in @-@ chief . By 1453 , the grand coordinators were granted the title vice censor @-@ in @-@ chief or assistant censor @-@ in @-@ chief and were allowed direct access to the emperor . As in prior dynasties , the provincial administrations were monitored by a travelling inspector from the Censorate . Censors had the power to impeach officials on an irregular basis , unlike the senior officials who were to do so only in triennial evaluations of junior officials . Although decentralization of state power within the provinces occurred in the early Ming , the trend of central government officials delegated to the provinces as virtual provincial governors began in the 1420s . By the late Ming dynasty , there were central government officials delegated to two or more provinces as supreme commanders and viceroys , a system which reined in the power and influence of the military by the civil establishment . = = = = Grand Secretariat and Six Ministries = = = = Governmental institutions in China conformed to a similar pattern for some two thousand years , but each dynasty installed special offices and bureaus , reflecting its own particular interests . The Ming administration utilized Grand Secretaries to assist the emperor , handling paperwork under the reign of the Yongle Emperor and later appointed as top officials of agencies and Grand Preceptor , a top @-@ ranking , non @-@ functional civil service post , under the Hongxi Emperor ( ruled 1424 – 25 ) . The Grand Secretariat drew its members from the Hanlin Academy and were considered part of the imperial authority , not the ministerial one ( hence being at odds with both the emperor and ministers at times ) . The Secretariat operated as a coordinating agency , whereas the Six Ministries – Personnel , Revenue , Rites , War , Justice , and Public Works – were direct administrative organs of the state : The Ministry of Personnel was in charge of appointments , merit ratings , promotions , and demotions of officials , as well as granting of honorific titles . The Ministry of Revenue was in charge of gathering census data , collecting taxes , and handling state revenues , while there were two offices of currency that were subordinate to it . The Ministry of Rites was in charge of state ceremonies , rituals , and sacrifices ; it also oversaw registers for Buddhist and Daoist priesthoods and even the reception of envoys from tributary states . The Ministry of War was in charge of the appointments , promotions , and demotions of military officers , the maintenance of military installations , equipment , and weapons , as well as the courier system . The Ministry of Justice was in charge of judicial and penal processes , but had no supervisory role over the Censorate or the Grand Court of Revision . The Ministry of Works had charge of government construction projects , hiring of artisans and laborers for temporary service , manufacturing government equipment , the maintenance of roads and canals , standardization of weights and measures , and the gathering of resources from the countryside . = = = = Bureaus and offices for the imperial household = = = = The imperial household was staffed almost entirely by eunuchs and ladies with their own bureaus . Female servants were organized into the Bureau of Palace Attendance , Bureau of Ceremonies , Bureau of Apparel , Bureau of Foodstuffs , Bureau of the Bedchamber , Bureau of Handicrafts , and Office of Staff Surveillance . Starting in the 1420s , eunuchs began taking over these ladies ' positions until only the Bureau of Apparel with its four subsidiary offices remained . Hongwu had his eunuchs organized into the Directorate of Palace Attendants , but as eunuch power at court increased , so did their administrative offices , with eventual twelve directorates , four offices , and eight bureaus . The dynasty had a vast imperial household , staffed with thousands of eunuchs , who were headed by the Directorate of Palace Attendants . The eunuchs were divided into different directorates in charge of staff surveillance , ceremonial rites , food , utensils , documents , stables , seals , apparel , and so on . The offices were in charge of providing fuel , music , paper , and baths . The bureaus were in charge of weapons , silverwork , laundering , headgear , bronzework , textile manufacture , wineries , and gardens . At times , the most influential eunuch in the Directorate of Ceremonial acted as a de facto dictator over the state . Although the imperial household was staffed mostly by eunuchs and palace ladies , there was a civil service office called the Seal Office , which cooperated with eunuch agencies in maintaining imperial seals , tallies , and stamps . There were also civil service offices to oversee the affairs of imperial princes . = = = Personnel = = = = = = = Scholar @-@ officials = = = = The Hongwu emperor from 1373 to 1384 staffed his bureaus with officials gathered through recommendations only . After that the scholar @-@ officials who populated the many ranks of bureaucracy were recruited through a rigorous examination system that was initially established by the Sui dynasty ( 581 – 618 ) . Theoretically the system of exams allowed anyone to join the ranks of imperial officials ( although it was frowned upon for merchants to join ) ; in reality the time and funding needed to support the study in preparation for the exam generally limited participants to those already coming from the landholding class . However , the government did exact provincial quotas while drafting officials . This was an effort to curb monopolization of power by landholding gentry who came from the most prosperous regions , where education was the most advanced . The expansion of the printing industry since Song times enhanced the spread of knowledge and number of potential exam candidates throughout the provinces . For young schoolchildren there were printed multiplication tables and primers for elementary vocabulary ; for adult examination candidates there were mass @-@ produced , inexpensive volumes of Confucian classics and successful examination answers . As in earlier periods , the focus of the examination was classical Confucian texts , while the bulk of test material centered on the Four Books outlined by Zhu Xi in the 12th century . Ming era examinations were perhaps more difficult to pass since the 1487 requirement of completing the " eight @-@ legged essay " , a departure from basing essays off progressing literary trends . The exams increased in difficulty as the student progressed from the local level , and appropriate titles were accordingly awarded successful applicants . Officials were classified in nine hierarchic grades , each grade divided into two degrees , with ranging salaries ( nominally paid in piculs of rice ) according to their rank . While provincial graduates who were appointed to office were immediately assigned to low @-@ ranking posts like the county graduates , those who passed the palace examination were awarded a jinshi ( ' presented scholar ' ) degree and assured a high @-@ level position . In 276 years of Ming rule and ninety palace examinations , the number of doctoral degrees granted by passing the palace examinations was 24 @,@ 874 . Ebrey states that " there were only two to four thousand of these jinshi at any given time , on the order of one out of 10 @,@ 000 adult males . " This was in comparison to the 100 @,@ 000 shengyuan ( ' government students ' ) , the lowest tier of graduates , by the 16th century . The maximum tenure in office was nine years , but every three years officials were graded on their performance by senior officials . If they were graded as superior then they were promoted , if graded adequate then they retained their ranks , and if graded inadequate they were demoted one rank . In extreme cases , officials would be dismissed or punished . Only capital officials of grade 4 and above were exempt from the scrutiny of recorded evaluation , although they were expected to confess any of their faults . There were over 4 @,@ 000 school instructors in county and prefectural schools who were subject to evaluations every nine years . The Chief Instructor on the prefectural level was classified as equal to a second @-@ grade county graduate . The Supervisorate of Imperial Instruction oversaw the education of the heir apparent to the throne ; this office was headed by a Grand Supervisor of Instruction , who was ranked as first class of grade three . = = = = Lesser functionaries = = = = Scholar @-@ officials who entered civil service through examinations acted as executive officials to a much larger body of non @-@ ranked personnel called lesser functionaries . They outnumbered officials by four to one ; Charles Hucker estimates that they were perhaps as many as 100 @,@ 000 throughout the empire . These lesser functionaries performed clerical and technical tasks for government agencies . Yet they should not be confused with lowly lictors , runners , and bearers ; lesser functionaries were given periodic merit evaluations like officials and after nine years of service might be accepted into a low civil service rank . The one great advantage of the lesser functionaries over officials was that officials were periodically rotated and assigned to different regional posts and had to rely on the good service and cooperation of the local lesser functionaries . = = = = Eunuchs , princes , and generals = = = = Eunuchs gained unprecedented power over state affairs during the Ming dynasty . One of the most effective means of control was the secret service stationed in what was called the Eastern Depot at the beginning of the dynasty , later the Western Depot . This secret service was overseen by the Directorate of Ceremonial , hence this state organ 's often totalitarian affiliation . Eunuchs had ranks that were equivalent to civil service ranks , only theirs had four grades instead of nine . Descendants of the first Ming emperor were made princes and given ( typically nominal ) military commands , annual stipends , and large estates . The title used was " king " ( 王 , wáng ) but – unlike the princes in the Han and Jin dynasties – these estates were not feudatories , the princes did not serve any administrative function , and they partook in military affairs only during the reigns of the first two emperors . The rebellion of the Prince of Yan was justified in part as upholding the rights of the princes , but once the Yongle Emperor was enthroned , he continued his nephew 's policy of disarming his brothers and moved their fiefs away from the militarized northern border . Although princes served no organ of state administration , the princes , consorts of the imperial princesses , and ennobled relatives did staff the Imperial Clan Court , which supervised the imperial genealogy . Like scholar @-@ officials , military generals were ranked in a hierarchic grading system and were given merit evaluations every five years ( as opposed to three years for officials ) . However , military officers had less prestige than officials . This was due to their hereditary service ( instead of solely merit @-@ based ) and Confucian values that dictated those who chose the profession of violence ( wu ) over the cultured pursuits of knowledge ( wen ) . Although seen as less prestigious , military officers were not excluded from taking civil service examinations , and after 1478 the military even held their own examinations to test military skills . In addition to taking over the established bureaucratic structure from the Yuan period , the Ming emperors established the new post of the travelling military inspector . In the early half of the dynasty , men of noble lineage dominated the higher ranks of military office ; this trend was reversed during the latter half of the dynasty as men from more humble origins eventually displaced them . = = Society and culture = = = = = Literature and arts = = = Literature , painting , poetry , music , and Chinese opera of various types flourished during the Ming dynasty , especially in the economically prosperous lower Yangzi valley . Although short fiction had been popular as far back as the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , and the works of contemporaneous authors such as Xu Guangqi , Xu Xiake , and Song Yingxing were often technical and encyclopedic , the most striking literary development was the vernacular novel . While the gentry elite were educated enough to fully comprehend the language of Classical Chinese , those with rudimentary education – such as women in educated families , merchants , and shop clerks – became a large potential audience for literature and performing arts that employed Vernacular Chinese . Literati scholars edited or developed major Chinese novels into mature form in this period , such as Water Margin and Journey to the West . Jin Ping Mei , published in 1610 , although incorporating earlier material , marks the trend toward independent composition and concern with psychology . In the later years of the dynasty , Feng Menglong and Ling Mengchu innovated with vernacular short fiction . Theater scripts were equally imaginative . The most famous , The Peony Pavilion , was written by Tang Xianzu ( 1550 – 1616 ) , with its first performance at the Pavilion of Prince Teng in 1598 . Informal essay and travel writing was another highlight . Xu Xiake ( 1587 – 1641 ) , a travel literature author , published his Travel Diaries in 404 @,@ 000 written characters , with information on everything from local geography to mineralogy . The first reference to the publishing of private newspapers in Beijing was in 1582 ; by 1638 the Beijing Gazette switched from using woodblock print to movable type printing . The new literary field of the moral guide to business ethics was developed during the late Ming period , for the readership of the merchant class . In contrast to Xu Xiake , who focused on technical aspects in his travel literature , the Chinese poet and official Yuan Hongdao ( 1568 – 1610 ) used travel literature to express his desires for individualism as well as autonomy from and frustration with Confucian court politics . Yuan desired to free himself from the ethical compromises that were inseparable from the career of a scholar @-@ official . This anti @-@ official sentiment in Yuan 's travel literature and poetry was actually following in the tradition of the Song dynasty poet and official Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) . Yuan Hongdao and his two brothers , Yuan Zongdao ( 1560 – 1600 ) and Yuan Zhongdao ( 1570 – 1623 ) , were the founders of the Gong 'an School of letters . This highly individualistic school of poetry and prose was criticized by the Confucian establishment for its association with intense sensual lyricism , which was also apparent in Ming vernacular novels such as the Jin Ping Mei . Yet even gentry and scholar @-@ officials were affected by the new popular romantic literature , seeking courtesans as soulmates to reenact the heroic love stories that arranged marriages often could not provide or accommodate . Famous painters included Ni Zan and Dong Qichang , as well as the Four Masters of the Ming dynasty , Shen Zhou , Tang Yin , Wen Zhengming , and Qiu Ying . They drew upon the techniques , styles , and complexity in painting achieved by their Song and Yuan predecessors , but added techniques and styles . Well @-@ known Ming artists could make a living simply by painting due to the high prices they demanded for their artworks and the great demand by the highly cultured community to collect precious works of art . The artist Qiu Ying was once paid 2 @.@ 8 kg ( 100 oz ) of silver to paint a long handscroll for the eightieth birthday celebration of the mother of a wealthy patron . Renowned artists often gathered an entourage of followers , some who were amateurs who painted while pursuing an official career and others who were full @-@ time painters . The period was also renowned for ceramics and porcelains.The major production centers for porcelain were the imperial kilns at Jingdezhen in Jiangxi province and Dehua in Fujian province . The Dehua porcelain factories catered to European tastes by creating Chinese export porcelain by the 16th century . Individual potters also became known , such as He Chaozong , who became famous in the early 17th century for his style of white porcelain sculpture . In The Ceramic Trade in Asia , Chuimei Ho estimates that about 16 % of late Ming era Chinese ceramic exports were sent to Europe , while the rest were destined for Japan and South East Asia . Carved designs in lacquerware and designs glazed onto porcelain wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting . These items could be found in the homes of the wealthy , alongside embroidered silks and wares in jade , ivory , and cloisonné . The houses of the rich were also furnished with rosewood furniture and feathery latticework . The writing materials in a scholar 's private study , including elaborately carved brush holders made of stone or wood , were designed and arranged ritually to give an aesthetic appeal . Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered on these items of refined artistic taste , which provided work for art dealers and even underground scammers who themselves made imitations and false attributions . The Jesuit Matteo Ricci while staying in Nanjing wrote that Chinese scam artists were ingenious at making forgeries and huge profits . However , there were guides to help the wary new connoisseur ; Liu Tong ( died 1637 ) wrote a book printed in 1635 that told his readers how to spot fake and authentic pieces of art . He revealed that a Xuande era ( 1426 – 1435 ) bronzework could be authenticated by judging its sheen ; porcelain wares from the Yongle era ( 1402 – 1424 ) could be judged authentic by their thickness . = = = Religion = = = The dominant religious beliefs during the Ming dynasty were the various forms of Chinese folk religion and the Three Teachings – Confucianism , Taoism , and Buddhism . The Yuan @-@ supported Tibetan lamas fell from favor , and the early Ming emperors particularly favored Taoism , granting its practitioners many positions in the state 's ritual offices . The Hongwu Emperor curtailed the cosmopolitan culture of the Mongol Yuan dynasty , and the prolific Prince of Ning Zhu Quan even composed one encyclopedia attacking Buddhism as a foreign " mourning cult " , deleterious to the state , and another encyclopedia that subsequently joined the Taoist canon . Islam was also well @-@ established throughout China , with a history said to have begun with Sa 'd ibn Abi Waqqas during the Tang dynasty and strong official support during the Yuan . Although the Ming sharply curtailed this support , there were still several prominent Muslim figures early on , including the Hongwu Emperor 's generals Chang Yuqun , Lan Yu , Ding Dexing , and Mu Ying , as well as the Yongle Emperor 's powerful eunuch Zheng He . The advent of the Ming was initially devastating to Christianity : in his first year , the Hongwu Emperor declared the eighty @-@ year @-@ old Franciscan missions among the Yuan heterodox and illegal . The centuries @-@ old Nestorian church also disappeared . During the later Ming a new wave of Christian missionaries arrived – particularly Jesuits – who employed new western science and technology in their arguments for conversion . They were educated in Chinese language and culture at St. Paul 's College on Macau after its founding in 1579 . The most influential was Matteo Ricci , whose " Map of the Myriad Countries of the World " upended traditional geography throughout East Asia , and whose work with the convert Xu Guangqi led to the first Chinese translation of Euclid 's Elements in 1607 . The discovery of a Nestorian stele at Xi 'an in 1625 also permitted Christianity to be treated as an old and established faith , rather than as a new and dangerous cult . However , there were strong disagreements about the extent to which converts could continue to perform rituals to the emperor , Confucius , or their ancestors : Ricci had been very accommodating and an attempt by his successors to backtrack from this policy led to the Nanjing Incident of 1616 , which exiled four Jesuits to Macau and forced the others out of public life for six years . A series of spectacular failures by the Chinese astronomers – including missing an eclipse easily computed by Xu Guangqi and Sabatino de Ursis – and a return by the Jesuits to presenting themselves as educated scholars in the Confucian mold restored their fortunes . However , by the end of the Ming the Dominicans had begun the Chinese Rites controversy in Rome that would eventually lead to a full ban of Christianity under the Qing dynasty . During his mission , Ricci was also contacted in Beijing by one of the approximately 5 @,@ 000 Kaifeng Jews and introduced them and their long history in China to Europe . However , the 1642 flood caused by Kaifeng 's Ming governor devastated the community , which lost five of its twelve families , its synagogue , and most of its Torah . = = = Philosophy = = = = = = = Wang Yangming 's Confucianism = = = = During the Ming dynasty , the Neo @-@ Confucian doctrines of the Song scholar Zhu Xi were embraced by the court and the Chinese literati at large , although the direct line of his school was destroyed by the Yongle Emperor 's extermination of the ten degrees of kinship of Fang Xiaoru in 1402 . The Ming scholar most influential upon subsequent generations , however , was Wang Yangming ( 1472 – 1529 ) , whose teachings were attacked in his own time for their similarity to Chan Buddhism . Building upon Zhu Xi 's concept of the " extension of knowledge " ( 理學 or 格物致知 ) , gaining understanding through careful and rational investigation of things and events , Wang argued that universal concepts would appear in the minds of anyone . Therefore , he claimed that anyone – no matter their pedigree or education – could become as wise as Confucius and Mencius had been and that their writings were not sources of truth but merely guides that might have flaws when carefully examined . A peasant with a great deal of experience and intelligence would then be wiser than an official who had memorized the Classics but not experienced the real world . = = = = Conservative reaction = = = = Other scholar @-@ bureaucrats were wary of Wang 's heterodoxy , the increasing number of his disciples while he was still in office , and his overall socially rebellious message . To curb his influence , he was often sent out to deal with military affairs and rebellions far away from the capital . Yet his ideas penetrated mainstream Chinese thought and spurred new interest in Taoism and Buddhism . Furthermore , people began to question the validity of the social hierarchy and the idea that the scholar should be above the farmer . Wang Yangming 's disciple and salt @-@ mine worker Wang Gen gave lectures to commoners about pursuing education to improve their lives , while his follower He Xinyin ( 何心隱 ) challenged the elevation and emphasis of the family in Chinese society . His contemporary Li Zhi even taught that women were the intellectual equals of men and should be given a better education ; both Li and He eventually died in prison , jailed on charges of spreading " dangerous ideas " . Yet these " dangerous ideas " of educating women had long been embraced by some mothers and by courtesans who were as literate and skillful in calligraphy , painting , and poetry as their male guests . The liberal views of Wang Yangming were opposed by the Censorate and by the Donglin Academy , re @-@ established in 1604 . These conservatives wanted a revival of orthodox Confucian ethics . Conservatives such as Gu Xiancheng ( 1550 – 1612 ) argued against Wang 's idea of innate moral knowledge , stating that this was simply a legitimization for unscrupulous behavior such as greedy pursuits and personal gain . These two strands of Confucian thought , hardened by Chinese scholars ' notions of obligation towards their mentors , developed into pervasive factionalism among the ministers of state , who used any opportunity to impeach members of the other faction from court . = = = Urban and rural life = = = Wang Gen was able to give philosophical lectures to many commoners from different regions because – following the trend already apparent in the Song dynasty – communities in Ming society were becoming less isolated as the distance between market towns was shrinking . Schools , descent