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JWBickel

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[ "The men who under this name appear in the history of the crucifixion were robbers rather than thieves, belonging to the lawless bands by which Palestine was at that time and afterward infested. Against these brigands every Roman procurator had to wage continual war. It was necessary to use an armed police to encounter them. (Luke 22:62) Of the previous history of the two who suffered on Golgotha we know nothing. They had been tried and condemned, and were waiting their execution before our Lord was accused. It is probable enough, as the death of Barabbas was clearly expected at the same time that they had taken part in his insurrection had expected to die with Jesus Barabbas. They find themselves with one who bore the same name, but who was described in the superscription on his cross as Jesus of Nazareth. They could hardly have failed to hear something of his fame as a prophet, of his triumphal entry as a king; They catch at first the prevailing tone of scorn. But over one of them there came a change. He looked back upon his past life, and saw an infinite evil. He looked to the man dying on the cross beside him, and saw an infinite compassion. There indeed was one unlike all other \"kings of the Jews\" whom the robber had ever known. Such a one must be all that he had claimed to be. To be forgotten by that king seems to him now the most terrible of all punishments; to take part in the triumph of his return, the most blessed of all hopes. The yearning prayer was answered, not in the letter, but in the spirit." ]

[ "a town in the allotment of Dan. (Joshua 19:43) only. It is named between Elon and Ekron. The name is the same as that of the residence of Samson's wife. [See [1220]Timna, Or Timnah, [1221]Timnah]" ]

[ "and Thistles. There appear to be eighteen or twenty Hebrew words which point to different kinds of prickly or thorny shrubs. These words are variously rendered in the Authorized Version By \"thorns,\" \"briers,\" \"thistles,\" etc. Palestine abounded in a great variety of such plants. (\"Travellers call the holy land 'a land of thorns.' Giant thistles, growing to the height of a man on horseback, frequently spread over regions once rich and fruitful, as they do on the pampas of South America; and many of the most interesting historic spats and ruins are rendered almost inaccessible by thickets of fiercely-armed buckthorns. Entire fields are covered with the troublesome creeping stems of the spinous ononis, while the bare hillsides are studded with the dangerous capsules of the puliuris and tribulus . Roses of the most prickly kinds abound on the lower slopes of Hermon; while the sub-tropical valleys of Judea are choked up in many places by the thorny lycium .\"-- Biblical Things not generally Known.) Crown of thorns.--The crown which was put in derision upon our Lord's head before his crucifixion, is by some supposed to have been the Rhamnus, or Spina Christi ; but although abundant in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, it cannot be the plant intended, because its thorns are so strong and large that it could not have been woven into a wreath. The large-leaved acanthus (bear's-foot) is totally unsuited for the purpose. Had the acacia been intended, as some suppose, the phrase would have been ex akanthes . Obviously some small, flexile, thorny shrub is meant; perhaps Cappares spinosae . Hasselquist (\"Travels,\" p. 260) says that the thorn used was the Arabian nabk . \"It was very suitable for their purpose, as it has many sharp thorns, which inflict painful wounds; and its flexible, pliant and round branches might easily be plaited in the form of a crown.\" It also resembles the rich dark crown green of the triumphal ivy-wreath, which would give additional pungency to its ironical purpose." ]

[ "A station on the Appian Road, along which St. Paul travelled from Puteoli to Rome. (Acts 28:15) The distances, reckoning southward from Rome are given as follows in the Antonine Itinerary: \"to Aricia, 16 miles; to Three Taverns, 17 miles; to Appii Forum, 10 miles;\" and, comparing this with what is still observed along the line of road, we have no difficulty in coming to the conclusion that \"Three Taverns\" was near the modern Cisterna . Just at this point a road came in from Antium on the coast. There is no doubt that \"Three Taverns\" was a frequent meeting-place of travellers." ]

[ "This word, Asuppe, appears to be inaccurately rendered in (Nehemiah 12:25) though its real force has perhaps not yet been discovered. The \"house of Asuppim,\" or simply \"the Asuppim,\" is mentioned in (1 Chronicles 26:15,17) as a part, probably a gate of the enclosure of the \"house of Jehovah,\" apparently at its southwest corner. The allusion in (Nehemiah 12:29) is undoubtedly to the same place. [[1224]Gate]" ]

[ "(badger), son of Nahor by his concubine Reumah. (Genesis 22:24) (B.C. 1880.)" ]

[ "occurs in (Revelation 18:12) where the margin has \"sweet\" (wood). There can be little doubt that the wood here spoken of is that of the Thuya articulata, Desfont the Callitris quadrivalvis of present botanists. It is a cone bearing tree and allied to the pine. This tree was much prized by Greeks and Romans on account of the beauty of its wood for various ornamental purposes. By the Romans the tree was called citrus, the wood citrum . It is a native of Barbary, and grows to the height of 15 to 25 feet." ]

[ "(John 21:1) [[1226]Gennesaret, Sea Of, SEA OF]" ]

[ "(extension), a city of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, (1 Chronicles 18:8) which in 2Sam 8:8 Is called Betah. Its exact Position is unknown." ]

[ "(In (1 Chronicles 5:26) and again in 2Chr 28:20 The name of this king is given as TIGLATH-PILNESER.) Tiglath-pileser is the second Assyrian king mentioned in Scripture as having come into contact with the Israelites. He attacked Samaria in the reign of Pekah, B.C. 756-736. probably because Pekah withheld his tribute, and having entered his territories, he \"took Ijon, and Abel-beth-maachah and Janoah and Kedesh, and Hazer, and Gilead, and Galilee, and all the land of Naphtali, and carried them captive to Assyria.\" (2 Kings 15:29) The date of this invasion cannot be fixed. After his first expedition a close league was formed between Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, having for its special object the humiliation of Judah. At first great successes were gained by Pekah and his confederate, (2 Kings 15:37; 2 Chronicles 28:6-8) but on their proceeding to attack Jerusalem itself, Ahaz applied to Assyria for assistance, and Tiglath-pileser, consenting to aid him, again appeared at the head of an army in these regions. He first marched, naturally, against Damascus. which he took, (2 Kings 16:9) razing it to the ground, and killing Rezin, the Damascene monarch. After this, probably, he proceeded to chastise Pekah, whose country he entered on the northeast, where it bordered upon \"Syria of Damascus.\" Here he overran the whole district to the east of Jordan, carrying into captivity \"the Reubenites, the Gadites and the half tribe of Manasseh,\" (1 Chronicles 5:26) Before returning into his own land, Tiglath pileser had an interview with Ahaz at Damascus. (2 Kings 16:10) This is all that Scripture tells us of Tiglath-pileser. He reigned certainly from B.C. 747 to B.C. 730, and possibly a few years longer, being succeeded by Shalmaneser at least as early as B.C. 785, Tiglath-pileser's wars do not generally, appear to have been of much importance. No palace or great building can be ascribed to this king. His slabs, which are tolerably numerous show that he must have built or adorned a residence at Calah (Nimrud), where they were found." ]

[ "is used by the LXX. as the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew Hiddekel, and occurs also in several of the apocryphal books, as in Tobit, ch. 6:1, Judith, ch. 1:6, and Ecclesiasticus, ch. 24:25. The Tigris, like the Euphrates, rises from two principal sources in the Armenian mountains, and flows into the Euphrates. Its length, exclusive of windings, is reckoned at 1146 miles. It receives, along its middle and lower course no fewer than five important tributaries. These are the river of Zakko or eastern Khabour, the Great Zab (Zab Ala), the Lesser Zab (Zab Asfal), the Adhem, and the Diyaleh or ancient Gyndes. All these rivers flow from the high range of Zagros. We find but little mention of the Tigris in Scripture. It appears, indeed, under the name of Hiddekel, among the rivers of Eden, (Genesis 2:14) and is there correctly described as \"running eastward to Assyria;\" but after this we hear no more of it, if we accept one doubtful allusion in Nahum (Nahum 2:6) until the captivity, when it becomes well known to the prophet Daniel. With him it is \"the Great River.\" The Tigris, in its upper course, anciently ran through Armenia and Assyria." ]

[ "(assemblage) (properly Tokehath or Tokhath), Tikvah the father of Shallum. (2 Chronicles 34:22)" ]

[ "a variation, and probably a corruption, of the name Tiglath-pileser. (1 Chronicles 5:6,26; 2 Chronicles 28:20)" ]

[ "(Heb. toph). In old English tabor was used for any drum. Tabouret and tambourine are diminutives of tabor, and denote the instrument now known as the tambourine. Tabret is a contraction of tabouret. The Hebrew toph is undoubtedly the instrument described by travellers as the duff or diff of the Arabs. It was played principally by women, (Exodus 15:20; Judges 11:34; 1 Samuel 18:6; Psalms 68:25) as an accompaniment to the song and dance. The diff of the Arabs is described by Russell as \"a hoop (sometimes with pieces of brass fixed in it to make a jingling) over which a piece of parchment is stretched. It is beaten with the fingers, and is the true tympanum of the ancients.\" In Barbary it is called tar ." ]

[ "(restraint).", "+ A concubine of Eliphaz son of Esau, and mother of Amalek (Genesis 36:12) it may be presumed that she was the same as Timna sister of Lotan. Ibid. ver. 22, and (1 Chronicles 1:39) (B.C. after 1800.) + A duke or phylarch of Edom in the last list in (Genesis 36:40-43; 1 Chronicles 1:51-54) Timnah was probably the name of a place or a district. [See the following article]" ]

[ "the residence of Samson's wife. (Judges 14:1,2,5)" ]

[ "(portion of the sun) the name under which the city and burial-place of Joshua, previously called Timnath-serah is mentioned in (Judges 2:9) [TIMNATH-GERAH]" ]

[ "(portion of abundance), the name of the city which was presented to Joshua after the partition of the country, (Joshua 19:50) and in \"the border\" of which he was buried. (Joshua 24:30) It is specified as \"in Mount Ephraim on the north side of Mount Gaash.\" In (Judges 2:9) the name is altered to TIMNATH-HERES. The latter form is that adopted by the Jewish writers. Accordingly, they identify the place with Kefar-cheres, which is said by Jewish travellers to be about five miles south of Shechem (Nablus). No place with that name appears on the maps. Another identification has, however been suggested by Dr. Eli Smith. In his journey from Jifna to Mejdel-Yaba, about six miles from the former he discovered the ruins of a considerable town. Opposite the town was a much higher hill, in the north side of which are several excavated sepulchres. The whole bears the name of Tibneh ." ]

[ "Samson's father-in-law, a native of Timnathah. (Judges 15:6)" ]

[ "The Epistles to Timothy and Titus are called the Pastoral Epistles, because they are principally devoted to directions about the work of the pastor of a church. The First Epistle was probably written from Macedonia, A.D. 65, in the interval between St. Paul's first and second imprisonments at Rome. The absence of any local reference but that in (1 Timothy 1:3) suggests Macedonia or some neighboring district. In some MSS. and versions Laodicea is named in the inscription as the place from which it was sent. The Second Epistle appears to have been written A.D. 67 or 68, and in all probability at Rome. The following are the characteristic features of these epistles:--", "(1) The ever-deepening sense in St. Paul's heart of the divine mercy of which he was the object, as shown in the insertion of the \"mercy\" in the salutations of both epistles, and in the \"obtained mercy\" of (1 Timothy 1:13) (2) The greater abruptness of the Second Epistle. From first to last there is no plan, no treatment of subjects carefully thought out. All speaks of strong overflowing emotion memories of the past, anxieties about the future. (3) The absence, as compared with St. Paul other epistles, of Old Testament references. This may connect itself with the fact just noticed, that these epistles are not argumentative, possibly also with the request for the \"books and parchments\" which had been left behind. (2 Timothy 4:13) (4) The conspicuous position of the \"faithful sayings\" as taking the place occupied in other epistles by the Old Testament Scriptures. The way in which these are cited as authoritative, the variety of subjects which they cover, suggests the thought that in them we have specimens of the prophecies of the apostolic Church which had most impressed themselves on the mind of the apostle and of the disciples generally. (1 Corinthians 14:1) ... shows how deep a reverence he was likely to feel for spiritual utterances. In (1 Timothy 4:1) we have a distinct reference to them. (5) The tendency of the apostle's mind to dwell more on the universality of the redemptive work of Christ, (1 Timothy 2:3-6; 4:10) and his strong desire that all the teaching of his disciples should be \"sound.\" (6) The importance attached by him to the practical details of administration. The gathered experience of a long life had taught him that the life and well being of the Church required these for its safeguards.", "(7) The recurrence of doxologies, (1 Timothy 1:17; 6:15,16; 2 Timothy 4:18) as from one living perpetually in the presence of God, to whom the language of adoration was as his natural speech." ]

[ "one of the three families of scribes residing at Jabez, (1 Chronicles 2:55) the others being the Shimeathites and Sucathites. The passage is hopelessly obscure." ]

[ "an old English word for headdress. It was an ornamental headdress worn on festive occasions, (Ezekiel 24:17,23) and perhaps, as some suppose, also an ornament for the neck worn by both women, (Isaiah 3:18) and men, and even on the necks of camels. (Judges 8:21,26)" ]

[ "(exalted?) king of Ethiopia (Cush), the opponent of Sennacherib. (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9) He may be identified with Tarkos or Tarakos, who was the third and last king of the twenty-fifth dynasty, which was of Ethiopians. His accession was probably about B.C. 695. Possibly Tirhakah ruled over Ethiopia before becoming king of Egypt." ]

