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Minimum wage under debate Slovenia has had a form of statutory minimum wage since 1995, with tripartite agreements on increases in the minimum wage subsequently implemented by law. The system has been criticised, as the minimum wage has become a central reference point for the whole pay structure, with tripartite negotiations largely taking the place of genuine pay bargaining between employers and trade unions. Furthermore, the statutory minimum wage is now higher than the first three or four lowest pay rates set out in sectoral collective agreements. This article examines the development of minimum wages, the perceived problems with the system, and attempts to address these issues in 2004. A minimum wage existed in Slovenia before the Second World War, when it was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (the following summary of the history of the minimum wage is largely based on 'Legal regulation of pay'[in Slovene], B Kresal, Bonex, Ljubljana, 2001). The issue was regulated by a 1937 Decree on determination of minimum wages, conclusion of collective agreements, settlement of disputes and arbitration. This decree covered all workers and laid down a cash figure for basic minimum pay. In addition it provided, that through consultation with the social partners, a special minimum pay rate could determined for specific regional administrative units, ranging between 90% and 150% of the national basic minimum pay After the Second World War, a 'guaranteed personal income' was introduced by law in the former Yugoslavia, subsequently known in practice as 'guaranteed pay'. This differed conceptually from a minimum wage, in that its original main purpose was to regulate pay in loss-making companies. Such companies had to pay their workers only this guaranteed amount of pay, if they were making a loss that was not covered or had not adopted a reorganisation plan. The government used guaranteed pay as an instrument to reduce growth in inflation, so its real value dropped substantially. In 1995, when a statutory minimum wage was introduced in the independent Slovenia, guaranteed pay lost its meaning, partly because it was much lower than the new minimum wage. Similar trends were witnessed in other central and eastern European countries in the early years of political and economic transition. An International Labour Organisation study found that over 1991-4 the minimum wage dropped far below the poverty threshold in the majority of these countries, and it recommended to separating the minimum wage from the social security system. However the current law on guaranteed personal income (adopted in 1990 and most recently amended in 1994) is still in force. It provides that all workers are guaranteed an amount of guaranteed pay that ensures their material and social security. However, the payment of guaranteed pay is not enforced, and the main reason for its continued existence is that many laws in the field of social security (and some other laws too) refer to the guaranteed pay level for the purposes of calculating some social contributions or the criteria for entitlement to benefits. The real value of guaranteed pay has dropped substantially because of high inflation and because the government has not adjusted it regularly. In fact the government has used guaranteed pay as one of the instruments to brake growth in social transfers (whose real value also dropped substantially). Minimum wage after 1995 The main reason for the introduction of a statutory minimum wage in 1995 was the extremely low level of guaranteed pay. The tripartite 'social agreement' for 1995 stated that it was necessary to determine the minimum wage by law. The law implementing the 1995 social agreement and pay policy agreement, and determining the highest and lowest actual pay rates, did not use the term minimum wage. It determined a cash figure for the lowest permissible monthly wage, with payment of a lower amount forbidden. Because the law was only an instrument that gave binding effect to the provisions of the social agreement, its period of validity was limited to that of the social agreement. Another law regulating the lowest permissible pay rate in a similar way was adopted in 1997. The next law on the issue was adopted in 1999 following the conclusion of a pay policy agreement for 1999-2001. In addition to increasing the minimum wage by the same amount as pay generally, an extra increase was stipulated with the aim of gradually bringing the minimum wage up to 58% of the average wage in the manufacturing sector. The law determined that the percentage increase in the minimum was was to be determined by the tripartite Economic and Social Council of Slovenia (Ekonomsko socialni svet Slovenije, ESSS) (SI0207103F). The validity of the part of the law that regulated the minimum wage was not limited, as previously, by the duration of the social agreement. Thus a national minimum wage in a proper sense was regulated for the first time. It is important to note that since 2000, like pay generally, the minimum pay has been adjusted in the light of forecast inflation and not past inflation, in order to prevent the transfer of past inflation into the future. The tripartite private sector pay policy agreement for 2002-4 concluded on 10 June 2002 (SI0206102F) determined that the minimum wage (as determined by the Law on the minimum wage, methods of pay adjustment and holiday allowances for 1999-2001) would be adjusted in line with forecast rises in consumer prices (excluding the prices of alcohol and tobacco products). Furthermore, each August during the period of the agreement the minimum wage rate would additionally be increased by the percentage growth in Slovenian gross domestic product in the previous year. The minimum pay has most recently been determined by the tripartite private sector pay policy agreement for 2004-5, concluded on 28 April 2004 (SI0405103F). It sets the minimum monthly wage at: - SIT 117,500 (EUR 492) from August 2004; and - SIT 122,600 (EUR 513) from August 2005. Up until now, the minimum wage has been a central reference point for the whole pay structure. Tripartite negotiations between the government and the social partners have been concerned with limiting pay growth and have focused on the determination of minimum pay. Such tripartite negotiations have replaced genuine collective bargaining on pay between trade unions and employers’ organisations. Such bargaining has been virtually absent, even though all national social agreements and pay agreements include the statement that collective agreements are the central instrument for regulating pay. Minimum pay is increased in a different way and by more than pay generally (see 'The beginning and the development of collective agreements in Slovenia'[in Slovene], B Misic, ZSSS. Ljubljana, 2003). The consequence is that the minimum wage is higher than the first three or four lowest rates of basic 'starting pay' set out in sectoral collective agreements and that the difference is growing (all collective agreements for the private sector lay down pay rates for nine categories of jobs on the basis of their requirements, so that differences in pay relate to differences in job requirements - SI0401103F). This is unfair and has an adverse effect on the motivation of employees, because employees with different qualifications and job requirements get the same pay. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that the minimum wage is the basis for the whole of pay (basic pay plus various supplements such as that for overtime work). From the beginning, the trade unions have been demanding that the minimum wage should be comprehensively regulated by a special law and determined according to criteria related to the needs of employees and their families (no such criteria are included in the current legislation). They claim that the present minimum wage is not compatible with human dignity and does not make it possible for workers and their families to meet their needs and lead a decent life. The employers agree that it is very difficult to survive on the existing minimum wage but say that firms in labour-intensive sectors, especially in textiles, have difficulties paying even this low amount. They argue that a higher minimum wage would endanger jobs in these sectors. Trade unions reply that some companies in these sectors will go bankrupt anyway, and that they do not want to be 'the prisoners of the textiles sector' any more. A typical example is the Prebold textiles factor, where workers took spontaneous strike action on 11 May 2004 after receiving only a small proportion of their February and March wages (on the previous day they were paid an EUR 42 down-payment on their March pay, while the company still owes them 65% of their February pay). Indeed, the most important cause of strikes in Slovenia over 1998-2002 was wage arrears (SI0403103F) and the high level of wages arrears cases raises the question of whether the labour and social courts are active and effective enough to help workers get the wages owed. In this context, the tripartite private sector pay policy agreement for 2004-5 seeks to provide a solution to the problem of the relationship between the minimum wage and pay rises in general by increasing the role of sectoral collective agreements in pay determination (SI0404102N). In the tripartite social agreement for 2003-5 (SI0307101F), the government and the social partners agreed that during the period of validity of the agreement they will prepare a proposal for a special law to regulate the minimum wage. This proposal has not yet been prepared and it is not likely that the present government will succeed in preparing it because of forthcoming general elections during 2004. (Stefan Skledar, Institute of Macroeconomic Analysis and Development, Government of the Republic of Slovenia)