groups , religious associations , and other local voluntary organizations were increasing in number and allowing more contact between educated men and local villagers . Jonathan Spence writes that the distinction between what was town and country was blurred in Ming China , since suburban areas with farms were located just outside and in some cases within the walls of a city . Not only was the blurring of town and country evident , but also of socioeconomic class in the traditional four occupations ( Chinese : 士農工商 ) , since artisans sometimes worked on farms in peak periods , and farmers often traveled into the city to find work during times of dearth . A variety of occupations could be chosen or inherited from a father 's line of work . This would include – but was not limited to – coffinmakers , ironworkers and blacksmiths , tailors , cooks and noodle @-@ makers , retail merchants , tavern , teahouse , or winehouse managers , shoemakers , seal cutters , pawnshop owners , brothel heads , and merchant bankers engaging in a proto @-@ banking system involving notes of exchange . Virtually every town had a brothel where female and male prostitutes could be had . Male catamites fetched a higher price than female concubines since pederasty with a teenage boy was seen as a mark of elite status , regardless of sodomy being repugnant to sexual norms . Public bathing became much more common than in earlier periods . Urban shops and retailers sold a variety of goods such as special paper money to burn at ancestral sacrifices , specialized luxury goods , headgear , fine cloth , teas , and others . Smaller communities and townships too poor or scattered to support shops and artisans obtained their goods from periodic market fairs and traveling peddlers . A small township also provided a place for simple schooling , news and gossip , matchmaking , religious festivals , traveling theater groups , tax collection , and bases of famine relief distribution . Farming villagers in the north spent their days harvesting crops like wheat and millet , while farmers south of the Huai River engaged in intensive rice cultivation and had lakes and ponds where ducks and fish could be raised . The cultivation of mulberry trees for silkworms and tea bushes could be found mostly south of the Yangzi River ; even further south sugarcane and citrus were grown as basic crops . Some people in the mountainous southwest made a living by selling lumber from hard bamboo . Besides cutting down trees to sell wood , the poor also made a living by turning wood into charcoal , and by burning oyster shells to make lime and fired pots , and weaving mats and baskets . In the north traveling by horse and carriage was most common , while in the south the myriad of rivers , canals , and lakes provided cheap and easy water transport . Although the south had the characteristic of the wealthy landlord and tenant farmers , there were on average many more owner @-@ cultivators north of the Huai River due to harsher climate , living not far above subsistence level . = = Science and technology = = Compared to the flourishing of science and technology in the Song dynasty , the Ming dynasty perhaps saw fewer advancements in science and technology compared to the pace of discovery in the Western world . In fact , key advances in Chinese science in the late Ming were spurred by contact with Europe . In 1626 Johann Adam Schall von Bell wrote the first Chinese treatise on the telescope , the Yuanjingshuo ( Far Seeing Optic Glass ) ; in 1634 the Chongzhen Emperor acquired the telescope of the late Johann Schreck ( 1576 – 1630 ) . The heliocentric model of the solar system was rejected by the Catholic missionaries in China , but Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei 's ideas slowly trickled into China starting with the Polish Jesuit Michael Boym ( 1612 – 59 ) in 1627 , Adam Schall von Bell 's treatise in 1640 , and finally Joseph Edkins , Alex Wylie , and John Fryer in the 19th century . Catholic Jesuits in China would promote Copernican theory at court , yet at the same time embrace the Ptolemaic system in their writing ; it was not until 1865 that Catholic missionaries in China sponsored the heliocentric model as their Protestant peers did . Although Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 95 ) and Guo Shoujing ( 1231 – 1316 ) had laid the basis for trigonometry in China , another important work in Chinese trigonometry would not be published again until 1607 with the efforts of Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci . Ironically , some inventions which had their origins in ancient China were reintroduced to China from Europe during the late Ming ; for example , the field mill . The Chinese calendar was in need of reform since it inadequately measured the solar year at 365 ¼ days , giving an error of 10 min and 14 sec a year or roughly a full day every 128 years . Although the Ming had adopted Guo Shoujing 's Shoushi calendar of 1281 , which was just as accurate as the Gregorian Calendar , the Ming Directorate of Astronomy failed to periodically readjust it ; this was perhaps due to their lack of expertise since their offices had become hereditary in the Ming and the Statutes of the Ming prohibited private involvement in astronomy . A sixth @-@ generation descendant of the Hongxi Emperor , the " Prince " Zhu Zaiyu ( 1536 – 611 ) , submitted a proposal to fix the calendar in 1595 , but the ultra @-@ conservative astronomical commission rejected it . This was the same Zhu Zaiyu who discovered the system of tuning known as equal temperament , a discovery made simultaneously by Simon Stevin ( 1548 – 1620 ) in Europe . In addition to publishing his works on music , he was able to publish his findings on the calendar in 1597 . A year earlier , the memorial of Xing Yunlu suggesting a calendar improvement was rejected by the Supervisor of the Astronomical Bureau due to the law banning private practice of astronomy ; Xing would later serve with Xu Guangqi in reforming the calendar ( Chinese : 崇禎暦書 ) in 1629 according to Western standards . When the Ming founder Hongwu came upon the mechanical devices housed in the Yuan dynasty 's palace at Khanbaliq — such as fountains with balls dancing on their jets , self @-@ operating tiger automata , dragon @-@ headed devices that spouted mists of perfume , and mechanical clocks in the tradition of Yi Xing ( 683 – 727 ) and Su Song ( 1020 – 101 ) — he associated all of them with the decadence of Mongol rule and had them destroyed . This was described in full length by the Divisional Director of the Ministry of Works , Xiao Xun , who also carefully preserved details on the architecture and layout of the Yuan dynasty palace . Later , European Jesuits such as Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault would briefly mention indigenous Chinese clockworks that featured drive wheels . However , both Ricci and Trigault were quick to point out that 16th @-@ century European clockworks were far more advanced than the common time keeping devices in China , which they listed as water clocks , incense clocks , and " other instruments ... with wheels rotated by sand as if by water " ( Chinese : 沙漏 ) . Chinese records — namely the Yuan Shi ( Chinese : 元史 ) — describe the ' five @-@ wheeled sand clock ' , a mechanism pioneered by Zhan Xiyuan ( fl . 1360 – 80 ) which featured the scoop wheel of Su Song 's earlier astronomical clock and a stationary dial face over which a pointer circulated , similar to European models of the time . This sand @-@ driven wheel clock was improved upon by Zhou Shuxue ( fl . 1530 – 58 ) who added a fourth large gear wheel , changed gear ratios , and widened the orifice for collecting sand grains since he criticized the earlier model for clogging up too often . The Chinese were intrigued with European technology , but so were visiting Europeans of Chinese technology . In 1584 , Abraham Ortelius ( 1527 – 1598 ) featured in his atlas Theatrum Orbis Terrarum the peculiar Chinese innovation of mounting masts and sails onto carriages , just like Chinese ships . Gonzales de Mendoza also mentioned this a year later — noting even the designs of them on Chinese silken robes — while Gerardus Mercator ( 1512 – 94 ) featured them in his atlas , John Milton ( 1608 – 74 ) in one of his famous poems , and Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest ( 1739 – 801 ) in the writings of his travel diary in China . The encyclopedist Song Yingxing ( 1587 – 1666 ) documented a wide array of technologies , metallurgic and industrial processes in his Tiangong Kaiwu ( Chinese : 天工開物 ) encyclopedia of 1637 . This includes mechanical and hydraulic powered devices for agriculture and irrigation , nautical technology such as vessel types and snorkeling gear for pearl divers , the annual processes of sericulture and weaving with the loom , metallurgic processes such as the crucible technique and quenching , manufacturing processes such as for roasting iron pyrite in converting sulphide to oxide in sulfur used in gunpowder compositions — illustrating how ore was piled up with coal briquettes in an earthen furnace with a still @-@ head that sent over sulfur as vapor that would solidify and crystallize — and the use of gunpowder weapons such as a naval mine ignited by use of a rip @-@ cord and steel flint wheel . Focusing on agriculture in his Nongzheng Quanshu , the agronomist Xu Guangqi ( 1562 – 1633 ) took an interest in irrigation , fertilizers , famine relief , economic and textile crops , and empirical observation of the elements that gave insight into early understandings of chemistry . There were many advances and new designs in gunpowder weapons during the beginning of the dynasty , but by the mid to late Ming the Chinese began to frequently employ European @-@ style artillery and firearms . The Huolongjing , compiled by Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen sometime before the latter 's death on 16 May 1375 ( with a preface added by Jiao in 1412 ) , featured many types of cutting @-@ edge gunpowder weaponry for the time . This includes hollow , gunpowder @-@ filled exploding cannonballs , land mines that used a complex trigger mechanism of falling weights , pins , and a steel wheellock to ignite the train of fuses , naval mines , fin @-@ mounted winged rockets for aerodynamic control , multistage rockets propelled by booster rockets before igniting a swarm of smaller rockets issuing forth from the end of the missile ( shaped like a dragon 's head ) , and hand cannons that had up to ten barrels . Li Shizhen ( 1518 – 93 ) — one of the most renowned pharmacologists and physicians in Chinese history — belonged to the late Ming period . His Bencao Gangmu is a medical text with 1 @,@ 892 entries , each entry with its own name called a gang . The mu in the title refers to the synonyms of each name . Inoculation , although it can be traced to earlier Chinese folk medicine , was detailed in Chinese texts by the sixteenth century . Throughout the Ming dynasty , around fifty texts were published on the treatment of smallpox . In regards to oral hygiene , the ancient Egyptians had a primitive toothbrush of a twig frayed at the end , but the Chinese were the first to invent the modern bristle toothbrush in 1498 , although it used stiff pig hair . = = Population = = Sinologist historians debate the population figures for each era in the Ming dynasty . The historian Timothy Brook notes that the Ming government census figures are dubious since fiscal obligations prompted many families to underreport the number of people in their households and many county officials to underreport the number of households in their jurisdiction . Children were often underreported , especially female children , as shown by skewed population statistics throughout the Ming . Even adult women were underreported ; for example , the Daming Prefecture in North Zhili reported a population of 378 167 males and 226 982 females in 1502 . The government attempted to revise the census figures using estimates of the expected average number of people in each household , but this did not solve the widespread problem of tax registration . Some part of the gender imbalance may be attributed to the practice of female infanticide . The practice is well documented in China , going back over two thousand years , and it was described as " rampant " and " practiced by almost every family " by contemporary authors . However , the dramatically skewed sex ratios , which many counties reported exceeding 2 : 1 by 1586 , can 't likely be explained by infanticide alone . The number of people counted in the census of 1381 was 59 873 305 ; however , this number dropped significantly when the government found that some 3 million people were missing from the tax census of 1391 . Even though underreporting figures was made a capital crime in 1381 , the need for survival pushed many to abandon the tax registration and wander from their region , where Hongwu had attempted to impose rigid immobility on the populace . The government tried to mitigate this by creating their own conservative estimate of 60 545 812 people in 1393 . In his Studies on the Population of China , Ho Ping @-@ ti suggests revising the 1393 census to 65 million people , noting that large areas of North China and frontier areas were not counted in that census . Brook states that the population figures gathered in the official censuses after 1393 ranged between 51 and 62 million , while the population was in fact increasing . Even the Hongzhi Emperor ( r . 1487 – 505 ) remarked that the daily increase in subjects coincided with the daily dwindling amount of registered civilians and soldiers . William Atwell states that around 1400 the population of China was perhaps 90 million people , citing Heijdra and Mote . Historians are now turning to local gazetteers of Ming China for clues that would show consistent growth in population . Using the gazetteers , Brook estimates that the overall population under the Chenghua Emperor ( r . 1464 – 1487 ) was roughly 75 million , despite mid @-@ Ming census figures hovering around 62 million . While prefectures across the empire in the mid @-@ Ming period were reporting either a drop in or stagnant population size , local gazetteers reported massive amounts of incoming vagrant workers with not enough good cultivated land for them to till , so that many would become drifters , conmen , or wood @-@ cutters that contributed to deforestation . The Hongzhi and Zhengde emperors lessened the penalties against those who had fled their home region , while the Jiajing Emperor ( r . 1521 – 67 ) finally had officials register migrants wherever they had moved or fled in order to bring in more revenues . Even with the Jiajing reforms to document migrant workers and merchants , by the late Ming era the government census still did not accurately reflect the enormous growth in population . Gazetteers across the empire noted this and made their own estimations of the overall population in the Ming , some guessing that it had doubled , tripled , or even grown fivefold since 1368 . Fairbank estimates that the population was perhaps 160 million in the late Ming dynasty , while Brook estimates 175 million , and Ebrey states perhaps as large as 200 million . However , a great epidemic that entered China through the northwest in 1641 ravaged the densely populated areas along the Grand Canal ; a gazetteer in northern Zhejiang noted more than half the population fell ill that year and that 90 % of the local populace in one area was dead by 1642 .

= 2004 British Open ( snooker ) = The 2004 British Open was the 2004 edition of the British Open snooker tournament , held from 8 to 14 November 2004 at Brighton Centre , Brighton , England . John Higgins won the tournament , defeating Stephen Maguire nine frames to six in the all @-@ Scottish final to lift his first ranking @-@ event title since the 2001 edition of this event . In the semi @-@ finals , Higgins defeated Shaun Murphy 6 – 0 and Maguire defeated Ronnie O 'Sullivan 6 – 1 . The defending champion Stephen Hendry lost in the quarter @-@ finals . Higgins made the highest tournament break with his two breaks of 144 . The tournament , which has not been held since , was the second of eight WPBSA ranking events in the 2004 / 2005 snooker season , following the Grand Prix in October , which was won by O 'Sullivan . It preceded the third ranking event of the season , the UK Championship . = = Tournament summary = = The 2004 British Open was the second ranking event of the 2004 / 2005 snooker season , after the Grand Prix in October , which was won by world number one Ronnie O 'Sullivan — the 2004 and two @-@ time world champion — who defeated Ian McCulloch 9 – 5 in the final . It preceded the UK Championship . The defending champion was seven @-@ time world champion Stephen Hendry who defeated O 'Sullivan 9 – 6 in last year 's final . Hendry was still angry at his loss at the Grand Prix to McCulloch , explaining , " The way I felt at the Grand Prix was down to the fact that I know what I ’ m still capable of " . The total prize fund was £ 200 @,@ 000 and the host broadcaster was Eurosport . O 'Sullivan was considered the favourite , with his mentor Ray Reardon saying " Ronnie is in the form of his life and looks very close to being unstoppable at the moment " . Although few top players reached the final eight in the Grand Prix , O 'Sullivan said he would not be surprised if they performed well in this tournament . = = = Qualifying = = = The qualifying rounds were played between players ranked lower than 32 for one of 16 places in the final stage , at Pontin 's Snooker Centre , Prestatyn , Wales . The matches were best @-@ of @-@ 9 frames until the semi @-@ finals . Highly regarded 17 @-@ year @-@ old Chinese player Ding Junhui , in his professional first season , won his sixth consecutive match when he beat Robin Hull 5 – 2 . The other successful qualifiers included the likes of Shaun Murphy , Mark Selby , Neil Robertson , and Ryan Day . = = = Round 1 = = = The 16 first @-@ round matches were between players ranked 17 – 32 and those who had made it through the qualifying stage . In this round , Ding took 63 minutes to whitewash 5 – 0 Malta 's Tony Drago — who turned professional before Ding was born — outscoring Drago 463 – 73 , for his first appearance in the last 32 of a ranking tournament . European Open winner Stephen Maguire defeated Australian Robertson 5 – 3 , while world number 48 Murphy beat McCulloch 5 – 2 . Michael Holt , in his first season in the top 32 , beat Dave Harold 5 – 2 , and Mark King defeated Selby by the same scoreline . Ali Carter whitewashed Belgian 's number one Bjorn Haneveer 5 – 0 in 76 minutes , while Barry Hawkins prevailed 5 – 4 over Joe Perry , despite the latter making the highest break so far with a 133 . John Parrott made a century break in his 5 – 3 victory over Jamie Burnett , while Joe Jogia won four consecutive frames to overcome Joe Swail 5 – 4 . = = = Round 2 = = = The winners of round 1 went through to face members of the top 16 . Ding continued his run , defeating Jimmy White 5 – 1 to make the last 16 of a ranking event for the first time . Ding called the win his most satisfying to date and White commended his opponent 's performance , saying , " He ’ s dangerous and he ’ s improved a hell of a lot this year " . Elsewhere , Maguire whitewashed UK champion Matthew Stevens 5 – 0 , outscoring him 427 – 68 . O 'Sullivan extended his unbeaten run to 12 matches when he defeated Parrott 5 – 2 , in a match that lasted two hours and 28 minutes and which featured a lot of tactical , disjointed exchanges . He was not satisfied with his performance , however : " I was awful — if I keep playing like that they 'll have to call the nuthouse to come and collect me " . 1997 world champion Ken Doherty , who was ranked seventh but had slipped to fifteenth in the provisional rankings , defeated Quinten Hann 5 – 1 , after Hann had smashed the red balls from his break @-@ off shot at 0 – 4 down , from which he fluked a red and made an 89 break . John Higgins , a three @-@ time champion who first won in 1995 , beat Drew Henry 5 – 1 , and said he would withdraw from the tournament if his pregnant wife went into labour . Hendry beat Robert Milkins 5 – 1 , and dismissed suggestions that the loss at the Grand Prix had inspired him to play better at this tournament . Murphy defeated world number four Paul Hunter 5 – 3 for his second last @-@ 16 appearance in a ranking event , and attributed the win to his happiness off the table ; Murphy — a Christian since the age of 17 — said , " My girlfriend Claire is a wonderful woman . We 've become engaged and we 're involved with a tremendous church in Rotherham " . Two @-@ time world champion and world number two Mark Williams — who became a father in May and had slipped to eighth in the provisional rankings — claimed a 5 – 1 victory over Jogia in 89 minutes . In a hard @-@ fought contest , Stephen Lee defeated King 5 – 4 . The other winners were Carter , Andy Hicks , Anthony Hamilton , Hawkins , Barry Pinches , Holt , and Stuart Bingham . = = = Round 3 = = = In the last 16 , O 'Sullivan compiled two century breaks to whitewash Lee 5 – 0 for his 13th consecutive win and his 9th consecutive quarter @-@ final . Regarding comments he made about his retirement after his previous match , O 'Sullivan said , " There 's no point quoting me because what I say from one day to the next will be different " . Maguire made a total clearance of 140 in his 5 – 2 win over Ding , while Hamilton defeated Williams 5 – 3 for his fourth consecutive win over the world number two . Hendry , whose last tournament victory was this event last year , made four breaks over 60 in his 5 – 2 win over Carter to set up a match with Higgins , who made the highest break so far with a 141 in his 5 – 3 win over Pinches . Doherty became the fifth member of the top eight to lose when he was defeated 4 – 5 by Hicks , while Hawkins defeated Bingham 5 – 4 and Murphy beat Holt 5 – 3 . = = = Quarter @-@ finals = = = In the quarter @-@ finals , O 'Sullivan defeated Hicks 5 – 1 in a match in which Hicks made a few errors . After the match , O 'Sullivan attributed his success to his mentor Reardon . Maguire made three consecutive century breaks from 2 – 0 up to whitewash Hamilton 5 – 0 , setting up a semi @-@ final clash with O 'Sullivan . Maguire won the first two frames on the black , the second after trailing 0 – 74 and requiring two snookers . Maguire said that he played brilliant , like in practice , and Hamilton said his opponent was a " proper talent " . Higgins defeated Hendry 5 – 2 in a low @-@ quality match in which Higgins won the first three frames with a high break of 30 . Hendry won the next two with breaks of 66 and 58 , but Higgins closed the match with breaks of 85 and 79 . Higgins said he was willing to risk a possible fine by attending to his wife if she gave birth . Murphy beat fellow qualifier Hawkins 5 – 3 to reach his first ranking semi @-@ final , with Higgins as the opponent . = = = Semi @-@ finals = = = In the semi @-@ finals , now best @-@ of @-@ 11 , Higgins took 73 minutes to whitewash Murphy 6 – 0 , scoring breaks of 58 , 114 , 57 , 89 , and completing the victory with a total clearance of 144 , the highest break so far . The time of 73 minutes was only two minutes slower than the quickest best @-@ of @-@ 11 match — the semi @-@ finals of the 1993 International Open between Hendry and Dave Harold — and Higgins outscored Murphy 566 – 72 . In the first three frames , Murphy managed to score a total of 10 points . In the fourth , Murphy broke down on a break of 50 before Higgins fluked a yellow , enabling him to make a 57 break . He then fortuitously snooked Murphy on the pink , which Higgins potted to make it 4 – 0 . An 89 break extended Higgins ' lead , before he finished the match with a 144 break . Higgins attributed his performance to a shortening of his cue . In the other semi @-@ final , Maguire ended O 'Sullivan 's 14 @-@ match unbeaten run with a 6 – 1 victory to earn a place in the final against Higgins . Maguire made century breaks in the first two frames , becoming the first player to make five consecutive century breaks ( including the three made in his previous match ) . Maguire won the third on the pink after O 'Sullivan missed the yellow . O 'Sullivan won the next with a break of 51 , before Maguire made a break of 71 in each of the final two frames . After the match , O 'Sullivan — who had won all three previous encounters against Maguire — said , " I ’ ve never seen anything like that on a snooker table before ... He 's a great player , probably the best in the world at the moment " , and even before the match , O 'Sullivan had described Maguire as " of the young ones , definitely the best " . The defeat meant that Reardon lost the £ 100 bet he placed at 150 – 1 that O 'Sullivan would win all eight of the season 's ranking events . = = = Final = = = In the all @-@ Scottish best @-@ of @-@ 17 final , Higgins defeated Maguire 9 – 6 for a record @-@ equalling fourth title . Of the victory , Higgins said it was the most important of his career . He had not won a ranking title since his 2001 victory at this event and had lost his previous six finals . It was his 25th major title and his 16th ranking title , and it earned him £ 30 @,@ 000 in prize money . In the afternoon session , Maguire took the first frame , but Higgins won the next three , compiling a 100 break in the third . Breaks of 72 , 55 , and 76 allowed Maguire to regain the lead , before Higgins took the eighth after Maguire missed a straightforward red to leave it 4 – 4 at the end of the first session . In the evening session , Higgins took the ninth , before Maguire made two breaks over 50 in the 10th . Higgins then made two consecutive century breaks , including a 144 in the 11th , which equalled his own highest break . He continued his run with a break of 68 in the 13th , before Maguire pulled one back in the next . A 97 break gave Higgins the victory . All tournament , Higgins had been anticipating the birth of his child and on 24 November , Higgins became a father for the second time when his wife gave birth to a son , Oliver , shortly after his loss at the UK Championship . = = Main draw = = = = Final = = = = Qualifying = = Qualifying for the tournament took place between 2 and 4 November 2004 at Pontins in Prestatyn , Wales . = = Century breaks = = = = = Qualifying stage centuries = = = = = = Televised stage centuries = = =

