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<Text> :The given name and surname originate from the Old High German Leonhard containing the prefix levon from the Greek Leon through the Latin Leo, and the suffix hardu . The name has come to mean "lion strength", "lion-strong", or "lion-hearted". Leonard was the name of a Saint in the Middle Ages period, known as the patron saint of prisoners. Leonard is also an Irish origin surname, from the Gaelic O'Leannain also found as O'Leonard, but often was anglicised to just Leonard, consisting of the prefix O and the suffix Leannan . The oldest public records of the surname appear in 1272 in Huntingdonshire, England, and in 1479 in Ulm, Germany. The given name and surname originate from the Old High German Leonhard containing the prefix levon from the Greek Leon through the Latin Leo, and the suffix hardu . The name has come to mean "lion strength", "lion-strong", or "lion-hearted". Leonard was the name of a Saint in the Middle Ages period, known as the patron saint of prisoners. Leonard is also an Irish origin surname, from the Gaelic O'Leannain also found as O'Leonard, but often was anglicised to just Leonard, consisting of the prefix O and the suffix Leannan . The oldest public records of the surname appear in 1272 in Huntingdonshire, England, and in 1479 in Ulm, Germany. The given name and surname originate from the Old High German Leonhard containing the prefix levon from the Greek Leon through the Latin Leo, and the suffix hardu . The name has come to mean "lion strength", "lion-strong", or "lion-hearted". Leonard was the name of a Saint in the Middle Ages period, known as the patron saint of prisoners. Leonard is also an Irish origin surname, from the Gaelic O'Leannain also found as O'Leonard, but often was anglicised to just Leonard, consisting of the prefix O and the suffix Leannan . The oldest public records of the surname appear in 1272 in Huntingdonshire, England, and in 1479 in Ulm, Germany. </Text>

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<Text> :Leonardus is an extinct mammal genus from the Late Cretaceous of South America. It is a meridiolestidan dryolestoid, closely related to the also Late Cretaceous Cronopio and the Miocene Necrolestes. Leonardus is a fairly small mammal, similar in size to Necrolestes. It is known from two specimens, the holotype MACN-RN 172, composed of a left maxilla, four associated molariform teeth and two pairs of alveoli, and MACN-RN 1907, a right mandible with two molariforms. Said molariforms are vaguely peg-like, with a dome-like stylocone. Leonardus is currently only known from the Los Alamitos Formation, Argentina. The holotype was found in 1990, while the second specimen was described more recently in 2010. The genus name honours the Italian paleontologist Giuseppe Leonardi. Leonardus was originally referred to Dryolestidae, but the lack of a parastylar hook on the molariforms, as well as a few features of the stylocone, suggest that it was grouped with other South American and African dryolestoids at the exclusion of Laurasian species, in a clade known as Meridiolestida. Within Meridiolestida, it consistently groups with Necrolestes and Cronopio. A female has larger gametes than a male. Females and males are results of the anisogamous reproduction system, wherein gametes are of different sizes . The exact mechanism of female gamete evolution remains unknown. In species that have males and females, sex-determination may be based on either sex chromosomes, or environmental conditions. Most female mammals, including female humans, have two X chromosomes. Female characteristics vary between different species, with some species having pronounced secondary female sex characteristics, such as the presence of pronounced mammary glands in mammals. The word female comes from the Latin femella, the diminutive form of femina, meaning "woman". It is not etymologically related to the word male, but in the late 14th century the English spelling was altered to parallel that of male. Female is also used as a noun meaning "a female organism", though describing women as females is often considered disparaging, as it makes no distinction between other animals and humans. The word can also refer to the shape of connectors and fasteners, such as screws, electrical pins, and technical equipment. Under this convention, sockets and receptacles are called female, and the corresponding plugs male. Brown hair, also referred to as brunette/brunet, is the second-most common human hair color, after black hair. It varies from light brown to dark hair. It is characterized by higher levels of the dark pigment eumelanin and lower levels of the pale pigment pheomelanin. Brown hair is common among populations in the Western world, especially among those from Northwestern Europe, Central Europe, Southeastern Europe, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Southern Cone, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico and the United States, and also some populations in the Middle East where it transitions smoothly into black hair. Additionally, brown hair is common among Australian Aboriginals and Melanesians. The term brunette is the feminine form of the French word brunet, which is a diminutive form of brun meaning "brown/brown-haired", the feminine of which is brune. All of these terms ultimately derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhrun- "brown, grey". The form "brun" is still commonly used in Scotland, particularly in rural areas, and is also the word for "brown" in the Scandinavian languages. In modern English usage, however, it has lost the diminutive meaning and usually refers to any brown-haired girl or woman, or the associated hair color. Merriam-Webster defines "brunet" as "a person having brown hair"--with which they may have "a relatively dark complexion--spelled brunet when used of a boy or man and usually brunette when used of a girl or woman". Although brunet is the masculine version of the popular diminutive form used to describe a little boy or young man with brown hair, the use of "brunet" is uncommon in English. One is more likely to say about a man or boy, "He has brown hair" or "He is brown-haired" than to say, "He is a brunette" . Lighter or darker shades of brown hair may be referred to as "light brunette" or "dark brunette", though in such cases one is generally referring only to the hair color, not using the term as a descriptor for the person; one would be unlikely to say, "She is a light brunette." Rather, one would say, "She has light-brown hair." Brown is a color. It can be considered a composite color, but it is mainly a darker shade of orange. In the CMYK color model used in printing and painting, brown is usually made by combining the colors orange and black. In the RGB color model used to project colors onto television screens and computer monitors, brown combines red and green. According to public opinion surveys in Europe and the United States, brown is the least favorite color of the public; it is often associated with plainness, the rustic, feces, and poverty, although it does also have positive associations, including baking, warmth, wildlife and autumn. The term is from Old English brun, in origin for any dusky or dark shade of color. The first recorded use of brown as a color name in English was in 1000. The Common Germanic adjectives *brunoz and *bruna meant both dark colors and a glistening or shining quality, whence burnish. The current meaning developed in Middle English from the 14th century. Words for the color brown around the world often come from foods or beverages; in the eastern Mediterranean, the word for brown often comes from the color of coffee: in Turkish, the word for brown is kahverengi; in Greek, kafe. In Portuguese, Spanish and French, the word for brown or for a specific shade of brown is derived from the word for chestnut . In Southeast Asia, the color name often comes from chocolate: coklat in Malay; tsokolate in Filipino. In Japan, the word chairo means the color of tea. The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance languages . As in other languages, the word formation stems from the fact that west is the direction of the setting sun in the evening: 'west' derives from the Indo-European root *wes reduced from *wes-pero 'evening, night', cognate with Ancient Greek esperos hesperos 'evening; evening star; western' and Latin vesper 'evening; west'. Examples of the same formation in other languages include Latin occidens 'west' from occido 'to go down, to set' and Hebrew m`rb maarav 'west' from `rb round 'evening'. West is the direction opposite that of the Earth's rotation on its axis, and is therefore the general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set. This is not true on the planet Venus, which rotates in the opposite direction from the Earth . To an observer on the surface of Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet's surface. The phrase "the West" is often spoken in reference to the Western world, which includes the European Union , the United Kingdom, the Americas, Israel, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in the Western Roman Empire and the Western Christianity. During the Cold War "the West" was often used to refer to the NATO camp as opposed to the Warsaw Pact and non-aligned nations. The expression survives, with an increasingly ambiguous meaning. A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the UNESCO. World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, scientific or other forms of significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity". To be selected, a World Heritage Site is nominated by their host country and determined by the international committee to be a unique landmark which is geographically and historically identifiable and having a special cultural or physical significance. For example, World Heritage Sites might be ancient ruins or historical structures, buildings, cities, deserts, forests, islands, lakes, monuments, mountains or wilderness areas. A World Heritage Site may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humanity, and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet or it might be a place of great natural beauty. As of September 2023, a total of 1,199 World Heritage Sites exist across 168 countries. With 59 selected areas, Italy is the country with the most sites; followed by China with 57, then France and Germany with 52 each. The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored, uncontrolled or unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence. Sites are demarcated by UNESCO as protected zones. The World Heritage Sites list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 "states parties" that are elected by the UN General Assembly, and advised by reviews of international panels of experts in natural or cultural history, and education. </Text>

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<Text> :The Mechanical Galleon is an elaborate nef or table ornament in the form of a ship, which is also an automaton and clock. It was constructed in about 1585 by Hans Schlottheim in southern Germany. It was in the possession of Augustus, Elector of Saxony . The model is now in the British Museum in London. Two other similar models are located in museums in France and Austria, the Chateau d'Ecouen and the Kunsthistorisches Museum. Nefs were extravagant ship-shaped table ornaments in precious metal that had been popular for some centuries among the very wealthy. Earlier types, such as the Burghley Nef, usually functioned as containers for salt, spices or other things, but the figures on deck in this example leave no room for a function of this sort. It is also mostly made of gilded brass, where earlier royal examples were usually in gold or at least silver-gilt. In the sixteenth century there was an enthusiasm for clockwork automata, the production of which was funded by potentates including Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and Suleyman the Magnificent. One of the craftsmen who made these automata was Hans Schlottheim. This particular piece was believed to have been owned by Rudolf II in Prague but recent evidence points to it having been on the inventory of the Kunstkammer of Augustus I, Elector of Saxony in Dresden in 1585. Hans Schlottheim was a goldsmith and clockmaker who lived from 1547 to 1625. The important development that made these automata possible was the discovery of coiled tempered steel. It was possible to store potential energy in the coiled spring steel to create a portable energy supply. Clockwork was new and would have been regarded as "magic" in the sixteenth century. The colossal red granite statue of Amenhotep III is a granite head of the 18th Dynasty ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep III. Dating from around 1370 BCE, it was found in the temple enclosure of Mut at Karnak in Upper Egypt. Two parts of the broken colossal statue are known: the head and an arm. Both parts are now in the British Museum. It is uncertain whether it was originally erected at its findspot at the Temple of Mut in Karnak, or if it came to be there having been removed in antiquity from Amenhotep's massive mortuary temple on the West Bank of the River Nile at Kom el-Hitan. Other colossal statues of Amenhotep III include the two Colossi of Memnon, which still stand at his mortuary temple at Kom el-Hitan. After its discovery, the statue was originally ascribed by scholars as a statue of King Thutmose III. The confusion has arisen from modification of the head by later rulers; it was common practice in Ancient Egypt for pharaohs to usurp statues of earlier rulers, modifying and re-inscribing them. The lips have had their corners drilled to suggest a smaller mouth, and the heavy cosmetic lines around the eyes, suggestive of the style of cosmetic fashion in Amenhotep III's time, have been largely erased. It is now thought that the alterations were made in the time of, and to represent, Ramesses II. The broken statue was discovered in the temple enclosure of Mut at Karnak by Giovanni Battista Belzoni and Henry William Beechey in 1817. The head was found in front of the temple of Khonsupakhered. After being uncovered, the head needed to be moved to Luxor on the Nile for transport upriver to Alexandria and thence to London. Moving the head was not easy: it took eight days to transport it the single mile to Luxor. Belzoni does not mention the exact location where the arm was found, though it is assumed to have been found with the head. The Rosetta Stone is a stele of granodiorite inscribed with three versions of a decree issued in 196 BC during the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, on behalf of King Ptolemy V Epiphanes. The top and middle texts are in Ancient Egyptian using hieroglyphic and Demotic scripts, respectively, while the bottom is in Ancient Greek. The decree has only minor differences across the three versions, making the Rosetta Stone key to deciphering the Egyptian scripts. The stone was carved during the Hellenistic period and is believed to have originally been displayed within a temple, possibly at Sais. It was probably moved in late antiquity or during the Mamluk period, and was eventually used as building material in the construction of Fort Julien near the town of Rashid in the Nile Delta. It was found there in July 1799 by French officer Pierre-Francois Bouchard during the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt. It was the first Ancient Egyptian bilingual text recovered in modern times, and it aroused widespread public interest with its potential to decipher this previously untranslated hieroglyphic script. Lithographic copies and plaster casts soon began circulating among European museums and scholars. When the British defeated the French they took the stone to London under the terms of the Capitulation of Alexandria in 1801. Since 1802, it has been on public display at the British Museum almost continuously and it is the most visited object there. Study of the decree was already underway when the first complete translation of the Greek text was published in 1803. Jean-Francois Champollion announced the transliteration of the Egyptian scripts in Paris in 1822; it took longer still before scholars were able to read Ancient Egyptian inscriptions and literature confidently. Major advances in the decoding were recognition that the stone offered three versions of the same text ; that the Demotic text used phonetic characters to spell foreign names ; that the hieroglyphic text did so as well, and had pervasive similarities to the Demotic ; and that phonetic characters were also used to spell native Egyptian words . Three other fragmentary copies of the same decree were discovered later, and several similar Egyptian bilingual or trilingual inscriptions are now known, including three slightly earlier Ptolemaic decrees: the Decree of Alexandria in 243 BC, the Decree of Canopus in 238 BC, and the Memphis decree of Ptolemy IV, c. 218 BC. Though the Rosetta Stone is known to no longer be unique, it was the essential key to the modern understanding of ancient Egyptian literature and civilisation. The term "Rosetta Stone" is now used to refer to the essential clue to a new field of knowledge. The London Borough of Camden is a London borough in Inner London, England. Camden Town Hall, on Euston Road, lies 1.4 mi north of Charing Cross. The borough was established on 1 April 1965 and includes the former Central London borough of Holborn, and St Pancras and Hampstead. To the south it shares with the City of Westminster parts of the West End, where it also borders the City of London. The cultural and commercial land uses in the south contrast with the bustling mixed-use districts such as Camden Town and Kentish Town in the centre and leafy residential areas around Hampstead Heath in the north. Well known attractions include The British Museum, The British Library, the famous views from Parliament Hill, the London Zoo, the BT Tower, the converted Roundhouse entertainment venue, and Camden Market. As of 2021 it has a population of 210,136. The borough was created in 1965 from the areas of the former metropolitan boroughs of Hampstead, Holborn, and St Pancras, which had formed part of the County of London. The initial Herbert Commission report recommended that the new borough consist of St Pancras and Hampstead, but Holborn was later added. According to Enid Wistrich, who was a member of Hampstead Council at the time, the name "Camden" was the idea of Alderman Room, the Leader of Hampstead Council, and Mr Wilson, the Town Clerk, while travelling in a taxi through Camden Town. The name "Fleet" had also been suggested, after the underground river that flowed through the three boroughs, but that was rejected as the river was little more than a sewer. Other suggestions included "Penhamborn", 'Bornhamcras" and "Hohampion". Government guidelines for the naming of the new boroughs suggested that the chosen name should be short and simple, and ideally one that was generally associated with the centre of the new Borough. The name "Camden" met those criteria. The Elgin Marbles are a collection of Ancient Greek sculptures from the Parthenon and other structures from the Acropolis of Athens, removed from Ottoman Greece and shipped to Britain by agents of Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, and now held in the British Museum in London. The majority of the sculptures were created in the 5th century BC under the direction of sculptor and architect Phidias. The term Parthenon Marbles or Parthenon Sculptures refers to sculptures--the frieze, metopes and pediments--from the Parthenon held in various collections, principally the British Museum and the Acropolis Museum in Athens. From 1801 to 1812, Elgin's agents removed about half the surviving Parthenon sculptures, as well as sculptures from the Erechtheion, the Temple of Athena Nike and the Propylaia, sending them to Britain in efforts to establish a private museum. Elgin stated he removed the sculptures with permission of the Ottoman officials who exercised authority in Athens at the time. The veracity of Elgin's claim has been disputed. Their presence in the British Museum is the subject of longstanding international controversy. In Britain, the acquisition of the collection was supported by some, while others, such as Lord Byron, likened Elgin's actions to vandalism or looting. A UK parliamentary inquiry in 1816 concluded that Elgin had acquired the marbles legally. Elgin sold them to the British government in that year, after which they passed into the trusteeship of the British Museum. In 1983, the Greek government formally asked the UK government to return them to Greece, and subsequently listed the dispute with UNESCO. The UK government and British Museum declined UNESCO's offer of mediation. In 2021, UNESCO called upon the UK government to resolve the issue at the intergovernmental level. The royal Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal is shown on a famous group of Assyrian palace reliefs from the North Palace of Nineveh that are now displayed in room 10a of the British Museum. They are widely regarded as "the supreme masterpieces of Assyrian art". They show a formalized ritual "hunt" by King Ashurbanipal in an arena, where captured Asian lions were released from cages for the king to slaughter with arrows, spears, or his sword. They were made about 645-635 BC, and originally formed different sequences placed around the palace. They would probably originally have been painted, and formed part of a brightly coloured overall decor. The slabs or orthostats from the North Palace were excavated by Hormuzd Rassam in 1852-1854, and William Loftus in 1854-1855 and most were sent to the British Museum, where they have been favourites with the general public and art historians alike ever since. The realism of the lions has always been praised, although the pathos modern viewers tend to feel was perhaps not part of the Assyrian response. The human figures are mostly seen in formal poses in profile, especially the king in his several appearances, but the lions are in a great variety of poses, alive, dying, and dead. The carvings come from late in the period of some 250 years over which Assyrian palace reliefs were made, and show the style at its most developed and finest, before decline set in. Ashurbanipal was the last great Assyrian king, and after his reign ended the Neo-Assyrian Empire descended into a period of poorly-recorded civil war between his descendants, generals and rebelling parts of the empire. By 612, perhaps as little as 25 years after these were made, the empire had fallen apart and Nineveh been sacked and burnt. An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the display of art, usually from the museum's own collection. It might be in public or private ownership, be accessible to all, or have restrictions in place. Although primarily concerned with visual art, art museums are often used as a venue for other cultural exchanges and artistic activities, such as lectures, jewelry, performance arts, music concerts, or poetry readings. Art museums also frequently host themed temporary exhibitions, which often include items on loan from other collections. An institution dedicated to the display of art can be called an art museum or an art gallery, and the two terms may be used interchangeably. This is reflected in the names of institutions around the world, some of which are considered art galleries, such as the National Gallery in London and Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin, and some of which are considered museums, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Museum of Modern Art in New York City and the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo. Throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions or political leaders and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were not open to the general public, they were often made available for viewing for a section of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as an early form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects, such as Julius Caesar, often donated their collections to temples. It is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. In Europe, from the Late Medieval period onwards, areas in royal palaces, castles, and large country houses of the social elite were often made partially accessible to sections of the public, where art collections could be viewed. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to people of certain social classes who were required to wear the proper apparel, which typically included the appropriate accessories, silver shoe buckles and a sword, could be hired from shops outside. The treasuries of cathedrals and large churches, or parts of them, were often set out for public display and veneration. Many of the grander English country houses could be toured by the respectable for a tip to the housekeeper, during the long periods when the family were not in residence. </Text>

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<Text> :A chateau is a manor house or residence of the lord of the manor, or a fine country house of nobility or gentry, with or without fortifications, originally, and still most frequently, in French-speaking regions. The word chateau is a French word that has entered the English language, where its meaning is more specific than it is in French. The French word chateau denotes buildings as diverse as a medieval fortress, a Renaissance palace and a fine 19th-century country house. Care should therefore be taken when translating the French word chateau into English, noting the nature of the building in question. Most French chateaux are "palaces" or fine "country houses" rather than "castles", and for these, the word "chateau" is appropriate in English. Sometimes the word "palace" is more appropriate. To give an outstanding example, the Chateau de Versailles, also called in French le palais de Versailles, is so-called because it was located in the countryside when it was built, but it does not bear any resemblance to a castle, so it is usually known in English as the Palace of Versailles. When clarification is needed in French, the term chateau fort is used to describe a fortified castle, such as the Chateau fort de Roquetaillade. The urban counterpart of a chateau is a palais in French, which is usually applied only to very grand residences in a city. This usage is again different from that of the term "palace" in English, where there is no requirement that a palace must be in a city, but the word palais is rarely used for buildings other than the grandest royal residences. The term hotel particulier is used in French for an urban "private house" of a grand sort. A chateau is a "power house", as Sir John Summerson dubbed the British and Irish "stately homes" that are the British Isles' architectural counterparts to French chateaux. It is the personal badge of a family that, with some official rank, locally represents the royal authority; thus, the word chateau often refers to the dwelling of a member of either the French nobility or royalty. However, some fine chateaux, such as Vaux-le-Vicomte, were built by the essentially high-bourgeois--people but recently ennobled: tax-farmers and ministers of Louis XIII and his royal successors. The quality of the residences could vary considerably, from grand chateaux owned by royalty and the wealthy elite near larger towns to run-down chateaux vacated by poor nobility and officials in the countryside, isolated and vulnerable. </Text>

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<Text> :Fontainebleau is a commune in the metropolitan area of Paris, France. It is located 55.5 kilometres south-southeast of the centre of Paris. Fontainebleau is a sub-prefecture of the Seine-et-Marne department, and it is the seat of the arrondissement of Fontainebleau. The commune has the largest land area in the Ile-de-France region; it is the only one to cover a larger area than Paris itself. The commune is closest to Seine-et-Marne Prefecture, Melun. Fontainebleau is renowned for the large and scenic forest of Fontainebleau, a favourite weekend getaway for Parisians, as well as for the historic Chateau de Fontainebleau, which once belonged to the kings of France. It is also the home of INSEAD, one of the world's most elite business schools. According to the official chateau history, "Fontainebleau" took its name in the 16th century from the "Fontaine Belle-Eau", a natural fresh water spring located in the English garden not far from the chateau. The name means "Spring of beautiful water". In the 19th century the spring was rebuilt to flow into an octagonal stone basin. Before the 16th century, Fontainebleau was recorded in the Latinised forms Fons Bleaudi, Fons Bliaudi, and Fons Blaadi in the 12th and 13th centuries, and as Fontem blahaud in 1137. In the 17th century it was also sometimes called by the fanciful Latin Fons Bellaqueus This the origin of the name Bellifontains sometimes used for residents. Poland , officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative voivodeship provinces, covering an area of 312,696 km2 . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth most populous member state of the European Union. Warsaw is the nation's capital and largest metropolis. Other major cities include Krakow, Wroclaw, Lodz, Poznan, and Gdansk. Poland has a temperate transitional climate, and its territory traverses the Central European Plain, extending from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south. The longest Polish river is the Vistula, and Poland's highest point is Mount Rysy, situated in the Tatra mountain range of the Carpathians. The country is bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukraine to the east, Slovakia and the Czech Republic to the south, and Germany to the west. It also shares maritime boundaries with Denmark and Sweden. Prehistoric human activity on Polish soil dates to the Lower Paleolithic, with continuous settlement since the end of the Last Glacial Period. Culturally diverse throughout late antiquity, in the early medieval period the region became inhabited by the tribal Polans, who gave Poland its name. The process of establishing proper statehood, which began in 966, coincided with the conversion of a pagan ruler of the Polans to Christianity, under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church. The Kingdom of Poland emerged in 1025, and in 1569 cemented its long-standing association with Lithuania, thus forming the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the time, the Commonwealth was one of the great powers of Europe, with a uniquely liberal political system which adopted Europe's first modern constitution in 1791. With the passing of the prosperous Polish Golden Age, the country was partitioned by neighbouring states at the end of the 18th century. Poland regained its independence in 1918 as the Second Polish Republic and successfully defended it in the Polish-Soviet War from 1919 to 1921. In September 1939, the invasion of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union marked the beginning of World War II, which resulted in the Holocaust and millions of Polish casualties. Forced into the Eastern Bloc in the global Cold War, the Polish People's Republic was a founding signatory of the Warsaw Pact. Through the emergence and contributions of the Solidarity movement, the communist government was dissolved and Poland re-established itself as a democratic state in 1989. "National Museum of Poland" is the common name for several of the country's largest and most notable museums. Poland's National Museum comprises several independent branches, each operating a number of smaller museums. The main branch is the National Museum in Krakow , established in 1879 with permanent collections consisting of several hundred thousand items - kept in big part at the Main Building , but also in the eight of its divisions around the city. Among the many Museums of Poland around the world, there is also the Polish Museum of America in Chicago, the Polish American Museum in New York City and the Polish National Museum in Rapperswil, Switzerland. A military museum or war museum is an institution dedicated to the preservation and education of the significance of wars, conflicts, and military actions. These museums serve as repositories of artifacts, documents, photographs, and other memorabilia related to the military and war. Some of these institutions may also be used as a war memorial for a particular country or conflict. These institutions vary in their scope and focus, with some museums dedicated to a specific national or regional context and chronicling the military history of a particular country or region, while other museums may concentrate on a particular conflict, era, service, technology , or unit . The Emeryk Hutten-Czapski Museum , also known as the Czapski Museum is a branch of the National Museum of Krakow, 12 Pilsudski Street, Krakow. Count Emeryk Hutten-Czapski, was a Vice-Governor of St Petersburg and an important collector of books, prints, and numismatics. He built his collection at his family estate in Stankow, today in Belarus. Fearing for the safety of the collection, being close to Russia, he moved the collection to Cracow. In 1894, he purchased a 19th-century palace, on what is today 12 Pilsudski Street, and built an addition to house his collection. He personally catalogued the collection. He died in 1896, before the addition was finished. His wife, Baroness Elzbieta Meyendorff, completed the construction of the addition, and in 1904, as per her husband's request, donated the collection to the city of Cracow. The museum displays the Czapski crest on the outside, along with the inscription on the pediment: "Monumentis Patriae Naufragio Ereptis" . The collection originally contained more than 11,000 coins, medals, orders, prints and books. Upon the death of Bogdan Hutten-Czapski, a nephew of Emeryks, his large collection of books and prints was added to the museum library. The museum continually received generous donations from other coin collectors. Important donations came from Wiktor Wittyg, Zygmunt Zakrzewski, Franciszek Piekosinski, Karol Halama, and Piotr Uminski, among others. At the outbreak of World War I, in 1914, the collection was stored in barrels. The museum was reopened in 1917 and once again at the outset of World War II, in 1939, was closed and the collection was again safeguarded. Since 1939 the museum remained closed to the public. With funding from the European Regional Development Fund of the European Economic Community the project of the European Centre of Numismatics in Cracow could be completed, and the restored museum and gardens were opened once again to the public in 2013. The museum has been renovated to a world class museum with touch screens throughout, explaining the different exhibits in Polish and English. In April 2016, on the gardens of the museum, a pavilion was erected to commemorate Emeryk's grandson, Jozef Czapski. Jozef was an eminent Polish intellectual, writer, painter and critic. The modern pavilion displays Czapski's diaries, paintings, and contains various multimedia presentations. The layout of the Pavilion's permanent exhibition was designed by Krystyna Zachwatowicz and her husband, the film director Andrzej Wajda. </Text>

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<Text> :Saadiyat Island is a natural island and a tourism-cultural project for nature and Emirati heritage and culture that is located in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. The project is located in a large, low-lying island, 500 metres off the coast of Abu Dhabi island. A mixed commercial, residential, and leisure project is currently under construction on the island. When completed, Saadiyat Island is expected to become Abu Dhabi's cultural centre, mostly for the Island's Cultural District that is expected to include eight museums. The project is being developed by the Abu Dhabi Tourism Authority-held Tourism Development & Investment Company . The company plans is to dispose of development to private investors that will work on their sites in accordance with the master plan as well as other ground rules. The plan for Saadiyat island was done by EDAW and continued under AECOM. The Island is located 500 meters off the coast of Abu Dhabi. An entire district on the island is devoted to culture and the arts, with exhibitions, permanent collections, productions and performances. In developing the island project, the close cooperation model is being followed by TDIC and the government agencies. The government-related entity has been working in cooperation with government agencies such as the Department of Transport to create an integrated project, complete with public amenities, in a relatively short period of time. Such close cooperation reassures smaller, private developers, who follow the GRE by providing smaller-scale works like shops, entertainment venues or real estate developments, which in turn attract a full-time resident community. The United Arab Emirates , or simply the Emirates , is a country in West Asia, in the Middle East. It is located at the eastern end of the Arabian Peninsula and shares borders with Oman and Saudi Arabia, while also having maritime borders in the Persian Gulf with Qatar and Iran. Abu Dhabi is the country's capital, while Dubai, the most populous city, is an international hub. The United Arab Emirates is an elective monarchy formed from a federation of seven emirates, consisting of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras Al Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm Al Quwain. Each emirate is an absolute monarchy governed by a ruler, and together the rulers form the Federal Supreme Council, the highest executive and legislative body. The Federal Supreme Council elects a president and two vice presidents from among their members; as of 14 May 2023, the president is Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan and the vice presidents are Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum and Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan. In practice, the ruler of Abu Dhabi serves as president while the ruler of Dubai is vice president and also prime minister. As of 2023, the UAE has an estimated population of 9.97 million. Emirati citizens are estimated to form 11.6% of the population; the remaining residents are expatriates, the majority of whom are South Asian. Islam is the official religion and Arabic is the official language. The United Arab Emirates' oil and natural gas reserves are the world's sixth and seventh-largest, respectively. Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the country's first president, oversaw the development of the Emirates by investing oil revenues into healthcare, education, and infrastructure. The country has the most diversified economy among the members of the Gulf Cooperation Council. In the 21st century, the UAE has become less reliant on oil and gas and is economically focusing on tourism and business. The UAE is considered a middle power. It is a member of the United Nations, Arab League, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, OPEC, Non-Aligned Movement, World Trade Organization, Gulf Cooperation Council and BRICS. The UAE is also a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. Stone tools recovered reveal a settlement of people from Africa some 127,000 years ago and a stone tool used for butchering animals discovered on the Arabian coast suggests an even older habitation from 130,000 years ago. In time lively trading links developed with civilisations in Mesopotamia, Iran and the Harappan culture of the Indus Valley. This contact persisted and became wider, probably motivated by the trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, which commenced around 3,000 BCE. Sumerian sources talk of the Magan civilisation, which has been identified as encompassing the modern UAE and Oman. Abu Dhabi is the capital of the United Arab Emirates. The city of Abu Dhabi is the capital of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi and the UAE's second-most populous city after Dubai. The city of Abu Dhabi is located on an island in the Persian Gulf, off the Central West Coast. Most of the city and the Emirate reside on the mainland connected to the rest of the country. As of 2021, Abu Dhabi's urban area had an estimated population of 1.5 million, out of 2.9 million in the emirate of Abu Dhabi, as of 2016. The Abu Dhabi Investment Authority is headquartered in the city, and was the world's 3rd largest sovereign wealth fund in 2022. Abu Dhabi itself has over a trillion US dollars worth of assets under management in a combination of various sovereign wealth funds headquartered there. Abu Dhabi houses local and federal government offices and is the home of the United Arab Emirates Government and the Supreme Council for Financial and Economic Affairs. The city is home to the UAE's President, a member of the Al Nahyan family. Abu Dhabi's rapid development and urbanization, coupled with the massive oil and gas reserves and production and relatively high average income, have transformed it into a large, developed metropolis. It is the country's center of politics and industry, and a major culture and commerce center. Abu Dhabi accounts for about two-thirds of the roughly $503 billion UAE economy. The area surrounding Abu Dhabi is full of archaeological evidence from historical civilizations, such as the Umm Al Nar Culture, which dates back from the third millennium BC. Other settlements were also found farther outside the modern city of Abu Dhabi, including the eastern and western regions of the Emirate. Jean Nouvel is a French architect. Nouvel studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris and was a founding member of Mars 1976 and Syndicat de l'Architecture, France's first labor union for architects. He has obtained a number of prestigious distinctions over the course of his career, including the Aga Khan Award for Architecture , the Wolf Prize in Arts in 2005 and the Pritzker Prize in 2008. A number of museums and architectural centres have presented retrospectives of his work. Nouvel was born on 12 August 1945 in Fumel, France. He is the son of Renee and Roger Nouvel, who were teachers. When his father became the county's chief school superintendent, his family moved often. His parents encouraged Nouvel to study mathematics and language but when he was 16 years old he was captivated by art when a teacher taught him drawing. Although he later said he thought that his parents were guiding him to pursue a career in education or engineering, the family reached a compromise: he could study architecture, which they thought was less risky, as a profession, than art. When Nouvel failed an entrance examination at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts of Bordeaux, he moved to Paris, where he won first prize in a national competition to attend the Ecole nationale superieure des Beaux-Arts. From 1967 to 1970, he earned his income as an assistant to architects Claude Parent and Paul Virilio, who, after only one year, made him a project manager in charge of building a large apartment complex. Nouvel and the filmmaker Odile Fillion have two sons: Bertrand, a post-doctorate computer scientist working at Mindstorm Multitouch in London, and Pierre, a theater producer and designer at his company, Factoid. With his second wife, Catherine Richard, Nouvel has a daughter, Sarah. His third wife, Lida Guan, is a Chinese architect who worked with Nouvel. He is currently living with Mia Hagg, a Swedish architect whose practice, Habiter Autrement , is based in Paris. Buro Happold Limited is a British professional services firm that provides engineering consultancy, design, planning, project management, and consulting services for buildings, infrastructure, and the environment. It was founded in Bath, Somerset, in 1976 by Sir Edmund Happold when he took up a post at the University of Bath as Professor of Architecture and Engineering Design. Edmund Happold worked at Arup before founding Buro Happold, where he worked on projects such as the Sydney Opera House and the Pompidou Centre. Ted Happold was renowned within the field of lightweight and tensile structures. As a result, Buro Happold has undertaken a large number of tensile and other lightweight structures since its founding . Ted Happold died in 1996, but the firm claims to maintain his views on engineering and life. The King's Office, Council of Ministers and Majlis Al Shura , Central Government Complex in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia was the firm's first major design project in 1976. Initially, Buro Happold offered only structural engineering consultancy, with a particular strength in lightweight structures, but in 1977 it added civil engineering and geotechnical engineering and in 1978 building services engineering. In 1982 Buro Happold started to work with Future Tents Ltd on a variety of temporary and recreational structures. The firms combined their operations in 1992, but split again in 1997. By 1993, Buro Happold had 130 employees and eight partners. In 1998 this had grown to 300 employees and 12 partners, while in 2000 with over 500 employees the partnership was increased to 23. In 2006 the partnership stood at 25 with over 1,400 employees and 14 offices. Due to this growth and the addition of so many different services, the company was restructured in 2003 to consist of multi-disciplinary teams of engineers, each with structural, mechanical and electrical engineers supported by specialist consulting groups. Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the United Kingdom's land area, consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain and more than 790 adjacent islands, principally in the archipelagos of the Hebrides and the Northern Isles. To the south-east, Scotland has its only land border, which is 96 miles long and shared with England; the country is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, the North Sea to the north-east and east, and the Irish Sea to the south. The population in 2022 was 5,436,600 and accounts for 8% of the population of the UK. Edinburgh is the capital and Glasgow is the largest of the cities of Scotland. The Kingdom of Scotland emerged in the 9th century. In 1603, James VI inherited England and Ireland, forming a personal union of the three kingdoms. On 1 May 1707 Scotland and England combined to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain, with the Parliament of Scotland subsumed into the Parliament of Great Britain. In 1999 a Scottish Parliament was re-established, and has devolved authority over many areas of domestic policy. The country has a distinct legal system, educational system, and religious history from the rest of the UK, which have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and national identity within the United Kingdom. Scottish English and Scots are the most widely spoken languages in the country, existing on a dialect continuum with each other. Scottish Gaelic speakers can be found all over Scotland, however the language is largely spoken natively by communities within the Hebrides. The number of Gaelic speakers numbers less than 2% of the total population, though state-sponsored revitalisation attempts have led to a growing community of second language speakers. The mainland of Scotland is broadly divided into three regions: the Highlands, a mountainous region in the north and north-west; the Lowlands, a flatter plain across the centre of the country; and the Southern Uplands, a hilly region along the southern border. The Highlands are the most mountainous region of the UK and contain its highest peak, Ben Nevis, at 4,413 feet . The region also contains many lakes, called lochs; the term is also applied to the many saltwater inlets along the country's deeply indented western coastline. The geography of the many islands is varied. Some, such as Mull and Skye, are noted for their mountainous terrain, while the likes of Tiree and Coll are much flatter. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels. Philip Freeman has speculated on the likelihood of a group of raiders adopting a name from an Indo-European root, *skot, citing the parallel in Greek skotos , meaning "darkness, gloom". The Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland, and likewise in early Old English Scotland was used for Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, both derived from the Gaelic Alba. The use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Midlothian is a historic county, registration county, lieutenancy area and one of 32 council areas of Scotland used for local government. Midlothian lies in the east-central Lowlands, bordering the City of Edinburgh council area, East Lothian and the Scottish Borders. Midlothian emerged as a county in the Middle Ages under larger boundaries than the modern council area, including Edinburgh itself. The county was formally called the "shire of Edinburgh" or Edinburghshire until the twentieth century. It bordered West Lothian to the west, Lanarkshire, Peeblesshire and Selkirkshire to the south, and East Lothian, Berwickshire and Roxburghshire to the east. Traditional industries included mining, agriculture and fishing--although the modern council area is now landlocked. Following the end of the Roman occupation of Britain, Lothian was populated by Brythonic-speaking ancient Britons and formed part of Gododdin, within the Hen Ogledd or Old North. In the seventh century, Gododdin fell to the Angles, with Lothian becoming part of the kingdom of Bernicia. Bernicia united into the Kingdom of Northumbria which itself became part of the early Kingdom of England. Lothian came under the control of the Scottish monarchy in the tenth century. In the Middle Ages, Lothian was the scene of several historic conflicts between the kingdoms of Scotland and England. The Battle of Roslin took place in 1303 at Roslin as part of the First War of Scottish Independence. A Scottish army led by Simon Fraser and John Comyn defeated an army led by English commander John Segrave. </Text>

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<Text> :The Scottish Government is the devolved government of Scotland. It was formed in 1999 as the Scottish Executive following the 1997 referendum on Scottish devolution. It has the responsibility for the economy of Scotland, the educational system in Scotland, health care, justice, Scots law, rural affairs, housing, environment, equal opportunities, the transportation network and tax, amongst others. The Scottish Government consists of the Scottish Ministers, which is used to describe their collective legal functions. The Scottish Government is accountable to the Scottish Parliament, which was also created by the Scotland Act 1998 with the first minister appointed by the monarch following a proposal by the Parliament. The responsibilities of the Scottish Parliament fall over matters that are not reserved in law to the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Ministers are appointed by the first minister with the approval of the Scottish Parliament and the monarch from among the members of the Parliament. The Scotland Act 1998 makes provision for ministers and junior ministers, referred to by the current administration as Cabinet secretaries and ministers, in addition to two law officers: the lord advocate and the solicitor general for Scotland. Collectively the Scottish Ministers and the Civil Service staff that support the Scottish Government are formally referred to as the Scottish Administration. In 1885, many domestic policy functions relating to Scotland were brought into the responsibility of the Scottish Office, a department of the Government of the United Kingdom which was headed by a Secretary for Scotland, later the Secretary of State for Scotland. National Galleries Scotland: Portrait is an art museum on Queen Street, Edinburgh. Portrait holds the national collections of portraits, all of which are of, but not necessarily by, Scots. It also holds the Scottish National Photography Collection. Since 1889 it has been housed in its red sandstone Gothic revival building, designed by Robert Rowand Anderson and built between 1885 and 1890 to accommodate the gallery and the museum collection of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. The building was donated by John Ritchie Findlay, owner of The Scotsman newspaper. In 1985 the National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland was amalgamated with the Royal Scottish Museum, and later moved to Chambers Street as part of the National Museum of Scotland. Portrait expanded to take over the whole building, and reopened on 1 December 2011 after being closed since April 2009 for the first comprehensive refurbishment in its history, carried out by Page\Park Architects. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland was founded in 1780 by David Erskine, 11th Earl of Buchan. Its members donated items of interest, and in 1781 it bought a place to properly store this material, the Antiquarian Society Hall, located between the Cowgate and Parliament Close, just to the west of Old Fishmarket Close, as shown on Alexander Kincaid's Plan of the City. It moved several times, from 1826 it rented space in the Royal Institution at the foot of The Mound, owned by the Board of Manufactures. By 1851 its collections were in 24 George Street, in November it agreed with the Board to make the collections National Property, with the government to provide continuing accommodation for the collections and for the Society's meetings. As part of the agreement, the collections moved back to the Royal Institution in 1858. Erskine had also formed a collection of Scottish portraits in the late 18th century, many are now in the museum. When the National Portrait Gallery, London, was established in 1856 and became very successful, the Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle was among those calling for a Scottish equivalent, but the government was reluctant to commit to funding the project. National Galleries Scotland: Modern is part of National Galleries Scotland, which is based in Edinburgh, Scotland. The Modern houses the collection of modern and contemporary art dating from about 1900 to the present in two buildings, Modern One and Modern Two, that face each other on Belford Road to the west of the city centre. In 1984 the SNGMA moved to the former premises of the John Watson's Institution on Belford Road in the west of the city, a large neo-classical building which was originally designed by William Burn in 1825 as a refuge for fatherless children. In 1999, the SNGMA's collection had outgrown the Watson's premises, and it expanded into the Dean Orphan Hospital, a neoclassical orphanage situated on the other side of Belford Road which had been erected by Thomas Hamilton in 1833. The Dean Gallery was converted to a gallery by Terry Farrell and Partners. A further rebranding was undertaken in 2023, when the organisation's name was changed to National Galleries Scotland. The names of the individual gallery buildings were also renamed, and the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art is now billed as National Galleries Scotland: Modern. Bayonne is a city in Southwestern France near the Spanish border. It is a commune and one of two subprefectures in the Pyrenees-Atlantiques department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Bayonne is located at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers in the northern part of the cultural region of the Basque Country. It is the seat of the Communaute d'agglomeration du Pays Basque which roughly encompasses the western half of Pyrenees-Atlantiques, including the coastal city of Biarritz. This area also constitutes the southern part of Gascony, where the Aquitaine Basin joins the beginning of the Pre-Pyrenees. Together with nearby Anglet, Biarritz, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, as well as several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an urban area with 273,137 inhabitants at the 2018 census; 51,411 residents lived in the commune of Bayonne proper. It is also a part of Basque Eurocity Bayonne-San Sebastian. The site on the left bank of the Nive and the Adour was probably occupied before ancient times; a fortified enclosure was attested in the 1st century at the time when the Tarbelli occupied the territory. </Text>

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<Text> :Bonnat was born in Bayonne, but from 1846 to 1853 he lived in Madrid, where his father owned a bookshop. While tending his father's shop, he copied engravings of works by the Old Masters, developing a passion for drawing. In Madrid he received his artistic training under Madrazo. He later worked in Paris, where he became known as a leading portraitist, never without a commission. His many portraits show the influence of Velazquez, Jusepe de Ribera and other Spanish masters, as well as Titian and Van Dyke, whose works he studied in the Prado, which placed him at the forefront of painting in France in the 1850s, opposing neoclassicism and academicism. Following the period in Spain, Bonnat worked the studios of the history painters Paul Delaroche and Leon Cogniet in Paris. Despite repeated attempts, he failed to win the prix de Rome, finally receiving only a second prize. However, a scholarship from his native Bayonne and support from the Personnaz family allowed him to spend three years in Rome independently where he and Antonin Personnaz became lifetime friends. During his stay in Rome, he also became friends with Edgar Degas, Gustave Moreau, Jean-Jacques Henner and the sculptor Henri Chapu. Bonnat won a medal of honour in Paris in 1869, going on to become one of the leading artists of his day. Bonnat went on to win the Grand Officer of the Legion d'honneur and became a professor at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in 1882. Bonnat was quite popular with American students in Paris. In addition to his native French, he spoke Spanish and Italian and knew English well, to the relief of many monolingual Americans. In May 1905 he succeeded Paul Dubois as director of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Julius Kaplan characterised Bonnat as "a liberal teacher who stressed simplicity in art above high academic finish, as well as overall effect rather than detail." Bonnat's emphasis on overall effect on the one hand, and rigorous drawing on the other, put him in a middle position with respect to the Impressionists and academic painters like his friend Jean-Leon Gerome. In 1917, Bonnat was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Corresponding member. Bonnat's vivid portraits of contemporary celebrities are his most characteristic works, but his most important works are arguably his powerful religious paintings, such as his Christ on the Cross , Job , St Vincent Taking the Place of Two Galley Slaves , and the large Martyrdom of St Denis for the Pantheon in Paris. However, he received few commissions for religious and historical paintings, and most of his output consists of portraits. He also produced genre paintings of Italian peasants, and a small number of Orientalist scenes. The writers Emile Zola and Theophile Gautier were among Bonnat's supporters. Gautier hailed him as "the antithesis of Bouguereau," because of the stark naturalism and lack of surface finish that characterize Bonnat's work. Bonnat was an academic painter. He was a member of the Institute, one of the only 14 painters who had administrative power over the Academy des Beaux Arts and thereby the Ecole des Beaux Arts. He had friends and connections among the independent artists of his time as well, such as Edgar Degas, whom he met during his stay in Rome and who painted two portraits of Bonnat, and Edouard Manet, who shared his predilection for Spanish painting. He taught together with Pierre Puvis de Chavannes in the private atelier he ran before becoming professor at the Ecole. He supported Auguste Rodin's candidacy for the Institut, and defended Gustave Courbet's submissions to the salon. The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Historically known as Bohemia, it is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the southeast. The Czech Republic has a hilly landscape that covers an area of 78,871 square kilometers with a mostly temperate continental and oceanic climate. The capital and largest city is Prague; other major cities and urban areas include Brno, Ostrava, Plzen and Liberec. The Duchy of Bohemia was founded in the late 9th century under Great Moravia. It was formally recognized as an Imperial State of the Holy Roman Empire in 1002 and became a kingdom in 1198. Following the Battle of Mohacs in 1526, all of the Crown lands of Bohemia were gradually integrated into the Habsburg monarchy. Nearly a hundred years later, the Protestant Bohemian Revolt led to the Thirty Years' War. After the Battle of White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule. With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Crown lands became part of the Austrian Empire. In the 19th century, the Czech lands became more industrialized, and in 1918 most of it became part of the First Czechoslovak Republic following the collapse of Austria-Hungary after World War I. Czechoslovakia was the only country in Central and Eastern Europe to remain a parliamentary democracy during the entirety of the interwar period. After the Munich Agreement in 1938, Nazi Germany systematically took control over the Czech lands. Czechoslovakia was restored in 1945 and three years later became an Eastern Bloc communist state following a coup d'etat in 1948. Attempts to liberalize the government and economy were suppressed by a Soviet-led invasion of the country during the Prague Spring in 1968. In November 1989, the Velvet Revolution ended communist rule in the country and restored democracy. On 31 December 1992, Czechoslovakia was peacefully dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. A bibliographic database is a database of bibliographic records. This is an organised online collection of references to published written works like journal and newspaper articles, conference proceedings, reports, government and legal publications, patents and books. In contrast to library catalogue entries, a majority of the records in bibliographic databases describe articles and conference papers rather than complete monographs, and they generally contain very rich subject descriptions in the form of keywords, subject classification terms, or abstracts. A bibliographic database may cover a wide range of topics or one academic field like computer science. A significant number of bibliographic databases are marketed under a trade name by licensing agreement from vendors, or directly from their makers: the indexing and abstracting services. Many bibliographic databases have evolved into digital libraries, providing the full text of the organised contents:for instance CORE also organises and mirrors scholarly articles and OurResearch develops a search engine for open access content in Unpaywall. Others merge with non-bibliographic and scholarly databases to create more complete disciplinary search engine systems, such as Chemical Abstracts or Entrez. Prior to the mid-20th century, individuals searching for published literature had to rely on printed bibliographic indexes, generated manually from index cards. "During the early 1960s computers were used to digitize text for the first time; the purpose was to reduce the cost and time required to publish two American abstracting journals, the Index Medicus of the National Library of Medicine and the Scientific and Technical Aerospace Reports of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration . By the late 1960s such bodies of digitized alphanumeric information, known as bibliographic and numeric databases, constituted a new type of information resource. Online interactive retrieval became commercially viable in the early 1970s over private telecommunications networks. The first services offered a few databases of indexes and abstracts of scholarly literature. These databases contained bibliographic descriptions of journal articles that were searchable by keywords in author and title, and sometimes by journal name or subject heading. The user interfaces were crude, the access was expensive, and searching was done by librarians on behalf of 'end users'. A digital library, also called an online library, an internet library, a digital repository, a library without walls, or a digital collection, is an online database of digital objects that can include text, still images, audio, video, digital documents, or other digital media formats or a library accessible through the internet. Objects can consist of digitized content like print or photographs, as well as originally produced digital content like word processor files or social media posts. In addition to storing content, digital libraries provide means for organizing, searching, and retrieving the content contained in the collection. Digital libraries can vary immensely in size and scope, and can be maintained by individuals or organizations. The digital content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. These information retrieval systems are able to exchange information with each other through interoperability and sustainability. The early history of digital libraries is not well documented, but several key thinkers are connected to the emergence of the concept. Predecessors include Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine's Mundaneum, an attempt begun in 1895 to gather and systematically catalogue the world's knowledge, with the hope of bringing about world peace. The visions of the digital library were largely realized a century later during the great expansion of the Internet. Vannevar Bush and J.C.R. Licklider are two contributors that advanced this idea into then current technology. Bush had supported research that led to the bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima. After seeing the disaster, he wanted to create a machine that would show how technology can lead to understanding instead of destruction. This machine would include a desk with two screens, switches and buttons, and a keyboard. He named this the "Memex". This way individuals would be able to access stored books and files at a rapid speed. In 1956, Ford Foundation funded Licklider to analyze how libraries could be improved with technology. Almost a decade later, his book entitled "Libraries of the Future" included his vision. He wanted to create a system that would use computers and networks so human knowledge would be accessible for human needs and feedback would be automatic for machine purposes. This system contained three components, the corpus of knowledge, the question, and the answer. Licklider called it a procognitive system. In 1980 the role of the library in an electronic society was the focus of a clinic on library applications of data processing. Participants included Frederick Wilfrid Lancaster, Derek De Solla Price, Gerard Salton, and Michael Gorman). It has 3.6 lakh volumes of books, reports, bound volume of journals and other literature. It subscribes around 2000 periodicals annually. The library has good collection of 19th century literature. Books are classified according to the Dewey Decimal Classification. It became the Indian focal point of HELLIS Network under World Health Organization in 1982. It has been organizing training programmes for medical/health science librarians since 1980. It has organized 17 Orientation Courses in Health Science Librarianship and trained over 150 librarians in India. It has also conducted training courses on specific topics like MEDLARS Searching, Computer Applications, Library management Software, Indexing and Abstracting etc. in different regions. National Workshop was held in 1997 to evaluate these courses. Any qualified medical person, student or faculty can take membership of the library and utilize the services of this vast amount of information in the library. One can also obtain a photocopy of any article by post, by paying a nominal fee. A website is a collection of web pages and related content that is identified by a common domain name and published on at least one web server. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, such as news, education, commerce, entertainment or social networking. Hyperlinking between web pages guides the navigation of the site, which often starts with a home page. As of May 2023, the top 5 most visited websites are Google Search, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web. There are also private websites that can only be accessed on a private network, such as a company's internal website for its employees. Users can access websites on a range of devices, including desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones. The app used on these devices is called a web browser. The World Wide Web was created in 1989 by the British CERN computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to use for anyone, contributing to the immense growth of the Web. Before the introduction of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol , other protocols such as File Transfer Protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a simple directory structure in which the user navigates and where they choose files to download. Documents were most often presented as plain text files without formatting or were encoded in word processor formats. While "web site" was the original spelling , this variant has become rarely used, and "website" has become the standard spelling. All major style guides, such as The Chicago Manual of Style and the AP Stylebook, have reflected this change. </Text>

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<Text> :A web portal is a specially designed website that brings information from diverse sources, like emails, online forums and search engines, together in a uniform way. Usually, each information source gets its dedicated area on the page for displaying information ; often, the user can configure which ones to display. Variants of portals include mashups and intranet dashboards for executives and managers. The extent to which content is displayed in a "uniform way" may depend on the intended user and the intended purpose, as well as the diversity of the content. Very often design emphasis is on a certain "metaphor" for configuring and customizing the presentation of the content and the chosen implementation framework or code libraries. In addition, the role of the user in an organization may determine which content can be added to the portal or deleted from the portal configuration. A portal may use a search engine's application programming interface to permit users to search intranet content as opposed to extranet content by restricting which domains may be searched. Apart from this common search engines feature, web portals may offer other services such as e-mail, news, stock quotes, information from databases and even entertainment content. Portals provide a way for enterprises and organizations to provide a consistent "look and feel" with access control and procedures for multiple applications and databases, which otherwise would have been different web entities at various URLs. The features available may be restricted by whether access is by an authorized and authenticated user or an anonymous website visitor. In the late 1990s, the Web portal was a Web IT buzzword. After the proliferation of Web browsers in the late-1990s, many companies tried to build or acquire a portal to attempt to obtain a share of an Internet market. The Web portal gained special attention because it was, for many users, the starting point of their Web browsing if it was set as their home page. The content and branding of a portal could change as Internet companies merged or were acquired. Netscape became a part of America Online, the Walt Disney Company launched Go.com. Portal metaphors are widely used by public library sites for borrowers using a login as users and by university intranets for students and for faculty. Vertical markets remain for independent software vendors offering management and executive intranet "dashboards" for corporations and government agencies in areas such as governance, risk management, and compliance Web portals are sometimes classified as horizontal or vertical. A horizontal portal is used as a platform to several companies in the same economic sector or to the same type of manufacturers or distributors. A vertical portal is a specialized entry point to a specific market or industry niche, subject area, or interest. Some vertical portals are known as "vertical information portals" . VIPs provide news, editorial content, digital publications, and e-commerce capabilities. In contrast to traditional vertical portals, VIPs also provide dynamic multimedia applications including social networking, video posting, and blogging. A Multimedia database is a collection of related for multimedia data. The multimedia data include one or more primary media data types such as text, images, graphic objects animation sequences, audio and video. A Multimedia Database Management System is a framework that manages different types of data potentially represented in a wide diversity of formats on a wide array of media sources. It provides support for multimedia data types, and facilitate for creation, storage, access, query and control of a multimedia database. A Multimedia Database hosts one or more multimedia data types . These data types are broadly categorized into three classes: The last three types are called metadata as they describe several different aspects of the media data. The media keyword data and media feature data are used as indices for searching purpose. The media format data is used to present the retrieved information. Moravian Library is the second largest library in the Czech Republic. Located in Brno, Czech Republic, it is a universal research library and the regional library of the South Moravian Region. The initial foundations for what would eventually become the Moravian Library began in 1770 with the Library of the Moravian Economic Society. After similar groups came together, this led to the formation of the Moravian- Silesian Society for the Uplift of Tillage, Natural Science and National History and Geography at the beginning of the 19th century. At this time, the collection was private and was a part of the Frantiskovo Muzeum. It was opened to the public near the end of the 19th century and officially separated from the Frantiskovo in 1899. Early on, it grew mainly by donations. Monasteries throughout Czechoslovakia were dissolved in 1950, with their property, including library collections, confiscated to be divided among state institutions. The Moravian Library retained a large collection of historic materials from the Archives of the Benedictine Abbey in Rajhrad. These materials were later returned to the Benedictine library in 2004, but the Moravian Library has remained active in preserving and digitizing them. The library moved to a new building in 2001. The library holds more than 4 million books, and more than 20,000 people use the library every year. It plays an irreplaceable role in the preservation of cultural heritage and contributes by various projects of digitalization and access to documents. It has a valuable collection of old maps, incunabula and medieval manuscripts. A smile is a facial expression formed primarily by flexing the muscles at the sides of the mouth. Some smiles include a contraction of the muscles at the corner of the eyes, an action known as a Duchenne smile. Among humans, a smile expresses delight, sociability, happiness, joy, or amusement. It is distinct from a similar but usually involuntary expression of anxiety known as a grimace. Although cross-cultural studies have shown that smiling is a means of communication throughout the world, there are large differences among different cultures, religions, and societies, with some using smiles to convey confusion, embarrassment or awkwardness. Primatologist Signe Preuschoft traces the smile back over 30 million years of evolution to a "fear grin" stemming from monkeys and apes, who often used barely clenched teeth to portray to predators that they were harmless or to signal submission to more dominant group members. The smile may have evolved differently among species, especially among humans. Smiling seems to have a favorable influence upon others and makes one likable and more approachable. In the social context, smiling and laughter have different functions in the order of sequence in social situations: Smiling is a signaling system that evolved from a need to communicate information in many different forms. One of these is an advertisement of sexual interest. Female smiles are appealing to heterosexual males, increasing physical attractiveness and enhancing sex appeal. However, recent research indicates a man's smile may or may not be most effective in attracting heterosexual women, and that facial expressions such as pride or even shame might be more effective. The researchers did not explicitly study the role of smiles in other sexual preferences. Amber is fossilized tree resin that has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Much valued from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects. Amber is used in jewelry and has been used as a healing agent in folk medicine. There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical constituents. Because it originates as a soft, sticky tree resin, amber sometimes contains animal and plant material as inclusions. Amber occurring in coal seams is also called resinite, and the term ambrite is applied to that found specifically within New Zealand coal seams. The English word amber derives from Arabic 'anbar `nbr via Middle Latin ambar and Middle French ambre. The word referred to what is now known as ambergris , a solid waxy substance derived from the sperm whale. The word, in its sense of "ambergris," was adopted in Middle English in the 14th century. In the Romance languages, the sense of the word was extended to Baltic amber from as early as the late 13th century. At first called white or yellow amber , this meaning was adopted in English by the early 15th century. As the use of ambergris waned, this became the main sense of the word. The face is the front of an animal's head that features the eyes, nose and mouth, and through which animals express many of their emotions. The face is crucial for human identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities may affect the psyche adversely. The face is itself a highly sensitive region of the human body and its expression may change when the brain is stimulated by any of the many human senses, such as touch, temperature, smell, taste, hearing, movement, hunger, or visual stimuli. The face is the feature which best distinguishes a person. Specialized regions of the human brain, such as the fusiform face area , enable facial recognition; when these are damaged, it may be impossible to recognize faces even of intimate family members. The pattern of specific organs, such as the eyes, or of parts of them, is used in biometric identification to uniquely identify individuals. The shape of the face is influenced by the bone-structure of the skull, and each face is unique through the anatomical variation present in the bones of the viscerocranium . The bones involved in shaping the face are mainly the maxilla, mandible, nasal bone and zygomatic bone. Also important are various soft tissues, such as fat, hair and skin . Grisaille is a painting executed entirely in shades of grey or of another neutral greyish colour. It is particularly used in large decorative schemes in imitation of sculpture. Many grisailles include a slightly wider colour range. A grisaille may be executed for its own sake, as an underpainting for an oil painting or as a model from which an engraver may work . Full colouring of a subject makes many demands of an artist, and working in grisaille was often chosen as it may be quicker and cheaper than traditional painting, although the effect was sometimes deliberately chosen for aesthetic reasons. Grisaille paintings resemble the drawings, normally in monochrome, that artists from the Renaissance on were trained to produce; as with drawings, grisaille can betray the hand of a less-talented assistant more easily than would a fully coloured painting. Giotto used grisaille in the lower registers of his frescoes in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua and Robert Campin, Jan van Eyck and their successors painted grisaille figures on the outsides of the wings of triptychs, including the Ghent Altarpiece. Originally these were the sides on display for most of the time, as the doors were normally kept closed except on feast days or at the request of tourists. However, today these images are often invisible in museums when the triptych is displayed open and flat against a wall. In these cases, imitation of sculpture was intended, as sculpture was still more expensive than a painting, even one by an acknowledged master. Limners often produced illuminated manuscripts in pen and wash with a very limited colour range, and many artists such as Jean Pucelle and Matthew Paris specialised in such work, which had been especially common in England since Anglo-Saxon times. Renaissance artists such as Mantegna and Polidoro da Caravaggio often used grisaille to imitate the effect of a classical sculptured relief or Roman painting. Umber is a natural earth pigment consisting of iron oxide and manganese oxide; it has a brownish color that can vary among shades of yellow, red, and green.: 39 Umber is considered one of the oldest pigments known to humans, first seen in Ajanta Caves in 200 BC - 600 AD.: 378 Umber's advantages are its highly versatile color, warm tone, and quick drying abilities.: 148-49 While some sources indicate that umber's name comes from its geographic origin in Umbria, other scholars suggest that it derives from the Latin word umbra, which means "shadow".: 250 The belief that its name derives from the word for shadow is fitting, as the color helps create shadows.: 250 The color is primarily produced in Cyprus.: 250 Umber is typically mined from open pits or underground mines and ground into a fine powder that is washed to remove impurities. In the 20th century, the rise of synthetic dyes decreased the demand for natural pigments such as umber. The earliest documented uses of umber date from between 200 BC and 600 AD during the neolithic period in the Ajanta Caves found in India. Ocher, a family of earth pigments which includes umber, has been identified in the caves of Altamira in Spain and the Lascaux Cave in France.: 251 Some sources indicate that umber was not frequently used in medieval art because of its emphasis on bright and vivid colors.: 166 Other sources indicate, however, that umber was used in the Middle Ages to create different shades of brown, most often seen for skin tones. Umber's use in Europe increased in the late 15th century.: 168 Umber became more popular during the Renaissance when its versatility, earthy appearance, availability, and inexpensiveness were recognized.: 251 Umber gained widespread popularity in Dutch landscape painting in the eighteenth century.: 378 Artists recognized the value of umber's high stability, inertness, and drying abilities.: 148-49 It became a standard color within eighteenth-century palettes throughout Europe.: 378 Umber's popularity grew during the Baroque period with the rise of the chiaroscuro style. Umber allowed painters to create an intense light and dark contrast. Underpainting was another popular technique for painting that used umber as a base color. Umber was valuable in deploying this technique, creating a range of earth like tones with various layering of color. Toward the end of the 19th century, the Impressionist movement started to use cheaper and more readily available synthetic dyes and reject natural pigments like umber to create mixed hues of brown. The Impressionists chose to make their own browns from mixtures of red, yellow, green, blue and other pigments, particularly the new synthetic pigments such as cobalt blue and emerald green that had just been introduced. In the 20th century, natural umber pigments began to be replaced by pigments made with synthetic iron oxide and manganese oxide. White lead is the basic lead carbonate 2PbCO3*Pb2. It is a complex salt, containing both carbonate and hydroxide ions. White lead occurs naturally as a mineral, in which context it is known as hydrocerussite, a hydrate of cerussite. It was formerly used as an ingredient for lead paint and a cosmetic called Venetian ceruse, because of its opacity and the satiny smooth mixture it made with dryable oils. However, it tended to cause lead poisoning, and its use has been banned in most countries. White lead compounds known as lead soap were also used as additive for lubricants for bearings and in machine shops. Lead soap was also used as an oil drying agent for paints made with drying oil or air drying paints made with alkyd resins. Lead is often used with cobalt driers. Lead free substitutes have been developed to replace this use of lead in paint. What is commonly known today as the "Dutch method" for the preparation of white lead was described as early as Theophrastus of Eresos , in his brief work on rocks or minerals, On Stones or History of Stones. His directions for the process were repeated throughout history by many authors of chemical and alchemical literature. The uses of cerussa were described as an external medication and pigment. Lead is placed in earthen vessels over sharp vinegar, and after it has acquired some thickness of a sort of rust, which it commonly does in about ten days, they open the vessels and scrape it off, as it were, in a sort of foulness; they then place the lead over vinegar again, repeating over and over again the same method of scraping it till it has wholly dissolved. What has been scraped off they then beat to powder and boil for a long time, and what at last subsides to the bottom of the vessel is ceruse.</Text>

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<Text> :In human biology, handedness is an individual's preferential use of one hand, known as the dominant hand, due to it being stronger, faster or more dextrous. The other hand, comparatively often the weaker, less dextrous or simply less subjectively preferred, is called the non-dominant hand. In a study from 1975 on 7,688 children in US grades 1-6, left handers comprised 9.6% of the sample, with 10.5% of male children and 8.7% of female children being left-handed. Overall, around 90% of people are right-handed. Handedness is often defined by one's writing hand, as it is fairly common for people to prefer to do a particular task with a particular hand. There are people with true ambidexterity , but it is rare--most people prefer using one hand for most purposes. Because the vast majority of the population is right-handed, many devices are designed for use by right-handed people, making their use by left-handed people more difficult. In many countries, left-handed people are or were required to write with their right hands. However, left-handed people have an advantage in sports that involves aiming at a target in an area of an opponent's control, as their opponents are more accustomed to the right-handed majority. As a result, they are over-represented in baseball, tennis, fencing, cricket, boxing, and mixed martial arts. Handedness may be measured behaviourally or through questionnaires . The Edinburgh Handedness Inventory has been used since 1971 but contains some dated questions and is hard to score. Revisions have been published by Veale and by Williams. The longer Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire is not widely accessible. More recently, the Flinders Handedness Survey has been developed. Handedness displays a complex inheritance pattern. For example, if both parents of a child are left-handed, there is a 26% chance of that child being left-handed. A large study of twins from 25,732 families by Medland et al. indicates that the heritability of handedness is roughly 24%. In human biology, handedness is an individual's preferential use of one hand, known as the dominant hand, due to it being stronger, faster or more dextrous. The other hand, comparatively often the weaker, less dextrous or simply less subjectively preferred, is called the non-dominant hand. In a study from 1975 on 7,688 children in US grades 1-6, left handers comprised 9.6% of the sample, with 10.5% of male children and 8.7% of female children being left-handed. Overall, around 90% of people are right-handed. Handedness is often defined by one's writing hand, as it is fairly common for people to prefer to do a particular task with a particular hand. There are people with true ambidexterity , but it is rare--most people prefer using one hand for most purposes. Because the vast majority of the population is right-handed, many devices are designed for use by right-handed people, making their use by left-handed people more difficult. In many countries, left-handed people are or were required to write with their right hands. However, left-handed people have an advantage in sports that involves aiming at a target in an area of an opponent's control, as their opponents are more accustomed to the right-handed majority. As a result, they are over-represented in baseball, tennis, fencing, cricket, boxing, and mixed martial arts. Handedness may be measured behaviourally or through questionnaires . The Edinburgh Handedness Inventory has been used since 1971 but contains some dated questions and is hard to score. Revisions have been published by Veale and by Williams. The longer Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire is not widely accessible. More recently, the Flinders Handedness Survey has been developed. Handedness displays a complex inheritance pattern. For example, if both parents of a child are left-handed, there is a 26% chance of that child being left-handed. A large study of twins from 25,732 families by Medland et al. indicates that the heritability of handedness is roughly 24%. In human biology, handedness is an individual's preferential use of one hand, known as the dominant hand, due to it being stronger, faster or more dextrous. The other hand, comparatively often the weaker, less dextrous or simply less subjectively preferred, is called the non-dominant hand. In a study from 1975 on 7,688 children in US grades 1-6, left handers comprised 9.6% of the sample, with 10.5% of male children and 8.7% of female children being left-handed. Overall, around 90% of people are right-handed. Handedness is often defined by one's writing hand, as it is fairly common for people to prefer to do a particular task with a particular hand. There are people with true ambidexterity , but it is rare--most people prefer using one hand for most purposes. Because the vast majority of the population is right-handed, many devices are designed for use by right-handed people, making their use by left-handed people more difficult. In many countries, left-handed people are or were required to write with their right hands. However, left-handed people have an advantage in sports that involves aiming at a target in an area of an opponent's control, as their opponents are more accustomed to the right-handed majority. As a result, they are over-represented in baseball, tennis, fencing, cricket, boxing, and mixed martial arts. Handedness may be measured behaviourally or through questionnaires . The Edinburgh Handedness Inventory has been used since 1971 but contains some dated questions and is hard to score. Revisions have been published by Veale and by Williams. The longer Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire is not widely accessible. More recently, the Flinders Handedness Survey has been developed. Handedness displays a complex inheritance pattern. For example, if both parents of a child are left-handed, there is a 26% chance of that child being left-handed. A large study of twins from 25,732 families by Medland et al. indicates that the heritability of handedness is roughly 24%. According to Roman tradition, Lucretia , anglicized as Lucrece, was a noblewoman in ancient Rome. Sextus Tarquinius raped her and her subsequent suicide precipitated a rebellion that overthrew the Roman monarchy and led to the transition of Roman government from a kingdom to a republic. After Tarquin raped Lucretia, flames of dissatisfaction were kindled over the tyrannical methods of Tarquin's father, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome. As a result, the prominent families instituted a republic, drove the extensive royal family of Tarquin from Rome, and successfully defended the republic against attempted Etruscan and Latin intervention. There are no contemporary sources of Lucretia and Tarquin's rape of her. Information regarding Lucretia, how and when Tarquin raped her, her suicide, and the consequence of this being the start of the Roman Republic, come from the accounts of Roman historian Livy and Greco-Roman historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus approximately 500 years later. Secondary sources on the establishment of the republic reiterate the basic events of Lucretia's story, though accounts vary slightly between historians. The evidence points to the historical existence of a woman named Lucretia and an event that played a critical part in the downfall of the monarchy. However, specific details are debatable and vary depending on the writer. According to modern sources, Lucretia's narrative is considered a part of Roman mythohistory. Much like the rape of the Sabine women, Lucretia's story provides an explanation for historical change in Rome through a recounting of sexual assault against women by men. Lucretia was the daughter of magistrate Spurius Lucretius and the wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. The marriage between Lucretia and Collatinus was depicted as the ideal Roman union, as both Lucretia and Collatinus were faithfully devoted to one another. According to Livy, Lucretia was an exemplar of "beauty and purity," as well as Roman standards. While her husband was away at battle, Lucretia would stay at home and pray for his safe return. As with Livy, Dionysius' depiction of Lucretia separates her from the rest of Roman women in a story about the men returning home from a battle. The narrative begins with a bet between the sons of Tarquinius and their kinsmen, Brutus and Collatinus. The men fight over which of their wives best exemplified sophrosyne, an ideal of superb moral and intellectual character. The men return home to find the women socializing with each other, presumably in conversation. By contrast, they find Lucretia home alone, working with her wool in silence. Because of her devotion to her husband, Roman writers Livy and Dionysius outline Lucretia as the role model for Roman girls. As the events of the story move rapidly, the date that Tarquin raped Lucretia is most likely the same year as the first of the fasti. Dionysius of Halicarnassus sets this year "at the beginning of the sixty-eighth Olympiad ... Isagoras being the annual archon at Athens"; that is, 508/507 BC. According to Dionysius, Lucretia therefore died in 508 BC. This approximate date is met with consensus by other historians; however, the exact year is debatable within a range of about five years. Ginevra de' Benci is a portrait painting by Leonardo da Vinci of the 15th-century Florentine aristocrat Ginevra de' Benci . It was acquired by the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. US from Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein in February 1967 for a record price for a painting of between $5 and $6 million. It is the only painting by Leonardo on public view in the Americas. Ginevra de' Benci, a well-known young Florentine woman, is universally considered to be the portrait's sitter. Leonardo painted the portrait in Florence between 1474 and 1478, possibly to commemorate Ginevra's marriage to Luigi di Bernardo Niccolini at the age of 16. More likely, it commemorates the engagement. Commonly, contemporary portraits of females were commissioned for either of two occasions: betrothal or marriage. Wedding portraits traditionally were created in pairs, with the woman on the right, facing left; since this portrait faces right, it more likely represents betrothal. The juniper bush that surrounds Ginevra's head and fills much of the background, serves more than mere decorative purposes. In Renaissance Italy, the juniper was regarded a symbol of female virtue, while the Italian word for juniper, ginepro, also makes a play on Ginevra's name. The imagery and text on the reverse of the panel--a juniper sprig encircled by a wreath of laurel and palm, memorialized by the Latin motto Virtvtem Forma Decorat --further support the identification of the portrait. The phrase is understood as symbolizing the intricate relationship between Ginevra's intellectual and moral virtue on the one hand, and her physical beauty on the other. The sprig of juniper, encircled by laurel and palm, suggests her name. The laurel and palm are in the personal emblem of Bernardo Bembo, a Venetian ambassador to Florence whose platonic relationship with Ginevra is revealed in poems exchanged between them. Infrared examination has revealed Bembo's motto "Virtue and Honor" beneath Ginevra's, making it likely that Bembo was somehow involved in the commission of the portrait. </Text>