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Moscow: An asteroid similar in size to the one that exploded over Siberia in 1908 will pass the Earth on February 15 by the smallest-ever recorded margin, American space agency NASA said. But the asteroid poses no threat of colliding with the planet. "The asteroid will pass by our planet at a remarkably close distance, but the asteroid's path is understood well enough that there is no chance of a collision with the Earth," NASA said. Known as 2012 DA14, the asteroid will come no closer than 27,650 km to the Earth, according to NASA. It was detected in February 2012 when it was about 4.3 million km away. The asteroid is approximately 45 metres in diameter and has an estimated mass of about 130,000 tonnes. "A comparison to the impact potential of an asteroid the size of 2012 DA14 could be made to the impact of a near-Earth object that occurred in 1908 in Tunguska, Siberia," NASA said. On June 30, 1908, Siberia was hit by an explosion equal to 2,000 times the nuclear bomb that destroyed the Japanese city of Hiroshima in 1945, destroying 2,200 square km of forest. If the impact had occurred four hours later, the city of St. Petersburg and other nearby settlements would have been wiped off the face of the Earth. Story first published: February 08, 2013 21:20 IST

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American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition - An ancient town of Assyria in present-day northern Iraq. Its name is sometimes given to the battle fought at Gaugamela, about 97 km (60 mi) away, in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius III in 331 B.C. “They were very near to a village called Arbela; and on the fortieth day after, he came himself with his whole army: and as the enemy sallied out boldly upon him, the left wing of his army gave way; but he appearing with a body of men, put those to flight who were already conquerors, and recalled his men that ran away.” “Darius was in such a hurry to leave Arbela and flee to Ecbatana that he left behind an abundant store of food, jewels, and a fortune in silver.” “After the battle at Gaugamela, Darius fled first to the nearby town of Arbela, but only briefly as he knew Alexander would be close behind him.” “From the captured prisoners, Alexander learned that Darius and his army were close by, beyond the hills to the east of Nineveh, not far from the town of Arbela.” “Arbela, of carrying their wives, daughters, and eunuchs along with their armies.” “For did Alexander, think you, (or indeed could he possibly) forget the fight at Arbela?” “Subsequently it seems to have been obstructed; but in A.H. 643 it was repaired by Kokeboury, King of Arbela; again in 762, by order of Sultan Sayd Khadanbede; and a third time, but not completely, in 811, by the Sheri£ Hassan Ibn Adjelan, then reigning.” “Gordyene, and despoiled the subjects of Tigranes, an army under the command of Afranius, who put him to the rout, and followed him in chase as far as the district of Arbela.” “Or that other, when Parmenio came to him in the plain of Arbela and showed him the innumerable multitude of his enemies, specially as they appeared by the infinite number of lights as it had been a new firmament of stars, and thereupon advised him to assail them by night; whereupon he answered, “That he would not steal the victory.”” “You may remember to have read, or heard at least, that Alexander the Great, immediately after his having obtained a glorious victory over the King Darius in Arbela, refused, in the presence of the splendid and illustrious courtiers that were about him, to give audience to a poor certain despicable-like fellow, who through the solicitations and mediation of some of his royal attendants was admitted humbly to beg that grace and favour of him.” ‘Arbela’ hasn't been added to any lists yet. Looking for tweets for Arbela.

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A guide to buying a beginner keyboard Buying a keyboard for a beginner can seem something of a ‘minefield’. If this is an area with which you are unfamiliar, there appears to be endless models and options, with no clear indicator as to which is going to suit your needs best. This guide will explain what you need to look for, and guide towards the best beginner keyboard for you. Does the beginner want to play keyboard, or play piano? This may seem like a strange question when picking a beginners keyboard, but it can have a big influence on which instrument is the right one. The instruments commonly described as home keyboards generally feature ‘auto accompaniment’, and ‘one touch chords’. What this means in practice is that the keyboard has functions that enable it to play accompaniment patterns in different styles when a chord is pressed just once by the players left hand, giving the impression of a whole band playing at once. Still confused? When a piano is played, the music consists of two separate ‘parts’, one for the left hand and one for the right hand, which are read and played simultaneously. A piece of keyboard music generally consists of a melody line, played with the right hand, with chord names written above at the point that they occur- the auto accompaniment on the keyboard will take care of creating musical parts in the correct key for the chord played. Learning to play the keyboard is more instantly gratifying for the beginner as a result. It could be said that it takes a little more discipline, therefore, to learn how to play the piano, as it takes a little longer to learn how to ‘accompany yourself’. When choosing a beginner keyboard for a child, then, the more ‘traditional’ keyboards (such as the Yamaha PSR-Range) with accompaniment styles are a very good option. The learner can achieve impressive results in a very short space of time, being able to sound like they are performing with other musicians. This is a great motivator for young players. On the other hand, a learner who is aiming to ultimately play the piano may have no interest in accompaniment features, and would require a very different style of instrument (such as those sometimes termed ‘practice pianos’). These tend have less features, in favour of a smaller but more realistic set of sounds, and more authentic piano keyboard ‘feel’ (see the Yamaha NP31 for a good example of this style of keyboard). Whilst this might sound like something from an engineer’s design notes, this is a feature that is very important when picking a beginner keyboard. The easiest way to explain is to consider a real, acoustic piano. When a key on a piano is played hard, the resulting sound is loud, and when the keys are played softly, the sound is quiet. This allows the instrument to be played expressively. Dramatic moments can be emphasised by playing with more volume, or made delicate and intimate by playing softly. These are known as ‘dynamics’ in a piece of music. Velocity sensitivity on a keyboard means that it mimics a real piano keyboard in this way. Playing hard = loud, and playing softly = quiet. If the player is very much ‘dipping a toe in the water’, then a keyboard without velocity sensitivity (such as the Yamaha YPT220) may suffice. They are a less expensive option, and so financially, present a smaller outlay if a child loses interest, for example. However, if they continue to play, eventually, dynamics will be an essential part of their playing. This will require a velocity sensitive keyboard. In a nutshell, then, a non-velocity sensitive keyboard is fine only for an absolute beginner, and only where it isn’t clear whether the learner will ‘stick with it’. There are other features that may be considered useful when choosing a beginners keyboard. Some feature a recorder, enabling you to record your performance, or create songs. Others have built in ‘lessons’ or practice features. Some even have microphone inputs with vocal effects. You may even want something with a weighted, hammer action keyboard (in essence like a real piano keyboard). The options really are endless. The first, key decisions (no pun intended…) you should make, however, are those above. To see the range of keyboards available, see our online store, or visit our stores to try them out. Alternatively, give our customer service team a call for more information (01925 582420). To stay up to date with the latest news and product information subscribe to our newsletter. Share on Facebook Powered by Facebook Comments

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Establishing a thriving learning environment is instrumental in students obtaining personal success. We must be strategic in how we develop our classroom communities at the beginning of a new school year. The setting must support the whole child, adapting to the needs of the group as everyone settles in for the yearlong learning journey. The environment must specifically be designed to support the health and safety of our students, strengthening the emotional well-being of each individual. Providing an atmosphere that supports learning endeavors from every angle offers students many opportunities to be truly engaged and challenged. But how do we guarantee that we WILL develop a solid foundation that supports the whole child?