= Mercedes @-@ Benz CLR = The Mercedes @-@ Benz CLR was a set of racing cars developed for Mercedes @-@ Benz through a collaboration with in @-@ house tuning division Mercedes @-@ AMG and motorsports specialists HWA GmbH . Designed to meet Le Mans Grand Touring Prototype ( LMGTP ) regulations , the CLRs were intended to compete in sports car events during 1999 , most notably at the 24 Hours of Le Mans which Mercedes had last won in 1989 . It was the third in a series of sports cars raced by Mercedes , following the CLK GTRs and CLK LMs that had debuted in 1997 and 1998 respectively . Like its predecessors the CLR retained elements of Mercedes @-@ Benz 's production cars , including a V8 engine loosely based on a design used in some models as well as bodywork based on the CLK and CL @-@ Classes . The CLR 's bodywork was lower in overall height than that used on the CLKs to produce less drag . Three CLRs were entered for Le Mans in 1999 after the team performed nearly 22 @,@ 000 mi ( 35 @,@ 000 km ) of testing . The cars suffered aerodynamic instabilities along the circuit 's long high @-@ speed straight sections . The car of Australian Mark Webber became airborne and crashed in qualifying , requiring it to be rebuilt . Webber and the repaired CLR returned to the track in a final practice session on the morning of the race , but during its first lap around the circuit , the car once again became airborne and landed on its roof . Mercedes withdrew the damaged CLR but chose to continue in the race despite the accidents . The remaining cars were hastily altered and the drivers were given instructions to avoid closely following other cars . Nearly four hours into the race Scotsman Peter Dumbreck was battling amongst the race leaders when his CLR suffered the same instability and became airborne , this time vaulting the circuit 's safety barriers and crashing in an open field after several somersaults . This and earlier incidents led Mercedes not only to withdraw its remaining car from the event immediately , but also to cancel the entire CLR programme and move the company out of sports car racing . The accidents led to changes in the regulations dictating the design of Le Mans racing cars as well as alterations to the circuit itself to increase safety . = = Background = = In 1996 Mercedes @-@ Benz 's motorsports programmes included support for cars in Formula One , IndyCar , and the International Touring Car Championship ( ITCC ) . Following the collapse of the ITCC at the end of the 1996 season , Mercedes ' attention shifted to a new international series , the FIA GT Championship . Racing partners AMG were tasked with developing a design to meet the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile 's GT1 regulations for the new championship . The new cars , known as CLK GTRs , were designed for use both as racing and road cars available to the public , as series regulations required the racing cars to be based on production models . The CLK GTRs were successful in their debut season , winning seven of eleven races and earning both the drivers ' and teams ' championships . For the 1998 season AMG refined the CLK GTR 's design with the launch of the new CLK LM . A major change for the new design was the replacement of the CLK GTR 's V12 engine with a smaller V8 , thought by Mercedes to be more suitable to take on longer endurance events such as the 24 Hours of Le Mans , a race not part of the FIA GT calendar . Despite earning pole position for Le Mans , the new cars were unreliable and both lasted less than three hours before retiring from mechanical failures . The race was won by Mercedes ' FIA GT rivals Porsche . Mercedes did go on to win its second straight FIA GT Championships later that year after winning all ten races . After the dominance of Mercedes , most of the GT1 class competitors chose to not return to the FIA GT Championship for 1999 , leading the FIA to eliminate the category from the series . The Automobile Club de l 'Ouest ( ACO ) , organisers of the 24 Hours of Le Mans , chose to follow the FIA 's lead and no longer allow GT1 category cars to enter Le Mans . While FIA GT concentrated solely on its lower GT2 category in 1999 , the ACO created a new category of race car known as a Le Mans Grand Touring Prototype ( LMGTP ) . The LMGTP regulations for closed @-@ cockpit cars were similar to the former GT1 regulations but shared many elements with the ACO 's existing open @-@ cockpit Le Mans Prototype ( LMP ) category . Mercedes , no longer able to compete in the FIA GT Championship with the CLK LMs , chose to concentrate on the ACO 's new LMGTP category . = = Development = = Work on designing a new car to meet LMGTP regulations began in September 1998 as Mercedes was closing out its second FIA GT Championship season . Development was led by HWA GmbH , the motorsports division of AMG , which became an independent company the following year . The LMGTP rules did not require road versions of the cars to be built , so Gerhard Ungar , chief designer for HWA , was free to develop the CLR without concern for road legality issues or the inclusion of driver comforts . The transition from GT1 to LMGTP also allowed a decrease in the minimum allowed weight , from 950 kg ( 2 @,@ 090 lb ) to 900 kg ( 2 @,@ 000 lb ) . The new design had a much smaller cockpit monocoque made from carbon fibre and aluminium honeycomb . The monocoque derived the design of its lower half from the CLK LM 's combination of carbon fibre and steel tube frame , but required a full carbon and aluminium upper half because of new load tests mandatory for LMGTP cockpits . The bodywork of the CLR was also 10 cm ( 4 in ) shorter in overall height compared to the CLK LM , while the nose was substantially lower and flatter than its predecessor due to a shorter wheelbase allowing longer overhangs . Aerodynamic development on the design was carried out at the University of Stuttgart 's wind tunnel and assisted by the aerodynamic specialists Fondmetal Technologies . Aerodynamic emphasis was placed on low drag for maximum top speed . Mercedes @-@ Benz 's brand image was also retained with the reuse of CLK @-@ Class tail lights from the CLK LM and a front grill and headlights based on the then @-@ new CL @-@ Class . The engine for the CLR was also a variant of the design used on the CLK LM . The GT108C 32 valve V8 was loosely based on the M119 engine used in Mercedes @-@ Benz road cars at that time . A previous variant of the M119 had won Le Mans for Mercedes in 1989 . Displacement was increased from 5 @.@ 0 L ( 310 cu in ) to 5 @.@ 7 L ( 350 cu in ) to compensate for the new air restrictor limitations in the LMGTP category , which allowed the motor to produce approximately 600 bhp ( 450 kW ; 610 PS ) . The first engine was completed and began testing in December 1998 . The Xtrac 6 @-@ speed sequential gearbox came directly from the CLK LM , while Bridgestone continued as the team 's tyre supplier . The suspension setup from the CLK LM was largely carried over to the CLR , although a central spring was added to the rear suspension . Mercedes publicly announced its CLR programme in February 1999 just days before the first car began private testing at California Speedway in the United States . Testing continued into March at California as well as Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway in Florida before the team moved to the Circuit de Nevers Magny @-@ Cours in France . At Magny @-@ Cours three CLRs completed a 30 @-@ hour test session covering 8 @,@ 073 mi ( 12 @,@ 992 km ) . On 20 April the CLR was shown to the press for the first time during a test session at the Hockenheimring in Germany . By that point in the development process the CLRs had covered 21 @,@ 735 mi ( 34 @,@ 979 km ) in testing without any major failures . = = Preparation = = The initial schedule for the CLRs consisted of participation in the May pre @-@ qualifying and testing session at Le Mans in preparation for the race in June . At the team 's Hockenheim test session plans were announced to enter several races after Le Mans . The first , scheduled for July , was to be an exhibition event consisting of two 60 mi ( 97 km ) races at the Norisring street circuit in Nuremberg , Germany . Mercedes planned to enter four CLRs in the event . The team would then end its season with the final three races of the American Le Mans Series : the 10 @-@ hour Petit Le Mans endurance at Road Atlanta and shorter races at Laguna Seca Raceway and Las Vegas Motor Speedway . More than 200 personnel from Mercedes @-@ Benz and HWA formed the crew for the three cars although the team was officially known as AMG @-@ Mercedes . As part of its launch announcement in February 1999 , Mercedes named nine drivers to the team . Retained from the FIA GT programme were Christophe Bouchut , Jean @-@ Marc Gounon , Bernd Schneider , Marcel Tiemann , and Mark Webber . Nick Heidfeld , then a test driver for the McLaren Mercedes Formula One team , was added to the team for his first experience with sports cars . Former Macau Grand Prix winner and All @-@ Japan Formula Three champion Peter Dumbreck also came from an open wheel racing background . Pedro Lamy , 1998 FIA GT2 Champion , was drafted from the Oreca Chrysler team to participate at Le Mans and in the Deutsche Tourewagen Masters for Mercedes , while Franck Lagorce transferred from Nissan 's Le Mans squad . Darren Turner , also a test driver for McLaren , served as the team 's reserve driver for Le Mans . = = Le Mans = = = = = Practice and qualifying = = = By winning the 1998 FIA GT Championship , Mercedes were awarded a single guaranteed entry for Le Mans , which was assigned to Gounon , Tiemann , and Webber in CLR No. 4 . Bouchut , Dumbreck , and Heidfeld in the No. 5 and Lagorce , Lamy , and Schneider in the No. 6 entries would have to pre @-@ qualify for the event , while No. 4 was free to use the pre @-@ qualifying session for testing purposes . Pre @-@ qualifying involved all 62 entry applicant teams setting lap times over a long session . The final entry for Le Mans would be made of 48 cars , combining guaranteed entries and the fastest cars in pre @-@ qualifying within their respective classes ; the prototype category , combining LMP and LMGTP cars , only allowed 28 cars from 31 entries . Competitors in the prototype category for 1999 included factory @-@ supported LMGTP programmes from Toyota and Audi , and LMP entries from Nissan , BMW , Audi , and Panoz . Toyota set the fastest pre @-@ qualifying time overall , followed by Panoz and BMW . Mercedes No. 6 was the sixth fastest car , while Nos. 4 and 5 were 14th and 15th respectively . Although the cars succeeded in passing pre @-@ qualifying , one CLR suffered a setback when a suspension linkage was torn from the front of the monocoque . The suspension failure was the first major fault suffered by the CLRs since their testing debut in February . Several weeks after pre @-@ qualifying , Mercedes ' returned for two days of practice and qualifying sessions in the week leading up to the race . The sessions would set the starting grid for the race based on the fastest overall lap time by each car . At the end of the first day , Mercedes ' entries were fifth , sixth , and eighth on the provisional grid . Toyota led the session , over four seconds ahead of the fastest Mercedes . Early in the second day of sessions , Webber , driving CLR No. 4 , was following the Audi R8R of Frank Biela through the portion of the circuit connecting Mulsanne Corner and the Indianapolis complex when he moved out of the Audi 's slipstream to overtake . The CLR suddenly lifted its nose and front wheels off the circuit and became airborne , flipping upwards and somersaulting backwards before rotating onto its side . The car impacted the tarmac with its right side while perpendicular to the circuit then flipped back onto its wheels before skidding 300 m ( 980 ft ) into the safety barriers on the side of the circuit . Webber was extracted from the car by track marshals and taken to a nearby hospital suffering from a sore neck , chest , and back . The accident occurred in an area not generally accessible to the public and was not seen by television cameras . Due to the accident , the No. 4 car was unable to improve its qualifying time from the previous day , which relegated the car to tenth on the starting grid as competitors improved their times ; Mercedes No. 5 also did not improve its lap time and finished the session seventh . Bernd Schneider was able to go quicker than his time from the previous day with a 3 : 31 @.@ 541 lap for the No. 6 car . Toyota took pole position with a 3 : 29 @.@ 930 lap , while Schneider 's car was placed fourth on the final starting grid . The wreckage of the CLR No. 4 was returned to Mercedes at the end of the qualifying session and the team issued a press release confirming that they could repair the car before the start of the race two days later . A spare CLR monocoque , taken from a test car , was used to rebuild the No. 4 . Webber was able to recover from his injuries by spending the following day in physical training and was cleared on Saturday morning to participate in the race . = = = Warm @-@ up = = = On the morning of the race , a warm @-@ up session lasting half an hour was held as a final preparation for the teams . Mercedes No. 4 , repaired after its Thursday accident , joined its two teammates on the circuit as the session began . Webber was once again driving the No. 4 car as the trio made their way down the Mulsanne Straight . Approaching Mulsanne Corner , Webber trailed his two teammates but was approximately 15 m ( 50 ft ) behind a Chrysler Viper GTS @-@ R entered by Team Oreca . Cresting a hill at the approach to the corner , Webber 's car lifted its nose into the air once again and rose over 9 m ( 30 ft ) above the track , somersaulting backwards before twisting towards its right and hitting the tarmac with the right rear of the car while inverted , shedding its engine cover , rear wing , and nose . The car skidded on its roof into a run @-@ off area just short of the roundabout next to the Mulsanne Corner before coming to a halt . Marshals were eventually able to right the Mercedes and extract Webber , who sustained no major injuries . Television cameras located at Mulsannes Corner captured the aftermath of the accident and broadcast pictures of the CLR on its roof to the worldwide audience . Photographers in the same location also captured the car as it flipped . The ACO later published these photographs in its 1999 yearbook . Mercedes immediately withdrew CLR No. 4 from the event as the race was only a few hours from beginning . Norbert Haug , head of Mercedes @-@ Benz 's motorsport activities , contacted Adrian Newey , chief aerodynamicist of the McLaren Formula One team , for consultation on modifying the remaining CLRs to prevent further accidents . The drivers were also consulted on whether they believed the cars were too dangerous to race ; Bouchut felt that the front of the car could become light at high speeds and voiced his concerns to the team , but other drivers had not felt this issue with the cars . Mercedes opted to make modifications to the front bodywork of the two remaining cars by adding dive planes to the fenders for increased downforce but sacrificing overall top speed . The drivers were also instructed not to follow other cars too closely . = = = Race = = = With only two CLRs remaining , Mercedes started from the fourth and seventh place grid positions . Schneider was able to move into third place behind the two Toyotas in the opening laps while Bouchut progressed to fourth . The Toyotas made pit stops first , followed by Schneider and Bouchut , then the two BMWs . One of the Toyotas eventually suffered transmission issues which dropped it down in the field , leaving the top six positions to be swapped amongst the two remaining Toyotas , two Mercedes , and two BMWs as they made pit stops on different schedules . Driver changes during later pit stops had Lagorce getting in the No. 6 to replace Schneider , while Dumbreck replaced Bouchut in the No. 5 . Schneider reported that , despite some initial problems dealing with the car 's new aerodynamics , it was running well by the end of his stint . Towards the close of the fourth hour of the race , Dumbreck 's Mercedes came into contact with the GTS @-@ class Porsche 911 GT2 of the Estoril Racing team at the Ford Chicanes , but continued with no apparent damage . On lap 76 Dumbreck was in third place and catching Thierry Boutsen 's Toyota in second place . The Mercedes and Toyota were nose to tail on the run from Mulsannes Corner to Indianapolis at nearly 200 mph ( 320 km / h ) with both drivers partially blinded by the setting sun ahead of them . At a slight right kink in the straight , Dumbreck 's CLR ran over the small apex kerbing and suddenly lifted its front wheels from the ground before somersaulting backwards as the entire car became airborne . The Mercedes rotated three times as it flew in the air , reaching a height of nearly 15 m ( 50 ft ) . The car continued its trajectory as the circuit curved to the right , clearing a marshaling post and the safety barrier on the left side of the track and missing a large advertising billboard bridging the track just ahead of it . Television cameras broadcasting the live world feed captured the CLR 's aerobatics before it went out of view behind trees . The car impacted the ground in an area of woods alongside the circuit that had been cut and cleared only two weeks prior and was inaccessible to spectators . The car dug a rut in the dirt as it continued to tumble in the clearing . The impact forced a tree limb to penetrate the monocoque between the driver 's seat and fuel tank . The CLR came to rest right side up and track marshals rushed to the stopped car . Track officials quickly slowed the race with caution flags and safety cars to dispatch recovery vehicles . Dumbreck was knocked unconscious after the initial impact but awoke and climbed from the car where he was found by the marshals and local Gendarmerie officers in the area . Dumbreck was later given a breathalyser test by the officers due to Le Mans ' use of public roads before being transported by ambulance to a local hospital for examinations before being released . At the end of the 76th lap Lagorce was ordered by the team to bring the remaining CLR directly to its garage ; upon the car 's arrival AMG @-@ Mercedes shut the last of its three garage doors signifying its official retirement from the event . National rivals BMW went on to win the race the following day . = = Aftermath = = Following the race the ACO and the Fédération Française du Sport Automobile ( FFSA ) national motorsport body investigated the incidents . The FFSA questioned the ACO 's decision to allow Mercedes to continue to compete after the two accidents prior to the race start , but the ACO argued that there were no indications that the problems that befell CLR No. 4 were shared by the other Mercedes entries . The ACO argued that the design of the CLR , with the longest front and rear overhang amongst the prototype field , was the cause of the problem . A Porsche 911 GT1 , similar in design to the CLR , had suffered a nearly identical accident the year before at Road Atlanta in the United States . The ACO changed the regulations for the LMGTP category in 2000 , decreasing the allowable length of overhang . The FIA also instructed its Advisory Expert Group to develop new regulations to prevent similar airborne accidents in other racing cars . The LMGTP class itself was abandoned by the teams in 2000 as Toyota cancelled its programme and Audi concentrated on open @-@ cockpit LMP cars ; the class reappeared in 2001 . Peter Dumbreck , in response to his accident , initially blamed the height of the kerbs he had run on when his car became airborne , but Mercedes @-@ Benz responded by stating that blame did not lie with the circuit . The kerbs , as well as the entire Le Mans circuit , were all approved by the FIA . After the 2000 race the ACO and the French government did make modifications to the Route nationale 138 which forms the Mulsanne Straight , by decreasing the height of a hill by 7 @.@ 9 m ( 26 ft ) on the approach to the Mulsanne Corner where Webber had his warm @-@ up accident . Before the race had concluded , Mercedes @-@ Benz addressed criticism from other drivers and teams of its decisions . Haug believed that the team 's data from Webber 's practice incident had been adequately analysed and that the drivers did not feel there were problems with their cars in traffic that could cause the same incidents , prompting his decision to continue . He also stated his belief that contact between CLR No. 5 and the Estoril Porsche may have damaged the front diffuser and led to the aerodynamic instabilities . Shortly after Le Mans Mercedes conducted its own examination of the accidents by running the remaining CLR on an airfield to verify wind tunnel data . Although no conclusions were published by Mercedes the company cancelled the rest of its 1999 programme , withdrawing from the Norisring exhibition event and the final three rounds of the American Le Mans Series . The team 's change in plans for the Norisring eventually led to the entire event being cancelled over a lack of manufacturer involvement . Mercedes returned to touring car racing from 2000 onwards , and has not participated at Le Mans in any capacity since 1999 . Despite the failure of the CLR project , Christophe Bouchut felt that the cars were his favorite to drive in a 21 @-@ year career at Le Mans , praising the cars ' handling and technology . Following the damage to CLRs Nos. 4 and 5 during the Le Mans week , the remaining car has rarely been seen but has begun to make reappearances in recent years . As part of a 2008 celebration for the retirement of Bernd Schneider , CLR No. 6 was publicly displayed in Sankt Ingbert , Germany . The car appeared in the hands of a private owner in 2009 at a Modena Trackdays event held at the Nürburgring and was driven on the circuit . The failures of the CLRs have become lore for Le Mans and motorsport in general . Speed Channel , as part of its tenth anniversary , named its broadcast of Dumbreck 's accident as the fourth most memorable moment in the network 's history . Road & Track magazine 's list of the ten most infamous crashes at Le Mans named Webber 's warm @-@ up accident as seventh and Dumbreck 's crash as second .