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<Text> :Andrew William Mellon , known also as A. W. Mellon, was an American banker, businessman, industrialist, philanthropist, art collector, and politician. From the wealthy Mellon family of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, he established a vast business empire before moving into politics. He served as United States Secretary of the Treasury from March 9, 1921, to February 12, 1932, presiding over the boom years of the 1920s and the Wall Street Crash of 1929. A conservative Republican, Mellon favored policies that reduced taxation and the national debt of the United States in the aftermath of World War I. Mellon also helped fund and manage Kennywood Park in West Mifflin, Pennsylvania. Mellon's father, Thomas Mellon, rose to prominence in Pittsburgh as a banker and attorney. Andrew began working at his father's bank, T. Mellon & Sons, in the early 1870s, eventually becoming the leading figure in the institution. He later renamed T. Mellon & Sons as Mellon National Bank and established another financial institution, the Union Trust Company in Pittsburgh in 1889. By the end of 1913, Mellon National Bank held more money in deposits than any other bank in Pittsburgh, and the second-largest bank in the region was controlled by Union Trust. In the course of his business career, Mellon owned or helped finance large companies including Alcoa, the New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Old Overholt whiskey, Standard Steel Car Company, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Koppers, the Pittsburgh Coal Company, the Carborundum Company, Union Steel Company, the McClintic-Marshall Construction Company, Gulf Oil, and numerous others. He was also an influential donor to the Republican Party during the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era. In 1921, newly elected president Warren G. Harding chose Mellon as his Secretary of the Treasury. Mellon would remain in office until 1932, serving under Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover, all three of whom were members of the Republican Party. Mellon sought to reform federal taxation in the aftermath of World War I. He argued cutting tax rates on top earners would generate more tax revenue for the government, but otherwise left in place a progressive income tax. Some of Mellon's proposals were enacted by the Revenue Act of 1921 and the Revenue Act of 1924, but it was not until the passage of the Revenue Act of 1926 that the "Mellon plan" was fully realized. He also presided over a reduction in the national debt, which dropped substantially in the 1920s. Mellon's influence in state and national politics reached its zenith during Coolidge's presidency. Journalist William Allen White noted that "so completely did Andrew Mellon dominate the White House in the days when the Coolidge administration was at its zenith that it would be fair to call the administration the reign of Coolidge and Mellon." Mellon's national reputation collapsed following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression. Mellon participated in various efforts by the Hoover administration to revive the economy and maintain the international economic order, but he opposed direct government intervention in the economy. After Congress began impeachment proceedings against Mellon, President Hoover shifted Mellon to the position of United States ambassador to the United Kingdom. Mellon returned to private life after Hoover's defeat in the 1932 presidential election by Franklin D. Roosevelt. Beginning in 1933, the federal government launched a tax fraud investigation on Mellon, leading to a high-profile case that ended with Mellon's estate paying significant sums to settle the matter. Shortly before his death, in 1937, Mellon helped establish the National Gallery of Art. His philanthropic efforts also played a major role in the later establishment of Carnegie Mellon University and the National Portrait Gallery. John Russell Pope was an American architect whose firm is widely known for designing major public buildings, including the National Archives and Records Administration building , the Jefferson Memorial and the West Building of the National Gallery of Art , all in Washington, D.C. Pope was born in New York City in 1874, the son of a successful portrait painter and his wife. He studied architecture at Columbia University and graduated in 1894. He was the first recipient of the Rome Prize to attend the newly founded American Academy in Rome, a training ground for the designers of the "American Renaissance." He would remain involved with the academy until his death. Pope traveled for two years through Italy and Greece, where he studied, sketched and made measured drawings of more Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance structures than he did of the remains of ancient buildings. Pope was one of the first architectural students to master the use of the large-format camera, with glass negatives. Pope attended the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris in 1896, honing his Beaux-Arts style. After returning to New York in 1900, he worked for a few years in the office of Bruce Price before opening his own practice. Throughout his career, Pope designed private houses such as The Waves, his personal residence at Newport, Rhode Island, and public buildings in addition to the Jefferson Memorial and the National Gallery, such as the massive Masonic House of the Temple , also in Washington, and the triumphal arch Theodore Roosevelt Memorial at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. The United States Congress is the legislature of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, composed of a lower body, the House of Representatives, and an upper body, the Senate. It meets in the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. Senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a governor's appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 100 senators and 435 representatives. The U.S. vice president has a vote in the Senate only when senators are evenly divided. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members. The sitting of a Congress is for a two-year term, at present, beginning every other January. Elections are held every even-numbered year on Election Day. The members of the House of Representatives are elected for the two-year term of a Congress. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established that there be 435 representatives, and the Uniform Congressional Redistricting Act requires that they be elected from single-member constituencies or districts. It is also required that the congressional districts be apportioned among states by population every ten years using the U.S. census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a six-year term, with terms staggered, so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, so currently, there are 100 senators for the 50 states. Article One of the U.S. Constitution requires that members of Congress must be at least 25 years old or at least 30 years old , have been a citizen of the U.S. for seven or nine years, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election an unlimited number of times. The Congress was created by the U.S. Constitution and first met in 1789, replacing the Congress of the Confederation in its legislative function. Although not legally mandated, in practice since the 19th century, Congress members are typically affiliated with one of the two major parties, the Democratic Party or the Republican Party, and only rarely with a third party or independents affiliated with no party. In the case of the latter, the lack of affiliation with a political party does not mean that such members are unable to caucus with members of the political parties. Members can also switch parties at any time, although this is quite uncommon. The Association of University Presses is an association of nonprofit mostly, but not exclusively, North American university presses. It is based in New York City. Until December 2017, it was known as the Association of American University Presses . The Association of University Presses was officially established in 1937. However, two dozen of the original members of the AAUP regularly met, unofficially, as early as 1920. The publishers met to discuss problems facing university presses until the group formally began meeting daily. The group believed that cooperative initiatives would benefit member institutions and subsequent presses. In 1928, thirteen university presses produced a cooperative catalog of sixty-five titles. Soon after, the group was placing cooperative ads with The New York Times, publishing sales catalogs, and producing the first educational directory, a specialized direct-mailing list of American academics and librarians. The 1932 Cheney Report encouraged joint activities among publishers facing economic difficulties brought on by the Great Depression and inspired a memo from Donald Bean, the group's secretary and director of the University of Chicago Press. Bean proposed for the group to formally incorporate. After a 1936 announcement of Farrar & Rheinhardt's plans to establish the United University Presses Inc. wholesaler , the group began formally under a new banner. In February 1937, the first officers of the Association of University Presses were elected. The first annual meeting was held in Chicago in 1946. Membership continued to grow steadily, and the responding swell of activity led to the establishment of a central office in 1959. The Association was previously operated by volunteers. In 1964 the association founded a business subsidiary, American University Press Services, which supported additional AAUP services for the next two decades. From 1920 to 1970, member institutions in the United States grew at a rate of about one per year. From 1970 to 1974, that rate doubled, with more than ten presses founded. The period of growth was honored by President Jimmy Carter in the summer of 1978. President Carter proclaimed the first University Press Week. It depicts the rectangular plots of blue, yellow, pink and red hyacinths grown by a Dutch bulb merchant. The low vantage point creates a panoramic view of the field of colourful spring flowers, with thatched cottages and leafless trees in the background. The regular composition allows Van Gogh to explore his interest in perspective. It seems likely that Van Gogh left the painting with other early works at his family's house in Nuenen in 1885, and then it accompanied his recently widowed mother and sister when they moved to Breda in early 1886. With other possessions, it was stored by a carpenter, Adrianus Schrauwen, who sold it along with other worthless "rubbish" in 1902 to the merchant J.C. Couvreur. It was exhibited at the Kunstzalon Oldenzeel in Rotterdam in 1902 with the title Tulpenland , even though the flowers are hyacinths. It was bought by Jan Smit in 1905, and sold to his grandson John Enthoven in 1919. After passing through the hands of several art dealers, it was acquired by Paul Mellon from the Knoedler gallery in 1955. Mellon donated it to the National Gallery of Art in Washington DC in 1983. A Dutch Courtyard is an oil-on-canvas painting by the Dutch painter Pieter de Hooch. The original resides in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. A later, altered replica also exists, part of the collection of the Mauritshuis Museum in The Hague. In a walled courtyard beside a brick house, a pair of soldiers enjoy banter with a serving woman. As one of the soldiers takes a puff from a clay pipe, across the table, a bearded man wears a cuirass over a brown shirt, watching the serving woman drink beer from a pass-glass,a glass used in a traditional drinking game. A young girl appears from the right, delivering glowing embers for the soldiers' pipes. Through the brick wall, an open door reveals a path, leading past a wooded yard to a distant house, which is also visible above the wall. Over the wooden palisade to the far left, the tower of Niewue Kerk in Delft is visible, making clear that this painting originates from De Hooch's Delft period, whilst a member of the Painters' Guild of Saint Luke and during his tenure at the Delft School. Behind the figures, is presumably a brick section of the old city wall of Delft. Similar to Woman and Child in a Courtyard, it is undoubted that these scenes were based on views from gardens behind the houses on the west side of the canal, the Oude Gracht. This area, the Binnenwatersloot, was where De Hooch's wife resided prior to their engagement, and presumably where De Hooch moved after their marriage. However, in this particular case, he has also exercised artistic freedom in portraying the pointed roof of the Nieuwe Kerk tower. Notably, he has omitted the small spires that typically adorn the top of the tower. De Hooch often creatively blended architectural motifs in an imaginative manner for compositional purposes. As in his other paintings, a harmonious atmosphere is built between employee and employer - in this case the serving woman and the soldiers. It can be asserted that De Hooch's interest in this theme stems the he himself became familiar with during his time as a servant for Justus De La Grange, a linen merchant, during the early 1650's. His empathy to the relationship of mothers to children may well have stemmed from the birth of his children, a son, born in 1655, and a daughter, born in 1656, both of which would have been the same age as the child represented in the painting, and many other works of his. </Text>

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<Text> :The List of painters in the National Gallery of Art is a list of the named artists in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. whose works there comprise oil paintings, gouaches, tempera paintings, and pastels. The online collection contains roughly 4,000 paintings by 1,000 artists, but only named painters with the previously mentioned techniques are listed alphabetically here. The artist's name is followed by a title of one of their works and its ID number. For artists with more than one work in the collection, or for works by unnamed or unattributed artists, see the National Gallery of Art website or the corresponding Wikimedia Commons category. Of artists listed, there are only 18 women, including Rosalba Carriera, Mary Cassatt, Angelica Kauffmann, Judith Leyster, Georgia O'Keeffe, Elisabeth Louise Vigee Le Brun, and Marguerite Zorach. </Text>

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<Text> :Kaywin Feldman is an American museum administrator and director of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. Named on December 11, 2018, Feldman took over from Earl A. Powell III in March 2019. She is the National Gallery of Art's first woman director. Feldman was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1966. Feldman's father was in the military, and the family moved often. They lived in or near Boston; Cleveland, Ohio; Washington, D.C. , and London in the United Kingdom. She was exposed to many museums in her childhood, and developed an interest in archaeology. She obtained a bachelor's degree in classical archaeology from the University of Michigan and a master's degree from the Institute of Archaeology of the University of London. She also obtained a master's in art history from the University of London's Courtauld Institute of Art, writing her thesis on 16th-century Flemish art with a particular focus on representations of satyrs. While studying in London she worked at the British Museum. When she was 28, Feldman became director of the Fresno Metropolitan Museum of Art and Science. From 1999 until 2007 Feldman was director of the Memphis Brooks Museum of Art. In 2008 she became director and president of the Minneapolis Institute of Art. During her tenure, she expanded the collection and attendance doubled. Digital access was emphasized, and social justice and equity programs were adopted. Upon being selected by the National Gallery, she resigned her offices at the Minneapolis Institute with her last day set on March 1, 2019, and assumed her new position in Washington ten days later. She is the NGA's first woman director. On February 4, 2020, Feldman participated in a public conversation at the Brooklyn Museum titled "Women Leaders in the Arts" during which she made the claim that "art museums, the arts, and arts faculties at universities" have become "so predominantly filled with women" that hiring men in these fields is now a priority for the sake of diversity. She added that "of course all studies show that when a profession becomes 'pink-collared,' whether you wear a pink collar or not, salaries go down." Feldman made these assertions despite a 2014 report by the Association of Art Museum Directors and the National Center for Arts Research which "found that a gender gap existed in art museum directorships... that women held less than half of directorships, that the average female director's salary lagged behind that of the average male director, and that these phenomena were most persistent in the largest museums." A second report in 2017 found that, "despite press attention and field-wide dialogue on the topic, the gender gap persists." A land acknowledgement or territorial acknowledgement is a formal statement that acknowledges the original Indigenous Peoples of the land, spoken at the beginning of public events. The custom of land acknowledgement is a traditional practice that dates back centuries in many Indigenous cultures. In Australia, the Welcome to Country or Acknowledgement of Country is a ritual performed which is intended to highlight the cultural significance of the surrounding area to a particular Aboriginal Australian or Torres Strait Islander clan or language group. It has been performed since the 1970s, becoming more common since the early 2000s. Significantly, a Welcome to Country must be performed by a Traditional Owner/Custodian of the land that you are currently on. It is important as a rejection of the colonial idea of terra nullius, which was overturned by the Mabo decision in 1992. In Canada, land acknowledgments became more popular after the 2015 Truth and Reconciliation Commission report and the election of a Liberal majority led by Justin Trudeau that same year. By 2019, they were a regular practice at events including National Hockey League games, ballet performances, and parliament meetings. In the United States, the practice of land acknowledgments has been gaining momentum as well. Early adopters included arts institutions, museums, institutions of higher education, non-profit organizations, local governments, and churches. After the 2020 Oscar land acknowledgment statement by Taika Waititi, the practice has received more attention, both positively and negatively. Native Governance Center has resources on the topic of land acknowledgment, as do a number of sites geared toward colleges and universities. Renzo Piano OMRI is an Italian architect. His notable buildings include the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris , The Shard in London , the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City , Istanbul Modern in Istanbul and Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center in Athens . He won the Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1998. Piano was born and raised in Genoa, Italy, into a family of builders. His grandfather had created a masonry enterprise, which had been expanded by his father, Carlo Piano, and his father's three brothers, into the firm Fratelli Piano. The firm prospered after World War II, constructing houses and factories and selling construction materials. When his father retired, the enterprise was led by Renzo's older brother, Ermanno, who studied engineering at the University of Genoa. Renzo studied architecture at the University of Florence and Polytechnic University of Milan. He graduated in 1964 with a dissertation about modular coordination supervised by Giuseppe Ciribini and began working with experimental lightweight structures and basic shelters. Piano taught at the Polytechnic University from 1965 until 1968, and expanded his horizons and technical skills by working in two large international firms, for the modernist architect Louis Kahn in Philadelphia and for the Polish engineer Zygmunt Stanislaw Makowski in London. He completed his first building, the IPE factory in Genoa, in 1968, with a roof of steel and reinforced polyester, and created a continuous membrane for the covering of a pavilion at the Milan Triennale in the same year. In 1970, he received his first international commission, for the Pavilion of Italian Industry for Expo 70 in Osaka, Japan. He collaborated with his brother Ermanno and the family firm, which manufactured the structure. It was lightweight and original composed of steel and reinforced polyester, and it appeared to be simultaneously artistic and industrial. The 1970 Osaka structure was greatly admired by the British architect Richard Rogers, and in 1971 the two men decided to open their own firm, Piano and Rogers, where they worked together from 1971 to 1977. The first project of the firm was the administrative building of B&B Italia, an Italian furniture company, in Novedrate, Como, Italy. This design featured suspended container and an open bearing structure, with the conduits for heating and water on the exterior painted in bright colors . These unusual features attracted considerable attention in the architectural world, and influenced the choice of the jurors who selected Piano and Rogers to design the Pompidou Center. The International Confederation of Architectural Museums is an organisation of architectural museums, centres and collections, dedicated to fostering links between all those interested in promoting the better understanding of architecture. It was founded in 1979. Joseph Heinrich Beuys was a German artist, teacher, performance artist, and art theorist whose work reflected concepts of humanism, sociology, and, with Heinrich Boll, Johannes Stuttgen, Caroline Tisdall, Robert McDowell, and Enrico Wolleb, created the Free International University for Creativity & Interdisciplinary Research . He previously in his talks and performances also formed The Party for Animals and The Organisation for Direct Democracy. He was a member of a Dadaist art movement Fluxus and singularly inspirational in developing of Performance Art, called Kunst Aktionen, alongside Wiener Aktionismus that Allan Kaprow and Carolee Schneemann termed Art Happenings. Today, internationally, the largest performance art group is BBeyond in Belfast, led by Alastair MacLennan who knew Beuys and like many adapts Beuys's ethos. Beuys is known for his "extended definition of art" in which the ideas of social sculpture could potentially reshape society and politics. He frequently held open public debates on a wide range of subjects, including political, environmental, social, and long-term cultural issues. Joseph Beuys was born in Krefeld, Germany, on 12 May 1921, to Josef Jakob Beuys , a merchant, and Johanna Maria Margarete Beuys nee Hulsermann . Soon after his birth, the family moved from Krefeld to Kleve, an industrial town in Germany's Lower Rhine region, close to the Dutch border. Beuys attended primary school at the Katholische Volksschule and secondary school at the Staatliches Gymnasium Cleve . While in school he developed skills in drawing and took lessons in piano and cello. Other interests included the natural sciences, as well as Nordic history and mythology. By his own account, when the Nazi Party staged their book-burning in Kleve on 19 May 1933 in his school courtyard, he salvaged the book Systema Naturae by Carl Linnaeus "... from that large, flaming pile". In 1936, Beuys was a member of the Hitler Youth; the organization at that time included a large majority of German children and adolescents, and later that year membership became compulsory. He participated in the Nuremberg rally in September 1936. He was 15 years old at the time. </Text>

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<Text> :Humans or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of primate, and the last surviving species of the genus Homo. They are great apes characterized by their hairlessness, bipedalism, and high intelligence. Humans have large brains, enabling more advanced cognitive skills that enable them to thrive and adapt in varied environments, develop highly complex tools, and form complex social structures and civilizations. Humans are highly social, with individual humans tending to belong to a multi-layered network of cooperating, distinct, or even competing social groups - from families and peer groups to corporations and political states. As such, social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, languages, and traditions , each of which bolsters human society. Humans are also highly curious: the desire to understand and influence phenomena has motivated humanity's development of science, technology, philosophy, mythology, religion, and other frameworks of knowledge; humans also study themselves through such domains as anthropology, social science, history, psychology, and medicine. As of March 2024, there are estimated to be more than 8 billion humans alive. Although some scientists equate the term "humans" with all members of the genus Homo, in common usage it generally refers to Homo sapiens, the only extant member. Extinct members of the genus Homo are known as archaic humans, and the term "modern human" is used to distinguish Homo sapiens from archaic humans. Anatomically modern humans emerged around 300,000 years ago in Africa, evolving from Homo heidelbergensis or a similar species. Migrating out of Africa, they gradually replaced and interbred with local populations of archaic humans. Multiple hypotheses for the extinction of archaic human species such as Neanderthals include competition, violence, interbreeding with Homo sapiens, or inability to adapt to climate change. For most of their history, humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers. Humans began exhibiting behavioral modernity about 160,000-60,000 years ago. The Neolithic Revolution, which began in Southwest Asia around 13,000 years ago , saw the emergence of agriculture and permanent human settlement; in turn, this led to the development of civilization and kickstarted a period of continuous population growth and rapid technological change. Since then, a number of civilizations have risen and fallen, while a number of sociocultural and technological developments have resulted in significant changes to the human lifestyle. Genes and the environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology, disease susceptibility, mental abilities, body size, and life span. Though humans vary in many traits , humans are among the least genetically diverse primates. Any two humans are at least 99% genetically similar. Humans are sexually dimorphic: generally, males have greater body strength and females have a higher body fat percentage. At puberty, humans develop secondary sex characteristics. Females are capable of pregnancy, usually between puberty, at around 12 years old, and menopause, around the age of 50. In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture. In 2017, it was named as the European Capital of Gastronomy, included in the Eastern Lombardy District . In 2008, Mantua's centro storico and Sabbioneta were declared by UNESCO to be a World Heritage Site. Mantua's historic power and influence under the Gonzaga family has made it one of the main artistic, cultural, and especially musical hubs of Northern Italy and the country as a whole. Having one of the most splendid courts of Europe of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and early seventeenth centuries. Mantua is noted for its significant role in the history of opera; the city is also known for its architectural treasures and artifacts, elegant palaces, and the medieval and Renaissance cityscape. It is the city where the composer Monteverdi premiered his opera L'Orfeo and to where Romeo was banished in Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. It is the nearest town to the birthplace of the Roman poet Virgil, who is commemorated by a statue at the lakeside park "Piazza Virgiliana". Mantua is surrounded on three sides by artificial lakes, created during the 12th century as the city's defence system. These lakes receive water from the River Mincio, a tributary of the River Po which descends from Lake Garda. The three lakes are called Lago Superiore, Lago di Mezzo, and Lago Inferiore . A fourth lake, Lake Pajolo, which once served as a defensive water ring around the city, dried up at the end of the 18th century. The area and its environs are important not only in naturalistic terms, but also anthropologically and historically; research has highlighted a number of human settlements scattered between Barche di Solferino and Bande di Cavriana, Castellaro and Isolone del Mincio. These dated, without interruption, from Neolithic times to the Bronze Age and the Gallic phases , and ended with Roman residential settlements, which could be traced to the 3rd century AD. Physiology 'nature, origin', and -logia 'study of') is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a subdiscipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out chemical and physical functions in a living system. According to the classes of organisms, the field can be divided into medical physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, cell physiology, and comparative physiology. Central to physiological functioning are biophysical and biochemical processes, homeostatic control mechanisms, and communication between cells. Physiological state is the condition of normal function. In contrast, pathological state refers to abnormal conditions, including human diseases. Because physiology focuses on the functions and mechanisms of living organisms at all levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the level of whole organisms and populations, its foundations span a range of key disciplines: Although there are differences between animal, plant, and microbial cells, the basic physiological functions of cells can be divided into the processes of cell division, cell signaling, cell growth, and cell metabolism. The Louvre / LOOV), or the Louvre Museum , is a national art museum in Paris, France. It is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement and home to some of the most canonical works of Western art, including the Mona Lisa and the Venus de Milo. The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built in the late 12th to 13th century under Philip II. Remnants of the Medieval Louvre fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. Due to urban expansion, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function, and in 1546 Francis I converted it into the primary residence of the French Kings. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace. In 1682, Louis XIV chose the Palace of Versailles for his household, leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection, including, from 1692, a collection of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture. In 1692, the building was occupied by the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres and the Academie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Academie remained at the Louvre for 100 years. During the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nation's masterpieces. The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, the majority of the works being royal and confiscated church property. Because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed from 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum was renamed Musee Napoleon, but after Napoleon's abdication, many works seized by his armies were returned to their original owners. The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic. The collection is divided among eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Near Eastern Antiquities; Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities; Islamic Art; Sculpture; Decorative Arts; Paintings; Prints and Drawings. The Musee du Louvre contains approximately 500,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than 60,600 m2 dedicated to the permanent collection. The Louvre exhibits sculptures, objets d'art, paintings, drawings, and archaeological finds. At any given point in time, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are being exhibited over an area of 72,735 m2 , making it the largest museum in the world. It received 8.9 million visitors in 2023, 14 percent more than in 2022, but still below the 10.1 million visitors in 2018, making it the most-visited museum in the world. The State Hermitage Museum is a museum of art and culture in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It was founded in 1764 when Empress Catherine the Great acquired a collection of paintings from the Berlin merchant Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky. The museum celebrates the anniversary of its founding each year on 7 December, Saint Catherine's Day. It has been open to the public since 1852. The Art Newspaper ranked the museum 10th in their list of the most visited art museums, with 2,812,913 visitors in 2022. Its collections, of which only a small part is on permanent display, comprise over three million items . The collections occupy a large complex of six historic buildings along Palace Embankment, including the Winter Palace, a former residence of Russian emperors. Apart from them, the Menshikov Palace, Museum of Porcelain, Storage Facility at Staraya Derevnya, and the eastern wing of the General Staff Building are also part of the museum. The museum has several exhibition centers abroad. The Hermitage is a federal state property. Since July 1992, the director of the museum has been Mikhail Piotrovsky. Of the six buildings in the main museum complex, five--namely the Winter Palace, Small Hermitage, Old Hermitage, New Hermitage, and Hermitage Theatre--are all open to the public. The entrance ticket for foreign tourists costs more than the fee paid by citizens of Russia and Belarus. However, entrance is free of charge the third Thursday of every month for all visitors, and free daily for students and children. The museum is closed on Mondays. The entrance for individual visitors is located in the Winter Palace, accessible from the Courtyard. A hermitage is the dwelling of a hermit or recluse. The word derives from Old French hermit, ermit "hermit, recluse", from Late Latin eremita, from Greek eremites, that means "people who live alone", which is in turn derived from eremos , "desert". In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophical study of nature called natural philosophy, a precursor of natural science. Though Thales was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by gods, it was not until the 19th century that the term scientist came into regular use after it was coined by the theologian, philosopher, and historian of science William Whewell in 1833. The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists--and expected of them--have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential. Some historians point to the Scientific Revolution that began in 16th century as the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It was not until the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists to emerge as a major profession. Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity was pursued by many kinds of scholars. Greek contributions to science--including works of geometry and mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning--were produced by philosophers and physicians, as well as practitioners of various trades. These roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the Roman Empire and, with the spread of Christianity, became closely linked to religious institutions in most of European countries. Astrology and astronomy became an important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with the support of political and religious patronage. By the time of the medieval university system, knowledge was divided into the trivium--philosophy, including natural philosophy--and the quadrivium--mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians. Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians. The Mona Lisa is a half-length portrait painting by Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci. Considered an archetypal masterpiece of the Italian Renaissance, it has been described as "the best known, the most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, the most parodied work of art in the world". The painting's novel qualities include the subject's enigmatic expression, monumentality of the composition, the subtle modelling of forms, and the atmospheric illusionism. The painting has been traditionally considered to depict the Italian noblewoman Lisa del Giocondo. It is painted in oil on a white Lombardy poplar panel. Leonardo never gave the painting to the Giocondo family. It was believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506; however, Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. It was acquired by King Francis I of France and is now the property of the French Republic. It has normally been on display at the Louvre in Paris since 1797. The painting's global fame and popularity partly stem from its 1911 theft by Vincenzo Peruggia, who attributed his actions to Italian patriotism--a belief it should belong to Italy. The theft and subsequent recovery in 1914 generated unprecedented publicity for an art theft, and led to the publication of many cultural depictions such as the 1915 opera Mona Lisa, two early 1930s films and the song "Mona Lisa" recorded by Nat King Cole--one of the most successful songs of the 1950s. The Mona Lisa is one of the most valuable paintings in the world. It holds the Guinness World Record for the highest known painting insurance valuation in history at US$100 million in 1962, equivalent to $1 billion as of 2023. In 2022, the museum welcomed 3,208,832 visitors, making it the third-most visited museum in the United States and the eighth-most visited art museum in the world. In 2000, its permanent collection was said to have over two million works; it currently lists a total of 1.5 million objects. The collection is divided into 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park on Manhattan's Upper East Side, is by area one of the world's largest art museums. The first portion of the approximately 2-million-square-foot building was built in 1880. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains an extensive collection of art, architecture, and artifacts from medieval Europe. The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 with its mission to bring art and art education to the American people. The museum's permanent collection consists of works of art ranging from the ancient Near East and ancient Egypt, through classical antiquity to the contemporary world. It includes paintings, sculptures, and graphic works from many European Old Masters, as well as an extensive collection of American, modern, and contemporary art. The Met also maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes, and decorative arts and textiles, as well as antique weapons and armor from around the world. Several notable interiors, ranging from 1st-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries. The Met's permanent collection is curated by seventeen separate departments, each with a specialized staff of curators and scholars, as well as six dedicated conservation departments and a Department of Scientific Research. The permanent collection includes works of art from classical antiquity and ancient Egypt; paintings and sculptures from nearly all the European masters; and an extensive collection of American and modern art. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A great number of period rooms, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Met's galleries. Since the late 1800s, the Museum has been collecting diverse materials from all over the world. It reaches out to "exhibition designers, architects, graphic designers, lighting designers, and production designers" that enables the museum to maintain its collection in good conditions. Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started acquiring ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few cuneiform tablets and seals, the museum's collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. Representing a history of the region beginning in the Neolithic Period and encompassing the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the end of Late Antiquity, the collection includes works from the Sumerian, Hittite, Sasanian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Elamite cultures , as well as an extensive collection of unique Bronze Age objects. The highlights of the collection include the Sumerian Stele of Ushumgal, the Elamite silver Kneeling Bull with Vessel, the Pratt Ivories, and a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures, from the Northwest Palace of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II. The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Holy Thursday. The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as "Holy Communion" or "The Lord's Supper". The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper. The four canonical gospels state that the Last Supper took place in the week of Passover, days after Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and before Jesus was crucified on Good Friday. During the meal, Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will thrice deny knowing him. The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to those present, saying "This is my body given to you". The Gospel of John tells of Jesus washing the feet of the apostles, giving the new commandment "to love one another as I have loved you", and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus, calling the apostles who follow his teachings "friends and not servants", as he prepares them for his departure. Some scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharistic traditions. Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s. </Text>

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<Text> : The Director of the British Museum is the head of the British Museum in London, a post currently held by Sir Mark Jones on an interim basis. He is responsible for that institution's general administration and reports its accounts to the British Government. The actual governance of the British Museum, however, is delegated to its board of trustees. At the museum's inception its most senior member of staff was called "principal librarian". The job title became "director and principal librarian" in 1898, and "director" in 1973, on the separation of the British Library from the museum. The Kayung totem pole is a 12-metre totem pole made by the Haida people. Carved and originally located in the village of Kayung on Graham Island in British Columbia, Canada, it dates from around 1850. In 1903 it was sold by Charles Frederick Newcombe to the British Museum, where since 2007 it has been a prominent exhibit in the Great Court. The totem pole was obtained by the museum in 1903, when the pole was about fifty years old. The craft of making totem poles, built as heraldic signs but misinterpreted by missionaries, was at that point in decline. It was purchased from Charles Frederick Newcombe, who sold a large number of totem poles to museums in Europe. The provenance of the pole was certain as the British Museum already had a model of it, provided by J. H. Keen, along with two photographs that showed the pole in its original location. Before being sold to collectors, the pole was located in a village called Kayung on Graham Island in British Columbia's Haida Gwaii archipelago, then known as the Queen Charlotte Islands. Kayung had been an important village for the Haida before European contact. After the population was decimated by successive smallpox epidemics in the late 1800s, Henry Wiah, the town chief, encouraged the remaining population to move to nearby Masset. The village was in the process of being abandoned in 1884, when Richard Maynard photographed it, identifying fourteen houses. Due to its size, the 12-metre pole spent most of its time at the British Museum confined to a stairwell, as this was the only space of sufficient height available. After the roof of the Great Court was constructed, it became possible to install the pole there in 2007. The Balawat Gates are three sets of decorated bronze bands that had adorned the main doors of several buildings at Balawat , dating to the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III . Their extensive use of narrative art depicting the exploits of Assyrian kings has cemented their position as some of the most important surviving works of art of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, comparable to the extensive Assyrian palace reliefs. When the Neo-Assyrian Empire fell in 614-612 BC, Balawat was destroyed. The wooden elements of the gates decomposed, leaving only the bronze bands . The remains of two sets of gates can be found in the British Museum's collection, those from the Temple of Mamu are housed in the Mosul Museum. Small sections of the Shalmaneser bronze door bands are also in the Louvre Museum at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore and in the Istanbul Archaeology Museums. Contemporary inscriptions suggest that the gates at Balawat near Nimrud were made of cedar. They were not hinged as they opened by turning massive pine pillars which were decorated with bronze and turned in stone sockets. Archaeologists believe that the gates were originally 6.8 metres high and these estimates have been used to create full size reconstructions of the gates at the British Museum. The gates in the British Museum were discovered in 1878 by local archaeologist Hormuzd Rassam. Rassam was the first Assyrian archaeologist. By the time of their discovery the wood had already rotted away and only remnants of the decorated bronze bands remained. The eight bands on each door would have been over 285 feet long in total and they decorated and strengthened the outer face and door post of each door. 265 feet of the bands are in the British Museum whilst 2 feet are at the Walters Museum in Baltimore. The variety of the images gives archaeologists an insight into the life, technology and civilisation at that time. The pictorial information is supplemented by inscriptions which give further information. The bands describe an important religious discovery in 852 BCE when King Shalmaneser III found the source of the River Tigris at the Tigris tunnel. This was a very important event because the rivers were thought to be deities. The pictures also show the workmen carving walls to represent their King in the way that he would approve. Carvings can still be seen in East Turkey of markings made by Shalamaneser's workers to the south west of Lake Van. Possibly the most important pictures are the ground plans of nearby buildings as these restored the reputation of Rassam who discovered the gates. Following the gates discovery there was a lot of debate about whether these gates were found here and whether Rassam had given an accurate account. It was argued that these were an important find in a minor place and these gates must have come from a more important nearby city like Nineveh. However excavations at the site have revealed that pictures on the gates agree with evidence on the ground which provides proof that the gates were indeed at Balawat, Balawat was important, the gates were here and Rassam had been telling the truth. Rassam felt that the credit for many of his other discoveries had been taken by senior British Museum staff. In 1893 Rassam had sued the British Museum keeper E. A. Wallis Budge in the British courts for both slander and libel. Budge had written to the trustees of the museum saying that Rassam had used "his relatives" to smuggle antiquities out of Nineveh and had only sent "rubbish" to the British Museum. The elderly Rassam was upset by these accusations and when he challenged Budge he received a partial apology and retraction that the High court considered "insincere" and "ungentlemanly". Rassam took the matter to court and he was fully supported by the judge but not by the jury. The Bronze Head from Ife, or Ife Head, is one of eighteen copper alloy sculptures that were unearthed in 1938 at Ife in Nigeria, the religious and former royal centre of the Yoruba people. It is believed to represent a king. It was probably made in the fourteenth-fifteenth century C.E. The realism and sophisticated craftsmanship of the objects challenged the offensive and patronising Western conceptions of African art. The naturalistic features of the Ife heads are unique and the stylistic similarities of these works "suggest that they were made by an individual artist or in a single workshop." Like most West African "bronzes" the piece is actually made of copper alloyed with other metals, described by the British Museum as "heavily leaded zinc-brass". Modern practice in museums and archaeology is increasingly to avoid terms such as bronze or brass for historical objects in favour of the all-embracing "copper alloy". The head is made using the lost wax technique and is approximately three-quarters life-size, measuring 35 cm high. The artist designed the head in a very naturalistic style. The face is covered with incised striations, but the lips are unmarked. The headdress suggests a crown of complex construction, composed of different layers of tube shaped beads and tassels. This decoration is typical of the bronze heads from Ife. The crown is topped by a crest, with a rosette and a plume which now is slightly bent to one side. The crown's surface includes the remains of both red and black paint. The lifelike rendering of sculptures from medieval Ife is exceptional in Sub-Saharan African art, and initially was considered the earliest manifestation of a tradition that continued in Yoruba art, in early Benin art and other pieces. An excavation in Igbo-Ukwu in 1959 provided scientific evidence of an established metal working culture and bronze artefacts that may be dated to the ninth or tenth centuries. The Ife Head was found by accident in 1938 at the Wunmonije Compound, Ife, during house-building works amongst sixteen other brass and copper heads and the upper half of a brass figure. Most of the objects found in the Wunmonije Compound and neighbouring areas ended up in the National Museum of Ife, but a few pieces were taken from Nigeria and are now in the collections of major museums. This particular Ife Head was taken from Nigeria by the editor of the Daily Times of Nigeria, H. Maclear Bate, who probably sold it to the National Art Collections Fund, which then passed it onto the British Museum in 1939. The discovery of the sculptures was the spur for the government to control the export of antiquities from Nigeria. Before this was achieved, this head made its way to London via Paris and another two were sent to America. Attempts to prevent further exports, prompted by Leo Frobenius, were successfully promulgated in 1938, when legislation was enacted by the colonial authorities. Frobenius was a German ethnologist and archaeologist who was one of the first European scholars to take a serious interest in African art, especially that of the Yoruba. The Piranesi Vase or Boyd Vase is a reconstructed, colossal marble calyx krater from ancient Rome, on three legs and a triangular base, with a relief around the sides of the vase. It is 107 inches tall and 28 inches in diameter. The upper part is in the style of the Borghese Vase. The lower part, which was not original, was influenced by the Torlonia Vase, a celebrated neo-Attic Roman marble from the collection of Cardinal Albani. It similarly stands on three lions' legs - which in the case of the Torlonia Vase were 16th-century additions. The vase was restored and/or rebuilt by the artist Giovanni Battista Piranesi, from a large number of Roman fragments from Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli, where Gavin Hamilton was excavating in the 1770s. As mentioned above, parts of the Piranesi vase are a pastiche - its stem and supports are made up of a variety of unrelated ancient fragments supplemented by matching modern parts. Other parts are painstaking, skillful and accurate reconstructions. Its frieze uses numerous original fragments to reproduce a scene of satyrs making wine. The scene was modeled on a Roman altar in Naples that in the 18th century was in the collection of the Prince of Francavilla and illustrated in Bernard de Montfaucon's 1757 Recueil d'Antiquites. The Piranesi Vase and the so-called Warwick Vase are among the most ambitious restoration projects in which Piranesi was involved. Each vase was depicted by three plates in Vasi, Candelabri e Cippi, a compilation of etchings produced in 1778. The vase was sold as a genuine ancient Roman artefact, which was considered an acceptable practice at the time. In 1898 Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild bequeathed to the British Museum as the Waddesdon Bequest the contents from his New Smoking Room at Waddesdon Manor. This consisted of a wide-ranging collection of almost 300 objets d'art et de vertu, which included exquisite examples of jewellery, plate, enamel, carvings, glass and maiolica. One of the earlier objects is the outstanding Holy Thorn Reliquary, probably created in the 1390s in Paris for John, Duke of Berry. The collection is in the tradition of a schatzkammer, or treasure house, such as those formed by the Renaissance princes of Europe; indeed, the majority of the objects are from late Renaissance Europe, although there are several important medieval pieces, and outliers from classical antiquity and medieval Syria. Following the sequence of the museum's catalogue numbers, and giving the first number for each category, the bequest consists of: "bronzes", handles and a knocker ; arms, armour and ironwork ; enamels ; glass ; Italian maiolica ; "cups etc in gold and hard stone" ; silver plate ; jewellery ; cutlery ; "caskets, etc" ; carvings in wood and stone . There is no group for paintings, and WB.174, a portrait miniature on vellum in a wooden frame, is included with the jewellery, though this is because the subject is wearing a pendant in the collection. The collection was assembled for a particular place, and to reflect a particular aesthetic; other parts of Ferdinand Rothschild's collection contain objects in very different styles, and the Bequest should not be taken to reflect the totality of his taste. Here what most appealed to Ferdinand Rothschild were intricate, superbly executed, highly decorated and rather ostentatious works of the Late Gothic, Renaissance and Mannerist periods. Few of the objects could be said to rely on either simplicity or Baroque sculptural movement for their effect, though several come from periods and places where much Baroque work was being made. A new display for the collection, which under the terms of the bequest must be kept and displayed together, opened on 11 June 2015. The collection was started by Baron Ferdinand's father, Baron Anselm von Rothschild , and may include some objects from earlier Rothschild collections. For Mayer Amschel Rothschild of Frankfurt, who began the prominence of the family, his business dealing in coins, "antiques, medals, and objects of display" preceded and financed his banking operations, and most Rothschilds continued to collect art. The Younger Memnon is an Ancient Egyptian statue, one of two colossal granite statues from the Ramesseum mortuary temple in Thebes, Upper Egypt. It depicts the Nineteenth Dynasty Pharaoh Ramesses II wearing the Nemes head-dress with a cobra diadem on top. The damaged statue has since been separated from its upper torso and head. These sections can now be found in the British Museum. The remainder of the statue remains in Egypt. It is one of a pair that originally flanked the Ramesseum's doorway. The head of the other statue is still found at the temple. The Younger Memnon is 2.7 metres high x 2 metres wide . It weighs 7.25 tons and was cut from a single block of two-coloured granite. There is a slight variation of normal conventions in that the eyes look down slightly more than usual, and to exploit the different colours . Napoleon's men tried but failed to dig and remove it to France during his 1798 expedition there, during which he did acquire but then lost the Rosetta Stone. It was during this attempt that the hole on the right of the torso is said to have been made. Following an idea mentioned to him by his friend Johann Ludwig Burckhardt of digging the statue and bringing it to Britain, the British Consul General Henry Salt hired the adventurer Giovanni Belzoni in Cairo in 1815 for this purpose. Using his hydraulics and engineering skills, it was pulled on wooden rollers by ropes to the bank of the Nile opposite Luxor by hundreds of workmen. However, no boat was yet available to take it up to Alexandria and so Belzoni carried out an expedition to Nubia, returning by October. With French collectors also in the area possibly looking to acquire the statue, he then sent workmen to Esna to gain a suitable boat and in the meantime carried out further excavations in Thebes. He finally loaded the products of these digs, plus the Memnon, onto this boat and got it to Cairo by 15 December 1816. There he received and obeyed orders from Salt to unload all but the Memnon, which was then sent on to Alexandria and London without him. </Text>

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<Text> :The School of the Art Institute of Chicago is a private art school associated with the Art Institute of Chicago in Chicago, Illinois. Tracing its history to an art students' cooperative founded in 1866, which grew into the museum and school, SAIC has been accredited since 1936 by the Higher Learning Commission, by the National Association of Schools of Art and Design since 1944 , and by the Association of Independent Colleges of Art and Design since the association's founding in 1991. Additionally it is accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board. In a 2002 survey conducted by Columbia University's National Arts Journalism Program, SAIC was named the "most influential art school" in the United States. Its downtown Chicago campus consists of seven buildings located in the immediate vicinity of the AIC building. SAIC is in an equal partnership with the AIC and shares many administrative resources such as design, construction, and human resources. The campus, located in the Loop, comprises chiefly five main buildings: the McLean Center , the Michigan building , the Sharp , Sullivan Center , and the Columbus . SAIC also holds classes in the Spertus building at 610 S. Michigan. SAIC owns additional buildings throughout Chicago that are used as student galleries or investments. There are three dormitory facilities: The Buckingham, Jones Hall, and 162 N State Street residencies. The institute has its roots in the 1866 founding of the Chicago Academy of Design, which local artists established in rented rooms on Clark Street. It was financed by member dues and patron donations. Four years later, the school moved into its own Adams Street building, which was destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. Because of the school's financial and managerial problems after this loss, business leaders in 1878 formed a board of trustees and founded the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. They expanded its mission beyond education and exhibitions to include collecting. In 1882, the academy was renamed the Art Institute of Chicago. The banker Charles L. Hutchinson served as its elected president until his death in 1924. The school grew to become among the "most influential" art schools in the United States. In Greek mythology, Europa was a Phoenician princess from Tyre, Lebanon and the mother of King Minos of Crete. The continent of Europe is named after her. The story of her abduction by Zeus in the form of a bull was a Cretan story; as classicist Karoly Kerenyi points out, "most of the love-stories concerning Zeus originated from more ancient tales describing his marriages with goddesses. This can especially be said of the story of Europa." Europa's earliest literary reference is in the Iliad, which is commonly dated to the 8th century BC. Another early reference to her is in a fragment of the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, discovered at Oxyrhynchus. The earliest vase-painting securely identifiable as Europa dates from the mid-7th century BC. Greek Europe contains the elements eurus , "wide, broad" and ops/op-/opt- "eye, face, countenance". Broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion. It is common in ancient Greek mythology and geography to identify lands or rivers with female figures. Thus, Europa is first used in a geographic context in the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, in reference to the western shore of the Aegean Sea. As a name for a part of the known world, it is first used in the 6th century BC by Anaximander and Hecataeus. The weakness of an etymology with eurus , is 1. that the -u stem of eurus disappears in Europe Europa and 2. the expected form euruope euruope that retains the -u stem in fact exists. This painting shows Abraham with a knife in his hand raised to kill his son Isaac at the moment that the angel intervenes. Bencovich became court painter of the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz Lothar Franz von Schonborn in 1715 and completed four large canvas masterpieces for his gallery in Schloss Weissenstein. These were Apollo and Marcia, Hagar and Ishmael in the desert, Iphigenia's sacrifice and Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac. The canvas of Abraham was taken in the beginning of the 19th century, but it was attributed to Piazzetta at the time. The Strossmayer gallery in Croatia purchased the painting at a London auction in 1936 and research on the painting has determined this to be the same one. Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, Finland to the east, and is connected to Denmark in the southwest by a bridge-tunnel across the Oresund. At 450,295 square kilometres , Sweden is the largest Nordic country and the fifth-largest country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Stockholm. Sweden has a population of 10.5 million, and a low population density of 25.5 inhabitants per square kilometre , with around 87% of Swedes residing in urban areas, which cover 1.5% of the entire land area, in the central and southern half of the country. Nature in Sweden is dominated by forests and many lakes, including some of the largest in Europe. Many long rivers run from the Scandes range, primarily emptying into the northern tributaries of the Baltic Sea. It has an extensive coastline and most of the population lives near a major body of water. With the country ranging from 55degN to 69degN, the climate of Sweden is diverse due to the length of the country. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats and Swedes and constituting the sea peoples known as the Norsemen. A unified Swedish state emerged during the early 11th century. After the Black Death in the middle of the 14th century killed about a third of the Scandinavian population, the dominance of the Hanseatic League in Northern Europe threatened Scandinavia economically and politically. This led to the formation of the Scandinavian Kalmar Union in 1397, which Sweden left in 1523. When Sweden became involved in the Thirty Years' War on the Protestant side, an expansion of its territories began, forming the Swedish Empire, which remained one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Sweden is a highly developed country ranked seventh in the Human Development Index, it is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy, with legislative power vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. It is a unitary state, divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens. It has the world's 14th highest GDP per capita and ranks very highly in quality of life, health, education, protection of civil liberties, economic competitiveness, income equality, gender equality and prosperity. Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995. It is also a member of the United Nations, NATO, the Nordic Council, the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development . Stockholm is the capital and most populous city of Sweden as well as the largest urban area in the Nordic countries. Approximately 1 million people live in the municipality, with 2.1 million in the urban area, and 2.4 million in the metropolitan area. The city stretches across fourteen islands where Lake Malaren flows into the Baltic Sea. Outside the city to the east, and along the coast, is the island chain of the Stockholm archipelago. The area has been settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC, and was founded as a city in 1252 by Swedish statesman Birger Jarl. The city serves as the county seat of Stockholm County. Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the country's GDP, and is among the top 10 regions in Europe by GDP per capita. Considered a global city, it is the largest in Scandinavia and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europe's top ranking universities, such as the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm School of Economics, KTH Royal Institute of Technology and Stockholm University. It hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the city's most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is well known for the decor of its stations; it has been called the longest art gallery in the world. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and has played host to several other international sports events since. Stockholm is Sweden's primary financial centre, one of the largest in Scandinavia, and hosts several of Sweden's largest companies. Furthermore, the headquarters of most of Sweden's largest banks are in Stockholm. Stockholm is one of Europe's major tech centres; the city has sometimes been called Europe's innovation hub. The Stockholm region has a GDP of around $180 billion, and Stockholm County has the highest GDP per capita of all counties in Sweden. Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residences of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag is seated in the Parliament House, and the Prime Minister's residence is adjacent at the Sager House. Stockholm Palace is the official residence and principal workplace of the Swedish monarch, while Drottningholm Palace in neighbouring Ekero serves as the Royal Family's private residence. </Text>

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<Text> :Friedrich August Stuler was an influential Prussian architect and builder. His masterpiece is the Neues Museum in Berlin, as well as the dome of the triumphal arch of the main portal of the Berliner Schloss. Stuler was born on 28 January 1800 in Muhlhausen. In 1818 he started studying architecture and became a student of Karl Friedrich Schinkel in Berlin. After travelling to France and Italy together with Eduard Knoblauch in 1829 and 1830 and to Russia together with Heinrich Strack in 1831, Stuler became Hofbauinspektor , Hofbaurat and director of the commission for the building of the Berliner Stadtschloss in 1832. In 1837, he planned the rebuilding of the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg, but failed to realise these plans because Tsar Nicholas I of Russia decided to rebuild the original Baroque/Rococo palace instead of Stulers Neo-Renaissance concept. Stuler then returned to Berlin, where King Frederick William IV of Prussia opened a huge array of tasks to him, making him Architekt des Konigs in 1842. Together with King Frederick William, who had previously studied Italian architecture, Stuler incorporated Classical antiquity and Renaissance architecture in what was to become Prussian Arcadia. They also conceived a recourse to early Christian motives such as the liturgy of the Early church to avoid political problems with the contemporary church. After the death of Ludwig Persius, Stuler assumed control of the building of the Friedenskirche in Potsdam in 1845. Joint journeys to Italy of Stuler and King Frederick William in 1858-59 deepened the Italian influence from medieval and Quattrocento buildings. His ideas for Cast-iron architecture or the techniques he used for the Neues Museum are more likely influenced from a journey to England in 1842. The building was badly damaged during World War II, but was reopened in 2009. While many of the buildings Stuler built were destroyed in World War II, a few were restored - not in the original ways, but one can still see Stulers concepts on the outside, especially in the Jakobi church in Berlin. The government agencies in Sweden are state-controlled organizations that act independently to carry out the policies of the Government of Sweden. The ministries are relatively small and merely policy-making organizations, allowed to monitor the agencies and preparing decision and policy papers for the government as a collective body to decide upon. A Cabinet Minister is explicitly prohibited from interfering with the day-to-day operation in an agency or the outcome in individual cases. The cardinal rule is that Ministers are not allowed to issue orders to agencies in their portfolio personally as the government agencies are subject to decisions made by the government, although the government cannot even directly overrule an agency in the handling of an individual case. Norrmalm is part of the larger borough of Norrmalm . The southern part of the district, Lower Norrmalm , also known as City, constitutes the most central part of Stockholm, while Upper Norrmalm is more residential. The name Norrmalm is first mentioned in 1288. In 1602 Norrmalm became an independent city with its own mayor and administration called the Northern Suburb . The town was short-lived and in 1635 it was incorporated with Stockholm again. Norrmalm is today considered to be the central part of Stockholm. In the 1950s and 1960s, large parts of lower Norrmalm were torn down to build a new and modern city. The demolitions were carried out swiftly and many Stockholmers still miss "old Klara" . Among the new features created as a result of the clearances were the large central public plaza at Sergels torg and the Klara Tunnel . Stockholm Municipality or the City of Stockholm is a municipality in Stockholm County in east central Sweden. It has the largest population of the 290 municipalities of the country, but one of the smallest areas, making it the second most densely populated. It is also the most populous municipality in the Nordic countries. Although legally a municipality with the official proper name Stockholms kommun, the municipal assembly has decided to use the name Stockholms stad whenever possible. This is purely nominal and has no effect on the legal status of the municipality. Geographically, the city comprises the Stockholm City Centre and two suburban areas, Soderort and Vasterort . Administratively, it is subdivided into 14 districts , which are administered by district councils . When the first local government acts came into force in Sweden in 1863, the City of Stockholm was one of the then 89 cities of Sweden. A first city council was elected. The area roughly corresponded with today's Innerstaden. Large areas were annexed in 1913, 1916 and 1949. The city was outside Stockholm County until 1968, having its own governor. The local government reform of 1971 made Stockholm a unitary municipality like all others in the country. Blasieholmen is a peninsula in central Stockholm, Sweden. It is located east of Kungstradgarden. Originally a small island, named Kapplingen, it became a peninsula, connected to Norrmalm, during the 17th century. Among the buildings at Blasieholmen are the Nationalmuseum, hotels and office buildings. The Skeppsholmsbron bridge connects Blasieholmen to the island of Skeppsholmen. The Blasieholmen Church was demolished in 1964. </Text>

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<Text> :A museum is distinguished by a collection of often unique objects that forms the core of its activities for exhibitions, education, research, etc. This differentiates it from an archive or library, where the contents may be more paper-based, replaceable and less exhibition oriented, or a private collection of art formed by an individual, family or institution that may grant no public access. A museum normally has a collecting policy for new acquisitions, so only objects in certain categories and of a certain quality are accepted into the collection. The process by which an object is formally included in the collection is called accessioning and each object is given a unique accession number. Museum collections, and archives in general, are normally catalogued in a collection catalogue, traditionally in a card index, but nowadays in a computerized database. Transferring collection catalogues onto computer-based media is a major undertaking for most museums. All new acquisitions are normally catalogued on a computer in modern museums, but there is typically a backlog of old catalogue entries to be computerized as time and funding allows. A museum's permanent collection are assets that the museum owns and may display, although space and conservation requirements often mean that most of a collection is not on display. Museums often also host temporary exhibitions of works that may come all or partly from their permanent collection, or may be all or partly loaned . A travelling exhibition is shown in more than one venue; these tend to be either large loan exhibitions which may be exhibited at two or three venues in different countries, or selections from the collection of a large museum which tour to a number of regional museums. Museum collections are widely varied. There are collections of art, of scientific specimens, of historic objects, of living zoological specimens and much more. Because there are so many things to collect, most museums have a specific area of specialization. For example, a history museum may only collect objects relevant to a particular county or even a single person, or focus on a type of object such as automobiles or stamps. Art museums may focus on a period, such as modern art, or a region. Very large museums will often have many sub-collections, each with its own criteria for collecting. A natural history museum, for example, will have mammals in a separate collection from insects. Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning 93,030 square kilometres of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and Slovenia to the southwest, and Austria to the west. Hungary has a population of 9.6 million, mostly ethnic Hungarians and a significant Romani minority. Hungarian is the official language, and Budapest is the country's capital and largest city. Prior to the foundation of the Hungarian state, various peoples settled in the territory of present-day Hungary, most notably the Celts, Romans, Huns, Germanic peoples, Avars and Slavs. The Principality of Hungary was established in the late 9th century by Almos and his son Arpad through the conquest of the Carpathian Basin. King Stephen I ascended the throne in 1000, converting his realm to a Christian kingdom. The medieval Kingdom of Hungary was a European power, reaching its height in the 14th-15th century. After a long period of Ottoman wars, Hungary's forces were defeated at the Battle of Mohacs and its capital was captured in 1541, opening roughly a 150 years long period when the country was divided into three parts: Royal Hungary loyal to the Habsburgs, Ottoman Hungary and the largely independent Principality of Transylvania. The reunited Hungary came under Habsburg rule at the turn of the 18th century, fighting a war of independence in 1703-1711, and a war of independence in 1848-1849 until a compromise allowed the formation of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1867, a major power into the early 20th century. Austria-Hungary collapsed after World War I, and the subsequent Treaty of Trianon in 1920 established Hungary's current borders, resulting in the loss of 71% of its historical territory, 58% of its population, and 32% of its ethnic Hungarians. In the interwar period, after initial turmoil, Miklos Horthy ascended as a determining politician, representing the monarchy as regent in place of the Habsburgs. Hungary joined the Axis powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties. As a result, the Hungarian People's Republic was established as a satellite state of the Soviet Union. Following the failed 1956 revolution, Hungary became a comparatively freer, though still repressed, member of the Eastern Bloc. In 1989, concurrently with the Revolutions of 1989, Hungary peacefully transitioned into a democratic parliamentary republic, joining the European Union in 2004 and being part of the Schengen Area since 2007. Hungary is a high-income economy with universal health care and tuition-free secondary education. Hungary has a long history of significant contributions to arts, music, literature, sports, science and technology. It is a popular tourist destination in Europe, drawing 24.5 million international tourists in 2019. It is a member of numerous international organisations, including the Council of Europe, NATO, United Nations, World Health Organization, World Trade Organization, World Bank, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, and the Visegrad Group. After studying in Karlsruhe and Vienna, Schickedanz worked beside the Hungarian architect Miklos Ybl. He designed the Millennium memorial , the building of the Museum of Fine Arts and the Palace of Art in Budapest; the latter are located opposite each other on the gigantic Heroes' Square at the end of Andrassy Avenue. Schickedanz also designed the plinth of the memorial of Count Lajos Batthyany in Kerepesi Cemetery and the plinthes of the statues of Ferenc Deak and Janos Arany. He was also active in painting and applied art. Between 1880 and 1902, he taught at the School of Applied Arts, Budapest. His townscapes are kept in the Budapest History Museum. Budapest u:d@'pest, ,bUd-, 'bu:d@pest, 'bUd-/, US: /'bu:d@pest, -peSt, ,bu:d@'peSt/; Hungarian pronunciation: i) is the capital and most populous city of Hungary. It is the ninth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits and the largest city on the Danube river; the city has an estimated population of 1,752,286 over a land area of about 525 square kilometres . Budapest, which is both a city and county, forms the centre of the Budapest metropolitan area, which has an area of 7,626 square kilometres and a population of 3,303,786. It is a primate city, constituting 33% of the population of Hungary. The history of Budapest began when an early Celtic settlement transformed into the Roman town of Aquincum, the capital of Lower Pannonia. The Hungarians arrived in the territory in the late 9th century, but the area was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241-42. Re-established Buda became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture by the 15th century. The Battle of Mohacs, in 1526, was followed by nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule. After the reconquest of Buda in 1686, the region entered a new age of prosperity, with Pest-Buda becoming a global city after the unification of Buda, Obuda and Pest on 17 November 1873, with the name 'Budapest' given to the new capital. Budapest also became the co-capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a great power that dissolved in 1918, following World War I. The city was the focal point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the Battle of Budapest in 1945, as well as the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Budapest is a global city with strengths in commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and entertainment. Hungary's financial centre, Budapest is also the headquarters of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology, the European Police College and the first foreign office of the China Investment Promotion Agency. Over 40 colleges and universities are located in Budapest, including Eotvos Lorand University, Corvinus University, Semmelweis University, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest and the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Opened in 1896, the city's subway system, the Budapest Metro, serves 1.27 million, while the Budapest Tram Network serves 1.08 million passengers daily. The central area of Budapest along the Danube River is classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and has several notable monuments of classical architecture, including the Hungarian Parliament and the Buda Castle. The city also has around 80 geothermal springs, the largest thermal water cave system, second largest synagogue, and third largest Parliament building in the world. Budapest attracts around 12 million international tourists per year, making it a highly popular destination in Europe. Zuglo is the official name of the 14th district of Budapest , the capital of Hungary. It is a large and mixed neighborhood, with communist era style highrise apartments sprinkled between decently kept one house residential streets. Varosliget, the City Park is located at the western part of the district. Its popularity comes from the fact that it has leafy suburb style neighbourhoods closest to the city center. Access to the district is easy; the southern end is easily accessible with the main M2 subway line, with its terminal station being the largest hub in the city at the border with Kobanya. The northern part is accessible with the old M1 subway line. Parts of Rakosmezo is thought to be part of Zuglo now; this was the ground for the inaugurational process for the king at times in Hungarian history dating back to the 13th century. The development of the area started in the middle of the 19th century as Pest expanded. The subway reached the district at the end of the 19th century. The first mansions were built around the City Park. As the city expanded, the suburban district quickly found itself fairly central in the city, and larger houses started to appear in certain areas. The Communist era brought large developments of pre-fab housing projects into some areas of the district, but large parts of the district still maintain the suburban feeling; and some areas even retained the glamour of the mansions built at the turn of the century. Lajos Kossuth de Udvard et Kossuthfalva was a Hungarian nobleman, lawyer, journalist, politician, statesman and governor-president of the Kingdom of Hungary during the revolution of 1848-1849. With the help of his talent in oratory in political debates and public speeches, Kossuth emerged from a poor gentry family into regent-president of the Kingdom of Hungary. As the influential contemporary American journalist Horace Greeley said of Kossuth: "Among the orators, patriots, statesmen, exiles, he has, living or dead, no superior." Kossuth's powerful English and American speeches so impressed and touched the famous contemporary American orator Daniel Webster, that he wrote a book about Kossuth's life. He was widely honoured during his lifetime, including in Great Britain and the United States, as a freedom fighter and bellwether of democracy in Europe. Kossuth's bronze bust can be found in the United States Capitol with the inscription: Father of Hungarian Democracy, Hungarian Statesman, Freedom Fighter, 1848-1849. Kossuth was born into an untitled lower noble family in Monok, Kingdom of Hungary, a small town in the county of Zemplen in modern day Borsod-Abauj-Zemplen County of Northern Hungary. He was the eldest of five children in a Lutheran noble family of Slovak origin. His father, Laszlo Kossuth , belonged to the lower nobility, had a small estate and was a lawyer by profession. Laszlo Kossuth had two brothers and one sister . The House of Kossuth originated from the county of Turoc . They acquired the rank of nobility in 1263 from King Bela IV. Kossuths married into Zathureczky, Nedeczky, Borcsany, Pronay families amongst others Lajos Kossuth's father's mother was a Beniczky and her Beniczky ancestors had married into following families: Farkas, Zmeskal, Revay, Pajor and finally, Pronay. Lajos Kossuth's mother, Karolina Weber , was born to a Lutheran family of 3/4-German and Magyarized-German and 1/4-unknown descent, living in Upper Hungary . </Text>

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<Text> :The Abbey of Monte Oliveto Maggiore is a large Benedictine monastery in the Italian region of Tuscany, 10 km south of Asciano. Its buildings, which are mostly of red brick, are conspicuous against the grey clayey and sandy soil--the Crete senesi which give this area of Tuscany its name. It is the mother-house of the Olivetans and the monastery later took the name of Monte Oliveto Maggiore to distinguish it from successive foundations at Florence, San Gimignano, Naples and elsewhere. It was founded in 1313 by Bernardo Tolomei, a jurist from a prominent aristocratic family of Siena. In 1319 or 1320 it was approved by Bishop Guido Tarlati as Monte Oliveto, with reference to the Mount of Olives and in honour of Christ's Passion. The monastery was begun in 1320, the new congregation being approved by Pope Clement VI in 1344. The monastery is accessed through a drawbridge which leads to a medieval palace in red brickwork, surmounted by a massive quadrangular tower with barbicans and merlons. This edifice was begun in 1393 as the fortified gate of the complex; it was completed in 1526 and restored in the 19th century. Over the entrance arch is a terracotta depicting Madonna with Child and Two Angels attributed to the Della Robbia family, as well as the St Benedict Blessing nearby. Monte San Martino is a comune in the Province of Macerata in the Italian region Marche, located about 70 kilometres south of Ancona and about 30 kilometres south of Macerata. There are 808 people in the village. The Monte San Martino Trust was founded in 1989 by J. Keith Killby, a former prisoner of war at Servigliano nearby, together with other veterans of the Second World War. The Trust awards English-language study bursaries to Italians, aged 18 to 25, in recognition of the courage and sacrifice of the Italian country people who rescued thousands of escaping Allied PoWs after the Armistice in 1943. Jerome , also known as Jerome of Stridon, was an early Christian priest, confessor, theologian, translator, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. He is best known for his translation of the Bible into Latin and his commentaries on the whole Bible. Jerome attempted to create a translation of the Old Testament based on a Hebrew version, rather than the Septuagint, as prior Latin Bible translations used. His list of writings is extensive. In addition to his biblical works he wrote polemical and historical essays, always from a theologian's perspective. Jerome was known for his teachings on Christian moral life, especially to those living in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome. In many cases, he focused his attention on the lives of women and identified how a woman devoted to Jesus should live her life. This focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent senatorial families. Due to his work, Jerome is recognized as a saint and Doctor of the Church by the Roman Catholic Church, and as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Lutheran Church, and the Anglican Communion. His feast day is 30 September . Italian Renaissance painting is the painting of the period beginning in the late 13th century and flourishing from the early 15th to late 16th centuries, occurring in the Italian Peninsula, which was at that time divided into many political states, some independent but others controlled by external powers. The painters of Renaissance Italy, although often attached to particular courts and with loyalties to particular towns, nonetheless wandered the length and breadth of Italy, often occupying a diplomatic status and disseminating artistic and philosophical ideas. The city of Florence in Tuscany is renowned as the birthplace of the Renaissance, and in particular of Renaissance painting, although later in the era Rome and Venice assumed increasing importance in painting. A detailed background is given in the companion articles Renaissance art and Renaissance architecture. Italian Renaissance painting is most often divided into four periods: the Proto-Renaissance , the Early Renaissance , the High Renaissance , and Mannerism . The dates for these periods represent the overall trend in Italian painting and do not cover all painters as the lives of individual artists and their personal styles overlapped these periods. The Proto-Renaissance begins with the professional life of the painter Giotto and includes Taddeo Gaddi, Orcagna, and Altichiero. The Early Renaissance style was started by Masaccio and then further developed by Fra Angelico, Paolo Uccello, Piero della Francesca, Sandro Botticelli, Verrocchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Giovanni Bellini. The High Renaissance period was that of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Coreggio, Giorgione, the latter works of Giovanni Bellini, and Titian. The Mannerist period, dealt with in a separate article, included the latter works of Michelangelo, as well as Pontormo, Parmigianino, Bronzino, and Tintoretto. The influences upon the development of Renaissance painting in Italy are those that also affected architecture, engineering, philosophy, language, literature, natural sciences, politics, ethics, theology, and other aspects of Italian society during the Renaissance period. The following is a summary of points dealt with more fully in the main articles that are cited above. A catalogue raisonne is a comprehensive, annotated listing of all the known artworks by an artist either in a particular medium or all media. The works are described in such a way that they may be reliably identified by third parties, and such listings play an important role in authentification. The term catalogue raisonne is French, meaning "reasoned catalogue" , but is part of the technical terminology of the English-speaking art world. The spelling is never Americanized to "catalog", even in the United States. The French pluralization catalogues raisonnes is used. There are many variations, both broader and narrower than "all the works" or "one artist". The parameters may be restricted to one type of artwork by one artist or widened to all the works by a group of artists. It can take many years to complete a catalogue raisonne, and large teams of researchers are sometimes employed on the task. For example, about 25 people reportedly contributed over 11 years to the three-volume catalogue raisonne for abstract-expressionist painter Robert Motherwell, an effort organized by the Dedalus Foundation and published by Yale University Press in 2012. </Text>