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Name of Instrument: Harmonica, also known as mouth organ or mouth harp Wind, free-reed instrument meaning wind instruments that have a freely vibrating reed and the pitch depends on the size of the reed. How to Play: The harmonica has metal reeds placed in air channels. The reed vibrates when the musician blows air into or sucks air out of the channels. As the musician blows into each channel, different notes are produced. The lips and tongue covers the channels that are not needed to be played. The chromatic harmonica have added levers that enables the musician to play more notes. A diatonic harmonica has no levers and can only play diatonic notes. First Known Harmonicas: The oldest known type of harmonica is the sheng which originated from China. The sheng was made of bamboo pipes wherein a reed is placed. The musician blows into the pipe and create different notes by covering holes on the pipe. Traditional shengs were made of 13 to 17 pipes of varying sizes but there are also those which used more pipes. The sheng was brought to Russia in the 1770s and is believed to have influenced the invention of the harmonica. The Invention of the Harmonica: The harmonica is believed to have been invented in 1821 in Berlin by Christian Friedrich Buschmann. It was called Mundäoline. During the 19th century, a German named Matthias Hohner manufactured harmonicas and shipped it to different locations including the United States. Musicians Who Used harmonicas: Harmonicas are used in blues and folk music. Some of the musicians who used them are Larry Adler, DeFord Bailey, Jean Thielemans, Little Walter, Junior Wells and Sonny Boy Williamson.

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A simple flash of light sets high-tech carbon fibers alight, a young researcher has found. The effect adds to the list of the fibers' remarkable properties and could have applications in fields ranging from rocket science to nanotechnology. With a little coaxing, carbon atoms can arrange themselves in tubes resembling atomic-scale cylinders of chicken wire. Such single-walled carbon nanotubes are among the strongest materials known, can carry electricity like the metals in wires and the semiconductors in silicon chips, and can even be made to conduct electricity with no resistance. Such properties could someday allow nanotechnologists to fashion tiny electrical circuits and mechanical devices out of nanotubes. Now, single-walled carbon nanotubes have displayed another novel property: They catch fire when exposed to a simple flash of light. The discovery was made by undergraduate Andres de la Guardia while working with Pulickel Ajayan, a materials scientist at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York. De la Guardia was supposed to take close-up photographs of tangles of freshly made nanotubes, but he found that the flash from his camera ignited the fluffy masses. The researchers and their colleagues repeated the process with the tubes in a vacuum or surrounded by helium or argon gas. In those experiments, the tubes could not burn for lack of oxygen, but the light still scrambled the arrangement of the carbon atoms, the team reports in the 26 April issue of Science. The changes suggest that light might be used to control the properties of single-walled nanotubes, Ajayan says. The fire-from-light phenomenon could also have direct applications, says David Carroll, a physicist at Clemson University in South Carolina. For instance, it might be used to control the ignition of flammable materials. "I anticipate a potential use in solid propellants such as the space shuttle's solid rocket motors," Carroll says. Michael Sailor, a materials chemist at the University of California, San Diego, says that the light-sensitive nanotubes might be used to set off minuscule "nano-explosives" to perform tiny remote-controlled chemical experiments, kill tumors from the inside out, or even power microscopic robots.

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In an invasion planned by the United States Central Intelligence Agency and approved by the Kennedy administration, US-backed Cuban anti-Castro forces landed at the Bay of Pigs but were overcome by Castro’s troops. More than 1100 men were captured in an embarrassing defeat. The prisoners were eventually ransomed back to the US in exchange for food and medicine. What constitutes great presidential leadership? How did Eisenhower demonstrate great leadership through his support of the Federal-Aid Highway Act (1956) and his warning about the growth of the Military-Industrial Complex (1961)? Transcript of National Interstate and Defense Highways Act (1956), Our... In January 1969, America’s recently elected conservative President Richard Nixon took office, young Americans were engaged in a radical and vivacious counterculture, and a devastating war in Vietnam continued amongst a diminishing degree of popular support. While President Lyndon Johnson had largely inherited the Vietnam crisis, his Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in 1964 allowed for his complete control as the Commander in Chief over Congress. While Johnson relied on his advisors for support and success in Vietnam, his...

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To keep current with changing technology, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is proposing several changes to the Digital Signature Standard (DSS). First issued in 1994 and updated in 1998 and 1999, DSS is used widely by federal agencies and numerous private-sector organizations to confirm the identity of a document signer and to verify the integrity of electronic data. Currently, the standard includes three algorithms for generating digital signatures: the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA), RSA and the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA). Digital signature algorithms require keys to generate secure signatures. With advances in technology, the size of these keys must be increased to provide adequate security. For DSA, the current version authorizes the use of key sizes of 512 to 1024 bits. Key sizes of 1024 now are considered the minimum acceptable level for security of digital signatures. The draft Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 186-3 allows the use of 1024, 2048 and 3072-bit keys for DSA and RSA, and continues to recommend the ECDSA. FIPS 186-3 also proposes allowing federal agencies to use Public Key Cryptography Standard (PKCS) 1 to generate RSA digital signatures. PKCS 1 was developed by RSA Security, Bedford, Mass. The draft FIPS 186-3 with the proposed changes is available at csrc.nist.gov/publications/drafts.html. Comments should be sent by June 12 to Elaine Barker at elaine.barker AT nist.gov, or mailed to Chief, Computer Security Division, Information Technology Laboratory, Attention: Comments on Draft FIPS 186-3, 100 Bureau Dr., Stop 8930, NIST, Gaithersburg, Md., 20899-8930.