= Love in Motion ( Anika Moa album ) = Love in Motion is the fourth studio album by New Zealand singer @-@ songwriter Anika Moa . The album 's underlying theme is love . Moa 's civil partner , Azaria Universe , was her biggest influence when writing the album . With Love in Motion , Moa moved from the folk and country pop influences of In Swings the Tide to a pop rock sound . The album was released by EMI Records internationally on 12 March 2010 , with releases in Moa 's home country and Australia following on 5 April and 10 September , respectively . Moa toured Westfield malls the week of the album 's release , and a concert tour followed in May and June 2010 . Critical reviews for the album have been mostly positive , with Moa 's lyrical writing received well . It debuted and peaked on the New Zealand Albums Chart at number four . " Running Through the Fire ( Storm ) " served as the album 's lead single , which peaked at number thirty @-@ eight on the New Zealand Singles Chart . " Blame It on the Rain " , the second single , did not appear on any record chart . Love in Motion Covers was released in October 2011 ; it comprises covers of the songs from Love in Motion by other musicians . = = Background and recording = = Moa has said that her partner , burlesque dancer Azaria Universe , with whom she entered into a civil union in February 2010 , was a major inspiration for the album . Love in Motion is dedicated to Universe , with the CD liner bearing the message , " For Azaria , let it be you , I fall into " . When writing the album , Moa wanted to put the word " love " into the title of every song . Ultimately , four of the ten track titles contain " love " or " loves " , and every song has the word in its lyrics . In interviews , Moa has revealed the inspiration and circumstances around many of its songs . She said that " I Am the Woman Who Loves You " is about when she and Universe first met and that " Love Me Again " is about " taking the piss out of [ her ] love for Azaria " , calling the latter " a real Anika Moa song . " According to Moa , " Two Hearts " and " Secrets and Lies " were inspired by people who " fucked [ her ] off " . " Secrets and Lies " was written while Moa says she was " in a really bad mood " , however she asserts that it is her favourite track on the album . Moa said that " Blame It On the Rain " is about a person who Moa " will never ever name because they will be really , really sad if they knew " . " In the Air " is about Moa 's fear of flying , and " Running Through the Fire ( Storm ) " , originally simply called " Storm " , was prompted by the death of Moa 's father . After interviewing Moa , The New Zealand Herald 's Scott Kara said that Love in Motion " is about love on all levels " . Moa described love as having " so many aspects to it . " She also said that " all of the songs are about love that 's true . " In an interview with Wendyl Nissen from Newstalk ZB , Moa explained , " Most of the songs that I write are based on memories of my life or memories of someone who I know 's life " . She also mentioned that the album was influenced by many types of love ; not only her own , but also the love of her family , and love illustrated on soap operas such as Shortland Street and Grey 's Anatomy . Moa wrote the songs for Love in Motion in two weeks , and it was recorded in two more weeks . Most of the album was written in Melbourne , while recording took place at three locations : Roundhead Studios , Boatshed Studio and Radio New Zealand . Moa and Andre Upston produced the album . The writing and recording of Love in Motion was documented in the film In Bed With Anika Moa by filmmaker Justin Pemberton for the TVNZ documentary series Artsville . = = Composition = = Moa stated that " this is the first album that I really thought about what I wanted ... I wanted to keep [ the songs ] simple in structure , concentrating on the layering of vocals and guitars . " With Love in Motion , Moa moved away from her traditional pop and country pop sound to a pop rock environment . She intentionally changed the sound , through alterations in production and engineering , rather than the writing style . Moa told co @-@ producer Andre Upston that she wanted the album to sound " dirty and gritty . " The album combines the genres of pop rock , " 80s pop " , bubblegum pop , and rock 'n'roll , as well as including both acoustic and electropop , and contains layered harmonies . Comparisons to the work of Ladyhawke , Sharon O 'Neill , Pat Benatar and Bic Runga have been made . The sound of " I Am the Woman Who Loves You " , noted as a standout track by critics , was called " big but not overblown ... stylish and swooning " . Lyrically , Love in Motion explores a wide variety of the main theme of love . The title track centres around " pure , unguarded joy " , and sexual innuendo exists during " Love Me Again " , while " Two Hearts " contains harsh lines and " Secrets and Lies " includes " don 't @-@ mess @-@ with @-@ me outpourings " . Various songs also examine conflict , and others , the loss of love . = = Release and promotion = = Love in Motion was released digitally by the Flightless Birds label internationally on 12 March 2010 . A New Zealand release followed on 5 April , by EMI Records , as both digital download and CD formats . During the week of the album 's release ( 6 – 10 April ) , Moa toured several Westfield shopping malls in Auckland , Hamilton , Wellington and Christchurch , playing for free to the public . In Australia , EMI released the album on 10 September 2010 . A special edition was released on 18 October 2010 , featuring a second disc of acoustic versions of each track on the album . Moa said that " I 've chosen to record an acoustic version of the album because I believe in the vulnerable , simplistic side of music and writing . The way you connect the songs the first time you hear it , no drums , no effects , no funky bass lines , just your voice and a guitar ... it feels like magic . " = = = Singles = = = The lead single from Love in Motion , " Running Through the Fire ( Storm ) " , was released in New Zealand on 5 April 2010 , the same day as the album . " Running Through the Fire ( Storm ) " briefly charted on the New Zealand Singles Chart in its week of release , at number thirty @-@ eight . Despite this , the song fell off the chart the next week . " Blame It on the Rain " was released as the Australian single via digital download on 27 August , but it did not appear on any singles chart . = = = Tour = = = A concert tour was held in various New Zealand cities in late May and early June 2010 . Chip Matthews , Geoff Maddock and Nick Gaffaney , who all played on the album , joined Moa on the tour . Karyn Cushen of Undertheradar said " Moa wears her new musical influence well ... featuring less pop , less blues and less country influences , " and called the tour shows " a refreshing change . " The Timaru Herald 's Katarina Filipe praised Moa 's live performing nature , noting that " the radio and CD versions were nothing compared to her on @-@ stage performance " . Vicki Anderson of The Press lauded the accompaniment by Matthews , Maddock and Gaffaney for giving songs " new energy " , while the Waikato Times ' Kate Monahan called the show " a high @-@ energy , emotionally powerful performance " . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = Reviews for Love in Motion were mostly positive . Tom Cardy of The Dominion Post called the album " near faultless " and gave it a rating of five @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five stars , commenting that " Moa 's risky decision ... to follow her own path ... was the right one . " The Nelson Mail 's Nick Ward praised the " slightly tough " album , putting it " up there with her best work . " Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald called the album " diverse and interesting , " and gave it four out of five stars . Amplifier 's Jo Tindling compared the work with that of Ladyhawke , and called it " different from her other work but ... her voice is still as tender and sweet as it ever was " . Simon Sweetman from North & South described the album as " an almost understated collection of love songs – possibly Moa 's strongest effort . " The Bay of Plenty Times ' Kristin MacFarlane said that " Anika Moa fans ... certainly won 't be disappointed " . Vicki Anderson of The Press complimented Moa 's lyrics , writing , " Whoever coined the phrase ' heart on sleeve ' must have had Moa in mind . " She concluded , " Love in Motion only serves to confirm my belief that Anika Moa is one of New Zealand 's best songwriters . " However , Graham Reid from Elsewhere wrote that " it is ... a lot of very personal love being revealed and explored here and some will doubtless find that introspective nature and narrow wavelength less appealing than what has preceded it . " The Otago Daily Times ' Shane Gilchrest gave Love in Motion three stars , saying that Moa " ends up playing it a bit too safe . " James Thompson from the Waikato Times commended " the power of the lyrics " , but said that " regrettably , Love in Motion will not be ... a hugely successful album . " Love in Motion won the Best Female Solo Artist award at the 2010 New Zealand Music Awards , beating Holy Smoke by Gin Wigmore and Humour and the Misfortune of Others by Hollie Smith . It was also nominated for the awards of Album of the Year and Best Pop Album , which were both won by Wigmore 's album . = = = Commercial reception = = = Love in Motion peaked at its début position of number four on the RIANZ New Zealand Albums Chart . The album remained on the chart for eleven non @-@ consecutive weeks . This makes it Moa 's second @-@ highest peaking album , behind Thinking Room ( 2001 ) , which peaked at number @-@ one on the Albums Chart . It is also her third @-@ longest charting album , behind Thinking Room and In Swings the Tide ( 2007 ) , which spent forty @-@ five and thirty @-@ nine weeks on the chart , respectively . = = Track listing = = All tracks written by Anika Moa . " Two Hearts " – 4 : 03 " Running Through the Fire ( Storm ) " – 3 : 49 " I Am the Woman Who Loves You " – 4 : 57 " Blame It on the Rain " – 5 : 02 " Secrets and Lies " – 3 : 49 " Love Me Again " – 4 : 20 " Flying on the Wings " – 4 : 22 " Love in Motion " – 3 : 50 " In the Air " – 3 : 31 " Burn This Love " – 3 : 19 New Zealand and Australian iTunes Stores download only 11 . " Running Through the Fire ( Storm ) " [ Acoustic Version ] – 4 : 15 = = Personnel = = Source : CD liner = = Release history = = = = Love in Motion Covers = = On 31 October 2011 , Moa released Love in Motion Covers , with each of the original album 's ten tracks covered by a different New Zealand artist . " Give My Heart to You " , written by Moa and Geoff Maddock , was also included ; while this song was not included on the original version of Love in Motion , Moa released her recording of it as a single on 11 April 2011 . Nick Ward from The Nelson Mail rated the covers album four stars out of five . Moa had the idea after hearing her friend Tim Guy cover one of her songs . Guy 's cover of " Burn This Love " appears on the album . = = = Track listing = = =

= New Jersey Route 77 = Route 77 is a state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 22 @.@ 55 mi ( 36 @.@ 29 km ) from an intersection with Route 49 in Bridgeton , Cumberland County north to a junction with Route 45 in Mullica Hill , Gloucester County . It is a mostly two @-@ lane , undivided road traversing through farmland in Cumberland , Salem , and Gloucester Counties . Along the way , Route 77 intersects Route 56 in Upper Deerfield Township and U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) in Upper Pittsgrove Township . Prior to 1927 , the route was a branch of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 that ran from Bridgeton to Mullica Hill . In 1927 , it was designated as Route 46 , which replaced the Bridgeton @-@ Mullica Hill branch of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 . In 1953 , it was renumbered to Route 77 to avoid conflicting with US 46 in the northern part of the state . = = Route description = = Route 77 heads north from Route 49 and County Route 609 ( CR 609 ) in Bridgeton , Cumberland County on Pearl Street . In a short distance , the route intersects CR 670 and then crosses CR 552 , which ends a block to the west at Laurel Street . It continues north through residential areas of Bridgeton , meeting CR 665 and CR 659 . Route 77 heads into a commercial area , crossing into Upper Deerfield Township at the junction with Laurel Plaza Drive . The route intersects the western terminus of Route 56 and CR 622 , where the route is briefly a four @-@ lane road . Past this junction , Route 77 heads into farmland , where it encounters several county roads including CR 704 , CR 617 , and CR 658 . It heads north into Seabrook , where it meets CR 743 and CR 711 . Route 77 intersects CR 612 and CR 630 before crossing CR 540 in Deerfield . Past CR 540 , the route has junctions with CR 640 and CR 730 . Route 77 then encounters CR 614 , the last county route intersection in Cumberland County . Route 77 crosses into Upper Pittsgrove Township , Salem County , where it becomes Pole Tavern @-@ Bridgeton Road , and crosses CR 611 in Shirley . It continues north through farms to Pole Tavern , where Route 77 meets US 40 , CR 604 , and CR 635 at the Pole Tavern Circle . Past the Pole Tavern Circle , the route becomes Bridgeton Pike and crosses CR 660 . Before leaving Salem County , Route 77 intersects two more county routes : CR 619 and CR 666 . Route 77 crosses Oldmans Creek into Elk Township , Gloucester County , meeting CR 641 and CR 616 before crossing CR 538 . Past this junction , the route crosses CR 618 and enters Harrison Township . Route 77 continues northwest and enters Mullica Hill , where it intersects the northern terminus of CR 581 and heads north on South Main Street . Route 77 ends at Route 45 , where Route 45 continues to the north on South Main Street . = = History = = Prior to 1927 , the route was a branch of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 , which had run south from Camden and split into two branches in Mullica Hill that ran to Salem and Bridgeton . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 46 was designated along the former branch of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 that ran from Bridgeton to Mullica Hill . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , which stated that no state route and U.S. route could share the same number , Route 46 was changed to Route 77 to avoid a conflict with US 46 in North Jersey . = = Major intersections = =

= Summit Series = The Summit Series , or Super Series ( in Russian Суперсерия СССР — Канада ) , known at the time simply as the Canada – USSR Series , was an eight @-@ game series of ice hockey between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Canada , held in September 1972 . It was the first competition between the Soviet national team and a Canadian team represented by professional players of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , known as Team Canada . It was the first international ice hockey competition for Canada after Canada had withdrawn from international ice hockey competitions in a dispute with the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) . The series was organized with the intention to create a true best @-@ on @-@ best competition in the sport of ice hockey . The Soviets had become the dominant team in international competitions , which disallowed the professional players of Canada . Canada had had a long history of dominance of the sport prior to the Soviets ' rise . The first four games of the series were held in Canada and the final four in Moscow . The Soviet Union surprised the Canadian team and most of the hockey media with an opening game victory , 7 – 3 . Many sportswriters had predicted an overwhelming victory for Canada in the series . Canada won the next game 4 – 1 ; the third game was a tie and the Soviets won game four to take a two games to one lead after the Canadian segment . The series resumed two weeks later in Moscow . The Soviets won game five to take a three games to one series lead . The Canadians won the final three games in Moscow to win the series four games to three , with one tie . The final game was won in dramatic fashion , with the Canadians overcoming a two @-@ goal Soviet lead after two periods . The Canadians scored three in the third , the final one scored with 34 seconds left , by Paul Henderson . The series was played during the Cold War , and intense feelings of nationalism were aroused in both Canada and the Soviet Union , as well as on the ice . The games introduced several talented Soviet players to North America , such as Alexander Yakushev , Valeri Kharlamov and goaltender Vladislav Tretiak , a future Hall of Fame inductee . Team Canada , the first NHL and professional all @-@ star team formed for international play , was led by Phil Esposito , who led the series in scoring , as well as contributing in other roles . The Canadian line of Bobby Clarke , Ron Ellis and Henderson , which was not expected to start for the team , as none were yet stars , played a surprisingly large role in the Canadian win . The series was filled with controversy , starting with the exclusion of top Canadian player Bobby Hull and including disputes over officiating , dirty play on the part of both teams and the deliberate injury of Kharlamov by Clarke in game six . = = Background = = From the beginning of the IIHF World Championships in 1920 , Canada would send a senior amateur club team , usually the previous year 's Allan Cup champion , to compete as the Canadian entry . These teams were often university players , or unpaid players playing ice hockey while being employed in some other profession full @-@ time . From the 1920s until the 1950s , Canadian amateur club teams won most of the World Championship and Olympic titles . As a career , Canadian players would play instead in the various professional hockey leagues , the best reaching the NHL . Their professional status made them ineligible to play in the World Championships or Olympics under the rules of the time . The last Canadian amateur club to win the world championship was the Trail Smoke Eaters in 1961 . In the earliest days of the Soviet Union , bandy or " Russian hockey " was played , not " Canadian hockey " , and the Soviets did not compete in the Olympics or World Championships , which played the Canadian game . Post @-@ World War II , a goal of the Central Committee of the Soviet Union was world supremacy in sport . The decision was made to transfer resources to the Canadian game . Starting in the 1940s , the Soviet Union started a Soviet hockey league playing the Canadian game . The elite sports societies of the Soviet Union , such as Central Sports Club Army , Dynamo and Spartak , soon became the elite teams of the hockey league and supplied the players for the national team . Ostensibly amateurs , the players played hockey full @-@ time , paid by the government . The players had other titular professions ; for example Moscow Dynamo players became officers of the KGB ; CSKA Moscow players became officers in the army . This preserved a player 's amateur status for Olympic and World Championship eligibility and the players would have a career after their hockey playing days ended . Entering international play in 1954 , the Soviet national team under the tutelage of Anatoli Tarasov started to dominate the international competitions , and won nine consecutive championships in the 1960s . Canada , in response , developed a national team of its own . But Canada 's best players usually became professionals and the national team featured mostly university players . The Canadian team did not win any championships and was looked upon as a failure . By 1969 , the Government of Canada had formed Hockey Canada , an organization to co @-@ ordinate Canadian international play with its amateur organizations and the NHL . In July 1969 , on a trial basis , the inclusion of nine professional players for any event for one year was agreed to by the IIHF . Canada entered a team with five professionals in the Izvestia tournament at Christmas in 1969 , and nearly won the tournament . The IIHF then convened an emergency meeting in January 1970 , and the rule allowing professionals was rescinded . In response , Canada withdrew from IIHF play . The 1970 IIHF World Championships , scheduled to be held in Canada for the first time , were transferred to Sweden after Canada refused to host the event . = = Organization = = The Canadian embassy in Moscow learned of the Soviets ' interest in a series initially through reading an article in the Soviet Izvestia newspaper in the winter of 1971 – 1972 . Diplomat Gary Smith , responsible for sport and cultural exchanges with the Soviet Union , read that the Soviets were looking for a new challenge in ice hockey . Smith met with Izvestia sports editor Boris Fedosov initially , then followed up with a meeting with Soviet hockey boss Andrei Starovoitov . The Soviets divulged that they were ready to play in a series between its national team and Canadian professionals . After the meetings , Canadian ambassador Robert Ford passed the matter to Ottawa to negotiate a series and Hockey Canada was given the task to nail down the terms for a series . Hockey Canada and the Soviet Hockey Federation met in Prague in April 1972 during the IIHF World Ice Hockey Championships . The two sides agreed on the terms : four games in Canada , to be held in Montreal ( Montreal Forum ) , Toronto ( Maple Leaf Gardens ) , Winnipeg ( Winnipeg Arena ) , and Vancouver ( Pacific Coliseum ) and four games in the Soviet Union , all of them to be held in Moscow at the Luzhniki Ice Palace . The Canadians agreed to hold the series in September and play the games under international rules . The Canadians agreed to IIHF amateur referees in the Canada part of the series , and European referees in the Moscow games . The refereeing would use the international two referee system , not the one referee , two linemen system in place in the NHL , and , at the time , being introduced into international play . The Canadian side agreed to the terms under the belief that the Canadians would have no difficulty winning under any set of conditions . Joe Kryczka , president of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association ( CAHA ) , who was present at the negotiations , felt however , that the Soviets had demanded the concessions for their own benefit , believing that their team was already equal to any NHL team . The NHL later requested dates in October or November but the idea was abandoned . NHL players ' union president and Hockey Canada director Alan Eagleson , while not involved in the initial negotiations , became a central figure in the organization of the series . Eagleson , who could call on a personal network of players , NHL owners , Hockey Canada executives and Canadian business , would be involved in