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Bess of Hardwick <p> instance of <o> human <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> English <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> has works in the collection <o> Victoria and Albert Museum <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> country of citizenship <o> England <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> given name <o> Elizabeth <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> notable work <o> Chatsworth House <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> notable work <o> Hardwick Hall <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> occupation <o> architect <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> owner of <o> Hardwick Hall <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> depicted by <o> Elizabeth Hardwick (‘Bess of Hardwick’), Countess of Shrewsbury (1520-1608) <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> depicted by <o> Elizabeth Hardwick (‘Bess of Hardwick’), Countess of Shrewsbury (1520-1608) <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> depicted by <o> Elizabeth Hardwick (‘Bess of Hardwick’), Countess of Shrewsbury (1520-1608) <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> spouse <o> 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Hardwick <p> spouse <o> Robert Barlow <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> child <o> Charles Cavendish <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> family name <o> Talbot <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> spouse <o> William Cavendish <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> child <o> Mary Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury <s> Bess of Hardwick <p> occupation <o> lady-in-waiting <s> Thomas Archer <p> occupation <o> architect <s> Thomas Archer <p> instance of <o> human <s> Thomas Archer <p> different from <o> Thomas Archer <s> Thomas Archer <p> educated at <o> Trinity College, Oxford <s> Thomas Archer <p> country of citizenship <o> Kingdom of Great Britain <s> Thomas Archer <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Thomas Archer <p> notable work <o> St Philip's Cathedral <s> Thomas Archer <p> different from <o> Thomas Archer <s> Thomas Archer <p> place of death <o> Whitehall <s> Thomas Archer <p> given name <o> Thomas <s> Thomas Archer <p> family name <o> Archer <s> Thomas Archer <p> copyright status as a creator <o> copyrights on works have expired <s> Thomas Archer <p> artist files at <o> Frick Art Reference Library <s> Thomas Archer <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> WikiProject PCC Wikidata Pilot/Frick Art Reference Library <s> Thomas Archer <p> notable work <o> St. Paul's, Deptford <s> Thomas Archer <p> notable work <o> St John's, Smith Square <s> Thomas Archer <p> described by source <o> Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900 </Graph>

<Text> :Frank Zollner is a German art historian. He is among the leading authorities on the life and works of Leonardo da Vinci, about whom he has written numerous publications on. These include book-length studies on the Mona Lisa and one of the two modern catalogue raisonne of Leonardo's works, the other being by Pietro C. Marani. Frank Zollner was born in 1956. He studied the history of art from 1977 to 1981. From 1983-1985, he was an 'Aby Warburg Fellow' at the Warburg Institute, in London. After his 1987 graduation took place at the University of Hamburg he worked from 1988 to 1992 as a research assistant at the Bibliotheca Hertziana in Rome. With Pietro C. Marani's Leonardo da Vinci: The Complete Paintings , Zollner's Leonardo da Vinci: The Complete Paintings and Drawings is "the most thoroughly referenced catalogue raisonnes of Leonardo's paintings". Zollner has also published a catalogue raisonne of works by Sandro Botticelli in 2005. Taschen is a luxury art book publisher founded in 1980 by Benedikt Taschen in Cologne, Germany. As of January 2017, Taschen is co-managed by Benedikt Taschen and his eldest daughter, Marlene Taschen. The company began as Taschen Comics, publishing Benedikt's comic collection. Taschen focuses on making lesser-seen art available to mainstream bookstores, including fetishistic imagery, queer art, historical erotica, pornography, and adult magazines . The firm has brought potentially controversial art into broader public view, publishing it alongside its more mainstream books of comics reprints, art photography, painting, design, fashion, advertising history, film, and architecture. In 1985, Taschen introduced the Basic Art series with an inaugural title on Salvador Dali. Today's series comprises over 100 titles available in up to 30 languages, each about a separate artist, from classical to contemporary. Further series followed, alongside an expansion into new themes like architecture, design, film, and lifestyle. For example, the firm also publishes a "Basic Architecture" series in the same style as "Basic Art" that covers some of the most prominent architects in history. In the spring of 2014, the firm's Basic Art Series was criticized in Swedish public media for its focus on male artists. The series then consisted of 95 books, only five of which were female artists. Malmo Konsthall in Sweden was the first institution to report the disparity highlighted by the artists Ditte Ejlerskov and EvaMarie Lindahl. Derbyshire is a ceremonial county in the East Midlands of England. It borders Greater Manchester, West Yorkshire, and South Yorkshire to the north, Nottinghamshire to the east, Leicestershire to the south-east, Staffordshire to the south and west, and Cheshire to the west. Derby is the largest settlement, and Matlock is the county town. The county has an area of 2,625 km2 and a population of 1,053,316. The east of the county is more densely populated than the west, and contains the county's largest settlements: Derby , Chesterfield , and Swadlincote . For local government purposes Derbyshire comprises a non-metropolitan county, with eight districts, and the Derby unitary authority area. The north of Derbyshire is hilly and contains the southern end of the Pennines, most of which are part of the Peak District National Park. They include Kinder Scout, at 636 m the highest point in the county. The River Derwent is the longest in the county, at 66 mi , and flows south until it meets the River Trent just south of Derby. Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms, near Swadlincote, is the furthest point from the sea in the UK. The area that is now Derbyshire was first visited, probably briefly, by humans 200,000 years ago during the Aveley interglacial, as shown by a Middle Paleolithic Acheulean hand axe found near Hopton. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter-gatherers roamed the hilly tundra. Evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the caves date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Sir Joseph Paxton was an English gardener, architect, engineer and Member of Parliament, best known for designing the Crystal Palace and for cultivating the Cavendish banana, the most consumed banana in the Western world. Paxton was born in 1803, the seventh son of a farming family, in Milton Bryan, Bedfordshire. Some references, incorrectly, list his birth year as 1801. This is, as he admitted in later life, a result of misinformation he provided in his teens, which enabled him to enrol at Chiswick Gardens. He became a garden boy at the age of fifteen for Sir Gregory Osborne Page-Turner at Battlesden Park, near Woburn. After several moves, he obtained a position in 1823 at the Horticultural Society's Chiswick Gardens. The Horticultural Society's gardens were close to the gardens of William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire, at Chiswick House. The duke met the young gardener as he strolled in his gardens and became impressed with his skill and enthusiasm. He offered the 20-year-old Paxton the position of head gardener at Chatsworth, which was considered one of the finest landscaped gardens of the time. Although the duke was in Russia, Paxton set off for Chatsworth on the Chesterfield coach arriving at Chatsworth at half past four in the morning. By his own account he had explored the gardens after scaling the kitchen garden wall, set the staff to work, eaten breakfast with the housekeeper and met his future wife, Sarah Bown, the housekeeper's niece, completing his first morning's work before nine o'clock. He married Bown in 1827, and she proved capable of managing his affairs, leaving him free to pursue his ideas. Elizabeth Cavendish, later Elizabeth Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury , known as Bess of Hardwick, of Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, was a notable figure of Elizabethan English society. By a series of well-made marriages, she rose to the highest levels of English nobility and became enormously wealthy. Bess was reportedly a shrewd businesswoman, increasing her assets with business interests including mines and glass-making workshops. She was married four times. Her first husband was Robert Barley , who died aged about 14 or 15 on 24 December 1544. Her second husband was the courtier Sir William Cavendish. Her third husband was Sir William St Loe. Her last husband was George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, sometime keeper to the captive Mary, Queen of Scots. An accomplished needlewoman, Bess joined her husband's captive charge at Chatsworth House for extended periods in 1569, 1570, and 1571, during which time they worked together on the Oxburgh Hangings. In 1601, Bess ordered an inventory of the household furnishings, including textiles, at her three properties at Chatsworth, Hardwick, and Chelsea, which survives. In her will she bequeathed these items to her heirs to be preserved in perpetuity. The 400-year-old collection, now known as the Hardwick Hall textiles, is the largest collection of tapestry, embroidery, canvaswork, and other textiles to have been preserved by a single private family. Bess is also well known for her building projects, the most famous of which are Chatsworth, now the seat of the Dukes of Devonshire , and Hardwick Hall. Elizabeth Hardwick was the daughter of John Hardwick of Derbyshire by his wife Elizabeth Leeke, daughter of Thomas Leeke and Margaret Fox. Her exact birthdate is unknown, occurring in the period 1521 to 1527; that said, according to her witness statement under oath at a court hearing in October 1546, in which she gives her age at the time of her first marriage in May 1543 as being "of tender years", i.e. less than 16, would indicate 1527. It cannot be later than 1527 because of the date of her father's death, given in his Inquisition Post Mortem. Thomas Archer was an English Baroque architect. His buildings are important as the only ones by an English Baroque architect to show evidence of study of contemporary continental, namely Italian, architecture. Archer spent his youth at Umberslade Hall in Tanworth-in-Arden in Warwickshire, the youngest son of Thomas Archer, a country gentleman, Parliamentary Colonel and Member of Parliament, and Ann Leigh, daughter of the London haberdasher, Richard Leigh. The exact date of Archer's birth is unknown, but can be inferred from the two documentary sources that mention his age. One is an entry in the Oxford University register recording his matriculation at Trinity College on 12 June 1686, aged 17; the other, his epitaph, survives in the parish church of Hale, Hampshire. If these records are accurate, he must have been born between 12 June 1668 and 22 May 1669. Thomas is the only one of the Archer children not to have his birth recorded in the Tamworth-in-Arden parish register, which suggests he may have been born elsewhere. He attended Trinity College, Oxford, from which he matriculated on 12 June 1686. After leaving university, he went on a Grand Tour, spending four years abroad and was influenced by the work of Bernini and Borromini. Among Archer's churches was St John Evangelist, Westminster, suggestive of Hawksmoor's baroque influence. Its four towers were originally built to stabilise subsidence. Historians believed that was more likely than following Sir John Vanbrgh's style. Built in 1750, St Paul's, Deptford, sweeping semi-circular porticos were not copied for a century until Smirke's magnificent church at St Mary's, Bryanston Square that dominated the street. At St Philip's, Birmingham, now Birmingham Cathedral there was a strong sense of the Italianate Lombardic influences of High Baroque style of churches: ornate, high ceilings, with cupola and dome. External to St Philips is the roof balustrade quite unusual in English church architecture. St John's and St Paul's were both built for the Commission for Building Fifty New Churches. John Summerson said these two buildings "represent the most advanced Baroque style ever attempted in England". According to the minutes of the Commissioners, Archer also "improved" Hawksmoor's designs for St Alfege's at Greenwich, although the nature of the improvements, or whether they were implemented, is unknown. Archer's secular works included Roehampton House, Welford Park in Berkshire, and the Cascade House and the west front and broadly bowed pilastered north front at Chatsworth House. In 1709-11 Archer designed a Baroque garden pavilion for Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Kent at Wrest Park, Silsoe, Bedfordshire. After 1712 Archer designed Hurstbourne Priors in Hampshire for John Wallop . </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Peak District National Park <p> country <o> United Kingdom <s> Peak District National Park <p> owned by <o> National Trust <s> Peak District National Park <p> historic county <o> Derbyshire <s> Peak District National Park <p> authority <o> Peak District National Park Authority <s> Peak District National Park <p> operator <o> National Trust <s> Peak District National Park <p> instance of <o> national park of England and Wales <s> Peak District National Park <p> named after <o> Peak District <s> Peak District National Park <p> IUCN protected areas category <o> IUCN category V: Protected Landscape/Seascape <s> Category:Interior of Chatsworth House <p> category combines topics <o> Chatsworth House <s> Category:Interior of Chatsworth House <p> instance of <o> Wikimedia category <s> Category:Interior of Chatsworth House <p> category combines topics <o> building interior <s> English country house <p> country <o> United Kingdom <s> English country house <p> subclass of <o> 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Category:English Baroque architecture <s> William Talman <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> WikiProject PCC Wikidata Pilot/Frick Art Reference Library <s> William Talman <p> artist files at <o> Frick Art Reference Library <s> William Talman <p> instance of <o> human <s> William Talman <p> occupation <o> architect <s> William Talman <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> William Talman <p> country of citizenship <o> Kingdom of Great Britain <s> William Talman <p> place of birth <o> West Lavington <s> William Talman <p> child <o> John Talman <s> William Talman <p> depicted by <o> The Talman Family Group <s> William Talman <p> given name <o> William <s> William Talman <p> notable work <o> St Anne's Church <s> William Talman <p> place of death <o> Felmingham <s> William Talman <p> described by source <o> Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900 <s> William Talman <p> family name <o> Talman <s> country house <p> subclass of <o> mansion <s> country house <p> subclass of <o> historic house <s> country house <p> described by source <o> Landhaus und Garten : Beispiele neuzeitlicher Landhäuser nebst Grundrissen, Innenraümen und Gärten </Graph>

<Text> :The Peak District is an upland area in England, at the southern end of the Pennines. Mostly in Derbyshire, it extends into Cheshire, Greater Manchester, Staffordshire, West Yorkshire and South Yorkshire. It is subdivided into the Dark Peak, moorland dominated by gritstone, and the White Peak, a limestone area with valleys and gorges. The Dark Peak forms an arc on the north, east and west of the district, and the White Peak covers central and southern areas. The highest point is Kinder Scout ). Most of the area is within the Peak District National Park, a protected landscape designated in 1951. The area has been inhabited since the Mesolithic era, and was largely agricultural until mining arose in the Middle Ages. During the Industrial Revolution several cotton mills were constructed in the area's valleys by Richard Arkwright. As mining declined, quarrying grew. Tourism came with the railways, spurred by the landscape, spa towns and Castleton's show caves. The Peak District forms the southern extremity of the Pennines. Much of it is upland above 1,000 feet , its highest point being Kinder Scout at 2,087 ft . Despite its name, the landscape has fewer sharp peaks than rounded hills, plateaus, valleys, limestone gorges and gritstone escarpments . The mostly rural area is surrounded by conurbations and large urban areas, including Manchester, Huddersfield, Sheffield, Derby and Stoke-on-Trent. The national park has formal boundaries. It covers most of the Dark Peak and White Peak, but the wider Peak District is less well defined. The Dark Peak is largely uninhabited moorland and gritstone escarpments in the northern Peak District and its eastern and western margins. It encloses the central and southern White Peak, which is where most settlements, farmland and limestone gorges are found. Three of Natural England's National Character Areas cover parts of it. The Dark Peak NCA includes the northern and eastern parts of the Dark Peak and the White Peak NCA most of the White Peak. The western margins of the Dark Peak are in the South West Peak NCA, where farmland and pastured valleys are found with gritstone edges and moorland. Outside the park, the wider Peak District often includes the area approximately between Disley and Sterndale Moor, encompassing Buxton and the Peak Dale corridor. It may also include some of the outer fringes and foothills, such as the Churnet and lower Derwent Valleys. The region is mostly surrounded by lowlands with gritstone moorlands of the South Pennines to the north, separated approximately by the Tame Valley, Standedge and Holme Valley. An English country house is a large house or mansion in the English countryside. Such houses were often owned by individuals who also owned a town house. This allowed them to spend time in the country and in the city--hence, for these people, the term distinguished between town and country. However, the term also encompasses houses that were, and often still are, the full-time residence for the landed gentry who dominated rural Britain until the Reform Act 1832. Frequently, the formal business of the counties was transacted in these country houses, having functional antecedents in manor houses. With large numbers of indoor and outdoor staff, country houses were important as places of employment for many rural communities. In turn, until the agricultural depressions of the 1870s, the estates, of which country houses were the hub, provided their owners with incomes. However, the late 19th and early 20th centuries were the swansong of the traditional English country house lifestyle. Increased taxation and the effects of World War I led to the demolition of hundreds of houses; those that remained had to adapt to survive. While a chateau or a Schloss can be a fortified or unfortified building, a country house, similar to an Ansitz, is usually unfortified. If fortified, it is called a castle, but not all buildings with the name "castle" are fortified . The term stately home is subject to debate, and avoided by historians and other academics. As a description of a country house, the term was first used in a poem by Felicia Hemans, "The Homes of England", originally published in Blackwood's Magazine in 1827. In the 20th century, the term was later popularised in a song by Noel Coward, and in modern usage it often implies a country house that is open to visitors at least some of the time. A historic house museum is a house of historic significance that is preserved as a museum. Historic furnishings may be displayed in a way that reflects their original placement and usage in a home. Historic house museums are held to a variety of standards, including those of the International Council of Museums. Houses are transformed into museums for a number of different reasons. For example, the homes of famous writers are frequently turned into writer's home museums to support literary tourism. Historic house museums are sometimes known as a "memory museum", which is a term used to suggest that the museum contains a collection of the traces of memory of the people who once lived there. It is often made up of the inhabitants' belongings and objects - this approach is mostly concerned with authenticity. Some museums are organised around the person who lived there or the social role the house had. Other historic house museums may be partially or completely reconstructed in order to tell the story of a particular area, social-class or historical period. The "narrative" of the people who lived there guides this approach, and dictates the manner in which it is completed. In each kind of museum, visitors learn about the previous inhabitants through an explanation and exploration of social history. The idea of a historic house museum derives from a branch of history called social history that is solely based on people and their way of living. It became very popular in the mid-twentieth century among scholars who were interested in the history of people, as opposed to political and economical issues. Social history remains an influential branch of history. Philip J. Ethington, a professor of history and political science, further adds to social history and its relationship to locations by saying - Following this historical movement, the concept of "open-air museums" became prominent. These particular types of museums had interpreters in costume re-enact the lives of communities in earlier eras, which would then be performed to modern audiences. They often occupied large wooden architecture buildings or outdoor sites and landscapes, that were true to the era, adding to authenticity. Duke of Devonshire is a title in the Peerage of England held by members of the Cavendish family. This branch of the Cavendish family has been one of the wealthiest British aristocratic families since the 16th century and has been rivalled in political influence perhaps only by the Marquesses of Salisbury and the Earls of Derby. Although the Cavendish family estates are centred in Derbyshire, they hold the titles of "Duke of Devonshire" and their subsidiary title of earldom of Devonshire . The first Earl may have chosen "Devonshire" simply because places and lands he was associated with were already attached to existing peerages at the College of Arms. The title remains associated with "Devonshire" even though in modern usage it is the county of Devon. Another reason for the choice of a non-local or regional name was to avoid antagonising the powerful Stanley family from the Midlands who had strong associations with Derbyshire since their ancestors had been gifted estates in the county by William the Conqueror, and they had also been the Earls of Derby since the late 15th century. The Cavendish family descends from Sir John Cavendish, who took his name from the village of Cavendish, Suffolk, where he held an estate in the 14th century. He served as Chief Justice of the King's Bench from 1372 to 1381, and was killed in the Peasants' Revolt in 1381. Two of his great-grandsons were George Cavendish, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey's biographer, and George's younger brother Sir William Cavendish. Sir William gained great wealth from his position in the Exchequer and also from unfairly taking advantage of the dissolution of the Monasteries. He married as his third wife the famous Bess of Hardwick, with whom he had eight children. One of their sons, Sir Charles Cavendish , was the father of William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne , while another son, Henry Cavendish, was the ancestor of the Barons Waterpark. Yet another son, William Cavendish , was a politician and a supporter of the colonization of Virginia. In 1605 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Cavendish, of Hardwicke in the County of Derby, and in 1618 he was further honoured when he was made Earl of Devonshire. Both titles are in the Peerage of England. He was succeeded by his eldest son, William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire, who served as Lord-Lieutenant of Derbyshire and was a patron of the philosopher Thomas Hobbes . On his early death in 1628 the titles passed to his son, William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire, who also served as Lord-Lieutenant of Derbyshire. He was succeeded by his son, the fourth Earl. He was a strong supporter of the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and later served under William III and Mary II as Lord Steward of the Household. In 1694 he was created Marquess of Hartington and Duke of Devonshire in the Peerage of England. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Duke, who held political office as Lord President of the Council and Lord Privy Seal and was also Lord-Lieutenant of Devonshire. His eldest son, the third Duke, served as Lord Privy Seal, as Lord Steward of the Household and as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. Bakewell is a market town and civil parish in the Derbyshire Dales district of Derbyshire, England, known for Bakewell pudding. It lies on the River Wye, 15 miles south-west of Sheffield. It is the largest settlement and only town within the boundaries of the Peak District National Park. At the 2011 census, the population of the civil parish was 3,949. It was estimated at 3,695 in 2019. The town is close to the tourist attractions of Chatsworth House and Haddon Hall. Although there is evidence of earlier settlement in the area, Bakewell itself was probably founded in Anglo-Saxon times in the Anglian kingdom of Mercia. The name Bakewell means a spring or stream of a woman named Badeca or Beadeca, so deriving from a personal name with the Old English suffix wella. In 949 it was called Badecanwelle and in the 1086 Domesday Book Badequelle. The Domesday book listing stated that King Edward held land here and there was a church and a mill. These are the outlying estates or berewicks of the manor: Haddon , Holme , Rowsley, Burton , Conksbury, One Ash, Monyash, and Haddon . Bakewell Parish Church, a Grade I listed building, dates from 920 and has a 9th-century cross in the churchyard. The present building was built in the 12th-13th centuries, but it was virtually rebuilt in the 1840s by William Flockton. By Norman times Bakewell had gained in importance: Domesday Book mentions the town and its church having two priests. A motte and bailey castle was built in the 12th century. In the early 14th-century, the vicar was terrorised by the Coterel gang, which evicted him and confiscated his church's money at the instigation of the canons of Lichfield Cathedral. The Italianate style was a distinct 19th-century phase in the history of Classical architecture. Like Palladianism and Neoclassicism, the Italianate style combined its inspiration from the models and architectural vocabulary of 16th-century Italian Renaissance architecture with picturesque aesthetics. The resulting style of architecture was essentially of its own time. "The backward look transforms its object," Siegfried Giedion wrote of historicist architectural styles; "every spectator at every period--at every moment, indeed--inevitably transforms the past according to his own nature." The Italianate style was first developed in Britain in about 1802 by John Nash, with the construction of Cronkhill in Shropshire. This small country house is generally accepted to be the first Italianate villa in England, from which is derived the Italianate architecture of the late Regency and early Victorian eras. The Italianate style was further developed and popularised by the architect Sir Charles Barry in the 1830s. Barry's Italianate style drew heavily for its motifs on the buildings of the Italian Renaissance, though sometimes at odds with Nash's semi-rustic Italianate villas. The style was employed in varying forms abroad long after its decline in popularity in Britain. For example, from the late 1840s to 1890, it achieved huge popularity in the United States, where it was promoted by the architect Alexander Jackson Davis. A late intimation of John Nash's development of the Italianate style was his 1805 design of Sandridge Park at Stoke Gabriel in Devon. Commissioned by the dowager Lady Ashburton as a country retreat, this small country house clearly shows the transition between the picturesque of William Gilpin and Nash's yet to be fully evolved Italianism. While this house can still be described as Regency, its informal asymmetrical plan together with its loggias and balconies of both stone and wrought iron; tower and low pitched roof clearly are very similar to the fully Italianate design of Cronkhill, the house generally considered to be the first example of the Italianate style in Britain. English Baroque is a term used to refer to modes of English architecture that paralleled Baroque architecture in continental Europe between the Great Fire of London and roughly 1720, when the flamboyant and dramatic qualities of Baroque art were abandoned in favour of the more chaste, rule-based Neo-classical forms espoused by the proponents of Palladianism. It is primarily embodied in the works of Christopher Wren, Nicholas Hawksmoor, John Vanbrugh, and James Gibbs, although a handful of lesser architects such as Thomas Archer also produced buildings of significance. In domestic architecture and interior decor, Baroque qualities can sometimes be seen in the late phase of the Restoration style, the William and Mary style, the Queen Anne style, and early Georgian architecture. Sir Christopher Wren presided over the genesis of the English Baroque manner, which differed from the continental models by clarity of design, a less restless taste in carving and embellishment and a greater concern for historic precedent in classicism. Following the Great Fire of London, Wren rebuilt fifty-three churches, where Baroque aesthetics are apparent primarily in dynamic structure and multiple changing views. His most ambitious work was St Paul's Cathedral , which bears comparison with the most effulgent domed churches of Italy and France. In this majestic edifice, the Palladian tradition of Inigo Jones is fused with contemporary baroque sensibility in masterly equilibrium. Less influential were straightforward attempts to graft the Berniniesque vision onto British church architecture (e.g., by Thomas Archer in St. John's, Smith Square, and St Paul's, Deptford. The first fully Baroque English country house was built to a design by William Talman at Chatsworth, commenced in 1687. The culmination of Baroque architectural forms comes with Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor. Each achieved a fully developed and highly individual architectural expression, and they were known to work alongside each other, most notably at Castle Howard , Orangery at Kensington Palace and Blenheim Palace . Appuldurcombe House, Isle of Wight, now in ruins, but conserved by English Heritage, must also be mentioned. An English country house is a large house or mansion in the English countryside. Such houses were often owned by individuals who also owned a town house. This allowed them to spend time in the country and in the city--hence, for these people, the term distinguished between town and country. However, the term also encompasses houses that were, and often still are, the full-time residence for the landed gentry who dominated rural Britain until the Reform Act 1832. Frequently, the formal business of the counties was transacted in these country houses, having functional antecedents in manor houses. With large numbers of indoor and outdoor staff, country houses were important as places of employment for many rural communities. In turn, until the agricultural depressions of the 1870s, the estates, of which country houses were the hub, provided their owners with incomes. However, the late 19th and early 20th centuries were the swansong of the traditional English country house lifestyle. Increased taxation and the effects of World War I led to the demolition of hundreds of houses; those that remained had to adapt to survive. While a chateau or a Schloss can be a fortified or unfortified building, a country house, similar to an Ansitz, is usually unfortified. If fortified, it is called a castle, but not all buildings with the name "castle" are fortified . The term stately home is subject to debate, and avoided by historians and other academics. As a description of a country house, the term was first used in a poem by Felicia Hemans, "The Homes of England", originally published in Blackwood's Magazine in 1827. In the 20th century, the term was later popularised in a song by Noel Coward, and in modern usage it often implies a country house that is open to visitors at least some of the time. </Text>

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<Text> :Sir Jeffry Wyatville RA was an English architect and garden designer. Born Jeffry Wyatt into an established dynasty of architects, in 1824 he was allowed by King George IV to change his surname to Wyatville . He is mainly remembered for making alterations and extensions to Chatsworth House and Windsor Castle. Jeffry Wyatt was born on 3 August 1766 in Burton upon Trent, the first surviving child of Joseph and Myrtilla Wyatt, who died shortly after Jeffry's birth. He was educated at the grammar school in Burton upon Trent. Shortly after the death of his father, Wyatville began his architectural training in his uncle Samuel Wyatt's office. He remained with Samuel until 1792 when he moved from the Midlands to his uncle James Wyatt's office in Queen Anne Street, London. He later completed the gothic Ashridge in Hertfordshire after his uncle James's death in 1813. Wyatville sent designs to the Royal Academy every year from 1786 to 1822 and less frequently thereafter. There is no evidence that Wyatville ever undertook foreign travel as part of his education, probably because of the Napoleonic Wars. Wyatville was elected Associate of the Royal Academy on 4 November 1822, then, on 10 February 1824, he was elected a Royal Academician of the Royal Academy, his diploma work being a drawing of the unexecuted design for Brocklesby Hall. His largest commission, the remodelling of Windsor Castle begun in 1824, when Parliament voted PS300,000 for the purpose. The eventual cost was over PS1,000,000 . A competition was held between four invited architects, Wyatville, Robert Smirke, John Nash and John Soane, the architects submitted their designs, in June Wyatville was announced as the winner. The foundation stone was laid on 12 August 1824 by King George IV at what would become the George IV gateway. Wyatville took up residence in the Winchester Tower in the castle in 1824 and would use it for the rest of his life. Eventually the Upper Ward of the Castle would be reconstructed. It was while at Windsor that he designed Golden Grove, Llandeilo, Carmarthenshire for the 1st Earl Cawdor, completed 1834, and its 'sister house' Lilleshall Hall in Shropshire for George Leveson-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland, completed 1829. He was knighted by George IV in 1828. He was buried in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle on 25 February 1840 following his death on 18 February. His memorial stone is in the north-east corner behind the high altar, and bears this inscription: Cambridge is a city and non-metropolitan district in the county of Cambridgeshire, England. It is the county town of Cambridgeshire and is located on the River Cam, 55 miles north of London. As of the 2021 United Kingdom census, the population of Cambridge was 145,700. Cambridge became an important trading centre during the Roman and Viking ages, and there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area as early as the Bronze Age. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although modern city status was not officially conferred until 1951. The city is most famous as the home of the University of Cambridge, which was founded in 1209 and consistently ranks among the best universities in the world. The buildings of the university include King's College Chapel, Cavendish Laboratory, and the Cambridge University Library, one of the largest legal deposit libraries in the world. The city's skyline is dominated by several college buildings, along with the spire of the Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church, and the chimney of Addenbrooke's Hospital. Anglia Ruskin University, which evolved from the Cambridge School of Art and the Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology, also has its main campus in the city. Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen or Cambridge Cluster, which contains industries such as software and bioscience and many start-up companies born out of the university. Over 40 per cent of the workforce have a higher education qualification, more than twice the national average. The Cambridge Biomedical Campus, one of the largest biomedical research clusters in the world, includes the headquarters of AstraZeneca and the relocated Royal Papworth Hospital. Cambridge is also famous for producing the first ever 'Laws of the Game' for association football and then for the first ever game taking place at Parker's Piece. The Strawberry Fair music and arts festival and Midsummer Fair are held on Midsummer Common, and the annual Cambridge Beer Festival takes place on Jesus Green. The city is adjacent to the M11 and A14 roads. Cambridge station is less than an hour from London King's Cross railway station. The Hamilton Kerr Institute is a branch of the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridgeshire, England, dedicated to the study and conservation of easel paintings. It is also part of the University of Cambridge. The institute was founded in 1976 through grants from the Baring Foundation, the Esmee Fairbairn Trust, the Gulbenkian Foundation, the Isaac Wolfson Foundation, the Monument Trust, and the Pilgrim Trust, and continues to finance itself through income from its work and its endowment fund. It is housed in a riverside property, donated by Hamilton Kerr, seven miles south of Cambridge in the village of Whittlesford. The premises consist of a mid-eighteenth century house and converted mill buildings, containing offices and a scientific laboratory, restoration studios, studios for panel treatment and the relining of canvases, and studios for photography. In 1980, the institute opened a studio in London. The Founder's Building is the original building of Royal Holloway College, University of London , in Egham, Surrey, England. It is an example of French-Renaissance-style architecture in the United Kingdom, having been modelled on French chateaus such as Chateau de Chambord. Today it is the dominant building on the campus. The construction of the building began in 1874, and was completed in 1881. The building and the college were a PS600,000 "gift to the nation" by the entrepreneur and philanthropist Thomas Holloway. It was designed by the architect William Henry Crossland, and inspired by the Chateau de Chambord in the Loire Valley, France. The building was officially opened in 1886 by Queen Victoria, who allowed the use of "Royal" in the college's name by Royal mandate. A statue of Queen Victoria sits in the centre of the north quadrangle. The centre of the south quadrangle contains a statue of Thomas Holloway and his wife Jane. The marble statues were sculpted by Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg . The Founder's Building houses the Picture Gallery, containing a collection of over 70 pieces of Victorian era art given to the college at the time of its founding by Thomas Holloway. Founder's is home to one of the university's lecture theatres, the non-denominational chapel, and the reading room, which is open to students 24/7. The north tower is known as the Clock Tower, the south as the Dragon Tower , and the centre tower as the Lantern Tower, housing a lantern which is very occasionally lit. </Text>

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<Text> :Cambridgeshire is a ceremonial county in the East of England and East Anglia. It is bordered by Lincolnshire to the north, Norfolk to the north-east, Suffolk to the east, Essex and Hertfordshire to the south, and Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire to the west. The largest settlement is the city of Peterborough, and the city of Cambridge is the county town. The county has an area of 3,389 km2 and a population of 852,523. Peterborough and Cambridge , located in the north-west and south respectively, are by far the largest settlements. The remainder of the county is rural, and contains the city of Ely and towns such as Wisbech and St Neots. Cambridgeshire contains six local government districts; five are part of a two-tier non-metropolitan county governed by Cambridgeshire County Council; the sixth, Peterborough, is a unitary authority. The local authorities collaborate through Cambridgeshire and Peterbrough Combined Authority. The county did not historically include Huntingdonshire or the Soke of Peterborough, which was part of Northamptonshire. The north and east of the county are dominated by the Fens, an extremely flat, drained marsh maintained by drainage ditches and dykes. Holme Fen is the UK's lowest physical point, at 2.75 m below sea level. The flatness of the landscape makes the few areas of higher ground, such as that Ely is built on, very conspicuous. The landscape in the south and west is gently undulating. Cambridgeshire's principal rivers are the Nene, which flows through the north of the county and is canalised east of Peterborough; the Great Ouse, which flows from west to east past Huntingdon and Ely; and the Cam, a tributary of the Great Ouse which flows through Cambridge. Cambridgeshire is noted as the site of Flag Fen in Fengate, one of the earliest-known Neolithic permanent settlements in the United Kingdom, compared in importance to Balbridie in Aberdeen, Scotland. Must Farm quarry, at Whittlesey has been described as 'Britain's Pompeii due to its relatively good condition, including the 'best-preserved Bronze Age dwellings ever found'. A great quantity of archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age were made in East Cambridgeshire. Most items were found in Isleham. Cambridge is a city and non-metropolitan district in the county of Cambridgeshire, England. It is the county town of Cambridgeshire and is located on the River Cam, 55 miles north of London. As of the 2021 United Kingdom census, the population of Cambridge was 145,700. Cambridge became an important trading centre during the Roman and Viking ages, and there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area as early as the Bronze Age. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although modern city status was not officially conferred until 1951. The city is most famous as the home of the University of Cambridge, which was founded in 1209 and consistently ranks among the best universities in the world. The buildings of the university include King's College Chapel, Cavendish Laboratory, and the Cambridge University Library, one of the largest legal deposit libraries in the world. The city's skyline is dominated by several college buildings, along with the spire of the Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church, and the chimney of Addenbrooke's Hospital. Anglia Ruskin University, which evolved from the Cambridge School of Art and the Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology, also has its main campus in the city. Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen or Cambridge Cluster, which contains industries such as software and bioscience and many start-up companies born out of the university. Over 40 per cent of the workforce have a higher education qualification, more than twice the national average. The Cambridge Biomedical Campus, one of the largest biomedical research clusters in the world, includes the headquarters of AstraZeneca and the relocated Royal Papworth Hospital. Cambridge is also famous for producing the first ever 'Laws of the Game' for association football and then for the first ever game taking place at Parker's Piece. The Strawberry Fair music and arts festival and Midsummer Fair are held on Midsummer Common, and the annual Cambridge Beer Festival takes place on Jesus Green. The city is adjacent to the M11 and A14 roads. Cambridge station is less than an hour from London King's Cross railway station. A university museum is a repository of collections run by a university, typically founded to aid teaching and research within the institution of higher learning. The Ashmolean Museum at the University of Oxford in England is an early example, originally housed in the building that is now the Museum of the History of Science. A more recent example is the Holburne Museum of Art in Bath, originally constructed as a hotel in 1796 it is now the official museum of the University of Bath. Historically, the focus of university museums and galleries included curatorial research into, as well as the display of, commemorative, ceremonial, decorative and didactic collections. For academics, these collections served as a valuable research resource. For students, museums performed both a leisure and learning function, developing their visual literacy, critical thinking, and creative skills. Aside from campus, museums served their perspective city and town's communities, spreading museological literacy among the different target audiences. With decades, the role of the university museums changed as they started to become more open and receptive to the cultural needs of the public. Public educational outreach is considered now by many university museums as an integral part of their mission, some even adopt a market approach. Changes and decentralization of the institutional values coinciding with budgeting shortfalls in some cases "gave rise to tensions and a lack of cohesive identity among a demoralized staff". Many campus museums "have critical needs for facilities, staff, and support". In the 21st century, despite the challenges brought by transition, the university museums not only continue to play important role in object-based learning but also perform important civic and cultural functions for the larger society. Organizationally, university museums are represented by a variety of historical, traditional and novel entities, such as anatomical theaters and archeology museums, natural science and art museums, history museums, planetariums, arboretums and aquariums, archives and house-museums, science and arts centers, ecomuseums, hospital museums, and contemporary art galleries, as well as discipline-specific collections hosted by academic departments and institutes; some special collections are hosted by the university libraries. In general, university museums and collections are classified based on disciplinary criteria or the nature of the artifacts. In Europe the number of the university museums and collections is estimated as 12,914. A museum is an institution dedicated to displaying and/or preserving culturally significant objects. Many museums have exhibitions of these objects on public display, and some have private collections that are used by researchers and specialists. Compared to a library, a museum hosts a much wider range of objects and usually focus around a specific theme such as the arts, science, natural history, local history, and other topics. Public museums that host exhibitions and interactive demonstrations are often considered to be tourist attractions, and many museums attract large numbers of visitors from outside their host country, with the most visited museums in the world regularly attracting millions of visitors annually. Since the establishment of the earliest known museum in ancient times, museums have been associated with academia and the preservation of rare items. Museums originated as private collections of interesting items, and only much later did the emphasis on educating the public take root. The English word museum comes from Latin, and is pluralized as museums . It is originally from the Ancient Greek Mouseion , which denotes a place or temple dedicated to the muses , and hence was a building set apart for study and the arts, especially the Musaeum for philosophy and research at Alexandria, built under Ptolemy I Soter about 280 BC. The purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display objects of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the study and education of the public. To city leaders, an active museum community can be seen as a gauge of the cultural or economic health of a city, and a way to increase the sophistication of its inhabitants. To museum professionals, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museum's mission, such as civil rights or environmentalism. Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithson's bequest funding the Smithsonian Institution stated that he wanted to establish an institution "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge". The University of Cambridge is a public collegiate research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209, the University of Cambridge is the world's third-oldest university in continuous operation. The university's founding followed the arrival of scholars who left the University of Oxford for Cambridge after a dispute with local townspeople. The two ancient English universities, although sometimes described as rivals, share many common features and are often jointly referred to as Oxbridge. In 1231, 22 years after its founding, the university was recognised with a royal charter, granted by King Henry III. The University of Cambridge includes 31 semi-autonomous constituent colleges and over 150 academic departments, faculties, and other institutions organised into six schools. The largest department is Cambridge University Press & Assessment, which has PS1 billion of annual revenue and reaches 100 million learners. All of the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, managing their own personnel and policies, and all students are required to have a college affiliation within the university. Undergraduate teaching at Cambridge is centred on weekly small-group supervisions in the colleges with lectures, seminars, laboratory work, and occasionally further supervision provided by the central university faculties and departments. The university operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum and Cambridge University Botanic Garden. Cambridge's 116 libraries hold a total of approximately 16 million books, around nine million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library and one of the world's largest academic libraries. Cambridge alumni, academics, and affiliates have won 121 Nobel Prizes. Among the university's notable alumni are 194 Olympic medal-winning athletes and several historically iconic and transformational individuals in their respective fields, including Francis Bacon, Lord Byron, Oliver Cromwell, Charles Darwin, Stephen Hawking, John Maynard Keynes, John Milton, Vladimir Nabokov, Jawaharlal Nehru, Isaac Newton, Sylvia Plath, Bertrand Russell, Alan Turing, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and others. Prior to the founding of the University of Cambridge in 1209, Cambridge and the area surrounding it already had developed a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation due largely to the intellectual reputation and academic contributions of monks from the nearby bishopric church in Ely. The founding of the University of Cambridge, however, was inspired largely by an incident at the University of Oxford during which three Oxford scholars, as an administration of justice in the death of a local Oxford-area woman, were hanged by town authorities without first consulting ecclesiastical authorities, who traditionally would be inclined to pardon scholars in such cases. But during this time, Oxford's town authorities were in conflict with King John. Fearing more violence from Oxford townsfolk, University of Oxford scholars began leaving Oxford for more hospitable cities, including Paris, Reading, and Cambridge. Enough scholars ultimately took residence in Cambridge to form, along with the many scholars already there, the nucleus for the new university's formation. Stephen Carpenter Earle was an architect who designed a number of buildings in Massachusetts and Connecticut that were built in the late 19th century, with many in Worcester, Massachusetts. He trained in the office of Calvert Vaux in New York City. He worked for a time in partnership with James E. Fuller, under the firm "Earle & Fuller". In 1891, he formed a partnership with Vermont architect Clellan W. Fisher under the name "Earle & Fisher". Earle's most noted work is the Richardsonian Romanesque Slater Memorial Museum on the campus of the Norwich Free Academy in Norwich, Connecticut, where he had a generous budget and a sympathetic patron. In 2015, the Hartford Courant called the Slater Museum the "crown jewel among Norwich's cultural treasures" and "a masterpiece of Romanesque revival design." Stephen Salisbury III , also referred to as Stephen Salisbury Jr., was an American businessman, lawyer, and politician. The son of a wealthy landowner, Salisbury helped manage the family's extensive properties and businesses in Worcester County, Massachusetts. Like his father, Salisbury served in the State Senate, was president of the Worcester National Bank, and directed the Worcester & Nashua Railroad. He was a trustee of the Worcester City Hospital and the Worcester Polytechnic Institute. Stephen Salisbury III was born in Worcester on March 31, 1835. He graduated from Harvard College in 1856, and studied abroad for two years at Friedrich Wilhelm University. He received a degree from Harvard Law School in 1861, and was admitted to the bar that October. Like his father, he maintained a long association with the American Antiquarian Society. He was elected a member in 1863, served on its board of councilors from 1847 to 1884, as vice-president from 1884 to 1887, and as president from 1887 until his death in 1905. In 1896, along with a group of prominent citizens of Worcester, he founded the Worcester Art Museum. In 1900, he erected the Bancroft Tower, in honor of George Bancroft, a friend of Salisbury's father. Salisbury died from pneumonia at his home in Worcester on November 16, 1905, leaving his extensive collection of mostly American art to the museum. He also bequeathed $3 million to the museum. </Text>

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<Text> :The North American Reciprocal Museum program is an affiliation of arts, historical, and cultural institutions in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, and El Salvador which offer reciprocal benefits to qualifying members of other participating NARM institutions. As of June 2022, NARM has 1,231 participating institutions. Institutions in the association offer a range of membership benefits to qualified members of participating museums, that typically includes free admission and/or museum shop discounts. Individuals interested in getting these benefits should check with their local museum to see if they participate in the NARM program, and the levels of membership required to qualify. Museums and other institutions may join NARM if they meet certain requirements for reciprocal offerings to visiting members of other NARM institutions. Institutional membership is not exclusive, in that an organization may also join other similar associations, such as the Museum Alliance Reciprocal Program , Time Travelers Reciprocal Membership Program, Reciprocal Organization of Associated Museums , or Art Museum Reciprocal Network . There are also regional alliances such as the Southeastern Reciprocal Membership Program , Western Museum Reciprocal Program, or Empire State Museums Reciprocal Program. A given institution may choose to participate in none of these associations, or in any combination of them. For example, as of 2021, the Birmingham Museum of Art offers reciprocal benefits through international and regional programs. Art museums associated with colleges or universities have organized a College and University Art Museums Reciprocal Program . The Higgins Armory Museum is the name of a collection in the Worcester Art Museum. It was formerly a separate museum located in the nearby Higgins Armory Building in Worcester, Massachusetts, dedicated to the display of arms and armor. It was "the only museum in the country devoted solely to arms and armor" and had the second largest arms and armor collection in the country from its founding in 1931 until 2004, behind the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The collection consists of 2,000 objects, including 24 full suits of armor. The museum closed at the end of 2013 due to a lack of funding. Its collection and endowment were transferred and integrated into the Worcester Art Museum, with the collection on show in its own gallery. The former museum building was sold in December 2014 and now serves as a local events venue. John Woodman Higgins was a prominent industrialist in Worcester, Massachusetts who owned the Worcester Pressed Steel Company. He traveled to Europe multiple times throughout the 1920s where he collected arms, armor, and other steel items. One of his most important purchases was eight full suits of armor from the collection of George Jay Gould in 1927. Originally, he stored these items in his house, which quickly filled with anything that he could find made of steel, from suits of armor to automatic shoe polishers. Higgins incorporated his collection as a museum in 1928; the collection grew larger than his house could hold, so he began construction on a steel and glass museum building next to his factory in 1929. "The Museum of Steel and Glass" opened on January 12, 1931 with a grand gala. Music was played by members of the Boston Symphony Orchestra and Higgins' sons dressed in suits of armor. In its original layout, the museum displayed a wide variety of objects constructed of steel including "medieval weaponry, automobile parts, and even ... an all-steel airplane suspended from its ceiling." Admission to the museum began with a walk through the armor exhibits and ended with a tour through the production lines to see modern steel manufacturing. The production floor was accessed through catwalks connecting the factory and the armory. Higgins invited visitors to the museum across these catwalks, and he also invited his workers to visit the museum on breaks to get inspired. Higgins died in 1961, leaving the museum a US$17,000 endowment. The collection today is spread throughout the museum by time period, uniting period armor with artworks depicting armor, such as paintings and sculpture. Each first Saturday of the month demonstrations of armor in various fighting styles from the collection are given, to enable visitors to better place the artifacts in historic context. The museum continues the collection's educational programs on medieval history and arms and armor, ranging from school workshops and teacher education to scholarly lectures. The Olive Higgins Prouty Research Library, founded in 1997 with an initial collection of "several thousand books on arms and armor" also remains in the collection. Federico Borromeo was an Italian cardinal and Archbishop of Milan, a prominent figure of Counter-Reformation in Italy. Federico was a hero of the plague of 1630, described in Alessandro Manzoni's historical novel, The Betrothed. He was a great patron of the arts and founded the Biblioteca Ambrosiana, one of the first free public libraries in Europe. In 1618 he added a picture gallery, donating his own considerable collection of paintings. His published works, mainly in Latin, number over 100. They show his interest in ecclesiastical archaeology, sacred painting, and collecting. Federico Borromeo was born in Milan as the second son of Giulio Cesare Borromeo, Count of Arona, and Margherita Trivulzio. The family was influential in both the secular and ecclesiastical spheres and Federico was cousin of Saint Charles Borromeo, the latter previous Archbishop of Milan and a leading figure during the Counter-Reformation. He studied in Bologna with Cardinal Gabriele Paleotti and in 1580, at the age of 16, he asked to become a Jesuit. His cousin Charles Borromeo dissuaded him and sent him to the Collegio Borromeo of Pavia where he remained for five years. In May 1585 he earned a doctorate in theology at the University of Pavia. Following the death of his cousin Charles, he was sent to Rome for higher studies, where he was strongly influenced by Philip Neri, Joseph Calasanz, Caesar Baronius and Robert Bellarmine. Federico Borromeo was created cardinal by Pope Sixtus V on 18 December 1587, at the age of only 23 years. As cardinal, he participated in the papal conclaves of 1590, 1591, 1592, 1605 and 1623 . His attendance in the first conclave of 1590 at the age of 26 made him one of the youngest Cardinals to participate in the election of a pontiff. </Text>

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<Text> :The Galleria Borghese is an art gallery in Rome, Italy, housed in the former Villa Borghese Pinciana. At the outset, the gallery building was integrated with its gardens, but nowadays the Villa Borghese gardens are considered a separate tourist attraction. The Galleria Borghese houses a substantial part of the Borghese Collection of paintings, sculpture and antiquities, begun by Cardinal Scipione Borghese, the nephew of Pope Paul V . The building was constructed by the architect Flaminio Ponzio, developing sketches by Scipione Borghese himself, who used it as a villa suburbana, a country villa at the edge of Rome. Scipione Borghese was an early patron of Bernini and an avid collector of works by Caravaggio, who is well represented in the collection by his Boy with a Basket of Fruit, St Jerome Writing, Sick Bacchus and others. Additional paintings of note include Titian's Sacred and Profane Love, Raphael's Entombment of Christ and works by Peter Paul Rubens and Federico Barocci. The Casino Borghese was erected in an area that in the seventeenth-century was outside the walls of Rome, with the closest access being the Porta del Popolo. At the origins, the villa grounds covered an area with a circumference of nearly 3 miles. The main building was designed by the Flemish architect Giovanni Vasanzio. The portico had spolia derived from the Arch of Claudius, once on the Via Flaminia. By 1644, John Evelyn described it as "an Elysium of delight" with "Fountains of sundry inventions, Groves and small Rivulets of Water". Evelyn also described the Vivarium that housed ostriches, peacocks, swans and cranes "and divers strange Beasts". Prince Marcantonio IV Borghese , who began the recasting of the park's formal garden architecture into an English landscape garden, also set out about 1775, under the guidance of the architect Antonio Asprucci, to replace the now-outdated tapestry and leather hangings and renovate the Casina, restaging the Borghese sculptures and antiquities in a thematic new ordering that celebrated the Borghese position in Rome. The rehabilitation of the much-visited villa as a genuinely public museum in the late eighteenth century was the subject of an exhibition at the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, in 2000, spurred by the Getty's acquisition of fifty-four drawings related to the project. The Bratislava City Gallery is a gallery located in Bratislava, Slovakia, in the Old Town. It is the second largest Slovak gallery of its kind. The gallery is housed at the Mirbach Palace and Palffy Palace . The gallery was founded in 1961, although the first attempts to collect works of arts began in the 19th century, when the Bratislava City Museum was established. It currently contains approximately 35,000 works of art. The Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco , comprising the de Young Museum in Golden Gate Park and the Legion of Honor in Lincoln Park, is the largest public arts institution in the city of San Francisco. FAMSF's combined attendance was 1,158,264 visitors in 2022, making it the fifth most attended art institution in the United States. Opened in 1895, the de Young is home to American art from the 17th century through today, textile arts and costumes, African art, Oceanic art, arts of the Americas, and contemporary art. Opened in 1924, the Legion of Honor showcases European painting, sculpture, and decorative arts, ancient art, graphic arts, and contemporary art in dialogue with its historical collections and Beaux-Arts style building. In total the collection holds 130,000 objects. In 1931, the two museums were informally united for the first time when Lloyd LaPage Rollins took over the directorship of the Legion of Honor and was simultaneously appointed the first director of the de Young. In 1972, under the leadership of Ian McKibbin White, the two museums were formally merged to create the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco . At that time, the permanent collections were reorganized and distinct curatorial departments were created. * 1924-1930: Cornelia B. Sage Quinton * 1931-1933: Lloyd LaPage Rollins * 1933-1939: Dr. Walter Heil * 1939-1961: Dr. Walter Heil * 1939 -1968: Thomas Carr Howe * 1970-1987: Ian Mckibbin White * 1987-2005: Harry S. Parker * 2006-2011: John E. Buchanan * 2013-2015: Colin. B Bailey * 2016-2018: Max Hollein * 2018 - Present: Thomas P. Campbell The National Gallery of Ireland houses the national collection of Irish and European art. It is located in the centre of Dublin with one entrance on Merrion Square, beside Leinster House, and another on Clare Street. It was founded in 1854 and opened its doors ten years later. The gallery has an extensive, representative collection of Irish paintings and is also notable for its Italian Baroque and Dutch masters painting. The current director is Caroline Campbell. In 1853 an exhibition, the Great Industrial Exhibition, was held on the lawns of Leinster House in Dublin. Among the most popular exhibits was a substantial display of works of art organised and underwritten by the railway magnate William Dargan. The enthusiasm of the visiting crowds demonstrated a public for art, and it was decided to establish a permanent public art collection as a lasting monument of gratitude to Dargan. The moving spirit behind the proposal was the barrister John Edward Pigot , son of David Richard Pigot, Chief Baron of the Irish Exchequer, and he became one of the first governors of the gallery. The facade of the National Gallery copies the Natural History building of the National Museum of Ireland which was already planned for the facing flank of Leinster House. The building itself was designed by Francis Fowke, based on early plans by Charles Lanyon, and was completed and opened in 1864. The gallery was not founded around an existing collection, and when the gallery opened it had just 112 paintings. In 1866 an annual purchase grant was established and by 1891 space was already limited. In 1897, the Dowager Countess of Milltown indicated her intention of donating the contents of Russborough House to the gallery. This gift included about 223 paintings, 48 pieces of sculpture, 33 engravings, much silver, furniture and a library, and prompted construction from 1899 to 1903 of what is now called the Milltown Wing, designed by Thomas Newenham Deane. At around this time Henry Vaughan left 31 watercolours by J. M. W. Turner with the requirement that they could only be exhibited in January, this to protect them from the ill-effects of sunlight. Though modern lighting technology has made this stipulation unnecessary, the gallery continues to restrict viewing of the Vaughan bequest to January and the exhibition is treated as something of an occasion. Located on the left bank of the Isere River, place Lavalette, it is known both for its collections of ancient art for its collections of modern and contemporary art. Thanks to the action of one of its curators of the interwar period , it is considered the very first museum of modern art in France. The Museum of Grenoble was founded on 16 February 1798 by Louis-Joseph Jay, well before other French provincial museums. That day, an order of the local administration detailed the creation of a museum in Grenoble, in which article 10 stipulated that << the citizen Louis-Joseph Jay is appointed curator of this museum. >> In May of that year, the Interior Minister canceled the creation of the museum but a provisional authorization was obtained in December, which became final on 3 April 1800. Beginning in 1799, while engaged in collecting works of art of the Isere Region, Jay requested a public subscription to purchase paintings and drawings. Housed in four halls of the first floor of the former bishopric from its opening on 31 December 1800, the museum had 298 works of art including 177 paintings, 80 drawings or engravings and 45 sculptures placed in the garden. Each hall had a name, the first Hall of Apollo, was devoted to French painters, the second Hall of Castor and Pollux, was devoted to Italian and French schools, the third Salon of Gladiator, had copies of the life of San Bruno by Eustache Lesueur, and the last hall was called Hall of the Venus de Medici, displaying the art of the Flemish school. A few months after its opening, the Concordat of 1801 by Napoleon Bonaparte forced the evacuation of the premises of the museum to restore them to their original purpose. The Adoration of the Magi or Adoration of the Kings or Visitation of the Wise Men is the name traditionally given to the subject in the Nativity of Jesus in art in which the three Magi, represented as kings, especially in the West, having found Jesus by following a star, lay before him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh, and worship him. It is related in the Bible by Matthew 2:11: "On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother; and they knelt down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to return to Herod, they left for their own country by another path". Christian iconography considerably expanded the bare account of the Biblical Magi described in the Gospel of Matthew . By the later Middle Ages this drew from non-canonical sources like the Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine. Artists used the expanded Christian iconography to reinforce the idea that Jesus was recognized, from his earliest infancy, as king of the earth. The adoration scene was often used to represent the Nativity, one of the most indispensable episodes in cycles of the Life of the Virgin as well as the Life of Christ. Stories throughout the Middle Ages started circulating, which speculated who exactly were the three kings who were famous for visiting the Christ child. Many people assumed that they came from somewhere in the east. Eventually it was decided that the three kings would represent the three main continents at the time; Europe, Asia, and Africa. The three names that prevailed over the centuries for the three kings were Gaspar , Melchior, and Balthasar. The prominence of this story, as well as the three kings or magi, is due to the great theological significance that the Biblical story holds, their exotic clothes and looks, as well as their great and expensive gifts. In the church calendar, the event is commemorated in Western Christianity as the Feast of the Epiphany . The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates the Adoration of the Magi on the Feast of the Nativity . The term is anglicized from the Vulgate Latin section title for this passage: A Magis adoratur. Leda and the Swan is a story and subject in art from Greek mythology in which the god Zeus, in the form of a swan, seduces or rapes Leda, a Spartan queen. According to later Greek mythology, Leda bore Helen and Polydeuces, children of Zeus, while at the same time bearing Castor and Clytemnestra, children of her husband Tyndareus, the King of Sparta. According to many versions of the story, Zeus took the form of a swan and raped Leda on the same night she slept with her husband King Tyndareus. In some versions, she laid two eggs from which the children hatched. In other versions, Helen is a daughter of Nemesis, the goddess who personified the disaster that awaited those suffering from the pride of Hubris. Especially in art, the degree of consent by Leda to the relationship seems to vary considerably; there are numerous depictions, for example by Leonardo da Vinci, that show Leda affectionately embracing the swan, as their children play. The subject was rarely seen in the large-scale sculpture of antiquity, although a representation of Leda in sculpture has been attributed in modern times to Timotheus ; small-scale sculptures survive showing both reclining and standing poses, in cameos and engraved gems, rings, and terracotta oil lamps. Thanks to the literary renditions of Ovid and Fulgentius it was a well-known myth through the Middle Ages, but emerged more prominently as a classicizing theme, with erotic overtones, in the Italian Renaissance. The historian Procopius claims, in his Secret History, that the Roman Empress Theodora acted in a reproduction of this particular myth at some point in her youth in the early sixth century CE prior to her becoming the empress. This account is heavily disputed for the biases Roman aristocrats including Procopius had towards the role of women and the reputation of actresses and sex workers at the time. The gallery opened in 1939 with much of the initial funding from the gallery coming from two bequests, one from Robert Chipperfield and another from Frederick William Smith. The gallery was damaged during World War II and repairing this damage delayed its reopening until 1946. The gallery's art collection covers six centuries of European art history, with over 5,300 works in its fine art collection. It is housed in an example of 1930s municipal architecture. The gallery holds a Designated Collection, considered of national importance. Highlights of the permanent collection include a 14th-century altarpiece by Allegretto Nuzi, of the Italian Giambattista Pittoni; the Perseus series by Burne-Jones; paintings by the Camden Town Group and The London Group; sculpture by Jacob Epstein, Auguste Rodin, Edgar Degas, Henri Gaudier Brzeska, Richard Deacon and Tony Cragg; and Richard Long photographs. In November 2012, it was announced that the gallery's opening times were likely to be significantly reduced, as part of Southampton City Council's drive to save PS20 million. On 1 April 2013, the art gallery's opening times changed to the following times: Azerbaijan National Museum of Art is the biggest art museum of Azerbaijan. It was founded in 1936 in Baku and in 1943 was named after Rustam Mustafayev, a prominent Azerbaijani scenic designer and theater artist. The museum consists of two 19th century buildings standing next to each other. The museum's total collection includes over 15,000 artworks. There are over 3,000 items in 60 rooms on permanent display. About 12,000 items are kept in storage. The museum changes the exhibits periodically so that more of these artworks can be displayed temporarily. In 1936, the Council of People's Commissars of Azerbaijan SSR decided to separate the Art department from the Azerbaijan State Museum and organized it as an independent museum. Expeditions provided the museum with the first exhibits. In addition, other exhibits were purchased. The opening ceremony of the museum's first exhibition was organized in 1937 and in 1951, the museum moved to the Baroque-style De Bour mansion built at the end of the 19th century. In 2006, the building was thoroughly reconstructed and the opening of a new exhibition took place in 2009. In 2011, the museum was declared to be of first National and then European Museum Standard , meeting international standards and criteria, as appropriate for a museum and implying high quality museum services and professional experience; this was by unanimous decision of the Council of Directors of the European Economic Chamber of Trade, Commerce and Industry - EEIG - located in Brussels. In May 2022, on International Museum Day, the Museum held a multimedia Museum Night as part of a strategic partnership with the UN to promote sustainable development. There are approximately 9,000 scientific books and monographs, catalogues, albums and other professional literature in the library of the museum. There is also a rare books collection of old publications. It is at the southern tip of Lake Maggiore, where the river Ticino starts to flow towards the Po. The main historical sight is the Abbey of San Donato, built in the 9th and 10th centuries. It houses a painting by Bernardino Zenale . </Text>

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<Text> :Bloomsbury is a district in the West End of London, part of the London Borough of Camden in England. It is considered a fashionable residential area, and is the location of numerous cultural, intellectual, and educational institutions. Bloomsbury is home of the British Museum, the largest museum in the United Kingdom, and several educational institutions, including University College London and a number of other colleges and institutes of the University of London as well as its central headquarters, the New College of the Humanities, the University of Law, the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, the British Medical Association and many others. Bloomsbury is an intellectual and literary hub for London, as home of world-known Bloomsbury Publishing, publishers of the Harry Potter series, and namesake of the Bloomsbury Group, a group of British intellectuals which included author Virginia Woolf, biographer Lytton Strachey, and economist John Maynard Keynes. Bloomsbury began to be developed in the 17th century under the Earls of Southampton, but it was primarily in the 19th century, under the Duke of Bedford, that the district was planned and built as an affluent Regency era residential area by famed developer James Burton. The district is known for its numerous garden squares, including Bloomsbury Square, Russell Square and Bedford Square. Bloomsbury's built heritage is currently protected by the designation of a conservation area and a locally based conservation committee. Despite this, there is increasing concern about a trend towards larger and less sensitive development, and the associated demolition of Victorian and Georgian buildings. The earliest record of the name, Bloomsbury, is as Blemondisberi in 1281. It is named after a member of the Blemund family who held the manor. There are older records relating to the family in London in 1201 and 1230. Their name, Blemund, derives from Blemont, a place in Vienne, in western France. At the end of the 14th century, Edward III acquired Blemond's manor, and passed it on to the Carthusian monks of the London Charterhouse. The area remained rural at this time. A museum is an institution dedicated to displaying and/or preserving culturally significant objects. Many museums have exhibitions of these objects on public display, and some have private collections that are used by researchers and specialists. Compared to a library, a museum hosts a much wider range of objects and usually focus around a specific theme such as the arts, science, natural history, local history, and other topics. Public museums that host exhibitions and interactive demonstrations are often considered to be tourist attractions, and many museums attract large numbers of visitors from outside their host country, with the most visited museums in the world regularly attracting millions of visitors annually. Since the establishment of the earliest known museum in ancient times, museums have been associated with academia and the preservation of rare items. Museums originated as private collections of interesting items, and only much later did the emphasis on educating the public take root. The English word museum comes from Latin, and is pluralized as museums . It is originally from the Ancient Greek Mouseion , which denotes a place or temple dedicated to the muses , and hence was a building set apart for study and the arts, especially the Musaeum for philosophy and research at Alexandria, built under Ptolemy I Soter about 280 BC. The purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display objects of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the study and education of the public. To city leaders, an active museum community can be seen as a gauge of the cultural or economic health of a city, and a way to increase the sophistication of its inhabitants. To museum professionals, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museum's mission, such as civil rights or environmentalism. Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithson's bequest funding the Smithsonian Institution stated that he wanted to establish an institution "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge". The British Museum Act 1963 is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It replaced the British Museum Act 1902. It was introduced by the second ministry of the Conservative Prime Minister Harold Macmillan. The Act forbids the British Museum and the Natural History Museum from disposing of their holdings, except in a small number of special circumstances. In May 2005 a judge of the High Court of England and Wales ruled that Nazi-looted Old Master artworks held at the British Museum could not be returned. This provides a simple link named "<ref text>" to the British Museum collection database record based on the a fully unique database number. In preference, <ref text> will normally be either the BM "registration number" or the BM "big number" which may vary in format for each BM department but is shown on the collection database record. Note that database numbers should be identical to the "&objectId=" parameter value in the URL of the British Museum collection database record for the item. You can check the listing by searching for any object at britishmuseum.org/research. Warning: in the unlikely event that you are embedding this template as part of the text inside an internal or external link , ensure that there is a character between this template and any start or end square brackets or the syntax may confuse the wiki parser. If you need to embed the link in a complex way then substitute the template to make the syntax explicit and avoid later confusion. This template's initial visibility currently defaults to autocollapse, meaning that if there is another collapsible item on the page , it is hidden apart from its title bar; if not, it is fully visible. In the United Kingdom, non-departmental public body is a classification applied by the Cabinet Office, Treasury, the Scottish Government, and the Northern Ireland Executive to public sector organisations that have a role in the process of national government but are not part of a government department. NDPBs carry out their work largely independently from ministers and are accountable to the public through Parliament; however, ministers are responsible for the independence, effectiveness, and efficiency of non-departmental public bodies in their portfolio. These bodies consist of boards which advise ministers on particular policy areas. They are often supported by a small secretariat from the parent department, and any expenditure is paid for by that department. These bodies usually deliver a particular public service and are overseen by a board rather than ministers. Appointments are made by ministers following the Code of Practice of the Commissioner for Public Appointments. They employ their own staff and allocate their own budgets. These bodies have jurisdiction over an area of the law. They are coordinated by His Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service, an executive agency of the Ministry of Justice, and supervised by the Administrative Justice and Tribunals Council, itself an NDPB sponsored by the Ministry of Justice. </Text>