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Ida B. Wells: “Lynch Law in America”(1900) Explanation and Analysis of the Document In “Lynch Law in America,” Wells-Barnett declares that lynching has become a national crime to which all sections of the country have contributed and must bear responsibility. She begins the article by discussing the origin and evolution of lynching in the United States and the transformation of the practice into a tool of racist terror in the South. She describes the current situation with respect to the widespread incidents of lynching and the various excuses offered for it. Finally, she urges Americans to take action against the crime of lynching. Lynching, according to Wells-Barnett, began in the far West, where settlers had no access to courts or the legal system. She refers to the communal justice of the frontier as following the “unwritten law.” This custom, as she describes it, was harsh and severe and usually resulted in immediate hanging from the nearest tree. Facing hardships of a rough existence, there was little time to... Harper's Weekly illustration of lynching and its collaborators (Library of Congress)View Full Size

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The most famous fountain in the city of Lyon was made by a Frenchman whose name is not likely to tell you much: Auguste Bartholdi, originally from the Alsace region. Doesn’t really ring a bell, non? His other work, however, is one of the best known monuments in the world. Ever heard of New York‘s Statue of Liberty, par exemple? Well, the story behind the Bartholdi Fountain in Lyon is not less “mouvementée” (a French way to say “action-packed”, or just “eventful” if you prefer) than that of the Statue of Liberty “illuminant le monde” (“Enlightening the World.”) But make that on a much more “compact” scale, so to speak. Initially, the fountain, which has an “older sister” still standing in Washington D.C., was meant to be constructed in another French city, much to the west of Lyon. In 1857, when he was barely 23 years old, Bartholdi struck a deal with the city of Bordeaux to build a fountain in its well-known Place des Quinconces, one of the largest city squares in all of Europe. A rather bonne affaire for a debuting artist. However, for various tedious reasons better not to mention here, the project n’a pas vu le jour (did not see the light.) More than thirty years later, Bartholdi finally brought his work to completion. He exhibited it during the 1889 Exposition Universelle in Paris. And what a franc succès it was. By then, the reputation of Bartholdi was not to be made anymore. Only three years earlier, he had finished the Statue of Liberty. The Mayor of Lyon, a fine opportunist, to put it nicely, immediately seized upon the occasion to ask the French sculptor to install the fountain in his city. Though a bit disappointed at first by the modest price the city of Lyon was willing to disburse for his œuvre, Bartholdi ended up accepting the less than generous offer. He personally selected la Place des Terreaux, right between l’hôtel de ville (the City Hall) and the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon, to be the site of his fontaine. The choice of the location was probably not purely random. The adjacent Lyon Museum houses works of Charles Le Brun, namely the Sun King’s favorite artist, and maybe more significantly to Bartholdi, the teacher of Jean-Baptiste Tuby. Indeed, Lyon’s Bartholdi Fountain found its direct inspiration in Tuby’s Basin d’apollon in Versailles. But instead of the Greek Sun-god which Louis XIV, “le Roi Soleil“, enjoyed comparing himself to so modestly, Bartholdi chose to feature a woman. The lady topping the fountain is said to represent the Garonne river, which crosses the city of Bordeaux, leading quatre chevaux (four horses) who stand for the river’s four main affluents.

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Paul Wray, Faculty, Natural Resource Ecology & Management Forestry extension at Iowa State University (ISU) and the Forestry Division of the Iowa Department of Natural Resources (Iowa DNR) launched a new educational program in 1988 patterned after Extension's highly successful Master Gardener Program. This program was labeled the Master Woodland Managers Program. This educational program has been conducted in 34 different locations in Iowa from 1988 through 2004 involving 885 individuals. Cooperators in this program have included county conservation boards, the Natural Resource Conservation Service, county extension offices, and Resource Conservation and Development (RC&D) units. In 1997, the Iowa Tree Farm Committee became a program sponsor, and, in 1998, the Iowa Woodland Owners Assn. began providing financial support through the Iowa Tree Farm Committee. Develop a network of highly-motivated, well-trained volunteers in Iowa to assist land management professionals in the improvement and expansion of woodlands tree resources in the state. The program is usually a multi-county effort. A total of 20-30 participants are selected and trained for each location. Programs are typically scheduled in the late spring or early fall. Course instruction focuses on various aspects of woodland management including basic tree identification and biology, ecology, land and tree measurements, inventory procedures, silviculture, protection, economics and marketing, tree planting, wildlife management, wood utilization, and other topics important to land managers. Clients are also encouraged to begin work on developing a stewardship plan for their woodland. A total of 32 hours of intensive training is provided involving both classroom and field instruction. Teaching staff typically includes extension specialists, university professors, Iowa DNR professionals, county conservation board and Natural Resource Conservation Service staff, and often RC&D foresters. A textbook, an extension reference notebook, a Biltmore stick and specific technical handouts are provided as support materials. Program format is flexible but must include 32 hours of training. The most typical arrangement involves four 4-hour evening sessions plus two 8-hour afternoon + evening meetings. A different format could be selected based upon local preferences. Participants receive a certificate upon course completion. Each graduate is then expected to contribute at least 32 hours of public service during the next two years. Service projects could include instructing youth in outdoor classrooms, developing demonstration areas in woodlands, hosting an educational meeting for other landowners, speaking on forestry topics to service groups, or assisting professionals in various ways. Volunteers are encouraged to work with local natural resource professionals in accomplishing their service projects. Education provided in the Master Woodland Managers Program will contribute to the improvement and expansion of tree resources in Iowa by the actions and examples of these volunteer "woodland ambassadors." Participants from the first 30 sessions have already contributed over 22,400 hours of documented public service. 106 -- Green Industry (Commercial Horticulture and Forestry) Page last updated: July 8, 2006 Page maintained by Linda Schultz, firstname.lastname@example.org