most arrangements for the Canadian team . Eagleson would confide to Toronto Star reporter Alexander Ross , that he " un @-@ negotiated " much of what had been negotiated between the governments . Eagleson placated the NHL owners by arranging that part of the series ' proceeds would go to the NHL player 's pension fund , reducing payments from the owners , and threatening to have his player clients play without NHL co @-@ operation . Before the first game , Eagleson personally paid to settle a lawsuit won by a Montreal man , whose car had been destroyed in the 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia . The court had ordered the Soviet team 's hockey equipment seized to guarantee payment , threatening the start of the series . Former Boston Bruins ' coach Harry Sinden , who had been out of hockey since leaving the Bruins in 1970 , was suggested by the media as a good candidate for the job of Team Canada 's coach . Ron Brown , a sportswriter from Kingston , Ontario called Sinden and in the interview , Sinden admitted that he was available and willing to take the position . After a phone call from Sinden to Alan Eagleson , it was arranged for Sinden to have an interview with Hockey Canada 's steering committee for the series in June . After the one interview , Hockey Canada selected Sinden for the position . Sinden selected former player John Ferguson as his assistant coach , after initially trying to recruit Ferguson as a player . The Soviets selected Vsevolod Bobrov as the coach for the series . Bobrov was a former player who had played against Team Canada in the 1950s and later managed the Soviet national soccer team and the Moscow Spartak ice hockey team . Bobrov had been given the job as the Soviets ' national ice hockey team coach , replacing long @-@ time coach Anatoli Tarasov after the 1972 Winter Olympics . This was his second international assignment ; his first was the 1972 World Championship , where Czechoslovakia had defeated the Soviet Union , ending a run of nine consecutive championships by the Soviets . The Canadian team would be known as Team Canada for the first time . The name and sweater design was done by advertising agency Vickers and Benson . Eagleson wanted to call the team the " NHL All @-@ Stars " , but the agency convinced Eagleson otherwise , as the teams were from the USSR and Canada . The name Team Canada was inspired by the contemporary auto @-@ racing team Team McLaren . The name is attributed to copy writer Terry Hill , whose first choice " The Dream Team " was rejected . The design of the sweater by designer John Lloyd utilized an enormous stylized maple leaf , like the Canadian flag , that covers the front . No numbers were on the sleeves , only on the back with the wording " CANADA " above the number . The sweater used only two colours : red and white , the maple leaf , numbers and letters in one colour and the rest of the sweater the other . The name , sweater design and a team song were all prepared in 24 hours , in time for a previously scheduled news conference . The series itself was simply known at the time as the Canada @-@ USSR Series , although the name " Friendship Series " had been suggested by the Government of Canada Ministry of Foreign Affairs . = = Preparation = = Along with coaching , Harry Sinden was given the task of selecting Team Canada , which would be the first true " team " composed of NHL all @-@ stars . When Sinden announced the list of 35 Canadian players on July 12 , one of the conditions of playing was revealed ; that players would have to have a signed NHL contract by August 13 . His list of players included Bobby Hull , who by that time had already signed with the rival World Hockey Association ( WHA ) league . Three other players Sinden named : Gerry Cheevers , Derek Sanderson and J. C. Tremblay had not yet signed with the WHA , but would do so and become ineligible . The condition had been negotiated between the NHL and Hockey Canada , and the NHL would not relent . The condition was widely criticized , including by the NHL 's own Harold Ballard , the Toronto Maple Leafs owner and a harsh opponent of the WHA . Ballard felt that the series was the " unofficial world series of hockey and we want to win " . Phil Reimer , a governor of Hockey Canada , resigned over the matter . Prime Minister Trudeau made a personal appeal , but Doug Fisher , chairman of Hockey Canada refused to re @-@ open the agreement between the NHL and Hockey Canada . Prior to training camp , there were several changes in the roster . Jacques Laperriere withdrew and Guy Lapointe was selected as his replacement . Dennis Hull , brother of Bobby , considered turning down his invitation , but accepted because Bobby wished him to . Cheevers was replaced by his Boston team @-@ mate Eddie Johnston . Stan Mikita replaced Sanderson . Rick Martin replaced Bobby Hull . Bobby Orr , who was selected to the team although he was injured , remained with the team during the series and practiced with the team , but did not play in any games . Team Canada assembled in Toronto and started training camp on August 13 . Sinden named four co @-@ captains : Phil Esposito , Frank Mahovlich , Stan Mikita and Jean Ratelle . The team trained for three weeks in Toronto , and arrived in Montreal on August 31 for the first game . The team held a practice on September 1 at the Forum . The unheralded line of Bobby Clarke , Ron Ellis and Paul Henderson impressed in camp , enough to earn a place in the starting lineup for game one . The Soviets named 31 players for its roster on August 11 . The roster included four goaltenders led by 20 @-@ year @-@ old Vladislav Tretiak , Olympic and two @-@ time world champion . The defence was led by Alexander Ragulin , who had played in three Olympics and nine world championships . The team was a veteran team with only a handful of players to make their national team debut . Several players were named provisionally , depending on their performance in the Sovietsky Sport tournament being held during August . Boris Kulagin , coach of Krylia Sovietov , was named the assistant coach . Among the forwards , the team did not name Anatoli Firsov , regarded as the " Bobby Hull " of the Soviets , who had reportedly spoken out against his new coach . Most of the players named were from the Soviet " Red Army " team HC CSKA Moscow , the team managed by former national coach Tarasov . Along with their regular training , Bobrov had the Soviet players take boxing lessons in preparation for the series . The Soviets arrived in Montreal not long before the series , on August 30 . Staying at Montreal 's Queen Elizabeth Hotel , the team began two @-@ a @-@ day workouts at the St. Laurent Arena the next day . They were already acclimatized to the time zone as the team had been training on Montreal time for two weeks before travelling there . They brought 15 forwards , nine defencemen and three goaltenders . Veteran defenceman Vitaly Davydov did not accompany the team to Canada . The reason given was injury , but the media questioned if Davydov had fallen out of favour with Bobrov . Firsov was reported as having a knee injury to explain his omission from the team . During the pre @-@ series period , two observers of the opposing team were allowed to scout the teams . Toronto Maple Leafs ' coach John McLellan and Bob Davidson , the Leafs ' head scout went to Russia to observe the Soviets in the Sovietsky Sport tournament . McLellan and Davidson observed two games , while Kulagin , along with Arkadi Chernyshev , a former assistant to Tarasov , observed all of the Canadians ' practices in Toronto . While the Russian team was in Canada , Rick Noonan , a trainer for the University of British Columbia ’ s sports teams , was assigned by Hockey Canada to assist the Soviets . Noonan , who would be later be named general manager of Team Canada for the 1980 Winter Olympics , was the only Canadian to have regular access to the Soviet 's locker room , and he was behind the Soviet 's bench during the first four games of the Summit Series . = = Expectations = = At the time , the National Hockey League was considered to be where the best hockey players played , and its best players consisted largely of Canadians . The public consensus of hockey pundits and fans in North America was that other countries , the Soviets in this case , were simply no match for Canada 's best . The Soviets were not expected to even give the Canadians a challenge , and Canada was going into this series expected to win handily . According to Team Canada Coach Harry Sinden : " Canada is first in the world in two things : hockey and wheat . " Alan Eagleson said " We gotta win in eight games . Anything less than an unblemished sweep of the Russians would bring shame down on the heads of the players and the national pride . " The Soviets downplayed themselves , stating that they were in the series to learn . In a poll of experts conducted by The Hockey News , not one expected the Soviets to win a single game . Journalist Dick Beddoes of Toronto 's The Globe and Mail offered to eat his words " shredded at high noon in a bowl of borscht on the steps of the Russian Embassy " if the Soviets won one game . Canadian journalists Milt Dunnell ( Toronto Star ) , Jim Coleman ( Southam ) and Claude Larochelle ( Le Soleil ) predicted results of seven wins to one for the Soviets . American journalists Gerald Eskenazi ( New York Times ) and Fran Rosa ( Boston Globe ) predicted eight wins to none , while Mark Mulvoy ( Sports Illustrated ) predicted seven wins to one for Canada . Before the first game , former Canadiens ' star goaltender Jacques Plante gave Soviet goaltender Tretiak advice on how to play the NHL forwards . Plante did this because he was " thinking of the humiliation he was almost certain to suffer . " Plante himself predicted Canada would win " eight straight . " In a game scouted by Team Canada , Tretiak had given up eight goals , in a game played the day before his wedding . A few Canadians gave a dissenting prognosis of the series . John Robertson of the Montreal Star warned that Team Canada was too poorly prepared and out of shape to win the series . He blamed the NHL : " This , the most important hockey event of our time , has been tacked onto the front of the NHL season as something only tolerated by the owners , and endorsed by the players as a means of enriching their pension plan . " Former professional player Billy Harris who had coached Sweden 's national team earlier in the year , predicted a Soviets ' win , largely on the strength of Tretiak 's goaltending . Prior to the series , Bobrov held a press luncheon in Moscow . He refused to consider that either team would sweep the series . To him , Team Canada had " the fire power , know @-@ how and goaltending " , but how would it adapt to international rules , two @-@ referee system and amateur officials ? He conceded that Phil Esposito would " be difficult to move from the front of the net . I expect there will be some surprises for us when we meet your Canadian stars . " He also predicted that Valeri Kharlamov " will stand out , even against your best Canadians . By North American standards , he is small but he has an excellent shot . I think he will be effective . " Sinden was aware of Kharlamov and he selected Ron Ellis to the Team Canada roster especially to cover Kharlamov . = = The series = = = = = Game one = = = Game one was held in Montreal in a very warm Montreal Forum on September 2 before 18 @,@ 818 fans . The gamesmanship between the teams started before the first faceoff . Canada was assigned the home team for all games in Canada , while the Soviets would be the home team in Moscow . The Soviets would not release their lineup until they had seen their opponents ' , the opposite order , considering they were the visitors . The official scorer had to return to the Soviets ' dressing room and demand the lineup . To Sinden , he wanted to put the Ellis @-@ Clarke @-@ Henderson line on against Valeri Kharlamov 's line . The Soviets did not start Kharlamov 's line and Sinden named Phil Esposito 's line for the opening face @-@ off . The move paid off as Phil Esposito scored for Canada after just 30 seconds of play , knocking a puck out of the air behind the Soviets ' goaltender Vladislav Tretiak . But even after a few minutes , Sinden felt the Soviets were coming on and having no difficulty getting through Canada 's defence . Henderson scored after six minutes to give Canada a two @-@ goal lead on a face @-@ off win by Clarke , the only advantage that Team Canada had , in Sinden 's estimation . To Canadian spectators and the media , the second goal gave the appearance that the pre series predictions of a rout had been proven correct . But the Soviets got over any awe of the NHLers and scored two goals to tie the score before the end of the first period . Yevgeni Zimin scored on a pass from behind the net , and Vladimir Petrov scored a short @-@ handed goal on a Soviet two @-@ on @-@ one break , with Petrov potting the rebound . According to Sinden , the Canadian players had lost their poise , " running all over the ice " to establish their hitting game , while the Soviets used an unexpected tactic , that of the long pass , to break a man out of their defensive zone . The Canadian defence was also dropping to the ice to block shots , while the Soviets only skated around the defence to get a good shot . Although Tretiak had given up the two Canada goals on the first two shots , he recovered later in the period to make a couple of critical saves off Esposito at point @-@ blank range . According to Esposito , " at Christmas time , it would have been 4 – 0 for us . " In the second period , Kharlamov scored on a great individual effort to put the Soviets ahead . Kharlamov deked Don Awrey , skated around him , faked a back @-@ hand shot on Dryden , but scored on the fore @-@ hand . Kharlamov then scored a second goal to give the Soviets a two @-@ goal lead at the end of the second period . During the period , the air temperature in the Forum increased . By the end of the second period , the temperature in the Forum had reached 115 ° F ( 46 ° C ) . Sinden made changes for the third period . He benched Awrey and the Jean Ratelle line , going with three lines . In the third , Clarke scored to bring Canada within one . The Canadians attempted to get the equalizer , and Yvan Cournoyer put a puck off the post , but the Soviets broke out afterwards and Boris Mikhailov scored on the counter @-@ attack to restore the two @-@ goal lead with six minutes to play . Mikhailov skated across the Canadian net about 20 feet out , lured Dryden away from the net , then back @-@ handed the puck into the net between his legs . The strategy of three lines , combined with the heat in the arena , had left the Canadians exhausted by then and the Soviets scored twice in the final minutes to finish with a 7 – 3 victory . " I was stunned by their performance " was Sinden 's assessment . Former Montreal Canadiens ' coach Claude Ruel commented that the Soviets ' forwards were one of the most finely honed units he had ever seen . " They are always moving , never standing around , they head @-@ man the puck as well as anyone has ever done — and they always seem to be in the right place . " According to Canada 's goaltender Ken Dryden : " We didn 't play our game at all . After they tied it up , we started playing a panic type of game . Sometimes there were five men going for the puck at once . " At the end of the game , Team Canada accidentally snubbed the Soviets by returning to the dressing room directly without shaking hands with the Soviets after the game . The win by the Soviets was celebrated into the early hours back home , and many took the next day off work . Valeri Kharlamov 's father Boris held an impromptu party at his Moscow apartment . = = = Game two = = = The second game was played at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto . Sinden sat out several players from the first game , including Don Awrey , Red Berenson , Ken Dryden , Rod Gilbert , Vic Hadfield , Jean Ratelle , Mickey Redmond and Rod Seiling . Hadfield took the benching hard , as he was from the Toronto area and felt he was being embarrassed in front of his home town . On defence , Serge Savard , Pat Stapleton and Bill White were added . On offence , Stan Mikita , Wayne Cashman and J. P. Parise were added . Tony Esposito took over goaltending duties . Sinden 's changes were to get " the diggers into the game and try to grind the Russians down . We had went for speed and quickness in our first lineup , yet the Russians were still faster and quicker . " Team Canada responded to their previous defeat with strong play in this game . The first period was scoreless , but the Canadians used the period to intimidate the Soviets with hard body checking , especially from Cashman , Bergman , Peter Mahovlich and Parise , to throw the Soviets off their game . In the second period , the first goal of the match was again scored by Esposito , this time from a feed from his regular Bruins ' linemate Cashman , who had retrieved the puck deep in the Soviets ' zone after colliding with the Soviets ' defenceman Vladimir Lutchenko . In the third period , Yvan Cournoyer wheeled around Alexander Ragulin and beat Tretiak . Yakushev got the Soviets on the board after team @-@ mate Yevgeni Zimin missed on a break @-@ away . Lyapkin pounced on the rebound and fed it out front for Yakushev to bury the puck behind Esposito . Peter Mahovlich then scored a critical goal while Canada was short @-@ handed , deking out the Soviet defender one @-@ on @-@ one , then Tretiak , to give Canada a two @-@ goal lead . His brother Frank then finished the scoring on a feed from Mikita , who had circled around a Soviets ' defenceman . Team Canada won the game 4 – 1 and tied the series . The Soviet coaches blamed the loss on the refereeing . Bobrov complained that the pair of American referees , Frank Larsen and Steve Dowling , let the Canadians get away with everything . After the game , the head of the USSR Hockey Federation , Andrei Starovoitov , charged the door of the officials ' dressing room and kicked chairs over . The pair of referees , scheduled to referee game four in Vancouver , were replaced by the pair who had refereed game one and game three , Gord Lee and Len Gagnon . Team Canada agreed to the request by the Soviets to change referees , apparently not aware of Starovoitov 's tantrum after game two . = = = Game three = = = Game three was held in Winnipeg on September 6 . After the second game , the Soviets said that they had strayed into playing too much of the Canadian style , as individuals , and promised to return to their team style for the third game . Canada went with the same lineup as game two , with the exception of Ratelle replacing Bill Goldsworthy . Team Canada held leads of 3 – 1 and 4 – 2 , but the Soviet side responded and the game ended in a 4 – 4 tie . Canada took the lead only 1 : 54 into the game on a goal by J. P. Parise , but Petrov replied short @-@ handed at 3 : 16 to tie the game . Petrov stole the puck from Frank Mahovlich and broke away and deked Tony Esposito to score . After a strong fore @-@ check by the Canadians on the Soviets in their zone , Ratelle scored to put Canada ahead 2 – 1 after the first . Wayne Cashman dug the puck out of a scrum in the corner to feed the puck to Phil Esposito who scored to put Canada ahead 3 – 1 . On another Canadian power play , Kharlamov was circling behind the Canadian defence and received a pass to put himself on a breakaway . Kharlamov deked Tony Esposito to score the Soviets ' second short @-@ handed goal . Paul Henderson scored seconds later to restore the two @-@ goal lead , on an individual effort . The Soviets ' " Youngster 's Line " of Yuri Lebedev , Vyacheslav Anisin and Alexander Bodunov then scored two goals to tie the game at 4 – 4 after two periods . Team Canada assistant coach Ferguson felt that the Canadians had gotten over @-@ confident . " I was fooled again . I felt that after we had taken a 3 – 1 lead , the final score might be something like 7 – 1 . But those two short @-@ handed goals . When you score one short @-@ handed goal it can turn it all around . But two ? That 's almost fatal . " According to Tim Burke of the Montreal Gazette , both goaltenders , Tony Esposito and Vladislav Tretiak , reached great heights , or the outcome could have been 10 – 10 . Tretiak was making an unexpected start for the Soviets . The Soviets had planned to start Viktor Zinger , but he was reported to be ill before the game . The Soviets coach Bobrov complained about the refereeing and the play of Wayne Cashman , stating that " if that game had been played in Europe , he would have spent the whole game in the penalty box . " = = = Game four = = = Game four was played in Vancouver . Team Canada was surprised to find that the crowd booed Canada during the warm @-@ up and cheered louder for the Soviets during the game 's introduction . The game started with two consecutive penalties by Bill Goldsworthy and Boris Mikhailov scored power play goals on both penalties to give the Soviets a 2 – 0 lead . Goldsworthy , who had started in place of Wayne Cashman , wanted to replace Cashman 's truculence , but only hurt his team and was criticized privately by Sinden . In the second , Gilbert Perreault scored on a Soviet own @-@ goal to get Canada within one goal , but Blinov scored less than a minute later to restore the two @-@ goal lead . Rod Gilbert scored a questionable goal that was disallowed and Canada 's protests went unheeded . To Sinden , that was the turning point of the game , and the result could have been different had the goal been allowed , although Sinden admitted that it was " a beating . " Vikulov scored to put the Soviets ahead 4 – 1 after two periods . In the third , Goldsworthy made partial amends to get Canada to 4 – 2 , but Shadrin scored to put the game out of reach . Dennis Hull scored in the final minute to make it closer , but it was too late . Sinden had changed the lineup and the Canadian goals were all scored by players Sinden had inserted in place of players who had played in Winnipeg . Still , Sinden felt that changing the lineup had been a mistake . According to Sinden , Ken Dryden , who had replaced Tony Esposito , did not have a good game ; he was shaky and Tretiak was great . According to Conacher , the Soviets used cross @-@ ice passing in the attacking zone , a tactic that caused problems for Dryden . Serge Savard missed the game after fracturing his ankle in practice . Team Canada was booed off the ice at game 's end . Responding to the negative public and media reaction in light of the expectation for an overwhelming Team Canada sweep of the series , Phil Esposito made an emotional outburst in a post @-@ game interview : Brad Park and Frank Mahovlich also criticized the booing . According to Park : " We get nothing — not a dime for this . Brother , I 'm sick " . Other players were more sanguine . Dryden didn 't lash out at the fans . " I 'm disappointed , but I can understand