[ "(favor), son of Caleb ben-Hezron by his concubine Maachah. (1 Chronicles 2:48) (B.C. about 1451.)" ]

[ "(desire), the youngest son of Japheth, (Genesis 10:2) usually identified with the Thracians, as presenting the closest verbal approximation to the name." ]

[ "the well-known designation of Elijah. (1 Kings 17:1; 21:17,28; 2 Kings 1:3,8; 9:36) The name naturally points to a place called Tishbeh, Tishbi, or rather perhaps Tesheb, as the residence of the prophet. Assuming that a town is alluded to as Elijah's native place, it is not necessary to infer that it was itself in Gilead, as many have imagined. The commentators and lexicographers, with few exceptions, adopt the name \"Tishbite\" as referring to the place Thisbe in Naphtali which is found in the Septuagint text of Tobit 1:2." ]

[ "the proportion of property devoted to religious uses from very early times. Instances of the use of tithes are found prior to the appointment of the Levitical tithes under the law. In biblical history the two prominent instances are--", "+ Abram presenting the tenth of all his property, or rather of the spoils of his victory, to Melchizedek. (Genesis 14:20; Hebrews 7:2,6) + Jacob, after his vision at Luz, devoting a tenth of all his property to God in case he should return home in safety (Genesis 28:22) The first enactment of the law in respect of tithe is the declaration that the tenth of all produce, as well as of flocks and cattle belongs to Jehovah and must be offered to him that the tithe was to be paid in kind, or, if redeemed, with an addition of one fifth to its value. (Leviticus 27:30-33) This tenth is ordered to be assigned to the Levites as the reward of their service, and it is ordered further that they are themselves to dedicate to the Lord a tenth of these receipts, which is to be devoted to the maintenance of the high priest. (Numbers 18:21-28) This legislation is modified or extended in the book of Deuteronomy, i.e. from thirty-eight to forty years later. Commands are given to the people-- + To bring their tithes, together with their votive and other offerings and first-fruits, to the chosen centre of worship, the metropolis, there to be eaten in festive celebration in company with their children their servants and the Levites. (12:5-18) + All the produce of the soil was to be tithed every and these tithes with the firstlings of the flock and herd, were to be eaten in the metropolis. + But in case of distance, permission is given to convert the produce into money, which is to be taken to the appointed place, and there laid out in the purchase of food for a festal celebration, in which the Levite is, by special command, to be included. (14:22-27) + Then follows the direction that at the end of three years all the tithe of that year is to be gathered and laid up \"within the gates\" and that a festival is to be held of which the stranger, the fatherless and the widow together with the Levite, are to partake. Ibid. (5:28,29) + Lastly it is ordered that after taking the tithe in each third year, \"which is the year of tithing,\" an exculpatory declaration is to be made by every Israelite that he has done his best to fulfill the divine command, (26:12-14) From all this we gather-- (1) That one tenth of the whole produce of the soil was to be assigned for the maintenance of the Levites. (2) That out of this the Levites were to dedicate a tenth to God for the use of the high priest. (3) That a tithe, in all probability a second tithe, was to be applied to festival purposes. (4) That in every third year, either this festival tithe or a third tenth was to be eaten in company with the poor and the Levites. (These tithes in early times took the place of our modern taxes, us well as of gifts for the support of religious institutions.--ED.)" ]

[ "(The form given in the Revised Version, of the proselyte Justus, at whose house in Corinth Paul preached when driven from the synagogue. He is possibly the same as Titus the companion of Paul.)" ]

[ "There are no specialties in this epistle which require any very elaborate treatment distinct from the other Pastoral Letters of St. Paul. It was written about the same time and under similar circumstances with the other two i.e., from Ephesus, in the autumn of 67 in the interval between Paul's two Roman imprisonments." ]

[ "the designation of Joha, one of the heroes of David's army. (1 Chronicles 11:45) It occurs nowhere else, and nothing is known of the place or family which it denotes." ]

[ "(Adonijah the good), one of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat through the cities of Judah to teach the law to the people. (2 Chronicles 17:8) (B.C. 910.)" ]

[ "a book of the Apocryphal which exists at present in Greek, Latin, Syriac and Hebrew texts, but it was probably written originally in Greek. The scene of the book is placed in Assyria, whither Tobit, a Jew, had been carried as a captive by Shalmaneser. It is represented and completed shortly after the fall of Nineveh (B.C. 606), Tob. 14:15, and written, in the main, some time before. Tob. 12:20. But the whole tone of the narrative bespeaks a later age and above all, the doctrine of good and evil spirits is elaborated in a form which belongs to a period considerably posterior to the Babylonian captivity. Asmodeus iii. 8; vi. 14; viii. 3; Raphael xii. 15. It cannot be regarded as a true history. It is a didactic narrative and its point lies in the moral lessons which it conveys, and not in the incidents. In modern times the moral excellence of the book has been rated highly, except in the heat of controversy. Nowhere else is there preserved so complete and beautiful a picture of the domestic life of the Jews after the return. Almost every family relation is touched upon with natural grace and affection. A doctrinal feature of the book is the firm belief in a glorious restoration of the Jewish people. Tob. 14:5; 13:9-18. But the restoration contemplated is national, and not the work of a universal Saviour. In all there is not the slightest trace of the belief in a personal Messiah." ]

[ "the descendants of Tola the son of Issachar. (Numbers 26:23)" ]

[ "From the burial of Sarah in the cave of Machpelah, (Genesis 23:19) to the funeral rites prepared for Dorcas, (Acts 9:37) there is no mention of any sarcophagus, or even coffin, in any Jewish burial. Still less were the rites of the Jews like those of the Pelasgi or Etruscans. They were marked with the same simplicity that characterized all their religious observances. This simplicity of rite led to what may be called the distinguishing characteristic of Jewish sepulchres--the deep loculus--which, so far as is now known, is universal in all purely Jewish rock-cut tombs, but hardly known elsewhere. Its form will be understood by referring to the following diagram, representing the forms of Jewish sepulture. In the apartment marked A there are twelve such loculi about two feet in width by three feet high. On the ground floor these generally open on the level of the door; when in the upper story, as at C, on a ledge or platform, on which the body might be laid to be anointed, and on which the stones might rest which closed the outer end of each loculus. The shallow loculus is shown in chamber B, but was apparently only used when sarcophagi were employed, and therefore, so far as we know, only during the Graeco-Roman period, when foreign customs came to be adopted. The shallow loculus would have been singularly inappropriate and inconvenient where an unembalmed body was laid out to decay, as there would evidently be no means of shutting it off from the rest of the catacomb. The deep loculus, on the other hand, was strictly conformable with Jewish customs, and could easily be closed by a stone fitted to the end and luted into the groove which usually exists there. This fact is especially interesting as it affords a key to much that is otherwise hard to be understood in certain passages in the New Testament; Thus in (John 11:59) Jesus says, \"Take away the stone,\" and (ver. 40) \"they took away the stone\" without difficulty, apparently. And in ch. (John 20:1) the same expression is used \"the stone is taken away.\" There is one catacomb-- that known as the \"tomb of the kings\"--which is closed by a stone rolled across its entrance; but it is the only one, and the immense amount of contrivance and fitting which it has required is sufficient proof that such an arrangement was not applied to any other of the numerous rock tombs around Jerusalem nor could the traces of it have been obliterated had if anywhere existed. Although, therefore, the Jews were singularly free from the pomps and vanities of funereal magnificence, they were at all stages of their independent existence an eminently burying people. Tombs of the patriarchs .--One of the most striking events in the life of Abraham is the purchase of the field of Ephron the Hittite at Hebron, in which was the cave of Machpelah, in order that he might therein bury Sarah his wife, and that it might be a sepulchre for himself and his children. There he and his immediate descendants were laid 3700 years ago, and there they are believed to rest now, under the great mosque of Hebron; but no one in modern times has seen their remains, or been allowed to enter into the cave where they rest. From the time when Abraham established the burying-place of his family at Hebron till the time when David fixed that of his family in the city which bore his name, the Jewish rulers-had no fixed or favorite place of sepulture. Each was buried on his own property, or where he died, without much caring for either the sanctity or convenience chosen. Tomb of the kings.--Of the twenty-two kings of Judah who reigned at Jerusalem from 1048 to 590 B.C. eleven, or exactly one half, were buried in one hypogeum in the \"city of David.\" Of all these it is merely said that they were buried in \"the sepulchres of their fathers\" or \"of the kings\" in the city of David, except of two-- Asa and Hezekiah. Two more of these kings--Jehoram and Joash--were buried also in the city of David \"but not in the sepulchres of the kings.\" The passage in (Nehemiah 3:18) and in Ezek 43:7,9 Together with the reiterated assertion of the books of Kings and Chronicles that these sepulchres were situated in the city of David, leaves no doubt that they were on Zion, or the Eastern Hill, and in the immediate proximity of the temple. Up to the present time we have not been able to identify one single sepulchral excavation about Jerusalem can be said with certainty to belong to a period anterior to that of the Maccabees, or more correctly, to have been used for burial before the time of the Romans. The only important hypogeum which is wholly Jewish in its arrangement, and may consequently belong to an earlier or to any epoch, is that known as the tombs of the prophets, in the western flank of the Mount of Olives. It has every appearance of having originally been a natural cavern improved by art, and with an external gallery some 140 feet in extent, into which twenty-seven deep or Jewish loculi open. Graeco-Roman tombs .--Besides the tombs above enumerated, there are around Jerusalem, in the valleys of Hinnom and Jehoshaphat and on the plateau to the north, a number of remarkable rock-cut sepulchres, with more or less architectural decoration, sufficient to enable us to ascertain that they are all of nearly the same age, and to assert with very tolerable confidence that the epoch to which they belong must be between the introduction of Roman influence and the destruction of the city by Titus, A.D. 70. In the village of Siloam there is a monolithic cell of singularly Egyptian aspect which Deuteronomy Saulcy assumes to be a chapel of Solomon's Egyptian wife. It is probably of very much more modern date, and is more Assyrian than Egyptian in character. The principal remaining architectural sepulchres may be divided into three groups: first, those existing in the valley of Jehoshaphat, and known popularly as the tombs of Zechariah of St. James and of Absalom. Second those known as the tombs of the Judges, and the so-called Jewish tomb about a mile north of the city. Third, that known as the tomb of the kings, about half a mile north of the Damascus Gate. Of the three first-named tombs the most southern is known as that of Zechariah a popular name which there is not even a shadow of tradition to justify. Tombs of the judges .--The hypogeum known as the tombs of the judges is one of the most remarkable of the catacombs around Jerusalem, containing about sixty deep loculi, arranged in three stories; the upper stories with ledges in front, to give convenient access, and to support the stones that close them; the lower flush with the ground; the whole, consequently, so essentially Jewish that it might be of any age if it were not for its distance from the town and its architectural character. Tombs of Herod .--The last of the great groups enumerated above is that known as the tomb of the kings--Kebur es Sulton--or the Royal Caverns, so called because of their magnificence and also because, that name is applied to them by Josephus. They are twice again mentioned under the title of the \"monuments of Herod.\" There seems no reason for doubting that all the architectural tombs of Jerusalem belong to the age of the Romans. Tomb of Helena of Adiabene .--There was one other very famous tomb at Jerusalem, which cannot he passed over in silence, though not one vestige of it exists--the supposed tomb of Helena. We are told that \"she with her brother was buried in the pyramids which she had ordered to be constructed at a distance of three stadia from Jerusalem.\" Joseph. Ant. xx. 4,3. This is confirmed by Pelusanias. viii. 16. The tomb was situated outside the third wall near a gate between the tower Psephinus and the Royal Caverns. B.J. v. 22 and v. 4,2. The people still cling to their ancient cemeteries in the valley of Jehoshaphat with a tenacity singularly characteristic of the east. [[1231]Burial, Sepulchres]" ]

[ "The unity of the human race is most clearly implied, if not positively asserted, in the Mosaic writings. Unity of language is assumed by the sacred historian apparently as a corollary of the unity of race. (This statement is confirmed by philologists.) No explanation is given of the origin of speech, but its exercise is evidently regarded as coeval with the creation of man. The original unity of speech was restored in Noah. Disturbing causes were, however, early at work to dissolve this twofold union of community and speech. The human family endeavored b check the tendency to separation by the establishment of a great central edifice and a city which should serve as the metropolis of the whole world. The project was defeated by the interposition of Jehovah, who determined to \"confound their language, so that they might not understand one another's speech.\" Contemporaneously with, and perhaps as the result of, this confusion of tongues, the people were scattered abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth, and the memory of the great event was preserved in the name Babel. [[1232]Babel. [1233]Tower OF] Inscription of Nebuchadnezzar .--In the Borsippa inscription of Nebuchadnezzar there is an allusion to the confusion of tongues. \"We say for the other, that is, this edifice, the house of the Seven Lights of the Earth, the most ancient monument of Borsippa, a former king built it [they reckon forty-two ages], but he did not complete its head. Since a remote time people had abandoned it, without order expressing their words . Since that time the earthquake and the thunder had dispersed its sun-dried clay; the bricks of the casing had been split, and the earth of the interior had been scattered in heaps.\" It is unnecessary to assume that the judgment inflicted on the builders of Babel amounted to a loss, or even a suspension of articulate speech. The desired object would be equally attained by a miraculous forestallment of those dialectical differences of language which are constantly in process of production. The elements of the one original language may have remained, but so disguised by variations of pronunciation and by the introduction of new combinations as to be practically obliterated. The confusion of tongues and the dispersion of nations are spoken of in the Bible as contemporaneous events. The divergence of the various families into distinct tribes and nations ran parallel with the divergence of speech into dialects and languages, and thus the tenth chapter of Genesis is posterior in historical sequence to the events recorded in the eleventh chapter." ]