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The body of aviation electronics technician Richard Edson Sweeney is brought ashore from the USS Tucker on its arrival at a port in Japan on April 20, 1969. The destroyer arrived with the bodies of two members of a 31-man crew who manned a U.S. reconnaissance plane shot down by North Korean jets five days earlier over the Sea of Japan. The body of aviation electronics technician Richard Edson Sweeney is brought ashore from the USS Tucker on its arrival at a port in Japan on April 20, 1969. The destroyer arrived with the bodies of two members of a 31-man crew who manned a U.S. reconnaissance plane shot down by North Korean jets five days earlier over the Sea of Japan. AP Since March, South Korea and the United States have pondered how to respond to North Korea after the torpedo sinking of a South Korean naval ship that left 46 sailors dead. It was the case, too, in 1969 after North Korean fighter jets shot down an American spy plane. Then, President Nixon and his national security adviser, Henry Kissinger, considered a range of military responses, up to the possible use of nuclear weapons, according to newly disclosed documents. On April 15, 1969, an American EC-121 reconnaissance plane carrying a full crew took off from a base in Japan and did what it had done dozens of times before — it flew over international waters gathering signals, radio communications and other intelligence. This year, South Korea and the United States have struggled with the question of how to respond to North Korea, which is accused of sinking a South Korean warship in March. Here, South Korean soldiers patrol the border with North Korea in May. This year, South Korea and the United States have struggled with the question of how to respond to North Korea, which is accused of sinking a South Korean warship in March. Here, South Korean soldiers patrol the border with North Korea in May. Yonhap/AFP/Getty Images This time, though, fighter jets from North Korea intercepted the American plane and shot it down, killing all 31 Americans on board. 'Prepare To Strike' But a former U.S. fighter pilot has come forward with a story about a nuclear alert just hours after the attack. Bruce Charles was on temporary duty that day at Kunsan Air Base in South Korea. He was on standard alert as part of the Single Integrated Operational Plan, or SIOP — the plan for nuclear war with the Soviet Union. His assigned target was an airstrip in North Korea. Early that afternoon, his commanding officer called him into his office, Charles says. "When I got to see the colonel, it was very simple. He described the shooting down of the EC-121 about a hundred miles at sea. And that he had a message, which he showed me at that time, saying to prepare to strike my target," Charles says. Charles then rechecked his F-4 fighter jet and the weapon it was carrying. He says it was a B61 nuclear bomb, with a yield of about 330 kilotons — not the biggest bomb in the U.S. nuclear arsenal, but more than 20 times the size of the bomb dropped over Hiroshima. Then there were several hours of waiting, Charles says, and the order came to stand down. "The order to stand down was just about dusk, and it was not a certainty. The colonel said, 'It looks like from the messages I'm getting, we will not do this today. I do not know about tomorrow,' " Charles recalls. Charles' story could not be independently confirmed, but not long after the North Korean attack, The New York Times, citing sources in the Nixon administration, reported that there was discussion of a nuclear attack against North Korea. Limited 'Menu Of Options' In the immediate hours after the attack and for the next few months, Nixon and his advisers struggled to come up with a response, according to Robert Wampler, a historian who works for the National Security Archive, a project of George Washington University. "The U.S. did not have a very good menu of options when this happened, which sort of constrained them in their ability to pick and choose amongst something that would work, and also contain the situation," Wampler says. President Richard Nixon speaking at a press conference in Washington in April 1969, after North Korean fighter jets shot down an American reconnaissance plane. Wampler recently posted 16 documents on the website of the National Security Archive, among some 1,700 that he has been studying. They illustrate vividly just how difficult it was for Nixon to respond to the North Korean attack in such a way that would not spark a wider war. Two months after the attack, the option of using nuclear weapons was presented to the president, the documents show. "The military produced the options, ratcheting up the level of military force all the way to all-out war and to using nuclear weapons. But constantly you find the military saying, 'But the risks probably still outweigh the potential gains,' " Wampler says. The documents do not address what Nixon and Kissinger considered doing in the immediate hours after the attack. By the time the nuclear option arose, Nixon was considering what his choices might be in the next provocation from North Korea. Morton Halperin worked at that time in the National Security Council. He believes Nixon did decide to retaliate against North Korea. But Halperin says he has no knowledge that a nuclear strike was considered. "Nixon had made a decision that we would retaliate by bombing the air base from which we believed the planes had come to shoot down the EC-121. And he had ordered an aircraft carrier to move close enough to be able to carry out the bombing," Halperin says. Two days after the attack, though, Nixon held a press conference. And what he said led many in Congress to conclude he was not opting for retaliation. He was praised widely for this restraint, Halperin recalls, and then decided against a military response. The documents posted by the National Security Archive suggest that for half a century, American presidents have had the same problem with North Korea, says Dan Sneider of the Asia-Pacific Research Center at Stanford University. "The danger of a wide war tends to trump whatever benefit you think might come from punishing your enemy here with a retaliatory strike," Sneider says. That's precisely the dilemma the Obama administration has been struggling with since March, when the South Korean ship Cheonan was sunk with a single torpedo. North Korea rejected the international findings that it was responsible for sinking the vessel.

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Timing makes a difference when it comes to taking antidepressant and anti-anxiety drugs while pregnant. More > Literate Mothers Boost Children's Test Scores A study funded by the National Institute of Health has found that the greatest single predictor of a child's academic success is his or her mother's reading skill. The study was undertaken to better understand the reasons for the disparity in achievement that exists between children from rich and poor neighborhoods. The research suggests that one way to help level the playing field for children from poor neighborhoods is through adult literacy programs. The researchers looked at the math and reading test scores of 2,350 children, aged 3-17, from April 2000 and December 2001. They then tested how mothers' reading scores, individual family income and community income as a whole influenced the children's test scores. The children were from 65 different Los Angeles communities that were representative of Los Angeles as a whole, not drawn solely from poor neighborhoods. For children aged 3-8, the mothers' reading scores were the best predictor of the children's test scores. Between ages 8 and 17, average neighborhood income had the largest effect on the children's test scores. The study can't show exactly what is passing between mother and child that boosts a child's test scores when a mother is literate. But it suggests that it's vital for this to happen early in the child's life. If children are acquiring a love of reading and learning from their mother, it seems to be taking effect by the age of eight. Growing up in poverty is not a recipe for success. While addressing economic inequalities would certainly be helpful for children in low-income families, the researchers suggest that encouraging mixed-income neighborhoods, improving early childhood education and boosting mothers' reading skills can all play a part in helping low-income children succeed academically. The study was published in the August, 2010 issue of the journal Demography. November 4, 2010 No comments have been made

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Oscar was adopted as a kitten from an animal shelter and grew up in the third-floor end-stage dementia unit at Steere House Nursing and Rehabilitation Center in Providence, Rhode Island. The 41-bed unit treats people with Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease and other illnesses, most of whom are in the end stage of life and are generally unaware of their surroundings. Oscar was one of six cats adopted by Steere House, which bills itself as a “pet friendly” facility. After about six months, the staff noticed that Oscar, just like the doctors and nurses, would make his own rounds. Oscar would sniff and observe patients, then curl up to sleep with certain ones. The patients he would sleep with often died within several hours of his arrival. One of the first cases involved a patient who had a blood clot in her leg that was ice cold at the time. Oscar wrapped his body around her leg and stayed until the woman died.In another instance, the doctor had made a determination of impending death based on the patient’s condition, while Oscar simply walked away, causing the doctor to believe that Oscar’s streak (12 at the time) had ended. However, it would be later discovered that the doctor’s prognosis was simply 10 hours too early: Oscar later visited the patient, who died two hours later. Oscar’s accuracy led the staff to institute a new and unusual protocol: once he is discovered sleeping with a patient, staff will call family members to notify them of the patient’s (expected) impending death. Most of the time the patient’s family has no issue with Oscar being present at the time of death. On those occasions when he is removed from the room at the family’s request, he is known to pace back and forth in front of the door and meow in protest. When present, Oscar will stay by the patient until they die, then after death will quietly leave the room. i find this very interesting as this behavior seems common in many cats that reside in mental and nursing homes. Often sharing the bed of the soon to be deceased. In the ancient world cats were revered by many cultures, most famously Ancient Egypt, as guardians of the underworld, keepers of the gate of death, and sometimes even harbingers of death itself. This makes me wonder whether this behavior was observed during ancient times as well and perhaps prompted this belief and many practices surrounding it. Whenever my friend says goodnight to me on Skype he sends me this gif and I wanted to send it to him tonight so I went to Google “black man turning off lamp” but Google autofill changed it to “black man turning into jet” and I got this Long story short it’s 1am and I’ve been laughing at this for approximately 20 years Which one of you assholes brought this back Waitomo Glowworm Caves are a famous tourist attraction because of the large population of fireflies that live in caves. Fireflies, or Arachnocampa luminosa - tiny bioluminescent creatures that produce blue and green light live exclusively in New Zealand. ive been here!! Google lets you search by animated GIF now 1. Put your username in image search. 2. Select “animated” under search tools. 3. Post result. Don’t know what else I was expecting [wtf. top result ^ Well this is sad…