it . The fans wanted us to do real good , and they 're frustrated we didn 't . I didn 't think I deserved to be booed . Tretiak frustrated us , but I guess I didn 't frustrate them enough . " After the fourth game , the series went on a two @-@ week hiatus . The Soviets returned to Russia and continued playing in an ice hockey tournament . The Canadians took a few days off , then travelled to Sweden for a pair of exhibition games before arriving in Moscow . = = = Game five = = = Team Canada arrived in Moscow for the final four games at the Luzhniki Ice Palace , accompanied by 3 @,@ 000 Canadian fans . Not long after starting practices in Moscow , Team Canada players Vic Hadfield , Rick Martin and Jocelyn Guevremont left the team and went home for what they felt was a lack of playing time . Team Canada used its practice @-@ time in the Dvoretz Sporta to learn the differences of the Russian rinks . While there had been concern about the wider ice surface , what was most strange to the Canadian players was the fish @-@ netting draped at the ends of the rink above the boards instead of glass . Considered " in play " , the netting was strung tight , and a slap shot to the netting could catapult the puck back as fast as the original shot . Game five was held on September 22 . Luzhniki was filled to its 14 @,@ 000 capacity , including Communist Party Secretary Leonid Brezhnev , Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin and Soviet President Nikolai Podgorny and a large contingent of the military in dress uniform . The 3 @,@ 000 Canadian fans were given seats , but a second group , of 150 Canadian sports figures , were unable to get seats . The players marched out to the rink for the game to loud cheers , and accompanied by the song " Cowards Don 't Play Hockey " . During the pre @-@ game introductions , Jean Ratelle , captain for the night , was given the traditional gift of bread . The players were all given red and white carnations . Phil Esposito was given flowers , but he slipped and fell on a flower stem , landing on his back . Esposito recovered to laugh at his pratfall , and bowed to the delight of all of the spectators . In the game , Parise scored the only goal of the first period , and Clarke and Henderson scored in the second to give Canada a 3 – 0 lead into the third period . Blinov scored for the Soviets at 3 : 34 and Henderson scored at 4 : 56 to restore Canada 's lead . Anisin scored on a deflection at 9 : 05 to start a run of four straight goals by the Soviets , who won 5 – 4 . According to Bobby Clarke , " we 're not a defensive club , yet we tried to play defensively . " Despite the loss , all Canadian fans present sang " O Canada " as Team Canada left the ice . The cheering of the Canadian fans was unknown at Soviet hockey games . The Russian newspaper Pravda noted wryly that the roof of the arena had withstood the loudness of the cheering and had remained in place . Team Canada was now faced with the daunting task of having to win all three remaining games to win the series . To add to the Canadian struggles , Gilbert Perreault left Team Canada for home to focus on getting into shape for the upcoming NHL season . Perreault had played in game five , practiced with the team the day after , and then asked to return home . = = = Game six = = = Game six was a Canadian 3 – 2 victory . There was no scoring during the first period . Lyapkin scored the first goal at 1 : 12 of the second period , but the Canadians ' confidence did not waver . The Canadians caught the Soviets in a lapse and scored three goals in a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute span to take a 3 – 1 lead . Hull flipped a rebound over Tretiak to tie the score after Gilbert had capitalized on a Soviet giveaway . Cournoyer scored on a set @-@ up from behind the net by Berenson . Fifteen seconds later , Henderson scored what turned out to be the winning third goal on a thirty @-@ foot slap shot . Yakushev scored late in the second on a power play to finish the scoring . According to Montreal Gazette sports editor Ted Blackman , Canadian players Ken Dryden and Brad Park turned in their first big games of the series . Dryden ended a personal losing streak to Soviet teams dating back to his amateur career and two previous games in the series . In his opinion , the Canadian penalty @-@ killing unit of Serge Savard , Peter Mahovlich , Bill White and Pat Stapleton was " brilliant " as it held the Soviets to one power play goal despite the disadvantage in penalty minutes . Savard himself was recovering from a fractured ankle during the series . According to commentator Brian Conacher , Team Canada had adjusted its game to not play " dump and chase " but instead retain possession in the offensive zone . The strategy led directly to Henderson 's winning goal on an interception of an errant Soviet pass . According to Conacher , " for the first time , the Soviets had opened the door a crack and Team Canada had rushed through like a freight train . " Following the game , the Canadians complained that Josef Kompalla and Franz Baader , the German referees of the match ( the same ones who refereed a controversial Canada @-@ Sweden game ) , were biased , since Canada was handed 31 minutes in penalties during the game , while the Soviets only received four minutes . Phil Esposito complained that one goal by the Soviets was directly the result of the referee dropping the puck while he was talking to a team @-@ mate . The Canadians gave the pair the nickname of " Badder and Worse . " " The Slash " During game six , Valeri Kharlamov was targeted by Team Canada for attention . According to Conacher , " every time they get a chance , they 're taking him for a rough ride along the boards . " Kharlamov was the target of numerous bodychecks by Brad Park . Things started to heat up in the second period . Kharlamov had knocked down Bobby Clarke , who in retaliation , rubbed Kharlamov 's face with his glove to raise Kharlamov 's temper and the two exchanged punches . Bergman then stepped in and bumped into Kharlamov and harassed him all the way back to the bench . Peter Mahovlich later elbowed Kharlamov , who retaliated by dumping Mahovlich to the ice . Later , Clarke raced down the ice to catch a streaking Kharlamov and deliberately slashed Kharlamov 's already sore ankle , injuring it and according to reports , fracturing it . Kharlamov skated over to the Canadian bench and yelled at the Canadians , before limping off the ice to the dressing room . The referees handed Clarke a minor penalty for slashing and an additional 10 @-@ minute misconduct penalty . Later , with Clarke still stuck in the box serving the misconduct , the referees also gave Dennis Hull a slashing penalty , during which Yakushev scored . On his injured ankle , Kharlamov returned to play and very nearly scored on Dryden during a power play later in the second period . The incident was widely reported and condemned by the Soviet press . Kharlamov himself believed that " Bobby Clarke was given the job of taking me out of the game . " The slash was apparently done at the instigation of assistant coach John Ferguson . " I remember that Kharlamov 's ankle was hurting pretty bad . I called Clarke over to the bench , looked over at Kharlamov and said , ' I think he needs a tap on the ankle . ' I didn 't think twice about it . It was Us versus Them . And Kharlamov was killing us . I mean , somebody had to do it . " Canadian journalist Dick Beddoes asked Clarke about it later at a team reunion , calling it a " wicked two @-@ hander " , to which Clarke replied " Dick , if I hadn 't learned how to lay on a two @-@ hander once in a while , I 'd never have left Flin Flon . " In a 2006 interview with the Russian Sport Express magazine , Clarke states that he was unaware of Kharlamov 's sore ankle at the time and does not recall Ferguson telling him to target the ankle . Further , he recalled that Kharlamov had used stick work on him , and Clarke 's slash was in retribution for Kharlamov 's actions : On the thirtieth anniversary of the series , Henderson called the incident " the low point of the series " , but would later apologize to Clarke . In his 2007 book , Conacher wrote that " from the broadcast booth I was shocked and disgusted when I saw Clarke viciously chop at Kharlamov 's left ankle . " He noted " that emotionally these games had clearly gone beyond sport for Team Canada and had truly become unrestricted war on ice . " Media opinion is divided on the effect it had on the outcome of the series . The controversy and admissions that have come forth throughout the years have led some to the belief that the incident could be considered a form of cheating . Kharlamov , who had been one of the Soviets ' best forwards , missed game seven , when the Soviets could have clinched the series and while he did play in game eight , he was not at 100 % and did not score . In Clarke 's opinion , there were other factors for Team Canada 's turnaround in Moscow : " In Moscow we played much better than in Canada . We were almost equal to the Soviet team physically by then , we passed much better , we shot the puck much better , we became faster and played better on defence . Besides , when you have nothing to lose , it is easier to play . And after the fifth game we had nothing to lose . " = = = Game seven = = = Canada won game seven by the score of 4 – 3 . In the first period Phil Esposito scored two goals around a pair by Yakushev and Petrov , ending the first period tied 2 – 2 . The second period was scoreless . In the third , Gilbert put Canada ahead , but Yakushev scored again to tie the score at three . At 17 : 54 , Henderson fooled Soviet defender Tsygankov with a pass through Tsygankov 's feet , then skated around Tsygankov to pick up the puck and break in on Tretiak . As Henderson shot and scored , Tsygankov tripped Henderson and Henderson did not see his shot go in . The goal light went on and off quickly and Team Canada rushed onto the ice to congratulate Henderson before there was any doubt raised about the goal . The Soviet coach Bobrov publicly blamed the loss on Tsygankov . After the game , Henderson commented about the goal as the " one that gave him his most personal satisfaction ever . " The game also featured a controversial incident : During the third period , a small scuffle broke out between Canada 's Gary Bergman , and the USSR 's Boris Mikhailov , in which the future Soviet captain used his skate as a weapon , kicking Bergman two times before the fight ended . Czech referee Rudy Bata and Swede referee Ove Dahlberg officiated the match , and it was announced that the German referee pair of Josef Kompalla and Franz Baader had been sent home and Bata and Dahlberg would referee the final match , in exchange for a promise that Bergman would not publicly berate the Soviets ' coach Bobrov . = = = Game eight = = = Controversy ensued when the Soviets wanted to back out of the refereeing agreement . The Soviets wanted to include the German pair of referees , originally scheduled for the game . Eagleson threatened to pull Team Canada from playing the eighth game . In a compromise , Kompalla refereed along with Bata instead of Baader . The ill will spilled over into the presentation of a totem pole as a gift from Team Canada . The pre @-@ game presentation was cancelled by the Soviets , but restored on the insistence of Team Canada . According to Coach Sinden , Eagleson stated that they " were going to take this totem pole and bring it to centre ice and they 'll have to take it or skate around it the whole game . " Heading into the eighth and final game , each team had three wins and three losses and one tie , but the Soviets were ahead in goal differential by two goals . In Canada , much of the country enjoyed an unofficial ' half a day ' holiday , with many students in Toronto being sent home the afternoon of the game , while many others watched the game at work or school . In Montreal 's Central Station , 5 @,@ 000 fans gathered around ten TV sets to watch the game , which was simulcast in English on CBC Television and CTV , and in French by Radio @-@ Canada . Until the men 's hockey gold @-@ medal game of the 2010 Winter Olympics , it was the most @-@ watched sporting event in the history of Canadian television . Team Canada took a number of questionable early penalties . With two Canadians ( White and Peter Mahovlich ) off , Yakushev scored to give the Soviets the lead 1 – 0 . The game was delayed after a mistaken call against J. P. Parise , ( he was called for interference , but Parise admitted later he was guilty of cross @-@ checking ) and emotions boiled over . Parise was called for a misconduct for banging his stick on the ice , and when he saw the misconduct called , he dashed across the ice with his stick raised . Parise nearly swung his stick at Kompalla and got a match penalty . Sinden threw a chair on the ice . Some writers have commented that the incidents resulted in the rest of the game being refereed capably . After Parise 's penalty was served , it was Canada 's turn to go on the power play , and Esposito scored his sixth goal of the series to tie it at 1 – 1 . The teams exchanged power plays before Lutchenko scored a power play goal on a slap shot to put the Soviets ahead 2 – 1 . Brad Park then scored his only goal of the series at even strength to complete some pretty passing between Dennis Hull and the Rangers ' team @-@ mates of Ratelle , Gilbert and Park to tie the score . The period ended with the teams tied 2 – 2 . In the second , the Soviets started with a quick goal by Shadrin after 21 seconds . The last ten minutes saw two goals from the Soviets : Yakushev scoring his seventh of the series followed by Vasiliev on the power play to put the Soviets ahead 5 – 3 after two periods . White had countered for Canada midway through the period . It was one of few moments for Canada to cheer as the Soviets played an excellent period . The other was a goal @-@ saving play by Esposito who stopped a shot by Yury Blinov who had faked goaltender Dryden out of position and had an empty net to shoot at . Blinov was denied by Esposito who stopped the puck with his stick on the goal line . Blinov and the crowd had prematurely celebrated the apparent goal , and Blinov shook his head in disbelief . Sinden told the players to try to get one back quickly , but play tight defensively and not allow the game to get out of hand . Don 't gamble until after the half @-@ way point if need be . Esposito scored to put the Canadians within one . The tension rose at the rink , and extra soldiers were dispatched for security . It was matched on the ice as Gilbert and Yevgeni Mishakov had a fight . Foster Hewitt noticed : " You can feel the tension almost everwhere ! " At the ten @-@ minute mark , Sinden noticed that the Soviets had changed their style , playing defence to protect the lead , rather than pressing . However , the strategy back @-@ fired on the Soviets . The change in tactics gave the Canadians more chances to score and Cournoyer scored to even it up . After the Cournoyer goal , the goal judge refused to put the goal light on despite the fact that it was signalled a goal on the ice . In response , Alan Eagleson ( seated across the ice from the Team Canada bench ) attempted to reach the timer 's bench to protest , causing a ruckus in the crowd as he made his way to the timer 's bench . As he was being subdued by the Soviet police , the Canadian players headed over and Peter Mahovlich jumped over the boards to confront police with his stick . Eagleson was freed and the coaches escorted him across the ice to the bench . In anger , he shoved his fist to the Soviet crowd , as a few other Canadian supporters also gave the finger to the Soviets . The Soviets continued to play defensively . Sinden speculates the Soviets were willing to accept the tie and win the series on goal differential . " The Goal " In the final minute of play , with Phil Esposito , Yvan Cournoyer and Peter Mahovlich out on the ice , Paul Henderson stood up at the bench and called Mahovlich off the ice as he was skating by . " I jumped on the ice and rushed straight for their net . I had this strange feeling that I could score the winning goal " , recalls Henderson . Bobby Clarke was supposed to replace Esposito , but Phil didn 't come off ( " There was no way I was coming off the ice in that situation " Esposito said ) . Cournoyer picked up a puck that had been passed around the boards by the Soviets in a clearing attempt . He missed Henderson with a pass , but two Soviets mishandled the puck in the corner and Esposito shot the puck on Tretiak . Henderson , who had fallen behind the net , got up and went to the front of the net where he was uncovered . Henderson recovered the rebound of Esposito 's shot , shot the puck and was stopped , but recovered the rebound . With Tretiak down , he put the puck past Tretiak with only 34 seconds to play . Foster Hewitt 's voice rose in excitement as he called the winning goal : The scene was captured on film by cameraman Frank Lennon . The picture became iconic in Canada . Canada held on for the win in the game and thus won the series , four games to three . Pat Stapleton picked up the puck after the game . Somewhat overshadowed by Henderson 's winning goal , was a four @-@ point game by Phil Esposito , two goals and two assists , and a hand in all three goals of the third period . Esposito was the only player on either team to score four points in a game during the series . According to Ron Ellis , he had " never seen another player have a period where there was so much pressure and was still able to accomplish what he did . " Sinden considered it to be Esposito 's " finest hour . " Esposito describes it as " there was no stopping me . And I think some of the guys got a little angry with me . If we had lost , I would have been the goat . But we didn 't lose . I just had enough faith in myself , that I was going to get it done , one way or another . " = = = Aftermath = = = Team Canada arrived back in Canada on October 1 . The team was mobbed by an estimated crowd of 10 @,@ 000 at Montreal 's Dorval Airport . Also greeting the team was Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and City of Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau . Montrealers Ken Dryden , Serge Savard , Yvan Cournoyer , Jean Ratelle and coach John Ferguson stayed in Montreal , while the rest of the team travelled on to Toronto . In Toronto , an estimated crowd of 80 @,@ 000 attended a ceremony at Nathan Phillips Square to salute the players . The players were welcomed by Ontario Premier Bill Davis and Toronto Mayor William Dennison . After the series , it was reported that NHL president Clarence Campbell and Chicago Black Hawks ' owner Bill Wirtz had concluded an agreement with the Soviets for the Soviet national team to play an exhibition series in January 1973 against the Boston Bruins , New York Rangers and Chicago Black Hawks . Campbell characterized the reports as " presumptuous " . The NHL and the Soviets had held talks during the Moscow games , during which the Soviets had requested further games , but Campbell stated " we don 't even know if we could schedule such a series " and " we 're a long way from any arrangement . " Although the 1973 exhibition series did not take place , exhibition series would take place a few years later . Kompalla gave an interview with newspaper General @-@ Anzeiger after the series . " When I recall these matches , my flesh creeps . Ten more such games and I would age several years . I am very glad that I got back home uninjured . " He went on to state that the Canadians played " very crudely , purposely using foul methods that endanger the lives of their rivals . " He complained that the Canadian team threw " cucumbers and other leftovers " at his colleague Franz Baader on the flight from Moscow to Prague and harassed visitors in hotels . Bobby Hull also criticized Team Canada , stating that the fighting and gestures of the Canadian players " were a bad example to young players and diplomatically harmful . " The Soviet coaches Bobrov and Kulagin were interviewed after the series in Sovietsky Sport . They accused Team Canada of " trying several methods to intimidate their players , though this war of nerves did not bring them success . " The coaches said they were astonished that the Canadians argued with the referees . They singled out Team Canada Assistant Coach John Ferguson for his " pugnacity " . They did compliment Team Canada on their defensive skills but felt that the Soviets were technically superior , and , but for some deplorable mistakes by their players , the Soviets would have won the series . Alan Eagleson was not repentant for his actions during game eight . Eagleson was not the only one jostled by police ; Eagleson 's wife and the Canadian ambassador 's wife were also jostled . Eagleson woke up with bruises from his treatment . Eagleson was not sorry , but he regretted the incident and planned to not get involved in further series . He did get a letter of support from Robert Ford , the ambassador , who basically agreed with Eagleson 's actions . Mail and messages about the incident was mostly in favour of Eagleson . According to Ted Blackman , Canadian fans were basically understanding of Team Canada 's actions as being provoked while the team was under duress . = = = Soviets ' gamesmanship = = = As well as the disputes over the refereeing , the goal judges on several occasions did not turn on the red light indicating a goal after a Canadian score . After Henderson 's goal in game seven , Sinden sent the entire team off the bench to ensure the goal was counted . A similar incident during game eight led to the melee that Eagleson was involved in . During Team Canada 's stay in Moscow , the team 's treatment was the source of numerous complaints by the players . When leaving Sweden , the team was informed that the players would stay at one hotel , their wives at another . The players threatened not to go , and the arrangements were changed to keep the players and wives together at the Intourist Hotel . The players ' wives were fed sub @-@ standard food and the players would smuggle some of their food to their wives . The team had contracted to have Canadian beer and steaks delivered to them in Moscow . The beer was lost at the airport , while the steaks were cut in half . At a practice after game six , the Soviets tried to cut short the Canadians ' practice . = = Other Team Canada games = = = = = Sweden = = = During the two @-@ week hiatus between games four and five , the Canadians visited Sweden and played two exhibition games versus the Swedish national team . The Team Canada management had arranged for the visit to Sweden to get used to the bigger ice surfaces in Europe , and stopping in Sweden would provide some rest for Team Canada before resuming the series in Moscow . The games took place on September 16 and September 17 at the Johanneshovs Isstadion arena in Stockholm . Canada won game one 4 – 1 ; the second game was a 4 – 4 tie . The first