[ "I. glotta, or glossa, the word employed throughout the New Testament for the gift now under consideration, is used-- (1) for the bodily organ of speech; (2) for a foreign word imported and half-naturalized in Greek; (3) in Hellenistic Greek, for \"speech\" or \"language.\" The received traditional view, which starts from the third meaning, and sees in the gift of tongues a distinctly linguistic power, is the more correct one. II. The chief passages from which we have to draw our conclusion as to the nature and purpose of the gift in question are--", "+ (Mark 16:17) + (Acts 2:1-13; 10:46; 19:6) + (2 Corinthians 12:1; 2 Corinthians 14:1) ... III. The promise of a new power coming from the divine Spirit, giving not only comfort and insight into truth, but fresh powers of utterance of some kind, appears once and again in our Lord's teaching. The disciples are to take no thought what they shall speak, for the spirit of their Father shall speak in them. (Matthew 10:19,20; Mark 13:11) The lips of Galilean peasants are to speak freely and boldly before kings. The promise of our Lord to his disciples, \"They shall speak with new tongues,\" (Mark 16:17) was fulfilled on the day of Pentecost, when cloven tongues like fire sat upon the disciples, and \"every man heard them speak in his own language.\" (Acts 2:1-12) IV. The wonder of the day of Pentecost is, in its broad features, familiar enough to us. What views have men actually taken of a phenomenon so marvellous and exceptional? The prevalent belief of the Church has been that in the Pentecostal gift the disciples received a supernatural knowledge of all such languages as they needed for their work as evangelists. The knowledge was permanent. Widely diffused as this belief has been it must be remembered that it goes beyond the data with which the New Testament supplies us. Such instance of the gift recorded in the Acts connects it not with the work of teaching, but with that of praise and adoration; not with the normal order of men's lives but with exceptional epochs in them. The speech of St. Peter which follows, like meet other speeches addressed to a Jerusalem audience, was spoken apparently in Aramaic. When St. Paul, who \"spake with tongues more than all,\" was at Lystra, there is no mention made of his using the language of Lycaonia. It is almost implied that he did not understand it. (Acts 14:11) Not one word in the discussion of spiritual gifts in 1Cor 12-14 implies that the gift was of this nature, or given for this purpose. Nor, it may be added, within the limits assigned the providence of God to the working of the apostolic Church, was such a gift necessary. Aramaic, Greek, Latin, the three languages of the inscription on the cross were media, of intercourse throughout the empire. Some interpreters have seen their way to another solution of the difficulty by changing the character of the miracle. It lay not in any new character bestowed on the speakers, but in the impression produced on the hearers. Words which the Galilean disciples uttered in their own tongue were heard as in their native speech by those who listened. There are, it is believed, weighty reasons against both the earlier and later forms of this hypothesis. + It is at variance with the distinct statement of (Acts 2:4) \"They began to speak with other tongues.\" + It at once multiplies the miracle and degrades its character. Not the 120 disciples, but the whole multitude of many thousands, are in this case the subjects of it. + It involves an element of falsehood. The miracle, on this view, was wrought to make men believe what was not actually the fact. + It is altogether inapplicable to the phenomena of (1 Corinthians 14:1) ... Critics of a negative school have, as might be expected, adopted the easier course of rejecting the narrative either altogether or in part. What then, are, the facts actually brought before us? What inferences may be legitimately drawn from them? (a) The utterance of words by the disciples, in other languages than their own Galilean Aramaic, is distinctly asserted. (b) The words spoken appear to have been determined, not by the will of the speakers, but by the Spirit which \"gave them utterance.\" (c) The word used, apoftheggesthai, has in the LXX. a special association with the oracular speech of true or false prophets, and appears to imply a peculiar, perhaps physical, solemn intonation. Comp. (1 Chronicles 25:1; Ezekiel 13:9) (d) The \"tongues\" were used as an instrument not of teaching, but of praise. (e) Those who spoke them seemed to others to be under the influence of some strong excitement, \"full of new wine.\" (f) Questions as to the mode of operation of a power above the common laws of bodily or mental life lead us to a region where our words should be \"wary and few.\" It must be remembered then, that in all likelihood such words as they then uttered had been heard by the disciples before. The difference was that before the Galilean peasants had stood in that crowd neither heeding nor understanding nor remembering what they heard, still less able to reproduce it; now they had the power of speaking it clearly and freely. The divine work would in this case take the form of a supernatural exaltation of the memory, not of imparting a miraculous knowledge of words never heard before. (g) The gift of tongues, the ecstatic burst of praise, is definitely asserted to be a fulfillment of the prediction of (Joel 2:28) We are led, therefore, to look for that which answers to the gift of tongues in the other element of prophecy which is included in the Old Testament use of the word; and this is found in the ecstatic praise, the burst of sang. (1 Samuel 10:5-13; 19:20-24; 1 Chronicles 25:3) (h) The other instances in the Acts offer essentially the same phenomena. By implication in ch. (Acts 14:16-10) by express statement in ch. (Acts 10:47; 11:15,17; 19:6) it belongs to special critical epochs. V. The First Epistle to the Corinthians supplies fuller data. The spiritual gifts are classified and compared arranged, apparently, according to their worth. The facts which may be gathered are briefly these: + The phenomena of the gift of tongues were not confined to one church or section of a church. + The comparison of gifts, in both the lists given by St. Paul-- (1 Corinthians 12:8-10,28-30)--places that of tongues and the interpretation of tongues lowest in the scale. + The main characteristic of the \"tongue\" is that it is unintelligible. The man \"speaks mysteries,\" prays, blesses, gives thanks, in the tongue, (1 Corinthians 14:15,16) but no one understands him. + The peculiar nature of the gift leads the apostle into what at first appears a contradiction. \"Tongues are for a sign,\" not to believers, but to those who do not believe; yet the effect on unbelievers is not that of attracting, but of repelling. They involve of necessity a disturbance of the equilibrium between the understanding and the feeling. Therefore it is that, for those who believe already, prophecy is the greater gift. + The \"tongues,\" however, must be regarded as real languages. The \"divers kinds of tongues.\" (1 Corinthians 12:28) the \"tongues of men,\" (1 Corinthians 13:1) point to differences of some kind and it is easier to conceive of these as differences of language than as belonging to utterances all equally mild and inarticulate. + Connected with the \"tongues\" there was the corresponding power of interpretation. VI. + Traces of the gift are found in the Epistles to the Romans, the Galatians, the Ephesians. From the Pastoral Epistles, from those of St. Peter and St. John, they are altogether absent, and this is in itself significant. + It is probable, however, that the disappearance of the \"tongues\" was gradual. There must have been a time when \"tongues\" were still heard, though less frequently and with less striking results. For the most part, however, the pierce which they had filled in the worship of the Church was supplied by the \"hymns and spiritual songs\" of the succeeding age, after this, within the Church we lose nearly all traces of them. The gift of the day of Pentecost belonged to a critical epoch, not to the continuous life of the Church. It implied a disturbance of the equilibrium of man's normal state but it was not the instrument for building up the Church." ]

[ "and once To'phet (place of burning), was in the southeast extremity of the \"valley of the son of Hinnom,\" (Jeremiah 7:31) which is \"by the entry of the east gate.\" (Jeremiah 19:2) The locality of Hinnom is to have been elsewhere. [[1234]Hinnom] It seems also to have been part of the king's gardens, and watered by Siloam, perhaps a little to the south of the present Birket el-Hamra . The name Tophet occurs only in the Old Testament. (2 Kings 23:10; Isaiah 30:33; Jeremiah 7:31,32; 19:6,11,12,13,14) The New does not refer to it, nor the Apocrypha. Tophet has been variously translated. The most natural meaning seems that suggested by the occurrence of the word in two consecutive verses, in one of which it is a tabret and in the other Tophet. (Isaiah 30:32,37) The Hebrew words are nearly identical; and Tophet war probably the king's \"music-grove\" or garden, denoting originally nothing evil or hateful. Certainly there is no proof that it took its name from the beaten to drown the cries of the burning victims that passed through the fire to Molech. Afterward it was defiled by idols and polluted by the sacrifices of Baal and the fires of Molech. Then it became the place of abomination, the very gate or pit of hell. The pious kings defiled it and threw down its altars and high places, pouring into it all the filth of the city, till it became the \"abhorrence\" of Jerusalem." ]

[ "occurs only in the margin of (Judges 9:31) By a few commentators it has been conjectured that the word was originally the same with [1235]Arumah in ver. 41." ]

[ "king of Hamath. (1 Chronicles 18:9,10)" ]

[ "Watch-towers or fortified posts in frontier or exposed situations are mentioned in Scripture, as the tower of Edar, etc., (Genesis 35:21; Isaiah 21:5,8,11; Micah 4:8) etc.; the tower of Lebanon. (2 Samuel 8:6) Besides these military structures, we read in Scripture of towers built in vineyards as an almost necessary appendage to them. (1 Samuel 5:2; Matthew 22:33; Mark 12:1) Such towers are still in use in Palestine in vineyards, especially near Hebron, and are used as lodges for the keepers of the vineyards." ]

[ "the title ascribed in our version to the magistrate at Ephesus who appeased the mob in the theatre at the time of the tumult excited by Demetrius and his fellow craftsmen. (Acts 19:35) The original service of this class of men was to record the laws and decrees of the state, and to read them in public." ]

[ "(The event in the earthly life of Christ which marks the culminating point in his public ministry, and stands midway between the temptation in the wilderness and the agony in Gethsemane, (Matthew 17:1-13; Mark 9:2-13; Luke 9:28-36) Place . Though tradition locates the transfiguration on Mount Tabor there is little to confirm this view and modern critics favor Mount Hermon, the highest mountain-top in Gaulanitis, or one of the spurs of the Anti-Lebanus. Time .--The transfiguration probably took place at night, because it could then be seen to better advantage than in daylight, and Jesus usually went to mountains to spend there the night in prayer. (Matthew 14:23,24; Luke 6:12; 21:37) The apostles were asleep, and are described its having kept themselves awake through the act of transfiguration. (Luke 9:32) The actors and witnesses .--Christ was the central figure, the subject of transfiguration. Moses and Elijah appeared from the heavenly world, as the representatives of the Old Testament, the one of the law the other of prophecy, to do homage to him who was the fulfillment of both. Mr. Ellicott says, \"The close of the ministry of each was not after the 'common death of all men.' No man knew of the sepulchre of Moses, (34:6) and Elijah had passed away in the chariot and horses of fire. (2 Kings 2:11) Both were associated in men's minds with the glory of the kingdom of the Christ. The Jerusalem Targum on (Exodus 12:1) ... connects the coming of Moses with that of the Messiah. Another Jewish tradition predicts his appearance with that of Elijah.\" Moses the law giver and Elijah the chief of the prophets both appear talking with Christ the source of the gospel, to show that they are all one and agree in one. St. Luke, (Luke 9:31) adds the subject of their communing: \"They spake of his decease which he should accomplish at Jerusalem.\" Among the apostles the three favorite disciples, Peter, James and John were the sole witnesses of the scene-- \"the sons of thunder and the man of rock.\" The event itself .--The transfiguration or transformation, or, as the Germans call it, the glorification, consisted in a visible manifestation of the inner glory of Christ's person, accompanied by an audible voice from heaven. It was the revelation and anticipation of his future state of glory, which was concealed under the veil of his humanity in the state of humiliation. The cloud which overshadowed the witnesses was bright or light-like, luminous, of the same kind as the cloud at the ascension. Significance of the miracle .--", "+ It served as a solemn inauguration of the history of the passion and final consummation of Christ's work on earth. + It confirmed the faith of the three favorite disciples, and prepared them for the great trial which was approaching, by showing them the real glory and power of Jesus. + It was a witness that the spirits of the lawgiver and the prophet accepted the sufferings and the death which had shaken the faith of the disciples as the necessary conditions of the messianic kingdom.--Ellicott. As envoys from the eternal Majesty, audibly affirmed that it was the will the Father that with his own precious blood he should make atonement for sin. They impressed a new seal upon the ancient, eternal truth that the partition wall which sin had raised could he broken down by no other means than by the power of his sufferings; that he as the good Shepherd could only ransom his sheep with the price of his own life.-Krummacher. + It furnishes also to us all a striking proof of the unity of the Old and New Testaments, for personal immortality, and the mysterious intercommunion of the visible and invisible worlds. Both meet in Jesus Christ; he is the connecting link between the Old and New Testaments, between heaven and earth, between the kingdom of grace and the kingdom of glory. It is very significant that at the end of the scene the disciples saw no man save Jesus alive. Moses and Elijah, the law and the promise, types and shadows, pass away; the gospel, the fulfillment, the substance Christ remains--the only one who can relieve the misery of earth and glorify our nature, Christ all in all. (chiefly from Smith's larger Bib. Dic.--ED.)" ]