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<Text> :Jerome , also known as Jerome of Stridon, was an early Christian priest, confessor, theologian, translator, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. He is best known for his translation of the Bible into Latin and his commentaries on the whole Bible. Jerome attempted to create a translation of the Old Testament based on a Hebrew version, rather than the Septuagint, as prior Latin Bible translations used. His list of writings is extensive. In addition to his biblical works he wrote polemical and historical essays, always from a theologian's perspective. Jerome was known for his teachings on Christian moral life, especially to those living in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome. In many cases, he focused his attention on the lives of women and identified how a woman devoted to Jesus should live her life. This focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent senatorial families. Due to his work, Jerome is recognized as a saint and Doctor of the Church by the Roman Catholic Church, and as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Lutheran Church, and the Anglican Communion. His feast day is 30 September . The Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga , also known in English as the National Museum of Ancient Art, is a Portuguese national art museum located in Lisbon. With over 40,000 items spanning a vast collection of painting, sculpture, goldware, furniture, textiles, ceramics, and prints, MNAA is one of the most visited museums in Portugal. The MNAA was founded in 1884 to display the collections of the Portuguese royal family and the National Academy of Fine Arts. It is housed in the Palacio Alvor-Pombal, a former residence of the 1st Marquis of Pombal which was expanded when it was converted into a museum. The museum's collection spans more than a millennium of art from Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas and includes notable artworks by Hieronymus Bosch, Raphael, Hans Holbein the Elder, Francisco de Zurbaran, Albrecht Durer, Domingos Sequeira, and Giambattista Tiepolo, among numerous others. The museum has its roots in the 1833 abolition of religious orders and confiscation of the monasteries in Portugal, which brought a trove of religious art and ornaments into the public sphere. At the instigation of the liberal politician Passos Manuel, the Academia de Bellas Artes was founded in 1836, and established its headquarters at the former monastery of Sao Francisco da Cidade . Although primarily dedicated to nurturing new artists, that same year, the Academia founded the Galeria Nacional de Pintura on the lower levels of the same building, as a subsidiary division to select, care for and display some of the better pieces of the expropriated monastic art then in government storage. An Academia panel selected some 540 paintings for the Galeria. Predictably, most of these were religious-oriented pieces of Portuguese origin. In the chaos and aftermath of the Portuguese Liberal Wars, some of the private art collections of ruined noble families were expropriated or found their way on to the market. Of particular significance was the painting collection of the disgraced former queen, the late Carlota Joaquina, which was acquired by the Portuguese government and given to the Academia in 1859. The former king Ferdinand II of Portugal, a connoisseur of fine arts, took an interest in the budding organization, secured its royal sponsorship and, in 1865-67, Ferdinand II made a series of substantial cash donations, giving the Galeria an independent acquisition budget, enabling it to purchase pieces on the art market. History painting is a genre in painting defined by its subject matter rather than any artistic style or specific period. History paintings depict a moment in a narrative story, most often Greek and Roman mythology and Bible stories, opposed to a specific and static subject, as in portrait, still life, and landscape painting. The term is derived from the wider senses of the word historia in Latin and histoire in French, meaning "story" or "narrative", and essentially means "story painting". Most history paintings are not of scenes from history, especially paintings from before about 1850. In modern English, "historical painting" is sometimes used to describe the painting of scenes from history in its narrower sense, especially for 19th-century art, excluding religious, mythological, and allegorical subjects, which are included in the broader term "history painting", and before the 19th century were the most common subjects for history paintings. History paintings almost always contain a number of figures, often a large number, and normally show some typical states on that is a moment in a narrative. The genre includes depictions of moments in religious narratives, above all the Life of Christ, Middle eastern culture as well as narrative scenes from mythology, and also allegorical scenes. These groups were for long the most frequently painted; works such as Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling are therefore history paintings, as are most very large paintings before the 19th century. The term covers large paintings in oil on canvas or fresco produced between the Renaissance and the late 19th century, after which the term is generally not used even for the many works that still meet the basic definition. History painting may be used interchangeably with historical painting, and was especially so used before the 20th century. Where a distinction is made, "historical painting" is the painting of scenes from secular history, whether specific episodes or generalized scenes. In the 19th century, historical painting in this sense became a distinct genre. In phrases such as "historical painting materials", "historical" means in use before about 1900, or some earlier date. Vimercate is a comune in the province of Monza and Brianza, in the Italian region of Lombardy. It is 25 kilometres from Milan and 10 kilometres from Monza. Its name derives from the Latin Vicus Mercati, which later became Vicus Mercatum and then Vimercato, the ancient form of Vimercate, used up until the 19th century. It means "market village", since Vimercate was an active trade center. The city was founded by the Romans on the banks of the river Molgora, and it originally was a Roman castrum . Unfortunately the ancient castrum did not survive to our days, since it was destroyed in the Middle Ages during the various invasions of the Italian peninsula. Yet, given that since the Roman age the city has kept on growing and evolving, several monuments and artifacts have been built over the course of history and are present to these days, starting from the ancient San Rocco Bridge, originally built by the Romans in the 3rd century, to the Collegiate church of Saint Stephen, consecrated in 1272, and the more recent Villa Gallarati Scotti of the 17th century. A hostel at the site was founded in 1052, just outside the walls of medieval Vimercate, offering refuge and assistance to travellers and pilgrims. In the first half of the 13th century Franciscan friars from the nearby monastery in Oreno, traditionally believed to have been visited by Saint Francis himself, founded the new Franciscan monastery under the "Custody of Monza". During the 13th century it increased in importance and was occupied by Lectors and Maestri. Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, meteoroids, asteroids, and comets. Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation. More generally, astronomy studies everything that originates beyond Earth's atmosphere. Cosmology is a branch of astronomy that studies the universe as a whole. Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history made methodical observations of the night sky. These include the Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Chinese, Maya, and many ancient indigenous peoples of the Americas. In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the making of calendars. Professional astronomy is split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects. This data is then analyzed using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. These two fields complement each other. Theoretical astronomy seeks to explain observational results and observations are used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy is one of the few sciences in which amateurs play an active role. This is especially true for the discovery and observation of transient events. Amateur astronomers have helped with many important discoveries, such as finding new comets. Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics with the major subdisciplines of number theory, algebra, geometry, and analysis, respectively. There is no general consensus among mathematicians about a common definition for their academic discipline. Most mathematical activity involves the discovery of properties of abstract objects and the use of pure reason to prove them. These objects consist of either abstractions from nature or--in modern mathematics--entities that are stipulated to have certain properties, called axioms. A proof consists of a succession of applications of deductive rules to already established results. These results include previously proved theorems, axioms, and--in case of abstraction from nature--some basic properties that are considered true starting points of the theory under consideration. Mathematics is essential in the natural sciences, engineering, medicine, finance, computer science, and the social sciences. Although mathematics is extensively used for modeling phenomena, the fundamental truths of mathematics are independent from any scientific experimentation. Some areas of mathematics, such as statistics and game theory, are developed in close correlation with their applications and are often grouped under applied mathematics. Other areas are developed independently from any application , but often later find practical applications. Historically, the concept of a proof and its associated mathematical rigour first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements. Since its beginning, mathematics was primarily divided into geometry and arithmetic , until the 16th and 17th centuries, when algebra and infinitesimal calculus were introduced as new fields. Since then, the interaction between mathematical innovations and scientific discoveries has led to a correlated increase in the development of both. At the end of the 19th century, the foundational crisis of mathematics led to the systematization of the axiomatic method, which heralded a dramatic increase in the number of mathematical areas and their fields of application. The contemporary Mathematics Subject Classification lists more than sixty first-level areas of mathematics. Geography is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities--not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science. Geography has been called "a bridge between natural science and social science disciplines." Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to Greek Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who may have coined the term "geographia" . The first recorded use of the word geographia was as the title of a book by Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy . This work created the so called "Ptolemaic tradition" of geography, which included "Ptolemaic cartographic theory." However, the concepts of geography date back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BCE in ancient Babylon. The history of geography as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale. Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. There have been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography, and into branches. Techniques employed can generally be broken down into quantitative and qualitative approaches, with many studies taking mixed-methods approaches. Common techniques include cartography, remote sensing, interviews, and surveys. Geography is a systematic study of the Earth , its features, and phenomena that take place on it. For something to fall into the domain of geography, it generally needs some sort of spatial component that can be placed on a map, such as coordinates, place names, or addresses. This has led to geography being associated with cartography and place names. Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the Earth's spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena, processes, and features as well as the interaction of humans and their environment. Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants, and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and their spatial patterns. </Text>

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<Text> :Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical research, genetics, and medical technology to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy, external splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing radiation, amongst others. Medicine has been practiced since prehistoric times, and for most of this time it was an art , frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a medicine man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher and physician would apply bloodletting according to the theories of humorism. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art and science . For example, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine, now known as traditional medicine or folk medicine, remain commonly used in the absence of scientific medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. Alternative treatments outside of scientific medicine with ethical, safety and efficacy concerns are termed quackery. Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word "medicine" is derived from Latin medicus, meaning "a physician". A physician, medical practitioner , medical doctor, or simply doctor is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through the study, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of disease, injury, and other physical and mental impairments. Physicians may focus their practice on certain disease categories, types of patients, and methods of treatment--known as specialities--or they may assume responsibility for the provision of continuing and comprehensive medical care to individuals, families, and communities--known as general practice. Medical practice properly requires both a detailed knowledge of the academic disciplines, such as anatomy and physiology, underlying diseases and their treatment--the science of medicine--and also a decent competence in its applied practice--the art or craft of medicine. Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are some common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion, and benevolence for their patients. Around the world the term physician refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties . This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications, rather than by the procedures of surgeons. This term is at least nine hundred years old in English: physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, gives a Middle English quotation making this contrast, from as early as 1400: "O Lord, whi is it so greet difference betwixe a cirugian and a physician." The role of the librarian has changed much over time, with the past century in particular bringing many new media and technologies into play. From the earliest libraries in the ancient world to the modern information hub, there have been keepers and disseminators of the information held in data stores. Roles and responsibilities vary widely depending on the type of library, the specialty of the librarian, and the functions needed to maintain collections and make them available to its users. The Sumerians were the first to train clerks to keep records of accounts. "Masters of the books" or "keepers of the tablets" were scribes or priests who were trained to handle the vast amount and complexity of these records. The extent of their specific duties is unknown. Sometime in the 8th century BC, Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria, created a library at his palace in Nineveh in Mesopotamia. Ashurbanipal was the first individual in history to introduce librarianship as a profession. We know of at least one "keeper of the books" who was employed to oversee the thousands of tablets on Sumerian and Babylonian materials, including literary texts; history; omens; astronomical calculations; mathematical tables; grammatical and linguistic tables; dictionaries; and commercial records and laws. All of these tablets were cataloged and arranged in logical order by subject or type, each having an identification tag. The Great Library of Alexandria, created by Ptolemy I after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, was created to house the entirety of Greek literature. It was notable for its famous librarians: Demetrius, Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Apollonius, Aristophanes, Aristarchus, and Callimachus. These scholars contributed significantly to the collection and cataloging of the wide variety of scrolls in the library's collection. Most notably, Callimachus created what is considered to be the first subject catalog of the library holdings, called the pinakes. The pinakes contained 120 scrolls arranged into ten subject classes; each class was then subdivided, listing authors alphabetically by titles. The librarians at Alexandria were considered the "custodians of learning". A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interacts. The Greek prefix "geo" means "earth" and the Greek suffix, "graphy", meaning "description", so a geographer is someone who studies the earth. The word "geography" is a Middle French word that is believed to have been first used in 1540. Although geographers are historically known as people who make maps, map making is actually the field of study of cartography, a subset of geography. Geographers do not study only the details of the natural environment or human society, but they also study the reciprocal relationship between these two. For example, they study how the natural environment contributes to human society and how human society affects the natural environment. In particular, physical geographers study the natural environment while human geographers study human society and culture. Some geographers are practitioners of GIS and are often employed by local, state, and federal government agencies as well as in the private sector by environmental and engineering firms. The paintings by Johannes Vermeer titled The Geographer and The Astronomer are both thought to represent the growing influence and rise in prominence of scientific enquiry in Europe at the time of their painting in 1668-69. Cartography is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively. What is the earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the term "map" is not well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Catalhoyuk has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE. Among the prehistoric alpine rock carvings of Mount Bego and Valcamonica , dated to the 4th millennium BCE, geometric patterns consisting of dotted rectangles and lines are widely interpreted in archaeological literature as depicting cultivated plots. Other known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan "House of the Admiral" wall painting from c. 1600 BCE, showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period . The oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, surrounded by a "bitter river" . Another depicts Babylon as being north of the center of the world. The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps from the time of Anaximander in the 6th century BCE. In the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemy's world map - the world then known to Western society . As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic. Roads were essential in the Roman world, motivating the creation of maps, called itinerarium, that portrayed the world as experienced via the roads. The Tabula Peutingeriana is the only surviving example. In ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, during the Warring States period. In the book Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Although this method of charting seems to have existed in China even before this publication and scientist, the greatest significance of the star maps by Su Song is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in printed form. He studied at the University of Padua and the University of Bologna. The earliest works by him date from the early 15th century. He took the doctorate in arts at Padua on 15 May 1409, and received a physician's license on 15 April 1411. In 1412 he stayed in Montagnana, where he wrote a number of treatises. From c. 1420/22 to 1428, the year of his death, Prosdocimus taught a wide variety of subjects at Padua. His was interested in, among other things, arithmetic, music, astronomy, and astrology; this range of interests, however, was common for a Paduan doctor of his day. He wrote the last significant treatise on the art of musical notation as practiced by the Italians. He was held in high regard long after his death: some of the non-musical treatises were reprinted in the 16th century, and Luca Pacioli ranked him alongside Euclid and Boethius. An encyclopedia or encyclopaedia is a reference work or compendium providing summaries of knowledge, either general or special, to a particular field or discipline. Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries that are arranged alphabetically by article name or by thematic categories, or else are hyperlinked and searchable. Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries. Generally speaking, encyclopedia articles focus on factual information concerning the subject named in the article's title; this is unlike dictionary entries, which focus on linguistic information about words, such as their etymology, meaning, pronunciation, use, and grammatical forms. Encyclopedias have existed for around 2,000 years and have evolved considerably during that time as regards language , size , intent , cultural perspective , authorship , readership , and the technologies available for their production and distribution . As a valued source of reliable information compiled by experts, printed versions found a prominent place in libraries, schools and other educational institutions. Indeed, the purpose of an encyclopedia is to collect knowledge disseminated around the globe; to set forth its general system to the men with whom we live, and transmit it to those who will come after us, so that the work of preceding centuries will not become useless to the centuries to come; and so that our offspring, becoming better instructed, will at the same time become more virtuous and happy, and that we should not die without having rendered a service to the human race in the future years to come. The word encyclopedia comes from the Koine Greek egkuklios paideia, transliterated enkyklios paideia, meaning 'general education' from enkyklios , meaning 'circular, recurrent, required regularly, general' and paideia , meaning 'education, rearing of a child'; together, the phrase literally translates as 'complete instruction' or 'complete knowledge'. However, the two separate words were reduced to a single word due to a scribal error by copyists of a Latin manuscript edition of Quintillian in 1470. The copyists took this phrase to be a single Greek word, enkyklopaedia, with the same meaning, and this spurious Greek word became the Neo-Latin word encyclopaedia, which in turn came into English. Because of this compounded word, fifteenth-century readers since have often, and incorrectly, thought that the Roman authors Quintillian and Pliny described an ancient genre. A book series is a sequence of books having certain characteristics in common that are formally identified together as a group. Book series can be organized in different ways, such as written by the same author, or marketed as a group by their publisher. Reprint series of public domain fiction books appeared as early as the 18th century, with the series The Poets of Great Britain Complete from Chaucer to Churchill . In 1841 the German Tauchnitz publishing firm launched the Collection of British and American Authors, a reprint series of inexpensive paperbound editions of both public domain and copyrighted fiction and nonfiction works. This book series was unique for paying living authors of the works published even though copyright protection did not exist between nations in the 19th century. Later British reprint series were to include the Routledge's Railway Library , the Oxford World's Classics , the Everyman's Library , the Penguin Classics and the Penguin English Library . </Text>

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<Text> :The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church, also referred to as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia and the Original Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language encyclopedia published in the United States designed to serve the Catholic Church. The first volume appeared in March 1907 and the last three volumes appeared in 1912, followed by a master index volume in 1914 and later supplementary volumes. It was designed "to give its readers full and authoritative information on the entire cycle of Catholic interests, action and doctrine". The Catholic Encyclopedia was published by the Robert Appleton Company , a publishing company incorporated at New York in February 1905 for the express purpose of publishing the encyclopedia. The five members of the encyclopedia's Editorial Board also served as the directors of the company. In 1912, the company's name was changed to The Encyclopedia Press. Publication of the encyclopedia's volumes was the sole business conducted by the company during the project's lifetime. The encyclopedia was designed to serve the Catholic Church, concentrating on information related to the Church and explaining matters from the Catholic point of view. It records the accomplishments of Catholics and others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits, including artists, educators, poets and scientists. While more limited in focus than other general encyclopedias, it was far broader in scope than previous efforts at comprehensive Catholic encyclopedias, which covered only internal Church affairs. It offers in-depth portrayals of historical and philosophical ideas, persons and events, from a Catholic perspective, including issues that divide Catholicism from Protestantism and other faith communities. Since the encyclopedia was first published starting in 1907 and has never been updated , many of its entries may be out of date either with respect to the wider culture or to the Catholic ecclesiastical world. In particular, it predates the creation of the Vatican City State and the Second Vatican Council , which introduced changes to Catholic practice. D. Appleton & Company was an American publishing company founded by Daniel Appleton, who opened a general store which included books. He published his first book in 1831. The company's publications gradually extended over the entire field of literature. It issued the works of contemporary scientists, including those of Herbert Spencer, John Tyndall, Thomas Huxley, Charles Darwin, and others, at reasonable prices. Medical books formed a special department, and books in the Spanish language for the South America market were a specialty which the firm made its own. In belles lettres and American history, it had a strong list of names among its authors. </Text>

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<Text> :John Murphy Farley was an Irish-American cardinal of the Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of New York from 1902 until his death in 1918, and became a cardinal in 1911. John Farley was born in Newtownhamilton, County Armagh, Ireland, to Catherine and Philip Farrelly. At age twelve, he was orphaned and went to live with his mother's family in the townland of Moyles. He received his early education under the direction of a private tutor named Hugh McGuire. He then attended St. Macartan's College in Monaghan from 1859 to 1864. Under the auspices of an uncle, Farley emigrated to the United States at the height of the Civil War in 1864. He immediately enrolled at St. John's College in New York City, graduating in 1865. He then began his studies for the priesthood at St. Joseph's Provincial Seminary in Troy. In 1866, he was sent to continue his studies at the Pontifical North American College in Rome. He was present in Rome during the whole period of the First Vatican Council. Farley was ordained a priest by Cardinal Costantino Patrizi Naro on June 11, 1870. His first assignment, following his return to New York, was as a curate at St. Peter's Church , where he remained for two years. Following the appointment of Francis McNeirny to the Diocese of Albany, in 1872 Farley became secretary to Archbishop John McCloskey, whom he had earlier met while in Rome. It was about this time that he changed the spelling of his name from "Farrelly" to "Farley". He accompanied McCloskey to the 1878 papal conclave, but they arrived after the election of Pope Leo XIII had already taken place. Farley wrote the article on Cardinal McCloskey for the Catholic Encyclopedia. The word "boy" comes from Middle English boi, boye , related to other Germanic words for boy, namely East Frisian boi and West Frisian boai . Although the exact etymology is obscure, the English and Frisian forms probably derive from an earlier Anglo-Frisian *bo-ja , a diminutive of the Germanic root *bo- , from Proto-Indo-European *bha-, *bhat- . The root is also found in Norwegian dialectal boa , and, through a reduplicated variant *bo-bo-, in Old Norse bofi, Dutch boef " knave, rogue", German Bube . Furthermore, the word may be related to Boia, an Anglo-Saxon personal name. Historically, in the United States and South Africa, "boy" was used not only for domestic servants but also more generally as a disparaging term for black men; the term implied a subservient status. Thomas Branch, an early African-American Seventh-day Adventist missionary to Nyassaland referred to the native students as "boys": There is one way by which we judge many of our present boys to be quite different from some of those who were here long ago: those that are married have their wives here with them, and build their own houses, and all are busy making their gardens. I have told all the boys that if they wished to stay here and learn, those that had wives must bring them. During an event promoting the 2017 boxing bout between Floyd Mayweather Jr. and Conor McGregor, the latter told the former to "dance for me, boy." The remarks led several boxers - including Mayweather and Andre Ward - as well as multiple commentators to accuse McGregor of racism. The Virgin of the Rocks , sometimes the Madonna of the Rocks, is the name of two paintings by the Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci, of the same subject, with a composition which is identical except for several significant details. The version generally considered the prime version, the earlier of the two, is unrestored and hangs in the Louvre in Paris. The other, which was restored between 2008 and 2010, hangs in the National Gallery, London. The works are often known as the Louvre Virgin of the Rocks and London Virgin of the Rocks respectively. The paintings are both nearly 2 metres high and are painted in oils. Both were originally painted on wooden panels, but the Louvre version has been transferred to canvas. Both paintings show the Virgin Mary and child Jesus with the infant John the Baptist and an angel Uriel, in a rocky setting which gives the paintings their usual name. The significant compositional differences are in the gaze and right hand of the angel. There are many minor ways in which the works differ, including the colours, the lighting, the flora, and the way in which sfumato has been used. Although the date of an associated commission is documented, the complete histories of the two paintings are unknown, leading to speculation about which of the two is earlier. Two further paintings are associated with the commission: side panels each containing an angel playing a musical instrument and completed by associates of Leonardo. These are both in the National Gallery, London. The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre is considered by most art historians to be the earlier of the two and dates from around 1483-1486. Most authorities agree that the work is entirely by Leonardo. It is about 8 cm taller than the London version. The first certain record of this picture dates from 1625, when it was in the French royal collection. It is generally accepted that this painting was produced to fulfill a commission of 1483 in Milan. It is hypothesised that this painting was privately sold by Leonardo and that the London version was painted at a later date to fill the commission. There are a number of other theories to explain the existence of two paintings. This painting is regarded as a perfect example of Leonardo's "sfumato" technique. The Virgin of the Rocks , sometimes the Madonna of the Rocks, is the name of two paintings by the Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci, of the same subject, with a composition which is identical except for several significant details. The version generally considered the prime version, the earlier of the two, is unrestored and hangs in the Louvre in Paris. The other, which was restored between 2008 and 2010, hangs in the National Gallery, London. The works are often known as the Louvre Virgin of the Rocks and London Virgin of the Rocks respectively. The paintings are both nearly 2 metres high and are painted in oils. Both were originally painted on wooden panels, but the Louvre version has been transferred to canvas. Both paintings show the Virgin Mary and child Jesus with the infant John the Baptist and an angel Uriel, in a rocky setting which gives the paintings their usual name. The significant compositional differences are in the gaze and right hand of the angel. There are many minor ways in which the works differ, including the colours, the lighting, the flora, and the way in which sfumato has been used. Although the date of an associated commission is documented, the complete histories of the two paintings are unknown, leading to speculation about which of the two is earlier. Two further paintings are associated with the commission: side panels each containing an angel playing a musical instrument and completed by associates of Leonardo. These are both in the National Gallery, London. The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre is considered by most art historians to be the earlier of the two and dates from around 1483-1486. Most authorities agree that the work is entirely by Leonardo. It is about 8 cm taller than the London version. The first certain record of this picture dates from 1625, when it was in the French royal collection. It is generally accepted that this painting was produced to fulfill a commission of 1483 in Milan. It is hypothesised that this painting was privately sold by Leonardo and that the London version was painted at a later date to fill the commission. There are a number of other theories to explain the existence of two paintings. This painting is regarded as a perfect example of Leonardo's "sfumato" technique. The nativity of Jesus, nativity of Christ, birth of Jesus or birth of Christ is documented in the biblical gospels of Luke and Matthew. The two accounts agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, Judaea, that his mother, Mary, was engaged to a man named Joseph, who was descended from King David and was not his biological father, and that his birth was caused by divine intervention. Most scholars do not see the two canonical gospel nativity stories as historically factual since they present clashing accounts and irreconcilable genealogies. The secular history of the time does not synchronize with the narratives of the birth and early childhood of Jesus in the two gospels. Some view the question of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than chronological timelines. The nativity is the basis for the Christian holiday of Christmas and plays a major role in the Christian liturgical year. Many Christians traditionally display small manger scenes depicting the nativity within or outside of their homes, or attend nativity plays or Christmas pageants focusing on the nativity cycle in the Bible. Elaborate nativity displays featuring life-sized statues are a tradition in many continental European countries during the Christmas season. The artistic depiction of the nativity has been an important subject for Christian artists since the 4th century. Artistic depictions of the nativity scene since the 13th century have emphasized the humility of Jesus and promoted a more tender image of him, a major change from the early "Lord and Master" image, mirroring changes in the common approaches taken by Christian pastoral ministry during the same era. Only the Gospels of Matthew and Luke offer narratives regarding the birth of Jesus. Both agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in the reign of King Herod, that his mother was named Mary and that her husband Joseph was descended from King David , and both deny Joseph's biological parenthood while treating the birth, or rather the conception, as divinely effected. </Text>

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<Text> :In art, a Madonna is a representation of Mary, either alone or with her child Jesus. These images are central icons for both the Catholic and Orthodox churches. The word is from Italian ma donna 'my lady' . The Madonna and Child type is very prevalent in Christian iconography, divided into many traditional subtypes especially in Eastern Orthodox iconography, often known after the location of a notable icon of the type, such as the Theotokos of Vladimir, Agiosoritissa, Blachernitissa, etc., or descriptive of the depicted posture, as in Hodegetria, Eleusa, etc. The term Madonna in the sense of "picture or statue of the Virgin Mary" enters English usage in the 17th century, primarily in reference to works of the Italian Renaissance. In an Eastern Orthodox context, such images are typically known as Theotokos. "Madonna" may be generally used of representations of Mary, with or without the infant Jesus, where she is the focus and central figure of the image, possibly flanked or surrounded by angels or saints. Other types of Marian imagery that have a narrative context, depicting scenes from the Life of the Virgin, e.g. the Annunciation to Mary, are not typically called "Madonna". The earliest depictions of Mary date to Early Christian art of the in 431. The Theotokos iconography as it developed in the 6th to 8th century rose to great importance in the high medieval period both in the Eastern Orthodox and in the Latin spheres. According to a tradition first recorded in the 8th century, and still strong in the Eastern Church, the iconography of images of Mary goes back to a portrait drawn from life by Luke the Evangelist, with a number of icons claimed to either represent this original icon or to be a direct copy of it. In the Western tradition, depictions of the Madonna were greatly diversified by Renaissance masters such as Duccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, Caravaggio, and Rubens , while Eastern Orthodox iconography adheres more closely to the inherited traditional types. Abrahamic religions often depict angels as benevolent celestial intermediaries between God and humanity. Other roles include protectors and guides for humans, such as guardian angels, and servants of God. Abrahamic religions describe angelic hierarchies, which vary by religion and sect. Some angels have specific names or titles . Those expelled from Heaven are called fallen angels, distinct from the heavenly host. Angels in art are often identified with bird wings, halos, and divine light. They are usually shaped like humans of extraordinary beauty, though this is not always the case--sometimes, they can be portrayed in a frightening, inhuman manner. The word angel arrives in modern English from Old English engel and the Old French angele. Both of these derive from Late Latin angelus, which in turn was borrowed from Late Greek aggelos angelos . The word's earliest form is Mycenaean a-ke-ro, attested in Linear B syllabic script. According to the Dutch linguist R. S. P. Beekes, angelos itself may be "an Oriental loan, like aggaros ." The rendering of "angelos" is the Septuagint's default translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mal'akh, denoting simply "messenger" without connoting its nature. In the Latin Vulgate, this meaning becomes bifurcated: when mal'akh or angelos is supposed to denote a human messenger, words like nuntius or legatus are applied. If the word refers to some supernatural being, the word angelus appears. Such differentiation has been taken over by later vernacular translations of the Bible, early Christian and Jewish exegetes and eventually modern scholars. A research library is a library that contains an in-depth collection of material on one or several subjects. A research library will generally include an in-depth selection of materials on a particular topic or set of topics and contain primary sources as well as secondary sources. Research libraries are established to meet research needs and, as such, are stocked with authentic materials with quality content. Research libraries are typically attached to academic or research institutions that specialize in that topic and serve members of that institution. Large university libraries are considered research libraries, and often contain many specialized branch research libraries. The libraries provide research materials for students and staff of these organizations to use and can also publish and carry literature produced by these institutions and make them available to others. Research libraries could also be accessible to members of the public who wish to gain in-depth knowledge on that particular topic. Research libraries face a unique challenge of making research materials accessible and available to patrons. They also need to ensure there are no copyright-related issues with their materials, ensure that as many materials as possible are open access, and ensure all their materials are reliably sourced. Some specialized research libraries could include those affiliated to governmental organizations which may hold documents of historical, legal or political import, or music libraries which will have books and journals on music, as well as films and recordings for musicians to access. Research libraries will generally have materials that are typically non-fiction and scholarly. These traditionally included books, periodicals, journals, newspapers, manuscripts and cassette tapes. With the advent of technology, this has evolved to include CDs, DVDs, Ebooks, audiobooks and online research catalogues. Research library collections are focused on one or more subjects or fields of study and the material available on those topics are typically more extensive and in-depth than that found in public lending libraries. Institutions such as universities may have multiple research libraries on campus, each dedicated to different faculties or subjects. Smithsonian Libraries and Archives is an institutional archives and library system comprising 21 branch libraries serving the various Smithsonian Institution museums and research centers. The Libraries and Archives serve Smithsonian Institution staff as well as the scholarly community and general public with information and reference support. Its collections number nearly 3 million volumes including 50,000 rare books and manuscripts. The Libraries' collections focus primarily on science, art, history and culture, and museology. The archives include materials documenting the history of the 19 museums and galleries, the National Zoological Park, 9 research facilities, and the people of the Smithsonian. The Smithsonian Libraries and Archives is dedicated to advancing scientific and cultural understanding as well as preserving American heritage. The organization's Book Conservation Lab and other preservation efforts work to ensure long-term access to library and archival resources. Additional efforts include educational programs for learners of all ages, hosting internships and fellowships, and participating in collaborative projects such as the Biodiversity Heritage Library and the Digital Public Library of America. The Smithsonian Libraries promotes new ideas through knowledge sharing. We play a dynamic role in advancing scientific and cultural understanding and in preserving America's heritage. Our expert staff and extensive collections are a crucial resource for research and education communities at the Smithsonian, within the United States, and around the world. The original library was founded by an Act of Congress on August 10, 1846, when the Smithsonian Institution was named a trust instrumentality of the United States. The Act created a Board of Regents for the Institution, and called for a building to house a museum with geological and mineralogical cabinets, a chemical laboratory, a gallery of art, lecture rooms, and a library. Philadelphia, commonly referred to as Philly, is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the second-most populous city in the Northeast megalopolis and Mid-Atlantic regions after New York City. Philadelphia is known for its extensive contributions to United States history, especially the American Revolution, and served as the nation's capital until 1800. It maintains contemporary influence in business and industry, culture, sports, and music. Philadelphia is the nation's sixth-most populous city with a population of 1,603,797 as of the 2020 census and is the urban core of the larger Delaware Valley , the nation's seventh-largest and one of the world's largest metropolitan regions consisting of 6.245 million residents in the metropolitan statistical area and 7.366 million residents in its combined statistical area. Philadelphia was founded in 1682 by William Penn, an English Quaker and advocate of religious freedom. The city served as the capital of the Pennsylvania Colony during the British colonial era and went on to play a historic and vital role as the central meeting place for the nation's founding fathers whose plans and actions in Philadelphia ultimately inspired the American Revolution and the nation's independence following the Revolutionary War. Philadelphia hosted the First Continental Congress in 1774, preserved the Liberty Bell, and hosted the Second Continental Congress during which the founders signed the Declaration of Independence, which historian Joseph Ellis has described as "the most potent and consequential words in American history". Once the Revolutionary War commenced, the Battle of Germantown and the siege of Fort Mifflin were fought within Philadelphia's city limits. The U.S. Constitution was later ratified in Philadelphia at the Philadelphia Convention of 1787. Philadelphia remained the nation's largest city until 1790, when it was surpassed by New York City, and it served as the nation's first capital from May 10, 1775, until December 12, 1776, and on four subsequent occasions during and following the American Revolution, including from 1790 to 1800 during the construction of the new national capital of Washington, D.C. With 18 four-year universities and colleges, Philadelphia is one of the nation's leading centers for higher education and academic research. As of 2018, the Philadelphia metropolitan area was the state's largest and nation's ninth-largest metropolitan economy with a gross metropolitan product of US$444.1 billion. The city is home to five Fortune 500 corporate headquarters as of 2022. As of 2023, metropolitan Philadelphia ranks among the top five U.S. venture capital centers, facilitated by its proximity to New York City's entrepreneurial and financial ecosystems. The Philadelphia Stock Exchange, owned by Nasdaq since 2008, is the nation's oldest stock exchange and a global leader in options trading. 30th Street Station, the city's primary rail station, is the third-busiest Amtrak hub in the nation, and the city's multimodal transport and logistics infrastructure, includes Philadelphia International Airport, and the rapidly-growing PhilaPort seaport. A migration pattern has been established from New York City to Philadelphia by residents opting for a large city with relative proximity and a lower cost of living. Philadelphia is a national cultural center, hosting more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other city in the nation. Fairmount Park, when combined with adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the same watershed, is 2,052 acres , representing one of the nation's largest and the world's 45th-largest urban park. The city is known for its arts, culture, cuisine, and colonial and Revolution-era history; in 2016, it attracted 42 million domestic tourists who spent $6.8 billion, representing $11 billion in economic impact to the city and its surrounding Pennsylvania counties. Archives contain primary source documents that have accumulated over the course of an individual or organization's lifetime, and are kept to show the function of that person or organization. Professional archivists and historians generally understand archives to be records that have been naturally and necessarily generated as a product of regular legal, commercial, administrative, or social activities. They have been metaphorically defined as "the secretions of an organism", and are distinguished from documents that have been consciously written or created to communicate a particular message to posterity. In general, archives consist of records that have been selected for permanent or long-term preservation on the grounds of their enduring cultural, historical, or evidentiary value. Archival records are normally unpublished and almost always unique, unlike books or magazines, of which many identical copies may exist. This means that archives are quite distinct from libraries with regard to their functions and organization, although archival collections can often be found within library buildings. A person who works in archives is called an archivist. The study and practice of organizing, preserving, and providing access to information and materials in archives is called archival science. The physical place of storage can be referred to as an archive , an archive , or a repository. The English word archive /'a:rkaIv/ is derived from the French archives , and in turn from Latin archium or archivum, the romanized form of the Greek arkheion . The Greek term originally referred to the home or dwelling of the Archon, a ruler or chief magistrate, in which important official state documents were filed and interpreted; from there its meaning broadened to encompass such concepts as "town hall" and "public records". The root of the Greek word is arkhe , meaning among other things "magistracy, office, government", and derived from the verb arkho , meaning "to begin, rule, govern" . The Ruth and Raymond G. Perelman Building--originally the Fidelity Mutual Life Insurance Company Building--is an annex of the Philadelphia Museum of Art containing exhibition galleries, offices, conservation labs, and the museum library. It is an Art Deco building that features cathedral-like entrances and is adorned with sculpture and gilding. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Perelman Building is located at the intersection of Pennsylvania Avenue and Fairmount Avenue, facing the Philadelphia Museum of Art's main building across Kelly Drive. Philadelphia architectural firm Zantzinger, Borie & Medary, which had collaborated on the Philadelphia Museum of Art, designed the building to be the headquarters for Fidelity Mutual Life Insurance Company. Construction began in 1926 and the building was completed in 1928. Sculptor Lee Lawrie created its decorative scheme, which features polychrome facades adorned with figures symbolizing attributes of insurance: the owl of wisdom, the dog of fidelity, the pelican of charity, the opossum of protection, and the squirrel of frugality. Fidelity Mutual Life Insurance Company occupied the building from 1927 to 1972. In 1982, it was acquired and restored by the Reliance Standard Life Insurance Company, which in turn relocated in 1999. The Philadelphia Museum of Art acquired the building in 1999 through the City of Philadelphia. In anticipation of its 125th anniversary in 2001, the museum began a capital campaign that collected $240 million in donations. In recognition of the $15 million contributed by the Perelmans, the annex was renamed the Ruth and Raymond G. Perelman Building in 2000. Gluckman Mayner Architects restored and renovated the historic building, and expanded it with a 59,000-square-foot addition. The Perelman Building opened on September 15, 2007. </Text>

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<Text> :The Digital Library Federation is a program of the Council on Library and Information Resources that brings together a consortium of college and university libraries, public libraries, museums, and related institutions with the stated mission of "advanc research, learning, social justice, and the public good through digital library technologies." It was formed in 1995. DLF's mission is to enable new research and scholarship of its members, students, scholars, lifelong learners, and the general public by developing an international network of digital libraries. DLF relies on collaboration, the expertise of its members, and a nimble, flexible, organizational structure to fulfill its mission. To achieve this mission, DLF: The Digital Library Federation was formed on May 1, 1995 by twelve academic libraries, the New York Public Library, U.S. Library of Congress, U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, and the Commission on Preservation and Access . The purpose of the organization was to create a distributed, open, digital library. In September 1995, CPA received a nine-month planning grant from IBM for $100,000 on behalf of DLF to support the preparation of a technological and policy proposal with specific guidelines for creating and maintaining a national digital library. Bologna is the capital and largest city of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy, with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different nationalities. Its metropolitan area is home to more than 1,000,000 people. It is known as the Fat City for its rich cuisine, and the Red City for its red tiled rooftops and, more recently, its leftist politics. It is also called the Learned City because it is home to the oldest university in the world. Originally Etruscan, the city has been an important urban center for centuries, first under the Etruscans , then under the Celts as Bona, later under the Romans , then again in the Middle Ages, as a free municipality and later signoria, when it was among the largest European cities by population. Famous for its towers, churches and lengthy porticoes, Bologna has a well-preserved historical centre, thanks to a careful restoration and conservation policy which began at the end of the 1970s. Home to the oldest university in continuous operation, the University of Bologna, established in AD 1088, the city has a large student population that gives it a cosmopolitan character. In 2000, it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, a UNESCO "City of Music" and became part of the Creative Cities Network. In 2021, UNESCO recognized the lengthy porticoes of the city as a World Heritage Site. Bologna is an important agricultural, industrial, financial and transport hub, where many large mechanical, electronic and food companies have their headquarters as well as one of the largest permanent trade fairs in Europe. According to recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city and the 47th European city in terms of its economic growth rate; in 2022, Il Sole 24 Ore named Bologna the best city in Italy for overall quality of life. Traces of human habitation in the area of Bologna go back to the 3rd millennium BCE, with significant settlements from about the 9th century BCE . The influence of Etruscan civilization reached the area in the 7th to 6th centuries, and the Etruscan city of Felsina was established at the site of Bologna by the end of the 6th century. By the 4th century BCE, the site was occupied by the Gaulish Boii, and it became a Roman colony and municipium with the name of Bononia in 196 BCE. During the waning years of the Western Roman Empire Bologna was repeatedly sacked by the Goths. It is in this period that legendary Bishop Petronius, according to ancient chronicles, rebuilt the ruined town and founded the basilica of Saint Stephen. Petronius is still revered as the patron saint of Bologna. The museum was founded in 1884 as the historical and archaeological museum of the Dutch province of Limburg. The name Bonnefanten Museum is derived from the French 'bons enfants' , the popular name of a former convent that housed the museum from 1951 until 1978. In 1995, the museum moved to its present location, a former industrial site named 'Ceramique'. The new building was designed by Italian architect Aldo Rossi. With its rocket-shaped cupola overlooking the river Maas, it is one of Maastricht's most prominent modern buildings. The combination of old art and contemporary art under one roof gives the Bonnefanten Museum its distinctive character. The department of old masters is located on the first floor and displays highlights of early Italian, Flemish and Dutch painting. Exhibited on the same floor is the museum's extensive collection of Medieval sculpture. The contemporary art collection is usually exhibited on the second floor and focuses on American Minimalism, Italian Arte Povera and Concept Art. The second and third floors are also used for temporary exhibitions. The collection also features video art and room-size installations by younger artists: Atelier Van Lieshout, Francis Alys, David Claerbout, Patrick Van Caeckenbergh, Roman Signer, Franz West, Pawel Althamer. Vaprio d'Adda is a comune in the Metropolitan City of Milan in the Italian region Lombardy, about 30 kilometres northeast of Milan. </Text>

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<Text> :A self-portrait is a portrait of an artist made by themselves. Although self-portraits have been made since the earliest times, it is not until the Early Renaissance in the mid-15th century that artists can be frequently identified depicting themselves as either the main subject, or as important characters in their work. With better and cheaper mirrors, and the advent of the panel portrait, many painters, sculptors and printmakers tried some form of self-portraiture. Portrait of a Man in a Turban by Jan van Eyck of 1433 may well be the earliest known panel self-portrait. He painted a separate portrait of his wife, and he belonged to the social group that had begun to commission portraits, already more common among wealthy Netherlanders than south of the Alps. The genre is venerable, but not until the Renaissance, with increased wealth and interest in the individual as a subject, did it become truly popular. By the Baroque period, most artists with an established reputation at least left drawings of themselves. Printed portraits of artists had a market, and many were self-portraits. They were also sometimes given as gifts to family and friends. If nothing else, they avoided the need to arrange for a model, and for the many professional portrait-painters, a self-portrait kept in the studio acted as a demonstration of the artist's skill for potential new clients. The unprecedented number of self-portraits by Rembrandt, both as paintings and prints, made clear the potential of the form, and must have further encouraged the trend. A self-portrait may be a portrait of the artist, or a portrait included in a larger work, including a group portrait. Many painters are said to have included depictions of specific individuals, including themselves, in painting figures in religious or other types of composition. Such paintings were not intended publicly to depict the actual persons as themselves, but the facts would have been known at the time to artist and patron, creating a talking point as well as a public test of the artist's skill. In the earliest surviving examples of medieval and Renaissance self-portraiture, historical or mythical scenes were depicted using a number of actual persons as models, often including the artist, giving the work a multiple function as portraiture, self-portraiture and history/myth painting. In these works, the artist usually appears as a face in the crowd or group, often towards the edges or corner of the work and behind the main participants. Rubens's The Four Philosophers is a good example. This culminated in the 17th century with the work of Jan de Bray. Many artistic media have been used; apart from paintings, drawings and prints have been especially important. Leda and the Swan is a story and subject in art from Greek mythology in which the god Zeus, in the form of a swan, seduces or rapes Leda, a Spartan queen. According to later Greek mythology, Leda bore Helen and Polydeuces, children of Zeus, while at the same time bearing Castor and Clytemnestra, children of her husband Tyndareus, the King of Sparta. According to many versions of the story, Zeus took the form of a swan and raped Leda on the same night she slept with her husband King Tyndareus. In some versions, she laid two eggs from which the children hatched. In other versions, Helen is a daughter of Nemesis, the goddess who personified the disaster that awaited those suffering from the pride of Hubris. Especially in art, the degree of consent by Leda to the relationship seems to vary considerably; there are numerous depictions, for example by Leonardo da Vinci, that show Leda affectionately embracing the swan, as their children play. The subject was rarely seen in the large-scale sculpture of antiquity, although a representation of Leda in sculpture has been attributed in modern times to Timotheus ; small-scale sculptures survive showing both reclining and standing poses, in cameos and engraved gems, rings, and terracotta oil lamps. Thanks to the literary renditions of Ovid and Fulgentius it was a well-known myth through the Middle Ages, but emerged more prominently as a classicizing theme, with erotic overtones, in the Italian Renaissance. The historian Procopius claims, in his Secret History, that the Roman Empress Theodora acted in a reproduction of this particular myth at some point in her youth in the early sixth century CE prior to her becoming the empress. This account is heavily disputed for the biases Roman aristocrats including Procopius had towards the role of women and the reputation of actresses and sex workers at the time. The town was in the Medjerda River valley of northern Tunisia. It was a civitas of the Roman province of Africa Proconsularis, And the town has been tentatively identified with ruins at the Oued-Melzi Wadi and the Bagrada river confluence. The Adoration of the Magi or Adoration of the Kings or Visitation of the Wise Men is the name traditionally given to the subject in the Nativity of Jesus in art in which the three Magi, represented as kings, especially in the West, having found Jesus by following a star, lay before him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh, and worship him. It is related in the Bible by Matthew 2:11: "On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother; and they knelt down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to return to Herod, they left for their own country by another path". Christian iconography considerably expanded the bare account of the Biblical Magi described in the Gospel of Matthew . By the later Middle Ages this drew from non-canonical sources like the Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine. Artists used the expanded Christian iconography to reinforce the idea that Jesus was recognized, from his earliest infancy, as king of the earth. The adoration scene was often used to represent the Nativity, one of the most indispensable episodes in cycles of the Life of the Virgin as well as the Life of Christ. Stories throughout the Middle Ages started circulating, which speculated who exactly were the three kings who were famous for visiting the Christ child. Many people assumed that they came from somewhere in the east. Eventually it was decided that the three kings would represent the three main continents at the time; Europe, Asia, and Africa. The three names that prevailed over the centuries for the three kings were Gaspar , Melchior, and Balthasar. The prominence of this story, as well as the three kings or magi, is due to the great theological significance that the Biblical story holds, their exotic clothes and looks, as well as their great and expensive gifts. In the church calendar, the event is commemorated in Western Christianity as the Feast of the Epiphany . The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates the Adoration of the Magi on the Feast of the Nativity . The term is anglicized from the Vulgate Latin section title for this passage: A Magis adoratur. An unfinished creative work is a painting, novel, musical composition, or other creative work, that has not been brought to a completed state. Its creator may have chosen not to finish it, or may have been prevented from doing so by circumstances beyond their control, such as death. Such pieces are often the subject of speculation as to what the finished piece would have been like had the creator completed the work. Sometimes artworks are finished by others and released posthumously. Unfinished works have had profound influences on their genres and have inspired others in their own projects. The term can also refer to ongoing work which could eventually be finished and is distinguishable from "incomplete work", which can be a work that was finished but is no longer in its complete form. There are many reasons that a work is not completed. Works are usually stopped when their creator dies, although some, aware of their failing health, make sure that they set up the project for completion. If the work involves other people, such as a cast of actors or the subject of a portrait, it may be halted because of their unavailability. Projects that are too grandiose might never have been finished, while others should be feasible but their creator's continual unhappiness with them leads to abandonment. Unfinished works by popular authors and artists may still be made public, sometimes in the state they were in when work was halted. Alternatively, another artist may finish the piece. In some fields work may appear unfinished, but is actually finished, such as Donatello's "non finito" technique in sculpture. It is the job of literary executors to take charge of the work of a writer after the writer's death. They must often decide what to do with incomplete work, using their own judgement if not given explicit instructions. In some cases, this can lead to something happening to the work that was not originally intended, such as the release of Franz Kafka's unfinished writings by Max Brod when Kafka had wished for them to be destroyed. These works have become iconic in Western literature. The posthumous publication of some of Ernest Hemingway's unfinished novels was met with controversy. Several books were published, but it has been suggested that it is not within the jurisdiction of Hemingway's relatives or publishers to determine whether these works should be made available to the public. For example, scholars often disapprovingly note that the version of The Garden of Eden published by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1986, though not a revision of Hemingway's original words, nonetheless omits two-thirds of the original manuscript. Salvator Mundi, Latin for Saviour of the World, is a subject in iconography depicting Christ with his right hand raised in blessing and his left hand holding an orb , known as a globus cruciger. The latter symbolizes the Earth, and the whole composition has strong eschatological undertones. The theme was made popular by Northern painters such as Jan van Eyck, Hans Memling, and Albrecht Durer. There are also several versions of the theme attributed to Titian, notably the one in the Hermitage Museum. One painting of the subject, simply titled Salvator Mundi, was attributed or reattributed to Leonardo da Vinci in 2011. This painting disappeared from 1763 until 1900 when it was acquired from Sir Charles Robinson. It was at the time thought to be a work by Leonardo's follower, Bernardino Luini, and was purchased for the Doughty House in Richmond, London by Sir Francis Cook. By this time Christ's face and hair had been extensively repainted. A photograph taken in 1912 records the work's altered appearance. In 2017, this painting sold at auction for US$450,300,000, the highest price ever paid for a painting. Doughty House is a large house on Richmond Hill in Richmond, London, England, built in the 18th century, with later additions. It has fine views down over the Thames, and both the house and gallery are Grade II listed buildings. This view from Richmond Hill is the only view in England protected by an Act of Parliament. The house was named after Elizabeth Doughty, who lived there from about 1786 and provided funds to build St Elizabeth of Portugal Church in The Vineyard, Richmond. It was the residence of the Cook baronets from when it was bought in 1849 by Francis Cook, 1st Viscount of Monserrate, and passed in his family by descent until after World War II. A 125-foot-long gallery was added in 1885 for his very important art collection. The first Lady Cook, the American suffragist Tennessee Claflin, was mistress of Doughty House from 1885 until her death. In 1870, she became the first woman, along with her sister Victoria Woodhull, to open a Wall Street brokerage firm. The house and its collection became famous when the 3rd baronet Herbert Cook wrote his catalogue of the collection in 1914, for which he commissioned art historians to help with the various schools. It was his intention to keep the collection together, but financial difficulties in the 1930s forced him to consider selling and negotiations were opened with dealers before he died in 1939. The house was damaged by bombing in the Second World War and the 4th baronet, Sir Francis Cook, who was an artist himself, moved to Jersey with 30 paintings from the collection. Awaiting the Arrival of Christopher at Doughty House, Richmond: Bishop and George Bellamy, March 1938 and Airing Curtains, The Garden, Doughty House, Richmond by Francis Ferdinand Maurice Cook are held at the Sir Francis Cook Gallery, Jersey, in the Channel Islands. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> kunya <o> Abu Salman <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Wikipedia:Vital articles/Level/4 <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> country of citizenship <o> Saudi Arabia <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> instance of <o> human <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> place of birth <o> Riyadh <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> mother <o> Fahdah bint Falah bin Sultan <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> religion or worldview <o> Islam <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> father <o> Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> given name <o> Mohammed <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> award received <o> Time 100 <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> work location <o> Riyadh <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> award received <o> Nishan-e-Pakistan <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> sibling <o> Sultan bin Salman Al Saud <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> spouse <o> Sara bint Mashhur bin Abdulaziz Al Saud <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> native language <o> Arabic <s> Mohammed bin Salman <p> educated at <o> 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<Text> :Mohammed bin Salman Al Saud , also known by his initials MBS or MbS, is Crown Prince and Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia. He is the seventh son of King Salman of Saudi Arabia and grandson of the nation's founder, King Abdulaziz. He is considered by many as the de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia. Mohammed was born as the first child of Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz and his third wife, Fahda bint Falah Al Hithlain. After obtaining a law degree from King Saud University, he was an advisor to his father. He was appointed deputy crown prince and Defence Minister after Salman became king, then promoted to crown prince in 2017. He succeeded his father as prime minister in 2022. Since his appointment as crown prince in 2017, Mohammed has introduced a series of social and economic reforms. These include regulations restricting the powers of the religious police and improving women's rights, the removal of the ban on female drivers in 2018 and weakening the male-guardianship system in 2019. His Saudi Vision 2030 program aims to reduce the Saudi economy's reliance on oil through investment in non-oil sectors including technology and tourism. Under Mohammed, Saudi Arabia began co-ordinating its energy policy with Russia and also strengthened its relations with China. Mohammed leads an authoritarian government. Those regarded as political dissidents are systematically repressed through methods including imprisonment and torture. A CIA report released in 2021 found that Mohammed had orchestrated the assassination of the Saudi Arabian activist Jamal Khashoggi. He has denied involvement in the killing. Mohammed was the architect of the Saudi-led intervention in Yemen and was involved in the escalation of the Qatar diplomatic crisis and a 2018 diplomatic spat with Canada. Between 2017 and 2019, he ordered the arrest of Saudi princes and billionaires involved in financial corruption, which reportedly led to the state's recovery of over $100 billion in assets and cash. An auction is usually a process of buying and selling goods or services by offering them up for bids, taking bids, and then selling the item to the highest bidder or buying the item from the lowest bidder. Some exceptions to this definition exist and are described in the section about different types. The branch of economic theory dealing with auction types and participants' behavior in auctions is called auction theory. The open ascending price auction is arguably the most common form of auction and has been used throughout history. Participants bid openly against one another, with each subsequent bid being higher than the previous bid. An auctioneer may announce prices, while bidders submit bids vocally or electronically. Auctions are applied for trade in diverse contexts. These contexts include antiques, paintings, rare collectibles, expensive wines, commodities, livestock, radio spectrum, used cars, real estate, online advertising, vacation packages, emission trading, and many more. Auctions have been recorded as early as 500 BC. According to Herodotus, in Babylon, auctions of women for marriage were held annually. The auctions began with the woman the auctioneer considered to be the most beautiful and progressed to the least beautiful. It was considered illegal to allow a daughter to be sold outside of the auction method. Attractive maidens were offered in a forward auction to determine the price to be paid by a swain, while unattractive maidens required a reverse auction to determine the price to be paid to a swain. Diplomatic rank is a system of professional and social rank used in the world of diplomacy and international relations. A diplomat's rank determines many ceremonial details, such as the order of precedence at official processions, table seatings at state dinners, the person to whom diplomatic credentials should be presented, and the title by which the diplomat should be addressed. The body of diplomats accredited to a country form the diplomatic corps. Ambassadors have precedence over charges, and precedence within each rank is determined by the date on which diplomatic credentials were presented. The longest-serving ambassador is the dean of the diplomatic corps, who speaks for the entire diplomatic corps on matters of diplomatic privilege and protocol. In many Catholic countries, the papal nuncio is always considered the dean of the diplomatic corps. The rank of envoy was short for "envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary", and was more commonly known as "minister". For example, the "envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary of the United States to the French Empire" was known as the "United States Minister to France" and addressed as "Monsieur le Ministre". An Ambassador was regarded as the personal representative of his sovereign as well as his government. Only major monarchies would exchange Ambassadors with each other, while smaller monarchies and republics only sent Ministers. Because of diplomatic reciprocity, Great Powers would only send a minister to a smaller monarchy or a republic. For example, in the waning years of the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom sent an ambassador to Paris, while Sweden-Norway and the United States sent ministers. A title is one or more words used before or after a person's name, in certain contexts. It may signify either generation, an official position, or a professional or academic qualification. In some languages, titles may be inserted between the first and last name . Some titles are hereditary. Some people object to the usage of titles to denote marital status, age or gender. In 2018, a campaign named GoTitleFree was launched to encourage businesses to stop requesting, storing and using marital status titles in their registration forms, and when speaking with customers, launched on the grounds that titles often lead to assumptions about a woman's age or availability for marriage, and exclude non-binary people. This is in line with established practice advocated by the World Wide Web Consortium and the Government Digital Service which sets the standard for UK government online services. This in turn means that titles are optional on UK passports and driving licences. In the United Kingdom, "Lord" and "Lady" are used as titles for members of the nobility. Unlike titles such as "Mr" and "Mrs", they are not used before first names except in certain circumstances, for example as courtesy titles for younger sons, etc., of peers. In Scotland "Lord of Parliament" and "Lady of Parliament" are the equivalents of Baron and Baroness in England. In North America, several jurisdictions restrict the use of some professional titles to those individuals holding a valid and recognised license to practice. Individuals not authorised to use these reserved titles may be fined or jailed. Protected titles are often reserved to those professions that require a bachelor's degree or higher and a state, provincial, or national license. The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961 is an international treaty that defines a framework for diplomatic relations between independent countries. Its aim is to facilitate "the development of friendly relations" among governments through a uniform set of practices and principles; most notably, it codifies the longstanding custom of diplomatic immunity, in which diplomatic missions are granted privileges that enable diplomats to perform their functions without fear of coercion or harassment by the host country. The Vienna Convention is a cornerstone of modern international relations and international law and is almost universally ratified and observed; it is considered one of the most successful legal instruments drafted under the United Nations. Throughout the history of sovereign states, diplomats have enjoyed a special status. Their function to negotiate agreements between states demands certain special privileges. An envoy from another nation is traditionally treated as a guest, their communications with their home nation treated as confidential, and their freedom from coercion and subjugation by the host nation treated as essential. The first attempt to codify diplomatic immunity into diplomatic law occurred with the Congress of Vienna in 1815. This was followed much later by the Convention regarding Diplomatic Officers . The present treaty on the treatment of diplomats was the outcome of a draft by the International Law Commission. The treaty was adopted on 18 April 1961, by the United Nations Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse and Immunities held in Vienna, Austria, and first implemented on 24 April 1964. The same Conference also adopted the Optional Protocol concerning Acquisition of Nationality, the Optional Protocol concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes, the Final Act and four resolutions annexed to that Act. One notable aspect which arose from the 1961 treaty was the establishment of the Holy See's diplomatic immunity status with other nations. A diplomatic mission or foreign mission is a group of people from a state or organization present in another state to represent the sending state or organization officially in the receiving or host state. In practice, the phrase usually denotes an embassy or high commission, which is the main office of a country's diplomatic representatives to another country; it is usually, but not necessarily, based in the receiving state's capital city. Consulates, on the other hand, are smaller diplomatic missions that are normally located in major cities of the receiving state . As well as being a diplomatic mission to the country in which it is situated, an embassy may also be a nonresident permanent mission to one or more other countries. The term embassy is sometimes used interchangeably with chancery, the physical office or site of a diplomatic mission. Consequently, the terms "embassy residence" and "embassy office" are used to distinguish between the ambassador's residence and the chancery. The head of an embassy is known as an ambassador or high commissioner. The term embassy is commonly used also as a section of a building in which the work of the diplomatic mission is carried out, but strictly speaking, it is the diplomatic delegation itself that is the embassy, while the office space and the diplomatic work done is called the chancery. Therefore, the embassy operates in the chancery. The members of a diplomatic mission can reside within or outside the building that holds the mission's chancery, and their private residences enjoy the same rights as the premises of the mission as regards inviolability and protection. In diplomatic usage, head of mission or chief of mission from the French "chef de mission diplomatique" is the head of a diplomatic representation, such as an ambassador, high commissioner, nuncio, charge d'affaires, permanent representative, and sometimes to a consul-general. Depending on the context, it may also refer to the heads of certain international organizations' representative offices. Certain other titles or usages that would qualify as a head of mission or equivalent also exist. While they are primarily referred to by the other titles mentioned above, it is common for the diplomatic corps of a country to use deputy head of mission or deputy chief of mission as the primary title for the second in command of a diplomatic mission. In diplomatic missions and foreign services where ambassadors may be political appointees rather than career diplomats, the deputy chief of mission may be the senior career foreign service professional and generally understood to be more than a "deputy." Heads of offices of international organizations below this diplomatic rank who are that organization's senior official in country, such as a project manager, and of private sector organizations and firms are commonly called "chiefs of party" to distinguish them from "chiefs of mission." The diplomatic corps may, in certain contexts, refer to the collection of accredited heads of mission who represent their countries in another state or country. As a body, they usually only assemble to attend state functions like a coronation, inauguration, national day or State Opening of Parliament, depending on local custom. They may also assemble in the royal or presidential palace to give their own head of state's New Year greeting to the head of state of the country in which they are based. The term is sometimes confused with the collective body of diplomats from a particular country--the proper term for which is diplomatic service. The diplomatic corps is not always given any formal recognition by its host country, but can be referenced by official orders of precedence. In many countries, and especially in Africa, the heads and the foreign members of the country offices of major international organizations are considered members--and granted the rights and privileges--of the diplomatic corps. In most countries, the longest-serving ambassador to a country is given the title Doyen of the Diplomatic Corps . The doyen is often accorded a high position in the order of precedence. In New Zealand, for example, the doyen takes precedence over figures such as the deputy prime minister and former governors-general. </Text>

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Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Emanuel Miřiovský <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> Emanuel Miřiovský <p> occupation <o> critic <s> Emanuel Miřiovský <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Emanuel Miřiovský <p> given name <o> Emanuel <s> Emanuel Miřiovský <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Emanuel Miřiovský <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Emanuel Miřiovský <s> Emanuel Miřiovský <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> copyright status as a creator <o> copyrights on works have expired <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> instance of <o> human <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> German <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> military rank <o> general <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> field of work <o> visual arts <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> field of work <o> military affairs <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> field of work <o> cartography <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> occupation <o> military personnel <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> occupation <o> military officer <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> family <o> Salomons of Friedberg <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> described by source <o> Riegrův slovník naučný <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> described by source <o> Ze zašlých dob <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> relative <o> Mořic Fialka <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> given name <o> Emanuel <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> described by source <o> Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> country of citizenship <o> Cisleithania <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> occupation <o> painter <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> Emanuel Salomon Friedberg-Mírohorský <p> award received <o> Order of the Iron Crown </Graph>

<Text> :A plenipotentiary is a diplomat who has full powers--authorization to sign a treaty or convention on behalf of a sovereign. When used as a noun more generally, the word can also refer to any person who has full powers. As an adjective, it describes something which confers full powers, such as an edict or an assignment. Before the era of rapid international transport or essentially instantaneous communication , diplomatic mission chiefs were granted full powers to represent their government in negotiations with their host nation. Conventionally, any representations made or agreements reached with a plenipotentiary would be recognized and complied with by their government. Historically, the common generic term for high diplomats of the crown or state was minister. It therefore became customary to style the chiefs of full ranking missions as Minister Plenipotentiary. This position was roughly equivalent to the modern Ambassador, a term that historically was reserved mainly for missions between the great powers and also relating to the dogal state of Venice. Permanent missions at a bilateral level were chiefly limited to relations between large, neighboring or closely allied powers, rarely to the very numerous small principalities, hardly worth the expense. Diplomatic missions were dispatched for specific tasks, such as negotiating a treaty bilaterally, or via a conference of plenipotentiaries, such as the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire. In such cases, it was normal to send a representative minister empowered to cast votes. For example, in the Peace Treaty of Versailles , ending the American Revolution, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and John Jay were named "minister plenipotentiary of the United States" to the Netherlands, France and Spain, respectively. An envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary, usually known as a minister, was a diplomatic head of mission who was ranked below ambassador. A diplomatic mission headed by an envoy was known as a legation rather than an embassy. Under the system of diplomatic ranks established by the Congress of Vienna , an envoy was a diplomat of the second class who had plenipotentiary powers, i.e., full authority to represent the government. However, envoys did not serve as the personal representative of their country's head of state. Until the first decades of the 20th century, most diplomatic missions were legations headed by diplomats of the envoy rank. Ambassadors were only exchanged between great powers, close allies, and related monarchies. After World War II it was no longer considered acceptable to treat some nations as inferior to others, given the United Nations doctrine of equality of sovereign states. The rank of envoy gradually became obsolete as countries upgraded their relations to the ambassadorial rank. The envoy rank still existed in 1961, when the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations was signed, but it did not outlive the decade. The last remaining American legations, in the Warsaw Pact countries of Bulgaria and Hungary, were upgraded to embassies in 1966. In popular parlance, an envoy can mean a diplomat of any rank. Moreover, the rank of envoy should not be confused with the position of Special Envoy, which is a relatively modern invention, appointed for a specific purpose rather than for bilateral diplomacy, and may be held by a person of any diplomatic rank or none . The minister plenipotentiary represents the Caribbean countries Aruba, Curacao and Sint Maarten in the Netherlands, where they form part of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom. An ambassador is an official envoy, especially a high-ranking diplomat who represents a state and is usually accredited to another sovereign state or to an international organization as the resident representative of their own government or sovereign or appointed for a special and often temporary diplomatic assignment. The word is also used informally for people who are known, without national appointment, to represent certain professions, activities, and fields of endeavor, such as sales. An ambassador is the ranking government representative stationed in a foreign capital or country. The host country typically allows the ambassador control of specific territory called an embassy, whose territory, staff, and vehicles are generally afforded diplomatic immunity in the host country. Under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, an ambassador has the highest diplomatic rank. Countries may choose to maintain diplomatic relations at a lower level by appointing a charge d'affaires in place of an ambassador. The foreign government to which an ambassador is assigned must first approve the person. In some cases, the foreign government might reverse its approval by declaring the diplomat a persona non grata, i.e. an unacceptable person. This kind of declaration usually results in recalling the ambassador to their home nation. In accordance with the Congress of Vienna of 1815 and the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the ambassador and embassy staff are granted diplomatic immunity and personal safety while living abroad. Due to the advent of modern technologies, today's world is a much smaller place in relative terms. With this in mind, it is considered important that the nations of the world have at least a small staff living in foreign capitals in order to aid travelers and visitors from their home nation. As an officer of the foreign service, an ambassador is expected to protect the citizens of their home country in the host country. Otakar Hostinsky - 19 January 1910, Prague) was a Czech historian, musicologist, and professor of musical aesthetics. He is known primarily for his support of composer Bedrich Smetana and his contributions to Czech aesthetic theory, which influenced many cultural figures in early twentieth-century Prague, including Zdenek Nejedly, Otakar Zich, and Vladimir Helfert. He also wrote the opera librettos to Zdenek Fibich's masterpiece, The Bride of Messina, and Josef Rozkosny's Cinderella. Born in Czech Republic, Otakar Hostinsky studied in Munich and Prague, obtaining his doctorate in 1869. Hostinsky worked as a journalist and an editor before working as a tutor for noble families for a few years. Josef Pekar was a prominent Czech historian of the turn of 19th and 20th century, professor and rector of Charles University in Prague. After graduating at high school in Mlada Boleslav, which now bears his name, Pekar studied history in Prague. He started the career of historian already during studies, when his article, published in 1890 in Tomas Garrigue Masaryk's magazine Athenaeum, proved by historical findings, that so called "Manuscript of Kraluv Dvur" , allegedly from the 13th century, whose authenticity has long led disputes in the Czech society, is a counterfeit. Pekar graduated in 1893 by the work Nominantions of the King Ottokar II for the German throne about personal struggle of Premysl Ottokar II for the imperial throne in the years 1272-1273. After studies, Pekar spent one year at universities in Erlangen and Berlin, then, he taught for shorter time at the secondary school in Mlada Boleslav and Prague. In 1895, he became the founder of Czech historical magazine, which lead after for thirty years. In 1897, he wrote The History of the Wallenstein conspiracy and the same year, he declined sharply an anti-Czech article of German historian Theodor Mommsen, proving the importance of Czech culture for Europe; his answer was published again several times and translated into many languages. From that time, Pekar has become well recognized authority among central European historians. In 1901, Pekar was appointed professor of Charles university in Prague. In 1903, in the work The Oldest Czech Chronicle, Pekar proved, that so called Kristian's legend , which origin was placed in the 13th century by Josef Dobrovsky comes really already from the 10th century . Anton Gindely was a Bohemian historian, a son of a Hungarian German father and a Czech mother, born in Prague. As a distinguished historian, Gindely has left number of valuable historical works, written in German and Bohemian. The development of Gindely's perspective on Bohemian history reflected his different personal trajectories through the tumultuous events that happened during the first half of 19th century. He studied in Prague and in Olomouc, and, after travelling extensively in search of historical material, became professor of history at the German Charles-Ferdinand University of Prague and archivist for Bohemia in 1862. During the same time, Gindely was entrusted with the control of the library of Prince George Lobkowitz, which brought him in close connection with the literary interests of the leading families of the Bohemian nobility. He principally occupied himself during the final years of Bohemian independence. He died in Prague. Gindely's chief work is his Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges , which has been translated into English ; and his historical work is mainly concerned with the period of the Thirty Years' War. 'Unity of the brethren' was one of his focused areas, which was evolved out of a more radical Hussite Movement. This was included a two volume "History of the Bohemian Brethren" . He wrote a history of Gabriel Bethlen in Hungarian, and edited the Monumenta historiae Bohemica. Gindely's posthumous work, Geschichte der Gegenreformation in Bohmen, was edited by T. Tupetz . Emanuel Salomon von Friedberg-Mirohorsky was a Czech painter, illustrator, translator, author and officer in the Austrian Army. He was also an advocate of vegetarianism and abstinence. "Mirohorsky" was an artistic pseudonym that means the same thing as "Friedberg" in Czech. He was born to a well-known family Salomons of Friedberg. In 1837, he began taking drawing lessons at the local grammar school that were organized by Frantisek Tkadlik and Antonin Manes from the Academy of Fine Arts. In 1840 he became a student of the Theresian Military Academy, where was one of the teachers was his uncle Moric Fialka , an army officer and journalist, who had a great influence on Emanuel. He completed his studies in 1847 and returned to Prague, where he joined the 28th Infantry Regiment. In 1848, when the Revolutions began, his regiment fought under the command of Field Marshal Radetzky at the Battle of Custova. Furthermore, he participated in the suppression of the revolution in Vienna and then in Hungary. For the bravery in the Battle of Kapolna received, 27 February 1849, Military Merit Cross. In the Austro-Prussian War, he served as chief of general staff in Verona and headed the negotiations with the Italian General, Enrico Cialdini, whose troops had illegally crossed the border, in 1866. After that, he was transferred to General Headquarters in Zadar. </Text>

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<Text> :Emil Hermann was a prominent dealer and restorer of violins in New York City. Nearly all of the most famous instruments passed through his hands at one time or another in his career, including literally hundreds made by Antonio Stradivari, Jacob Stainer, and the Amati and Guarneri families. He taught and employed later influential figures in the violin trade such as Simone Sacconi and Hans Weisshaar. Vaclav Karel Bedrich Zenger was a Czech physicist, meteorologist, professor and rector of the Czech Technical University in Prague. Zenger was born on 17 December 1830 in Chomutov. He was born into the family of a military physician. He attended secondary school in Hradec Kralove, Prague and Caslav, then the Cistercian grammar school in Nemecky Brod, the German grammar school in Mala Strana and the Piarist grammar school in Prague. After studying philosophy for two years at Charles University in Prague, he enrolled at the Faculty of Law in 1848 to pursue a diplomatic career. In his fourth year of study, however, Zenger began attending lectures in mathematics and physics at the Faculty of Philosophy in addition to the law lectures. Over time, his interest in these lectures took over. He became a pupil and, in the last year and a half of his studies, a private and freelance assistant to the physicist Frantisek Adam Petrina . Zenger studied mainly mathematics with Wilhelm Matzek and Josef Ladislav Jandera , astronomy with Karel Kreil and, after leaving for Vienna in 1851, with Joseph Georg Bohm . In the summer semester of 1850/51 he attended Jan Evangelista Purkyne's lectures entitled "Cosmology", which aroused in him a great interest in astronomical questions, so that he began to participate in the work at the Clementinum Observatory under Bohm's direction. In particular, he assisted with magnetic and meteorological observations. His interest in astronomy and meteorology accompanied him throughout his life. Bayer was born in Chotebor where his father was a notary. His brother Karel Bayer became a prominent professor of surgery. He went to the local school before going in 1874 to the Prague Gymnasium. In 1882 he joined the German University in Prague to study law but moved to the Czech University in Prague two years later to graduate in the natural sciences in 1888. He worked as an assistant to Ladislav Josef Celakovsky at the museum and in 1889 he wrote a dissertation on the lichens of Bohemia and received a doctorate in 1891. He joined the Museum of the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1892 under There he graduated in natural sciences, which he finished in 1888. He then worked for three years as a paid assistant in the botanical department of the Museum of the Kingdom of Bohemia under Antonin Fric. He also taught botany at the Czech University along with Celakovsky. In 1918 he became a director of the botanical department of the museum. </Text>