exhibition game introduced Canada to the two West German referees , Josef Kompalla and Franz Baader . These two referees would figure prominently in games six and eight of the Canada @-@ Russia series . Sinden considered the first period of the first Swedish game the team 's worst since the team was put together , but the team improved and started to take command . Henderson , Clarke , Cashman and Parise scored . Sinden criticized the German referees : " ... they were absolutely terrible . They couldn 't even skate . They were miles behind the play all night and don 't know the damn rules . Their incompetence helped the game become very bitter . " The players were also introduced to the style of play of the Swedes , who were well used to using stick work to throw off their opponents . " They were spearing , holding , interfering , and most of all , backstabbing . " The Canadian players would retaliate and be penalized for their retribution . As an example of the referees ' incompetence , Sinden pointed out that Esposito had been penalized for cross @-@ checking , and given a misconduct for it . Sinden , who had played international ice hockey , knew that under international rules at the time , you could not give a misconduct for cross @-@ checking . A dirty incident marred the second game . Cashman was cut in the mouth by Sweden 's Ulf Sterner 's stick . The cut to his tongue required nearly 50 stitches and forced him to miss the rest of the Summit Series , although he stayed with the team . Sterner was not penalized on the play . During the second intermission , Team Canada and Team Sweden scuffled in the runway to their dressing rooms before being separated by police . Canada took a 2 – 1 lead in the game , but the Swedes were not in awe of Canada like they had been at the beginning of game one . The Swedish tactics were effective ; Canada took 31 minutes in penalties to Sweden 's two . Sweden led the game 4 – 3 before Esposito scored on a 35 @-@ foot shot in the final minute . The Swedish defenceman had actually backed into their goaltender , allowing Esposito an easy shot for goal . Sinden also admitted that the tying goal was off @-@ side but the referees had missed the call . Sinden was " thrilled with the tie . I wouldn 't be able to stomach their gloating if they beat us . " Team Canada was heavily criticized by the Swedish media for its " criminal " -style play during the two games . Pictures in the newspapers highlighted the blood from a two @-@ stitch cut the Swedish captain Lars @-@ Erik Sjoberg had received on a cross @-@ check from Vic Hadfield . Reports of the games led to criticism from back home in Canada , which incensed Sinden . The team cooled off the next day with a session in Sodertalje playing for the employees of a Volkswagen plant . The team played mock games against local teams of youngsters 12 and 13 years in age . The practice improved the mood of the players . The team drank beer on the bus , and started " singing songs like a bunch of kids . " Several of the players then went out drinking , impressing Sinden the next day with their best practice session to date . The time in Sweden helped bring Team Canada together as a team and focused them for the final four games . = = = Czechoslovakia = = = After the series , Team Canada played an exhibition game against the Czechoslovak national team ; at the time , the world champions . The game took place on September 30 at the Sportovní hala in Prague and ended in a 3 – 3 tie . Canada took the lead in the first period on goals by Serge Savard and Peter Mahovlich . The Czechoslovakian team tied it with two goals in the second by Bohuslav Stastny . Jiri Kochta scored at 2 : 28 of the third and the lead nearly held up until the end . Canada pulled its goalie and Savard scored his second goal with four seconds left . For the game , Stan Mikita was named captain of the Canadian team . Mikita had left Czechoslovakia at age eight to live in Canada with an aunt and uncle , leaving behind his mother . During player introductions , Mikita received the largest ovation of any player . He took the opening faceoff and very nearly scored during the game . = = Broadcasting = = The games ' broadcasts were produced by Hockey Canada , using experienced hockey commentators from Canadian television networks . In English , CBC Television ( CBC ) and CTV Television Network ( CTV ) split the coverage , with CTV carrying games one , three , five , seven and eight , while CBC aired games two , four , six and eight . Foster Hewitt called the plays and former player Brian Conacher was the commentator for all of the games . At the request of the broadcasters , Hewitt came out of semi @-@ retirement to be part of the broadcast . In French , all games were broadcast on SRC and the broadcast team was Rene Lecavalier and former player Gilles Tremblay . For the eighth game , it was estimated that 16 million Canadians watched the match . ( A year earlier , the national census had counted 21 @,@ 963 @,@ 000 Canadians . ) A partnership between Bobby Orr Enterprises and Harold Ballard bought the broadcast rights from Hockey Canada for $ 750 @,@ 000 . The bid , negotiated by Alan Eagleson , who , at the time , was both Orr 's agent and a Hockey Canada director , outbid McLaren Advertising , producers of Hockey Night in Canada , which had offered $ 500 @,@ 000 . Ballard @-@ Orr realized a profit on the series of $ 1 @.@ 2 million . The series was picked up by some U.S. television stations , such as WSNS ( Channel 44 ) in Chicago . The telecasts of games one through four were produced by WSBK ( Channel 38 ) in Boston and called by Bruins ' announcers Fred Cusick and John Peirson . After efforts by WSBK to get rights to the four games in Moscow broke down , a last @-@ minute deal by Boston public television station WGBH @-@ TV allowed it to broadcast the CBC / CTV feed of games five through eight and to make the telecast available to PBS stations in several American cities , mostly those who had NHL , minor @-@ league , or major college hockey teams . WGBH fed the Canadian telecasts ; games six , seven , and eight were seen on WGBH and PBS on a tape @-@ delay in prime @-@ time . The Soviet play @-@ by @-@ play was done by Nikolai Ozerov . In the style of that time , the Soviets did not televise anything during the pre @-@ game , intermissions or post @-@ game . During the intermission , the screen went black , with classical music playing quietly . After the games , the broadcast simply ended and Soviet television networks returned to regular programming . = = Legacy = = While Canada formally won the series , there was no winning title , and both teams could claim victory . The Soviets earned the respect of fans and players alike ; the Canadians went from scoffing at their antiquated equipment and strange training methods and practices , to admiration for their talent and conditioning . Frank Mahovlich said " give the Russians a football and they 'd win the Super Bowl in two years . " Many Soviet citizens believed that the outcome may have been different if Anatoli Firsov and Vitaly Davydov had not sat out the series to protest a coaching change . In response , some offer that Canada was without Bobby Orr due to his knee injury as well as Bobby Hull ( due to his departure from the NHL to the newly formed WHA league ) . These were arguably the best Canadian players at the time ( along with Phil Esposito ) , so neither team had all of its greatest talent on the ice . The Soviet team also had the obvious advantage of playing year @-@ round . Meanwhile , the Canadian team was picked and prepared in only a few months and most players were out @-@ of @-@ shape . At the time , NHL players did not regularly train during the summer months , using the period for a holiday or other activities . In the end , the Summit Series conclusively proved that the gap between the best Canadian NHL players and the top national teams of Europe ( USSR , Czechoslovakia , Sweden ) was much narrower than most observers on both sides of the Atlantic had anticipated . The Swedish national team coach Billy Harris ( a former NHL pro with the Toronto Maple Leafs ) later recalled that " the ( Swedish ) media would ask me , ' do you see even one Swedish player who could possibly have a chance in the National Hockey League ? ' I answered , ' No , I see 14 of them ! ' " The success of the 1972 Summit Series would lead to the development of the Canada Cup ice hockey world championship tournament open to both pros and amateurs , starting in 1976 . It also led to regular series of games between Soviet and NHL clubs , known as the Super Series . By the 1980s , an increasing number of players were former members of the Swedish or Czechoslovak national teams . The top Soviet players were finally allowed to sign contracts with NHL clubs in the late 1980s and early 1990s as the USSR crumbled . In North America , the Series ( particularly the first few games ) exposed the need for better preparation and off @-@ season training . Philadelphia Flyers coach Fred Shero became an avid student of the Soviet style and was one of the first to bring the Russian training techniques to the NHL as the Flyers won two Stanley Cup championships in 1974 and 1975 . Tom Mellor ( who joined the small but rapidly growing group of American @-@ born NHL players after the 1972 Olympics ) lamented that the NHL training methods of the early 1970s were vastly inferior to those of the Soviets . " When I went to play for Detroit after the Olympics , Alex Delvecchio was the coach . ... When he would coach , we would do a couple of one @-@ on @-@ ones , two @-@ on @-@ twos , three @-@ on @-@ twos , we 'd scrimmage , and he would scrimmage with us . At the end of the scrimmage , we 'd do a couple of figure eights and then go to the bar . That was the NHL and pro mentality . " Mark Howe commented that the Soviet national team must have trained six hours on the day of a game in the 1972 Winter Olympics . On the other hand , Swedish sports journalists were extremely impressed by the toughness and " never say die " fighting spirit of the Canadians , who lost only one game out of seven on European ice despite usually trailing in the third period . According to Soviet player Boris Mikhailov , who later became a coach , " it was a meeting between two schools of hockey and we have since continued this great exchange and we have learned from each other , taking the best of both styles . " As time passed , the significance of the series grew in the public consciousness , and the term " Summit Series " became its unofficial accepted name . In Canada , the Summit Series is a source of national pride , and is seen by many as a landmark event in Canadian cultural history . In Canada , Paul Henderson 's goal is considered to be one of the most famous in the history of the game . The series is also seen by many Canadians as an important win in the Cold War . = = = Legacy events = = = Many of the players would face each other again in future international contests . Henderson would play the Soviets in the 1974 Summit Series organized by the WHA . Eleven of the Soviet 1972 team players would play against the Montreal Canadiens in the December 31 , 1975 game of the Super Series ' 76 . Five players of Team Canada 1972 would play for Montreal ( Awrey , Cournoyer , Dryden , Lapointe and Savard ) . Many of the players would also play in the 1976 Canada Cup , including Bobby Orr , making his first appearance against the Soviets as a professional . He had the missed the chance in the Super Series ' 76 , also due to injury . In 1987 , fifteen years after the series , a 60 @-@ minute commemorative video was directed and produced by Tom McKee and published by Labatt Brewing Company Limited , Toronto . The video includes interviews of Alan Eagleson and former players Bobby Clarke , Yvan Cournoyer , Paul Henderson , and Serge Savard in the studio . Every goal from the series is included as is a mention of the Soviets ' " shenanigans , " as they try to interfere with one of the Canadians ' practices in Moscow . Eagleson would later be barred from public appearances with Team Canada members after his fraud convictions related to his hockey business dealings . In 1989 , Marcel Dionne retired as a member of the New York Rangers . He was the last active player from the Canadian roster . That same year , Sergei Priakin became the first Soviet to play in the NHL , for the Calgary Flames . In 1997 , the Canadian Mint released a commemorative silver dollar coin to mark the 25th anniversary . On November 2 , 2005 , the team was honoured , en masse , as members of the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame . In the induction ceremony , Phil Esposito spoke : " A lot of people will go back and say 1972 changed the face of the game and actually I believe it did . I 'm not so sure it changed for the better , by the way . But it did change the way we think and look at hockey in this country . " In 2006 , the CBC aired a two @-@ part mini @-@ series called Canada Russia ' 72 , directed by T. W. Peacocke . The film is a dramatization of the series . The film was later made available on DVD . In 2007 , for the 35th anniversary of the series , Canadian and Russian national junior teams competed in the 2007 Super Series . Four games were played in Russia , followed by four in Canada . Canada won seven of eight games and game seven was a tie . In 2010 , the sweater Henderson wore while scoring the decisive final goal of the series was put up for auction by an anonymous American collector . The 42nd and winning bid of US $ 1 @,@ 067 @,@ 538 ( $ 1 @,@ 275 @,@ 000 with auction fees , confirmed as the world record for hockey memorabilia by Guinness World Book of Records in March 2012 . ) was placed by Mitchell Goldhar , a Canadian shopping mall mogul . It was also announced that Goldhar would be taking it on a tour of Canada , the locations of which to be decided by voters on Facebook . In 2012 , the 40th anniversary , several events took place . The 2012 Canada – Russia Challenge , a series between Canadian and Russian players took place in August . In September , two books were published to mark the anniversary . That month , in Russia , members of Team Canada went on a tour of Russian cities to celebrate the anniversary . A reciprocal tour of Canada was planned but no funding was available from the Government of Canada to sponsor the tour . Nevertheless , the anniversary was marked with several events in Canada . Team Canada received a star on Canada 's Walk of Fame in Toronto . The series was replayed that month on Canadian television , and the Canadian team was honoured with a dinner at the Hockey Hall of Fame . The players again refused to appear with Alan Eagleson . = = = Cultural references = = = Henderson 's goal in 1972 has been described as the " goal that everyone remembers " by the Canadian rockers The Tragically Hip in their song " Fireworks " from their album Phantom Power . The song describes the national eruption of celebration over the goal . In the 1994 film Anna : 6 – 18 , director Nikita Mikhalkov observes that to be a great nation , " Russia needed great enemies " . The film then shows Phil Esposito in the penalty box from video of the series . Esposito is " performing a menacing pantomime " in the words of author Dave Bidini . The term " Esposito " also was added as a derogatory term to street slang in Russia . The Corner Gas episode " The Good Old Table Hockey Game " featured an 8 @-@ game table hockey series based on the Summit Series . It referenced events such as the fans booing and Esposito 's speech after Game 4 , Esposito falling on the ice before Game 6 , and Henderson 's winning goal in Game 8 . = = Schedule and results = = = = = Game one = = = Source : Podnieks = = = Game two = = = Source : Podnieks = = = Game three = = = Source : Podnieks = = = Game four = = = Source : Podnieks = = = Game five = = = Source : Podnieks = = = Game six = = = Source : Podnieks = = = Game seven = = = Source : Podnieks = = = Game eight = = = Source : Podnieks = = = Canada vs. Sweden = = = Game one Source : Dryden & Mulvoy , Podnieks Game two Source : Dryden & Mulvoy , Podnieks = = = Canada vs. Czechoslovakia = = = Source : Podnieks , Dryden & Mulvoy = = Statistics = = Statistics do not include the games in Czechoslovakia and Sweden . = = = Team = = = Source : MacSkimming 1996 , Dryden & Mulvoy = = = Players = = = = = = Detente through sport = = = Politics and sports

= Hurricane Jerry ( 1989 ) = Hurricane Jerry caused minor damage in Texas and flash flooding in Kentucky and Virginia in October 1989 . The fourteenth tropical cyclone , tenth named storm of the season , Jerry developed from a tropical wave in the Bay of Campeche on October 12 . Initially a tropical depression , the system moved north @-@ northwestward across the Gulf of Mexico and strengthened into Tropical Storm Jerry early on the following day . Jerry continuously deepened until October 14 and then maintained intensity while curving northeastward and briefly decelerating . Later that day , the storm re @-@ curved north @-@ northwestward . Jerry began to intensify on October 15 and soon became a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Early on October 16 , Jerry made landfall on Galveston Island , Texas with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Less than six hours later , Jerry weakened to a tropical storm and then a tropical depression shortly thereafter . Late on October 16 , Jerry was absorbed by a frontal system while situated over southwestern Arkansas . Storm surge and rough surf along the coast of Texas destroyed a 20 mile ( 32 km ) section of Texas State Highway 87 , which was never repaired . Due to strong winds , about 52 @,@ 000 homes and businesses were left without electricity , most of them in the Galveston area . Many homes , businesses , and buildings were inflicted damage because of strong winds and three tornadoes spawned by the storm . Despite the issuance of a hurricane warning just eight hours prior to landfall , Jerry caused only three fatalities in Texas , possibly due to the storm 's small size ; a car fell over the Galveston Seawall , killing its three occupants . Minor wind and coastal flood damage was reported in Louisiana . Jerry and its remnants brought flash flooding to portions of the Upland South , particularly in the states of Kentucky , Virginia , and West Virginia . In eastern Kentucky , hundreds of homes were flooded and many bridges , culverts , and roads were washed out ; this left hundreds of residents stranded . Damage in Kentucky reached at least $ 5 million . Similar impact occurred in Virginia ; with $ 3 @.@ 4 million ( 1989 USD ) in damage in Buchanan County . In West Virginia , overflowing rivers in the western portions of the state forced hundreds to evacuate . Throughout the United States , Jerry resulted in about $ 70 million in damage . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the coast of northwest Africa on September 23 . No additional signs of tropical cyclogenesis were observed as the tropical wave crossed the Atlantic Ocean or the Caribbean Sea . The tropical wave decelerated upon reaching the Yucatán Peninsula , where it became a broad low pressure area , based on surface pressure fields and convective motions indicated in satellite imagery . While emerging into the Bay of Campeche on October 12 , the intensity of the low was estimated via Dvorak technique . At 1900 UTC on October 12 , a reconnaissance aircraft flight confirmed an atmospheric circulation , and the system was then classified as Tropical Depression Fourteen . However , post @-@ analysis indicates that the depression developed seven hours earlier , while located about 230 miles ( 370 km ) east @-@ northeast of Veracruz , Veracruz . While moving north @-@ northwestward , satellite and reconnaissance aircraft reports indicated the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Jerry early on October 13 . Jerry then gradually intensified and moved northward between 5 and 10 mph ( 10 and 15 km / h ) . Early on October 14 , the storm turned to the north @-@ northeast and decelerated in response to an approaching mid- to upper @-@ level trough . Increasing upper @-@ level wind shear temporarily limited further intensification . However , after a mid- to upper @-@ level cut @-@ off low pressure area moved southward , the upper @-@ level outflow pattern became more favorable , causing Jerry to resume strengthening . The cut @-@ off low then forced Jerry to re @-@ curve north @-@ northwestward , while stronger steering currents and a high pressure ridge increased the storm 's forward motion to more than 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) . While approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States , deep convection began to develop near the center , and by 1800 UTC on October 15 , Jerry strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane . After reaching hurricane status late on October 15 , the storm continued to intensify while approaching the coast of Texas . At 2100 UTC , Jerry attained its minimum barometric pressure of 982 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . The storm strengthened slightly further before making landfall on Galveston Island near Jamaica Beach , Texas with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) at 0030 UTC on October 16 . Jerry 's landfall is among the latest dates in the satellite era that a hurricane struck the upper Texas coast . After moving inland , the storm then accelerated while turning toward the north and then north @-@ northeastward . At 0600 UTC on October 16 , Jerry weakened to a tropical storm and to a tropical depression about six hours later . Late on October 16 , the cyclone was absorbed by a frontal system over southwestern Arkansas . = = Preparations = = Jerry was an unpredictable storm as the strengthening before landfall and the continuation to the northwest was not anticipated . Equipment failure meant that data was not readily available . The National Hurricane Center forecast model was also disabled , throwing the accuracy of Jerry 's track off . Tropical cyclone warnings and watches began early on October 14 , with a hurricane watch for Port Arthur , Texas to the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana . At 2200 UTC later that day , a tropical storm watch was issued for the entire coast of Louisiana . Another tropical storm watch was posted from Port O 'Connor , Texas to Morgan City , Louisiana at 1200 UTC on October 15 . Due to the unpredictability of the storm , a hurricane warning was issued from Freeport , Texas to Intracoastal City , Louisiana at 1600 UTC , only eight hours prior to landfall . Simultaneously , two separate tropical storm warnings were posted , from Matagorda to Freeport and Intracoastal City to Morgan City . Although the storm had already made landfall , a tropical storm warning was issued from Freeport to Intracoastal City at 0400 UTC on October 16 . By six hours later , all tropical cyclone warnings and watches were discontinued . About 4 @,@ 000 oil company employees were evacuated off the rigs in the Gulf of Mexico , at least 1 @,@ 300 of them by helicopter . In Louisiana , approximately 8 @,@ 000 people evacuated – 1 @,@ 000 from Grand Isle and 7 @,@ 000 others from Cameron Parish . = = Impact = = = = = Texas = = = Rainfall from Hurricane Jerry peaked at 6 @.