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Top 10 Fascinating Carnivorous Plants Out of all the strange plants in the world, who would have thought that you even get flesh eating plants? Well, maybe not so much “flesh” eating, as insect eating, but carnivorous none the less. All carnivorous plants can be found in areas where the soil has very little nutrients. These fascinating plants are categorized as carnivorous as they trap insects and arthropods, produce digestive juices, dissolve the prey and derive some, or most, of their nutrients from this process. The first book on these plants was written by Charles Darwin, in 1875, “Insectivorous Plants”. After further discoveries and research, it is believed that these carnivorous properties evolved on six separate occasions, from five different orders of flowering plants. These are now presented in over 630 different species of flowering plant. There are five basic trapping mechanisms found in all these plants: Pitfall traps, Fly Paper traps, Snap traps, Bladder traps and Lobster pot traps. I would like to show you a couple of plants, using each mechanism, so that you can also see the differences between different genera. Sarracenia, or the North American Pitcher plant, is a Genus of carnivorous plants indigenous to the eastern seaboard, Texas, the great lakes and south eastern Canada, with most species being found only in the southeast states. It is also the first plant with a pitfall trap that we will look at. The plant’s leaves have evolved into a funnel, with a hood like structure growing over the opening to prevent rain water from diluting the digestive juices. Insects are attracted by colour, smell and a nectar-like secretion on the lip of the pitcher. Slippery footings, aided in at least one species, by a narcotic drug lacing the nectar, causes insects to fall inside where they die and are digested by proteases and other enzymes Nepenthes, tropical pitcher plants or monkey cups, are another genus of carnivorous plants with pitfall traps. There are about 130 species that are wide spread, and can be found in China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Madagascar, Seychelles, Australia, India, Borneo and Sumatra. The nickname “monkey cups” comes from the fact that monkeys have often been observed drinking rain water from them. Most species of Nepenthes are tall creepers (10-15m), with a shallow root system. From the stem you will often see sword like leaves growing, with a tendril (often used for climbing) protruding from the tip of the leaf. At the end of the tendril, the pitcher forms first as a small bulb, which then expands and forms the cup. The trap contains fluid, produced by the plant, which may be watery ors syrupy and is used to drown and digest the insects. The lower part of the cup contains glands that absorb and distribute nutrients. Most of these plants are small and tend to trap only insects, but some larger species, such as Nepenthes Rafflesiana and Nepenthes Rajah, have been documented to catch small mammals like rats. Genlisea, better known as the corkscrew plant, is made up of 21 species and generally grows in wet terrestrial to semi aquatic environments, and are spread across Africa, central and South America. Genlisea are small herbs with yellow flowers that make use of lobster pot traps (Traps that are easy to enter but impossible to exit, like by use of small hairs growing towards the entrance or in this case, the ever forward propelling spiral). These plants have two distinct types of leaves – photosynthetic leaves above ground, and specialized underground leaves to attract, trap and digest minute organisms, like protozoans. These underground leaves also perform the duties of roots, like absorbing water and anchorage, as the plant does not have any. These underground leaves form hollow tubes under the ground, these tubes have a forward propelling corkscrew shape, and with the aid of constant water flow, small microbes can make their way into these tubes, but cannot find a way out again. When they reach the correct part of the tubes, they will be digested and absorbed. Darlingtonia Californica, also called the California Pitcher plant or the Cobra Lilly, is the sole member of the darlingtonia genus, and is native to Northern California and Oregon. They grow in bogs and seeps with cold running water and, due to its rarity in the field, it is designated as uncommon. The leaves of the Cobra Lily are bulbous and form a hollow cavity, with a opening situated underneath a swollen, balloon like structure and two pointed leaves hanging off the end like fangs. Unlike most pitcher plants, the Cobra Lilly does not make use of a pitfall trap, but rather lobster pot traps. Once inside, insects are confused by the large light speckles allowed to shine through the plant. When they land, there are thousands of fine dense hairs that grow inwards, they can follow the hairs deeper towards the digestive organs, but they cannot turn around or move backwards to escape. Utricularia, or collectively known as bladderworts, is a genus of carnivorous plants consisting of about 220 species. They occur in fresh water and wet soil as terrestrial or aquatic species, on every continent accept Antarctica. They are the only carnivorous plants that make use of bladder traps. Most species have very small traps, in which they can catch only minute prey, like protozoa. Traps can range from 0.2mm – 1.2cm, with larger traps, trapping larger prey like water fleas and even small tadpoles. The traps have small trigger hairs attached to a trapdoor. The bladder, when set, is under negative pressure in relationship to its surrounding area. When the trigger hairs are tripped, the trap door opens up, sucks in the insect and surrounding water, and closes the door again, all in a matter of 10 thousands of a second. Pinguicula, or butterworts, are a group of carnivorous plants that use sticky, glandular leaves to lure, trap and digest insects. The nutrients from the insects supplement the poor mineral content of the soil. There are roughly 80 species that can be found throughout North and South America, Europe and Asia. The leaves of the butterwort are succulent and usually bright green or pinkish in color. There are two special types of cells found on the top side of the butterwort leaves. One is known as a penduncular gland, and consists of secretory cells on top of a single stalk cell. These cells produce a mucilaginous secretion which forms visible droplets across the leaves surface, and acts like flypaper. The other cells are called sessile glands. They lie flat on the leaves surface and produce enzymes like amylase, esterase and protease, which aid in the digesting process. Where some butterwort species are carnivorous all year round, many types form a tight winter rosette, which is not carnivorous. When summer comes, it brings with it new blooms and a new set of carnivorous leaves. Drosera, commonly known as sundews, comprises one of the largest genera of carnivorous plants, with at least 194 species. These can be found widely spread on every continent accept for Antarctica. Sundews, (depending on what species) can form either prostrate or upright rosettes, ranging from 1cm to 1m in height, and can live up to 50 years. Sundews are characterized by movable glandular tentacles, topped with sweet sticky secretions. When an insect lands on the sticky tentacles, the plant is able to move more tentacles in the direction of the insect to trap it further. Once trapped, small sessile glands will digest the insect and absorb the resulting nutrients, which can then be used to aid growth. Byblis, or rainbow plant, is a small genus of carnivorous plant native to Australia. The name rainbow plant comes from the attractive appearance of their mucilage covered leaves in the sun. Even though these plants look similar to the Drosera and Drosophllum, they are not related in any way and can be distinguished by zygomorphic flowers with five curved stamens. The leaves have a round cross section, and they tend to be very elongated and tapered at the end. The surface of the leaves are completely covered in glandular hairs that release a sticky mucilaginous substance, which in turn traps small insects on the leaves or tentacles as a passive flypaper trap. Aldrovanda vesiculosa, also known as the waterwheel plant, is a fascinating rootless, carnivorous, aquatic plant. It generally feeds on small aquatic vertebrates, using a trap mechanism called a snap trap. This plant consists mainly of free floating stems, reaching 6 – 11cm in length. The 2-3mm trap leaves grow in whorls of 5-9, in close succession along the plant’s central stem. The traps are attached to petioles, which contain air, and assists in floatation. This is a very fast growing plant and can reach 4-9mm per day, in some instances even producing a new whorl every day. As the plant grows from one end, the other end will continuously die off. The traps basically consists of two lobes which fold together to make the snap traps. The openings of the trap point outwards, and are covered in a fine coating of trigger hairs, which will cause the trap to snap shut around any prey that comes too close. The trap closes in only 10 milliseconds, making it one of the fastest examples of plant movement in the animal kingdom. Dionaea Muscipula, more commonly known as a Venus flytrap, is probably the most well-known carnivorous plant and it feeds mainly on insects and arachnids. The Venus flytrap is a small plant that has 4-7 leaves that grow from a short subterranean stem. The leaf blade is divided into two regions: a flat, long, heart shaped, photosynthesis capable petiole, and a pair of terminal lobes, hinged at the midrib, forming the trap which is actually the true leaf. The inner surfaces of these lobes contain a red pigment and the edges secrete mucilage. These lobes exhibit rapid plant movement by snapping shut when special sensory hairs are stimulated. The plant is so advanced that it can tell the difference between live stimulus and non-living stimulus. The lobes snap shut in about 0.1 seconds. They are fringed by stiff thorn-like protrusions or cilia, which mesh together and prevent large prey from escaping. Once prey is unable to escape and the inner surfaces of the lobes are continuously being stimulated, the edges of the lobes grow or fuse together, sealing the trap and creating an enclosed “stomach” in which digestion and absorption can take place.