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<Text> : A national museum can be a museum maintained and funded by a national government. In many countries it denotes a museum run by the central government, while other museums are run by regional or local governments. In the United States, most national museums are privately funded and operated, but have been designated by Congress as national institutions that are important to the country. In other countries a much greater number of museums are run by the central government. The King's Library was one of the most important collections of books and pamphlets of the Age of Enlightenment. Assembled by George III , this scholarly library of over 65,000 volumes was subsequently given to the British nation by his son, George IV. It was housed in a specially built gallery in the British Museum from 1827 to 1997 and now forms part of the British Library. The term "King's Library" was until recently also used to refer to the gallery in the British Museum built for the collection, which is now called the "Enlightenment Gallery" and displays a wide range of objects relating to the Enlightenment. When George III became king in 1760 he did not inherit a library of any size, as George II had given the Old Royal Library, including today's Royal manuscripts, to the British Museum three years earlier. As a learned man, George III had a genuine regard for learning, developed under the influence of his tutor the Earl of Bute. On becoming king he quickly began assembling a new collection of mainly scholarly works, the project beginning in earnest in 1762-1763 with the purchase of the library of Joseph Smith. Smith had been collecting in Venice for several decades, acquiring books from a range of sources in north Italy and also buying through the international book trade. The collection was notable for its 260 incunabula, including many early Venetian and north Italian volumes with fine illumination and bindings. In total the king bought 6,000 volumes from Smith. These were not kept together in George III's library, but nevertheless can be identified by the word "Smith" marked in each volume by the king's librarian. There do not seem to have been any further large purchases before 1766, perhaps because the library's staff were occupied with organising the books acquired from Smith. However, from 1766 onwards the king began to develop the collection significantly, spending an average of perhaps PS1,500 per year on books for the rest of his reign. A particularly important period was 1768-1771, when Frederick Augusta Barnard, one of the library staff, travelled extensively in Europe on the king's behalf, and made major purchases. Important acquisitions later came from the libraries of James West, Anthony Askew, Richard Farmer and Grimur Jonsson Thorkelin as each of these came on the market. Significant donations to the library included 27 incunabula given by Jacob Bryant in 1782. The acquisition of further titles continued in the last years of the king's reign, when due to his mental illness his affairs were managed by trustees. The library was kept at the Queen's House, the residence later to be extended and renamed Buckingham Palace. There it occupied four specially built rooms. From at least the 1770s bookbinding was carried out on the premises, and by 1776 the bindery occupied five rooms in the basement. The library style of binding can be described as 'fine, but not extravagant'. Richard Dalton, employed as a librarian by George III from 1755 onwards, was in charge of the collection until 1774. He was followed by Barnard, who was chief librarian until the collection's transfer to the British Museum. It seems unlikely that Dalton had any major influence over the way the collection was to develop, but that Barnard played a central role, for instance making many, or perhaps most, of the decisions about what books to buy. Samuel Johnson also advised on the library's collection policy. The library was open to anyone with a genuine scholarly purpose, and in George's lifetime was visited by John Adams and Joseph Priestley as well as Johnson. It is noteworthy that the king allowed scholars such as Priestley, whose political and religious opinions he disagreed with, to use the library. The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present. The British Museum was the first public national museum to cover all fields of knowledge. The museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the Anglo-Irish physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane. It first opened to the public in 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. The museum's expansion over the following 250 years was largely a result of British colonisation and resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, or independent spin-offs, the first being the Natural History Museum in 1881. The right to ownership of some of its most well-known acquisitions, notably the Greek Elgin Marbles and the Egyptian Rosetta Stone, is subject to long-term disputes and repatriation claims. In 1973, the British Library Act 1972 detached the library department from the British Museum, but it continued to host the now separated British Library in the same Reading Room and building as the museum until 1997. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, and as with all national museums in the UK it charges no admission fee, except for loan exhibitions. Although today principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities, the British Museum was founded as a "universal museum". Its foundations lie in the will of the Anglo-Irish physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane , a London-based doctor and scientist from Ulster. During the course of his lifetime, and particularly after he married the widow of a wealthy Jamaican planter, Sloane gathered a large collection of curiosities, and not wishing to see his collection broken up after death, he bequeathed it to King George II, for the nation, for a sum of PS20,000. The British Museum Department of Coins and Medals is a department of the British Museum involving the collection, research and exhibition of numismatics, and comprising the largest library of numismatic artefacts in the United Kingdom, including almost one million coins, medals, tokens and other related objects. The collection spans the history of coinage from its origins in the 7th century BC to the present day, and is representative of both Eastern and Western numismatic traditions. Numismatics constituted an important part of the 1753 bequest of Sir Hans Sloane which formed the British Museum's original collection, comprising some 20,000 objects. The collection was incorporated into the Department of Antiquities in 1807, before the establishment of a separate Coins and Medals department in 1860-1. As in other parts of the museum, the department has been able to expand its collection by purchase, donation and bequest. The department has benefited from the munificence of collectors such as Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode, Sarah Banks, Edward Hawkins, Sir Alexander Cunningham and George Bleazby. A significant strength of the collection are British coins from all ages, which have benefited from the ancient law of Treasure Trove. This has enabled the museum to purchase important hoards of gold and silver coins, many of which were buried during periods of crisis or upheaval. There are approximately 9,000 coins, medals and banknotes on display around the British Museum. More than half of these can be found in the Citi Money Gallery , while the remainder form part of the permanent displays throughout the museum. Items from the full collection can be seen by the general public in the Study Room by appointment. In addition to being numismatists, staff of the department have also been distinguished linguists, historians, archaeologists, art historians, classicists, medievalists, orientalists, and authors: The Department of the Middle East , numbering some 330,000 works, forms a significant part of the collections of the British Museum, and the world's largest collection of Mesopotamian antiquities outside Iraq. The collections represent the civilisations of the ancient Near East and its adjacent areas. These cover Mesopotamia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Caucasus, parts of Central Asia, Syria, the Holy Land and Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean from the prehistoric period and include objects from the beginning of Islam in the 7th century. A collection of immense importance, the holdings of Assyrian, Babylonian and Sumerian antiquities are among the most comprehensive in the world with entire suites of rooms panelled in alabaster bas-reliefs from Assyrian palaces at Nimrud, Nineveh and Khorsabad. Only the Middle East collections of the Louvre and the Pergamon Museum rival it in the range and quality of artefacts. The first significant addition of Mesopotamian objects was from the collection of Claudius James Rich in 1825. The collection was later dramatically enlarged by the excavations of A. H. Layard at the Assyrian sites of Nimrud and Nineveh between 1845 and 1851. At Nimrud, Layard discovered the North-West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, as well as three other palaces and various temples. He later uncovered the Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh with 'no less than seventy-one halls'. As a result, a large numbers of Lamassu's, bas-reliefs, stelae, including the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, were brought to the British Museum. Layard's work was continued by his assistant, Hormuzd Rassam and in 1852-1854 he went on to discover the North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh with many magnificent reliefs, including the famous Royal Lion Hunt scenes. He also discovered the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal, a large collection of cuneiform tablets of enormous importance that today number around 130,000 pieces. W. K. Loftus excavated in Nimrud between 1850 and 1855 and found a remarkable hoard of ivories in the Burnt Palace. Between 1878 and 1882 Rassam greatly improved the museum's holdings with exquisite objects including the Cyrus Cylinder from Babylon, the bronze gates from Balawat, important objects from Sippar, and a fine collection of Urartian bronzes from Toprakkale. The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present. The British Museum was the first public national museum to cover all fields of knowledge. The museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the Anglo-Irish physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane. It first opened to the public in 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. The museum's expansion over the following 250 years was largely a result of British colonisation and resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, or independent spin-offs, the first being the Natural History Museum in 1881. The right to ownership of some of its most well-known acquisitions, notably the Greek Elgin Marbles and the Egyptian Rosetta Stone, is subject to long-term disputes and repatriation claims. In 1973, the British Library Act 1972 detached the library department from the British Museum, but it continued to host the now separated British Library in the same Reading Room and building as the museum until 1997. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, and as with all national museums in the UK it charges no admission fee, except for loan exhibitions. Although today principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities, the British Museum was founded as a "universal museum". Its foundations lie in the will of the Anglo-Irish physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane , a London-based doctor and scientist from Ulster. During the course of his lifetime, and particularly after he married the widow of a wealthy Jamaican planter, Sloane gathered a large collection of curiosities, and not wishing to see his collection broken up after death, he bequeathed it to King George II, for the nation, for a sum of PS20,000. The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present. The British Museum was the first public national museum to cover all fields of knowledge. The museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the Anglo-Irish physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane. It first opened to the public in 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. The museum's expansion over the following 250 years was largely a result of British colonisation and resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, or independent spin-offs, the first being the Natural History Museum in 1881. The right to ownership of some of its most well-known acquisitions, notably the Greek Elgin Marbles and the Egyptian Rosetta Stone, is subject to long-term disputes and repatriation claims. In 1973, the British Library Act 1972 detached the library department from the British Museum, but it continued to host the now separated British Library in the same Reading Room and building as the museum until 1997. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, and as with all national museums in the UK it charges no admission fee, except for loan exhibitions. Although today principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities, the British Museum was founded as a "universal museum". Its foundations lie in the will of the Anglo-Irish physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane , a London-based doctor and scientist from Ulster. During the course of his lifetime, and particularly after he married the widow of a wealthy Jamaican planter, Sloane gathered a large collection of curiosities, and not wishing to see his collection broken up after death, he bequeathed it to King George II, for the nation, for a sum of PS20,000. The Department of Ancient Egypt is a department forming an historic part of the British Museum, with Its more than 100,000 pieces making it the largest and most comprehensive collection of Egyptian antiquities outside the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Egyptian antiquities have formed part of the British Museum collection ever since its foundation in 1753 after receiving 160 Egyptian objects from Sir Hans Sloane. After the defeat of the French forces under Napoleon at the Battle of the Nile in 1798, the Egyptian antiquities collected were confiscated by the British army and presented to the British Museum in 1803. These works, which included the famed Rosetta Stone, were the first important group of large sculptures to be acquired by the museum. Thereafter, the UK appointed Henry Salt as consul in Egypt who amassed a huge collection of antiquities, some of which were assembled and transported with great ingenuity by the famous Italian explorer Giovanni Belzoni. Most of the antiquities Salt collected were purchased by the British Museum and the Musee du Louvre. By 1866 the collection consisted of some 10,000 objects. Antiquities from excavations started to come to the museum in the latter part of the 19th century as a result of the work of the Egypt Exploration Fund under the efforts of E.A. Wallis Budge. Over the years more than 11,000 objects came from this source, including pieces from Amarna, Bubastis and Deir el-Bahari. Other organisations and individuals also excavated and donated objects to the British Museum, including Flinders Petrie's Egypt Research Account and the British School of Archaeology in Egypt, as well as the Oxford University Expedition to Kawa and Faras in Sudan. Active support by the museum for excavations in Egypt continued to result in important acquisitions throughout the 20th century until changes in antiquities laws in Egypt led to the suspension of policies allowing finds to be exported, although divisions still continue in Sudan. The British Museum conducted its own excavations in Egypt where it received divisions of finds, including Asyut , Mostagedda and Matmar , Ashmunein and sites in Sudan such as Soba, Kawa and the Northern Dongola Reach . The size of the Egyptian collections now stand at over 110,000 objects. Accessibility is the design of products, devices, services, vehicles, or environments so as to be usable by people with disabilities. The concept of accessible design and practice of accessible development ensures both "direct access" and "indirect access" meaning compatibility with a person's assistive technology . Accessibility can be viewed as the "ability to access" and benefit from some system or entity. The concept focuses on enabling access for people with disabilities, or enabling access through the use of assistive technology; however, research and development in accessibility brings benefits to everyone. Therefore, an accessible society should eliminate digital divide or knowledge divide. Accessibility is not to be confused with usability, which is the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a specified context of use. Accessibility is also strongly related to universal design, the process of creating products that are usable by the widest possible range of people, operating within the widest possible range of situations. Universal design typically provides a single general solution that can accommodate people with disabilities as well as the rest of the population. By contrast, accessible design is focused on ensuring that there are no barriers to accessibility for all people, including those with disabilities. </Text>

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<Text> :He was the eldest of three children born to Johann Christian Herold , an impoverished actor in the German-language theater, and his partner, the actress Terezia Ringelmann. He initially studied at a piarist school, but did poorly, so he was apptenticed to a glovemaker, but did no better; being more interested in puppetry. In 1836, he was able to pass the entrance exam for the painting school at the Academy of Fine Arts, where he studied with Frantisek Tkadlik, Christian Ruben and Antonin Manes, who influenced him the most. He graduated in 1844, and became a drawing teacher for the children of aristocratic families. He eventually found a position teaching the children of Count Jindrich Chotek; living at the Count's castles in Nove Dvory and Kacina, where he stayed until 1856. While there, he made use of the castle's large library as a source for his future historical stories and illustrations. In 1863, he became one of the founding members of Umelecka beseda, a progressive cultural association; promoting literature, music and fine art. From 1868 to 1877, he occasionally worked at the Provisional Theatre, creating stage decorations; notably for The Hussite Bride, by Karel Sebor. He also did decorative work for several amateur theater companies, including those in Jaromer and Mlada Boleslav. Also from 1868, he provided illustrations for numerous magazines, such as Kvety , Svetozor, Lumir, and Zlata Praha. He also contributed articles on history, poetry, and short stories, as well as one novel; Certova krcma . Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic and the historical capital of Bohemia. On the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people. The city has a temperate oceanic climate, with relatively warm summers and chilly winters. Prague is a political, cultural, and economic hub of central Europe, with a rich history and Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architectures. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia and residence of several Holy Roman Emperors, most notably Charles IV and Rudolf II . It was an important city to the Habsburg monarchy and Austro-Hungarian Empire. The city played major roles in the Bohemian and the Protestant Reformations, the Thirty Years' War and in 20th-century history as the capital of Czechoslovakia between the World Wars and the post-war Communist era. Prague is home to a number of well-known cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence and destruction of 20th-century Europe. Main attractions include Prague Castle, Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, the Jewish Quarter, Petrin hill and Vysehrad. Since 1992, the historic center of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. </Text>

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<Text> :Ladislav Josef Celakovsky was a Czech botanist born in Prague. He was the son of writer Frantisek Ladislav Celakovsky, and father to mycologist Ladislav Frantisek Celakovsky . He took an evolutionary approach to the study of plants, alternation of generation, flower structure and other aspects. Celakovsky studied at Charles University in Prague, and from 1860 gave lectures at the National Museum in Prague. In 1880 he attained the chair of botany at the university. In 1877 he became a member of the Konigliche Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften . Celakovsky conducted extensive research involving classification of plants, particularly studies of regional flora from what is now the Czech Republic. Celakovsky was a supporter of Darwinism and took an evolutionary approach to his studies. He made important contributions on the morphology and physiology of the reproductive organs of Gymnospermae. Other major works included "On the General Evolution of the Vegetable Kingdom" , "On the Different Forms and the Meaning of the Alternation of Generations in Plants" , "The Law of Reduction in Flowers" , "The Evolution of the Flower" and "On the Relationship between the Different Methods of Morphological Research" . He described numerous new plant species, and a handful of plants are named after him including Stipa celakovskyi, Lathyrus celakovskyi and Orchis celakovskyi. </Text>

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<Text> :Martin Hattala was a Slovak pedagogue, Roman Catholic theologian and linguist. He is best known for his reform of the Stur's Slovak language, so-called Hodza-Hattala reform, in which he introduced the etymological principle to the Slovak language. Wojciech Gerson was a leading Polish painter of the mid-19th century, and one of the foremost representatives of the Polish school of Realism during the foreign Partitions of Poland. He served as long-time professor of the School of Fine Arts in Warsaw, and taught future luminaries of Polish neo-romanticism including Jozef Chelmonski, Leon Wyczolkowski, Wladyslaw Podkowinski, Jozef Pankiewicz and Anna Bilinska-Bohdanowiczowa among others. He also wrote art-reviews and published a book of anatomy for the artists. A large number of his paintings were stolen by Nazi Germany in World War II, and never recovered. Gerson was born in Warsaw during the November Uprising against the Russians. He enrolled at the School of Fine Arts in Warsaw in 1844 and graduated with honors in 1850. In 1853 Gerson received a scholarship to the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, and spent two years studying historical painting with Alexey Markov. He graduated with a silver medal in St. Petersburg and returned to Warsaw in 1855. He left for Paris in 1856 and studied under Leon Cogniet and others. Gerson came back to Poland in February 1858. He resided in Warsaw for the rest of his life, nevertheless continued to travel abroad, until the turn of the century. Gerson was a co-founder of the Fine-Arts Society "Zacheta" established in 1860. It was the first support-group of its kind in Warsaw under the foreign occupation. He began to teach art in his own workshop in 1865, and became professor at the School of Fine Arts in 1872. He trained a generation of future Polish artists there, until his retirement in 1896. Gerson introduced the outdoor landscape trips and genre studies to his students with considerable impact on the art of Jozef Chelmonski, the monumental painter with gallery named after him at Sukiennice; Leon Wyczolkowski, the leading field painter of the Young Poland movement; Antoni Piotrowski revered as far as Bulgaria for his epic war-scenes, as well as impressionist Wladyslaw Podkowinski and his contemporaries. Gerson was granted the title of academic by the St. Petersburg Fine Arts Academy in 1873 and named a professor in 1878. Gerson also worked as an architect and art critic. He is revered in Poland for his historical paintings of patriotic nature, scenes of country life, and mountain landscapes. Gerson died in Warsaw, at the age of 70, and is buried in the Evangelical Cemetery of the Augsburg Confession in Warsaw. His paintings can be seen at the National Museum, Warsaw; Upper Silesian Museum in Bytom, and in other branches of the National Museum of Poland as well as in selected churches. When he was still in high school, he joined the illegal activities of the radical democrats. He had to flee from Prague and worked in Paris and London, among the Polish emigrants. In 1847, he returned to Prague and joined the secret society Repeal. In June 1848, Repeal launched an armed struggle. Fric organized fighting on the barricades. After the defeat of the rebellion he fled to Vienna, then to Zagreb and later he joined the Slovak revolutionary army of Ludovit Stur. In Slovakia he was seriously wounded. In 1849, after an amnesty in Austria, he returned to Prague. He formed a new radical democratic organization Ceskomoravske bratrstvo . During preparations for a new rebellion he was arrested. He was sentenced to 18 years in prison in Komarno. In 1854, he was released and lived in Prague under police supervision. Barred from political activity, he joined the literary life and helped to create the almanac Maj, in which he announced a new generation of poets, with Jan Neruda as their leader. However, in 1858 he was arrested again and sent into exile in Transylvania. In 1859 he was allowed to emigrate, subsequently living in London and Paris. In exile he founded the magazines Cech and Blanik. In 1879, he was allowed to return to Prague. The new political situation for him was unintelligible, so he focused only on literature and writing memoirs. He was one of the few Czech politicians of the 19th century to demand a break from Austria-Hungary. He worked closely with the radical democrats in other countries . His most important literary work is the patriotic poem The Vampire . </Text>

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<Text> :Kral began his motorsport career in karting back in 1998, and during the following seven years he achieved notable success, winning the Czech Republic ICA Junior title in 2003 and the Czech ICA 100 Championship the following year, as well as numerous other titles. In 2006, Kral made the step up to Formula BMW, competing in the German ADAC series. Driving for Micanek Motorsport, he scored forty points during the year to be classified in twelfth place. At the end of the year, Kral switched to Josef Kaufmann Racing to contest the Formula BMW World Final, held in Valencia. He originally finished as runner-up to team-mate Christian Vietoris, but was subsequently disqualified from the race. Kral continued in Formula BMW for 2007, this time switching to the UK series with Raikkonen Robertson Racing. He scored a total of thirteen podium places in eighteen races, including six wins, to finish as runner-up to Swede Marcus Ericsson. He also took part in two Formula BMW ADAC races, taking a single podium position. Kral once again took part in the end-of-season Formula BMW World Final in Valencia, this time driving for Mucke Motorsport. Again, he finished second on the road behind team-mate Philipp Eng, but was disqualified for a technical infringement. </Text>

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<Text> :Karel Hromas is a Czech professional ice hockey left winger who is currently a free agent. He most recently played for Vipers de Montpellier of the FFHG Division 1, the second-tier hockey league in France. Hromas was selected by the Chicago Blackhawks in the 4th round of the 2004 NHL Entry Draft from HC Sparta Praha's youth setup after a productive 2003-04 season, scoring 10 goals and 10 assists in 21 games. He also made his debut for Sparta Praha's main roster during the 2003-04 season but failed to score any points in 13 games. Following his draft selection, Hromas moved to North America to play junior hockey for the Everett Silvertips of the Western Hockey League. He stayed for two seasons before returning to Sparta Praha in 2006. In 2011, Hromas joined fellow Czech Extraliga team Pirati Chomutov. In 2014, Hromas left the Czech Republic and moved to the Ligue Magnus in France, signing for Pingouins de Morzine-Avoriaz. He then moved to the United Kingdom to play in the Elite Ice Hockey League with the Edinburgh Capitals in the summer of 2016. As an born athlete also competed in gymnastic competitions in club of Sparta Prague at the age of 10 after that he started his diver career in Sport Club USK Podoli where he earned a second-place finish in the Nationals on the 1 and 3 meter boards. In European competitions he was trained by Hana Novotna. Michal's favorite dive is the triple somersault with half twist from 28 meters. Every last weekend of July and is located in the quarry of Hrimezdice in Central Bohemian Region 2002 1st place 12 and 16 meters 2003 2nd place 12 and 16 meters 2004 1st place 12 and 16 meters 2005 1st 16 meters 2006 2nd 12 meters 2007 1st place 12 and 16 meters 2009 1st place 12 and 16 meters Started with the annual Red Bull World Wide Series - Cliff Diving competition which draws hundreds of spectators to the sites around the world, watchers hold their collective breath as the competitors take off from rocks and platforms set high on cliffs at 27 or 28 meters. Results Stop 1: 5th Chile - Easter Island Results Stop 2: 5th Mexico - Yucatan Results Stop 3: 3rd Greece - Athens Results Stop 4: 2nd France- La Rochelle Results Stop 5: 3rd Italy - Polignano a Mare Results Stop 6: 12th United States - Boston Karel Stepanek was a Czech actor who spent many years in Austria and generally played German roles onscreen. In 1940 he moved to the UK and spent much of the rest of his career acting there. </Text>

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<Text> :Born in Opocno to Frantisek Alois Skuhersky, the doctor of Duke Colloredo-Mansfeld and founder of the Opocno hospital. He graduated from the Hradec Kralove gymnasium and studied philosophy and shortly medicine at Charles University. Also in Prague, he graduated from an organ school. In music, especially composing, he paid attention since childhood. He signed his first works in the pseudonym Opocensky. After his studies, he made a living by teaching people music in their homes. In the years 1854 to 1866 he was a theatre kapellmeister in Innsbruck and conductor of the town's singing choir, and later director of the University's cathedral. During this time he composed six operas, some of which premiered at Innsbruck. After the death of his wife, who gave him three children, he came back to Prague where in 1866 he became the director of a prominent organ school until he retired in 1890. This school was attended by such famous composers as Leos Janacek and Josef Bohuslav Foerster. At the same time he worked as a regenschori at a Prague cathedral, a teacher of music theory at a Czech University, and continued studying and composing Church music to the end of his life. He died in Ceske Budejovice where he is remembered by a street named after him. Josef Jirecek was a Czech scholar. He was born in Vysoke Myto . He entered the Prague bureau of education in 1850, and became minister of the department in the Hohenwart cabinet in 1871. His efforts to secure equal educational privileges for the Slav nationalities in the Austrian dominions brought him into disfavour with the German element. He became a member of the Bohemian Landtag in 1878, and of the Austrian Reichsrat in 1879. His merits as a scholar were recognized in 1875 by his election as president of the Royal Czech Society of Sciences. He died in Prague on 25 November 1888. In 1862, he and his brother Hermenegild Jirecek strove to defend the genuineness of the Koniginhof Manuscript discovered by Vaclav Hanka. He published in Czech an anthology of Czech literature , a biographical dictionary of Czech writers , a Czech hymnology, editions of Jan Blahoslav's Czech grammar and of some Czech classics, and of the works of his father-in-law Pavel Josef Safarik . This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. . "Jirecek, Josef". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vol. 15 . Cambridge University Press. p. 417. Rais was born into the family of a simple farm laborer and weaver. He studied in Jicin and Prague. In the latter one, since 1899, he was director of the citizen school in Vinohrady. During his life in Prague he kept in touch with many Czech artists, including Alois Jirasek, Zikmund Winter, Josef Vaclav Sladek, Ignat Herrmann, and Josef Thomayer. He was one of the editors of the magazine Zvon, and wrote contributions to numerous other magazines as well. He was a member of the board of the literary company Maj and the society for national education Svatobor. He was born in Siscani. He studied Slavic Studies, Classical Studies, and philosophy at the Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb since 1890, receiving a Ph.D. in 1897 with a thesis titled Rijeci muskoga roda a-osnova u hrvatskom jeziku . There, he worked as a teaching apprentice in Croatian and Serbian literature beginning in 1899, becoming a regular professor in 1906, and then serving as the dean between 1907 and 1908. In 1908, he temporarily retired, in 1910 reemployed, and, in 1921, permanently retired. He died in Zagreb in 1937. Surmin was actively involved in politics. Since 1906 he served as a parliamentarian for the Croatian People's Progressive Party, supporting the Croat-Serb Coalition until 1917. In 1914-1922 he was the city councilor of Zagreb. In the National Council of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes he belonged to the non-partisan group of politicians who rallied around the newspapers Male novine, serving as a commissioner for commerce, trade and industry. In the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes he was originally a member of the Advanced Democratic Party, then in the period 1919-1924 as member of the Croatian Community, and finally in 1925 founding the uninfluential Croatian People's Party. In 1920 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly and served as the Minister for Social Affairs, and also later as the Minister of Trade and Industry . His political activity in the 1930s was tied with the regime. He was particularly active in various economic bodies, such as being the President of the People's Bank for Savings and Loans in 1925-1935. As part of the Monumenta historico-juridica Slavorum meridionalium project he prepared a collection of medieval, predominantly Glagolitic monuments, which were published as Hrvatski spomenici . His legacy is preserved in the Croatian State Archives in Zagreb. Vaclav Spitzner was a botanist and naturalist from Austria-Hungary. He described a number of plant species from the Bohemian and Moravian regions. He examined the lichens and higher plants in a major floristic work published in 1887, Kvetena okresu prostejovskeho a plumlovskeho . He also wrote on the bugs and on geology. Spitzner was born in Beroun, Bohemia, and was educated at Slany before going to the University of Prague to study natural sciences. Influenced by Ladislav Celakovsky and Moritz Willkomm he took an interest in botany. After compulsory military service he worked as a teacher at a Czech secondary school in Prostejov until his death. In his spare time he took an interest in collecting plants, studying geology and entomology. He was a member of the Moravian naturalists society in Olomouc and founded the Natural Science Club in Prostejov . He travelled widely both within Moravia and elsewhere across Europe. His collections were held at the Prostejov Museum before it moved to the herbarium at the Masaryk University in Brno. </Text>

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<Text> :</Text>

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<Text> :Middlesex was a county in southeast England. Its area was almost entirely within the wider urbanised area of London and mostly within the ceremonial county of Greater London, with small sections in neighbouring ceremonial counties. The county's boundaries largely followed three rivers: the Thames in the south, the Lea to the east and the Colne to the west. A line of hills formed the northern boundary with Hertfordshire. Middlesex county's name derives from its origin as the Middle Saxon Province of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Essex, with the county of Middlesex subsequently formed from part of that territory in either the ninth or tenth century, and remaining an administrative unit until 1965. The county was the second smallest of the historic counties of England, after Rutland. The City of London became a county corporate in the 12th century; this gave it self-governance, and it was also able to exert political control over the rest of Middlesex as the Sheriffs of London were given jurisdiction in Middlesex, though the county otherwise remained separate. To the east of the City, the Tower Division had considerable autonomy under its own Lord Lieutenant. As built up areas of London expanded into rural Middlesex, even given the London Sheriffs' jurisdiction, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to expand the City of London boundaries into the county, posing problems for the administration of local government, public infrastructure, and justice. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the population density was especially high in the southeast of the county, including the East and West Ends of London. In 1855, in response to these challenges the densely populated southeast, together with sections of Kent and Surrey, came under the Metropolitan Board of Works for certain infrastructure purposes, while remaining a part of Middlesex. Tate is an institution that houses, in a network of four art galleries, the United Kingdom's national collection of British art, and international modern and contemporary art. It is not a government institution, but its main sponsor is the UK Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The gallery was founded in 1897 as the National Gallery of British Art. When its role was changed to include the national collection of modern art as well as the national collection of British art, in 1932, it was renamed the Tate Gallery after sugar magnate Henry Tate of Tate & Lyle, who had laid the foundations for the collection. The Tate Gallery was housed in the current building occupied by Tate Britain, which is situated in Millbank, London. In 2000, the Tate Gallery transformed itself into the current-day Tate, consisting of a network of four museums: Tate Britain, which displays the collection of British art from 1500 to the present day; Tate Modern, also in London, which houses the Tate's collection of British and international modern and contemporary art from 1900 to the present day; Tate Liverpool , which has the same purpose as Tate Modern but on a smaller scale; and Tate St Ives in Cornwall , which displays modern and contemporary art by artists who have connections with the area. All four museums share the Tate Collection. One of the Tate's most publicised art events is the awarding of the annual Turner Prize, which takes place at Tate Britain every other year . The original Tate was called the National Gallery of British Art, situated on Millbank, Pimlico, London at the site of the former Millbank Prison. The idea of a National Gallery of British Art was first proposed in the 1820s by Sir John Leicester, Baron de Tabley. It took a step nearer when Robert Vernon gave his collection to the National Gallery in 1847. A decade later John Sheepshanks gave his collection to the South Kensington Museum , known for years as the National Gallery of Art . Forty years later Sir Henry Tate who was a sugar magnate and a major collector of Victorian art, offered to fund the building of the gallery to house British Art on the condition that the State pay for the site and revenue costs. Henry Tate also donated his own collection to the gallery. It was initially a collection solely of modern British art, concentrating on the works of modern--that is Victorian era--painters. It was controlled by the National Gallery until 1954. Following the death of Sir Hugh Lane in the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915, an oversight in his will meant that the collection of European modern art he had intended to go to Dublin controversially went to the Tate instead, which expanded its collection to include foreign art and continued to acquire contemporary art. In 1926 and 1937, the art dealer and patron Joseph Duveen paid for two major expansions of the gallery building. His father had earlier paid for an extension to house the major part of the Turner Bequest, which in 1987 was transferred to a wing paid for by Sir Charles Clore. Henry Courtauld also endowed Tate with a purchase fund. By the mid 20th century, it was fulfilling a dual function of showing the history of British art as well as international modern art. In 1954, the Tate Gallery was finally separated from the National Gallery. Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangible and intangible heritage assets of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all heritages of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by society. Cultural heritage includes tangible culture , intangible culture , and natural heritage . The term is often used in connection with issues relating to the protection of indigenous intellectual property. The deliberate act of keeping cultural heritage from the present for the future is known as preservation or conservation , which cultural and historical ethnic museums and cultural centers promote, though these terms may have more specific or technical meanings in the same contexts in the other dialect. Preserved heritage has become an anchor of the global tourism industry, a major contributor of economic value to local communities. Legal protection of cultural property comprises a number of international agreements and national laws. United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International deal with the protection of cultural heritage. This also applies to the integration of United Nations peacekeeping. Hartwig Fischer is a German art historian and museum director. From April 2016 until his resignation in August 2023 in connection to an art theft scandal, he was the director of the British Museum, the first non-British head of the museum since 1866. From 2012 to 2016, he was director of the Dresden State Art Collections . Fischer was born on 14 December 1962 in Hamburg, West Germany. His father came from Mecklenburg. As a child, Fischer glimpsed art galleries while visiting relatives farther to the south, in Dresden in then-separate East Germany. He undertook postgraduate research on Hermann Prell, for which he received a doctorate degree from the University of Bonn in 1994. He is a German native speaker and fluent in English, French and Italian. Fischer began his career at the Kunstmuseum Basel, an art museum in Basel, Switzerland. There, between 2001 and 2006, he was curator of 19th-century and modern art. He became director of the Museum Folkwang in Essen in 2006 where he presided over a period of expansion. In December 2011, he was appointed director of the Dresden State Art Collections . Subsequently, he succeeded Martin Roth, after Roth left to take charge at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. On 25 September 2015, the trustees of the British Museum announced that Fischer would be the museum's next director. He is the first non-British head of the museum since the Italian Sir Anthony Panizzi stood down in 1866. He took up the appointment on 4 May 2016. The Sutton Hoo helmet is a decorated Anglo-Saxon helmet found during a 1939 excavation of the Sutton Hoo ship-burial. It was buried around the years c. 620-625 CE and is widely associated with an Anglo-Saxon leader, King Raedwald of East Anglia; its elaborate decoration may have given it a secondary function akin to a crown. The helmet was both a functional piece of armour and a decorative piece of metalwork. An iconic object from an archaeological find hailed as the "British Tutankhamen", it has become a symbol of the Early Middle Ages, "of Archaeology in general", and of England. The visage contains eyebrows, a nose, and moustache, creating the image of a man joined by a dragon's head to become a soaring dragon with outstretched wings. It was excavated as hundreds of rusted fragments; first displayed following an initial reconstruction in 1945-46, it took its present form after a second reconstruction in 1970-71. The helmet and the other artefacts from the site were determined to be the property of Edith Pretty, owner of the land on which they were found. She donated them to the British Museum, where the helmet is on permanent display in Room 41. The helmet was buried among other regalia and instruments of power as part of a furnished ship-burial, probably dating from the early seventh century. The ship had been hauled from the nearby river up the hill and lowered into a prepared trench. Inside this, the helmet was wrapped in cloths and placed to the left of the head of the body. An oval mound was constructed around the ship. Long afterwards, the chamber roof collapsed violently under the weight of the mound, compressing the ship's contents into a seam of earth. The Department of Asia in the British Museum holds one of the largest collections of historical objects from Asia. These collections comprise over 75,000 objects covering the material culture of the Asian continent , and dating from the Neolithic age up to the present day. The department's collection began with a donation from Sir Hans Sloane, which contained a small number of objects from the Asian continent, including a collection of Japanese material acquired from the family of the German traveller and physician Engelbert Kaempfer . Only a few objects were acquired from Asia between 1753 and the 1820s, but the collection expanded in the late 19th century to become one of the world's largest. This was mainly through a donation of a number of South Asian objects, such as the gilded bronze figure of Tara from Sri Lanka in 1830, the Bridge Collection of East and Central Indian sculpture in 1872, and the Amaravati Collection in 1880. The collection of Asian material was greatly expanded during the tenure of Sir Augustus Wollaston Franks as Keeper of the Department of Antiquities from 1866 to 1896, and in 1921 the Sub-Department of Oriental Antiquities was established. In 1933, the Asian collections of the Prints and Drawings Sub-Department were united with the Department of Oriental Antiquities, forming one of the most significant collections of art and antiquities of Asia in the northern hemisphere. In 2003, the Department of Oriental Antiquities and the Department of Japanese Antiquities merged to become the current Department of Asia. The Keepers of the Department of Asia include: Jessica Rawson, Robert Knox , Jan Stuart and Jane Portal . The China collection is one of the largest collections of Chinese historical artefacts in the Western world. It focuses on porcelain, paintings, scripts and basic tools, with items ranging in date from the Neolithic era to the 20th century. One of the most important items is a collection of rare Buddhist paintings from Dunhuang. China was one of the first countries to use coins, and the museum also has a large collection of Chinese coins . Objects in the South Asian collections of the Department date from some of the earliest civilisations in the Indus valley, about 7000 years ago. It includes an important collection of prehistoric material from the Nilgiri mountains in southern India . As well as ancient artefacts, the Indian collections include excellent examples of pottery, art , traditional scriptwork, and a large display of sculpture, including carvings from the Great Stupa at Amaravati. South Asia is also represented in the money collections, with a large number of coins dating back to the 4th century BC. The collection previously included some objects from the Islamic world, but these were merged with the collections of the Department of the Ancient Near East to form the Department of the Middle East. The Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary is a Russian encyclopedic dictionary originally published in 58 volumes with one supplement throughout both the Tsarist and Soviet periods. The dictionary's full title is The Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Granat Russian Bibliographical Institute . The word Granat refers to the last name of two brothers, Alexander and Ignatiy Granat , who commissioned the articles in their Moscow office . First appearing in 1910, the dictionary was finally completed in 1948. The first 33 volumes were published in 1910-17 and the remaining volumes from 1922 onwards. The dictionary's large size allowed each entry sufficient space to present relatively full information. Among the dictionary's contributors and editors were Vladimir Lenin, who wrote on Karl Marx, botanist Kliment Timiryazev, anthropologist Dmitry Anuchin, biologist Ilya Mechnikov and economist Alexander Konyus. Unlike the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, the Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary was written primarily by Russian authors. The Oxus treasure is a collection of about 180 surviving pieces of metalwork in gold and silver, most relatively small, and around 200 coins, from the Achaemenid Persian period which were found by the Oxus river about 1877-1880. The exact place and date of the find remain unclear, but is often proposed as being near Kobadiyan. It is likely that many other pieces from the hoard were melted down for bullion; early reports suggest there were originally some 1500 coins, and mention types of metalwork that are not among the surviving pieces. The metalwork is believed to date from the sixth to fourth centuries BC, but the coins show a greater range, with some of those believed to belong to the treasure coming from around 200 BC. The most likely origin for the treasure is that it belonged to a temple, where votive offerings were deposited over a long period. How it came to be deposited is unknown. As a group, the treasure is the most important survival of what was once an enormous production of Achaemenid work in precious metal. It displays a very wide range of quality of execution, with the many gold votive plaques mostly crudely executed, some perhaps by the donors themselves, while other objects are of superb quality, presumably that expected by the court. The British Museum now has nearly all the surviving metalwork, with one of the pair of griffin-headed bracelets on loan from the Victoria and Albert Museum, and displays them in Room 52. The group arrived at the museum by different routes, with many items bequeathed to the nation by Augustus Wollaston Franks. The coins are more widely dispersed, and more difficult to firmly connect with the treasure. A group believed to come from it is in the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, and other collections have examples. Achaemenid style arose rapidly with the very quick growth of the huge empire, which swallowed up the artistic centres of the ancient Near East and much of the Greek world, and mixed influences and artists from these. Although continuing influences from these sources can often be detected the Achaemenids formed a distinct style of their own. </Text>

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<Graph> : <s> Karel Jonáš <p> instance of <o> human <s> Karel Jonáš <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Karel Jonáš <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Karel Jonáš <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Karel Jonáš <p> country of citizenship <o> Austria-Hungary <s> Karel Jonáš <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Karel Jonáš <p> occupation <o> poet <s> Karel Jonáš <p> place of birth <o> Heřmanův Městec <s> Karel Jonáš <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Karel Jonáš <p> occupation <o> prose writer <s> Karel Jonáš <p> place of burial <o> Olšany Cemetery <s> Karel Jonáš <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Karel Jonáš <p> described by source <o> Ottův slovník naučný <s> Karel Jonáš <p> member of political party <o> Republican Party of Agricultural and Smallholder People <s> Karel Jonáš <p> given name <o> Karel <s> Karel Jonáš <p> position held <o> member of parliament <s> Karel Jonáš <p> occupation <o> journalist <s> Karel Jonáš <p> family name <o> Jonáš <s> Karel Jonáš <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Karel Jonáš <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Karel Jonáš (politik) <s> Karel Jonáš <p> position held <o> member of the Revolutionary National Assembly of Czechoslovakia <s> Karel Jonáš <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. 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male <s> Václav Novotný <p> occupation <o> university teacher <s> Václav Novotný <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Václav Novotný <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Václav Novotný <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. 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<Text> :Charles Jonas was a Czech American immigrant, journalist, linguist, and political activist. He was the 16th lieutenant governor of Wisconsin and served in the Wisconsin Legislature, representing Racine County. Later in life, he was an American consul general to Austria-Hungary, and the Russian and German empires. Karel Jonas was born on 24 October 1840 in Malesov house 32 to Ignac Jonas and Terezie Rubinova. He studied at what was then the Bohemian School of Science and Polytechnic Institute in Prague, as well as attending lectures at Charles University in Prague. A strong Czech nationalist and friend of Vojtech Naprstek, he fled Bohemia in 1860 after clashes with the authorities, moving via Bremen to London, where he continued to work as a journalist. In March 1863 he emigrated to Racine, Wisconsin, just south of Milwaukee ; there he edited and published the Czech language newspaper Slavie. Jonas was skeptical of Abraham Lincoln and the policies of the Republican Party , and he gradually came to be affiliated with the Democrats. He was appointed to the Board of Managers of the Wisconsin Industrial School for Boys for 1874-1877, serving only through 1875. He was elected as a Democratic member of the Wisconsin State Assembly in 1877 to represent the 1st Racine County district , with 1229 votes to 760 for Republican Edward Gillen; he was assigned to the standing committees on the judiciary and on education. He was not a candidate for re-election in 1878, choosing instead to run on the Greenback Party ticket for the Wisconsin Senate's Third District , losing to Republican William Everett Chipman by 3206 to 2177 . He was succeeded in the Assembly by Field. The thirteenth child of a solicitor's copyist, he attended school in Hradec Kralove, then in 1868 travelled to Prague to begin a career in retail. He worked for several companies, from 1873 for the publisher Otto-Verlag, for whom he became a courtroom reporter. From 1876 to 1878 he edited the satirical magazine Palecek; in 1882 he founded his own, Svanda dudak, which he edited almost continuously until 1930. He worked for several years at a law firm before becoming, in 1885, editor of the Narodni listy, for which he had been an administrator. From 1888 he was chairman of the "May Society" of Czech authors . He edited the first edition of the complete works of Jan Neruda. His literary work was closely tied to his journalism, and mostly dealt with the personalities and life of Prague. His first novel was the partly autobiographical U snedeneho kramu . The same year he wrote a play, Manzelova pritelkyne, but it was not successful. He wrote several serial novels like Pate pres devate and Muz bez trinactky. In Narodni listy he published his most successful novel Otec Kondelik a zenich Vejvara as well as the sequel Tchan Kondelik a zet Vejvara . The main character, narrow-minded old "Papa Kondelik", is his most famous creation. His fiction has frequently been adapted for the cinema. He wrote 387 short stories, but the only English translations are of "Childless" and "Mr Vasek." German translations are collected in Allerlei Tierchen und Leuchten and Ausgewahlte Geschichten . There are also a handful of Esperanto translations. </Text>

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<Text> :</Text>

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Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Jakub Arbes <p> occupation <o> playwright <s> Jakub Arbes <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Jakub Arbes <p> place of birth <o> Smíchov <s> Jakub Arbes <p> place of death <o> Smíchov <s> Jakub Arbes <p> occupation <o> journalist <s> Jakub Arbes <p> educated at <o> Czech Technical University in Prague <s> Alois Jirásek <p> instance of <o> human <s> Alois Jirásek <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Alois Jirásek <p> country of citizenship <o> Austria-Hungary <s> Alois Jirásek <p> nominated for <o> Nobel Prize in Literature <s> Alois Jirásek <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Alois Jirásek <p> educated at <o> Charles University <s> Alois Jirásek <p> occupation <o> historian <s> Alois Jirásek <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Alois Jirásek <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Alois Jirásek <p> occupation <o> playwright <s> Alois Jirásek <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Alois Jirásek <p> described by source <o> History of Everyday Life Database <s> Alois Jirásek <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Alois Jirásek <p> described by source <o> Library of the World's Best Literature <s> Alois Jirásek <p> described by source <o> Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia <s> Alois Jirásek <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Alois Jirásek <p> member of <o> Czech Academy of Science and Art <s> Alois Jirásek <p> given name <o> Alois <s> Alois Jirásek <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> Alois Jirásek <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Alois Jirásek <p> notable work <o> Bratrstvo <s> Alois Jirásek <p> award received <o> He <s> Alois Jirásek <p> described by source <o> Svensk uppslagsbok <s> Alois Jirásek <p> notable work <o> Ancient Bohemian Legends <s> Alois Jirásek <p> notable work <o> F. L. Věk <s> Alois Jirásek <p> described by source <o> New International Encyclopedia <s> Alois Jirásek <p> place of burial <o> Hronov <s> Alois Jirásek <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Alois Jirásek <p> place of birth <o> Birth house of Alois Jirásek <s> Alois Jirásek <p> award received <o> Honorary citizenship of Třebíč <s> Alois Jirásek <p> award received <o> honorary doctor of the Charles University of Prague <s> Alois Jirásek <p> residence <o> Birth house of Alois Jirásek <s> Alois Jirásek <p> child <o> Božena Jelínková-Jirásková <s> Alois Jirásek <p> family name <o> Jirásek <s> Alois Jirásek <p> position held <o> Senator of the Czechoslovak National Assembly <s> Alois Jirásek <p> position held <o> member of the Revolutionary National Assembly of Czechoslovakia <s> Alois Jirásek <p> award received <o> honorary citizen of Prague <s> Alois Jirásek <p> award received <o> Honorary citizenship of Boskovice <s> Alois Jirásek <p> award received <o> Honorary citizenship of Moravské Budějovice <s> Alois Jirásek <p> award received <o> Honorary citizenship of Polná <s> Alois Jirásek <p> award received <o> Honorary citizen of Louny <s> Alois Jirásek <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Alois Jirásek <s> Alois Jirásek <p> child <o> Jaromír Jirásek <s> František Krásl <p> instance of <o> human <s> František Krásl <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> František Krásl <p> occupation <o> writer <s> František Krásl <p> religion or worldview <o> Catholic Church <s> František Krásl <p> occupation <o> Catholic bishop <s> František Krásl <p> position held <o> auxiliary bishop <s> František Krásl <p> occupation <o> politician <s> František Krásl <p> given name <o> František <s> František Krásl <p> place of birth <o> Králův Dvůr <s> František Krásl <p> place of death <o> Hradčany <s> František Krásl <p> consecrator <o> Emmanuel Johann Schöbel <s> František Krásl <p> consecrator <o> Martin Říha <s> František Krásl <p> position held <o> titular bishop <s> František Krásl <p> consecrator <o> Lev Skrbenský z Hříště <s> František Krásl <p> occupation <o> Catholic priest <s> František Krásl <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> František Krásl <p> country of citizenship <o> Cisleithania <s> František Krásl <p> place of burial <o> Cemetery in Šárka <s> František Krásl <p> topic's main category <o> Category:František Borgia Krásl <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> instance of <o> human <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> occupation <o> writer <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> given name <o> František <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> occupation <o> playwright <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> place of birth <o> Kaliště <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> place of burial <o> Olšany Cemetery <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> place of death <o> Malá Strana <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> family name <o> Zeman <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> topic's main category <o> Category:František Antonín Zeman <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> described by source <o> Obraz činnosti literární učitelstva českoslovanského za posledních 100 let <s> František Antonín Zeman <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> instance of <o> human <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> position held <o> Rector of Charles University <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> given name <o> Vítězslav <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> described by source <o> Almanach českých lékařů s podobiznami a 1000 životopisy <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> family name <o> Janovský <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> occupation <o> physician <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Vítězslav Janovský <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> Václav Švambera <p> instance of <o> human <s> Václav Švambera <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Václav Švambera <p> place of death <o> Smíchov <s> Václav Švambera <p> given name <o> Václav <s> Václav Švambera <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Václav Švambera <p> place of birth <o> Peruc <s> Václav Švambera <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Václav Švambera <p> described by source <o> Ottův slovník naučný <s> Václav Švambera <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Václav Švambera <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague <s> Václav Švambera <p> family name <o> Švambera <s> Václav Švambera <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Václav Švambera <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> instance of <o> human <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> ethnic group <o> Czechs <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> occupation <o> record producer <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> described by source <o> Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> given name <o> František <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> place of birth <o> Moravské Budějovice <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> relative <o> Jaromír Herle <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> occupation <o> bookseller <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> occupation <o> editing staff <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> relative <o> Jan Hanuš <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> family name <o> Urbánek <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> sibling <o> Velebín Urbánek <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> award received <o> Honorary citizenship of Moravské Budějovice <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> occupation <o> publisher <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> topic's main category <o> Category:František Augustin Urbánek <s> František Augustin Urbánek <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> František Alois Hora <p> instance of <o> human <s> František Alois Hora <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> František Alois Hora <p> country of citizenship <o> Austria-Hungary <s> František Alois Hora <p> occupation <o> writer <s> František Alois Hora <p> occupation <o> poet <s> František Alois Hora <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> František Alois Hora <p> place of death <o> Plzeň <s> František Alois Hora <p> occupation <o> translator <s> František Alois Hora <p> given name <o> František <s> František Alois Hora <p> personal library at <o> Education and Research Library of Pilsener Region <s> František Alois Hora <p> family name <o> Hora <s> František Alois Hora <p> occupation <o> playwright <s> František Alois Hora <p> place of birth <o> Svinařov <s> František Alois Hora <p> country of citizenship <o> Austrian Empire <s> František Alois Hora <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> František Alois Hora <p> topic's main category <o> Category:František Alois Hora <s> František Alois Hora <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce </Graph>

<Text> :Eliska Krasnohorska was a Czech feminist author. She was introduced to literature and feminism by Karolina Svetla. She wrote works of lyric poetry and literary criticism, however, she is usually associated with children's literature and translations, including works by Pushkin, Mickiewicz and Byron. Krasnohorska wrote the libretti for four operas by Bedrich Smetana: The Kiss, The Secret, The Devil's Wall and Viola. She also wrote the libretto for Zdenek Fibich's opera Blanik. In 1873, she founded the women's magazine Zenske listy, which she headed until handing it over to Jindriska Flajshansova in 1912.: 75 Jakub Arbes - 8 April 1914) was a Czech writer and intellectual. He is best known as the creator of the literary genre called romanetto and spent much of his professional life in France. A native of Smichov in Prague, Arbes studied under Jan Neruda, for whom he had a lifelong admiration, and later he studied Philosophy and Literature at Prague Polytechnic. In 1867, he began his career in journalism as editor of Vesna Kutnohorska, and from 1868 to 1877, as the chief editor of the National Press. Arbes was also an editor of political magazines Hlas and Politiks , and a sympathizer of the Majovci literary group. During this time, Arbes was persecuted and spent 15 months in the Czech Lipa prison, for leading opposition to the ruling Austro-Hungarian Empire. He left Prague soon after, spending time in Paris and the South of France as part of the intellectual community there. In France, he was an associate of other "Bohemian Parisiens" such as Paul Alexis, Ludek Marold, Guy de Maupassant, Viktor Oliva, and Karel Vitezslav Masek, as well as the French writer Emile Francois Zola. Arbes worked with contemporary writers including Jiri Karasek ze Lvovic, Josef Svatopluk Machar and his mentor Jan Neruda, and was influenced by the English-language writers Lord Byron and Edgar Allan Poe. He translated many of Poe's writings into French and Czech, and named his son Edgar. Arbes was also strongly influenced by Emile Zola's theory of the experimental novel. Arbes wrote about the urban working classes and promoted his ideas of utopian socialism. His work incorporates the themes of moral justice, free thinking and rationalism, and also featured autobiographical elements. His characters were often creative and rebellious free-thinkers, whose intellectual abilities made them independent, but were eventually destroyed by non-conformism. His most well-known works are his "romanettoes", written in the 1860s and the 1870s, predecessors of the modern detective story. They are mostly set in Central Europe, and they usually feature a gothic mystery, which is resolved by logical reasoning. Arbes's "romanettoes" introduced technical knowledge and scientific reasoning into modern literature. Alois Jirasek was a Czech writer, author of historical novels and plays. Jirasek was a high school history teacher in Litomysl and later in Prague until his retirement in 1909. He wrote a series of historical novels imbued with faith in his nation and in progress toward freedom and justice. He was close to many important Czech personalities like Mikolas Ales, Josef Vaclav Sladek, Karel Vaclav Rais or Zdenek Nejedly. He attended an art club in Union Cafe with them. He worked as an editor in Zvon magazine and was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1918, 1919, 1921 and 1930. Alois Jirasek was born on 23 August 1851 in Hronov, in the Kingdom of Bohemia , which was at that time part of the Austrian Empire. He was born into a family of small farmers and weavers of modest means. His father was Josef Jirasek who worked as a weaver at first and then as a baker. His mother's name was Vincencie Jiraskova, nee Prouzova . Alois had eight siblings: Helena, Josef, Emilia, Rudolf, Zofie, Bozena, Adolf and Antonin. He attended German Benedictine High School in Broumov , and Czech High School in Hradec Kralove . He then studied history at the Charles University . After finishing his studies he moved back to Litomysl where he taught history. He also wrote his first important works . On 11 August 1879 he married Marie Podhajska. They had eight children together, seven daughters and one son. In 1888 they moved to Prague. They were not satisfied with their first two apartments. But, after five years they finally found the perfect one on Ressl street, close to today's Jirasek square, where a memorial to Alois is located. They lived in this apartment from 1903 until his death in 1930. He continued in his career as a high-school teacher in Prague as well as writing literary works. Living in Prague gave him the opportunity to meet members of the artistic and scientific world. He started meeting Mikolas Ales with whom he shared the same artistic ideas and plans. He became friends with Zikmund Winter, K.V. Rais, but also with the younger generation including Josef Svatopluk Machar and Zdenek Nejedly. All of his dramas were written in Prague. On 3 July 1908 he was elected a member of Czech Academy of Arts and Sciences. He retired in 1909 and dedicated most of his time to literature. He often visited his home town Hronov, but he also travelled around Europe which he wrote about in some of his works. He visited Chodsko, Dresden, Italy, Slovakia and Bled. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> instance of <o> human <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> occupation <o> judge <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> educated at <o> Leipzig University <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> educated at <o> Charles University <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> occupation <o> jurist <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> place of birth <o> Hlinsko <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> member of political party <o> Young Czech Party <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> given name <o> Ferdinand <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> place of death <o> Hradčany <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> position held <o> Member of Abgeordnetenhaus <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> position held <o> Member of the Bohemian Diet <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Law, Charles University in Prague <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> described by source <o> Almanach československých právníků <s> Ferdinand Pantůček <p> family name <o> Pantůček <s> František Chalupa <p> instance of <o> human <s> František Chalupa <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> František Chalupa <p> given name <o> František <s> František Chalupa <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> František Chalupa <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> František Chalupa <p> native language <o> Czech <s> František Chalupa <p> occupation <o> writer <s> František Chalupa <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. 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<Text> :Frantisek Chalupa was a Czech painter and illustrator. As a painter he focused exclusively on landscape and architecture, almost always from the Czech Republic. His illustrations regularly appeared in magazines. At the end of his life he engaged in Renaissance composition ornaments. His last work was a painting of a windmill in Bautzen. Frantisek Mares was a Czechoslovak professor of physiology and philosophy, and a nationalist politician. He was rector of the Charles University in 1920-21, and a member of the National Democrats. Mares was born in Opatovice. He studied philosophy and medicine in Prague , graduating in 1886. He became a professor in 1890. He became a chairman of the Physiology Institute of the Charles University in 1895, continuing in that capacity until 1928. In 1914 and 1920, he was appointed rector of the Charles University for one year. He was many times appointed dean of Faculty of Medicine. He held an honorary doctorate from the Mayo clinic. During the war and after the independence of Czechoslovakia from Austria-Hungary in 1918, Mares became active in the Czechoslovak nationalist movement. He was an active member of the National Democrats, and became a member of the Revolutionary National Assembly of Czechoslovakia in 1918. In 1920, he was elected to the Senate, until the next election of 1925. At that time he became influenced by fascism, much to the dismay of the National Democratic leadership. In 1934, he was part of the leadership of the National Front , later National Unity . He was also a contributor to Vlajka. Mares published his research papers mainly in German and French journals. The papers were oriented on metabolism, neurophysiology and winter dormancy in rodents. For medical students he prepared textbooks Vseobecna fysiologie and Fysiologie I-IV. His philosophy was briefly based upon the Vitalism of Henri Bergson and Hans Driesch. He was a critic of positivism, reflected in his book Idealism and Realism in Natural Sciences . He also defended the Rukopis kralovedvorsky, which were later exposed as forgeries by scientific dating methods. Baptized Franciscus Aloiysius Salda, he was born in the family of Frantisek Salda, a postal official, and Marie nee Kleiner in Liberec. The family soon moved to Caslav with his father's service, where Frantisek graduated from the municipal school and in 1878 went to Prague to study at the Academic Gymnasium, living at the time with his older brother in Vlasska Street in the Lesser Town. After three years, he transferred to the real grammar school in Zitna Street in Prague II. He went on to study law but did not finish his studies. In 1910, however, he defended his doctorate in art history at the Faculty of Philosophy . A serious nervous disease afflicted him from the 1880s; constant pain also affected his critical attitude towards people and reality. Since 1899, partial paralysis of the body also limited his movement. Therefore, he lived alone, and apart from his love affair with Ruzena Svobodova, he did not establish any closer relationships. However, he did not avoid friendly contacts in the cultural world. He died unmarried and childless. In his will, he made the Jedlicka Institute, an institute for disabled children, his general heir. He wanted his villa to ring with the laughter and singing of its tiny inhabitants. He is sometimes regarded as a leading figure of the literary generation of the 1990s. He was a co-author of the Manifesto of Czech Modernism. In 1894-1908 he wrote for the editors of Otto's Dictionary of Czech, German, French and English literature and world painting. He wrote for many magazines , where he dealt with questions and problems of art, literature, culture and politics. From 1925 he published the magazine Tvorba . Josef Reinsberg was a Czech physician, professor of forensic medicine at the Faculty of Medicine of Charles University, founder of Czech forensic medicine. Later dean of the Faculty and rector of the University , member of the Bohemian Diet, and contributor to the Otto's encyclopedia. He was born on 18 August 1844 in Pribyslav as the son of Marie and Jan Reinsberg. In 1864 he graduated from the secondary school in Klatovy and on 19 March 1870 he was graduated from the Prague Medical Faculty. He worked first as an external physician in the surgical department of the General University Hospital in Prague, then as an assistant in the obstetric clinic of prof. Jan Streng. In 1871 he was appointed town and factory physician in Zamberk. Two years later he became a court physician and a general practitioner at the Catharine Hospital in Zamberk. At the same time he worked as a court-appointed physician at the district courts in Hradec Kralove, Rokytnice and Zamberk as well as at the regional court in Hradec Kralove. In 1874 he established a private chemical laboratory. He made annual study trips to Austrian university towns. In 1883 he stayed in Munich for an internship. A year later he was admitted to the Czech Charles-Ferdinand University, where he founded the Institute for Forensic Medicine. In July 1885 he was appointed an associate professor and in July 1886 a full professor. In addition to forensic medicine, he also lectured on public health, health policy and hygiene. His lectures on emergency life support were intended for a wider audience. When professor Vaclav Belohradsky died in 1896, Reinsberg taught forensic medicine at the faculty of law for several years. </Text>

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<Text> :Josef Cerny is a retired ice hockey player who played in the Czechoslovak Extraliga. He won a three medals at four Winter Olympics. He was inducted into the IIHF Hall of Fame in 2007. Josef Capek was a Czech artist who was best known as a painter, but who was also noted as a writer and a poet. He invented the word "robot", which was introduced into literature by his brother, Karel Capek. Capek was born in Hronov, Bohemia in 1887. First a painter of the Cubist school, he later developed his own playful, minimalist style. He collaborated with his brother Karel on a number of plays and short stories; on his own, he wrote the utopian play Land of Many Names and several novels, as well as critical essays in which he argued for the art of the unconscious, of children, and of 'savages'. He was named by his brother as the true inventor of the term robot. As a cartoonist, he worked for Lidove Noviny, a newspaper based in Prague. Due to his critical attitude towards national socialism and Adolf Hitler, he was arrested after the German invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1939. He wrote Poems from a Concentration Camp in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, where he died in 1945. In June 1945 Rudolf Margolius, accompanied by Capek's wife Jarmila Capkova, went to Bergen-Belsen to search for him. His remains were never found. In 1948 the court officially set the date of his death as 30 April 1947. </Text>

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<Text> :Joseph Karl Gruber was an Austrian football player and manager. A midfielder, he played for Austria Wien, French club Le Havre, Maltese side Floriana and in Germany for Alemannia Aachen and Hamburger SV. He managed Dutch side Ajax between 1962 and 1963 and also coached Alemannia Aachen, DOS, Vitesse Arnhem Pittsburgh Phantoms. </Text>

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<o> human <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> work location <o> Paris <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> genre <o> classical music <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> instrument <o> organ <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> occupation <o> composer <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> genre <o> opera <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> work location <o> Leipzig <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> notable work <o> Šárka <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> notable work <o> The Tempest <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> notable work <o> The Bride of Messina <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> family name <o> Fibich <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> described by source <o> Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition (1885–1890) <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> described by source <o> Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978) <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> occupation <o> choir director <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> list of works <o> list of compositions by Zdeněk Fibich <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> place of birth <o> Všebořice <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> occupation <o> dramaturge <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> award received <o> Honorary citizenship of Moravské Budějovice <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> genre <o> symphony <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> cause of death <o> pneumonia <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> described by source <o> Riemann's Music Dictionary <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> occupation <o> musicologist <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> educated at <o> University of Music and Theatre Leipzig <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> work location <o> Mannheim <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> occupation <o> conductor <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Zdeněk Fibich <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> spouse <o> Betty Fibichová <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> place of burial <o> Vyšehrad cemetery <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> country of citizenship <o> Austria-Hungary <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Zdeněk Fibich <p> given name <o> Zdeněk <s> Michał Hórnik <p> instance of <o> human <s> Michał Hórnik <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> German <s> Michał Hórnik <p> field of work <o> linguistics <s> Michał Hórnik <p> given name <o> Michał <s> Michał Hórnik <p> place of death <o> Bautzen <s> Michał Hórnik <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Michał Hórnik <p> country of citizenship <o> Kingdom of Saxony <s> Michał Hórnik <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Michał Hórnik <s> Michał Hórnik <p> described by source <o> Allgemeines Historisches Lexicon <s> Michał Hórnik <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Michał Hórnik <p> member of <o> Maćica Serbska <s> Michał Hórnik <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Upper Sorbian <s> Michał Hórnik <p> occupation <o> national revival activist <s> Michał Hórnik <p> occupation <o> cleric <s> Michał Hórnik <p> religion or worldview <o> Catholic Church <s> Michał Hórnik <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Michał Hórnik <p> described by source <o> Sächsisches Schriftsteller-Lexicon <s> Michał Hórnik <p> place of birth <o> Räckelwitz <s> Michał Hórnik <p> family name <o> Hórnik <s> Michał Hórnik <p> place of burial <o> Nicolai cemetery <s> Adolf Černý <p> instance of <o> human <s> Adolf Černý <p> work location <o> Prague <s> Adolf Černý <p> given name <o> Adolf <s> Adolf Černý <p> member of <o> Czech Academy of Science and Art <s> Adolf Černý <p> field of work <o> history <s> Adolf Černý <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Adolf Černý <p> family name <o> Černý <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Adolf Černý <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Adolf Černý <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> university teacher <s> Adolf Černý <p> field of work <o> diplomacy <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> historian <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Adolf Černý <p> field of work <o> poetry <s> Adolf Černý <p> religion or worldview <o> Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren <s> Adolf Černý <p> field of work <o> ethnography <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Adolf Černý <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Adolf Černý <p> described by source <o> Obraz činnosti literární učitelstva českoslovanského za posledních 100 let <s> Adolf Černý <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Adolf Černý <p> place of birth <o> Hradec Králové <s> Adolf Černý <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Adolf Černý <p> field of work <o> journalism <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> diplomat <s> Adolf Černý <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> poet <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> journalist <s> Adolf Černý <p> field of work <o> Slavic studies <s> Adolf Černý <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> ethnographer <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> linguist <s> Adolf Černý <p> employer <o> Charles University <s> Adolf Černý <p> employer <o> Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague <s> Adolf Černý <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Adolf Černý <p> occupation <o> slavist <s> Adolf Černý <p> award received <o> honorary doctor of the Jagiellonian University of Krakow <s> Adolf Černý <p> award received <o> honorary doctor of the Charles University of Prague <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> instance of <o> human <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> field of work <o> pedagogy <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> field of work <o> translation <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> educated at <o> Charles University <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> field of work <o> literary criticism <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> occupation <o> journalist <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> place of birth <o> Lysá nad Labem <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> occupation <o> critic <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> field of work <o> theatre criticism <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> occupation <o> high school teacher <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> occupation <o> literary critic <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> given name <o> Jindřich <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> occupation <o> theatre critic <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> place of burial <o> Olšany Cemetery <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> award received <o> honorary doctorate <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Jindřich Vodák <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Jindřich Vodák <p> family name <o> Vodák <s> Jan Lepař <p> instance of <o> human <s> Jan Lepař <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Jan Lepař <p> place of death <o> Vinohrady <s> Jan Lepař <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Jan Lepař <p> place of birth <o> Lipňany <s> Jan Lepař <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Jan Lepař <p> described by source <o> Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich <s> Jan Lepař <p> given name <o> Jan <s> Jan Lepař <p> described by source <o> Riegrův slovník naučný <s> Jan Lepař <p> family name <o> Lepař <s> Jan Lepař <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Jan Lepař <s> Jan Lepař <p> described by source <o> Obraz činnosti literární učitelstva českoslovanského za posledních 100 let <s> Jan Lepař <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Jan Lier <p> instance of <o> human <s> Jan Lier <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> French <s> Jan Lier <p> family name <o> Lier <s> Jan Lier <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Jan Lier <s> Jan Lier <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Jan Lier <p> occupation <o> editing staff <s> Jan Lier <p> occupation <o> journalist <s> Jan Lier <p> field of work <o> library science <s> Jan Lier <p> occupation <o> prose writer <s> Jan Lier <p> field of work <o> art criticism <s> Jan Lier <p> given name <o> Jan <s> Jan Lier <p> place of burial <o> Olšany Cemetery <s> Jan Lier <p> occupation <o> playwright <s> Jan Lier <p> field of work <o> translation <s> Jan Lier <p> occupation <o> art critic <s> Jan Lier <p> occupation <o> dramaturge <s> Jan Lier <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Jan Lier <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Jan Lier <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Jan Lier <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Jan Lier <p> field of work <o> literary activity <s> Jan Lier <p> child <o> Miloš Lier <s> Jan Lier <p> occupation <o> literary critic <s> Jan Lier <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Jan Lier <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Jan Lier <p> place of birth <o> Kutná Hora <s> Jan Lier <p> occupation <o> librarian </Graph>