@ 4 inches ( 160 mm ) in Silsbee . Jerry caused light beach erosion along the Texas coast . The storm destroyed a 20 miles ( 32 km ) section of Texas State Highway 87 , between High Island and Sabine Pass . As of 2008 , the destroyed section of the highway was not been repaired , despite plans for it to be rebuilt . In Galveston County , abnormally high astronomical tides and rough surf from Jerry resulted in coastal flood damage . Beach erosion was reported , while some sand dunes were flattened . On the western end of Galveston Island , beachfront roads were inundated and covered with debris , glass , and boards . In Brazoria County , high tides caused minor road damage in Surfside Beach . Storm surge in Chambers County caused coastal flooding in Anahuac . Three people were killed when their car was either blown or washed off the Galveston Seawall during the storm . The eye of the Hurricane went directly over Kemah where waterfront businesses suffered considerable damage , including restaurants , boat docks , and bait stands . Property losses in the city of Kemah was estimated to have reached $ 2 million . In the upper end of Galveston Bay in Harris County , businesses in low @-@ lying areas were affected by coastal flooding . At Scholes Field , sustained winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) and gusts up to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) were observed , ripping doors off the hangars . A walkway and four boats were damaged at the Hanks Creek Marina , located on the eastern shore of Sam Rayburn Reservoir , while the marina itself was deroofed . Similar impact was reported at the nearby Shirley Creek Marina . Strong winds destroyed four high steel towers , which supported power lines that traversed the northern Galveston Bay near the Houston Ship Channel . Elsewhere in eastern Texas , wind damage was relatively minor , mainly limited to shattered windows , toppled trees and power lines , and generally light impact to houses , mobile homes , buildings , farm buildings , and businesses in several counties in eastern Texas . Falling trees blocked numerous roads and struck houses and power lines , leaving approximately 52 @,@ 000 homes and businesses without electricity , most of them in the Galveston area . There were three tornadoes in the county , the first of which unroofed some buildings in Galveston . The second tornado , also touching down in Galveston , inflicted roof damage to many businesses , homes , and apartment complexes . The third tornado , spawned in League City , toppled several trees and a flag pole . In Chambers County a tornado near Kemah inflicted damage to a beach house . Another tornado in the county spawned in downtown Baytown shattered windows at a hospital , a mall , and store windows . In Polk County , a small tornado caused minor damage , totaling $ 10 @,@ 000 . = = = Elsewhere = = = In Louisiana , tides ranging from 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal lashed the coast . However , coastal flooding damage was minimal . Gusty winds in the northwestern portion of the state downed some trees and power lines . Jerry and its remnants dropped rainfall in several other states , including Alabama , Arkansas , Illinois , Indiana , Kentucky , Maryland , Mississippi , Missouri , New Jersey , Ohio , Virginia , and West Virginia . Similar rainfall was reported in Kentucky , ranging from 4 to 6 inches ( 100 to 150 mm ) . Flash flooding caused significant damage in several counties . Numerous roads and bridges were washed out . Hundreds of homes were damaged or destroyed , forcing hundreds to evacuate . Additionally , many cars were damaged or swept away . The Kentucky River overflowed at Hazard in Perry County , inundating a number of streets with up to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water . About ten families were forced to evacuate . Damage in Perry County exceeded $ 1 million . In neighboring Letcher County , 100 bridges and culverts were washed out , while about 50 homes were impacted by flooding . Damage in the county reached $ 2 million . In Floyd County , over 750 students and teachers were stranded at a school in McDowell after the Frasure Creek overflowed , inundating several classrooms with over 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water . Over 200 homes were flooded and many bridges and roads washed in Pike County , with damage reaching $ 2 million . Many residents were left isolated in eastern Kentucky after flooding destroyed bridges and roads . According to state disaster assessment teams , hundreds of residents in eastern Kentucky and West Virginia had flood damage to their houses . Due to the impact from flooding in eastern Kentucky , President George H. W. Bush declared Clay , Floyd , Jackson , Knott , Knox , Leslie , Letcher , Magoffin , Owsley , Perry and Pike counties as disaster areas . Heavy rains in West Virginia overflowed the Tug Fork and Guyandotte rivers . About 150 homes were evacuated in Matewan , where the Tug Fork River crested at 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above its banks . Farther south in Williamson , the river overflowed its banks by about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) . On October 19 , Governor of West Virginia Gaston Caperton toured flood @-@ ravaged areas of the state , including Mingo and Logan counties . Heavy rainfall extended eastward into extreme western Virginia . In northern Buchanan County , flash flooding destroyed or heavily damaged numerous businesses and homes . Additionally , many private bridges were swept away and more than 100 roads were inundated . Approximately 30 families were evacuated in the Hurley area , where up to 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of precipitation was observed . Damage in Buchanan County totaled $ 3 @.@ 4 million . President Bush declared Buchanan County as a disaster area on November 8 .

= Southdale Center = Southdale Center , colloquially known as Southdale , is a shopping mall located in Edina , Minnesota , a suburb of the Twin Cities . It opened in 1956 and is the oldest fully enclosed , climate @-@ controlled mall in the United States . Southdale Center comprises 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) of leasable retail space , and contains approximately 123 retail tenants . The mall is partially owned by Simon Property Group and is anchored by Gordmans , Herberger 's , JCPenney , and Macy 's . Victor Gruen , the center 's architect , designed the mall to challenge the " car @-@ centric " America that was rising in the 1950s . Since its opening in 1956 , Southdale has suffered through high vacancy rates and several store closures , but has been able to recover in recent years . Several additions have been performed on the building , including a 2011 renovation which involved the construction of a brand new food court . Southdale Center continues to use much of its original structure despite these renovations , and has been the host of several charity and community events throughout the years . = = History = = = = = 1954 – 57 : Construction and grand opening = = = Southdale Center was developed by the Dayton Company and designed by Victor Gruen , an Austrian immigrant and socialist . Gruen was a European @-@ style socialist ; he found individual stores in downtown venues to be inefficient , and the suburban lifestyle of 1950s America too " car @-@ centric " and wanted to design a building that would be a communal gathering place , where people would shop , drink coffee , and socialize , as he remembered from his native Vienna . Southdale Center was loosely modeled on the arcades of several heavily populated European cities and purposely included " eye @-@ level display cases " to " lure customers into stores " . Gruen imaged that Southdale would eventually include " a medical center , schools and residences , not just a parade of glitzy stores . " The first plans unveiled for the shopping center were announced in 1952 by Gruen and Minnesota native , Donald Dayton . Groundbreaking for Southdale took place on October 29 , 1954 ; 800 construction workers were needed to build the three @-@ story , 800 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 74 @,@ 000 m2 ) , 500 acre center , which had 5 @,@ 200 parking spaces , 72 available tenants , and cost $ 20 million to construct . Due to Minnesota 's harsh climate in the winter , Gruen constructed the center with a roof and air @-@ conditioning system capable of maintaining a comfortable temperature of 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) year round . The mall was originally anchored by Dayton 's , Donaldson 's , Walgreens , and Woolworth , the former of which also developed the center . Over 40 @,@ 000 visitors attended the grand opening ceremony for the center on the morning of October 8 , 1956 . An additional 188 @,@ 000 customers visited the mall throughout the following week . The center was constructed to successfully bring the community together by " gathering art , culture and entertainment under one roof with retail . " The Dayton 's store was modeled after Dayton 's flagship store in Minneapolis , Minnesota . In November of 1956 , organic architect Frank Lloyd Wright visited the mall as part of a tour of new buildings in Minnesota ; he critiqued Southdale 's overall design , stating " [ the ] garden court has all the evils of the village street and none of its charm , " further criticizing several other buildings in nearby Minneapolis . He unfavorably added that Gruen " should have left downtown , downtown . " = = = 1958 – 90 : Additions , JCPenney opens , and new competition = = = Over the early years of Southdale , several tenants and restaurants opened in the center . A restaurant called Sidewalk Cafe , was an " outdoor " -themed restaurant , even though the venue was fully enclosed ; Sidewalk Cafe was the first restaurant of its kind . JCPenney , a Plano , Texas @-@ based department store , announced their interest in opening a location at Southdale Center . An addition to the mall was constructed , allowing JCPenney to open a 247 @,@ 902 square feet ( 23 @,@ 000 m2 ) store in 1972 ; it became Southdale 's third anchor store , following Dayton 's and Donaldson 's . Along with the new anchor store came an entire new mall corridor connecting JCPenney to the original structure of the mall . During 1976 , construction of a new shopping center directly across the street from Southdale occurred . The construction resulted in the Galleria Edina , an upscale shopping center ; the new shopping mall increased competition with neighboring shopping centers . In 1987 , Donaldson 's announced the discontinuation of their chain of stores , which would shut one of the mall 's original anchors . Instead , Donaldson 's merged with local department chain Carson Pirie Scott . = = = 1991 – 2008 : Expansion , Dayton 's merger , and store closures = = = In 1991 , Dayton 's announced plans to construct a significantly larger store directly north of their current location . These plans included the demolition of the original Dayton 's store to be replaced with more stores , plus a larger " garden court " , and the construction of various multi @-@ level parking garages ; these plans were eventually constructed and finalized in the early 1990 's . On June 30 , 1997 , Southdale Center was sold to the O 'Connor Group , a New York @-@ based real estate company for $ 125 million , beating out a bid placed by General Growth Properties , a firm that owns several properties in the Twin Cities . Around this time , Southdale converted their basement into a singular anchor store , which became Marshalls ; surrounding the new anchor were several specialty shops and mall management offices . During the early 2000 's , following fear of competition from nearby Eden Prairie Center and Mall of America , Southdale announced further plans to renovate the center again . A complete remodeling of the center occurred in 2001 , followed by a large addition to the southern half of the property ; the addition included a sixteen screen movie theater along with an entertainment district of restaurants and shops called " The District on France " . " The District on France " included several " upscale " dining options , including California Pizza Kitchen , The Cheesecake Factory , and Maggiano 's Little Italy . A renovation of the less @-@ traveled third floor also occurred , with the addition of teen @-@ geared stores ; this addition was called " Trendz on Top " . Throughout the mid 2000 's , Southdale began struggling with maintaining a low vacancy rate . Mervyn 's , one of Southdale 's four anchors , announced that they had filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy , which would in turn close all of their Minnesota locations . After the closure of Mervyn 's in 2004 , several tenants followed and ended their leases as well ; national retailers like The Bombay Company , Crate & Barrel , Ritz Camera , and Select Comfort all announced closures of their Southdale locations . Talks of a Dick 's Sporting Goods filling the space formerly leased by Mervyn 's occurred , but those plans never took off and eventually dissolved . = = = 2009 – present : Ongoing renovations = = = In February 2011 , Simon Property Group announced that Southdale would soon be anchored by Herberger 's , a local department store chain , and would lease the space previously used by Mervyn 's . Along with this announcement came the mention of a brand new food court to replace the nearly vacant one on the less @-@ traveled third floor , a housing development consisting of apartments and condominiums , and expanded retail . The food court 's construction would include six tenants , which was later increased to eight tenants . However , the new food court forced the closure of one of Southdale 's oldest tenants , Ralph 's Shoe Service , which originally opened at the mall in 1957 . Following several tenant terminations , the mall 's Marshalls anchor announced that their 40 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m2 ) Southdale location would move to a different shopping center in Bloomington , Minnesota . The new food court located by JCPenney was completed in 2012 and featured " upscale " dining options , such as Qdoba Mexican Grill and Smashburger ; several other projects took place , such as cosmetic changes for the mall and the construction of new corridors . Since 2015 , several stores and businesses have opened up locations at Southdale Center . Gordmans , a Nebraska @-@ based discount retailer , filled the vacancy previous leased by Marshalls in July 2015 , followed by the opening of a 41 @,@ 500 square feet ( 3 @,@ 900 m2 ) Dave and Buster 's restaurant , filling the vacancy of the original food court . A Homewood Suites by Hilton resort was approved by the City of Edina and will be constructed in the shopping center 's northeast parking lot in June 2016 .

= Barry Williams ( spree killer ) = Barry Kenneth Williams ( 1944 – 24 December 2014 ) , known since 1994 as Harry Street , was a British spree killer . A foundry worker who lived with his parents , he shot eight people in the English Midlands towns of West Bromwich and Nuneaton in the space of little over an hour on 26 October 1978 , killing five . Following a high @-@ speed car chase , he was arrested and in 1979 was convicted of manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility . He was detained in high @-@ security hospitals under mental health legislation . After being given a conditional release in 1994 , he changed his name , moved to Wales , and married . In 2014 , following allegations of harassment against his neighbours , he was convicted of further firearms offences . He was again ordered to be detained in a secure hospital , with little likelihood of release , and died in December 2014 . = = Background = = At the time of his first offence , Williams was an unmarried foundry worker . He lived at 14 Andrew Road on the Bustleholme Mill estate in West Bromwich , West Midlands , England with his elderly parents , Hilda and Horrace , who owned and ran a metal polishing business in Birmingham . He held a valid firearms certificate , allowing him to possess a single semi @-@ automatic weapon . He used this weapon at approved gun clubs for sports shooting at targets . His erratic behaviour , including shooting at dummies dressed in wigs , and modifying his bullets to make them more powerful , led to him being expelled from one club , in Telford , Shropshire . His nickname there had been " The Cowboy " . Members of another gun club where Williams was a member had expressed concerns that he was stealing bullets . During the mid 1970s , he had been involved in a number of disputes with his neighbours , the Burkitt family , of 16 Andrew Road , alleging that the noise of their television and record player disturbed him and his parents . This became an obsession , and he suffered the delusion that his neighbours were mocking him . On one occasion , during a row about noise , he told Philip Burkitt " I 'm going to exterminate you " . = = 1978 incident = = On the evening of 26 October 1978 , about a week after the extermination threat , George Burkitt and his 20 @-@ year @-@ old son Philip were working on Philip 's Triumph Spitfire car in front of their house . At around 7pm , annoyed by the noise they were making , Williams shot them both with a 9mm , Smith & Wesson automatic pistol . George died where he fell and Philip , wounded , ran into the house . Williams followed him , shooting him again and killing him . He then shot and killed George 's wife , Iris . The Burkitts ' 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter was hit four times in the back and once in the thigh , but survived . Two other neighbours , a married couple who had witnessed the attack on the Burkitts , also survived being shot . The injured were treated at Birmingham General Hospital . After discharging a total of 23 rounds , Williams fled the scene by car , firing a further six shots from a second , .22 calibre , pistol as he did so . In Stanhurst Way he shot at two boys , aged 10 and 11 , who were playing football , and at a woman , but missed them all . Passing through Wednesbury , he shot through the windows of a barber 's shop and two houses . In one of these , a nine @-@ year @-@ old girl was hurt by flying glass . He stopped for petrol in Walsall and drove off without paying . At around 8 : 10pm , Williams shot and killed another married couple , Michel and Lisa Di Maria , after stopping to use the petrol filling station which they ran , Arbury Road Service Station , at Stockingford , near Nuneaton , Warwickshire , some 20 miles ( 32 km ) from his home . Lisa was killed immediately , and Michel died later in hospital . Williams slept rough in some woodland , and was arrested the next morning , in Spring Gardens , Buxton , after a 30 miles ( 48 km ) car chase at high speed , starting on the Derbyshire moors . After his car was involved in a collision , he pulled a gun and attempted to hijack one of the police cars which had been following him . He was overpowered without firing his gun by the unarmed officers who had been pursuing him . He later said he had wanted the police to shoot him . Police found 147 9mm and 770 .22 rounds in his car , along with the .22 calibre pistol which had a full magazine , and several home @-@ made bombs . He was subsequently charged with five counts of murder . Two counts of attempted murder were ordered to lie on file . In March 1979 at Stafford Crown Court he pleaded not guilty to murder but instead pleaded guilty to manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility . The plea was accepted by the prosecution , after psychiatrists gave evidence that he had an active paranoid psychosis . His indefinite detention was ordered by the trial judge , Mr Justice Stephen Brown , and he was held in Broadmoor Hospital and at Ashworth Hospital , both high security units . His parents described him as " a quiet boy " and said they had " no idea " of what he had been preparing to do . = = Release = = Williams , who had schizophrenia , was released from hospital in 1994 once doctors and a mental health tribunal decided that he was no longer a risk to the public . This was on condition that he could be detained again if his behaviour warranted it . A Birmingham and Solihull Mental Health NHS Foundation Trust spokesman said in 2014 , " Harry Street was released on a conditional discharge , subject to specific conditions , in 1993 [ sic ] by a Mental Health Tribunal , an independent judicial body , after careful consideration of the medical evidence presented to them . " On release , he changed his name to Harry Street and initially was allowed to live in a bail hostel around 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from Andrew Road , resulting in complaints from the MP for the latter area , Peter Snape , on behalf of several concerned constituents , to the Home Secretary , Michael Howard . Williams subsequently moved to Wales . He married in 1996 and a child was born later that year . The family moved to Hazelville Road , Hall Green , Birmingham , in 2005 . = = 2013 incident = = In October 2013 , allegations arose that he had waged a campaign of harassment against his next @-@ door neighbour . Williams 's home was searched by West Midlands Police as part of their investigation , and he was found to be in possession of an improvised bomb , 50 homemade bullets , a revolver and two pistols . The bomb squad was called in to make the explosive device safe . At Birmingham Crown Court in October 2014 , he pleaded guilty to three charges of possessing a prohibited firearm , to putting a neighbour in fear of violence , and to making an improvised explosive device . He was again ordered to be detained indefinitely , this time under sections 37 and 41 of the Mental Health Act 1983 , by Mr Justice Blair , who said that " The effect of these orders is that the defendant may never be released " . He also likened Williams 's more recent behaviour to that leading up to the 1978 incident and said that " a similar tragedy had been narrowly averted " . Williams was returned to Ashworth Hospital , where he was already being treated on recall from his previous detention . West Midlands Police announced after the trial concluded that a Multi @-@ Agency Public Protection Arrangements serious case review would be held . A spokesman for the police said , " There was no trace of Harry Street on any police systems ; but it is thanks to the tenacity of a local police officer who , when the harassment escalated , made extensive checks which led her to Street 's GP and his true identity . " He died on 24 December 2014 from a suspected heart attack .