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Cervical cancer occurs in about 2500 women in the UK every year and accounts for about 1000 deaths. It can occur at any age but has a peak incidences in the mid thirties and fifties. Women with cervical cancer usually present with an abnormal smear or with other symnptoms such as abnormal vaginal bleeding or bleeding after intercourse. Standard investigations include an examination under anaesthetic with inspection of the bladder and reactum, and an MRI scan. Treatment is either surgical or medical dependant on the spread of disease. Surgical treatment depends on the extent of the disease and varies from removal of a piece of tissue from the neck of the womb (cone biopsy) to a radical excision of the cervix and surrounding lymph tissue (radical trachelectomy) to a radical hysterectomy and removal of lymph tissue (see gynaecological operations). More information on cervical cancer can be found at the following sites;

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Near-infrared spectroscopy illuminates medieval art 25 April 2012 Scientists in the US and Italy have borrowed a technique more usually associated with geophysical remote sensing and applied it to medieval artwork - with stunning results. The near-infrared hyperspectral imaging of a leaf from a 15th century illuminated manuscript has produced a map of the pigment binders used by the artist. The technique will not only allow conservation specialists to better plan strategies for restoring and stabilising paintings, but will also give art historians new insights into the materials and methods favoured by individual artists. Using infrared spectroscopy researchers discovered that the painter of this manuscript had an idiosyncratic style using pigment binders normally associated with frescoes © Lorenzo Monaco, Praying Prophet, 1410/1413, miniature on vellum National Gallery of Art, Washington, Rosenwald Collection John Delaney, senior imaging scientist at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC, led the team that developed the new instrument. 'We have used near infrared to look at the vibrational features related more directly to the structure of the molecule using optimally designed hyperspectral mapping cameras,' he explains. 'The problem is that typically these cameras operate in bright light, whereas illuminated manuscripts can only be exposed to very low light.' The team used their system to scan a leaf of manuscript depicting the letter E and a praying prophet (pictured), painted in Italy by the monk Lorenzo Monaco. A white light source is directed at the artwork and the reflected light collected, dispersed into a spectrum and analysed. To the team's delight, the approach worked. 'These near infrared vibrational bands are weak and muddled,' Delaney says. 'It is not an easy thing to do and people are surprised that it is possible to use them under such low light conditions in a diagnostic manner. To be honest, it was a bit of a surprise to us.' Intriguingly, the technique picked up a signature of fat in the binder in a specific part of the scene - the kneeling prophet. The rest of the paint had no fat in the binder. It is likely, says Delaney, that the fat was from egg yolk, coming from a binder made from whole egg - called tempera - rather than just the white. 'The use of egg tempera is surprising, as traditional sources list gum Arabic and egg white as the binder most widely used by illuminators.' The finding points to this artist having an idiosyncratic style, possibly informed by his experience of panel and fresco painting, where egg tempera was a more widely used binder. Ashok Roy, director of science at the National Gallery in London, is enthused by the study. 'This is a tremendous piece of work and a great advance for the analysis of works of art,' he says. 'It is very hard to understand binding media used in the paint of manuscripts because there is no prospect of being able to take paint micro-samples. The technique that these researchers are developing will be very important for defining the history of technology of illuminated manuscripts and anything else of that kind.' Interesting? Spread the word using the 'tools' menu on the left. P Ricciardi et al, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2012, DOI: 10.1002/anie.201200840 Also of interest 29 March 2012 Australian scientists use x-ray fluorescence to bring painted over artwork back to life again 07 September 2011 Science will take centre stage in art forgery court case starting in Germany 06 September 2010 Historic wall paintings could be restored, thanks to an innovative nanoparticle coating Comment on this story at the Chemistry World blog Read other posts and join in the discussion External links will open in a new browser window