[ "The kings of Judah had keepers of their treasures both in city and country (1 Chronicles 27:25) and the places where these magazines were laid up were called treasure-cities. and the buildings treasure-houses. Pharaoh compelled the Hebrews to build him treasure-cities. (Exodus 1:11)--McClintock and Strong. [[1237]Pithom]" ]

[ "[[1238]Sin Offering OFFERING]", "Esteemed as a sin offering, and frequently so called -- Le 5:6,9.", "To be offered", "For concealing knowledge of a crime. -- Le 5:1.", "For involuntarily touching unclean things. -- Le 5:2,3.", "For rash swearing. -- Le 5:4.", "For sins of ignorance in holy things. -- Le 5:15.", "For any sin of ignorance. -- Le 5:17.", "For breach of trust, or fraud. -- Le 6:2-5.", "Was a most holy offering -- Le 14:13.", "Consisted of", "A she lamb or kid. -- Le 5:6.", "A ram without blemish. -- Le 5:15; 6:6.", "Two turtle doves by those unable to bring a lamb. -- Le 5:7-10.", "A meat offering by the very poor. -- Le 5:11-13.", "Being for minor offences was lessened for the poor, not so the sin offering -- Le 4:1-5:19.", "Atonement made by -- Le 5:6,10,13,16,18; 6:7; 19:22.", "Accompanied by confession -- Le 5:5.", "Generally accompanied by restitution -- Le 5:16; 6:5.", "To be slain where the sin offering and burnt offering were slain -- Le 14:13; Eze 40:39.", "Sometimes waved alive before the Lord -- Le 14:12,13.", "Special occasions of offering", "Cleansing of a leper. -- Le 14:2,12-14,21,22.", "Purification of women. -- Le 12:6-8.", "Purification of those with issues. -- Le 15:14,15.", "Purification of Nazarites who had broken their vow. -- Nu 6:12.", "For connection with a betrothed bondmaid. -- Le 19:20-22.", "Was the perquisites of the priest -- Le 14:13; Eze 44:29.", "Illustrative of Christ -- Isa 53:10; Eze 46:20." ]

[ "Information on the subject of trials under the Jewish law will be found in the articles on [1239]Judges and [1240]Sanhedrin, and also in [1241]Jesus Christ CHRIST." ]

[ "[[1243]Taxes; [1244]Tribute]" ]

[ "These words are employed to represent the Hebrew word gedud, which has invariably the sense of an irregular force, gathered with the object of marauding and plunder." ]

[ "[[1247]Cornet]" ]

[ "(Numbers 29:1; Leviticus 23:24) the feast of the new moon, which fell on the first of Tisri. It differed from the ordinary festivals of the new moon in several important particulars. It was one of the seven days of holy convocation. Instead of the mere blowing of the trumpets of the temple at the time of the offering of the sacrifices, it was \"a day of blowing of trumpets.\" In addition to the daily sacrifices and the eleven victims offered on the first of every month, there were offered a young bullock, a ram and seven lambs of the first year, with the accustomed meat offerings, and a kid for a sin offering. (Numbers 29:1-6) The regular monthly offering was thus repeated, with the exception of the young bullock. It has been conjectured that (Psalms 81:1) ... one of the songs of Asaph, was composed expressly for the Feast of Trumpets. The psalm is used in the service for the day by the modern Jews. Various meanings have been assigned to the Feast of Trumpets; but there seems to be no sufficient reason to call in question the common opinion of Jews and Christians, that if was the festival of the New Year's day of the civil year, the first of Tisri, the month which commenced the sabbatical year and the year of jubilee." ]

[ "the son of Lamech the Cainite by his wife Zillah, (Genesis 4:22) (B.C. about 3000.) He is called \"a furbisher of every cutting instrument of copper and iron.\"" ]

[ "occurs only once, via. in the Apocrypha. Ecclus. 24:16. It is the Pistacia terebinthus, terebinth tree, common in Palestine and the East. The terebinth occasionally grows to a large size. It belongs to the natural order Anacurdiaceas, the plants of which order generally contain resinous secretions." ]

[ "Turtur auritus (Heb. tor). The name is phonetic, evidently derived from the plaintive cooing of the bird. It is one of the smaller members of the group of birds which ornithologists usually call pigeons . The turtle-dove occurs first in Scripture in (Genesis 15:9) In the Levitical law a pair of turtle-doves or of young pigeons are constantly prescribed as a substitute for those who were too poor to provide a lamb or a kid. The offering of two young pigeons must have been one easily within the reach of the poorest. The admission of a pair of turtle-doves was perhaps a yet further concession to extreme poverty, for they were extremely numerous, and their young might easily be found and captured by those who did not possess pigeons. In the valley of the Jordan, an allied species, the palm-dove (so named because it builds its nest in the palm tree), or Egyptian turtle-- Turtur aegyptiacus, Temm.--is by no means uncommon. It is not improbable that the palm-dove may in some measure have supplied the sacrifice in the wilderness, for it is found in amazing numbers wherever the palm tree occurs, whether wild or cultivated. From its habit of pairing for life, and its fidelity to its mate, the turtle-dove was a symbol of purity and an appropriate offering. The regular migration of the turtle-dove and its return in the spring are alluded to in (Jeremiah 8:7) and Song 2:11,12 It is from its plaintive note doubtless that David in (Psalms 74:19) pouring forth his lament to God, compares himself to a turtle-dove." ]

[ "This term is used in the Revised Version of (Acts 28:11) for [1249]Castor And Pollux AND [1250]Pollux, which see." ]

[ "This form is employed in the Authorized Version of the books of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea (Joel has \"Tyre\"), Amos and Zechariah, as follows: (Jeremiah 25:22; 27:3; 47:4; Ezekiel 26:2,3,4,7,15; 27:2,3,8,32; 28:2,12; 29:18; Hosea 9:13; Amos 1:9,10; Zechariah 9:2,3)" ]

[ "In the margin of (1 Chronicles 4:16) the words \"even Kenaz\" in the text are rendered \"Uknaz,\" as the proper name." ]

[ "These were things strangled, or dead of themselves or through beasts or birds of prey; whatever beast did not both part the hoof and chew the cud; and certain other smaller animals rated as \"creeping things;\" certain classes of birds mentioned in Levi 11 and Deuteronomy 14 twenty or twenty-one in all; whatever in the waters had not both fins and scales whatever winged insect had not besides four legs the two hindlegs for leaping; Besides things offered in sacrifice to idols; and ail blood or whatever contained it (save perhaps the blood of fish, as would appear from that only of beast and bird being forbidden,) (Leviticus 7:26) and therefore flesh cut from the live animal; as also all fat, at any rate that disposed in masses among the intestines, and probably wherever discernible end separable among the flesh. (Leviticus 3:14-17; 7:23) The eating of blood was prohibited even to \"the stranger that sojourneth among you.\" (Leviticus 17:10; 12:14) As regards blood, the prohibition indeed dates from the declaration to Noah against \"flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof\" in (Genesis 9:4) which was perhaps by Moses as still binding upon all Noah's descendants. It is noteworthy that the practical effect of the rule laid down is to exclude all the carnivora among quadrupeds, and, so far as we can interpret the nomenclature the raptores among birds. They were probably excluded as being not averse to human carcasses, and in most eastern countries acting as the servitors of the battle-field and the gibbet. Among fish those which were allowed contain unquestionably the most wholesome varieties, save that they exclude the oyster. Practically the law left among the allowed Meats an ample variety. As Orientals have minds sensitive to teaching by types, there can be little doubt that such cere menial distinctions not only tended to keep Jew and Gentile apart (and so prevented the Jews from becoming contaminated with the idolatry of the Gentiles), but were a perpetual reminder to the former that he and the latter were not on one level before God. Hence, when that ceremony was changed we find that this was the very symbol selected to instruct St. Peter in the truth that God was not a \"respecter of persons.\" It remains to mention the sanitary aspect of the case. Swine are said to peculiarly liable to disease in their own bodies. This probably means that they are more easily led than other creatures to the foul feeding which produces it. As regards the animals allowed for food, comparing them with those forbidden, there can be no doubt on which side the balance of wholesomeness lies." ]

[ "The distinctive idea attached to ceremonial uncleanness among the Hebrews was that it cut a person off for the time from social privileges, and left his citizenship among God's people for the while in abeyance. There is an intense reality in the fact of the divine law taking hold of a man by the ordinary infirmities of flesh, and setting its stamp, as it were, in the lowest clay of which he is moulded. The sacredness attached to the human body is parallel to that which invested the ark of the covenant itself. It is as though Jehovah thereby would teach men that the \"very hairs of their head were all numbered\" before him and that \"in his book were all their members written.\" Thus was inculcated so to speak a bodily holiness. Nor were the Israelites to be only \"separated from other people,\" but they were to be \"holy to God,\" (Leviticus 20:24,26) \"a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation.\" The importance to physical well-being of the injunctions which required frequent ablution, under whatever special pretexts, can be but feebly appreciated in our cooler and damper climate. Uncleanness, as referred to men, may be arranged in three degrees:", "+ That which defiled merely \"until even.\" and was removed by bathing and washing the clothes at the end of it; such were all contacts with dead animals. + That graver sort which defiled for seven days, and was removed by the use of the \"water of separation;\" such were all defilements connected with the human corpse. + Uncleanness from the morbid perpetual or menstrual state, lasting as long as that morbid state lasted; and in the case of leprosy lasting often for life. As the human person was itself the seat of a covenant token, so male and female had each their ceremonial obligations in proportion to their sexual differences. There is an emphatic reminder of human weakness in the fact of birth and death-man's passage alike into and out of his mortal state-- being marked with a stated pollution. The corpse bequeathed a defilement of seven days to all who handled it, to the \"tent\" or chamber of death, and to sundry things within it. Nay, contact with one slain in the field of battle or with even a human bone or grave, was no less effectual to pollute than that with a corpse dead by the course of nature. (Numbers 19:11-18) This shows that the source of pollution lay in the mere fact of death. The duration of defilement caused by the birth of a female infant being double that due to a male, extending respectively to eighty and forty days in All, (Leviticus 12:2-5) may perhaps represent the woman's heavier share in the first sin and first curse. (Genesis 3:16; 1 Timothy 2:14) Among causes of defilement should be noticed the fact that the ashes of the red heifer burnt whole which were mixed with water and became the standing resource for purifying uncleanness in the second degree, themselves became a source of defilement to all who were clean, even as of purification to the unclean, and so the water. Somewhat similarly the scapegoat, who bore away the sins of the people, defiled him who led him into the wilderness, and the bringing forth aid burning the sacrifice on the Great Day of Atonement had a similar power. This lightest form of uncleanness was expiated by bathing the body and washing the clothes. Besides the water of purification made as afore said, men and women, in their \"issues,\" were, after seven days, reckoned from the cessation of the disorder, to bring two turtle-doves or young pigeons to be killed by the priests. All these kinds of uncleanness disqualified for holy functions: as the layman so affected might not approach the congregation and the sanctuary, so any priest who incurred defilement must abstain from holy things. (Leviticus 22:2-8) [[1251]Leper, Leprosy] The religion of the persians shows a singularly close correspondence with the Levitical code." ]

[ "(Acts 27:17) [[1252]Ship]" ]

[ "(of the city; polite), the Greek form of the Latin Urbanus, as it is given in the Revised Version. He was a Christian disciple who is in the long list of those whom St. Paul salutes in writing to Rome. (Romans 16:9) (A.D. 55.)" ]

[ "the form given in the Revised Version for Urbane." ]

[ "+ Uriah, the husband of Bath-sheba. (Matthew 1:6) + [1254]Urijah + 1 Esdr. 9:43." ]

[ "(light and perfection). When the Jewish exiles were met on their return from Babylon by a question which they had no data for answering, they agreed to postpone the settlement of the difficulty till there should rise up \"a priest with Urim and Thummim.\" (Ezra 2:63; Nehemiah 7:65) The inquiry what those Urim and Thummim themselves were seems likely to wait as long for a final and satisfying answer. On every side we meet with confessions of ignorance. Urim means \"light,\" and Thummim \"perfection.\" Scriptural statements.--The mysterious words meet us for the first time, as if they needed no explanation, in the description of the high Priest's apparel. Over the ephod there is to be a \"breastplate of judgment\" of gold, scarlet, purple and fine linen, folded square and doubled, a \"span\" in length and width. In it are to be set four rows of precious stones, each stone with the name of a tribe of Israel engraved on it, that Aaron \"may bear them on his heart.\" Then comes a further order. In side the breastplate, as the tables of the covenant were placed inside the ark, (Exodus 25:16; 28:30) are to be placed \"the Urim and the Thummim,\" the light and the perfection; and they too are to be on Aaron's heart when he goes in before the Lord. (Exodus 28:15-30) Not a word describes them. They are mentioned as things-already familiar both to Moses and the people, connected naturally with the functions of the high priest as mediating between Jehovah and his people. The command is fulfilled. (Leviticus 8:8) They pass from Aaron to Eleazar with the sacred ephod and other pontificalia . (Numbers 20:28) When Joshua is solemnly appointed to succeed the great hero-law-giver he is bidden to stand before Eleazar, the priest, \"who shall ask counsel for him after the judgment of Urim,\" and this counsel is to determine the movements of the host of Israel. (Numbers 27:21) In the blessings of Moses they appear as the crowning glory of the tribe of Levi: \"thy Thummim and thy Urim are with thy Holy One.\" (33:8,9) In what way the Urim and Thummim were consulted is quite uncertain. Josephus and the rabbins supposed that the stones gave out the oracular answer by preternatural illumination; but it seems to be far simpler and more in agreement with the different accounts of inquiries made by Urim and Thummim, (1 Samuel 14:3,18,19; 23:2,4,9,11,12; 28:6; Judges 20:28; 2 Samuel 5:23) etc., to suppose that the answer was given simply by the word of the Lord to the high priest comp. (John 11:51) when, clothed with the ephod and the breastplate, he had inquired of the Lord. Such a view agrees with the true notion of the breastplate." ]