<Text> :Karel Kramar was a Czech politician. He was a representative of the major Czech political party, the Young Czechs, in the Austrian Imperial Council from 1891 to 1915 , becoming the party leader in 1897. During the First World War, Kramar was imprisoned for treason against Austria-Hungary but later released under an amnesty. In 1918, he headed the Czechoslovak National Committee in Prague, which declared independence on 28 October. Kramar became the first Prime Minister of the new state but resigned over policy differences less than a year later. Although he remained a member of the National Assembly until his death in 1937, his conservative nationalism was out of tune with the main political establishment, represented by the figures of Tomas Garrigue Masaryk and Edvard Benes. He was born in Vysoke nad Jizerou , near the northern border of what is now the Czech Republic, into a wealthy family. He was the only one of five children to survive to school age. Kramar was educated at the universities of Prague, Strasbourg and Berlin, and also at the Ecole libre des sciences politiques in Paris, completing his studies with a doctorate in law. In the 1880s, Kramar played a prominent role in the agitation against the fact that Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague offered instructions almost exclusively in German; demands were made for a Czech language university so that Czech students could be educated in their own language. The issue of whether the language of instruction at Charles-Ferdinand University would be German or Czech was an extremely controversial one in the early 1880s, leading to frequent fights on the streets of Prague between ethnic German and ethnic Czech students. Finally in 1882, the Emperor Franz-Josef approved breaking Charles-Ferdinand University into two independent branches, with one that offered instructions in Czech and another instructions in German. Zdenek Fibich was a Czech composer of classical music. Among his compositions are chamber works , symphonic poems, three symphonies, at least seven operas , melodramas including the substantial trilogy Hippodamia, liturgical music including a mass - a missa brevis; and a large cycle of piano works called Moods, Impressions, and Reminiscences. The piano cycle served as a diary of sorts of his love for a piano pupil, and one of the pieces formed the basis for the short instrumental work Poeme, for which Fibich is best remembered today. That Fibich is far less known than either Antonin Dvorak or Bedrich Smetana can be explained by the fact that he lived during the rise of Czech nationalism within the Habsburg Empire. While Smetana and Dvorak gave themselves over entirely to the national cause, consciously writing Czech music with which the emerging nation strongly identified, Fibich's position was more ambivalent. This was due to the background of his parents and to his education. Fibich's father was a Czech forestry official and the composer's early life was spent on various wooded estates of the nobleman for whom his father worked. His mother, however, was an ethnic German Viennese. She started teaching him how to play the piano when he was six years old. Home schooled by his mother until the age of nine, he was first sent to a German-speaking gymnasium in Vienna for two years before attending a Czech-speaking gymnasium in Prague where he stayed until he was 15. After this he was sent to Leipzig where he remained for three years studying piano with Ignaz Moscheles and composition with Salomon Jadassohn and Ernst Richter. After the better part of a year in Paris, Fibich concluded his studies with Vinzenz Lachner in Mannheim. Fibich spent the next few years living with his parents back in Prague where he composed his first opera Bukovina, based on a libretto of Karel Sabina, the librettist of Smetana's The Bartered Bride. At the age of 23, he married Ruzena Hanusova and took up residence in the Lithuanian city of Vilnius. where he had obtained a position of choirmaster. After spending two unhappy years there , he returned to Prague in 1874 and remained there until his death in 1900. In 1875 Fibich married Ruzena's sister, the operatic contralto Betty Fibichova , but left her in 1895 for his former student and lover Anezka Schulzova. The relationship between Schulzova and Fibich was important to him artistically, since she wrote the libretti for all his later operas including Sarka, but also served as the inspiration for his Moods, Impressions, and Reminiscences. Fibich was given a bi-cultural education, living during his formative early years in Germany, France and Austria in addition to his native Bohemia. He was fluent in German as well as Czech. In his instrumental works, Fibich generally wrote in the vein of the German romantics, first falling under the influence of Weber, Mendelssohn and Schumann and later Wagner. His early operas and close to 200 of his early songs are in German. These works along with his symphonies and chamber music won considerable praise from German critics, though not from Czechs. The bulk of Fibich's operas are in Czech, although many are based on non-Czech sources such as Shakespeare, Schiller and Byron. In his chamber music, more than anywhere else, Fibich makes use of Bohemian folk melodies and dance rhythms such as the dumka. Fibich was the first to write a Czech nationalist tone poem which served as the inspiration for Smetana's Ma vlast. He was also the first to use the polka in a chamber work, his quartet in A. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Jan Strakatý <p> instance of <o> human <s> Jan Strakatý <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Jan Strakatý <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Jan Strakatý <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Jan Strakatý <p> occupation <o> lawyer <s> Jan Strakatý <p> place of burial <o> Vyšehrad cemetery <s> Jan Strakatý <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Jan Strakatý <p> occupation <o> playwright <s> Jan Strakatý <p> father <o> Karel Strakatý <s> Jan Strakatý <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Jan Strakatý <p> occupation <o> theatrical director <s> Jan Strakatý <p> position held <o> Member of the Bohemian Diet <s> Jan Strakatý <p> family name <o> Strakatý <s> Jan Strakatý <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Jan Strakatý <s> Jan Strakatý <p> given name <o> Jan <s> Jan Strakatý <p> described by source <o> Almanach československých právníků <s> Jan Vincenc Diviš <p> instance of <o> human <s> Jan Vincenc Diviš <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Jan Vincenc Diviš <p> place of birth <o> 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<Graph> : <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> instance of <o> human <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> cause of death <o> tuberculosis <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> given name <o> Ladislav <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> family name <o> Hajniš <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> place of burial <o> Olšany Cemetery <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> manner of death <o> natural causes <s> Ladislav Hajniš <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Leander Čech <p> instance of <o> human <s> Leander Čech <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Leander Čech <p> family name <o> Čech <s> Leander Čech <p> place of death <o> Nové Město na Moravě <s> Leander Čech <p> given name <o> Leander <s> Leander Čech <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Leander Čech <s> Leander Čech <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Leander Čech <p> place of burial <o> Nové Město na Moravě <s> Leander Čech <p> occupation <o> literary historian <s> Leander Čech <p> award received <o> honorary citizenship <s> Leander Čech <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Leander Čech <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. 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<Text> :The Vindolanda tablets were, at the time of their discovery, the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain . They are a rich source of information about life on the northern frontier of Roman Britain. Written on fragments of thin, postcard-sized wooden leaf-tablets with carbon-based ink, the tablets date to the 1st and 2nd centuries AD . Although similar records on papyrus were known from elsewhere in the Roman Empire, wooden tablets with ink text had not been recovered until 1973, when archaeologist Robin Birley, his attention being drawn by student excavator Keith Liddell, discovered some at the site of Vindolanda, a Roman fort in northern England. The documents record official military matters as well as personal messages to and from members of the garrison of Vindolanda, their families, and their slaves. Highlights of the tablets include an invitation to a birthday party held in about 100, which is perhaps the oldest surviving document written in Latin by a woman. The excavated tablets are nearly all held at the British Museum, but arrangements have been made for some to be displayed at Vindolanda. The texts of 752 tablets had been transcribed, translated and published as of 2010. Tablets continue to be found at Vindolanda. The wooden tablets found at Vindolanda were the first known surviving examples of the use of ink letters in the Roman period. The use of ink tablets was documented in contemporary records and Herodian in the 3rd century AD wrote "a writing-tablet of the kind that were made from lime-wood, cut into thin sheets and folded face-to-face by being bent". The Sphinx of Taharqo is a granite gneiss statue of a sphinx with the face of Taharqo. He was a Nubian king, who was one of the 25th Egyptian Dynasty rulers of the Kingdom of Kush. It is now in the British Museum in London. While the Sphinx of Taharqo is significantly smaller than the Great Sphinx of Giza , it is notable for its prominent Egyptian and Kushite elements. The lion portrayed in the sphinx is done in classic Egyptian style, while the face of the Sphinx is clearly that of Taharqo. The hieroglyphs on the statue explain that it is a portrait of the great King Taharqo, the fourth pharaoh to rule over the combined kingdoms of Kush and Ancient Egypt during the Third Intermediate Period. The sphinx is made of sandy grey granite. Taharqo was the last Nubian king who ruled over Egypt. He was defeated by the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal. His reign lasted from 690 when he succeeded Shebitqo to his death in 664 BCE. He was the son of Piye and Abar and the father to his daughter, Amenirdis II. Taharqo was one of the rulers of Kush who dominated Egypt as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. He was a significantly important ruler, initiating a golden age for his new kingdom. Although Taharqo was not of Egyptian descent, he worshipped the Egyptian god Amun, built pyramids and temples in the Egyptian model, and had his officials write in Egyptian hieroglyphics. The statue is a sphinx, representing here the immense power of the Egyptian and Kushite pharaoh Taharqo, whose face is shown. The headdress bears two uraei, the Nubian symbol of kingship, and Taharqo's name appears in a cartouche on the sphinx's chest. The statue is called "a masterpiece of Kushite art." In the United Kingdom, a listed building is a structure of particular architectural and/or historic interest deserving of special protection. Such buildings are placed on one of the four statutory lists maintained by Historic England in England, Historic Environment Scotland in Scotland, Cadw in Wales, and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency in Northern Ireland. The classification schemes differ between England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland . The term has also been used in the Republic of Ireland, where buildings are protected under the Planning and Development Act 2000, although the statutory term in Ireland is "protected structure". A listed building may not be demolished, extended, or altered without special permission from the local planning authority, which typically consults the relevant central government agency. In England and Wales, a national amenity society must be notified of any work to be done on a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Exemption from secular listed building control is provided for some buildings in current use for worship, but only in cases where the relevant religious organisation operates its own equivalent permissions procedure. Owners of listed buildings are, in some circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them and can face criminal prosecution if they fail to do so or if they perform unauthorised alterations. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, the owners are often required to use specific materials or techniques. Although most sites appearing on the lists are buildings, other structures such as bridges, monuments, sculptures, war memorials, milestones and mileposts, and the Abbey Road zebra crossing made famous by the Beatles, are also listed. Ancient, military, and uninhabited structures, such as Stonehenge, are sometimes instead classified as scheduled monuments and are protected by separate legislation. Cultural landscapes such as parks and gardens are currently "listed" on a non-statutory basis. Lindow Man, also known as Lindow II and as Pete Marsh, is the preserved bog body of a man discovered in a peat bog at Lindow Moss near Wilmslow in Cheshire, North West England. The remains were found on 1 August 1984 by commercial peat cutters. Lindow Man is not the only bog body to have been found in the moss; Lindow Woman was discovered the year before, and other body parts have also been recovered. The find was described as "one of the most significant archaeological discoveries of the 1980s" and caused a media sensation. It helped invigorate study of British bog bodies, which had previously been neglected. Dating the body has proven problematic, but it is thought that he was deposited into Lindow Moss, face down, some time between 2 BC and 119 AD, in either the Iron Age or Romano-British period. At the time of death, Lindow Man was a healthy male in his mid-20s, and may have been of high social status as his body shows little evidence of having done heavy or rough physical labour during his lifetime. There has been debate over the reason for his death; his death was violent and perhaps ritualistic. Lindow Moss is a peat bog in Lindow, an area of Wilmslow, Cheshire, which has been used as common land since the medieval period. It formed after the last ice age, one of many such peat bogs in north-east Cheshire and the Mersey basin that formed in hollows caused by melting ice. Investigations have not yet discovered settlement or agricultural activity around the edge of Lindow Moss that would have been contemporary with Lindow Man; however, analysis of pollen in the peat suggests there was some cultivation in the vicinity. Once covering over 600 hectares , the bog has now shrunk to a tenth of its original size. It is a dangerous place; an 18th-century writer recorded people drowning there. For centuries the peat from the bog was used as fuel, and it continued to be extracted until the 1980s, by which time the process had been mechanised. Lindow Moss is a lowland raised mire; this type of peat bog often produces the best preserved bog bodies, allowing more detailed analysis. Lowland raised mires occur mainly in northern England and extend south to the Midlands. Lindow Man is one of 27 bodies to be recovered from such areas. The Lewis chessmen or Uig chessmen, named after the island or the bay where they were found, are a group of distinctive 12th-century chess pieces, along with other game pieces, most of which are carved from walrus ivory. Discovered in 1831 on Lewis in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, they may constitute some of the few complete, surviving medieval chess sets, although it is not clear if a period-accurate set can be assembled from the pieces. When found, the hoard contained 93 objects: 78 chess pieces, 14 tablemen and one belt buckle. Today, 82 pieces are owned and usually exhibited by the British Museum in London, and the remaining 11 are at the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh. Most accounts have said the pieces were found at Uig Bay on the west coast of Lewis, but Caldwell et al. of National Museums Scotland consider that Mealista --which is also in the parish of Uig and some 6 miles further south down the coast--is a more likely place for the hoard to have been discovered. The hoard was divided and sold in the 19th century; the British Museum holds 82 pieces, and National Museum of Scotland has the other 11 pieces. At the British Museum, Sir Frederic Madden, Assistant Keeper of Manuscripts, persuaded the trustees to purchase for 80 guineas the 82 pieces which he had been misled into believing was the entire hoard. Madden was a palaeographer, a scholar of early vernacular literature, but he was especially intrigued by these artifacts because he was a chess enthusiast. Madden immediately began writing a research paper about the collection, titled "Historical remarks on the introduction of the game of chess into Europe and on the ancient chessmen discovered in the Isle of Lewis", published in Archaeologia XXIV , the paper remains informative today. There are many medieval chess bishops of various origins in different museums in Europe and US. A bishop that probably predates the Lewis chessmen was in the collection of Jean-Joseph Marquet de Vasselot and was sold at Christie's in Paris in 2011 with a radiocarbon dating report stating that there is a 95% probability that the ivory dates between 790 and 990 AD. It is thought to be English or German and carved in the 12th century. Stylistically it predates the Lewis chessmen, as its mitre is worn sideways. George Gideon Oliver Osborne CH is a former British politician and newspaper editor who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 2010 to 2016 and as First Secretary of State from 2015 to 2016 in the Cameron government. A member of the Conservative Party, he was Member of Parliament for Tatton from 2001 to 2017. He was editor of the Evening Standard from 2017 to 2020. The son of the Osborne & Little co-founder and baronet Peter Osborne, Osborne was born in Paddington and educated at Norland Place School, Colet Court and St Paul's School before studying at Magdalen College, Oxford. After working briefly as a freelancer for The Daily Telegraph, he joined the Conservative Research Department in 1994 and became head of its political section. He went on to be a special adviser to Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Douglas Hogg and work for John Major at 10 Downing Street, including on Major's unsuccessful 1997 general election campaign. In Opposition, he worked as a speechwriter and political secretary to Major's successor as party leader, William Hague. Osborne was elected as MP for Tatton in 2001, becoming the youngest Conservative member of the House of Commons. He was appointed Shadow Chief Secretary to the Treasury by Conservative leader Michael Howard in 2004. The following year he ran David Cameron's successful party leadership campaign, and was subsequently appointed Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer. After the 2010 general election, Osborne was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Cameron-Clegg coalition. He succeeded Alistair Darling, inheriting a large deficit in government finances due to the effects of the late-2000s financial crisis. As Chancellor, Osborne's tenure pursued austerity policies aimed at reducing the budget deficit and launched the Northern Powerhouse initiative. After the Conservatives won an overall majority in the 2015 general election, Cameron reappointed him Chancellor in his second government and gave him the additional title of First Secretary of State. He was widely viewed as a potential successor to David Cameron as Leader of the Conservative Party; one Conservative MP, Nadhim Zahawi, suggested that the closeness of his relationship with Cameron meant that the two effectively shared power during the duration of the Cameron governments. Following the 2016 referendum vote to leave the European Union and Cameron's consequent resignation, he was dismissed by Cameron's successor, Theresa May. Osborne served on the backbenches for a year before leaving public office at the 2017 general election. He was editor of the Evening Standard from 2017 to 2020. He has been chair of the Northern Powerhouse Partnership since 2016 and of the British Museum since 2021. The Digital Preservation Coalition is a UK-based charity that works with global partners to 'a welcoming and inclusive global community, working together to bring about a sustainable future for our digital assets'. The origins of the DPC are rooted in a 1995 workshop put on by the Joint Information Systems Committee and the British Library at the University of Warwick, focusing on how to approach the digital preservation. Internet usage was rapidly increasing, user expectations of digital resources were greater, and more users and institutions were seeking information across international borders in the late-20th century. The scholastic community at large was apprehensive to make a serious effort toward converting to digital systems without more permanent solutions to ensure the integrity and authenticity of electronic resources, due to the instability experienced in some U.S. government archives that was generated by physical decay of storage media and obsolete hardware and software. The 1995 workshop at the University of Warwick led to research into the various necessary elements of digital preservation, which concluded in 1999. Proposals for the DPC were published in D-lib magazine in February 2001, began operations in July of the same year, and officially launched at the House of Commons in February 2002. DPC was incorporated on 23 July 2002 and registered as a charity in June 2021 The DPC was formed to bring together various public sector organizations to come up with a solution to the growing digital preservation issue as it was deemed too difficult for any one entity to achieve that goal on their own. Their goal was to create resources, tools, and standards to establish a universal approach to digital preservation. Even though the DPC was originally concerned with digital preservation in the UK, they acknowledged the fact that their concern over digital preservation was shared on a global scale. In recent years DPC has adopted a more international perspective, identifying digital preservation as a global challenge and acknowledging the need for a global community to meet that challenge. The DPC's founding mission included the development and promotion of good practice in what was an emergent field. A series of commissioned subject-specialist Technology Watch Reports was established in 2003 and the first report published in 2004. The series continues to publish with around 50 titles in the series. It is supported by a series of briefing days in which authors and stakeholder debate the themes of the report. Accessible toilets are toilets that have been specially designed to better accommodate people with physical disabilities. Persons with reduced mobility find them useful, as do those with weak legs, as a higher toilet bowl makes it easier for them to stand up. Additional measures that can be taken to add accessibility to a toilet include providing more space, adding grab bars to ease transfer to and from the toilet seat, and providing extra room for a caregiver if necessary. Some countries have requirements concerning the accessibility of public toilets. Toilets in private homes can be modified to increase accessibility. Public toilets can present accessibility challenges for people with disabilities. For example, stalls may not be able to fit a wheelchair, and transferring between the wheelchair and the toilet seat may pose a challenge. Accessible toilets are designed to address these issues by providing more space and bars for users to grab and hold during transfers, and space for an assistant if necessary. Toilets in private homes can be modified to increase accessibility; this is one of the skills of an occupational therapist. Common modifications include: adding a raised toilet seat on top of a standard toilet, installing a taller and more convenient height toilet bowl, attaching a frame or grab bars, and ensuring the toilet paper is within reach and can be detached with one hand. These modifications can enable aging in place for seniors who wish to remain in their homes and communities. The U.S. Department of Justice published revised regulations for Titles II and III of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 "ADA" in the Federal Register on September 15, 2010. These regulations adopted revised, enforceable accessibility standards called the 2010 ADA Standards for Accessible Design "2010 Standards" or "Standards". The 2010 Standards set minimum requirements - both scoping and technical - for newly designed and constructed or altered State and local government facilities, public accommodations, and commercial facilities to be readily accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities. According to ADA the height of toilet bowl shall be 17 inches at a minimum when measured from the floor to the top of the toilet seat. Flush controls shall be hand operated or automatic mounted on the wide side of the toilet area and easily reached and operated. Additionally, there is the important ADA requirement of clear floor space at water closet rooms. The following recommendations are becoming more common in public toilet facilities, as part of a trend towards universal design: The Statue of Tara is a gilt-bronze sculpture of Tara that dates from the 7th-8th century AD in Sri Lanka. Some argue it was looted from the last King of Kandy when the British annexed Kandy in the early nineteenth century, it was given to the British Museum in 1830 by the former British Governor of Ceylon , Robert Brownrigg. Buddhism has had a continuous history on the island of Sri Lanka ever since the third century BC. The figure dates to the period of Anuradhapura Kingdom founded in 377 BC by King Pandukabhaya. Buddhism played a strong role in the Anuradhapura period, influencing its culture, laws, and methods of governance. Tara shows evidence of the cultural interaction of Buddhism with Hinduism. Tara had been a Hindu mother goddess but was redesigned for a new role within Buddhism. Sri Lanka today is predominantly Theravada Buddhist country. At one time this statue was thought to be a model of the guardian deity Pattini, but it is now agreed that this statue is of Tara. This identification is clear evidence for the presence in the medieval period of Mahayana Buddhism as well as the Theravada form of the faith which allows Buddhists to worship beings other than Buddha. The Abhayagiri vihara of the Anuradhapura Kingdom being the most notable example. The statue suggests that Tara may have been worshiped as a deity and not just as the consort of a male god. Typically the sculpture would have been placed in a temple alongside a statue of her male companion, the bodhisattva, Avalokiteshevara. Bodhisattvas are beings who have reached enlightenment but have turned back from it, out of compassion so that they can still help mankind escape from the cycle of death, rebirth and suffering. The manuscripts were collected by Thomas Howard, 2nd Earl of Arundel. In 1666, his grandson, Lord Henry Howard, divided the collection between the College of Arms and the Royal Society and in 1831, the manuscripts held by the Royal Society were purchased by the British Museum. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Alois Jirák <p> instance of <o> human <s> Alois Jirák <p> religion or worldview <o> Catholic Church <s> Alois Jirák <p> country of citizenship <o> Austria-Hungary <s> Alois Jirák <p> given name <o> Alois <s> Alois Jirák <p> place of birth <o> Černovice <s> Alois Jirák <p> family name <o> Jirák <s> Alois Jirák <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Alois Jirák <p> place of death <o> Jindřichův Hradec <s> Alois Jirák <p> occupation <o> Christian minister <s> Antonín Nosek <p> instance of <o> human <s> Antonín Nosek <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Antonín Nosek <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Antonín Nosek <p> given name <o> Antonín <s> Antonín Nosek <p> occupation <o> zoologist <s> Antonín Nosek <p> place of death <o> Smíchov <s> Antonín Nosek <p> occupation <o> high school teacher <s> Antonín Nosek <p> family name <o> Nosek <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> instance of <o> human <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> place of birth <o> Nové Město na Moravě <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> occupation <o> parson <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> place of burial <o> Přelouč <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> given name <o> Bohumil <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> sibling <o> Jan Mareš <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> religion or worldview <o> Evangelical Church in Austria (1781-1918) <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> family name <o> Mareš <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> place of death <o> Přelouč <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> given name <o> Karel <s> Bohumil Mareš <p> relative <o> Jan Beneš <s> Antonín Merz <p> instance of <o> human <s> Antonín Merz <p> place of birth <o> Louny <s> Antonín Merz <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Antonín Merz <p> place of death <o> Louny <s> Antonín Merz <p> given name <o> Antonín <s> Antonín Merz <p> family name <o> Merz <s> František Hanuš <p> instance of <o> human <s> František Hanuš <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> František Hanuš <p> place of birth <o> Lanškroun <s> František Hanuš <p> given name <o> František <s> František Hanuš <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> František Hanuš <p> family name <o> Hanuš <s> František Hanuš <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> František Hanuš <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> instance of <o> human <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> country of citizenship <o> Austrian Empire <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> country of citizenship <o> Cisleithania <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> occupation <o> editor <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> sex or gender <o> female <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> place of birth <o> Zábřeh na Moravě <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> given name <o> Emilie <s> Emilie Schmutzerová <p> described by source <o> Obraz činnosti literární učitelstva českoslovanského za posledních 100 let <s> Václav Sládek <p> instance of <o> human <s> Václav Sládek <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Václav Sládek <p> place of birth <o> Zbiroh <s> Václav Sládek <p> given name <o> Václav <s> Václav Sládek <p> place of death <o> Holešovice <s> Václav Sládek <p> sibling <o> Josef Václav Sládek <s> Václav Sládek <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Václav Sládek <p> occupation <o> philologist <s> Václav Sládek <p> occupation <o> classical philologist <s> Václav Sládek <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Václav Sládek <p> family name <o> Sládek <s> Václav Sládek <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Václav Sládek (philologist) <s> Václav Červinka <p> instance of <o> human <s> Václav Červinka <p> place of birth <o> Beroun <s> Václav Červinka <p> given name <o> Václav <s> Václav Červinka <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Václav Červinka <p> family name <o> Červinka <s> Josef Strnad <p> instance of <o> human <s> Josef Strnad <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Josef Strnad <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Josef Strnad <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Josef Strnad <p> occupation <o> archivist <s> Josef Strnad <p> occupation <o> museologist <s> Josef Strnad <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Josef Strnad <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Josef Strnad <s> Josef Strnad <p> family name <o> Strnad <s> Josef Strnad <p> occupation <o> historian <s> Josef Strnad <p> personal library at <o> Education and Research Library of Pilsener Region <s> Josef Strnad <p> given name <o> Josef <s> Josef Strnad <p> place of death <o> Plzeň <s> Josef Vlk <p> instance of <o> human <s> Josef Vlk <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Josef Vlk <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Josef Vlk <p> place of death <o> Hradčany <s> Josef Vlk <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Josef Vlk <p> family name <o> Vlk <s> Josef Vlk <p> given name <o> Josef </Graph>

<Text> :</Text>

<Graph> : <s> Alois Fischer <p> instance of <o> human <s> Alois Fischer <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Alois Fischer <p> country of citizenship <o> Austria-Hungary <s> Alois Fischer <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Alois Fischer <p> country of citizenship <o> Austrian Empire <s> Alois Fischer <p> given name <o> Alois <s> Alois Fischer <p> place of birth <o> Zbraslavice <s> Alois Fischer <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Alois Fischer <p> family name <o> Fischer <s> Alois Thuma <p> instance of <o> human <s> Alois Thuma <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Alois Thuma <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Alois Thuma <p> occupation <o> opinion journalist <s> Alois Thuma <p> given name <o> Alois <s> Alois Thuma <p> family name <o> Thuma <s> Alois Thuma <p> place of birth <o> Chrudim <s> Alois Thuma <p> described by source <o> Obraz činnosti literární učitelstva českoslovanského za posledních 100 let <s> Alois Thuma <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Alois Thuma <p> place of death <o> Chrudim <s> Adolf Heyduk <p> instance of <o> human <s> Adolf Heyduk <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Adolf Heyduk <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Adolf Heyduk <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Adolf Heyduk <p> occupation <o> poet <s> Adolf Heyduk <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Adolf Heyduk <p> described by source <o> Ottův slovník naučný <s> Adolf Heyduk <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. 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<Text> :He is best known internationally because of his poem cycle Gypsy Melodies that were set to music by Antonin Dvorak. The most widely performed is the poignant and tender Songs My Mother Taught Me with its hauntingly exquisite setting, included in the repertoire of many instrumentalists and vocalists. Born in Rychmburk . In 1850 he began his studies at Jecna Gymnasium in Prague from which he graduated in 1854. At his parents' request, he studied engineering in Brno for a year and then transferred to Prague Polytechnic. At this time he met poet Jan Neruda, with whom he established a close friendship. Heyduk finished his studies in 1859, became a teacher at a gymnasium. In 1860 he moved to Pisek to teach drawing and engineering at local college. He was charmed by the small town and quickly became a native. In 1876 he became the chairman of the literary section of the Umelecka beseda association. In 1877, he married his student Emilie Reinerova, the daughter of a restaurant owner in Pisek. In the following years, he became a father of two daughters. However they both died young. In 1878, his first daughter Jarmila died at the age of three months. His long-time friend Jan Neruda, who was to become her godfather, came to Pisek for her christening. However she died before the baptism and this tragic event inspired Neruda to write Children Ballads. Heyduk's second daughter, Liduska, died at the age of four in 1884. Heyduk had a very strong relationship with Slovakia, which he often visited and had many friends there. He also travelled to Italy and the Caucasus, where his nephew, agronomist Jaroslav Hejduk lived. He was born Emilius Jakob Frida in Louny. He lived ten years with his uncle, a pastor near Kolin. Here he attended the first years of primary school from 1857 to 1861), and the briefly in Kolin from 1861 to 1862. He studied at a grammar school in Slany from 1862, where he was a classmate of Vaclav Benes Trebizsky, also in Prague and in 1872 graduated from Klatovy. Guided by his uncle's example, Vrchlicky joined after graduating from the Prague Archbishop's seminary. But in 1873, he transferred to the Faculty of Arts of Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague, where he studied history, philosophy and Romance philology. During his studies he studied with historian Ernest Denis. His first literary work was printed by editor Sofie Podlipska. From 1875, he worked as a secretary and tutor to the sons of noble family Montecuccoli-Laderchi, first in Merano, and later Livorno. After returning briefly he worked at the pedagogical institute in Prague in Manor Street. Through the intercession of Leopold, Count von Thun und Hohenstein, in 1877 he was appointed secretary of the Prague Czech Polytechnic, and later became a professor of modern science and was awarded an honorary doctorate. In 1901 he, along with Antonin Dvorak, was knighted, and Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I. appointed him a member of the Upper House of the Imperial Council in Vienna. Vrchlicky defended the requirement of universal suffrage. He was a member of the Royal Academy of Padua, a member of the Polish Society of Paris and also an honorary citizen of many Czech towns. In 1893 he was appointed professor of European literature at Charles University. He was also a member of the Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts . At that time he also became acquainted with Milan Rastislav Stefanik. He is credited with galvanizing Croatian peasantry into a viable political force. Throughout his entire career, Radic was opposed to the union and later Serb hegemony in Yugoslavia and became an important political figure in that country. He was shot in parliament by the Serbian People's Radical Party politician Punisa Racic. Radic died several weeks later from a serious stomach wound at the age of 57. This assassination further alienated the Croats and the Serbs and initiated the breakdown of the parliamentary system, culminating in the 6 January Dictatorship of 1929. Stjepan Radic was born in Desno Trebarjevo, Martinska Ves near Sisak in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia within Austria-Hungary as the ninth of eleven children. After being expelled from his gymnasium in Zagreb, he finished at the Higher Real Gymnasium in Karlovac. In 1888, Radic travelled to Dakovo where he met with bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer to request help for a trip to the Russian Empire. Strossmayer recommended Radic to Metropolitan Mihailo of Belgrade who referred him to a Russian teacher in Kiev. Radic travelled to Kiev and was allowed to stay at the city's Monastery of the Caves where he remained for six weeks before returning to Croatia. In September 1891, he enrolled in law at the University of Zagreb. He was selected as a representative of the student body at the celebration of the 300th anniversary of the Battle of Sisak in 1893. After criticizing the Ban of Croatia Karoly Khuen-Hedervary during the ceremony and referring to him as a "Magyar hussar", Radic was sentenced to four months in prison which he served in Petrinja. He was among a group of students who set fire to the Hungarian tricolour on 16 October 1895, during the visit of Emperor Franz Joseph to Zagreb. For this, Radic received a prison sentence and was expelled from the University of Zagreb, as well as barred from all universities in the Monarchy. After spending some time in Russia and, later, Prague, Radic continued his studies at the Ecole libre des sciences politiques in Paris, where he graduated in 1899. After World War I he had opposed the merging of Croatia with the Kingdom of Serbia without guarantees of Croatian autonomy. Radic was selected as a member of the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. On 24 November 1918 he famously urged delegates attending a session that would decide the country's political future not to "rush like geese into fog". He was the lone member of the National Council's central committee to vote against sending a delegation to Belgrade to negotiate with the Kingdom of Serbia. On 26 November, he was removed from the central committee. Celakovsky was a professor of plant physiology at the Czech Technical University in Prague, and was a specialist in research of slime molds. He was the author of an 1890 book on the phylum Myxomycota called Ceske myxomycety. Vavra was selected in the eighth round, 246th overall by the Ottawa Senators in 2002 NHL Entry Draft. He played for the Tri-City Americans and the Kootenay Ice of the jWestern Hockey League before playing four games for VHK Vsetin in the Czech Extraliga. He later played for HC Sareza Ostrava in the Czech 1.liga as well as for HC Valasske Mezirici of the Czech 2.liga. Vavra retired from ice hockey in 2006 to work in his father's business. His teammate from age ten through his time with VHK Vsetin, Robin Kovar, said about Vavra's retirement, "I think he made a wrong decision to quit, but that's life." </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Antonín Červený <p> instance of <o> human <s> Antonín Červený <p> occupation <o> economist <s> Antonín Červený <p> place of death <o> Tábor <s> Antonín Červený <p> place of birth <o> Kněževes <s> Antonín Červený <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Antonín Červený <p> given name <o> Antonín <s> Antonín Červený <p> family name <o> Červený <s> Jan Deyl <p> instance of <o> human <s> Jan Deyl <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Jan Deyl <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Jan Deyl <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Jan Deyl <p> occupation <o> physician <s> Jan Deyl <p> place of birth <o> Vysoké Veselí <s> Jan Deyl <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Jan Deyl <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Jan Deyl <s> Jan Deyl <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Jan Deyl <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Jan Deyl <p> described by source <o> Almanach českých lékařů s podobiznami a 1000 životopisy <s> Jan Deyl <p> given name <o> Jan <s> Jan Deyl <p> family name <o> Deyl <s> Josef Rank <p> instance of <o> human <s> Josef Rank <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Josef Rank <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Josef Rank <p> place of birth <o> Svatý Hubert <s> Josef Rank <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Josef Rank <p> occupation <o> archivist <s> Josef Rank <p> occupation <o> lexicographer <s> Josef Rank <p> place of death <o> Holešovice <s> Josef Rank <p> described by source <o> Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich <s> Josef Rank <p> family name <o> Rank <s> Josef Rank <p> given name <o> Josef <s> Josef Rank <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Josef Rank (1833-1912) <s> Josef Rank <p> sibling <o> Karl Rank <s> Karel Irenej Černý <p> instance of <o> human <s> Karel Irenej Černý <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Karel Irenej Černý <p> given name <o> Karel <s> Karel Irenej Černý <p> family name <o> Černý <s> Karel Irenej Černý <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Karel Irenej Černý <s> Karel Irenej Černý <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Karel Irenej Černý <p> place of birth <o> Vysoké Mýto <s> Karel Irenej Černý <p> place of death <o> Vinohrady <s> Václav Veverka <p> instance of <o> human <s> Václav Veverka <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Václav Veverka <p> occupation <o> poet <s> Václav Veverka <p> occupation <o> high school teacher <s> Václav Veverka <p> given name <o> Václav <s> Václav Veverka <p> place of birth <o> Vlkov <s> Václav Veverka <p> family name <o> Veverka <s> Václav Veverka <p> place of death <o> Old Town <s> Václav Veverka <p> child <o> Marie Veverková <s> Václav Veverka <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Václav Veverka <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> František Mareš <p> instance of <o> human <s> František Mareš <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> František Mareš <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> František Mareš <p> occupation <o> historian <s> František Mareš <p> place of death <o> Třeboň <s> František Mareš <p> family name <o> Mareš <s> František Mareš <p> occupation <o> archivist <s> František Mareš <p> place of birth <o> Bavorov <s> František Mareš <p> field of work <o> archival science <s> František Mareš <p> topic's main category <o> Category:František Mareš (archivist) <s> František Mareš <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> František Mareš <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> František Mareš <p> given name <o> František <s> Jan Vilhelm <p> instance of <o> human <s> Jan Vilhelm <p> field of work <o> botany <s> Jan Vilhelm <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Jan Vilhelm <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Jan Vilhelm <p> place 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of work <o> printery <s> Jan Otto <p> child <o> Jaroslav Vladimír Otto <s> Jan Otto <p> award received <o> Knight's Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph <s> Jan Otto <p> award received <o> Knight of the Order of the Iron Crown (Austria) <s> Jan Otto <p> award received <o> honorary citizen of Přibyslav <s> Jan Otto <p> field of work <o> bookstore <s> Jan Otto <p> place of birth <o> Přibyslav <s> Jan Otto <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> instance of <o> human <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> country of citizenship <o> Cisleithania <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> German <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> native language <o> Ukrainian <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> place of birth <o> Zarubyntsi <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Ukrainian <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Hungarian <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> occupation <o> physician <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> nominated for <o> Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> field of work <o> chemistry <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> educated at <o> University of Vienna <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> occupation <o> university teacher <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> occupation <o> chemist <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> employer <o> University of Vienna <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> employer <o> Austrian Federal Government <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> occupation <o> biochemist <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> given name <o> Johann <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> member of <o> Shevchenko Scientific Society <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> member of <o> National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> sibling <o> Antin Horbachevskyi <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> position held <o> Member of the House of Lords (Austria) <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> copyright status as a creator <o> copyrights on works have expired <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> family name <o> Horbachevskyi <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> position held <o> Rector of Charles University <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> position held <o> Rectors of the Ukrainian Free University <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> given name <o> Ivan <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> described by source <o> Almanach českých lékařů s podobiznami a 1000 životopisy <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Ivan Horbachevsky <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> has works in the collection <o> Zina Genyk-Berezovska Collection <s> Johann Horbaczewski <p> place of burial <o> Cemetery in Šárka </Graph>

<Text> :Frantisek Mares was a Czechoslovak professor of physiology and philosophy, and a nationalist politician. He was rector of the Charles University in 1920-21, and a member of the National Democrats. Mares was born in Opatovice. He studied philosophy and medicine in Prague , graduating in 1886. He became a professor in 1890. He became a chairman of the Physiology Institute of the Charles University in 1895, continuing in that capacity until 1928. In 1914 and 1920, he was appointed rector of the Charles University for one year. He was many times appointed dean of Faculty of Medicine. He held an honorary doctorate from the Mayo clinic. During the war and after the independence of Czechoslovakia from Austria-Hungary in 1918, Mares became active in the Czechoslovak nationalist movement. He was an active member of the National Democrats, and became a member of the Revolutionary National Assembly of Czechoslovakia in 1918. In 1920, he was elected to the Senate, until the next election of 1925. At that time he became influenced by fascism, much to the dismay of the National Democratic leadership. In 1934, he was part of the leadership of the National Front , later National Unity . He was also a contributor to Vlajka. Mares published his research papers mainly in German and French journals. The papers were oriented on metabolism, neurophysiology and winter dormancy in rodents. For medical students he prepared textbooks Vseobecna fysiologie and Fysiologie I-IV. His philosophy was briefly based upon the Vitalism of Henri Bergson and Hans Driesch. He was a critic of positivism, reflected in his book Idealism and Realism in Natural Sciences . He also defended the Rukopis kralovedvorsky, which were later exposed as forgeries by scientific dating methods. He was the son of a country doctor. In 1862 he began working as a printer. In 1871, he took over the printing press from his father-in-law Jaroslav Pospisil. In 1874 he opened a bookstore on Wenceslaus Square in Prague, but after 1910, he concentrated on publishing. After his death his son and son-in-law took over the company but after lasting troubles, went bankrupt in 1934. In the 1880s he started to work on publishing a complete encyclopedia in Czech. Despite many difficulties, he began publication 1888. It was an immediate commercial success, and publishing continued twenty years. In addition to the encyclopedia, he published other successful volumes. Ottova svetova knihovna and Svetova cetba , containing some 2,000 passages translated into Czech. Lacina knihovna narodni was a series of affordable but quality books from Czech authors. He also published collections of several authors, Brehm's Life of Animals, and literary newspapers such as Lumir, Zlata Praha and Svetozor. He was active in social and political life of Prague society. In 1912, he was appointed a member of the Austrian House of Lords. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> instance of <o> human <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> German <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> field of work <o> history <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> place of birth <o> Vienna <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> work location <o> Prague <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> work location <o> Sofia <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> place of death <o> Vienna <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> work location <o> Vienna <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> country of citizenship <o> Austria-Hungary <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> employer <o> Charles University <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> educated at <o> Charles University <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> employer <o> University of Vienna <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> occupation <o> historian <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> occupation <o> diplomat <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> member of <o> Russian Academy of Sciences <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> member of <o> Hungarian Academy of Sciences <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> educated at <o> Theresianum <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> relative <o> Pavel Jozef Šafárik <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> father <o> Josef Jireček <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> given name <o> Konstantin <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> member of <o> Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> member of <o> Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> member of <o> Bulgarian Academy of Sciences <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> field of work <o> Balkan studies <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> field of work <o> Bulgarian studies <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> occupation <o> university teacher <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> field of work <o> Byzantine studies <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> occupation <o> academic <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> family name <o> Jireček <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> member of <o> Serbian Learned Society <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> position held <o> Minister of Education and Science <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> position held <o> member of the Bulgarian National Assembly <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> occupation <o> linguist <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Konstantin Jireček <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Konstantin Jireček <s> Eduard Albert <p> instance of <o> human <s> Eduard Albert <p> country of citizenship <o> Austria-Hungary <s> Eduard Albert <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> German <s> Eduard Albert <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Eduard Albert <p> member of <o> German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina <s> Eduard Albert <p> occupation <o> physician <s> Eduard Albert <p> sibling <o> František Albert <s> Eduard Albert <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Eduard Albert <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Eduard Albert <p> described by source <o> Ottův slovník naučný <s> Eduard Albert <p> family name <o> Albert <s> Eduard Albert <p> sibling <o> Tereza Svatová <s> Eduard Albert <p> sibling <o> Kateřina Thomová <s> Eduard Albert <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Eduard Albert <p> place of burial <o> Vienna Central Cemetery <s> Eduard Albert <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Eduard Albert <p> award received <o> Order of Leopold <s> Eduard Albert <p> occupation <o> poet <s> Eduard Albert <p> occupation <o> surgeon <s> Eduard Albert <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Eduard Albert <p> described by source <o> Kalendář Čechů vídeňských <s> Eduard Albert <p> described by source <o> Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition (1885–1890) <s> Eduard Albert <p> country of citizenship <o> Austrian Empire <s> Eduard Albert <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Eduard Albert <p> described by source <o> Almanach českých lékařů s podobiznami a 1000 životopisy <s> Eduard Albert <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. 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<Text> :Konstantin Josef Jirecek was an Austro-Hungarian Czech historian, politician, diplomat, and Slavist. He was the founder of Bohemian Balkanology and Byzantine studies, and wrote extensively on Bulgarian and Serbian history. Jirecek was also a minister in the government of the Principality of Bulgaria for a couple of years. Jirecek was raised in Vienna and enrolled in the 1864-1872 period at Theresianum, a prestigious preparatory school in Vienna. During his education, he became very interested in and studied several foreign languages . In 1872 he became a student at the Philological Faculty at the University of Prague, where he studied history and modern philology. At this time, his nearest friends included French historian Ernest Denis and the sons of Bulgarian theatre director and actor Krastyo Pishurka. In 1874 he took a study trip to Croatia-Slavonia and Serbia, after which he published several essays on the history and traditions of the South Slavic countries. In 1876 he had his first book published, the History of the Bulgarians, a historiographical work spanning the medieval Bulgarian state foundation to the Ottoman conquest, which attracted great attention to the 22-year-old historian. This was due to the European public's interest in the April Uprising of the Bulgarian people, a people little known in Europe at the time. For his dissertation on the history of the Bulgarians, Jirecek was awarded the title of doctor in philosophy in 1876. In 1877, his habilitation work was divided between Constantinople and Belgrade . After the end of the Russo-Turkish War , which saw the re-establishment of the Bulgarian state, he helped construct the administration, school system and economy in the newly founded Principality of Bulgaria. In 1879 he was employed by the Bulgarian government, and from May to July 1881 he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs, then until 1882 as Minister of Science. In 1884, he was appointed director of the National Library in Sofia. During his stay, he devoted himself to research in Balkanology and Byzantine Studies. He published his results in numerous studies and monographs. Eduard Albert was born in Zamberk, Bohemia in the family of clockmaker Frantisek Albert and Katerina Albertova . Further famous persons from their family were also Frantisek Albert , surgeon and writer, Tereza Svatova , writer and Katerina Thomova , notable creatress of amateur theatre in Zamberk and founder of municipal museum in Zamberk. Eduard Albert studied medicine at the University of Vienna, where he earned his doctorate in 1867. At Vienna he was a student of Salomon Stricker and Johann von Dumreicher . From 1873 to 1881, he was a professor of surgery in Innsbruck, where he introduced mandatory antiseptic treatment for wounds. In 1881 Albert attained the chair of surgery in Vienna, where he remained until 1900. He was succeeded at Innsbruck in 1881 by Carl Nicoladoni . Albert is remembered for pioneer research in the field of orthopedic surgery, in particular work involving tarsal and shoulder arthrodesis for paralysis and recurring joint dislocations. Among his better-known students were Adolf Lorenz , "The Bloodless Surgeon of Vienna", nephrologist Emerich Ullmann and Antonio Grossich , who in 1908 introduced a procedure for applying the operative field with 10% tincture of iodine . His students included his daughter Ilona Stepanova-Kurzova, Rudolf Firkusny, Eduard Steuermann, Artur Rodzinski, Bretislav Bakala, Pavel Stepan, Stanislav Heller, Frantisek Maxian, Gideon Klein, Rafael Schachter, Stefania Turkewich, Ilja Hurnik, and Pavel Sivic. His teaching methods were largely based on those of Theodor Leschetizky and his pupils he met during the time he taught in Lviv. Later they were further developed by his daughter, Ilona Stepanova-Kurzova. Kurz is known for his reworking of the solo part of Antonin Dvorak's Piano Concerto in G minor, Op. 33, which was originally composed in 1876. For more than a decade after the concerto's first performance, it suffered from neglect and critical disdain. In his 20s, Kurz undertook a revision of the solo part, and it is this version that he frequently performed. Since that time, the original and the Kurz versions have been printed together in Otakar Sourek's critical edition of the score, one beneath the other, so that the soloist can choose which version to perform. The Kurz version has become a part of the standard piano repertoire. Dvorak's original orchestral material is not affected by the soloist's choice. Vincenc Prasek was a Czech educator, linguist and historian active in the region of Silesia. He contributed to several Czech periodicals based in Opava and in 1883-1895 served as the first principal of Czech grammar school there. In 1863-1868 Prasek studied classical philology and slavistics at the University of Vienna, he also spent one semester at the University of Breslau. He began his teaching career in 1868 in Olomouc at the Czech gymnasium. Prasek was active in several school organizations. As a writer, Prasek focused mainly on publishing works about political history, ethnography and historical geography of Moravia and Silesia. In 1902-1909 edited magazine Selsky archiv , which focused on general and cultural history of peasants in Moravia and Silesia. He also published several linguistic works. </Text>

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birth <o> Lhotka u Radnic <s> Josef Pšenička <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> Josef Pšenička <p> given name <o> Josef <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> instance of <o> human <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> given name <o> Alexander <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> occupation <o> naturalist <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> place of death <o> Tábor <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> family name <o> Bernard <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Alexander Josef Bernard <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> place of birth <o> Sobotka <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Alexander Josef Bernard <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Josef Zenker <p> instance of <o> human <s> Josef Zenker <p> place of death <o> Písek <s> Josef Zenker <p> place of birth <o> Přeštice <s> Josef Zenker <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Josef Zenker <p> given name <o> Josef <s> Josef Zenker <p> family name <o> Zenker <s> Josef Zenker <p> occupation <o> forester </Graph>

<Text> :Julius Philipp was born to an Orthodox Jewish family in Germany. He was a cousin to Martha Bernays, the wife of Sigmund Freud. In 1901, he founded a small metal trading company in Hamburg, Germany. In 1909, Philipp and his younger brother, Oscar Philipp established a metal trading company in London under the name of Philipp Brothers. Julius continued to run the German operation out of Hamburg. In 1914, with the advent of World War I, Siegfried Bendheim, an apprentice, German citizen, and minor partner in Philipp Brothers, avoided internment by the British government by moving to New York City where he established Philipp Brothers, Inc. Oscar Philipp was not affected by the war as he had previously obtained British citizenship. In 1923, another apprentice and second cousin to Bendheim, Siegfried Ullmann, moved to the New York office. In 1934, Julius moved Philipp Brothers' German operations to Amsterdam due to the rise of Nazi Germany. In 1944, he died in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. The New York office eventually became Philipp Brothers headquarters. </Text>

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<Text> :Sedlacek was born in Mlada Vozice, Bohemia. Notably, he worked in medieval history, detailing the history of Medieval castles in the Bohemian Kingdom. He wrote among others extensively on autonomous region of Prachens in the southwest of Bohemia in 1926 . Rieger was born into the household of a miller in the town of Semily in northern Bohemia. His departure from this rural environment came with his enrollment in Prague University where he was to become acquainted with the nationalist fervor among students there. Rieger studied at the university to become a lawyer and also received a strong education in economic science, a subject that would later be the topic of much of his published political literature. He and his fellow "national awakeners" found inspiration for their patriotism in the Polish uprising of 1830. Many political Polish refugees fled to Prague where they shared their ideas with the young Czech nationalists there. Rieger's sympathy for the Poles was so that he was even arrested for hiding a refugee in his room at the university. Rieger's first venture into the political scene of Czech politics came with the Revolution of 1848. Rieger was among the attendees to the constituent assembly meeting in July 1848 in Vienna. His appearance at the assembly was spectacular. He exemplified his skill in oration, and reputedly gained a reputation for his righteous defense of popular sovereignty. For the first time, he was rubbing shoulders with prominent Czech intellectuals and leaders, including the historian Frantisek Palacky, with whom he was soon to become close friends. The constitution which he and his fellow assembly members together drafted was woven from the notions of Austroslavism, which advocated allowing Bohemia to become an autonomous federal state within the empire. The new emperor, Franz Joseph, found the constitution too radical to accept and flatly rejected it. Following the defeat of the proposal for the Bohemian constitution, Rieger spent the next two years in voluntary exile between France and Great Britain. On his return to Prague in 1851, he applied to become a professor of economics at Prague University where he studied. However, his application, which included his doctorate in economics, was refused by the administration for political reasons. Rieger continued to pursue economic science and became a prolific writer of economic literature. For his contribution, he has been accredited as the founder of Czech economic literature. For the next several years, he set to work on several projects intended to advance the Czech cultural heritage. In 1858 he started the Slovnik naucny , the Czech encyclopedia of general knowledge, the first volume of which was published in 1859, the 11th and last in 1874. He was also instrumental in founding the first Czech political daily newspaper published in Prague, which appeared on 1 January 1861 and of which he was for a while the editor. In 1853 Rieger married Marie Palacka, the daughter of his close friend and political associate from the assembly, Frantisek Palacky. Rieger's refuge from politics was ended suddenly by the downfall of the Bach administration in Vienna in 1859. Francis Joseph's October Diploma, which officially divided the empire into the dualist Astro-Hungarian monarchy, left Rieger and many Czech nationalists dissatisfied with the lack of response by the government towards their wish for autonomy. Not wishing to be outshined by their Magyar competition, the Czechs of the National Party, led by Palacky took action. In 1861, Palacky, though continuing to serve as an influential member of the party, passed official leadership to Rieger. Now in control, Rieger set to work on another petitioned constitution to present to Francis Joseph. Despite Rieger's employment of his skill for writing political literature, the proposal was ignored by the emperor altogether. Increasingly dejected and frustrated, Rieger led his party to boycott the Bohemian Diet and newly created Austrian Reichsrat. This policy of passive resistance would characterize the Czech relationship with Austria for the next twenty years. Czech pride, however, hardly swayed the Emperor or Reichstrat who were more than happy to not be bothered by the Czechs. Rieger attempted a constitution a second time in 1871 when he conducted negotiations with the Hohenenwarth ministry for a federal constitution of the empire, which broke down owing to his extreme attitude in the matter of Bohemian independence. </Text>

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<Text> :Frantisek Bayer was a Czech zoologist, paleontologist and teacher. He taught at secondary schools before becoming director of the Jiraskovo Gymnasium in Prague. In his spare time he worked on the Cretaceous vertebrates of the region. He specialized in the fishes although he also described birds, amphibians and reptiles. The taxonomic affinities of some of the taxa he described have since been redetermined. He also took an interest in music, both composing and writing about music. Bayer was born in Msene-lazne and studied at the Pisek gymnasium before entering the University of Prague. After graduating in the natural sciences and mathematics with physics and obtaining a teaching certificat in 1880 he began to teach in grammar schools. In 1882 he described a bird fossil, Anas basaltica from tuffs near Warnsdorf. It was later placed in the genus Ardea. He described another fossil that he again placed in the genus Anas, A. skalicensis, from Skalice near Litomerice. He received a doctorate in 1883. He began to teach at the higher gymnasium in Domazlice as a substitute teacher and then went to Tabor and simultaneously began his studies in osteology and paleontology. An early work on the osteology of frogs was critiqued by Frantisek Vejdovsky for not examining immature stages. From 1890 to 1892 he taught at Pisek. In 1888 he became a member of the Royal Czech Society of Sciences. He made several visits to Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and London to examine paleontology collections. His most intense period of paleontological activity spanned 1893 to 1902. In 1896 he published a list of Cretaceous reptiles and fishes. In 1907, he became the director of the Jiraskovo Gymnasium. He studied paleontology and went on collecting trips as well as visits to museums. He collaborated with Antonin Fric on paleontological studies. Fric encouraged Bayer to move focus from paleontological osteology to the osteology of extant vertebrates. He wrote on the evolution of the lizard tongue, particularly with an interest in the origin of forked tongues. Fric described the fossil fish Bayeria longipinna in Bayer's honour in 1905. Bayer did not accept the subspecies concept or trinomial nomenclature. Bayer also wrote popular science articles in various periodicals. He edited parts of the Czech edition of Brehm's Tierleben dealing with reptiles, amphibians and fishes. He wrote a zoology textbook for secondary schools in 1900 along with Jan Nepomuk Woldrich. In 1925 he became a member of the National Research Council. He also took an interest in music and was a friend of Bedrich Smetana and Antonin Dvorak and composed a few small pieces. He also wrote for the music magazine Dalibor. Frantisek Bayer was a Czech zoologist, paleontologist and teacher. He taught at secondary schools before becoming director of the Jiraskovo Gymnasium in Prague. In his spare time he worked on the Cretaceous vertebrates of the region. He specialized in the fishes although he also described birds, amphibians and reptiles. The taxonomic affinities of some of the taxa he described have since been redetermined. He also took an interest in music, both composing and writing about music. Bayer was born in Msene-lazne and studied at the Pisek gymnasium before entering the University of Prague. After graduating in the natural sciences and mathematics with physics and obtaining a teaching certificat in 1880 he began to teach in grammar schools. In 1882 he described a bird fossil, Anas basaltica from tuffs near Warnsdorf. It was later placed in the genus Ardea. He described another fossil that he again placed in the genus Anas, A. skalicensis, from Skalice near Litomerice. He received a doctorate in 1883. He began to teach at the higher gymnasium in Domazlice as a substitute teacher and then went to Tabor and simultaneously began his studies in osteology and paleontology. An early work on the osteology of frogs was critiqued by Frantisek Vejdovsky for not examining immature stages. From 1890 to 1892 he taught at Pisek. In 1888 he became a member of the Royal Czech Society of Sciences. He made several visits to Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and London to examine paleontology collections. His most intense period of paleontological activity spanned 1893 to 1902. In 1896 he published a list of Cretaceous reptiles and fishes. In 1907, he became the director of the Jiraskovo Gymnasium. He studied paleontology and went on collecting trips as well as visits to museums. He collaborated with Antonin Fric on paleontological studies. Fric encouraged Bayer to move focus from paleontological osteology to the osteology of extant vertebrates. He wrote on the evolution of the lizard tongue, particularly with an interest in the origin of forked tongues. Fric described the fossil fish Bayeria longipinna in Bayer's honour in 1905. Bayer did not accept the subspecies concept or trinomial nomenclature. Bayer also wrote popular science articles in various periodicals. He edited parts of the Czech edition of Brehm's Tierleben dealing with reptiles, amphibians and fishes. He wrote a zoology textbook for secondary schools in 1900 along with Jan Nepomuk Woldrich. In 1925 he became a member of the National Research Council. He also took an interest in music and was a friend of Bedrich Smetana and Antonin Dvorak and composed a few small pieces. He also wrote for the music magazine Dalibor. </Text>

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<Text> :Rudolph Krejci was a Czechoslovak-American philosopher and professor, who was the founder of the Philosophy and Humanities Programs at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and founder and first dean of the university's College of Arts and Sciences in 1975. In 1997, after 37 years at the university, Krejci became Professor Emeritus of Philosophy and Humanities. Rudy Krejci was born in Hrusky, Moravia in 1929. His father, a railwayman, was a Czechoslovak who received his basic education solely in German. His mother was a Moravian-Slovak with Czech education. Krejci studied at high school in Kromeriz and Brno, where he was introduced to philosophy by professor Antonin Kriz, who translated Aristotle's work into the Czech language. His studies were terminated on May 1, 1949, due to his membership of an anticommunist dissident student group. Krejci had to go into hiding in a secret room of his father's apartment, where he stayed for five years. In May 1954, with the help of his father, he escaped Czechoslovakia hiding in a coffin under a coal wagon covered with vinegar and mustard, and made it to Vienna, Austria. From 1954 to 1959 Krejci studied at the University of Innsbruck, Austria, majoring in philosophy, psychology, Russian history and literature. In 1959 he became a Doctor of Philosophy. Krejci then went to the United States to work as an engineer for Bechtel Corporation and Bethlehem Steel, and in 1960 he was offered a contract to teach Russian and German at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks. Two years later he established a Philosophy program, and 13 years after that he added a Humanities program. After one year as a dean of Arts and Letters he formed a new College of Arts and Sciences. </Text>

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<Text> :</Text>

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<Text> :Zikmund Winter was a Czech writer and historian. The author of many historical novels and essays, he maintained an interest in Bohemian life from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. He died in 1912 and he was buried in Vinohrady Cemetery. Emanuel Radl was an original Czech biologist, historian of science, philosopher and a critical supporter of Masaryk's pre-war democratic Czechoslovakia. He earned international renown by his works on the evolution of neural system and as historian of evolution theories. One of five children of a village merchant's family in Pysely , Radl studied biology at Charles University in Prague, where he became assistant professor in 1904 and full professor in 1919. He worked on the neural system of insects, on phototropism and on the evolution of sight. Influenced by the German biologist and philosopher Hans Driesch, he became interested in philosophy of life and in a large work The History of Biological Theories he criticized the evolutionism of the 19th century. At the book's climax at the end of Chapter 33, Radl dismisses Darwinism with the words We may therefore sum up the modern position in Driesch's words: 'For those with insight Darwinism has been dead for a long time'... Darwinism as a tyrannic doctrine, which imperiously enchains the minds of men, is dead. Under the influence of Masaryk he inclined more and more towards philosophical questions, became a critic of scientific positivism and after the establishment of Czechoslovakia a public critic of several contemporary tendencies he considered dangerous. He wrote books on Czech and German nationalism, on social justice, on the fundamental differences between the West and the East and very early against the misuse of racial theories and against antisemitism. Together with the Protestant theologian J. L. Hromadka he co-founded the Czech Academic YMCA and published numerous booklets on various public topics. In 1934 he presided the 8th International Congress of Philosophy in Prague, but after 1935 he was gradually excluded from public life by a serious illness. He died in 1942 in Prague during the German occupation in almost complete isolation. His posthumous book Consolation from Philosophy, in the oppressive mood of war, is a highly personal profession of faith in the lasting values of truth and religion and evoked a lively discussion after its publication in 1946. Frantisek Josef Studnicka was a Czech mathematician and popular pedagogue at Charles University in Prague. He was also an active contributor to astronomy and meteorology. He was known as the author of several textbooks and popular articles. </Text>

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<Text> :The tree of life is a fundamental archetype in many of the world's mythological, religious, and philosophical traditions. It is closely related to the concept of the sacred tree. The tree of knowledge connecting to heaven and the underworld such as Yggdrasil and the in Genesis, and the tree of life, connecting all forms of creation, are both forms of the world tree or cosmic tree, and are portrayed in various religions and philosophies as the same tree. Various trees of life are recounted in folklore, culture and fiction, often relating to immortality or fertility. They had their origin in religious symbolism. According to professor Elvyra Usaciovaite, a "typical" imagery preserved in ancient iconography is that of two symmetrical figures facing each other, with a tree standing in the middle. The two characters may variously represent rulers, gods, and even a deity and a human follower. The Assyrian tree of life was represented by a series of nodes and crisscrossing lines. It was apparently an important religious symbol, often attended to in Assyrian palace reliefs by human or eagle-headed winged genies, or the King, and blessed or fertilized with bucket and cone. Assyriologists have not reached consensus as to the meaning of this symbol. The name "Tree of Life" has been attributed to it by modern scholarship; it is not used in the Assyrian sources. In fact, no textual evidence pertaining to the symbol is known to exist. The Epic of Gilgamesh is a similar quest for immortality. In Babylonian religion, Etana, the King of Kish, searched for a 'plant of birth' to provide him with a son. This has a solid provenance of antiquity, being found in cylinder seals from the Akkadian Empire . The Basse Yutz Flagons are a pair of Iron Age ceremonial drinking vessels that date from the mid 5th century BCE. Since their discovery in ill-documented circumstances in the 1920s and their subsequent purchase by the British Museum, they have been described as "great masterpieces" that "combine most of the key features of early Celtic Art". They are in many respects very similar to the Durrnberg Flagon found in Austria. The almost identical pair of flagons imitate the shape of contemporary Etruscan flagons and are made of a copper alloy that was skilfully beaten into shape from a single sheet of metal. The base was cast to size and decorated with 120 pieces of red coral and glass and then attached using resin. Resin is also used to coat the inside, which makes the flagon watertight. The cast spout and lid is attached using pins into a cutout made in the copper sheet body. X-rays reveal that the resin and the pins were the only materials used by the artisans to assemble these artefacts; although there is some evidence of solder that dates from the 20th century. The bases were apparently left open until the end of construction and the flagons were only water-tight because of a coating of resin over the whole inside of the vessel. They had evidently been well-used, and the chains currently attaching the stoppers on the lids are later additions that had been made to replace earlier fittings. The flagons are richly decorated with glass and coral inlays and a range of animals on the lid. Time has faded the coral but the pieces would have been brightly coloured. The handle is formed as a dog, terminating at the bottom with a human face. The idea of a dog or other animal for a handle comes from Greek and Etruscan culture, as does the motif of two crouching animals lying around the rim, as well as the head at the bottom of the handle. The duck on the spout is a Celtic addition to the scheme. The eyes of the duck and the dogs have been finished by using a complex drill bit and they were drilled by the same person. Both vessels measure just over 40 cm in height. The drinking vessels were found with a pair of Etruscan bronze stamnoi or vessels for wine-mixing that date from the same period . Other comparable Celtic adaptions of the classical flagon shape have survived. Among them, a late 5th-century example from a chariot-burial at Durrnberg has similar animals to the three dogs, and human heads at the bottom of the handle as well as on the lid. Here the whole body is decorated with raised vertical ribs with an elegant abstracted design suggesting plant-forms at top and bottom. The flagon only uses bronze. Other examples are from Kleinaspergle, Hohenasperg, near Stuttgart, and Borsch. The Hinton St Mary Mosaic is a large, almost complete Roman mosaic discovered at Hinton St Mary, Dorset, England in 1963. It appears to feature a portrait bust of Jesus Christ as its central motif, which could be the oldest depiction of Jesus Christ anywhere in the Roman Empire. A second mosaic was found during 2022 excavations on the site. The mosaic found in 1963 was chosen as Object 44 in the BBC Radio 4 programme A History of the World in 100 Objects, presented by British Museum director Neil MacGregor. The mosaic covered two rooms, joined by a small decorated threshold. It is largely red, yellow and cream in colouring. On stylistic grounds it has been dated to the 4th century and is attributed to the mosaic workshop of Durnovaria . It is currently in storage at the British Museum, although the central medallion is on display there. The panel in the larger room is 17 by 15 feet . A central circle surrounds a portrait bust of a man in a white pallium standing before a Christian chi-rho symbol flanked by two pomegranates. He is generally identified as Christ, although the Emperor Constantine I has also been suggested despite the absence of any insignia or identifiers pointing to a particular emperor other than the chi-rho. On each side of this are four lunettes, each featuring conventional forest and hunting vignettes, mostly of a dog and a deer. In the corners are four quarter circles containing portrait busts, either representing the winds or the seasons. The panel in the smaller room is 16+1/2 by 8 feet . It consists of a central circle containing an image of characters from Roman mythology, Bellerophon killing the Chimera. This has been interpreted in a more Christian context as representing good defeating evil. Flanking this are two rectangular panels again featuring dogs hunting deer. The Double-headed serpent is an Aztec sculpture. It is a snake with two heads composed of mostly turquoise pieces applied to a wooden base. It came from Aztec Mexico and might have been worn or displayed in religious ceremonies. The mosaic is made of pieces of turquoise, spiny oyster shell and conch shell. The sculpture is at the British Museum. Ancient Aztecs have also termed this creature as 'Mansee' which translates as 'The Voice of Heart'. The sculpture is of an undulating serpent with heads on each side. A single block of cedar wood forms the sculpture's base. The back side has been hollowed out, possibly to make the sculpture lighter. The back, once gilded, is now plain, and only the heads have decorations on both sides. The outer body of the two-headed snake is covered in a mosaic of turquoise, accented by red spiny oyster. Turquoise stones were broken in small, flat tesserae and adhered to the wooden body with pine resin. By using 2,000 small pieces, the flat pieces of stone give the impression of a faceted, curvilinear surface. The turquoise was cut and ground using stone tools. Some of the turquoise was imported to Mesoamerica from approximately 1,600 km to the northwest, from the Four Corners Region of Oasisamerica where the Ancestral Pueblo people mined the stone. The heads of the serpents have holes for eyes, and remaining traces of beeswax and resin may have once held objects representing eyes, possibly orbs of iron pyrite . The vivid contrast of the red and white details on the head have been made from oyster shell and conch shell respectively. Cleverly, the adhesive used to attach the Spondylus princeps shell has been colored with red iron oxide to complete the design. The white shell used for the teeth comes from shells of the edible queen conch. It is not known how this sculpture left Mexico, but it is considered possible that it was among the goods obtained by conquistador Hernan Cortes when he took the interior of Mexico for the Spanish crown. Cortes arrived on the coast of what is now Mexico in 1519, and after battles he entered the capital on November 8, 1519 and was met with respect, if not favour, by the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II . Some sources report that Moctezuma thought that Cortes was the feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl and treated him accordingly. However, scholars such as Matthew Restall claim this idea was a Spanish invention used as propaganda. The Holy Thorn Reliquary was probably created in the 1390s in Paris for John, Duke of Berry, to house a relic of the Crown of Thorns. The reliquary was bequeathed to the British Museum in 1898 by Ferdinand de Rothschild as part of the Waddesdon Bequest. It is one of a small number of major goldsmiths' works or joyaux that survive from the extravagant world of the courts of the Valois royal family around 1400. It is made of gold, lavishly decorated with jewels and pearls, and uses the technique of enamelling en ronde bosse, or "in the round", which had been recently developed when the reliquary was made, to create a total of 28 three-dimensional figures, mostly in white enamel. Except at its base the reliquary is slim, with two faces; the front view shows the end of the world and the Last Judgement, with the Trinity and saints above and the resurrection of the dead below, and the relic of a single long thorn believed to come from the crown of thorns worn by Jesus when he was crucified. The rear view has less extravagant decoration, mostly in plain gold in low relief, and has doors that opened to display a flat object, now missing, which was presumably another relic. The reliquary was in the Habsburg collections from at least the 16th century until the 1860s, when it was replaced by a forgery during a restoration by an art dealer, Salomon Weininger. The fraud remained undetected until well after the original reliquary came to the British Museum. The reliquary was featured in the BBC's A History of the World in 100 Objects, in which Neil MacGregor described it as "without question one of the supreme achievements of medieval European metalwork", and was a highlight of the exhibition Treasures of Heaven: Saints, Relics, and Devotion in Medieval Europe at the British Museum from June 23 to October 2011. King Louis IX of France bought what he believed to be the authentic Crown of Thorns in Constantinople in 1239, and individual thorns were distributed as gifts by subsequent French kings. John, Duke of Berry , brother of King Charles V of France, had this reliquary made to house a single thorn; it was probably made a few years before he commissioned his famous Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, and some years after he commissioned the Royal Gold Cup, also in the British Museum. Previously dated between 1401 and 1410, from evidence in John Cherry's book of 2010 the reliquary is now thought to have been made before 1397; based on the heraldic forms used, the museum now dates it to 1390-97. The Holy Thorn Reliquary was later thought to have been in the possession of Louis I, Duke of Orleans, but all recent writers prefer his uncle, the Duke of Berry. Sir Hans Sloane, 1st Baronet FRS , was an Anglo-Irish physician, naturalist, and collector, with a collection of 71,000 items which he bequeathed to the British nation, thus providing the foundation of the British Museum, the British Library, and the Natural History Museum, London. He was elected to the Royal Society at the age of 24. Sloane travelled to the Caribbean in 1687 and documented his travels and findings with extensive publications years later. Sloane was a renowned medical doctor among the aristocracy, and was elected to the Royal College of Physicians at age 27. Though he is credited with the invention of chocolate milk, it is more likely that he learned the practice of adding milk to drinking chocolate while living and working in Jamaica. Streets and places were later named after him, including Hans Place, Hans Crescent, and Sloane Square in and around Chelsea, London - the area of his final residence - and also Sir Hans Sloane Square in Killyleagh, his birthplace in Ulster. Sloane was born into an Anglo-Irish family on 16 April 1660 at Killyleagh, a village on the south-western shores of Strangford Lough in County Down in Ulster, the northern province in Ireland. Hans Sloane was the seventh and last child of Alexander Sloane who died when Hans was six years old. Alexander Sloane was a collector general of taxes for County Down and was an agent for the 1st Earl of Clanbrassil , and was a brother to James Sloane, MP . It is said that Sarah Hicks was an English woman who moved to Killyleagh as Anne Carey's companion when Anne married Lord Clanbrassil. Sloane's paternal family were Ulster-Scots, having migrated from Ayrshire in the south-west of Scotland; they settled in east Ulster during the Plantation of Antrim and Down, which was slightly separate from the wider Plantation of Ulster, under King James VI and I. The Sloane children, including Hans, were taken up by the Hamilton family and had much of their early tuition conducted within the Killyleagh Castle library. Out of Alexander's sons, only three reached adulthood: Hans, William, and James. The graveyards of Henry and John Sloane can be found in Killyleagh's parish courtyard; both brothers died in their childhood. The eldest brother James was elected a Member of Parliament for Roscommon and Killyleagh in 1692. John Sloane later became an MP of Thetford and a barrister of the Inner Temple, spending most of his time in London. As a youth, Sloane collected objects of natural history and other curiosities. This led him to the study of medicine, which he did in London, where he studied botany, materia medica, surgery and pharmacy. His collecting habits made him useful to John Ray and Robert Boyle. After four years in London he travelled through France, spending some time at Paris and Montpellier, and stayed long enough at the University of Orange-Nassau to take his MD degree there in 1683; he was hired as an assistant to prominent physician Thomas Sydenham who gave the young man valuable introductions to practice. He returned to London with a considerable collection of plants and other curiosities, of which the former were sent to Ray and utilised by him for his History of Plants. Sloane was elected to the Royal Society in 1685. In 1687, he became a fellow of the College of Physicians, and the same year went to Jamaica aboard HMS Assistance as personal physician to the new Governor of Jamaica, the 2nd Duke of Albemarle. Albemarle died in Jamaica the next year, 1688, so Sloane's visit lasted only fifteen months. The Standard of Ur is a Sumerian artifact of the 3rd millennium BC that is now in the collection of the British Museum. It comprises a hollow wooden box measuring 21.59 centimetres wide by 49.53 centimetres long, inlaid with a mosaic of shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli. It comes from the ancient city of Ur . It dates to the First Dynasty of Ur during the Early Dynastic period and is around 4,600 years old. The standard was probably constructed in the form of a hollow wooden box with scenes of war and peace represented on each side through elaborately inlaid mosaics. Although interpreted as a standard by its discoverer, its original purpose remains enigmatic. It was found in a royal tomb in Ur in the 1920s next to the skeleton of a ritually sacrificed man who may have been its bearer. The artifact was found in one of the largest royal tombs in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, tomb PG 779, associated with Ur-Pabilsag, a king who died around 2550 BC. Sir Leonard Woolley's excavations in Mesopotamia in 1927-28 uncovered the artifact in the corner of a chamber, lying close to the shoulder of a man who may have held it on a pole. For this reason, Woolley interpreted it as a standard, giving the object its popular name, although subsequent investigation has failed to confirm this assumption. The discovery was quite unexpected, as the tomb in which it occurred had been thoroughly plundered by robbers in ancient times. As one corner of the last chamber was being cleared, a workman spotted a piece of shell inlay. Woolley later recalled that "the next minute the foreman's hand, carefully brushing away the earth, laid bare the corner of a mosaic in lapis lazuli and shell." The Standard of Ur survived in only a fragmentary condition. The ravages of time over more than four thousand years caused the decay of the wooden frame and bitumen glue which had cemented the mosaics in place. The soil's weight crushed the object, fragmenting it and breaking its end panels. This made excavating the Standard a challenging task. Woolley's excavators were instructed to look for hollows in the ground created by decayed objects and to fill them with plaster or wax to record the shape of the objects that had once filled them, rather like the famous plaster casts of the victims of Pompeii. When the remains of the Standard were discovered by the excavators, they found that the mosaic pieces had kept their form in the soil, while their wooden frame had disintegrated. They carefully uncovered small sections measuring about 3 square centimetres and covered them with wax, enabling the mosaics to be lifted while maintaining their original designs. The present form of the artifact is a reconstruction, presenting a best guess of its original appearance. It has been interpreted as a hollow wooden box measuring 21.59 centimetres wide by 49.53 centimetres long, inlaid with a mosaic of shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli. The box has an irregular shape with end pieces in the shape of truncated triangles, making it wider at the bottom than at the top. The Department for Culture, Media and Sport is a department of His Majesty's Government, with responsibility for culture and sport in England, and some aspects of the media throughout the UK, such as broadcasting. It also has responsibility for the tourism, leisure and creative industries . The department was also responsible for the delivery of the 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympic Games. From 2017 to 2023, the department had responsibility for the building of a digital economy and the internet and was known as the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. The responsibilities for digital policy were transferred to the newly created Department for Science, Innovation and Technology in the February 2023 cabinet reshuffle. DCMS originates from the Department of National Heritage , which itself was created on 11 April 1992 out of various other departments, soon after the Conservative election victory. The former ministers for the Arts and for Sport had previously been located in other departments. Great Russell Street is a street in Bloomsbury, London, best known for being the location of the British Museum. It runs between Tottenham Court Road in the west, and Southampton Row in the east. It is one-way only between its western origin at Tottenham Court Road and Bloomsbury Street. The headquarters of the Trades Union Congress is located at Nos. 23-28 . The street is also the home of the Contemporary Ceramics Centre, the gallery for the Craft Potters Association of Great Britain; as well as the High Commission of Barbados to the United Kingdom. The Queen Mary Hall and YWCA Central Club, built by Sir Edwin Lutyens between 1928 and 1932, was at No 16-22 . </Text>