[ "(wooded).", "+ A son of Aram, (Genesis 10:23; 1 Chronicles 1:17) end consequently a grand son of Shem. (B.C. 2400-2300.) + A son of Nahor by Milcah. (Genesis 22:21) Authorized Version, Huz. (B.C. about 1900.) + A son of Dishan, and grandson of Seir. (Genesis 36:28) (B.C. after 1800.) + The country in which Job lived. (Job 1:1) As far as we can gather, \"the land of Uz\" lay either east or southeast of Palestine, (Job 1:3) adjacent to the Sabaeans and the Chaldaeans, (Job 1:15,17) consequently north of the southern Arabians and west of the Euphrates; and, lastly, adjacent to the Edomites of Mount Seir, who at one period occupied Uz, probably as conquerors, (Lamentations 4:21) and whose troglodyte habits are described in (Job 30:6,7) From the above data we infer that the land of Uz corresponds to the Arabia Deserta of classical geography, at all events to so much of it as lies north of the 30th parallel of latitude." ]

[ "1 Esdr. 5:30. It appears to be a corruption of [1257]Akkub. (Ezra 2:45)" ]

[ "1 Esdr. 8:40. [[1258]Uthai,2]" ]

[ "(strength), one of the sons of Abinadab, in whose house at Kirjath-jearim the ark rested for twenty years. Uzzah probably was the second and Ahio the third. They both accompanied its removal when David first undertook to carry it to Jerusalem. (B.C. 1043.) Ahio apparently went before the new cart, (1 Chronicles 13:7) on which it was placed, and Uzzah walked by the side. \"At the threshing-floor of Nachon\" (2 Samuel 6:6) or Chidon (1 Chronicles 13:9) perhaps slipping over the smooth rock oxen stumbled. Uzzah caught the ark to prevent its falling. The profanation was punished by his instant death to the great grief of David, who named the place Perez-uzzah (the breaking-forth on Uzzah). But Uzzah's fate was not merely the penalty of his own rashness. The improper mode of transporting the ark, which ought to have been borne on the shoulders of the Levites was the primary cause of his unholy deed; and David distinctly recognized it as a punishment on the people in general \"because we sought him not after the due order.\"" ]

[ "the spot in which Manasseh king of Judah and his son Amon were buried. (2 Kings 21:18,26) It was the garden attached to Manasseh's palace. ver. 18. The fact of its mention shows that it was not where the usual sepulchres of the kings were. No clue, however, is afforded to its position." ]

[ "(ear (or point) of Sherah) a town founded or rebuilt by Sherah, an Ephraimite woman the daughter either of Ephraim himself or of Beriah. It is named only in (1 Chronicles 7:24) in connection with the two Beth-horons." ]

[ "(strength of Jehovah), one of David's guard, and apparently a native of Ashtaroth beyond Jordan. (1 Chronicles 11:44) (B.C. 1053.)" ]

[ "the descendants of Uzziel, and one of the four great families of the Kohathites. (Numbers 3:27; 1 Chronicles 26:23)" ]

[ "It is hardly necessary to state that these words signify a hollow sweep of ground between two more or less parallel ridges of high land. The structure of the greater part of the holy land does not lend itself to the formation of valleys in our sense of the word. The abrupt transitions of its crowded rocky hills preclude the existence of any extended sweep of valley. Valley is employed in the Authorized Version to render five distinct Hebrew words.", "+ 'Emek . This appears to approach more nearly to the general sense of the English word than any other. It is connected with several places. + Gai or ge . Of this there is fortunately one example which can be identified with certainty--the deep hollow which compasses the southwest and south of Jerusalem. This identification establishes the ge as a deep and abrupt ravine, with steep sides and narrow bottom. + Nachal . This word answers to the Arabic wady, and expresses, as no single English word can, the bed of a stream (often wide and shelving, and like a \"valley\" in character, which in the rainy season may be nearly filled by a foaming torrent, though for the greater part of the year dry). + Bik'ah . This term appears to mean rather a plain than a valley, though so far resembling it as to be enclosed by mountains. It is rendered by \"valley\" in (34:3; Joshua 11:8,17; 12:7; 2 Chronicles 35:22; Zechariah 12:11) + has-Shefelah . The district to which the name has-Shefelah is applied in the Bible has no resemblance whatever to a valley, but is a broad, swelling tract of many hundred miles in area, which sweeps gently down from the mountains Judah to the Mediterranean. It is rendered \"the vale\" in (1:7; Joshua 10:40; 1 Kings 10:27; 2 Chronicles 1:15; Jeremiah 33:13) and \"the valley\" or \"the valleys\" in (Joshua 9:1; 11:2,16; 12:8; 15:33; Judges 1:9; Jeremiah 32:44)" ]

[ "With regard to the use of the veil, it is important to observe that it was by no means so general in ancient as in modern times. Much of the scrupulousness in respect of the use of the veil dates from the promulgation of the Koran, which forbade women appearing unveiled except in the presence of their nearest relatives. In ancient times the veil was adopted only in exceptional cases, either as an article of ornamental dress, (Song of Solomon 4:1,3; 6:7) or by betrothed maidens in the presence of their future husbands, especially at the time of the wedding, (Genesis 24:65) or lastly, by women of loose character for purposes of concealment. (Genesis 38:14) Among the Jews of the New Testament age it appears to have been customary for the women to cover their heads (not necessarily their faces) when engaged in public worship." ]

[ "[[1261]Tabernacle; [1262]Temple]" ]

[ "In treating of the ancient versions that have come down to us, in whole or in part, they will be described in the alphabetical order of the languages. AETHIOPIC VERSION.--Christianity was introduced into AEthiopia in fourth century through the labors of Frumentius and AEdesius of Tyre, who had been made slaves and sent to the king. The AEthiopic version which we possess is in the ancient dialect of Axum; hence some have ascribed it to the age of the earliest missionaries, but it is probably of a later date. In 1548-9 the AEthiopic New Testament was also printed at Rome, edited by three Abyssinians. ARABIC VERSIONS.--", "+ Arabic versions of the Old Testament were made from the Hebrew (tenth century), from the Syriac and from the LXX + Arabic versions of the New Testament . There are four versions. The first, the Roman, of the Gospels only, was printed in 1590-1. ARMENIAN VERSION.--In the year 431, Joseph and Eznak returned from the Council of Ephesus bringing with them a Greek copy of the Scriptures. From this a version in Armenian was made by Isaac, the Armenian patriarch, and Miesrob. The first printed edition of the Old and New Testaments in Armenian appeared at Amsterdam in 1666, under the care of a person commonly termed Oscan or Uscan, and described as being an Armenian bishop. CHALDEE VERSIONS.--Targum, a Chaldee word of uncertain origin, is the general term for the Chaldee, or more accurately Aramaic, versions of the Old Testament. + The Targums were originally oral, and the earliest Targum, which is that of Onkelos on the Pentateuch, began to be committed to writing about the second century of the Christian era; though if did not assume its present shape till the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century. So far, however, from superseding the oral Targum at once, it was, on the contrary, strictly forbidden to read it in public. Its language is Chaldee, closely approaching in purity of idiom to that of Ezra and Daniel. It follows a sober and clear though not a slavish exegesis, and keeps as closely and minutely: to the text as is at all consistent with its purpose, viz. to be chiefly and above all a version for the people . Its explanations of difficult and obscure passages bear ample witness to the competence of those who gave it its final shape. It avoids, as far as circumstances would allow, the legendary character with which all the later Targums entwine the biblical word. + Targum on the prophets,--viz. Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Kings, the twelve minor prophets,--called [1263]Targum OF [1264]Jonathan BEN-UZZIEL. We shall probably not be far wrong in placing this Targum some time, although not long, after Onkelos, or about the middle of the fourth century. 3 And 4. Targum of Jonathan ben-Uzziel and Jerushalmi-Targum on the Pentateuch .--Onkelos and Jonathan on the Pentateuch and prophets, whatever be their exact date, place, authorship and editorship, are the oldest of existing Targums, and belong in their present shape, to Babylon and the Babylonian academies flourishing between the third and fourth centuries A.D. EGYPTIAN VERSIONS.--Of these there are three,--the Memphitic, of lower Egypt, the Coptic, of upper Egypt, and the Thebaic, with some fragments of another. The Thebaic was the earliest, and belongs to the third century. GOTHIC VERSION. In the year 318 the Gothic bishop and translator of Scripture Ulphilas, was born. He succeeded Theophilus as bishop of the Goths in 548; through him it is said that the Goths in general adopted Arianism. The great work of Ulphilas was his version of the Scriptures. As an ancient monument of the Gothic language the version of Ulphilas possesses great interest; as a version the use of which was once extended widely through Europe, it is a monument of the Christianization of the Goths; and as a version known to have been made in the fourth century, and transmitted to us in ancient MSS., It has its value in textual criticism. GREEK VERSIONS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.-- + Septuagint .--[See [1265]Septuagint] + Aquila .--It is a remarkable fact that in the second century there were three versions executed of the Old Testament Scriptures into Greek. The first of these was made by Aquila, a native of Sinope in Pontus, who had become a proselyte to Judaism. It was made during the reign of Hadrian, A.D. 117-138. + Theodotion .--The second version of which we have information as executed in the second century is that of Theodotion. He is stated to have been an Ephesian, and he seems to be most generally described as an Ebionite. + Symmachus is stated by Eusebius and Jerome to have been an Ebionite; Epiphanius and others, however, style him a Samaritan. It may be that as a Samaritan he made this version for some of that people who employed Greek, and who had learned to receive more than the Pentateuch. [1266]Latin Versions VERSIONS.--[[1267]Vulgate, The] [1268]Samaritan Pentateuch VERSIONS.--[[1269]Samaritan Pentateuch [1270]Pentateuch, The] SLAVONIC VERSION,--In A.D. 862 there was a desire expressed or an inquiry made for Christian teachers in Moravia, and in the following year the labors of missionaries began among the Moravians. These missionaries were Cyrillus and Methodius, two brothers from Thessalonica. To Cyrillus is ascribed the invention of the Slavonian alphabet and the commencement of the translation of the Scriptures. He appears to have died at Rome in 868, while Methodius continued for many years to be the bishop of the Slavonians. He is stated to have continued his brother's translation. SYRIAC VERSIONS.-- + Of the Old Testament. (a) From the Hebrew. In the early times of Syrian Christianity there was executed a version of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew, the use of which must have been as widely extended as was the Christian profession among that people. It is highly improbable that any part of the Syriac version is older than the advent of our Lord. The Old Syriac has the peculiar value of being the first version from the Hebrew original made for Christian use. The first printed edition of this version was that which appeared in the Paris Polyglot of Le Jay in 1645. (b) The Syriac version from the Hexaplar Greek text. The only Syriac version of the Old Testament up to the sixth century was apparently the Peshito. The version by Paul of Tela, a Monophysite, was made in the beginning of the seventh century; for its basis he used the Hexaplar Greek text--that is, the LXX., with the corrections of Origen, the asterisks, obeli, etc., and with the references to the other Greek versions. In fact, it is from this Syriac version that we obtain our moat accurate acquaintance with the results of the critical labors of Origen. It is from a MS. in the Ambrosian Library at Milan that we possess accurate means of knowing this Syriac version. + The Syriac New Testament Versions . (a) The Peshito Syriac New Testament. It may stand as an admitted fact that a version of the New Testament in Syriac existed in the second century. (b) The Curetonian Syriac Gospels. Among the MSS. brought from the Nitrian monasteries in 1842, Dr. Cureton noticed a copy of the Gospels, differing greatly from the common text; and this is the form of text to which the name of Curetonian Syriac has been rightly applied. Every criterion which proves the common Peshito not to exhibit a text of extreme antiquity equally proves the early origin of this." ]