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described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> František Ekert <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> František Ekert <p> topic's main category <o> Category:František Ekert <s> František Ekert <p> place of burial <o> Olšany Cemetery </Graph>

<Text> :Frantisek Klapalek was a Czech entomologist. He was particularly interested in the mayflies and other freshwater insect fauna. He was also the first to translate the works of Charles Darwin and Jean-Henri Fabre into Czech. He also published a two-volume "Atlas of Central European Beetles". Klapalek was born in the village of Luze and was educated at the Litomysl gymnasium after which he studied at the Czech Charles University of Prague. Here he studied under Antonin Fric and became a zoological assistant at the Royal Czech Museum in Prague. He then taught at secondary schools in Litomysl, and later at Prague in Zitna and Spalena Street. Still later he move to a school in Karlin where he was able to spend more time on entomological pursuits. He made trips to Austria, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, making collections of insects. His special area was in insects associated with freshwater particularly in the groups Trichoptera, Plecoptera, and Neuroptera. He also took some interest in ladybird beetles. He was one of the founding members of the Czech Entomological Society on 17 January 1904, and was elected the first chairman of the organization. He translated two books by Jean Henri Fabre into Czech published in 1911 and 1916. In 1914 he published a Czech translation of On the Origin of Species. </Text>

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<Text> :Kolar played with AC Ajaccio in Ligue 2, with Stoke City in The Championship , with R.S.C. Anderlecht and K.V.C. Westerlo in the Belgian First Division A and with Helsingborgs IF in Allsvenskan. Marie Zdenka Baborova-Cihakova was the first female Czech botanist and zoologist. Baborova was born in Prague in a school teacher's family and learned many languages at a young age. She studied at the Minerva secondary school before studying natural sciences at the Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague. She studied zoology and wrote her dissertation on fat bodies in the arthropods and in 1901 became the first woman to be awarded a doctorate. An older brother Josef Florian Babor was also a physician and zoologist at the University. Josef had inspired her own studies but she worked under Frantisek Vejdovsky . She contributed entries on infusoria and protozoa for Otto's Encyclopedia. Baborova married Stanislav Cihak in 1903. She cut back on her studies in 1906 after the birth of her daughter. </Text>

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<Graph> : <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> instance of <o> human <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> place of birth <o> Prostějov <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> place of death <o> Prostějov <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> family name <o> Gottwald <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> occupation <o> archaeologist <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Antonín Gottwald <s> Antonín Gottwald <p> given name <o> Antonín <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> instance of <o> human <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Swedish <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> German <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> field of work <o> translation <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> field of work <o> linguistics <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> country of citizenship <o> Austria-Hungary <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Arnošt Vilém Kraus <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> employer <o> Charles University <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> place of death <o> Theresienstadt concentration camp <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> academic degree <o> professor <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> field of work <o> educational system <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> field of work <o> German studies <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Austrian German <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> family name <o> Kraus <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> subject has role <o> Holocaust victim <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> place of detention <o> Theresienstadt Ghetto <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> occupation <o> literary historian <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> occupation <o> linguist <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> given name <o> Arnošt <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> field of work <o> history of literature <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> occupation <o> university teacher <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> place of birth <o> Třeboradice <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> occupation <o> theatre critic <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> educated at <o> College of Philosophy of the Prague German University <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> field of work <o> theatre criticism <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Arnošt Kraus <p> occupation <o> germanist <s> Adolf Wenig <p> instance of <o> human <s> Adolf Wenig <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Adolf Wenig <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Adolf Wenig <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Adolf Wenig <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Adolf Wenig <p> occupation <o> poet <s> Adolf Wenig <p> occupation <o> illustrator <s> Adolf Wenig <p> child <o> Adolf Wenig <s> Adolf Wenig <p> place of birth <o> Staňkov <s> Adolf Wenig <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Adolf Wenig <p> place of death <o> Vinohrady <s> Adolf Wenig <p> occupation <o> librettist <s> Adolf Wenig <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Adolf Wenig <s> Adolf Wenig <p> given name <o> Adolf <s> Adolf Wenig <p> place of burial <o> Vinohrady Cemetery <s> Adolf Wenig <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Adolf Wenig <p> child <o> Jan Wenig <s> Adolf Wenig <p> sibling <o> Josef Wenig <s> Adolf Wenig <p> mother <o> Marie Wenigová <s> Adolf Wenig <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Adolf Wenig <p> spouse <o> Pavla Wenigová <s> Adolf Wenig <p> copyright status as a creator <o> copyrights on works have expired <s> Adolf Wenig <p> family name <o> Wenig <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> instance of <o> human <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> occupation <o> general contractor <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> country of citizenship <o> Cisleithania <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> place of death <o> Mnichovice <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> occupation <o> technician <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> educated at <o> Czech Technical University in Prague <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> occupation <o> civil engineer <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> given name <o> Albert <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Albert Vojtěch Velflík <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> member of <o> Czech Academy of Science and Art <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> place of birth <o> Kralovice <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> position held <o> Member of the House of Lords (Austria) <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> family name <o> Velflík <s> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <p> award received <o> Order of the Iron Crown <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> instance of <o> human <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> place of death <o> Vinohrady <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> given name <o> Antonín <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> place of birth <o> Lično <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> family name <o> Truhlář <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Antonín Truhlář <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Antonín Truhlář <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> instance of <o> human <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> educated at <o> Charles University <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> occupation <o> university teacher <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> occupation <o> theologian <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> given name <o> Gabriel <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> position held <o> list of Charles University rectors <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> member of <o> Knights of the Cross with the Red Star <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Theology, German University in Prague <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> position held <o> Rector of Charles University <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> family name <o> Pecháček <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> place of burial <o> Cemetery in Hloubětín <s> Gabriel Pecháček <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Gabriel Pecháček <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> instance of <o> human <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> place of death <o> Vinohrady <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> occupation <o> journalist <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> occupation <o> reviewer <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> place of burial <o> Olšany Cemetery <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> occupation <o> cultural critic <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Jaroslav Kamper <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> described by source <o> Almanach československých právníků <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> sibling <o> Otakar Kamper <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> given name <o> Jaroslav <s> Jaroslav Kamper <p> family name <o> Kamper <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> personal library at <o> Univerzita Karlova. Přírodovědecká fakulta. Geografická knihovna <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> instance of <o> human <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> occupation <o> photographer <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> given name <o> Jiří <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> occupation <o> diplomat <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> place of death <o> Culver City <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> occupation <o> geographer <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> place of birth <o> Nový Dvůr <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> place of birth <o> Pavlov <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> occupation <o> world traveler <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> given name <o> Viktor <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> member of <o> Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> family name <o> Daneš <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Jiří Viktor Daneš <p> copyright status as a creator <o> copyrights on works have expired <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> instance of <o> human <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> described by source <o> Almanach československých právníků <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> given name <o> Jaroslav <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> sibling <o> Antonín Dominik Haasz <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Jaroslav Haasz <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> occupation <o> lawyer <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> occupation <o> jurist <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> place of birth <o> Vyšehrad <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> father <o> Antonín Dominik Haasz <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> family name <o> Haasz <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> child <o> Jiřina Nováková <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Law, Charles University in Prague <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> place of death <o> Smíchov <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Jaroslav Haasz <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Josef Teige <p> instance of <o> human <s> Josef Teige <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Josef Teige <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Josef Teige <p> place of burial <o> Vyšehrad cemetery <s> Josef Teige <p> occupation <o> historian <s> Josef Teige <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Josef Teige <p> occupation <o> archivist <s> Josef Teige <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Law, Charles University in Prague <s> Josef Teige <p> child <o> Karel Teige <s> Josef Teige <p> occupation <o> topographer <s> Josef Teige <p> occupation <o> genealogist <s> Josef Teige <p> given name <o> Josef <s> Josef Teige <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Josef Teige <p> described by source <o> Almanach československých právníků <s> Josef Teige <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Josef Teige <p> family name <o> Teige <s> Josef Teige <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Josef Teige <s> Josef Teige <p> copyright status as a creator <o> copyrights on works have expired </Graph>

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<Graph> : <s> Ladislav Burket <p> instance of <o> human <s> Ladislav Burket <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Ladislav Burket <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Ladislav Burket <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Ladislav Burket <p> place of birth <o> Stará Ľubovňa <s> Ladislav Burket <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Ladislav Burket <p> family name <o> Burket <s> Ladislav Burket <p> place of death <o> Písek <s> Ladislav Burket <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Ladislav Burket <s> Ladislav Burket <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Ladislav Burket <p> award received <o> Order of Franz Joseph <s> Ladislav Burket <p> given name <o> Ladislav <s> Hynek Pelc <p> instance of <o> human <s> Hynek Pelc <p> occupation <o> physician <s> Hynek Pelc <p> place of birth <o> Sobotka <s> Hynek Pelc <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Hynek Pelc <p> described by source <o> Ottův slovník naučný <s> Hynek Pelc <p> family name <o> Pelc <s> Hynek Pelc <p> place of burial <o> Vyšehrad cemetery <s> Hynek Pelc <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> Hynek Pelc <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Hynek Pelc <p> described by source <o> Almanach českých lékařů s podobiznami a 1000 životopisy <s> Hynek Pelc <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Hynek Pelc <s> Hynek Pelc <p> given name <o> Hynek <s> Karel Vrba <p> instance of <o> human <s> Karel Vrba <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Karel Vrba <p> occupation <o> poet <s> Karel Vrba <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Karel Vrba <p> educated at <o> Charles University <s> Karel Vrba <p> place of birth <o> Klatovy <s> Karel Vrba <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Karel Vrba <p> place of burial <o> Olšany Cemetery <s> Karel Vrba <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> Karel Vrba <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Karel Vrba <p> occupation <o> mineralogist <s> Karel Vrba <p> position held <o> Rector of Charles University <s> Karel Vrba <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Karel Vrba <p> given name <o> Karel <s> Karel Vrba <p> employer <o> Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague <s> Karel Vrba <p> position held <o> Member of the Bohemian Diet <s> Karel Vrba <p> position held <o> Member of the House of Lords (Austria) <s> Karel Vrba <p> family name <o> Vrba <s> Karel Vrba <p> said to be the same as <o> Žitomír Vrba <s> Karel Vrba <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Karel Vrba <s> Karel Vrba <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Karel Vrba <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> Publishing house Jan Otto <p> country <o> Austria-Hungary <s> Publishing house Jan Otto <p> country <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Publishing house Jan Otto <p> different from <o> Ottovo nakladatelství <s> Publishing house Jan Otto <p> instance of <o> publisher <s> Publishing house Jan Otto <p> founded by <o> Jan Otto <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> instance of <o> human <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> French <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> German <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Russian <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> field of work <o> pedagogy <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> field of work <o> history <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> field of work <o> ethnology <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> occupation <o> translator <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> field of work <o> dialectology <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> place of death <o> Vinohrady <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> field of work <o> oral literature <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> occupation <o> geographer <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> occupation <o> historian <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> occupation <o> ethnologist <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> occupation <o> high school teacher <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> given name <o> Vavřinec <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> family name <o> Dušek <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> field of work <o> translating activity <s> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <p> occupation <o> folk song collector <s> Antonín Mikenda <p> instance of <o> human <s> Antonín Mikenda <p> place of birth <o> Jičín <s> Antonín Mikenda <p> place of death <o> Karlín <s> Antonín Mikenda <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Antonín Mikenda <p> given name <o> Antonín <s> Antonín Mikenda <p> occupation <o> classical philologist <s> František Vejdovsky <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> German <s> František Vejdovsky <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> František Vejdovsky <p> instance of <o> human <s> František Vejdovsky <p> field of work <o> anatomy <s> František Vejdovsky <p> field of work <o> zoology <s> František Vejdovsky <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> František Vejdovsky <p> described by source <o> Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich <s> František Vejdovsky <p> country of citizenship <o> Austria-Hungary <s> František Vejdovsky <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> František Vejdovsky <p> topic's main category <o> Category:František Vejdovský <s> František Vejdovsky <p> given name <o> František <s> František Vejdovsky <p> occupation <o> university teacher <s> František Vejdovsky <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> František Vejdovsky <p> employer <o> Charles University <s> František Vejdovsky <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> František Vejdovsky <p> described by source <o> Medvik <s> František Vejdovsky <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> František Vejdovsky <p> occupation <o> entomologist <s> František Vejdovsky <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> František Vejdovsky <p> award received <o> honorary doctorate of the Masaryk University <s> František Vejdovsky <p> field of work <o> embryology <s> František Vejdovsky <p> occupation <o> embryologist <s> František Vejdovsky <p> occupation <o> anatomist <s> František Vejdovsky <p> position held <o> Rector of Charles University <s> František Vejdovsky <p> position held <o> rector <s> František Vejdovsky <p> occupation <o> zoologist <s> František Vejdovsky <p> occupation <o> dean <s> František Vejdovsky <p> place of death <o> Old Town <s> František Vejdovsky <p> place of birth <o> Kouřim <s> František Sitensky <p> instance of <o> human <s> František Sitensky <p> country of citizenship <o> Cisleithania <s> František Sitensky <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> František Sitensky <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> František Sitensky <p> place of death <o> Vinohrady <s> František Sitensky <p> place of birth <o> Jičín <s> František Sitensky <p> given name <o> František <s> František Sitensky <p> place of burial <o> Vinohrady Cemetery <s> František Sitensky <p> occupation <o> entomologist <s> František 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Václav Lochman <p> family name <o> Lochman <s> Antonín Balcar <p> instance of <o> human <s> Antonín Balcar <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Antonín Balcar <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Antonín Balcar <p> given name <o> Antonín <s> Antonín Balcar <p> academic degree <o> doctor of philosophy <s> Antonín Balcar <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Antonín Balcar <p> family name <o> Balcar <s> Antonín Balcar <p> place of birth <o> Poděbrady <s> Antonín Balcar <p> sex or gender <o> male </Graph>

<Text> :Vejdovsky was born in Kourim and educated at a Latin school and then at Charles University. He received his doctorate in 1876 and habilitated in 1877 while working under Antonin Fric. He worked as a lecturer in zoology at the college of technology and became a professor of zoology, comparative anatomy and embryology in 1892. He served as a professor until his retirement in 1921. In 1886 he discovered the centrosome in animal cells. He studied mainly the invertebrate groups and was an influential teacher. His students included Jiri Janda, Emil Bayer, Bohumil Nemec, Frantisek Karel Studnicka, Karel Sulc, and Jan Zavrel. In 1895 he served as rector magnificus of Charles University. He received an honorary doctorate from the University of Cambridge during the Darwin centenary celebrations in 1909. In 2007 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ruled that the family "Tubificidae" was a junior synonym of Naididae. He was the first biologist to distinguish between nematodes and gordiids when he named a group to contain the horsehair worms the order Nematomorpha. In 1919, Nathan Cobb proposed that nematodes should be recognized alone as a phylum and Nematomorphs were recognized as their own phylum. </Text>

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<Text> :Otokar Eduard Franz Karel Feistmantel was a Czech-Austrian geologist and paleontologist who studied in Prague and Berlin and worked with the Geological Survey of India in India, where he replaced Ferdinand Stoliczka who died of altitude sickness on an expedition in 1874. Feistmantel described several genera and species of fossil plants from peninsular India, and his work on the "Gondwana Series" contributed to the development of the idea of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwanaland. Otokar was the second son of Karl Feistmantel , an expert on iron smelting who later took an interest in geology and palaeontology and Frantiska, nee Nechvatalova. Although most records note that he was born on 20 November 1848 in Stara Hut near Beroun, he recorded it as 21 November in an unpublished autobiographical note. Although of German ancestry Otokar's father spoke Czech at home and supported Czech nationalism. He received his early schooling at Krivoklat castle and after his father moved to Brasieh he studied at Prague. He graduated from the Nove Mesto grammar school in 1867 and attended Prague University to study medicine. His interest in science was nurtured by his father's circle of friends who included the geologist Jan Krejci, biologist Antonin Fric, and cartographer Karl Koristka. Feistmantel spent some time at the National Museum at Prague in 1868 organizing the Sternberg collection and in 1869, he accompanied Jan Krejci to the coal mines in the Krkonose mountains. He continued his medical studies with an internship and military service in 1872 at a military hospital and graduated in August 1873 as a doctor of general medicine. He however maintained a keen interest in geology throughout his student life, and after graduation, he was assisted by Koristka to obtain a position at the Imperial Geological Institute at Vienna to work on an exhibit for the World Exhibition showing the fuel reserves of Austria. A vacancy at the University of Wroclaw to assist Professor Ferdinand von Roemer opened up in June 1873, and Otokar was able to obtain this position. By this time Feistmantel had published a large number of papers and was a member of several scholarly societies including the German geological society in Berlin and the Royal Czech Society of Sciences. Feistmantel had met Thomas Oldham in the Vienna exhibition, and when Ferdinand Stoliczka died of altitude sickness on an expedition, there was an opening at the Geological Survey of India. Feistmantel tended to be rash in his personal interactions and this led to him being at loggerheads with many other geologists. He took the offer in Calcutta , marrying Berta nee Pichlerova , despite suggestions from Oldham that he needs to make suitable prior arrangements at Calcutta first. Feistmantel and his wife Berta arrived in March 1875 and were initially housed in a room in the local Madrasa school that belonged to its German headmaster Blochmann. After the birth of his daughter, he moved to a larger home at 10 Sudder Street. Work in India included expeditions to central and eastern India, and on these trips, he maintained careful notes and made sketches of tribal life that he intended to publish in a book. One of the major tasks was mapping coal reserves, and by 1880, this was completed. Although he continued making studies, he ran into conflicts with the director H. B. Medlicott as well as other colleagues. The English referred to him in jest as the Bohemian. He made a trip back to Prague in 1878 with his wife and their two children, a girl Berta and a boy Ottokar who were born in Calcutta. He left his wife and children in Prague and returned to India with the Indian servant who had accompanied him. Feistmantel made several expeditions in this period before his family joined back in 1879. A second daughter and third child, Emmanuela, was born in 1880. In 1881, he was awarded a prize at the Melbourne International Exhibition for his work on the Australian fossil flora and around this time he obtained a faculty position at the Czech Polytechnic School in Prague but continued to work in India. Feistmantel tried to obtain a job in India for his paleontologist cousin Otomar Pravoslav Novak around 1882. He retired in 1883 to return to Prague and continued his researches at the Czech Technical College. In May 1884 he held an exhibition on India at the Prague water tower at Karlovy Lazne. The family grew in Prague with the birth of another daughter Marie and a son Frantisek. </Text>

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<Text> :Bedrich Bernau, born Premysl Backora was a Czech amateur archaeologist, who wrote popular works on that subject and ethnography. He changed his name out of concern that publishers in Germany would be reluctant to publish books by someone with a Czech name. He was born to the teacher and writer of books for young people, Josef Mnozislav Backora . He married Anna Zofia Franclova, while he was working as an accountant at a sugar refinery in Radonice. From 1876 to 1880, they had three children. In 1881, they moved to Steti, where they lived for less than a year, then went to Planany, where he once again worked for a sugar refinery; this time as a manager. Although he spent much of his life as an accountant, for several types of businesses, his spare time was devoted to the study of culture, history, and archaeology. He collaborated with Otto's Encyclopedia, and was an active member of the National Museum Society, as well as several other organizations devoted to history. In 1895, he became an executive with the Archaeological Commission at the Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts . He was known for his ethnographic and historical studies of Bohemia, which he wrote in Czech and German. He was a contributor to the journal, Pamatky archeologicke and to an extensive guidebook, Cechy , by Jan Otto, with illustrations by Karel Liebscher. </Text>

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<Text> :Adolf Patera , was a Bohemian chemist, mineralogist and metallurgist, best known for the important role he played in the utilisation of uranium in colour production in glass, and associated with silver extraction from the mines at Joachimsthal, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, now known as Jachymov. Pateraite, supposedly a cobalt molybdate, is named after him. Toward the mid-19th century the rich silver ore of Joachimsthal had been almost exhausted and instead miners encountered a heavy black mineral which they named "Pechblende". Martin Heinrich Klaproth, a chemist, found that it could be used in dye industry. This happened shortly after the discovery of Uranus and Klaproth dubbed the black uranium oxide powder "uranium", mistakenly believing it to be an element. Adolf Patera was asked to examine the commercial possibilities of the new substance, and he presented a paper on the use of uranium to the Imperial Academy of Science in 1847, also describing a method of vanadium extraction from the uranium ores. This led to the construction of a new factory which started production in 1853 of uranium pigments for the production of uranium glass from high-grade pitchblende in a process developed by Patera. The process resulted in waste with a high radium content and was used by Pierre and Marie Curie in their separation of radium. The lustrous fire-resistant dyes coming in so many shades of yellow, black, orange and green became extremely popular and they were used as a matter of course for Czech glass and porcelain decoration, with burgeoning exports to Great Britain and France. Uranium glass is considered to be harmless and only marginally more active than background radiation. Josef Vaclav Sladek was a Czech poet, journalist and translator, member of the literary group Lumirovci , pioneer of children's poetry in Czech lands. In 1865, he graduated at the Academic Gymnasium in Prague. In 1867, he became suspected by the Austro-Hungarian police of supporting the Czech opposition movement against the monarchy. In 1868 he moved to United States, where he spent two years working as a laborer. He was interested in the fate of indigenous peoples and blacks. He described his American experience in a collection of poems and in one prose . His stay in the USA influenced him significantly. Throughout the rest of his life he focused on translating Anglo-American literature. He translated 33 plays by William Shakespeare and other works by Burns, Longfellow, Harte, Byron, Coleridge etc. Less known fact is that Sladek translated the Czech anthem Kde domov muj into English. Sladek was a good friend of Antonin Dvorak and from 1897 to 1898 lived in Vysoka u Pribrame close to Dvorak. His poems were set to music by Karel Bendl and Josef Bohuslav Foerster. In his music education he studied as a self-taught man. Years later, he became a pupil of the prominent nineteenth-century Czech aesthetician Otakar Hostinsky, and a protege of the iconoclastic musicologist and critic Zdenek Nejedly. In the years 1903-1906 he taught physics and mathematics at the High School in Domazlice. In the years leading up to the First World War Zich lived in Prague, actively participating in musical life as a critic. In this capacity he supported the efforts of Nejedly's pro-Smetana faction against the intellectual descendants of Antonin Dvorak, especially during the so-called Dvorak Affair of 1911-1914, when he called into question the artistic integrity of Dvorak's compositional language. These activities firmly allied Zich with Nejedly's academic circle at Charles University, where, in 1924, he was appointed professor of Aesthetics. He held this position until his death in 1934. As a composer, Zich was largely self-taught, although he can be said to belong to the post-Smetana lineage of Czech composers . His main contributions to concert life in Prague were the operas Malirsky napad , Vina , and Preciezky . He also created several solo vocal and choral compositions. His musical style straddles the divide between late Romanticism and early neo-classicism, combining dense orchestration, Wagnerian leitmotifs, and an intensely linear counterpoint with a playful referentiality to past styles. With the exception of Preciezky and a few individual shorter works, most of Zich's music remains unpublished. Because of his association with Nejedly, performances of Zich's music often met with bitter controversy in interwar Prague, where critics assessed new compositions based on factional allegiances. The lowest point of this was undoubtedly the premiere of Vina in 1922, which the arch-conservative critic Antonin Silhan attacked in a vituperative article entitled Finis musicae . Silhan's argument focused primarily on the opera's orchestral score, where the counterpoint occasionally borders on atonality. Zich was also the author of many folkloric studies and books on aesthetics: foremost among these are Esteticke vnimani hudby and Estetika dramatickeho umeni . In each of these he explored the application of phenomenology, derived from the work of Hegel and Husserl, to branches of the performing arts, and his theories are still the subject of debate in present-day Czech academic circles. As a musicologist he also devoted himself to the study of Smetana's life and works, with numerous analytical articles appearing in Czech-language music journals. His father, Adolf Maria Pinkas , was a politician and, later, a leading figure in the Revolutions of 1848. After completing his basic education, he studied law. At that time, he changed his name to "Sobeslav" to show his support for Czech nationalism. He is believed to have been among the group of students that held Count Leopold von Thun hostage during the June Uprising. In 1849, after the revolution was suppressed, he found it necessary to change careers and enrolled at the Academy of Fine Arts where he worked in the studios of Christian Ruben. On the advice of Josef Manes, he transferred to the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich, but stayed for only two months before taking private lessons from Johann Baptist Berdelle . In 1854, he received a scholarship to study in France, where he worked in the studios of Thomas Couture. While there, he exhibited at the Salon, got married, and came under the influence of Jean-Francois Millet. He also was a frequent visitor to the art colony in Bourron-Marlotte. He returned to Bohemia after his father's death in 1865 to look after his family. Later, he accepted a position as a drawing teacher, which he held for twenty-five years. He also taught courses for women at the Academy's graduate school and participated in planning the National Theater. Throughout his later years, he maintained his contacts with France; working for the Alliance Francaise and contributing to publications such as Le Siecle and Le Soleil. In 1885, he built a cottage in Sazava, where he had been impressed by the scenery. Four years after his death, the actor George Voskovec, his grandson, was born at that cottage. Emanuel Chvala was a Czech composer and music critic. He studied engineering and worked all his life as a railway official in Prague. But he had also studied composition with Fibich and Josef Foerster, and began writing music criticism for the literary magazine Lumir in 1878. He also wrote for the daily newspapers Politik and Narodni politika between 1880 and 1921 using the cypher '-la'. In his journalism he furthered the music of Dvorak, Fibich, Josef Suk and Vitezslav Novak. </Text>

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<Text> :Kolacek studied at the German gymnasium in Brno , then at the technical universities in Prague and Vienna. At the Charles University in Prague, under guidance of Ernst Mach, he obtained the doctoral decree in 1877. He worked as a teacher at the gymnasium in Brno and then in Prague . Only in 1891 was he named professor of mathematical physics at Charles university. During 1900 - 1902 he worked as a professor at the university in Brno but then returned to Prague. </Text>

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<Text> :Born in Nasice, his first art lessons were obtained in Osijek, where he studied with Hugo Conrad von Hotzendorf. He then went to Vienna to study philosophy and art history. At this time, he was already providing aesthetic and philosophical articles to Croatian journals. He later studied at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich and lived in Italy from 1872-77, where he copied the old masters. With the help of Josip Juraj Strossmayer, who he had met in Rome, he became a professor of archaeology and art history at the University of Zagreb. The next year, he helped establish the Society of Arts, and was, for many years, it secretary and spokesman. He also served as the first Director of the Strossmayer Gallery of Old Masters and was one of the founders of the Museum of Arts and Crafts. In 1884, he came into conflict with Strossmayer and his supporters in the People's Party, where he supported the pro-Hungarian faction, which allowed him to serve in the Croatian Parliament 1884-87. From 1887 to 1891, he studied law and became the Minister of Education and Religion in the Karoly Khuen-Hedervary administration. While in that office, he established several schools, including one for the blind and deaf, introduced physical education classes and helped to form the foundation for a unified school system. He had to leave the ministry in 1897, after a protest in which he burned a Hungarian flag. He returned to the University and, in 1906, joined the Party of Rights. Shortly thereafter, he began painting again. </Text>

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<p> language used <o> Slovene <s> Piran <p> twinned administrative body <o> Indianapolis <s> Piran <p> located in time zone <o> UTC+02:00 <s> Piran <p> located in time zone <o> UTC+01:00 <s> Piran <p> twinned administrative body <o> Aquileia <s> Piran <p> twinned administrative body <o> Castel Goffredo <s> Piran <p> twinned administrative body <o> Acqualagna <s> Piran <p> described by source <o> Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition (1885–1890) <s> Piran <p> described by source <o> The Nuttall Encyclopædia <s> Piran <p> capital of <o> Piran Municipality <s> Piran <p> described by source <o> Ottův slovník naučný <s> Piran <p> located in the administrative territorial entity <o> Piran Municipality <s> Piran <p> twinned administrative body <o> Bjugn Municipality <s> Piran <p> twinned administrative body <o> Keszthely <s> Piran <p> twinned administrative body <o> Ohrid <s> Piran <p> category of associated people <o> Category:People from Piran <s> Piran <p> twinned administrative body 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<Text> :Italy , officially the Italian Republic , is a country in Southern and Western Europe. Located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, it consists of a peninsula surrounded by the Alps and several islands, notably Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia and two enclaves: Vatican City and San Marino. Its two territorial exclaves include Campione and Pelagie Islands . It is the tenth-largest country by land area in the European continent covering an area of 301,340 km2 , and the third-most populous member state of the European Union with a population of nearly 60 million. Its capital and largest city is Rome. In antiquity, the Italian peninsula was home to numerous peoples; the Latin city of Rome in central Italy, founded as a Kingdom, became a Republic that conquered the Mediterranean world and ruled it for centuries as an Empire. With the spread of Christianity, Rome became the seat of the Catholic Church and of the Papacy. During the Early Middle Ages, Italy experienced the fall of the Western Roman Empire and inward migration from Germanic tribes. By the 11th century, Italian city-states and maritime republics expanded, bringing renewed prosperity through commerce and laying the groundwork for modern capitalism. The Italian Renaissance flourished in Florence during the 15th and 16th centuries and spread to the rest of Europe. Italian explorers also discovered new routes to the Far East and the New World, leading the European Age of Discovery. However, centuries of rivalry and infighting between the Italian city-states among other factors left the peninsula divided into numerous states until the late modern period. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Italian economic and commercial importance significantly waned. After centuries of political and territorial divisions, Italy was almost entirely unified in 1861 following Wars of independence and the Expedition of the Thousand, establishing the Kingdom of Italy. From the late 19th to the early 20th century, Italy rapidly industrialized, mainly in the north, and acquired a colonial empire, while the south remained largely impoverished and excluded from industrialization, fueling a large immigrant diaspora. From 1915 to 1918, Italy took part in World War I on the side of the Entente against the Central Powers. In 1922, following a period of crisis and turmoil, the Italian fascist dictatorship was established. During World War II, Italy was first part of the Axis until its surrender to the Allied powers and then, as parts of its territory were occupied by Nazi Germany with fascist collaboration, a co-belligerent of the Allies during the Italian resistance and the liberation of Italy . Following the end of the war, the monarchy was replaced by republic via referendum resulting prolonged economic prosperity, often termed as economic miracle. Italy has the eighth-largest nominal GDP in the world, the second-largest manufacturing industry in Europe and has a significant role in regional and global economic, military, cultural, and diplomatic affairs. Italy is a founding and leading member of the European Union, and it is in numerous international institutions including NATO, the G7, the Mediterranean Union, and the Latin Union. The country is the source of multiple inventions and discoveries, and considered as a cultural superpower and has long been a global centre of art, music, literature, cuisine, science and technology, and fashion. It has the world's largest number of World Heritage Sites , and is the world's fifth-most visited country. San Marino , officially the Republic of San Marino and also known as the Most Serene Republic of San Marino , is a European microstate surrounded by Italy. Located on the northeastern side of the Apennine Mountains, it is the fifth-smallest country in the world, with a land area of just over 61 km2 and a population of 33,660 as of 2022. San Marino is a landlocked country; however, its northeastern end is within ten kilometres of the Italian city of Rimini on the Adriatic coast. The country's capital city, the City of San Marino, is located atop Monte Titano, while its largest settlement is Dogana, within the municipality of Serravalle. San Marino's official language is Italian. The country derives its name from Saint Marinus, a stonemason from the then-Roman island of Rab in present-day Croatia. Born in 275 AD, Marinus participated in the rebuilding of Rimini's city walls after their destruction by Liburnian pirates. Marinus later founded an independent monastic community on Monte Titano in 301 AD; thus, San Marino lays claim to being the oldest extant sovereign state, as well as the oldest constitutional republic. Uniquely, San Marino's constitution dictates that its democratically elected legislature, the Grand and General Council, must elect two heads of state every six months. Known as the Captains Regent, they serve concurrently and with equal powers. Masculinity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed, and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex, as anyone can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures, subcultures, ethnic groups and historical periods. Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in Western society include strength, courage, independence, leadership, and assertiveness. When women's labor participation increased, there were men who felt less comfortable in their masculinity because it was increasingly difficult for them to reconfirm their status as the breadwinner. The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300. This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference . People regardless of biological sex may exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is geographically divided among the Swiss Plateau, the Alps and the Jura; the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, whereas most of the country's population of 9 million are concentrated on the plateau, which hosts the largest cities and economic centres, including Zurich, Geneva and Basel. Switzerland originates from the Old Swiss Confederacy established in the Late Middle Ages, following a series of military successes against Austria and Burgundy; the Federal Charter of 1291 is considered the country's founding document. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognised in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Switzerland has maintained a policy of armed neutrality since the 16th century and has not fought an international war since 1815. It joined the United Nations only in 2002 but pursues an active foreign policy that includes frequent involvement in peace building. Switzerland is the birthplace of the Red Cross and hosts the headquarters or offices of most major international institutions, including the WTO, the WHO, the ILO, FIFA, and the United Nations. It is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association , but not part of the European Union , the European Economic Area, or the eurozone; however, it participates in the European single market and the Schengen Area. Switzerland is a federal republic composed of 26 cantons, with federal authorities based in Bern. Switzerland is one of the world's most developed countries, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest gross domestic product per capita. Switzerland ranks first in the Human Development Index since 2021 and performs highly also on several international metrics, including economic competitiveness and democratic governance. Cities such as Zurich, Geneva and Basel rank among the highest in terms of quality of life, albeit with some of the highest costs of living. Ticino , sometimes Tessin , officially the Republic and Canton of Ticino or less formally the Canton of Ticino, is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of eight districts and its capital city is Bellinzona. It is also traditionally divided into the Sopraceneri and the Sottoceneri, respectively north and south of Monte Ceneri. Red and blue are the colours of its flag. Ticino is the southernmost canton of Switzerland. It is one of the three large southern Alpine cantons, along with Valais and the Grisons. However, unlike all other cantons, it lies almost entirely south of the Alps and has no natural access to the Swiss Plateau. Through the main crest of the Gotthard and adjacent mountain ranges, it borders the canton of Valais to the northwest, the canton of Uri to the north and the canton of Grisons to the northeast; the latter canton being also the only one to share some borders with Ticino at the level of the plains. The canton shares international borders with Italy as well, including a small Italian enclave. Named after the Ticino, its longest river, it is the only canton where Italian is the sole official language and represents the bulk of the Italian-speaking area of Switzerland along with the southern parts of the Grisons. In 2020, Ticino had a population of 350,986. The largest city is Lugano, and the two other notable centres are Bellinzona and Locarno. While the geography of the Sopraceneri region is marked by the High Alps and Lake Maggiore, that of the Sottoceneri is marked by the Alpine foothills and Lake Lugano. The canton, which has become one of the major tourist destinations of Switzerland, distinguishes itself from the rest of the country by its warm climate, and its meridional culture and gastronomy. The land now occupied by the canton was annexed from Italian cities in the 15th century by various Swiss forces in the last transalpine campaigns of the Old Swiss Confederacy. In the Helvetic Republic, established in 1798, it was divided between the two new cantons of Bellinzona and Lugano. The Act of Mediation in 1803 saw these two cantons combine to form the modern canton of Ticino. Because of its unusual position, the canton relies on important infrastructure for connection with the rest of the country. The first major north-south railway link across the Alps, the Gotthard Railway, opened in 1882. In 2016, the Gotthard Base Tunnel was inaugurated, which finally provided a fully flat route through the Alps. Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is conceptually distinct from both the female biological sex and from womanhood, as all humans can exhibit feminine and masculine traits, regardless of sex and gender. Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gracefulness, gentleness, empathy, humility, and sensitivity, though traits associated with femininity vary across societies and individuals, and are influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors. Despite the terms femininity and masculinity being in common usage, there is little scientific agreement about what femininity and masculinity are.: 5 Among scholars, the concept of femininity has varying meanings. Professor of English Tara Williams has suggested that modern notions of femininity in English-speaking society began during the medieval period at the time of the bubonic plague in the 1300s. Women in the Early Middle Ages were referred to simply within their traditional roles of maiden, wife, or widow.: 4 After the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in society. The words femininity and womanhood are first recorded in Chaucer around 1380. Piran is a town in southwestern Slovenia on the Gulf of Piran on the Adriatic Sea. It is one of the three major towns of Slovenian Istria. The town is known for its medieval architecture, with narrow streets and compact houses. Piran is the administrative seat of the Municipality of Piran and one of Slovenia's major tourist attractions. Until the mid-20th century, Italian was the dominant language, but it was replaced by Slovene following the Istrian exodus. In the pre-Roman era, the hills in the Piran area were inhabited by Illyrian Histri tribes who were farmers, hunters and fishermen. They were also pirates who disrupted Roman trade in the northern Adriatic. The decline of the Roman Empire, from the 5th century AD onward, and incursions by the Avars and Slavs at the end of the 6th century, prompted the Roman population to withdraw into easily defensible locations such as islands or peninsulas. This started local urbanisation and by the 7th century, under Byzantine rule, Piran had become heavily fortified. Despite the defences, the Franks conquered Istria in 788 and Slavs settled in the region. By 952, Piran had become a part of the Holy Roman Empire. The earliest reliable records of the area are in the 7th century work Cosmographia by an anonymous cleric of Ravenna. The name of the town most probably originates from the Greek "pyrrhos", which means "red", because of the reddish flysch stones commonly found in the town's area. Some historians also refer it to "pyros", meaning fire, due to ancient lighthouses which were supposed to be on the edge of the marina. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Václav Rosický <p> instance of <o> human <s> Václav Rosický <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Esperanto <s> Václav Rosický <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Václav Rosický <p> place of birth <o> Prague <s> Václav Rosický <p> occupation <o> astronomer <s> Václav Rosický <p> occupation <o> Esperantist <s> Václav Rosický <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Václav Rosický <p> place of death <o> Sedlčany <s> Václav Rosický <p> given name <o> Václav <s> Václav Rosický <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Václav Rosický <p> family name <o> Rosický <s> Václav Rosický <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Václav Rosický <s> František Oldřich Vaněk <p> instance of <o> human <s> František Oldřich Vaněk <p> place of birth <o> Olomouc <s> František Oldřich Vaněk <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague <s> František Oldřich Vaněk <p> place of death <o> New Town, Prague <s> František Oldřich Vaněk <p> given name <o> František <s> František Oldřich Vaněk <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Law, Charles University in Prague <s> František Oldřich Vaněk <p> family name <o> Vaněk <s> František Oldřich Vaněk <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> František Oldřich Vaněk <p> topic's main category <o> Category:František Oldřich Vaněk <s> Matouš Talíř <p> instance of <o> human <s> Matouš Talíř <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Czech <s> Matouš Talíř <p> occupation <o> politician <s> Matouš Talíř <p> occupation <o> jurist <s> Matouš Talíř <p> occupation <o> pedagogue <s> Matouš Talíř <p> given name <o> Matouš <s> Matouš Talíř <p> place of death <o> Hluboká nad Vltavou <s> Matouš Talíř <p> place of birth <o> Střížov <s> Matouš Talíř <p> occupation <o> statistician <s> Matouš Talíř <p> position held <o> Rector of Charles University <s> Matouš Talíř <p> position held <o> Member of the Bohemian Diet <s> Matouš Talíř <p> position held <o> Prague City Assembly member <s> Matouš Talíř <p> position held <o> Member of Abgeordnetenhaus <s> Matouš Talíř <p> employer <o> Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague <s> Matouš Talíř <p> member of political party <o> Old Czech Party <s> Matouš Talíř <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Matouš Talíř <s> Matouš Talíř <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Law, Charles University in Prague <s> Matouš Talíř <p> described by source <o> Almanach československých právníků <s> Matouš Talíř <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Matouš Talíř <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Karel Laštovka <p> instance of <o> human <s> Karel Laštovka <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Karel Laštovka <p> occupation <o> professor <s> Karel Laštovka <p> occupation <o> jurist <s> Karel Laštovka <p> position held <o> rector <s> Karel Laštovka <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Karel Laštovka <p> place of birth <o> Kolín <s> Karel Laštovka <p> occupation <o> dean <s> Karel Laštovka <p> place of death <o> Dejvice <s> Karel Laštovka <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Law, Charles University in Prague <s> Karel Laštovka <p> employer <o> Faculty of Law, Charles University in Prague <s> Karel Laštovka <p> given name <o> Karel <s> Karel Laštovka <p> family name <o> Laštovka <s> Karel Laštovka <p> described by source <o> Almanach československých právníků <s> Josef Hanuš <p> instance of <o> human <s> Josef Hanuš <p> place of death <o> Brno <s> Josef Hanuš <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Josef Hanuš <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Josef Hanuš <p> educated at <o> Charles University <s> Josef Hanuš <p> occupation <o> historian <s> Josef Hanuš <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Josef Hanuš <p> academic degree <o> professor <s> Josef Hanuš <p> place of birth <o> Benecko <s> Josef Hanuš <p> family name <o> Hanuš <s> Josef Hanuš <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague <s> Josef Hanuš <p> employer <o> Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague <s> Josef Hanuš <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Josef Hanuš <p> occupation <o> literary historian <s> Josef Hanuš <p> given name <o> Josef <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> instance of <o> human <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> German <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> place of death <o> Prague <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> country of citizenship <o> Czechoslovakia <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> occupation <o> teacher <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> occupation <o> historian <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> occupation <o> orientalist <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> place of birth <o> Brandýs nad Labem <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Justin Václav Prášek <p> described by source <o> Lexikon české literatury. 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<Text> :Otto's Encyclopedia , published at the turn of the 20th century, is the largest encyclopedia written in Czech. For its scope and the quality of the writing, it is comparable to the greatest world encyclopedias of its time, such as Encyclopaedia Britannica. At the beginning of the 1880s, Jan Otto, a Czech book-seller and publisher, began planning a new general Czech encyclopedia. He was inspired by the first Czech encyclopedia by F. L. Rieger, a fourteen-volume work published between 1860 and 1874, but wanted to go further. For a long time Otto could not find an eligible editor-in-chief until he began to cooperate with Jan Maly, a former co-editor of the Reiger's encyclopedia, who laid down a concept of the new work with a proposed name - Czech national encyclopedia in 1884. After Maly's death the following year, Otto found a new editor-in-chief, Tomas Masaryk later the president of Czechoslovakia, and in 1886 the actual work began . Work on encyclopedia then was slower than Masaryk promised. The next year, Masaryk got involved in a tempestuous dispute over the authenticity of the allegedly historical Zelenohorsky and Kralovedvorsky manuscripts and resigned from the editorship. Otto managed to establish a new editorial group from prominent technicians, theologians and representatives of Czech universities including figures such as Karel Boromejsky Madl. Their intensive work and the work of their collaborators lead to the publication of the first volume of the encyclopedia, under the name Ottuv slovnik naucny , in January 1888. From that point onwards, the work progressed without major problems and volumes were published regularly until the last one appeared in 1908. Otto's Encyclopedia consists of 28 volumes. It contains approximately 150,000 entries printed on 28,912 pages, using an estimated 130 million letters. There are nearly 5,000 images and illustrations and 479 pages of attachments in the encyclopedia. Around 55 main editors and 1,100 external collaborators participated in its creation. Immediately after finishing his encyclopedia, Otto began to plan a second, sixteen-volume revised edition and started to prepare its realization. The preparation was continued by others even after he died and during the World War I but it was never completed due to quickly rising expenses. </Text>

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Osobnosti, díla, instituce <s> Jan Máchal <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Jan Máchal <p> copyright status as a creator <o> copyrights on works have expired <s> Jan Máchal <p> copyright status as a creator <o> part of the copyrights on oeuvre has expired </Graph>

<Text> :Stanislaw Marian Kutrzeba was a Polish historian and politician who was Professor of the Jagiellonian University from 1908, and then until the end of his life the Chair of Studies in Polish law. He was chair of the Law Department , university's rector , General Secretary of Polish Academy of Learning and its president . He was one of many professors of Jagiellonian University arrested by Nazis during Sonderaktion Krakau in 1939. After being freed in 1940, he took part in the underground education. In 1945, he was deputy to the State National Council. Stanislaw Kutrzeba spent his youth in Krakow, where he finished his education, obtaining a doctorate in law from the Jagiellonian University in 1898; he also studied abroad and in 1902 he obtained a habilitation. His career was closely connected to the university where he obtained his doctorate: he became a professor of the Jagiellonian University in 1908 and from then until the end of his life was the Chair of Studies in Polish law. Chair of the Law Department , he also held the post of university's rector . He was also an activist in other organizations, the most prominent of which was the Polish Academy of Learning. He was its General Secretary and its president . Other organizations he was active in included: Warsaw Scientific Society, Lwow Scientific Society, Poznan Society of Friends of Arts and Sciences, Polish Historical Society and Krakow's Historical and Monument Society. He was a member of foreign and international organizations, such as the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the French Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. In November 1939 he was arrested by German Nazis during their purge of Krakow's Polish intellectuals . Until February 1940 he was a prisoner in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp. Upon release, he joined the Polish Underground State. He became a member of the Committee of Three, which aided persecuted families of persons related to the university; he was also active in underground education. Karel Teige was a Czech modernist avant-garde artist, writer, critic and one of the most important figures of the 1920s and 1930s movement. He was a member of the Devetsil movement in the 1920s and also worked as an editor and graphic designer for Devetsil's monthly magazine ReD . One of his major works on architecture theory is The Minimum Dwelling . Teige was born in Prague. With evidently endless energy, he introduced modern art to Prague. Devetsil-sponsored exhibitions and events brought international avant-garde figures like Le Corbusier, Man Ray, Paul Klee, Vladimir Mayakovsky, and Walter Gropius, among many others, to lecture and perform in Prague. Teige interpreted their work, sometimes literally, for the Czech audience. In his 1935 Prague lecture, Andre Breton paid tribute to his "perfect intellectual fellowship" with Teige and Nezval: "Constantly interpreted by Teige in the most lively way, made to undergo an all-powerful lyric thrust by Nezval, Surrealism can flatter itself that it has blossomed in Prague as it has in Paris." Teige contributed to the 1926 book Abeceda 'Alphabet', which included a collection of poems by Nezval, one for each letter of the alphabet. The poems were set against a photomontage that Teige designed; bringing together typography and photographs. The photographs, taken by Karel Paspa, were posed images of the choreographer Milca Mayerova. Mayerova created a choreographed piece that accompanied Nezval's poems, and the photographs were stills from that piece. Although not an architect, Teige was an articulate and knowledgeable architecture critic, an active participant in CIAM, and friends with Hannes Meyer, the second director of the Bauhaus. From 1929 to 1930 he gave guest lectures at the Bauhaus in Dessau. At the same time, he participated in the establishment of the Left Front. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> coat of arms of Florence <p> instance of <o> coat of arms <s> coat of arms of Florence <p> country <o> Republic of Florence <s> Priorato delle Arti <p> instance of <o> organization <s> Priorato delle Arti <p> country <o> Republic of Florence <s> aristocracy <p> instance of <o> social class <s> aristocracy <p> instance of <o> form of state <s> aristocracy <p> subclass of <o> oligarchy <s> aristocracy <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> aristocracy <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> aristocracy <p> described by source <o> New International Encyclopedia <s> aristocracy <p> practiced by <o> aristocrat <s> aristocracy <p> part of <o> Plato's five regimes <s> aristocracy <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Aristocracy <s> aristocracy <p> instance of <o> form of government <s> aristocracy <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> aristocracy <p> described by 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<Text> :Aristocracy 'rule of the best'; from aristos 'best', and kratos 'power, strength') is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocrats. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia , meaning 'rule of the best'. At the time of the word's origins in ancient Greece, the Greeks conceived it as rule by the best-qualified citizens--and often contrasted it favorably with monarchy, rule by an individual. The term was first used by such ancient Greeks as Aristotle and Plato, who used it to describe a system where only the best of the citizens, chosen through a careful process of selection, would become rulers, and hereditary rule would actually have been forbidden, unless the rulers' children performed best and were better endowed with the attributes that make a person fit to rule compared with every other citizen in the polity. Hereditary rule in this understanding is more related to oligarchy, a corrupted form of aristocracy where there is rule by a few, but not by the best. Plato, Socrates, Aristotle, Xenophon, and the Spartans considered aristocracy to be inherently better than the ideal form of rule by the many , but they also considered the corrupted form of aristocracy to be worse than the corrupted form of democracy . This belief was rooted in the assumption that the masses could only produce average policy, while the best of men could produce the best policy, if they were indeed the best of men. Later Polybius in his analysis of the Roman Constitution used the concept of aristocracy to describe his conception of a republic as a mixed form of government, along with democracy and monarchy in their conception from then, as a system of checks and balances, where each element checks the excesses of the other. The concept evolved in ancient Greece in which a council of leading citizens was commonly empowered. That was contrasted with representative democracy in which a council of citizens was appointed as the "senate" of a city state or other political unit. The Greeks did not like the concept of monarchy, and as their democratic system fell, aristocracy was upheld. In his 1651 book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes describes an aristocracy as a commonwealth in which the representative of the citizens is an assembly by part only. It is a system in which only a small part of the population represents the government; "certain men distinguished from the rest". Modern depictions of aristocracy tend to regard it not as the ancient Greek concept of rule by the best, but more as an oligarchy or plutocracy--rule by the few or the wealthy. The Golden Rose is a gold ornament, which popes of the Catholic Church have traditionally blessed annually. It is occasionally conferred as a token of reverence or affection. Recipients have included churches and sanctuaries, royalty, military figures, and governments. The rose is blessed on the third Sunday of Lent, Laetare Sunday , when rose-coloured vestments and draperies substitute for the penitential purple, symbolizing hope and joy in the midst of Lenten solemnity. Throughout most of Lent, Catholics pray, fast, perform penance, and meditate upon the malice of sin and its negative effects; but Rose Sunday is an opportunity to look beyond Christ's death at Calvary and forward to His joyous Resurrection. The beautiful Golden Rose symbolizes the Risen Christ of glorious majesty. The rose's fragrance, according to Pope Leo XIII, "shows the sweet odor of Christ which should be widely diffused by His faithful followers" , and the thorns and red tint of the petals refer to His bloody Passion. Many popes, on the occasion of conferring the Rose, have in sermons and letters explained its mystical significance. Innocent III said: "As Laetare Sunday, the day set apart for the function, represents love after hate, joy after sorrow, and fullness after hunger, so does the rose designate by its colour, odour and taste, love, joy and satiety respectively," also comparing the rose to the flower referred to in Isaiah 11:1: "There shall come forth a rod out of the root of Jesse, and a flower shall rise up out of his root." Before the pontificate of Sixtus IV the Golden Rose consisted of a simple and single blossom made of pure gold and slightly tinted with red. Later, to embellish the ornament while still retaining the mystical symbolism, the gold was left untinted but rubies and afterwards many precious gems were placed in the heart of the rose or on its petals. The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant in West Asia. The Mediterranean has played a central role in the history of Western civilization. Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago. The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of about 2,500,000 km2 , representing 0.7% of the global ocean surface, but its connection to the Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar--the narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates the Iberian Peninsula in Europe from Morocco in Africa--is only 14 km wide. The Mediterranean Sea encompasses a vast number of islands, some of them of volcanic origin. The two largest islands, in both area and population, are Sicily and Sardinia. The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5,109 m +-1 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. It lies between latitudes 30deg and 46deg N and longitudes 6deg W and 36deg E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Alexandretta, on the southeastern coast of Turkey, is about 4,000 kilometres . The north-south length varies greatly between different shorelines and whether only straight routes are considered. Also including longitudinal changes, the shortest shipping route between the multinational Gulf of Trieste and the Libyan coastline of the Gulf of Sidra is about 1,900 kilometres . The water temperatures are mild in winter and warm in summer and give name to the Mediterranean climate type due to the majority of precipitation falling in the cooler months. Its southern and eastern coastlines are lined with hot deserts not far inland, but the immediate coastline on all sides of the Mediterranean tends to have strong maritime moderation. The sea was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between the peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. The Roman Empire maintained nautical hegemony over the sea for centuries and is the only state to have ever controlled all of its coast. The Italian Peninsula , also known as the Italic Peninsula, Apennine Peninsula or Italian Boot, is a peninsula extending from the southern Alps in the north to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south. It is nicknamed lo Stivale . Three smaller peninsulas contribute to this characteristic shape, namely Calabria , Salento and Gargano . The backbone of the Italian Peninsula consists of the Apennine Mountains, from which it takes one of its names. The peninsula comprises much of Italy and also includes the microstates of San Marino and Vatican City. Geographically, the minimum extent of the Italian Peninsula consists of the land south of a line extending from the Magra to the Rubicon rivers, north of the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines. It excludes the Po Valley and the southern slopes of the Alps. The Italian Peninsula has the only active volcano on continental Europe, Mount Vesuvius. In general discourse, "Italy" and the "Italian Peninsula" are often used as synonymous terms. However, Northern Italy may be excluded from the Italian Peninsula. From a political point of view, the Italian Peninsula in the strict sense is divided into various states listed in the following table: The March of Tuscany was a march of the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy Roman Empire during the Middle Ages. Located in northwestern central Italy, it bordered the Papal States to the south, the Ligurian Sea to the west and Lombardy to the north. It comprised a collection of counties, largely in the valley of the River Arno, originally centered on Lucca. The march was a Carolingian creation, a successor of the Lombard duchy of Tuscia. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Tuscia from 568 had been part of the Italian Kingdom of the Lombards until, in 754, the Frankish kings intervened in the conflict with Pope Stephen II. By the Donation of Pepin, the southern part of Tuscia around Viterbo became part of the newly established Papal States, while the northern part developed into the Imperial March of Tuscany after Charlemagne had finally conquered the Lombard kingdom in 773/74. Lombardy proper became the nucleus of the Imperial kingdom of Italy, together with the marches of Tuscany and Verona. The first Tuscan margrave was Adalbert I, who was granted that title in 846. Before him, his father and grandfather, Count Boniface I of Lucca and Boniface II, probably of Bavarian origin, had controlled most of the counties of the region and had held higher titles as well, such as prefect of Corsica or duke of Lucca. The Bonifacii held the march until 931. During the late ninth and early tenth century, the support of the margraves of Tuscany was instrumental for any candidate intent on becoming king of Italy. In 931, Hugh of Arles, who had made himself king of Italy, dispossessed the Bonifacii in an attempt to consolidate all the important fiefs of Italy in his relatives' hands. He granted Tuscany to his brother Boso. It remained in the hands of members of the family known as the Bosonids down to 1001. It also retained its influence regarding royal elections. As late as 1027, Rainier was deposed from the march by Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II for opposing him as king. The Florentine florin was a gold coin struck from 1252 to 1533 with no significant change in its design or metal content standard during that time. It had 54 grains of nominally pure or 'fine' gold with a purchasing power difficult to estimate but ranging according to social grouping and perspective from approximately 140 to 1,000 modern US dollars. The name of the coin comes from the Giglio bottonato , the floral emblem of the city, which is represented at the head of the coin. The fiorino d'oro was used in the Republic of Florence and was the first European gold coin struck in sufficient quantities since the 7th century to play a significant commercial role. The florin was recognised across large parts of Europe. The territorial usage of the lira and the florin often overlapped; where the lira was used for smaller transactions , the florin was for larger transactions such as those used in dowries, international trade or for tax-related matters. In the 14th century, about a 150 European states and local coin-issuing authorities made their own copies of the florin. The most important of these was the Hungarian forint, because the Kingdom of Hungary was a major source of European gold . The design of the original Florentine florins was the distinctive fleur-de-lis badge of the city on one side and on the other a standing and facing figure of St. John the Baptist wearing a cilice. On other countries' florins, the inscriptions were changed , and local heraldic devices were substituted for the fleur-de-lis. Later, other figures were often substituted for St. John. On the Hungarian forints, St. John was re-labelled St. Ladislaus, an early Christian king and patron saint of Hungary, and a battle axe substituted for the original's sceptre. Gradually the image became more regal looking. </Text>

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<Text> :Historical regions are geographical regions which, at some point in history, had a cultural, ethnic, linguistic or political basis, regardless of latter-day borders. There are some historical regions that can be considered as "active", for example: Moravia, which is held by the Czech Republic, is both a recognized part of the country as well as a historical region. They are used as delimitations for studying and analysing social development of period-specific cultures without any reference to contemporary political, economic or social organisations. The fundamental principle underlying this view is that older political and mental structures exist which exercise greater influence on the spatial-social identity of individuals than is understood by the contemporary world, bound to and often blinded by its own worldview - e.g. the focus on the nation-state. Definitions of regions vary, and regions can include macroregions such as Europe, territories of traditional sovereign states or smaller microregional areas. Geographic proximity is generally the required precondition for the emergence of a regional identity. In Europe, regional identities are often derived from the Migration Period but for the contemporary era are also often related to the territorial transformations that followed World War I and those that followed the Cold War. A composer is a person who writes music. The term is especially used to indicate composers of Western classical music, or those who are composers by occupation. Many composers are, or were, also skilled performers of music. The term is descended from Latin, compono; literally "one who puts together". The earliest use of the term in a musical context given by the Oxford English Dictionary is from Thomas Morley's 1597 A Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical Music, where he says "Some wil be good descanters and yet wil be but bad composers". "Composer" is a loose term that generally refers to any person who writes music. More specifically, it is often used to denote people who are composers by occupation, or those who work in the tradition of Western classical music. Writers of exclusively or primarily songs may be called composers, but since the 20th century the terms 'songwriter' or 'singer-songwriter' are more often used, particularly in the tradition of popular music. In other contexts, the term 'composer' can refer to a literary writer, or more rarely and generally, someone who combines pieces into a whole. Across cultures and traditions composers may write and transmit music in a variety of ways. In much popular music, the composer writes a composition, and it is then transmitted via oral tradition. Conversely, in some Western classical traditions music may be composed aurally--i.e. "in the mind of the musician"--and subsequently written and passed through written documents. A website is a collection of web pages and related content that is identified by a common domain name and published on at least one web server. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, such as news, education, commerce, entertainment or social networking. Hyperlinking between web pages guides the navigation of the site, which often starts with a home page. As of May 2023, the top 5 most visited websites are Google Search, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web. There are also private websites that can only be accessed on a private network, such as a company's internal website for its employees. Users can access websites on a range of devices, including desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones. The app used on these devices is called a web browser. The World Wide Web was created in 1989 by the British CERN computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to use for anyone, contributing to the immense growth of the Web. Before the introduction of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol , other protocols such as File Transfer Protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a simple directory structure in which the user navigates and where they choose files to download. Documents were most often presented as plain text files without formatting or were encoded in word processor formats. While "web site" was the original spelling , this variant has become rarely used, and "website" has become the standard spelling. All major style guides, such as The Chicago Manual of Style and the AP Stylebook, have reflected this change. In archaeology and anthropology, prehistory is subdivided around the three-age system, this list includes the use of the three-age system as well as a number of various designation used in reference to sub-ages within the traditional three. The dates for each age can vary by region. On the geologic time scale, the Holocene epoch starts at the end of the last glacial period of the current ice age and continues to the present. The beginning of the Mesolithic is usually considered to correspond to the beginning of the Holocene epoch. </Text>

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<Text> :Saint Cecilia , also spelled Cecelia, was a Roman virgin martyr and is venerated in Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and some Lutheran churches, such as the Church of Sweden. She became the patroness of music and musicians, it being written that, as the musicians played at her wedding, Cecilia "sang in her heart to the Lord". Musical compositions are dedicated to her, and her feast, on 22 November, is the occasion of concerts and musical festivals. She is also known as Cecilia of Rome. Saint Cecilia is one of several virgin martyrs commemorated by name in the Canon of the Mass in the Latin Church. The church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, founded in the 3rd century by Pope Urban I, is believed to be on the site of the house where she lived and died. It is popularly supposed that Cecilia was a noble lady of Rome who, with her husband Valerian, his brother Tiburtius, and a Roman soldier named Maximus, suffered martyrdom in about 230, under the Emperor Alexander Severus. Giovanni Battista de Rossi, however, argues that instead she perished in Sicily under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius between 176 and 180, citing the report of Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers . According to the story, despite her vow of virginity, her parents forced her to marry a pagan nobleman named Valerian. During the wedding, Cecilia sat apart singing to God in her heart, and for that, she was later declared the saint of musicians. When the time came for her marriage to be consummated, Cecilia told Valerian that watching over her was an angel of the Lord, who would punish him if he sexually violated her but would love him if he respected her virginity. When Valerian asked to see the angel, Cecilia replied that he could see the angel if he would go to the third milestone on the Via Appia and be baptized by Pope Urban I. After following Cecilia's advice, he saw the angel standing beside her, crowning her with a chaplet of roses and lilies. </Text>

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<Text> :Austria , formally the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine federal states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous city and federal state. Austria is bordered by Germany to the northwest, Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia to the northeast, Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The country occupies an area of 83,879 km2 and has a population of around 9 million. Austria emerged from the remnants of the Eastern and Hungarian March at the end of the first millennium. Originally a margraviate of Bavaria, it developed into a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire in 1156 and was later made an archduchy in 1453. In the 16th century, Vienna began serving as the empire's administrative capital and Austria thus became the heartland of the Habsburg monarchy. Before the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire two years later, in 1804, Austria established its own empire, which became a great power and the dominant member of the German Confederation. The empire's defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 led to the end of the Confederation and paved the way for the establishment of Austria-Hungary a year later, Austria was its part with the name Cisleithania. After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, Emperor Franz Joseph declared war on Serbia, which ultimately escalated into World War I. The empire's defeat and subsequent collapse led to the proclamation of the Republic of German-Austria in 1918 and the First Austrian Republic in 1919. During the interwar period, anti-parliamentarian sentiments culminated in the formation of an Austrofascist dictatorship under Engelbert Dollfuss in 1934. A year before the outbreak of World War II, Austria was annexed into Nazi Germany by Adolf Hitler, and it became a sub-national division. After its liberation in 1945 and a decade of Allied occupation, the country regained its sovereignty and declared its perpetual neutrality in 1955. Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy with a popularly elected president as head of state and a chancellor as head of government and chief executive. Major cities include Vienna, Graz, Linz, Salzburg, and Innsbruck. Austria has the 17th highest nominal GDP per capita with high standards of living; it was ranked 25th in the world for its Human Development Index in 2021. Vienna is the capital, largest city, and one of nine federal states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's most populous city and its primate city, with about two million inhabitants , and its cultural, economic, and political center. It is the fifth-largest city proper by population in the European Union and the largest of all cities on the Danube river by population. The city lies on the eastern edge of the Vienna Woods --the northeasternmost foothills of the Alps, that separate Vienna from the more western parts of Austria--at the transition to the Pannonian Basin. It sits on the Danube, and is also traversed by the highly regulated Wienfluss . Vienna is completely surrounded by Lower Austria, and lies around 50 km west of Slovakia and its capital Bratislava, 60 km northwest of Hungary, and 60 km south of Moravia . The once Celtic settlement of Vedunia was converted by the Romans into the castrum and canaba Vindobona in the 1st century, and was elevated to a municipium with Roman city rights in 212. This was followed by a time in the sphere of influece of the Lombards and later the Pannonian Avars, when Slavs formed the majority of the region's population. From the 8th century on, the region was settled by the Baiuvarii. In 976, the Babenbergs established the Margraviate of Austria. In 1221, Vienna was granted city rights by Leopold VI. The reign of the Habsburgs started in 1278. In 1558, Vienna became the capital of the Holy Roman Empire, which it remained until 1806. It was the capital of the Austrian Empire from 1804 to 1867, and of the Cisleithanian part of Austria-Hungary from 1867 to 1918, and subsequently became the capital of Austria. Until the beginning of the 20th century, Vienna was the largest German-speaking city in the world, and before the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I, the city had two million inhabitants. Today, it is the second-largest German-speaking city after Berlin. Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations, OPEC and the OSCE. In 2001, the city center was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In July 2017 it was moved to the list of World Heritage in Danger. Prince Albert Casimir of Saxony, Duke of Teschen was a Saxon prince from the House of Wettin who married into the Habsburg imperial family. He was noted as an art collector and founded the Albertina in Vienna, one of the largest and finest collections of old master prints and drawings in the world. Albert was a younger son of King Augustus III of Poland and Maria Josepha of Austria, a first cousin of Empress Maria Theresa, being the eldest daughter of Emperor Joseph I. Prince Albert of Saxony, Duke of Teschen, was also one of the godparents to his namesake, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Young Albert was specifically chosen by Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria to be her husband. This was a special favour granted by her mother, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, because marriages of imperial children were usually used for diplomatic purposes. Still, the betrothal and wedding had to wait until the death of her father, Emperor Francis I, and the wedding decorations were black because it occurred during the official mourning period after his death. From his father-in-law's estate, Albert received the territory of Teschen in Austrian Silesia and was accordingly given the title of Duke of Teschen. The Silesian Duchy of Teschen had been inherited by Emperor Francis through his father's Gonzaga ancestry, as compensation for the lost Duchy of Montferrat, taken from them in favor of the dukes of Savoy. Archduchess Maria Christina, the daughter of Francis of Lorraine, received the duchy among her dowry. Prince Albert of Saxony thus became the Duke of Teschen, the only non-Habsburg to become such after the title passed into Habsburg control. Their marriage remained childless except for a daughter that died as a baby, and upon the death of the widowed Albert in 1822, Teschen was granted to their adopted son, Archduke Charles of Austria, who became Duke of Teschen and started the Habsburg-Lorraine branch of Dukes of Teschen. A further meaning is a room decorated by pasting prints onto the wall in a quasi-collage style to form a sort of wallpaper, an 18th-century fashion, of which several examples survive. One of the largest, though atypically the prints are cut out round shapes, that are pasted well spaced apart, is at The Vyne, Basingstoke, Hampshire. For conservation reasons, works on paper cannot be permanently displayed, as light, temperature, and humidity conditions leave them vulnerable to damage, normally limiting an open display to no more than 6 months. They are kept in inert, acid-free boxes, albums, or portfolios behind closed doors; which considerations of space would dictate in any case for the vast majority. Where possible, they are mounted on archivally safe supports, but large collections still contain less important items loose in boxes. Storage may be in the same room as the viewing is done , but as the largest collections have well over a million items stores are often located 'behind the scenes', along with the curators' offices. Typically, a large print room appears like a library reading room, and the visitor sits at a desk equipped with a stand or easel, fills in a request slip, and the material requested is brought out for them by curatorial staff, who are able to offer further information about works and artists. Visitors are often able to compare a selection of works by different artists, aiding connoisseurial study. Most national collections can be seen by the public more easily than is often realised. Usually, visitors of all sorts, whether researchers or not, are entitled to view works on paper not on display in the galleries, which will form the great majority of an institution's collection, thereby making print rooms an essential resource for enabling our understanding and appreciation of works on paper - in particular, how artists conceive of finished paintings through preparatory studies, and how printmaking traditions and techniques have evolved over the centuries. On a national level, print rooms tend to differ, each having their own specialism, though collections often overlap in content. There are links to lists of print rooms at the end of this article; most lead to the gallery's or museum's web-pages, which explain visiting arrangements. In many cases, appointments need to be made in advance, and proof of identity should usually be provided. While it is helpful to outline what you would like to see , visitors are also usually welcome to discuss their needs more casually by phoning or emailing in advance of their appointment. It is important to remember that not all material will be available to view, depending on current loans and exhibitions commitments and the condition of works. Some especially fragile or valuable items may not normally be available for viewing. Josef Georg Kornhausel was an Austrian architect of the first half of the 19th century. He primarily employed the contemporary style of Neoclassical architecture, moving to the Biedermeier style in his later oevre. The Innere Stadt is the 1st municipal district of Vienna located in the center of the Austrian capital. The Innere Stadt is the old town of Vienna. Until the city boundaries were expanded in 1850, the Innere Stadt was congruent with the city of Vienna. Traditionally it was divided into four quarters, which were designated after important town gates: Stubenviertel , Karntner Viertel , Widmerviertel , Schottenviertel . The first district is, with a workforce of 100,745, the largest employment locale in Vienna. This is partially due to tourism, as well as the presence of many corporate headquarters due to the district's central location. Innere Stadt is the central district of Vienna. It borders Leopoldstadt in the northeast, Landstrasse in the east, Wieden and Mariahilf in the south, Neubau and Josefstadt in the west, and Alsergrund in the north. The district border, starting at Urania, follows Wienfluss, Lothringerstrasse, Karlsplatz, Gedreidemarkt, Museumsplatz, Museumstrasse, Auerspergstrasse, Landesgerichtsstrasse, Universitatsstrasse, Maria-Theresien-Strasse and the Donaukanal. Before 1850, Innere Stadt was physically equivalent with the city of Vienna. See History of Vienna for details about the history of Vindobona and Vienna, as well as historical significance after 1850. On November 2, 2020, a shooting occurred in the municipality at 6 locations, killing 4 people and injuring 22 at 20:00. </Text>