[ "+ WYCLIFFE.--The New Testament was translated by Wycliffe himself The Old Testament was undertaken by Nicholas Deuteronomy Hereford, but was interrupted, and ends abruptly (following so far the order of the Vulgate) in the middle of Baruch. The version was based entirely upon the Vulgate. The following characteristics may be noticed as distinguishing this version: (1) The general homeliness of its style. (2) The substitution in many cases, of English equivalents for quasitechnical words. (3) The extreme literalness with which in some instances, even at the cost of being unintelligible, the Vulgate text is followed, as in (2 Corinthians 1:17-19) + TYNDAL.--The work of Wycliffe stands by itself. Whatever power it exercised in preparing the way for the Reformation of the sixteenth century, it had no perceptible influence on later translations. With Tyndal we enter on a continuous succession. He is the patriarch, in no remote ancestry, of the Authorized Version. More than Cranmer or Ridley he is the true hero of the English Reformation. \"Ere many years, he said at the age of thirty-six (A.D. 1520), he would cause \"a boy that driveth the plough\" to know more of Scripture than the great body of the clergy then knew. He prepared himself for the work by long years of labor in Greek and Hebrew. First the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. Mark were published tentatively. In 1525 the whole of the New Testament was printed in quarto at Cologne, and in small octave at Worms. In England it was received with denunciations. Tonstal, bishop of London, preaching at Paul's Cross, asserted that there were at least two thousand errors in it, and ordered all copies of it to be bought up and burnt. An act of Parliament (35 Hen. VIII. cap. 1) forbade the use of all copies of Tyndal's \"false translation.\" The treatment which it received from professed friends was hardly less annoying. In the mean time the work went on. Editions were printed one after another. The last appeared in 1535, just before his death. To Tyndal belongs the honor of having given the first example of a translation based on true principles, and the excellence of later versions has been almost in exact proportion as they followed his. All the exquisite grace and simplicity which have endeared the Authorized Version to men of the most opposite tempers and contrasted opinions is due mainly to his clear-sighted truthfulness. + COVERDALE.--A complete translation of the Bible, different from Tyndal's, bearing the name of Miles Coverdale, printed probably at Zurich, appeared in 1535. The undertaking itself and the choice of Coverdale as the translator were probably due to Cromwell. He was content to make the translation at second hand \"out of the Douche (Luther's German Version) and the Latine.\" Fresh editions of his Bible were published, keeping their ground in spite of rivals, in 1537, 1539, 1550, 1553. He was called in at a still later period to assist in the Geneva Version. + MATTHEW.--In the year 1537, a large folio Bible appeared as edited and dedicated to the king by Thomas Matthew. No one of that name appears at all prominently in the religious history of Henry VIII., and this suggests inference that the name was adopted to conceal the real translator. The tradition which connects this Matthew with John Rogers, the proto-martyr of the Marian persecution, is all but undisputed. Matthew's Bible reproduces Tyndal's work, in the New Testament entirely, in the Old Testament as far as 2 Chron., the rest being taken with occasional modifications from Coverdale. A copy was ordered, by royal proclamation, to be set up in every church, the cost being divided between the clergy and the parishioners. This was, therefore, the first Authorized Version. + TAVERNER (1539).--The boldness of the pseudo-Matthew had frightened the ecclesiastical world from its propriety. Coverdale's version was, however, too inaccurate to keep its ground. It was necessary to find another editor, and the printers applied to Richard Taverner. But little is known of his life. The fact that, though a layman, he had been chosen as one of the canons of the Cardinal's College at Oxford indicates a reputation for scholarship, and this is confirmed by the character of his translation. In most respects this may be described as an expurgated edition of Matthew's. + CRANMER.--In the same year as Taverner's, and coming from the same press, appeared an English Bible, in a more stately folio, with a preface containing the initials T.C., which implied the archbishop's sanction. Cranmer's version presented, as might he expected, many points of interest. The prologue gave a more complete ideal of what a translation ought to be than had as yet been seen. Words not in the original were to be printed in a different type. It was reprinted again and again, and was the Authorized Version of the English Church till 1568--the interval of Mary's reign excepted. From it, accordingly, were taken most, if not all the portions of Scripture in the Prayer books of 1549 and 1552. The Psalms as a whole, the quotations from Scripture in the Homilies, the sentences in the Communion Services, and some phrases elsewhere, still preserve the remembrance of it. + GENEVA.--The exiles who fled to Geneva in the reign of Mary entered on the work of translation with more vigor than ever. The Genevan refugees-among them Whittingham, Goodman, Pullain, Sampson and Coverdale himself--labored \"for two years or more, day and night.\" Their translation of the New Testament was \"diligently revised by the most approved Greek examples.\" The New Testament, translated by Whittingham, was printed in 1667 and the whole Bible in 1660. Whatever may have been its faults, the Geneva Bible, commonly called the Breeches Bible from its rendering of (Genesis 3:7) was unquestionably, for sixty years, the most popular of all versions. Not less than eighty editions, some of the whole Bible, were printed between 1558 and 1611. It kept its ground for some time even against the Authorized Version, and gave way as it were, slowly and under protest. It was the version specially adopted by the great Puritian party through the whole reign of Elizabeth and far into that of James. As might be expected, it was based on Tyndal's version. It presents, in a calendar prefixed to the Bible, something like a declaration of war against the established order of the Church's lessons commemorating Scripture facts and the deaths of the great reformers, but ignoring saints' days altogether it was the first English Bible which entirely omitted the Apocrypha. The notes were mere characteristically Swiss, not only in their theology, but in their politics. + THE BISHOPS' BIBLE.--The facts just stated will account for the wish of Archbishop Parker to bring out another version, which might establish its claims against that of Geneva. Great preparations were made. Eight bishops, together with some deans and professors, brought out the fruit of their labors in a magnificent folio (1568 and 1672). It was avowedly based on Cranmer's but of all the English versions it had probably the least success. It did not command the respect of scholars, and its size and cost were far from meeting the wants of the people. + RHEIMS AND DOUAY.--The successive changes in the Protestant versions of the Scriptures were, as might be expected, matter of triumph to the controversialists of the Latin Church. Some saw in it an argument against any translation of Scripture into the spoken language of the people. Others pointed derisively to the want of unity which these changes displayed. There were some, however, who took the line which Sir T. More and Gardiner had taken under Henry VIII. They did not object to the principle of an English translation. They only charged the versions hitherto made with being false, corrupt, heretical. To this there was the ready retort that they had done nothing; that their bishops in the reign of Henry had promised, but had not performed. It was felt to be necessary that they should take some steps which might enable them to turn the edge of this reproach. The English Catholic refugees who were settled at Rheims undertook a new English version. The New Testament was published at Rheims in 1582 and professed to be based on \"the authentic text of the Vulgate.\" Notes were added. as strongly dogmatic as those of the Geneva Bible, and often keenly controversial. The work of translation was completed somewhat later by the publication of the Old Testament at Douay in 1609. + AUTHORIZED VERSION.--The position of the English Church in relation to the versions in use at the commencement of the reign of James was hardly satisfactory. The Bishops' Bible was sanctioned by authority. That of Geneva had the strongest hold on the affections of the people. Scholars, Hebrew scholars in particular, found grave fault with both. Among the demands of the Puritan representatives at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604 was one for a new, or at least a revised, translation. The work of organizing and superintending the arrangements for a new translation was one specially congenial to James, and accordingly in 1606 the task was commenced. It was intrusted to 64 scholars. The following were the instructions given to the translators: (1) The Bishops' Bible was to be followed, and as little altered as the original would permit. (2) The names of prophets and others were to be retained, as nearly as may be as they are vulgarly used. (3) The old ecclesiastical welds to be kept. (4) When any word hath divers significations, that to be kept which hath been most commonly used by the most eminent fathers, being agreeable to the propriety of the place and the analogy of faith. (5) The division of the chapters to be altered either not at all or as little as possible. (6) No marginal notes to be affixed but only for the explanation of Hebrew and Greek words. (7) Such quotations of places to be marginally set down as may serve for fit reference of one Scripture to another. (8) and (9) State plan of translation. Each company of translators is to take its own books; each person to bring his own corrections. The company to discuss them, and having finished their work, to send it on to another company, and so on. (10) Provides for differences of opinion between two companies by referring them to a general meeting. (11) Gives power in cases of difficulty, to consult any scholars. (12) Invites suggestions from any quarter. (13) Names the directors of the work: Andrews, dean of Westminster; Barlow, dean of Chester and the regius professors of Hebrew and Greek at both universities. (14) Names translations to be followed when they agree more with the original than the Bishops' Bible, sc. Tyndal's, Coverdale's, Matthew's, Whitchurch's (Cranmer's), and Geneva.", "(15) Authorizes universities to appoint three or four overseers of the work. For three years the work went on, the separate companies comparing notes as directed. When the work drew toward its completion, it was necessary to place it under the care of a select few. Two from each of the three groups were accordingly selected, and the six met in London to superintend the publication. The final correction, and the task of writing the arguments of the several books, was given to Bilson, bishop of Winchester and Dr. Miles Smith, the latter of whom also wrote the dedication and preface. The version thus published did not at once supersede the versions already in possession. The fact that five editions were published in three years shows that there was a good demand. But the Bishops' Bible probably remained in many churches, and the popularity of the Geneva Version is shown by not less than thirteen reprints, in whole or in part, between 1611 and 1617. It is not easy to ascertain the impression which the Authorized Version made at the time of its appearance. Selden says it is \"the best of all translations, as giving the true sense of the original.\" [For REVISED VERSION (of 1881), see under [1271]Bible]" ]

[ "This word in addition to its ordinary sense, is often used, especially in the enumeration of towns in (Joshua 13:15,19) to imply unwalled suburbs outside the walled towns. Arab villages, as found in Arabia, are often mere collections of stone huts, \"long, low rude hovels, roofed only with the stalks of palm leaves,\" or covered for a time with tent-cloths, which are removed when the tribe change their quarters. Others are more solidly built, as are most of the of palestine, though in some the dwellings are mere mud-huts." ]

[ "occurs only in (32:32) It is generally supposed that this passage alludes to the celebrated apples of Sodom, of which Josephus speaks, \"which indeed resemble edible fruit in color, but, on being plucked by the hand, are dissolved into smoke and ashes.\" It has been variously identified. Dr. Robinson pronounced in favor of the 'osher fruit, the Asclepias (Calotropis) procera of botanists. He says, \"The fruit greatly resembles externally a large smooth apple or orange, hanging in clusters of three or four together, and when ripe is of a yellow color. It is now fair and delicious to the eye and soft to the touch but, on being pressed or struck, it explodes with a puff: like a bladder or puff-hall, leaving in the hand only the shreds of the thin rind and a few fibres. It is indeed filled chiefly with air, which gives it the round form.\" Dr. Hooker writes,\" The vine of Sodom always thought might refer to Cucumis calocynthis, which is bitter end powders inside; the term vine would scarcely be given to any but a trailing or other plant of the habit of a vine.\" His remark that the term vine must refer to some plant of the habit of a vine is conclusive against the claims of all the plants hitherto identified with the vine of Sodom." ]

[ "This place, mentioned only in (Judges 11:33) lay east of the Jordan, beyond Aroer." ]

[ "the Latin version of the Bible. The influence which it exercised upon western Christianity is scarcely less than that of the LXX. upon the Greek churches. Both the Greek and the latin Vulgate have been long neglected; yet the Vulgate should have a very deep interest for all the western churches, many centuries it was the only Bible generally used; and, directly or indirectly is the real parent of all the vernacular versions of western Europe. The Gothic version of Ulphilas alone is independent of it. The name is equivalent to Vulgata editio (the current text of Holy Scripture. This translation was made by Jerome-Eusebius Hieronymus--who way born in 329 A.D. at Stridon in Dalmatia, and died at Bethlehem in 420 A.D. This great scholar probably alone for 1500 years possessed the qualifications necessary for producing an original version of the Scriptures for the use of the Latin churches. Going to Rome, he was requested by Pope Damascus, A.D. 383, to make a revision of the old Latin version of the New Testament, whose history is lost in obscurity. In middle life Jerome began the study of the Hebrew, and made a new version of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew which was completed A.D. 404. The critical labors of Jerome were received with a loud outcry of reproach. He was accused of disturbing the repose of the Church and shaking the foundations of faith. But clamor based upon ignorance soon dies away; and the New translation gradually came into use equally with the Old, and at length supplanted it. The vast power which the Vulgate has had in determining the theological terms of western Christendom can hardly be overrated. By far the greater part of the current doctrinal terminology is based on the Vulgate. Predestination, justification, supererogation (supererogo), sanctification, salvation, mediation, regeneration, revelation, visitation (met.) propitiation, first appear in the Old Vulgate. Grace, redemption, election, reconciliation, satisfaction, inspiration, scripture, were devoted there to a new and holy use. Sacrament and communion are from the same source; and though baptism is Greek, it comes to us from the Latin. It would be easy to extend the list by the addition of orders, penance, congregation, priest ; but it can be seen from the forms already brought forward that the Vulgate has brought forward that the Vulgate has left its mark both upon our language and upon our thoughts. It was the version which alone they knew who handed down to the reformers the rich stores of medieval wisdom; the version with which the greatest of the reformers were most familiar, and from which they had drawn their earliest knowledge of divine truth." ]

[ "Only a few points need be noticed.", "+ The practice common in Palestine of carrying foundations down to the solid rock, as in the case of the temple, with structures intended to be permanent. (Luke 6:48) + A feature of some parts of Solomon's buildings, as described by Josephus, corresponds remarkably to the method adopted at Nineveh of incrusting or veneering a wall of brick or stone with slabs of a more costly material, as marble or alabaster. + Another use of walls in Palestine is to support mountain roads Or terraces formed on the sides of hills for purposes of cultivation. + The \"path of the vineyards,\" (Numbers 22:24) is a pathway through vineyards, with walls on each side.", "Designed for separation -- Eze 43:8; Eph 2:14.", "Designed for defence -- 1Sa 25:16.", "Mentioned in scripture", "Of cities. -- Nu 13:28.", "Of temples. -- 1Ch 29:4; Isa 56:5.", "Of houses. -- 1Sa 18:11.", "Of vineyards. -- Nu 22:24; Pr 24:31.", "Frequently made of stone and wood together -- Ezr 5:8; Hab 2:11.", "Were probably often strengthened with plates of iron or brass -- Jer 15:20; Eze 4:3.", "Of cities", "Often very high. -- De 1:28; 3:5.", "Strongly fortified. -- Isa 2:15; 25:12.", "Had towers built on them. -- 2Ch 26:9; 32:5; Ps 48:12; Song 8:10.", "Houses often built on. -- Jos 2:15.", "Were broad and places of public resort. -- 2Ki 6:26,30; Ps 55:10.", "Were strongly manned in war. -- 2Ki 18:26.", "Kept by watchmen night and day. -- Song 5:7; Isa 62:6.", "Houses sometimes broken down to repair, and fortify. -- Isa 22:10.", "Danger of approaching too near to, in time of war. -- 2Sa 11:20,21.", "Were battered by besieging armies. -- 2Sa 20:15; Eze 4:2,3.", "Adroitness of soldiers in scaling alluded to. -- Joe 2:7-9.", "Sometimes burned. -- Jer 49:27; Am 1:7.", "Frequently laid in ruins. -- 2Ch 25:23; 36:19; Jer 50:15.", "Destruction of, a punishment and cause of grief. -- De 28:52; Ne 1:3; 2:12-17.", "The falling of, sometimes occasioned great destruction. -- 1Ki 20:30.", "The bodies of enemies sometimes fastened on, as a disgrace. -- 1Sa 31:10.", "Custom of dedicating. -- Ne 12:27.", "idolatrous rites performed on. -- 2Ki 3:27.", "Instances of persons let down from. -- Jos 2:15; Ac 9:24,25; 2Co 11:33.", "Small towns and villages were not surrounded by -- Le 25:31; De 3:5.", "Of houses", "Usually plastered. -- Eze 13:10; Da 5:5.", "Had nails or pegs fastened into them when built. -- Ec 12:11; Isa 22:23.", "Liable to leprosy. -- Le 14:37.", "Often infested with serpents. -- Am 5:19.", "Could be easily dug through. -- Ge 49:6; Eze 8:7,8; 12:5.", "The seat next, was the place of distinction. -- 1Sa 20:25.", "Hyssop frequently grew on -- 1Ki 4:33.", "Miracles connected with", "Falling of the walls of Jericho. -- Jos 6:20.", "Handwriting on the wall of Belshazzar's palace. -- Da 5:5,25-28.", "Illustrative", "Of salvation. -- Isa 26:1; 60:18.", "Of the protection of God. -- Zec 2:5.", "Of those who afford protection. -- 1Sa 25:16; Isa 2:15.", "Of the Church as a protection to the nation. -- Song 8:9,10.", "Of ordinances as a protection to the Church. -- Song 2:9; Isa 5:5.", "Of the wealth of the rich in his own conceit. -- Pr 18:11.", "(Brazen,) of prophets in their testimony against the wicked. -- Jer 22:20.", "(Bowing or tottering,) of the wicked under judgments. -- Ps 62:3; Isa 30:13.", "(Of partition,) of separation of Jews and Gentiles. -- Eph 2:14.", "(Daubed with untempered mortar,) of the teaching of false prophets. -- Eze 13:10-15.", "(Whited,) of hypocrites. -- Ac 23:3." ]

[ "[[1280]Wilderness Of The Wandering OF THE WANDERING]" ]

[ "As knives and forks were not used in the East, in Scripture times, in eating, it was necessary that the hand, which was thrust into the common dish, should be scrupulously clean; and again, as sandals were ineffectual against the dust and heat of the climate, washing the feet on entering a house was an act both of respect to the company and of refreshment to the traveller. The former of these usages was transformed by the Pharisees of the New Testament age into a matter of ritual observance, (Mark 7:3) and special rules were laid down as to the time and manner of its performance. Washing the feet did not rise to the dignity of a ritual observance except in connection with the services of the sanctuary. (Exodus 30:19,21) It held a high place, however, among the rites of hospitality. Immediately that a guest presented himself at the tent door it was usual to offer the necessary materials for washing the feet. (Genesis 18:4; 19:2; 24:32; 43:24; Judges 19:21) It was a yet more complimentary act, betokening equally humility and affection, if the host himself performed the office for his guest. (1 Samuel 25:41; Luke 7:38,44; John 13:5-14; 1 Timothy 5:10) Such a token of hospitality is still occasionally exhibited in the East." ]

[ "The Jews, like the Greeks and Romans, divided the night into military watches instead of hours, each watch representing the period for which sentinels or pickets remained on duty. The proper Jewish reckoning recognized only three such watches, entitled the first or \"beginning of the watches,\" (Lamentations 2:19) the middle watch, (Judges 7:19) and the morning watch. (Exodus 14:24; 1 Samuel 11:11) These would last respectively from sunset to 10 P.M.; from 10 P.M. to 2 A.M.; and from 2 A.M. to sunrise. After the establishment of the Roman supremacy, the number of watches was increased to four, which were described either according to their numerical order, as in the case of the \"fourth watch,\" (Matthew 14:25) or by the terms \"even,\" \"midnight,\" \"cock-crowing\" and \"morning.\" (Mark 13:35) These terminated respectively at 9 P.M., midnight, 3 A.M. and 6 A.M." ]

[ "(Numbers 5:11-31) The ritual prescribed consisted in the husband's bringing before the priest the woman suspected of infidelity, and the essential part of it is unquestionably the oath to which the \"water\" was subsidiary, symbolical and ministerial. With her he was to bring an offering of barley meal. As she stood holding the offering, so the priest stood holding till earthen vessel of holy water mixed with the dust from the floor of the sanctuary, and, declaring her free from all evil consequences if innocent, solemnly devoted her in the name of Jehovah to be \"a curse and an oath among her people\" if guilty. He then \"wrote these curses in a book and blotted them out with the bitter water.\" and having thrown the handful of meal on the altar, \"caused the woman to drink\" the potion thus drugged, she moreover answering to the words of his imprecation, \"Amen, amen.\" Josephus adds, if the suspicion was unfounded, she obtained conception; if true, she died infamously, (This was entirely different from most trials of this kind, for the bitter water the woman must drink was harmless in itself, and only by a direct act of God could it injure her it guilty while in most heathen trials the suspected party must take poison, or suffer that which only a miracle would save them from if they were innocent.--ED.)" ]

[ "[[1282]Purification]" ]

[ "This rite, together with that of \"heaving\" or \"raising\" the offering was an inseparable accompaniment of peace offerings. In such the right shoulder, considered the choicest part of the victim, was to be (\"heaved,\" and viewed as holy to the Lord, only eaten therefore by the priest: the breast was to be \"waved,\" and eaten by the worshipper. The scriptural notices of these rites are to be found in (Exodus 29:24,28; Leviticus 7:30,34; 8:27; 9:21; 10:14,15; 23:10,15,20; Numbers 6:20; 18:11,18,26-29) etc. In conjecturing the meaning of this rite, regard must be had that it was the accompaniment of peace offerings, which were witnesses to a ratified covenant--an established communion between God and man.", "Placed in the hand of the priest and waved before the Lord -- Ex 29:24; Le 8:27.", "Consisted of", "The fat, right shoulder, &c of the priest's consecration ram. -- Ex 29:22,23; Le 8:25,26.", "The breast of the priest's consecration ram. -- Ex 29:26; Le 8:29.", "The breast of all peace offerings. -- Le 7:30; 9:18,21; 6:17,20.", "Left shoulder, of Nazarite's peace offering. -- Nu 6:17,19.", "The first fruits of barely harvest. -- Le 23:10,11.", "The first fruits of wheaten bread. -- Le 23:20.", "The Jealousy offering. -- Nu 5:25.", "The leper's trespass offering. -- Le 14:12,24.", "Of the fat, &c of the consecration ram burnt on the altar -- Ex 29:25; Le 8:28.", "Was given to the priest as his due -- Ex 29:26-28; Le 7:31,34; 8:29; 10:15; 23:20; Nu 18:11.", "Was to be eaten in a holy place by the priest's family -- Le 10:14." ]

[ "[[1283]Arms, Armor]" ]

[ "The art of weaving appears to be coeval with the first dawning of civilization. We find it practiced with great skill by the Egyptians at a very early period; The vestures of fine linen\" such as Joseph wore, (Genesis 41:42) were the product of Egyptian looms. The Israelites were probably acquainted with the process before their sojourn in Egypt; but it was undoubtedly there that they attained the proficiency which enabled them to execute the hangings of the tabernacle, (Exodus 35:35; 1 Chronicles 4:21) and other artistic textures. The Egyptian loom was usually upright, and the weaver stood at his work. The cloth was fixed sometimes at the top, sometimes at the bottom. The modern Arabs use a procumbent loom, raised above the ground by short legs. The textures produced by the Jewish weavers were very various. The coarser kinds, such tent-cloth, sack-cloth and the \"hairy garments\" of the poor, were made goat's or camel's hair. (Exodus 26:7; Matthew 3:4) Wool was extensively used for ordinary clothing, (Leviticus 13:47; Proverbs 27:26; 31:13; Ezekiel 27:18) while for finer work flax was used, varying in quality, and producing the different textures described in the Bible as \"linen\" and \"fine linen.\" The mixture of wool and flax in cloth intended for a garment was interdicted. (Leviticus 19:19; 22:11)" ]

[ "[[1284]Marriage]" ]