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<Text> :The Albertina is a museum in the Innere Stadt of Vienna, Austria. It houses one of the largest and most important print rooms in the world with approximately 65,000 drawings and approximately 1 million old master prints, as well as more modern graphic works, photographs and architectural drawings. The museum also houses temporary exhibitions. The museum had 360,073 visitors in 2020, down 64 percent from 2019 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but still ranked 55th in the List of most-visited art museums in the world. The Albertina was erected on one of the last remaining sections of the fortifications of Vienna, the Augustinian Bastion. Originally, the Hofbauamt , which had been built in the second half of the 17th century, stood in that location. In 1744 it was refurbished by the director of the Hofbauamt, Emanuel Teles Count Silva-Tarouca, to become his palace; it was therefore also known as Palais Taroucca. The building was later taken over by Duke Albert of Saxen-Teschen who used it as his residence. Albert later brought his graphics collection there from Brussels, where he had acted as the governor of the Habsburg Netherlands. He had the building extended by Louis Montoyer. Since then, the palace has immediately bordered the Hofburg. The collection was expanded by Albert's successors. When his grandson Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen lived there until his death in 1895 it was called the Palais Erzherzog Albrecht. The collection was created by Duke Albert with the Genoese count Giacomo Durazzo, the Austrian ambassador in Venice. In 1776 the count presented nearly 1,000 pieces of art to the duke and his wife Maria Christina . Count Durazzo, who was the brother of Marcello Durazzo, the Doge of Genoa - "wanted to create a collection for posterity that served higher purposes than all others: education and the power of morality should distinguish his collection...." In the 1820s Archduke Charles, Duke Albert and Maria Christina's foster son, initiated further modifications to the building by Joseph Kornhausel, which affected mostly its interior decoration. After Archduke Charles, his son Archduke Albert then Albrecht's nephew the popular Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen lived in the building. In early 1919, the new socialist government of Austria confiscated, without compensation, both the building and the collection belonging to the Archduke Friedrich and evicted him. In 1920 the collection of prints and drawings was united with the collection of the former Imperial court library. In 1921 the building was renamed The Albertina. The University of Konigsberg was the university of Konigsberg in East Prussia. It was founded in 1544 as the world's second Protestant academy by Duke Albert of Prussia, and was commonly known as the Albertina. Following World War II, the city of Konigsberg was transferred to the Soviet Union according to the 1945 Potsdam Agreement, and renamed Kaliningrad in 1946. The Albertina was closed and the remaining non-Lithuanian population either executed or expelled, by the terms of the Potsdam Agreement. Today, the Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University in Kaliningrad claims to maintain the traditions of the Albertina. Albert, former Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and first Duke of Prussia since 1525, had purchased a piece of land behind Konigsberg Cathedral on the Kneiphof island of the Pregel River from the Samland chapter, where he had an academic gymnasium erected in 1542. He issued the deed of foundation of the Collegium Albertinum on 20 July 1544, after which the university was inaugurated on 17 August. The newly established Protestant duchy was a fiefdom of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the university served as a Lutheran counterpart to the Catholic Cracow Academy. Its first rector was the poet Georg Sabinus, son-in-law of Philipp Melanchthon. Lithuanian scholars Stanislovas Rapalionis and Abraomas Kulvietis were among the first professors of university. All professors had to take an oath on the Augsburg Confession. Since the Prussian lands lay beyond the borders of the Holy Roman Empire, both Emperor Charles V and Pope Paul III withheld their approval, nevertheless the Konigsberg academy received the royal privilege by King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland on 28 March 1560. The Austrian directory of "kulturdenkmal" objects is kept in accordance with the Austrian monument protection law of December 2007, which reported over 16,000 listed properties in Austria. The BDA estimates the total inventory to be about 60,000 objects, and the complete monument database was published in 2011. Approximately three-quarters of items in Austria are of a secular nature , ten percent are religious buildings , and roughly about one seventh are groups of monuments . In addition to the official list of physical monuments there is also a list of items of interest from the Austrian Dehio Handbook presented by the Department of Inventory and monument research . Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician who was the dictator of Germany from 1933 until his suicide in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party, becoming the chancellor in 1933 and then taking the title of Fuhrer und Reichskanzler in 1934. During his dictatorship, he initiated World War II in Europe by invading Poland on 1 September 1939. He was closely involved in military operations throughout the war and was central to the perpetration of the genocide of about six million Jews and millions of other victims. Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn in Austria-Hungary and was raised near Linz. He lived in Vienna later in the first decade of the 1900s before moving to Germany in 1913. He was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. In 1919, he joined the German Workers' Party , the precursor of the Nazi Party, and in 1921 was appointed leader of the Nazi Party. In 1923, he attempted to seize governmental power in a failed coup in Munich and was sentenced to five years in prison, serving just over a year of his sentence. While there, he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf . After his early release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting pan-Germanism, anti-Semitism and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. He frequently denounced capitalism and communism as part of an international Jewish conspiracy. By November 1932, the Nazi Party held the most seats in the Reichstag but did not have a majority. No political parties were able to form a majority coalition in support of a candidate for chancellor. Former chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservative leaders convinced President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as chancellor on 30 January 1933. Shortly thereafter, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act of 1933 which began the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into Nazi Germany, a one-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. Upon Hindenburg's death on 2 August 1934, Hitler succeeded him, becoming simultaneously the head of state and government with absolute power. Domestically, Hitler implemented numerous racist policies and sought to deport or kill German Jews. His first six years in power resulted in rapid economic recovery from the Great Depression, the abrogation of restrictions imposed on Germany after World War I, and the annexation of territories inhabited by millions of ethnic Germans, which initially gave him significant popular support. One of Hitler's key goals was Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe, and his aggressive, expansionist foreign policy is considered the primary cause of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and, on 1 September 1939, invaded Poland, resulting in Britain and France declaring war on Germany. In June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. In December 1941, he declared war on the United States. By the end of 1941, German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa. These gains were gradually reversed after 1941, and in 1945 the Allied armies defeated the German army. On 29 April 1945, he married his long-term partner, Eva Braun, in the Fuhrerbunker in Berlin. On the following day, the couple committed suicide to avoid capture by the Soviet Red Army. In accordance with Hitler's wishes, their corpses were burned. </Text>

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<Text> :Linz is the capital of Upper Austria and third-largest city in Austria. Sitting on the river Danube, the city is located in the far north of Austria, 30 km south of the border with the Czech Republic. As of 1. January 2024, the city has a population of 212.538. Linz originated as a Roman fort named Lentia, established in the first century. The name reflects its location at a bend in the Danube . This strategic position on the river made it the first Roman fort in the Noricum region, protecting a vital transportation route. Johannes Kepler spent several years of his life in the city teaching mathematics. On 15 May 1618 he discovered Kepler's laws of planetary motion. The local public university Johannes Kepler University Linz is named for him. Adolf Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn and moved to Linz during his childhood. The notorious Holocaust bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann also spent his youth in Linz. Until the end of his life, Hitler considered Linz to be his hometown. Hitler effected the founding of the Bruckner Symphony Orchestra, which began presenting concerts in autumn 1943. His plan for one of the bell towers in Linz to play a theme from Bruckner's Fourth Symphony never came to pass. The Hermann Goring Collection, also known as the Kunstsammlung Hermann Goring, was an extensive private art collection of Nazi Reichsmarschall Hermann Goring, formed for the most part by looting of Jewish property in Nazi-occupied areas between 1936 and 1945. Hermann Goring was one of the most powerful Nazis. Convicted of war crimes, he was sentenced to death at Nuremberg. In 1936, he conceived the plan to convert his hunting lodge in the Schorfheide region north of Berlin into a country house, called the Waldhof Carinhall. There he had a 34-meter-long hall built, called the Grand Gallery, where he exhibited the most important pieces of his collection. Initially, Goering financed his passion for collecting visual art with gifts from industrialists in exchange for a favor of friends. During World War II Goring enriched himself on a large scale with art obtained from Jewish art collectors who were plundered and either fled or were deported to their deaths in Nazi camps. At the end of the war, Goring's personal collection included 1,375 paintings, many sculptures, carpets, furniture and other artifacts. It is estimated that at least half of these artworks were obtained through Nazi looting efforts. The Parisian museum Jeu de Paume was used to warehouse artworks seized from French Jews. Goring visited it about twenty times between 1941 and 1944, to select artworks of especially high quality that had been picked out especially for him. In addition to about 700 works of art that Goring grabbed from the Nazi looting organisation, the Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg, Goring also deployed his own organization, the Devisenschutzkommando, in the occupied territories to confiscate art on his behalf. From 1937 onwards, Goring received assistance from the art dealer Walter Andreas Hofer in compiling his art collection. From 1939 to 1944 Hofer acted as director of the Goring Collection. After the war, Hofer was sentenced in absentia to 10 years in prison by a military court. This sentence was never executed and Hofer was able to continue his art trade in Munich undisturbed. Fick became professor at the Munich Technical University in 1935, designed the Munich residence of Rudolf Hess in 1936, joined the NSDAP in 1937, and thereby secured Nazi projects such as various buildings at Adolf Hitler's Obersalzberg complex and such as SS barracks. Fick also was given the task of redesigning Linz. His work was part of the architecture event in the art competition at the 1936 Summer Olympics. After the war, Fick was officially classified as a Mitlaufer, a 'fellow traveller', a person passively complicit in Nazi crimes. Fick participated in the reconstruction of Linz, and retired to practice in Bavaria. His first wife died on 2 October 1938; in 1948, he married Catharina Buscher, 28 years his junior. His daughter, Friedrike, was born in 1950. Nazi architecture is the architecture promoted by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime from 1933 until its fall in 1945, connected with urban planning in Nazi Germany. It is characterized by three forms: a stripped neoclassicism, typified by the designs of Albert Speer; a vernacular style that drew inspiration from traditional rural architecture, especially alpine; and a utilitarian style followed for major infrastructure projects and industrial or military complexes. Nazi ideology took a pluralist attitude to architecture; however, Hitler himself believed that form follows function and wrote against "stupid imitations of the past". While similar to Classicism, the official Nazi style is distinguished by the impression it leaves on viewers. Architectural style was used by the Nazis to deliver and enforce their ideology. Formal elements like flat roofs, horizontal extension, uniformity, and the lack of decor created "an impression of simplicity, uniformity, monumentality, solidity and eternity," which is how the Nazi Party wanted to appear. Greek and Roman influence could also be seen in Nazi architecture and typography, as they drew inspiration from monumental architecture of ancient Rome and Greece to create a sense of power. The Nazis also shut down the Bauhaus movement, which emphasized functionalism and simplicity. The Nazi regime also staged several "Degenerate Art" exhibitions to condemn modern art as harmful to German culture. This led to the persecution of many artists and architects, including members of the Bauhaus movement. </Text>

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<Text> :Dorsoduro includes the highest land areas of the city and also Giudecca island and Isola Sacca Fisola. Its name derives from the Italian for "hard back", due to its comparatively high, stable, rocky land. The original heart of the area was the Giudecca Canal, along which buildings were constructed from the sixth century. By the eleventh century, settlement had spread across to the Grand Canal, while later religious buildings including the Basilica of Santa Maria della Salute and the Zattere quay are now its main landmarks. In the nineteenth century the Accademia was set up in Dorsoduro and the Ponte dell'Accademia linked it to San Marco, making it an expensive area, popular with foreign residents. The western quarter end and the Giudecca, became industrialised around this time. A church, church building, or church house is a building used for Christian worship services and other Christian religious activities. The earliest identified Christian church is a house church founded between 233 and 256. Sometimes, the word church is used by analogy and simplicity for the buildings of other religions, such as mosques and synagogues. Church is also used to describe a body or an assembly of Christian believers, while "the Church" may be used to refer to the worldwide Christian religious community as a whole. In traditional Christian architecture, the plan view of a church often forms a Christian cross with the center aisle and seating representing the vertical beam and the bema and altar forming the horizontal. Towers or domes may inspire contemplation of the heavens. Modern churches have a variety of architectural styles and layouts. Some buildings designed for other purposes have been converted to churches, while many original church buildings have been put to other uses. From the 11th through the 14th centuries, there was a wave of church construction in Western Europe. The word church is derived from Old English cirice, "place of assemblage set aside for Christian worship", from the Proto-Germanic kirika. This was probably borrowed via the Gothic from the Greek kyriake , kyriakon doma, "the Lord's ", from kyrios, "ruler, lord". Kyrios in turn comes from the Proto-Indo-European language root *keue meaning "to swell". Andrea Palladio was an Italian Renaissance architect active in the Venetian Republic. Palladio, influenced by Roman and Greek architecture, primarily Vitruvius, is widely considered to be one of the most influential individuals in the history of architecture. While he designed churches and palaces, he was best known for country houses and villas. His teachings, summarized in the architectural treatise, The Four Books of Architecture, gained him wide recognition. The city of Vicenza, with its 23 buildings designed by Palladio, and 24 Palladian villas of the Veneto are listed by UNESCO as part of a World Heritage Site named City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto. The churches of Palladio are to be found within the "Venice and its Lagoon" UNESCO World Heritage Site. Palladio was born on 30 November 1508 in Padua and was given the name Andrea di Pietro della Gondola. His father, Pietro, called "della Gondola", was a miller. From an early age, Andrea Palladio was introduced into the work of building. When he was thirteen, his father arranged for him to be an apprentice stonecutter for a period of six years in the workshop of Bartolomeo Cavazza da Sossano, a noted sculptor, whose projects included the altar in the Basilica del Carmine in Padua. Bartolomeo Cavazza is said to have imposed particularly hard working conditions: Palladio fled the workshop in April 1523 and went to Vicenza, but was forced to return to fulfill his contract. In 1524, when his contract was finished, he moved permanently to Vicenza, where he resided for most of his life. He became an assistant to a prominent stonecutter and stonemason, Giovanni di Giacomo da Porlezza in Pedemuro San Biagio, where he joined the guild of stonemasons and bricklayers. He was employed as a stonemason to make monuments and decorative sculptures. His career was unexceptional until 1538-1539; when he had reached the age of thirty, he was employed by the humanist poet and scholar Gian Giorgio Trissino to rebuild his residence, the Villa Trissino at Cricoli. Trissino was deeply engaged in the study of ancient Roman architecture, particularly the work of Vitruvius, which had become available in print in 1486. He designed the Villa Lattes near Treviso in 1715, the church of Santo Spritito in Udine, the church of Santa Maria della Pace 1720-46 in Brescia. In Venice, he often worked closely with Tiepolo in planning interior decoration of palaces. Among his masterpieces are the Chiesa dei Gesuati located in Dorsoduro, Venice and the Palazzo Grassi-Stucky . In the latter, Massari executed a traditional elegant marble-fronted Grand Canal palace facade, with Baroque rhythms and variations to the arrangement of bays, disrupting the classical simplicity. Massari also designed the scenographic staircase entry to Villa Giovanelli, Noventa Padovana. An art school is an educational institution with a primary focus on the visual arts, including fine art - especially illustration, painting, photography, sculpture, and graphic design. Art schools can offer elementary, secondary, post-secondary, undergraduate or graduate programs, and can also offer a broad-based range of programs . There have been six major periods of art school curricula, and each one has had its own hand in developing modern institutions worldwide throughout all levels of education. Art schools also teach a variety of non-academic skills to many students. Nicholas Houghton identifies six definitive historical art-school curricula: "apprentice, academic, formalist, expressive, conceptual, and professional". Each of these curricula has aided not only the way that modern art-schools teach, but also how students learn about art. Art schools began being perceived as legitimate universities in the 1980s. Before this, any art programs were used purely as extracurricular activities, and there were no methods of grading works. After the 1980s, however, art programs were integrated into many different kinds of schools and universities as legitimate courses that could be evaluated. While some argue that this has weakened creativity among modern art-students, others see this as a way to treat fine arts equally in comparison with other subjects. Apprentice paths teach art as a mixture of aesthetic and function. Typically, students would apprentice themselves to someone who was already skilled in some sort of trade in exchange for food and housing. Many of the Old Masters received training in this manner, copying or painting in the style of their teacher in order to learn the trade. Once the apprenticeship ended, the student would have to prove what they learned by creating what we know today as a "masterpiece". In modern schooling, this can be seen in practical art classes, including photography or printmaking. Gothic architecture is an architectural style that was prevalent in Europe from the late 12th to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture. It originated in the Ile-de-France and Picardy regions of northern France. The style at the time was sometimes known as opus Francigenum ; the term Gothic was first applied contemptuously during the later Renaissance, by those ambitious to revive the architecture of classical antiquity. The defining design element of Gothic architecture is the pointed or ogival arch. The use of the pointed arch in turn led to the development of the pointed rib vault and flying buttresses, combined with elaborate tracery and stained glass windows. At the Abbey of Saint-Denis, near Paris, the choir was reconstructed between 1140 and 1144, drawing together for the first time the developing Gothic architectural features. In doing so, a new architectural style emerged that emphasized verticality and the effect created by the transmission of light through stained glass windows. Common examples are found in Christian ecclesiastical architecture, and Gothic cathedrals and churches, as well as abbeys, and parish churches. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guildhalls, universities and, less prominently today, private dwellings. Many of the finest examples of medieval Gothic architecture are listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Hall XI <p> instance of <o> exhibition space <s> Hall XI <p> location <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Hall XI <p> part of <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - room V Giovanni Bellini <p> instance of <o> exhibition space <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - room V Giovanni Bellini <p> has part(s) <o> Pietà Martinengo <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - room V Giovanni Bellini <p> part of <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - room V Giovanni Bellini <p> location <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - Hall VIA in the sign of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini <p> has part(s) <o> Annunciation <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - Hall VIA in the sign of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini <p> instance of <o> exhibition space <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - Hall VIA in the sign of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini <p> part of <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - Hall VIA in the sign of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini <p> location <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - Hall III <p> instance of <o> exhibition space <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - Hall III <p> location <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - Hall III <p> part of <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Hall I <p> instance of <o> exhibition space <s> Hall I <p> location <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Hall I <p> part of <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Sala dell'Albergo <p> instance of <o> exhibition space <s> Sala dell'Albergo <p> location <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Sala dell'Albergo <p> part of <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - Hall II <p> instance of <o> exhibition space <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - Hall II <p> location <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> Gallerie dell'Accademia - Hall II <p> part of <o> Gallerie dell'Accademia <s> baroque architecture <p> subclass of <o> Baroque art <s> baroque architecture <p> subclass of <o> architecture <s> baroque architecture <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Baroque architecture <s> baroque architecture <p> instance of <o> architectural style <s> baroque architecture <p> influenced by <o> Counter-Reformation <s> Category:Interior of Palazzo Vecchio <p> instance of <o> Wikimedia category <s> Category:Interior of Palazzo Vecchio <p> category combines topics <o> interior <s> Category:Interior of Palazzo Vecchio <p> category combines topics <o> Palazzo Vecchio <s> Category:Exterior of Palazzo Vecchio <p> category combines topics <o> Palazzo Vecchio <s> Category:Exterior of Palazzo Vecchio <p> category combines topics <o> exterior <s> Category:Exterior of Palazzo Vecchio <p> instance of <o> Wikimedia category </Graph>

<Text> :Baroque architecture is a highly decorative and theatrical style which appeared in Italy in the early 17th century and gradually spread across Europe. It was originally introduced by the Catholic Church, particularly by the Jesuits, as a means to combat the Reformation and the Protestant church with a new architecture that inspired surprise and awe. It reached its peak in the High Baroque , when it was used in churches and palaces in Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Bavaria and Austria. In the Late Baroque period , it reached as far as Russia, the Ottoman Empire and the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Latin America. In about 1730, an even more elaborately decorative variant called Rococo appeared and flourished in Central Europe. Baroque architects took the basic elements of Renaissance architecture, including domes and colonnades, and made them higher, grander, more decorated, and more dramatic. The interior effects were often achieved with the use of quadratura : the eye is drawn upward, giving the illusion that one is looking into the heavens. Clusters of sculpted angels and painted figures crowd the ceiling. Light was also used for dramatic effect; it streamed down from Cupolas, and was reflected from an abundance of gilding. Twisted columns were also often used, to give an illusion of upwards motion, and cartouches and other decorative elements occupied every available space. In Baroque palaces, grand stairways became a central element. The Early Baroque was largely dominated by the work of Roman architects, notably the Church of the Gesu by Giacomo della Porta facade and colonnade of St. Peter's Basilica by Carlo Maderno and the lavish Barberini Palace interiors by Pietro da Cortona . Church of the Gesu by Giacomo della Porta , interior, and Santa Susanna , by Carlo Maderno. In France, the Luxembourg Palace built by Salomon de Brosse for Marie de Medici was an early example of the style. The High Baroque produced major works in Rome by Pietro da Cortona, including the ; by Francesco Borromini ); and by Gian Lorenzo Bernini . In Venice, High Baroque works included Santa Maria della Salute by Baldassare Longhena. Examples in France included the Pavillon de l'Horloge of the Louvre Palace by Jacques Lemercier , the Chapel of the Sorbonne by Jacques Lemercier and the Chateau de Maisons by Francois Mansart . </Text>

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<Text> :In linguistics, grammatical person is the grammatical distinction between deictic references to participant in an event; typically, the distinction is between the speaker , the addressee , and others . A language's set of pronouns is typically defined by grammatical person. First person includes the speaker , second person is the person or people spoken to , and third person includes all that are not listed above . It also frequently affects verbs and sometimes nouns or possessive relationships. Some other languages use different classifying systems, especially in the plural pronouns. One frequently found difference not present in most Indo-European languages is a contrast between inclusive and exclusive "we": a distinction of first-person plural pronouns between including or excluding the addressee. Many languages express person with different morphemes in order to distinguish degrees of formality and informality. A simple honorific system common among European languages is the T-V distinction. Some other languages have much more elaborate systems of formality that go well beyond the T-V distinction, and use many different pronouns and verb forms that express the speaker's relationship with the people they are addressing. Many Malayo-Polynesian languages, such as Javanese and Balinese, are well known for their complex systems of honorifics; Japanese, Korean, and Chinese also have similar systems to a lesser extent. The grammar of some languages divide the semantic space into more than three persons. The extra categories may be termed fourth person, fifth person, etc. Such terms are not absolute but can refer, depending on context, to any of several phenomena. In linguistics, grammatical person is the grammatical distinction between deictic references to participant in an event; typically, the distinction is between the speaker , the addressee , and others . A language's set of pronouns is typically defined by grammatical person. First person includes the speaker , second person is the person or people spoken to , and third person includes all that are not listed above . It also frequently affects verbs and sometimes nouns or possessive relationships. Some other languages use different classifying systems, especially in the plural pronouns. One frequently found difference not present in most Indo-European languages is a contrast between inclusive and exclusive "we": a distinction of first-person plural pronouns between including or excluding the addressee. Many languages express person with different morphemes in order to distinguish degrees of formality and informality. A simple honorific system common among European languages is the T-V distinction. Some other languages have much more elaborate systems of formality that go well beyond the T-V distinction, and use many different pronouns and verb forms that express the speaker's relationship with the people they are addressing. Many Malayo-Polynesian languages, such as Javanese and Balinese, are well known for their complex systems of honorifics; Japanese, Korean, and Chinese also have similar systems to a lesser extent. The grammar of some languages divide the semantic space into more than three persons. The extra categories may be termed fourth person, fifth person, etc. Such terms are not absolute but can refer, depending on context, to any of several phenomena. Izola was attested in written sources as Insula in 972 and 977, and as Insulle in 1281. The name Izola is borrowed from Italian Isola, literally 'island', referring to the fact that the town center is a former island that was artificially connected with the mainland at the beginning of the 19th century. An ancient Roman port and settlement known as Haliaetum stood to the southwest of the present town, next to the village of Jagodje, as early as the 2nd century BC. The town of Izola was established on a small island by refugees from Aquileia in the 7th century. The coastal areas of Istria came under Venetian influence in the 9th century. The settlement was first mentioned in writing as Insula in a Venetian document entitled Liber albus in 932 AD. It became definitely the territory of the Republic of Venice in 1267, and the centuries of Venetian rule left a strong and enduring mark on the region. The Venetian part of the peninsula passed to the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation in 1797 with the Treaty of Campo Formio, until the period of Napoleonic rule from 1805 to 1813 when Istria became part of the Illyrian provinces of the Napoleonic Empire. After this short period, during which Izola's walls were torn down and used to fill in the channel that separated the island from the mainland, the newly established Austrian Empire ruled Istria until November 1918. The treaty of Saint Germain assigned Izola and the rest of the Istria region to Italy. The Italian-speaking population was the majority according to the Austro-Hungarian census of 1900: of 5,363 inhabitants, 5,326 spoke Italian, 20 Slovene, and 17 German. Istria became part of the Kingdom of Italy, until Italian capitulation in September 1943, whereupon control passed to Germany. Izola was liberated by a naval unit from Koper at the end of April 1945. After the end of World War II, Izola was part of Zone B of the provisionally independent Free Territory of Trieste; after the de facto dissolution of the Free Territory in 1954 it was incorporated into Slovenia, then a part of Yugoslavia. The newly defined Italo-Yugoslav border saw the migration of many people from one side to the other. In Izola's case, many Italian speakers emigrated, and in their place Slovenian-speaking people from neighbouring villages settled in the town. In 1820, a thermal spring was discovered in Izola, leading to the town's earliest forms of tourism. Between 1902 and 1935 the Parenzana, a narrow-gauge railway line, connected the town to Trieste and Porec . A modern language is any human language that is currently in use as a native language. The term is used in language education to distinguish between languages which are used for day-to-day communication and dead classical languages such as Latin and Classical Chinese, which are studied for their cultural and linguistic value. SIL Ethnologue defines a living language as "one that has at least one speaker for whom it is their first language" . Modern languages are taught extensively around the world; see second language acquisition. English is taught as a second or foreign language in many countries; see English language learning and teaching. International auxiliary languages are by definition not associated with a particular country or geographic region. Esperanto is probably the best-known and most widespread. Interlingua, a much less popular, but still growing auxiliary language, is likewise spoken mainly in Northern and Eastern Europe and in South America, with substantial numbers of speakers in Central Europe, Ukraine, and Russia. Constructed languages from more recent years with sizable user communities are Klingon, Toki Pona and Interslavic. </Text>

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<Text> :A palace is a grand residence, often serving as a royal residence or the home for a head of state or some other high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name palatium, for Palatine Hill in Rome which housed the Imperial residences. Most European languages have a version of the term , and many use it for a wider range of buildings than English. In many parts of Europe, the equivalent term is also applied to large private houses in cities, especially of the aristocracy, for example the Italian palazzo; often the term for a large country house is different. Many historic palaces are now put to other uses such as parliaments, museums, hotels, or office buildings. The word is also sometimes used to describe a lavishly ornate building used for public entertainment or exhibitions such as a movie palace. The word palace comes from Old French palais , from Latin Palatium, the name of one of the seven hills of Rome. The original "palaces" on the Palatine Hill were the seat of the imperial power while the "capitol" on the Capitoline Hill was the religious nucleus of Rome. Long after the city grew to the seven hills the Palatine remained a desirable residential area. Emperor Caesar Augustus lived there in a purposely modest house only set apart from his neighbours by the two laurel trees planted to flank the front door as a sign of triumph granted by the Senate. His descendants, especially Nero with his "Domus Aurea" , enlarged the building and its grounds over and over until it took up the hill top. The word Palatium came to mean the residence of the emperor rather than the neighbourhood on top of the hill. Palace meaning "government" can be recognized in a remark of Paul the Deacon, writing c. AD 790 and describing events of the 660s: "When Grimuald set out for Beneventum, he entrusted his palace to Lupus" . At the same time, Charlemagne was consciously reviving the Roman expression in his "palace" at Aachen, of which only his chapel remains. In the 9th century, the "palace" indicated the housing of the government too, and the constantly travelling Charlemagne built fourteen. In the early Middle Ages, the palas was usually that part of an imperial palace , that housed the Great Hall, where affairs of state were conducted; it continued to be used as the seat of government in some German cities. In the Holy Roman Empire the powerful independent Electors came to be housed in palaces . This has been used as evidence that power was widely distributed in the Empire; as in more centralized monarchies, only the monarch's residence would be a palace. Romanesque art is the art of Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the Gothic style in the 12th century, or later depending on region. The preceding period is known as the Pre-Romanesque period. The term was invented by 19th-century art historians, especially for Romanesque architecture, which retained many basic features of Roman architectural style - most notably round-headed arches, but also barrel vaults, apses, and acanthus-leaf decoration - but had also developed many very different characteristics. In Southern France, Spain, and Italy there was an architectural continuity with the Late Antique, but the Romanesque style was the first style to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe, from Sicily to Scandinavia. Romanesque art was also greatly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting, and by the anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular art of the British Isles. From these elements was forged a highly innovative and coherent style. Outside Romanesque architecture, the art of the period was characterised by a vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. The latter continued to follow essentially Byzantine iconographic models for the most common subjects in churches, which remained Christ in Majesty, the Last Judgment, and scenes from the life of Christ. In illuminated manuscripts more originality is seen, as new scenes needed to be depicted. The most lavishly decorated manuscripts of this period were bibles and psalters. The same originality applied to the capitals of columns, which were often carved with complete scenes with several figures. The large wooden crucifix was a German innovation at the very start of the period, as were free-standing statues of the enthroned Madonna. High relief was the dominant sculptural mode of the period. Colours were very striking, and mostly primary. Presently, these colours can typically only be seen in their original vividness in samples of stained glass and well-preserved manuscripts. Stained glass became widely used, although few survive today. In an invention of the period, the tympanums of important church portals were carved with monumental schemes, often Christ in Majesty or the Last Judgement, but treated with more freedom than painted versions, as there were no equivalent Byzantine models. Compositions usually had little depth and needed to be flexible to be fit into the shapes of historiated initials, column capitals, and church tympanums; the tension between a tightly enclosing frame, from which the composition sometimes escapes, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figures often varied in size in relation to their importance. Landscape backgrounds, if employed at all, were closer to abstract decorations than realism - as in the trees in the "Morgan Leaf". Portraiture hardly existed. The Palazzo Vecchio is the town hall of Florence, Italy. It overlooks the Piazza della Signoria, which holds a copy of Michelangelo's David statue, and the gallery of statues in the adjacent Loggia dei Lanzi. Originally called the Palazzo della Signoria, after the Signoria of Florence, the ruling body of the Republic of Florence, this building was also known by several other names: Palazzo del Popolo, Palazzo dei Priori, and Palazzo Ducale, in accordance with the varying use of the palace during its long history. The building acquired its current name when the Medici duke's residence was moved across the Arno River to the Palazzo Pitti. In 1299, the commune and people of Florence decided to build a palace that would be worthy of the city's importance, and that would be more secure and defensible in times of turbulence for the magistrates of the commune. Arnolfo di Cambio, the architect of the Duomo and the Santa Croce church, began construction upon the ruins of Palazzo dei Fanti and Palazzo dell'Esecutore di Giustizia, once owned by the Uberti family. Giovanni Villani wrote in his Nuova Cronica that the Uberti were "rebels of Florence and Ghibellines", stating that the palazzo was built to ensure that the Uberti family homes would never be rebuilt on the same location. The cubical building is made of solid rusticated stonework, with two rows of two-lighted Gothic windows, each with a trefoil arch. In the 15th century, Michelozzo di Bartolomeo Michelozzi added decorative bas-reliefs of the cross and the Florentine lily in the spandrels between the trefoils. The building is crowned with projecting crenellated battlements, supported by small arches and corbels. Under the arches are a repeated series of nine painted coats of arms of the Florentine republic. Some of these arches can be used as embrasures for dropping heated liquids or rocks on invaders. In local government, a city hall, town hall, civic centre , guildhall, or municipal building is the chief administrative building of a city, town, or other municipality. It usually houses the city or town council, its associated departments, and their employees. It also usually functions as the base of the mayor of a city, town, borough, county or shire, and of the executive arm of the municipality . By convention, until the middle of the 19th century, a single large open chamber formed an integral part of the building housing the council. The hall may be used for council meetings and other significant events. This large chamber, the "town hall" has become synonymous with the whole building, and with the administrative body housed in it. The terms "council chambers", "municipal building" or variants may be used locally in preference to "town hall" if no such large hall is present within the building. The local government may endeavor to use the building to promote and enhance the quality of life of the community. In many cases, "town halls" serve not only as buildings for government functions, but also have facilities for various civic and cultural activities. These may include art shows, stage performances, exhibits, and festivals. Modern town halls or "civic centres" are often designed with a great variety and flexibility of purpose in mind. In some European countries, the town hall is the venue for the declaration of Christmas Peace, such as Turku and Porvoo in Finland and Tartu in Estonia. As symbols of local government, city, and town halls have distinctive architecture, and the buildings may have great historical significance - for example the Guildhall, London. City hall buildings may also serve as cultural icons that symbolize their cities. The Palazzo dei Priori or comunale is one of the best examples in Italy of a public palace from the communal era . It is located in the central Piazza IV Novembre in Perugia, Umbria. It extends along Corso Vannucci up to Via Boncambi. It still houses part of the municipality, and, on the third floor, the Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria. It takes its name from the Priori, the highest political authority governing the city in the medieval era. It was built in Gothic style between 1293 and 1443, in several phases. The irregularity of the facade is explained by the long construction, due to constant additions and the incorporation of earlier buildings. The oldest part is the one that houses the Sala dei Notari, that is, the corner part between Piazza IV Novembre and Corso Vannucci . It displays three trifora windows with a trefoil portal on the side facing the square and ten triforas and four-light windows facing the Corso. The subsequent expansion was managed, between 1317 and 1326, by the architect Ambrogio Maitani from Siena who, with his brother Lorenzo, was hired to refurbish the Montepacciano aqueduct, which carried the water to the fountain in the square. During this same period, lodgings were built for the new Magistracy of Priori . Their living quarters consisted of the dormitories and council rooms on the first floor, the kitchen and the dining hall on the second floor and the main hall on the third. Those locations were used starting in 1325, the same period in which the Portale Maggiore was built, which became the palace's main entrance. Arnolfo di Cambio was an Italian architect and sculptor of the Duecento, who began as a lead assistant to Nicola Pisano. He is documented as being capomaestro or Head of Works for Florence Cathedral in 1300, and designed the sixth city wall around Florence . Arnolfo's biography is complicated by lingering uncertainties as to whether "Arnolfo di Cambio", born in Colle Val d'Elsa, Tuscany, and later Master of Works for Florence Cathedral, is the same person as "Arnolfus" who signed the ciboria of San Paolo fuori le Mura and Santa Cecilia in Trastevere in Rome, not to mention "Arnolfus Architectus" who signed the tomb of Pope Boniface VIII. The majority view is that they are the same man, and variations in style are caused by the use of workshop assistants, which many of his large works would certainly have needed. He probably had a workshop in Rome by 1277. He was Nicola Pisano's chief assistant on the marble Siena Cathedral Pulpit for the Duomo in Siena Cathedral , but he soon began to work independently on an important tomb sculpture. In 1266-1267 he worked in Rome for King Charles I of Anjou, King of Sicily, portraying him in the famous statue housed in the Campidoglio. He signed the wall tomb of Cardinal Guillaume de Braye in the church of San Domenico in Orvieto, including an enthroned Madonna for which he took as a model an ancient Roman statue of the goddess Abundantia; the Madonna's tiara and jewels reproduce antique models. In Rome Arnolfo had seen the Cosmatesque art, and its influence can be seen in the intarsia and polychrome glass decorations in the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls and the church Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, where he worked in 1285 and 1293 respectively. In this period he also worked on the presepio of Santa Maria Maggiore, on Santa Maria in Aracoeli, and on the monument of Pope Boniface VIII . The Guidi family owns most of the castles in DeCourcey Country. First written mention of the castle at Poppi is in 1169, when it belonged to the Abbey of San Fidele de Strumi, but documentation from the 1190s shows that by this time, it had passed to the Conti Guidi. For the next 350 years the Guidi family would have, largely unchallenged, control of the Casentino. Other castles on the Casentino hills including Romena and Porciano were also ruled by the Guidi counts. Although the early documentation of the castle relates to the end of the twelfth century, the construction of the foundations would suggest a fortification had been on the site even earlier. In the second half of the thirteenth century the first parts of the castle, as seen today, were built, with the tower and the keep to the left. The architect is said to be Arnolfo di Cambio, who used Poppi as a 'prototype' for the Palazzo Vecchio, which he also designed. The two buildings certainly do look similar, and originally the tower of Poppi would have been taller, with machicolations that would have made the appearance even more similar. In later years a new keep was added to the right of the tower and this became part of the residence, but with a jail below. At the end of the thirteenth century Count Simone Guidi was responsible for enlarging the mullioned windows to create a more elegant facade. </Text>

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relation <o> Argentina <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Hungary <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> New Zealand <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> New South Wales <s> Australia <p> shares border with <o> New Zealand <s> Australia <p> capital <o> Canberra <s> Australia <p> located in or next to body of water <o> Arafura Sea <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> United States of America <s> Australia <p> located in or next to body of water <o> Timor Sea <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> East Timor <s> Australia <p> participant in <o> Russian Civil War <s> Australia <p> participant in <o> Gulf War <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Heard Island and McDonald Islands <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Western Australia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> European Union <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Belgium <s> Australia <p> participant in <o> Pacific War <s> Australia <p> participant in <o> Second Boer War <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Northern Territory <s> Australia <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Australia <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Coral Sea Islands <s> Australia <p> topic's main template <o> Template:States and territories of Australia <s> Australia <p> instance of <o> country <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Australian Capital Territory <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Ashmore and Cartier Islands <s> Australia <p> office held by head of government <o> Prime Minister of Australia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Spain <s> Australia <p> located in or next to body of water <o> Bass Strait <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Australian Antarctic Territory <s> Australia <p> central bank <o> Reserve Bank of Australia <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> South Australia <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Jervis Bay Territory <s> Australia <p> ethnic group <o> Indigenous Australians <s> Australia <p> ethnic group <o> Irish people <s> Australia <p> official language <o> Auslan <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Norfolk Island <s> Australia <p> participant in <o> War in Afghanistan <s> Australia <p> participant in <o> Iraq War <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Tonga <s> Australia <p> ethnic group <o> Dutch <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> Sytin Military Encyclopedia <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> Jewish Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron <s> Australia <p> participant in <o> Malayan Emergency <s> Australia <p> ethnic group <o> Scottish people <s> Australia <p> follows <o> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland <s> Australia <p> ethnic group <o> Australians <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Finland <s> Australia <p> topic's main Wikimedia portal <o> Portal:Australia <s> Australia <p> top-level Internet domain <o> .au <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> Orthodox Theological Encyclopedia <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Christmas Island <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> India <s> Australia <p> participant in <o> War against the Islamic State <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Samoa <s> Australia <p> language used <o> German <s> Australia <p> instance of <o> federation <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Papua New Guinea <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Palau <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Australia <p> basic form of government <o> federation <s> Australia <p> ethnic group <o> Chinese people <s> Australia <p> ethnic group <o> Indian <s> Australia <p> official language <o> Australian English <s> Australia <p> executive body <o> Australian Government <s> Australia <p> anthem <o> Advance Australia Fair <s> Australia <p> ethnic group <o> Greeks <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Turkish <s> Australia <p> highest judicial authority <o> High Court of Australia <s> Australia <p> continent <o> Oceania <s> Australia <p> currency <o> Australian dollar <s> Australia <p> located in or next to body of water <o> South Pacific Ocean <s> Australia <p> named after <o> Terra Australis <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Italian <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Solomon Islands <s> Australia <p> head of state <o> Charles III of the United Kingdom <s> Australia <p> legislative body <o> Parliament of Australia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Nauru <s> Australia <p> located in or next to body of water <o> Great Australian Bight <s> Australia <p> coat of arms <o> coat of arms of Australia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Denmark <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Federated States of Micronesia <s> Australia <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Tasmania <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Urdu <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Vanuatu <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> The New Student's Reference Work <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica <s> Australia <p> category for people born here <o> Category:Births in Australia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Fiji <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Hindi <s> Australia <p> category for people who died here <o> Category:Deaths in Australia <s> Australia <p> instance of <o> OECD country <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Spanish <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Lithuania <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1926–1947) <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> TASS Encyclopedia <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> New World Encyclopedia <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> Great dictionary of geographical names <s> Australia <p> described by source <o> Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 1 <s> Australia <p> basic form of government <o> constitutional monarchy <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Sweden <s> Australia <p> language used <o> English <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Poland <s> Australia <p> instance of <o> sovereign state <s> Australia <p> language used <o> French <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Japanese <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Ecuador <s> Australia <p> basic form of government <o> representative democracy <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Austria <s> Australia <p> main regulatory text <o> Constitution of Australia <s> Australia <p> head of government <o> Anthony Albanese <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gujarati <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Croatian <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Mongolia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Switzerland <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Turkey <s> Australia <p> different from <o> Australian continent <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Guyana <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Portugal <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Italy <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Greece <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Bolivia <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Korean <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Tamil <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Greek <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Guatemala <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Paraguay <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Russian <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Grenada <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Jamaica <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Colombia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Netherlands <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Ethiopia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Egypt <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Uruguay <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Mexico <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Trinidad and Tobago <s> Australia <p> has part(s) of the class <o> state or territory of Australia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Dominican Republic <s> Australia <p> different from <o> Astraea <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Cantonese <s> Australia <p> office held by head of state <o> monarch of Australia <s> Australia <p> category of associated people <o> Category:Australian people <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> The Bahamas <s> Australia <p> official symbol <o> Acacia pycnantha <s> Australia <p> category for films shot at this location <o> Category:Films shot in Australia <s> Australia <p> driving side <o> left <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Vietnamese <s> Australia <p> different from <o> Australien <s> Australia <p> category of people buried here <o> Category:Burials in Australia <s> Australia <p> history of topic <o> history of Australia <s> Australia <p> official symbol <o> opal <s> Australia <p> lowest point <o> Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Persian <s> Australia <p> electrical plug type <o> AS/NZS 3112 <s> Australia <p> geography of topic <o> geography of Australia <s> Australia <p> culture <o> culture of Australia <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Thai <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Honduras <s> Australia <p> different from <o> mainland Australia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Antigua and Barbuda <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Mandarin <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Serbian <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Ghana <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Iraq <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Iran <s> Australia <p> has characteristic <o> free country <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> United Kingdom <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Costa Rica <s> Australia <p> studied in <o> Australian studies <s> Australia <p> emergency phone number <o> 000 <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> El Salvador <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Jordan <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Kenya <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Bangla <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Indonesian <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Auslan <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Filipino <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Macedonian <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> People's Republic of China <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Brazil <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Sinhala <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Russia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> France <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Malayalam <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Nyangumarta <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Nepali <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Israel <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Tagalog <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Germany <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Kuwait <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Arabic <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Punjabi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Torres Strait Creole <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Guugu Yimithirr <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kija <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Warlpiri <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Tiwi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Nunggubuyu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gunwinggu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ngarinyin <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Dhurga <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Estonia <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Adnyamathanha <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Garawa <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Wambaya <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Wik-Mungkan <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Warumungu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Alawa <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Wirangu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Iwaidja <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Walmajarri <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Malaysia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Nicaragua <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Latvia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Myanmar <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Nepal <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Amurdag <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Yinjibarndi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kunjen <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Alngith <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ngan’gityemerri <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Alyawarr <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Mbabaram <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Miriwoong <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Martu Wangka <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djaru <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Nhanda <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ngiyambaa <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Dyangadi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djugun <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gajirrabeng <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ngalakgan <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Warlmanpa <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Naboo <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Panyjima <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Wunambal <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Anewan <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Laos <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Slovenia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Ukraine <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Anindilyakwa <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gamilaraay <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Bandjalang <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Murrinh-patha <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Pitjantjatjara <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Umbugarla <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Yidiny <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Wiradjuri <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Garadjari <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Jurruru <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Pintupi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Guniyandi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Barrow Point <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djabugay <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Jiwarli <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kalaw Lagaw Ya <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Laragiya <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ngurmbur <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Worimi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Bardi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kumbainggar <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Muruwari <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Wardaman <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kalkatungu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Mbariman-Gudhinma <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djawi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ngaanyatjarra <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Umbuygamu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Wajarri <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Qatar <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Yankunytjatjara <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Yanyuwa <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gaagudju <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Dyirbal <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kriol <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ayabadhu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kayardild <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Yukulta <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Arabana <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Worora <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Tharawal <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Warndarang <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Andegerebinha <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Nyigina <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Yinggarda <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Areba <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Warluwara <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Meriam <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Australian Aboriginal sign languages <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Dharug <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Pakanha <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Martuthunira <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Antakarinya <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Bunuba <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Thailand <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Albania <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Pakistan <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Atampaya <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Yugambal <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Barngarla <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Cocos Malay <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Badimaya <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Mayi-Kutuna <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Nyulnyul <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Awabakal <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Wagiman <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Taiwan <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> South Korea <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Lebanon <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Croatia <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Madhi Madhi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Manangkari <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Marrgu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Karuwali <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Marra <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Mbara <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Malak-Malak <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Mpalitjanh <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Marrithiyel <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Maung <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Lower Arrernte <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Mangarayi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Mangarla <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Malgana <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Marranj <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Saudi Arabia <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djabirr-Djabirr <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Garlali <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gugu Warra <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gudang <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Dhangu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Galaagu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gunbarlang <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djabwurrung <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djinba <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Giyug <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Dhirari <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djeebbana <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djinang <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djadjawurrung <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gabi-Gabi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gugadj <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Dhauwurd wurrung language <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kaytetye <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kungarakany <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Limilngan <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kuthant <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kok-Nar <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Pitta Pitta <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kuuk Yak <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ledji-Ledji <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Koko-Bera <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kuuk Thaayorre <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kungkari <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Lamu-Lamu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kungardutyi <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Romania <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Czech Republic <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Yalarnnga <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Wik-Ngathan <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Yalgawarra <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Biri <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Lardil <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Warrgamay <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Djambarrpuyngu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kurrama <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kuku-Uwanh <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ngawun <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gugu Thaypan <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Linngithigh <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Nyawaygi <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Darling <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Bindal <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Barababaraba <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Bungandidj <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Darkinjung <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Dhalandji <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Badjiri <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gangulu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Adithinngithigh <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Bayali <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Anguthimri <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Awngthim <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Burarra <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Burduna <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Daungwurrung <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Vietnam <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Bulgaria <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> North Macedonia <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Bosnia and Herzegovina <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Barbados <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Philippines <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Brunei <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kanju <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Guwamu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gupapuyngu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kokata <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kuku-Muminh <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kwini <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kuku-Ugbanh <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kuuku Ya'u <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Guyani <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kukatja <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kuku-Mangk <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kuku-Mu'inh <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kunggari <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gurinji <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Matngele <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Mandandanyi <s> Australia <p> diplomatic relation <o> Malta <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ilgar <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Guragone <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kaurna <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kamu <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Guwa <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gurdjar <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gurindji Kriol <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Jandai <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Ikarranggal <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Kalaamaya <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Karranga <s> Australia <p> language used <o> Gureng Gureng <s> 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<Text> :Elzbieta "Izabela" Dorota Czartoryska was a Polish princess, writer, art collector, and prominent figure in the Polish Enlightenment. She was the wife of Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski and a member of the influential Familia political party. She is also known for having founded Poland's first museum, the Czartoryski Museum, now located in Krakow. In Paris in 1772, she met Benjamin Franklin, subsequently a leader of the American Revolution, and the French philosophers Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire, who were bringing new ideas to the old order. In 1775, together with her husband, Czartoryska completely transformed the Czartoryski Palace at Pulawy into an intellectual and political meeting place. Her court was one of the most liberal and progressive in the Commonwealth, although some aspects of her behavior also caused scandals. While in Prussia with her daughter Maria Wirtemberska for the latter's marriage, she told Frederick II of her fears that her husband would be poisoned, which was what had caused a split between him and Stanislaw August Poniatowski politically. Frederick laughed and told her that only monarchs were poisoned, and spread the conversation around his court to Izabela's detriment, according to Wirydianna Fiszerowa. Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. Australia is the largest country by area in Oceania and the world's sixth-largest country. Australia is the oldest, flattest, and driest inhabited continent, with the least fertile soils. It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates, with deserts in the centre, tropical rainforests in the north-east, tropical savannas in the north, and mountain ranges in the south-east. The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians began arriving from south-east Asia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during the last glacial period. They settled the continent and had formed approximately 250 distinct language groups by the time of European settlement, maintaining some of the longest known continuing artistic and religious traditions in the world. Australia's written history commenced with European maritime exploration. The Dutch were the first known Europeans to reach Australia, in 1606. British colonisation began in 1788 with the establishment of the penal colony of New South Wales. By the mid-19th century, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and five additional self-governing British colonies were established, each gaining responsible government by 1890. The colonies federated in 1901, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. This continued a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and culminating in the Australia Acts of 1986. Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and ten territories. Its population of nearly 27 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard. Canberra is the nation's capital, while its most populous cities are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide. Australian governments have promoted multiculturalism since the 1970s. Australia is culturally diverse and has one of the highest foreign-born populations in the world. Its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade relations are crucial to the country's economy, which generates its income from various sources: predominately services as well as mining, manufacturing and agriculture. It ranks highly for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights. Australia has a highly developed market economy and one of the highest per capita incomes globally. It is a middle power, and has the world's thirteenth-highest military expenditure. It is a member of international groups including the United Nations; the G20; the OECD; the World Trade Organization; Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation; the Pacific Islands Forum; the Pacific Community; the Commonwealth of Nations; and the defence and security organisations ANZUS, AUKUS, and the Five Eyes. It is a major non-NATO ally of the United States. </Text>

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<Text> : The Melbourne Arts Precinct is home to a series of galleries, performing arts venues and spaces located in the Southbank district of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It includes such publicly-funded venues as Arts Centre Melbourne, National Gallery of Victoria and Southbank Theatre, along with various offices and training institutions of arts organisations. In 2008, it was announced by the Government of Victoria the precinct would receive a A$128 million upgrade, with the major refurbishment of Hamer Hall as its centrepiece. The combined Melbourne Recital Centre and MTC Theatre complex, which opened in February 2009, won the Moore Stephens Award for Public Buildings at the Property Council of Australia - the country's highest award for a public building. In 2014, the Victorian government released the Melbourne Arts Precinct Blueprint, initiated by the former state Premier and Minister for the Arts Ted Ballieu for a cost of $900,000 . Led by Creative Victoria, its intention was to establish a vision for the precinct along with prioritising any future development. In 2018, the Government of Victoria announced an initial $208 million investment in the first phase of a major redevelopment of the precinct, including a new contemporary art gallery, NGV Contemporary; significant upgrades to Arts Centre Melbourne's State Theatre, back-of-house facilities, and critical maintenance works; and 18,000 m2 of new and renewed public space. This initial investment also included the purchase of the building at 77 Southbank Boulevard, to be demolished so NGV Contemporary could be built. Brutalist architecture is an architectural style that emerged during the 1950s in the United Kingdom, among the reconstruction projects of the post-war era, but commonly known for its presence in post-war communist nations. Brutalist buildings are characterised by minimalist constructions that showcase the bare building materials and structural elements over decorative design. The style commonly makes use of exposed, unpainted concrete or brick, angular geometric shapes and a predominantly monochrome colour palette; other materials, such as steel, timber, and glass, are also featured. Descending from the modernist movement, brutalism is said to be a reaction against the nostalgia of architecture in the 1940s. Derived from the Swedish phrase nybrutalism, the term "new brutalism" was first used by British architects Alison and Peter Smithson for their pioneering approach to design. The style was further popularised in a 1955 essay by architectural critic Reyner Banham, who also associated the movement with the French phrases beton brut and art brut . The style, as developed by architects such as the Smithsons, Hungarian-born Erno Goldfinger, and the British firm Chamberlin, Powell & Bon, was partly foreshadowed by the modernist work of other architects such as French-Swiss Le Corbusier, Estonian-American Louis Kahn, German-American Mies van der Rohe, and Finnish Alvar Aalto. In the United Kingdom, brutalism was featured in the design of utilitarian, low-cost social housing influenced by socialist principles and soon spread to other regions around the world, most notably Eastern Europe. Brutalist designs became most commonly used in the design of institutional buildings, such as provincial legislatures, public works projects, universities, libraries, courts, and city halls. The popularity of the movement began to decline in the late 1970s, with some associating the style with urban decay and totalitarianism. Brutalism's popularity in socialist and communist nations owed to traditional styles being associated with bourgeoisie, whereas concrete emphasized equality. Brutalism has been polarising historically; specific buildings, as well as the movement as a whole, have drawn a range of criticism but have also elicited support from architects and local communities . Mario Bellini is an Italian architect and designer. After graduating from the Polytechnic University of Milan in 1959, Bellini pursued a career as an architect, exhibition designer, product designer, and furniture designer during the Italian economic boom of the late 20th century. Bellini has received several accolades in a variety of design fields, including eight Compasso d'Oro awards and the Gold Medal for Lifetime Achievement by the Triennale di Milano. In 2019, the Italian President of the Chamber of Deputies, Roberto Fico, awarded Bellini a career medal in recognition of his contributions to Italian architecture and design. In 1963 Bellini became a consultant for Olivetti, where he worked on the design of the Programma 101, a precursor to the desktop computer. He continued to collaborate with Olivetti throughout the 1970s and 1980s. During this time, he was involved in the design of many of the company's iconic products, such as the Lexicon 82 Electric Typewriter and the Divisumma 28 Electronic Printing Calculator. For many years he designed furnishing products and systems for B&B Italia and Cassina. He designed TV sets, hi-fi systems, headphones, and electric organs for Yamaha. For five years, he worked as an automobile design consultant with Renault. He has also designed for Fiat and Lancia ; lamps for Artemide, Erco and Flos; and office furniture for Vitra. Other firms for whom he has designed products and/or continues to design products include Acerbis, Bras, Driade, Candy, Castilia, Flou, Kartell, Marcatre, Meritalia, Natuzzi and Poltrona Frau; Ideal Standard; Lamy and Rosenthal; Fuji and Zojirushi; and Heller Furniture. The Ian Potter Centre: NGV Australia is located at Federation Square in Melbourne, Victoria; while the gallery's international works are displayed at the NGV International on St Kilda Road. It should not be confused with the Ian Potter Museum of Art operated by the University of Melbourne. The Ian Potter Centre is a legacy of the businessman and philanthropist Sir Ian Potter. Well-known works at the Ian Potter Centre include Frederick McCubbin's The pioneer and Tom Roberts' Shearing the Rams . Also featured are works from Sidney Nolan, Arthur Boyd, Albert Tucker, Arthur Streeton, John Perceval, Margaret Preston, Bill Henson, Howard Arkley and Fred Williams. The design of the Ian Potter Centre was commissioned to Lab Architecture Studio in association with Bates Smart of Melbourne, headed by Peter Davidson and Donald Bates. Their work has since earned them The RAIA National Award for Interior Architecture as well as the Marion Mahony Interior Architecture Award. According to the Australian Institute of Architects: "The scope of the commission was comprehensive, involving not only the design of the building itself, but the gallery interiors, the laying out of all secondary walls, exhibition design for the first hang including the selection of colours and paintings of walls, the development of the building's identity and a specific graphic typeface, the design of fixtures, fitting, counters, gallery and public furniture and multimedia housings, retail fit outs for the gallery shop and Level 3 cafe."The Encyclopaedia Britannica is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The encyclopaedia is maintained by about 100 full-time editors and more than 4,000 contributors. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition. Since 2016, it has been published exclusively as an online encyclopaedia. Printed for 244 years, the Britannica was the longest-running in-print encyclopaedia in the English language. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in the Scottish capital of Edinburgh, as three volumes. The encyclopaedia grew in size: the second edition was 10 volumes, and by its fourth edition it had expanded to 20 volumes. Its rising stature as a scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors, and the 9th and 11th editions are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style. Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the Britannica shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market. In 1933, the Britannica became the first encyclopaedia to adopt "continuous revision", in which the encyclopaedia is continually reprinted, with every article updated on a schedule. In the 21st century, the Britannica has suffered due to competition with the online peer produced encyclopaedia Wikipedia, although the Britannica was previously suffering from competition with the digital multimedia encyclopaedia Microsoft Encarta. In March 2012, it announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version. Britannica has been assessed to be politically closer to the centre of the US political spectrum than Wikipedia. </Text>

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<Text> :Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer. Cambridge University Press is a department of the University of Cambridge and is both an academic and educational publisher. It became part of Cambridge University Press & Assessment, following a merger with Cambridge Assessment in 2021. With a global sales presence, publishing hubs, and offices in more than 40 countries, it publishes over 50,000 titles by authors from over 100 countries. Its publishing includes more than 420 academic journals, monographs, reference works, school and university textbooks, and English language teaching and learning publications. It also publishes Bibles, runs a bookshop in Cambridge, sells through Amazon, and has a conference venues business in Cambridge at the Pitt Building and the Sir Geoffrey Cass Sports and Social Centre. Cambridge University Press is the oldest university press in the world. It originated from letters patent granted to the University of Cambridge by Henry VIII in 1534. Cambridge is one of the two privileged presses . Authors published by Cambridge have included John Milton, William Harvey, Isaac Newton, Bertrand Russell, and Stephen Hawking. University printing began in Cambridge when the first practising University Printer, Thomas Thomas, set up a printing house in 1584. The first publication was a book, Two Treatises of the Lord His Holie Supper. In 1591 the first Cambridge Bible was printed by John Legate and in 1629 Cambridge folio edition of the King James Bible was printed by Thomas and John Buck. He was born in London, England, a son of Henry Williams Chisholm , Warden of the Standards at the Board of Trade, and his wife Anna Louisa Bell; the mathematician Grace Chisholm was his sister. He was educated at Felsted School and matriculated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in 1884, graduating in 1888 with a first class in literae humaniores. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1892. Chisholm worked for The St James's Gazette as assistant editor from 1892 and was appointed editor in 1897. During these years, he also contributed numerous articles on political, financial and literary subjects to the weekly journals and monthly reviews, becoming well known as a literary critic and conservative publicist. He moved in 1899 to The Standard as chief leader-writer and moved in 1900 to The Times, to act as co-editor with Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace and President Arthur Twining Hadley of Yale University on preparation of the eleven volumes forming the 10th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. In 1903, he became editor-in-chief for the 11th edition, which was completed under his direction in 1910, and published as a whole by the Cambridge University Press, in 29 volumes, in 1911. He subsequently planned and edited the Britannica Year-Book . Chisholm had been suggested as replacement as editor of The Times as an alternative to Geoffrey Dawson. Lord Northcliffe, owner of The Times from 1909, promised him the post in 1911, but did not act on the promise, and Dawson continued to 1919. In 1913, following his return from America overseeing the printing of The Britannica Year-Book, Chisholm was appointed day editor of The Times. His role included that of leader writer; but eventually he fell out with Northcliffe. In August 1913 he was appointed a director of the company. He was financial editor throughout World War I, resigning in 1920 when he embarked on the editorship of the three volumes forming the 12th edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica, published in 1922. </Text>

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Volume XXXI, 1900 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXI, 1900 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Category:Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> category's main topic <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Category:Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> instance of <o> Wikimedia category <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVа, 1898 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVа, 1898 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVа, 1898 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVа, 1898 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVа, 1898 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXV, 1898 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXV, 1898 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXV, 1898 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXV, 1898 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXV, 1898 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIIа, 1897 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIIа, 1897 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIIа, 1897 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIIа, 1897 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIIа, 1897 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIIIа, 1898 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIIIа, 1898 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIIIа, 1898 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIIIа, 1898 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIIIа, 1898 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIII, 1898 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIII, 1898 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIII, 1898 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIII, 1898 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIII, 1898 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVIа, 1899 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVIа, 1899 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVIа, 1899 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVIа, 1899 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVIа, 1899 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVIIа, 1899 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVIIа, 1899 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVIIа, 1899 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVIIа, 1899 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVIIа, 1899 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation </Graph>

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<Graph> : <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIV, 1898 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIV, 1898 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIV, 1898 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIV, 1898 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIV, 1898 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVI, 1899 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVI, 1899 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVI, 1899 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVI, 1899 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVI, 1899 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVII, 1899 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVII, 1899 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVII, 1899 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVII, 1899 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXVII, 1899 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> instance of <o> human <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> field of work <o> physics <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> field of work <o> color <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Russian <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> contributed to creative work <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> field of work <o> electromagnetism <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> field of work <o> optics <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> family name <o> Petrushevsky <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> described by source <o> Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> sibling <o> Vasily Petrushevsky <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> sibling <o> Alexander Petrushevsky <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> sibling <o> Mikhail Fomich Petrushevsky <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> given name <o> Fyodor <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> educated at <o> Saint Petersburg State University <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> country of citizenship <o> Russian Empire <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> educated at <o> Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> employer <o> Saint Petersburg State University <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Fedor Petrushevsky <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> maintained by WikiProject <o> WikiProject Mathematics <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> educated at <o> Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the Saint Petersburg University <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> occupation <o> physicist <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> occupation <o> university teacher <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> award received <o> Order of Saint Stanislaus, 2nd class <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> award received <o> Order of Saint Anna, 1st class <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> employer <o> Imperial St. Petersburg University <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> award received <o> Order of St. Vladimir, 3rd class <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> award received <o> Order of Saint Stanislaus, 1st class <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> father <o> Foma Petrushevsky <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> place of burial <o> Smolenskoye Orthodox Cemetery <s> Fedor Petrushevsky <p> doctoral student <o> Dmitry Konstantinovich Bobylev <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> instance of <o> human <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> history <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> prose <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> law <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Russian <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> described by source <o> Jewish Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> described by source <o> Russian Biographical Dictionary <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> place of birth <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> given name <o> Ivan <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> pedagogy <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> position held <o> rector <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> described by source <o> Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978) <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> place of death <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> archival science <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> country of citizenship <o> Russian Empire <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> occupation <o> archivist <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> legal history <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> occupation <o> jurist <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> occupation <o> hygienist <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> occupation <o> historian <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> occupation <o> prose writer <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> editing staff <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> occupation <o> editing staff <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> occupation <o> university teacher <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> regional history <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> award received <o> Order of Saint Anna, 2nd class <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> award received <o> Order of Saint Anna, 1st class <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> father <o> Efim Ivanovich Andreyevsky <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> medical law <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> jurisprudence <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> award received <o> Order of St. Vladimir, 3rd class <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> award received <o> Order of Saint Stanislaus, 1st class <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> award received <o> Order of Saint Stanislaus, 2nd class <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> mother <o> Olimpiada Vasilievna Koreneva <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> creative and professional writing <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> field of work <o> public health protection <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> educated at <o> Imperial St. Petersburg University <s> Ivan Andreyevsky <p> employer <o> Imperial St. Petersburg University <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IX, 1893 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IX, 1893 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IX, 1893 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IX, 1893 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IX, 1893 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IXа, 1893 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IXа, 1893 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IXа, 1893 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IXа, 1893 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IXа, 1893 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume I, 1890 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume I, 1890 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume I, 1890 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume I, 1890 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume I, 1890 <p> editor <o> Ivan Andreyevsky <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume I, 1890 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIа, 1891 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIа, 1891 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIа, 1891 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIа, 1891 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIа, 1891 <p> editor <o> Ivan Andreyevsky <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIа, 1891 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume II, 1906 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume II, 1906 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume II, 1906 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume II, 1906 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume II, 1906 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron </Graph>

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<Graph> : <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIIа, 1891 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIIа, 1891 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIIа, 1891 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIIа, 1891 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIIа, 1891 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IIIа, 1891 <p> editor <o> Ivan Andreyevsky <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume IIa, 1907 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume IIa, 1907 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume IIa, 1907 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume IIa, 1907 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume IIa, 1907 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume Iа, 1890 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume Iа, 1890 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume Iа, 1890 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume Iа, 1890 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume Iа, 1890 <p> editor <o> Ivan Andreyevsky <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume Iа, 1890 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume III, 1891 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume III, 1891 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume III, 1891 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume III, 1891 <p> editor <o> Ivan Andreyevsky <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume III, 1891 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume III, 1891 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume II, 1890 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume II, 1890 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume II, 1890 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume II, 1890 <p> place of publication <o> St. Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume II, 1890 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume II, 1890 <p> editor <o> Ivan Andreyevsky <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume Ia, 1905 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume Ia, 1905 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume Ia, 1905 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume Ia, 1905 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume Ia, 1905 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume I, 1905 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume I, 1905 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume I, 1905 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume I, 1905 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Aux. volume I, 1905 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Conversations-Lexikon mit vorzüglicher Rücksicht auf die gegenwärtigen Zeiten <p> editor <o> Christian Wilhelm Franke <s> Conversations-Lexikon mit vorzüglicher Rücksicht auf die gegenwärtigen Zeiten <p> editor <o> Renatus Gotthelf Löbel <s> Conversations-Lexikon mit vorzüglicher Rücksicht auf die gegenwärtigen Zeiten <p> genre <o> encyclopedia <s> Conversations-Lexikon mit vorzüglicher Rücksicht auf die gegenwärtigen Zeiten <p> followed by <o> Brockhaus Enzyklopädie <s> Conversations-Lexikon mit vorzüglicher Rücksicht auf die gegenwärtigen Zeiten <p> instance of <o> written work <s> Conversations-Lexikon mit vorzüglicher Rücksicht auf die gegenwärtigen Zeiten <p> described by source <o> The Nuttall Encyclopædia <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIIа, 1894 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIIа, 1894 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIIа, 1894 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIIа, 1894 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIIа, 1894 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIV, 1895 <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIV, 1895 <p> place of publication <o> Saint Petersburg <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIV, 1895 <p> part of <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIV, 1895 <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIV, 1895 <p> publisher <o> Brockhaus–Efron </Graph>

<Text> :The Conversations-Lexikon mit vorzuglicher Rucksicht auf die gegenwartigen Zeiten , was a German language encyclopedia published in Leipzig, Germany between 1796 and 1808. The encyclopedia was published in 8 volumes and 2,762 pages. It was edited by Dr Renatus Gotthelf Lobel, who intended to supersede Johann Hubner by including geography, history, biography, mythology, philosophy, natural history, and other topics. Volumes i-iv appeared between 1796 and 1800, with vol. v appearing in 1806. This work was acquired and completed by Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus in 1808 and formed the basis of the many editions of the Brockhaus Encyclopedia, which continued publication until 1 February 2014. </Text>