[ "A. WEIGHTS.--The general principle of the present inquiry is to give the evidence of the monuments the preference on all doubtful points. All ancient Greek systems of weight were derived, either directly or indirectly, from an eastern source. The older systems of ancient Greece and Persia were the AEginetan, the Attic, the Babylonian and the Euboic.", "+ The AEginetan talent is stated to have contained 60 minae, 6000 drachme. + The Attic talent is the standard weight introduced by Solon. + The Babylonian talent may be determined from existing weights found by. Mr. Layard at Nineveh. Pollux makes it equal to 7000 Attic drachms. + The Euboic talent though bearing a Greek name, is rightly held to have been originally an eastern system. The proportion of the Euboic talent to the Babylonian was probably as 60 to 72, or 5 to + Taking the Babylonian maneh at 7992 grs., we obtain 399,600 for the Euboic talent. The principal if not the only Persian gold coin is the daric, weighing about 129 grs. + The Hebrew talent or talents and divisions. A talent of silver is mentioned in Exodus, which contained 3000 shekels, distinguished as \"the holy shekel,\" or \"shekel of the sanctuary.\" The gold talent contained 100 manehs, 10,000 shekels. The silver talent contained 3000 shekels, 6000 bekas, 60,000 gerahs. The significations of the names of the Hebrew weights must be here stated. The chief unit was the [1286]Shekel (i.e. weight), called also the holy shekel or shekel of the sanctuary ; subdivided into the beka (i.e. half) or half-shekel, and the gerah (i.e. a grain or beka). The chief multiple, or higher unit, was the kikkar (i.e. circle or globe, probably for an aggregate sum), translated in our version, after the LXX., [1287]Talent; (i.e. part, portion or number), a word used in Babylonian and in the Greek hena or mina . (1) The relations of these weights, as usually: employed for the standard of weighing silver, and their absolute values, determined from the extant silver coins, and confirmed from other sources, were as follows, in grains exactly and in avoirdupois weight approximately: (2) For gold a different shekel was used, probably of foreign introduction. Its value has been calculated at from 129 to 132 grains. The former value assimilates it to the Persian daric of the Babylonian standard. The talent of this system was just double that of the silver standard; if was divided into 100 manehs, and each maneh into 100 shekels, as follows: (3) There appears to have been a third standard for copper, namely, a shekel four times as heavy as the gold shekel (or 528 grains), 1500 of which made up the copper talent of 792,000 grains. It seems to have been subdivided, in the coinage, into halves (of 264 grains), quarters (of 132 grains) and sixths (of 88 grains). B. [1288]Measures.-- I. [1289]Measures OF LENGTH.--In the Hebrew, as in every other system, these measures are of two classes: length, in the ordinary sense, for objects whose size we wish to determine, and distance, or itinerary measures, and the two are connected by some definite relation, more or less simple, between their units. The measures of the former class have been universally derived, in the first instance, from the parts of the human body; but it is remarkable that, in the Hebrew system, the only part used for this purpose is the hand and fore-arm, to the exclusion of the foot, which was the chief unit of the western nations. Hence arises the difficulty of determining the ratio of the foot to the [1290]Cubit, (The Hebrew word for the cubit (ammah) appears to have been of Egyptian origin, as some of the measures of capacity (the hin and ephah) certainly were.) which appears as the chief Oriental unit from the very building of Noah's ark. (Genesis 6:15,16; 7:20) The Hebrew lesser measures were the finger's breadth, (Jeremiah 52:21) only; the palm or handbreadth, (Exodus 25:25; 1 Kings 7:26; 2 Chronicles 4:5) used metaphorically in (Psalms 39:5) the span, i.e. the full stretch between the tips of the thumb and the little finger. (Exodus 28:16; 1 Samuel 17:4; Ezekiel 43:13) and figuratively (Isaiah 40:12) The data for determining the actual length of the Mosaic cubit involve peculiar difficulties, and absolute certainty seems unattainable. The following, however, seem the most probable conclusions: First, that three cubits were used in the times of the Hebrew monarchy, namely : (1) The cubit of a man, (3:11) or the common cubit of Canaan (in contradistinction to the Mosaic cubit) of the Chaldean standard; (2) The old Mosaic or legal cubit, a handbreadth larger than the first, and agreeing with the smaller Egyptian cubit; (3) The new cubit, which was still larger, and agreed with the larger Egyptian cubit, of about 20.8 inches, used in the Nilometer. Second, that the ordinary cubit of the Bible did not come up to the full length of the cubit of other countries. The reed (kaneh), for measuring buildings (like the Roman decempeda), was to 6 cubits. It occurs only in Ezekiel (Ezekiel 40:5-8; 41:8; 42:16-29) The values given In the following table are to be accepted with reservation, for want of greater certainty: + Of measures of distance the smallest is the pace, and the largest the day's journey . (a) The pace, (2 Samuel 6:13) whether it be a single, like our pace, or double, like the Latin passus, is defined by nature within certain limits, its usual length being about 30 inches for the former and 5 feet for the latter. There is some reason to suppose that even before the Roman measurement of the roads of Palestine, the Jews had a mile of 1000 paces, alluded to in (Matthew 5:41) It is said to have been single or double, according to the length of the pace; and hence the peculiar force of our Lord's saying: \"Whosoever shall compel thee [as a courier] to go a mile, go with him twain\"--put the most liberal construction on the demand. (b) The day's journey was the most usual method of calculating distances in travelling, (Genesis 30:36; 31:23; Exodus 3:18; 5:3; Numbers 10:33; 11:31; 33:8; 1:2; 1 Kings 19:4; 2 Kings 3:9; Jonah 3:3) 1 Macc. 5:24; 7:45; Tobit 6:1, though but one instance of it occurs in the New Testament (Luke 2:44) The ordinary day's journey among the Jews was 30 miles; but when they travelled in companies, only ten miles. Neapolis formed the first stage out of Jerusalem according to the former and Beeroth according to the latter computation, (a) The Sabbath day's journey of 2000 cubits, (Acts 1:12) is peculiar to the New Testament, and arose from a rabbinical restriction. It was founded on a universal, application of the prohibition given by Moses for a special occasion: \"Let no man go out of his place on the seventh day.\" (Exodus 16:29) An exception was allowed for the purpose of worshipping at the tabernacle; and, as 2000 cubits was the prescribed space to be kept between the ark and the people as well as the extent of the suburbs of the Levitical cities on every side, (Numbers 35:5) this was taken for the length of a Sabbath-day's journey measured front the wall of the city in which the traveller lived. Computed from the value given above for the cubit, the Sabbath-day's journey would be just six tenths of a mile . (d) After the captivity the relations of the Jews to the Persians, Greeks and Romans caused the use, probably, of the parasang, and certainly of the stadium and the mile . Though the first is not mentioned in the Bible, if is well to exhibit the ratios of the three. The universal Greek standard, the stadium of 600 Greek feet, which was the length of the race-course at Olympia, occurs first in the Maccabees, and is common in the New Testament. Our version renders it furlong ; it being, in fact, the eighth part of the Roman mile, as the furlong is of ours. 2 Macc. 11:5; 12:9,17,29; (Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Revelation 14:20; 21:18) One measure remains to be mentioned. The fathom, used in sounding by the Alexandrian mariners in a voyage, is the Greek orguia, i.e. the full stretch of the two arms from tip to tip of the middle finger, which is about equal to the height, and in a man of full stature is six feet. For estimating area, and especially land there is no evidence that the Jews used any special system of square measures but they were content to express by the cubit the length and breadth of the surface to be measured (Numbers 35:4,5; Ezekiel 40:27) or by the reed. (Ezekiel 41:8; 42:16-19; Revelation 21:16) II. [1291]Measures OF CAPACITY.-- + The measures of capacity for liquids were: (a) The log, (Leviticus 14:10) etc. The name originally signifying basin . (b) The hin, a name of Egyptian origin, frequently noticed in the Bible. (Exodus 29:40; 30:24; Numbers 15:4,7,8; Ezekiel 4:11) etc. (c) The bath, the name meaning \"measured,\" the largest of the liquid measures. (1 Kings 7:26,38; 2 Chronicles 2:10; Ezra 7:22; Isaiah 5:10) + The dry measure contained the following denominations: (a) The cab, mentioned only in (2 Kings 6:25) the name meaning literally hollow or concave . (b) The omer, mentioned only in (Exodus 16:16-36) The word implies a heap, and secondarily a sheaf. (c) The seah, or \"measure,\" this being the etymological meaning of the term and appropriately applied to it, inasmuch as it was the ordinary measure for household purposes. (Genesis 18:6; 1 Samuel 25:18; 2 Kings 7:1,16) The Greek equivalent occurs in (Matthew 13:33; Luke 13:21) (d) The ephah, a word of Egyptian origin and frequent recurrence in the Bible. (Exodus 16:36; Leviticus 5:11; 6:20; Numbers 5:15; 28:5; Judges 6:19; Ruth 2:17; 1 Samuel 1:24; 17:17; Ezekiel 45:11,13; 46:5,7,11,14) (e) The lethec, or \"half homer\" literally meaning what is poured out; it occurs only in (Hosea 3:2) (f) The homer, meaning heap. (Leviticus 27:16; Numbers 11:32; Isaiah 5:10; Ezekiel 45:13) It is elsewhere termed cor, from the circular vessel in which it was measured. (1 Kings 4:22; 5:11; 2 Chronicles 2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22; Ezekiel 45:14) The Greek equivalent occurs in (Luke 16:7) The absolute values of the liquid and the dry measures are stated differently by Josephus and the rabbinists, and as we are unable to decide between them, we give a double estimate to the various denominations. In the new Testament we have notices of the following foreign measures: (a) The metretes, (John 2:6) Authorized Version \"firkin,\" for liquids. (b) The choenix, (Revelation 6:6) Authorized Version \"measure,\" for dry goods. (c) The xestec, applied, however, not to the peculiar measure so named by the Greeks, but to any small vessel, such as a cup. (Mark 7:4,8) Authorized Version \"pot.\" (d) The modius, similarly applied to describe any vessel of moderate dimensions, (Matthew 5:15; Mark 4:21; Luke 11:33) Authorized Version \"bushel,\" though properly meaning a Roman measure, amounting to about a peck. The value of the Attic metretes was 8.6696 gallons, and consequently the amount of liquid in six stone jars, containing on the average 2 1/2 metretae each, would exceed 110 gallons. (John 2:6) Very possibly, however, the Greek term represents the Hebrew bath ; and if the bath be taken at the lowest estimate assigned to it, the amount would be reduced to about 60 gallons. The choenix was 1-48th of an Attic medimnus, and contained nearly a quart. It represented the amount of corn for a day's food; and hence a choenix for a penny (or denarius), which usually purchased a bushel (Cic. Verr. iii 81), indicated a great scarcity. (Revelation 6:6)" ]

[ "Under the Mosaic dispensation no legal provision was made for the maintenance of widows. They were left dependent partly on the affection of relations, more especially of the eldest son, whose birthright, or extra share of the property, imposed such a duty upon him, and partly on the privileges accorded to other distressed classes, such as a participation in the triennial third tithe, (14:29; 26:12) in leasing, (24:19-21) and in religious feasts. (16:11,14) With regard to the remarriage of widows, the only restriction imposed by the Mosaic law had reference to the contingency of one being left childless in which case the brother of the deceased husband had a right to marry the widow. (25:5,6; Matthew 22:23-30) In the apostolic Church the widows were sustained at the public expense, the relief being daily administered in kind, under the superintendence of officers appointed for this special purpose, (Acts 6:1-6) Particular directions are given by St.Paul as to the class of persons entitled to such public maintenance. (1 Timothy 5:3-16) Out of the body of such widows a certain number were to be enrolled, the qualifications for such enrollment being that they were not under sixty years of age; that they had been \"the wife of one man,\" probably meaning but once married ; and that they had led useful and charitable lives. vs. (1 Timothy 5:9,10) We are not disposed to identify the widows of the Bible either with the deaconesses or with the presbutides Of the early Church. The order of widows existed as a separate institution, contemporaneously with these offices, apparently for the same eleemosynary purpose for which it was originally instituted." ]

[ "(The region in which the Israelites spent nearly 38 years of their existence after they had left Egypt, and spent a year before Mount Sinai. They went as far as Kadesh, on the southernmost border of Palestine, from which place spies were sent up into the promised land. These returned with such a report of the inhabitants and their walled cities that the people were discouraged, and began to murmur and rebel. For their sin they were compelled to remain 38 years longer in the wilderness, because it showed that they were not yet prepared and trained to conquer and to hold their promised possessions. The wilderness of the wandering was the great central limestone plateau of the sinaitic peninsula. It was bordered on the east by the valley of the Arabah, which runs from the Dead Sea to the head of the eastern branch of the Red Sea. On the south and south west were the granite mountains of Sinai and on the north the Mediterranean Sea and the mountainous region south of Judea. It is called the Desert of Paran, and Badiet et-Tih, which means \"Desert of the Wandering.\" The children of Israel were not probably marching as a nation from place to place in this wilder new during these 38 years, but they probably had a kind of headquarters at Kadesh, and were \"compelled to linger on as do the Bedouin Arabs of the present day, in a half-savage, homeless state, moving about from place to place, and pitching their tents wherever they could find pasture for their flocks and herds.\"--E.H. Palmer. Toward the close of the forty years from Egypt they again assembled at Kadesh, and, once more under the leadership of the Shechinah, they marched down the Arabah on their way to the promised land.--ED.)" ]

[ "a wady mentioned by Isaiah, (Isaiah 15:7) in his dirge over Moab. It is situated on the southern boundary of Moab, and is now called Wady el-Aksa." ]

[ "Under a system of close inheritance like that of the Jews, the scope forbid bequest in respect of land was limited by the right of redemption and general re-entry in the jubilee year; but the law does not forbid bequests by will of such limited interest in land as was consistent with those rights. The case of houses in walled towns was different, and there can be no doubt that they must, in fact, have frequently been bequeathed by will, (Leviticus 25:30) Two instances are recorded in the Old Testament under the law of the testamentary disposition, (1) effected in the case of Ahithophel, (2 Samuel 17:23) (2) recommended in the case of Hezekiah. (2 Kings 20:1; Isaiah 38:1) [[1294]Heir]" ]

[ "From the scanty notices contained in the Bible we gather that, the wine-presses of the Jews consisted of two receptacles of vats placed at different elevations, in the upper one of which the grapes were trodden, while the lower one received the expressed juice. The two vats are mentioned together only in (Joel 3:13) \"The press is full: the fats overflow\"--the upper vat being full of fruit, the lower one overflowing with the must. [[1297]Wine] The two vats were usually hewn out of the solid rock. (Isaiah 5:2) margin; (Matthew 21:33) Ancient winepresses, so constructed, are still to he seen in Palestine." ]

[ "[[1298]Agriculture]" ]

[ "[[1299]Ecclesiasticus]" ]

[ "a, book of the Apocrypha, may be divided into two parts, the first, chs. 1-9, containing the doctrine of wisdom in its moral and intellectual aspects: the second, the doctrine of wisdom as shown in history. chs. 10-19. The first part contains the praise of wisdom as the source of immortality, in contrast with the teaching of sensualists; and next the praise of wisdom as the guide of practical and intellectual life, the stay of princes, and the interpreter of the universe. The second part, again, follows the action of wisdom summarily, as preserving God's servants, from Adam to Moses, and more particularly in the punishment of the Egyptians and Canaanites. Style and language .--The literary character of the book is most remarkable and interesting. In the richness and freedom of its vocabulary it most closely resembles the Fourth Book of Maccabees, but it is superior to that fine declamation in both power and variety of diction. The magnificent description of wisdom ch. 7:22-8:1, must rank among the noblest passages of human eloquence, and it would be perhaps impossible to point out any piece of equal length in the remains of classical antiquity more pregnant with noble thought or more rich in expressive phraseology. Doctrinal character.--The theological teaching of the book offers, in many respects, the nearest approach to the language and doctrines of Greek philosophy that is found in any Jewish writing up to the time of Philo. There is much in the views which it gives of the world of man and of the divine nature which springs rather from the combination or conflict of Hebrew and Greek thought than from the independent development of Hebrew thought alone. The conception is presented of the body as a mere weight and clog to the soul. ch, 9:15; contrast (2 Corinthians 5:1-4) There is, on the other hand no trace of the characteristic Christian doctrine of a resurrection of the body. The identification of the tempter, (Genesis 3:1) ... directly or indirectly with the devil, as the bringer \"of death into the world\" ch. 2:23, 24, is the most remarkable development of biblical doctrine which the book contains. Generally, too, it may be observed that, as in the cognate books, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, there are few traces of the recognition of the sinfulness even of the wise man in his wisdom, which forms in the Psalms and the prophets, the basis of the Christian doctrine of the atonement: yet comp. (Genesis 15:2) In connection with the Old Testament Scriptures, the book, as a whole, may be regarded as carrying on one step farther the great problem of life contained in Ecclesiastes and Job. Date.--From internal evidence it seems most reasonable to believe that the work was composed in Greek at Alexandria some time before the time of Philo-about 120-80 B.C. It seems impossible to study this book dispassionately and not feel that it forms one of the last links in the chain of providential connection between the Old and New Covenants. It would not be easy to find elsewhere any pre-Christian view of religion equally wide, sustained and definite." ]

[ "[[1300]Magi]" ]

[ "[[1301]Divination; [1302]Magic, Magicians]" ]