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Why lambda? Why not gamma or delta? Or Siddham ṇḍha? To my great relief, this question was finally answered when I was reading one of the best Lisp books I've ever read: Peter Norvig's Paradigms of Artificial Intelligence Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp. I'll save my discussion of that book for later; right now I'm going to focus on the paragraph at location 821 of my Kindle edition of the book. The story goes something like this: - Between 1910 and 1913, Alfred Whitehead and Bertrand Russell published three volumes of their Principia Mathematica, a work whose purpose was to derive all of mathematics from basic principles in logic. In these tomes, they cover two types of functions: the familiar descriptive functions (defined using relations), and then propositional functions. - Within the context of propositional functions, the authors make a typographical distinction between free variables and bound variables or functions that have an actual name: bound variables use circumflex notation, e.g. x̂(x+x). - Around 1928, Church (and then later, with his grad students Stephen Kleene and J. B. Rosser) started attempting to improve upon Russell and Whitehead regarding a foundation for logic. - Reportedly, Church stated that the use of x̂ in the Principia was for class abstractions, and he needed to distinguish that from function abstractions, so he used ⋀x or ^x for the latter. - However, these proved to be awkward for different reasons, and an uppercase lambda was used: Λx. . - More awkwardness followed, as this was too easily confused with other symbols (perhaps uppercase delta? logical and?). Therefore, he substituted the lowercase λ. - John McCarthy was a student of Alonzo Church and, as such, had inherited Church's notation for functions. When McCarthy invented Lisp in the late 1950s, he used the lambda notation for creating functions, though unlike Church, he spelled it out. It seems that our beloved lambda , then, is an accident in typography more than anything else. Somehow, this endears lambda to me even more ;-) As you can see from the rest of the footnotes, I've done some research since then and have found other references to this history of the lambda notation. Norvig, Peter (1991-10-15). Paradigms of Artificial Intelligence Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp (Kindle Locations 821-829). Elsevier Science - A. Kindle Edition. The paragraph in question is quoted here: The name lambda comes from the mathematician Alonzo Church’s notation for functions (Church 1941). Lisp usually prefers expressive names over terse Greek letters, but lambda is an exception. Abetter name would be make - function. Lambda derives from the notation in Russell and Whitehead’s Principia Mathematica, which used a caret over bound variables: x( x + x). Church wanted a one-dimensional string, so he moved the caret in front: ^ x( x + x). The caret looked funny with nothing below it, so Church switched to the closest thing, an uppercase lambda, Λx( x + x). The Λ was easily confused with other symbols, so eventually the lowercase lambda was substituted: λx( x + x). John McCarthy was a student of Church’s at Princeton, so when McCarthy invented Lisp in 1958, he adopted the lambda notation. There were no Greek letters on the keypunches of that era, so McCarthy used (lambda (x) (+ xx)), and it has survived to this day. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pm-notation/#4 Norvig, 1991, Location 821. History of Lambda-calculus and Combinatory Logic, page 7. Norvig, 1991, Location 821. Looking at Church's works online, he uses lambda notation in his 1932 paper A Set of Postulates for the Foundation of Logic. His preceding papers upon which the seminal 1932 is based On the Law of Excluded Middle (1928) and Alternatives to Zermelo's Assumption (1927), make no reference to lambda notation. As such, A Set of Postulates for the Foundation of Logic seems to be his first paper that references lambda. Norvig indicates that this is simply due to the limitations of the keypunches in the 1950s that did not have keys for Greek letters. Alex Martelli is not a fan of lambda in the context of Python, and though a good friend of Peter Norvig, I've heard Alex refer to lambda as an abomination :-) So, perhaps not beloved for everyone. In fact, Peter Norvig himself wrote (see above) that a better name would have been make-function.

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Electric Excitement 1: Grades 4-5 Electric Excitement 2: Grades 6-7 Electric Excitement 3: Grades 8-9 Electric Excitement 4: Grades 9-12 Set includes Electric Excitement Guides 1-4 plus the Helper's Guide. Electric Excitement 1: Youth explore why certain things insulate from electricity better than others, the effect that magnetism has various substances, how to build a flashlight, build and test a compass, build an electromagnet and electric motor. Electric Excitement 2: Youth build circuits and test voltages, build a rocket launcher and a burglar alarm as they practice decision making and communication. This unit is designed for youth who understand magnetism, electron flow and circuit design. Electric Excitement 3: Youth build on skills learned in levels 1 & 2 plus learn some new ones. such as measuring electrical usage, replacing electrical switches and determining electrical loads. Youth will also evaluate different light bulbs and test for electrical power. Electric Excitement 4: This unit introduces the basics of solid-state electronics and provides hands-on activities that give youth practical experience in understanding modern day electronic equipment. This unit is for the intermediate to advanced learner. Purchase 1000 or more copies each, save an extra 10% off! Bulk Discount not available online. Please call 301-961-2934, fax 301-961-2937, email firstname.lastname@example.org to place your order and receive the additional 10% discount.

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Following the discovery of America, Spain embarked upon a program of exploration, conquest, and exploitation of the lands which had been awarded to her by Pope Alexander VI. In 1513 Ponce de Leon explored Florida, and Hernando Cortes conquered Mexico six years later. Texas and the Southwest were first explored in 1528 by Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, who returned to Mexico with the story of the fabulous seven cities of Cebola. This created a great deal of excitement, and a number of reconnaissance expeditions set out to explore the arid Southwest. The most important was that of Francisco Coronado, who traversed most of the southwestern portion of the present United States searching in vain for these elusive cities. The Mississippi was discovered and partially explored by Hernando de Soto in l541 The first Spanish colony within the present limits of the United States was founded by Menendez de Aviles in 1565 at St. Augustine, Florida. The Province of Florida was created shortly thereafter and covered all the land west to Mexico. Spain retained possession of Florida until February 10, 1763, when it was ceded to Great Britain under the Treaty of Paris. Article 6 of this treaty fixed the boundary between Florida and Louisiana as a line drawn down the middle of the Mississippi to the Iberville River; thence down the middle of the Iberville River through Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the Gulf. Great Britain divided Florida into two areas. The portion west of the Apalachicola River was, known as West Florida, and the land east thereof was referred to as East Florida. In 1781 Spain invaded and captured West Florida. Two years later, title to both East and West Florida reverted to Spain under the Treaty of Parisof September 3, 1783. A dispute arose between the United States and Spain over the northern boundary of Florida, and by the Treaty of October 27, 1795, it was agreed that their common boundary was the 31ºof north latitude. Due to a fear that France might seize West Florida, the area west of the Pearl River was annexed to the United States in 1812. As a result of Spain's inciting the Seminole Indians to raid into Georgia, General Andrew Jackson invaded East Florida and captured Pensacola. Following the end of these hostilities, Spain, by the Treaty of February 22, 1819, ceded its title to the 37.9 mi11ion acres of land contained in East and West Florida to the United States for five million dollars. The French engaged in settling Louisiana following its discovery by LaSalle. In 1699, Governor Pierre le Mayne d’Iberville established settlements at Biloxi and on Dauphin Island. Twenty-three years later New Orleans was founded on the bank of the Mississippi, and it became the capital of the province, which was bounded on the north by Illinois and the Missouri River; on the east by the Carolinas and the Perdido River; on the south by the Gulf; and on the west by New Mexico. This covered the entire area drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries, including a large part of Texas. Spain assisted France in the French and Indian War.' As a result of their defeat England in the Treaty of Paristook Canada and all the area west of the Mississippi and north of the thirty-first parallel from France and also Florida from Spain. In order to compensate Spain for the loss of Florida, France secretly ceded the island of Orleans and all of Louisiana west of the Mississippi to Spain under the Treaty of Fontainbleau of November 3, 1762. Spain did not physically take over the administration of Louisiana until the arrival of Governor Alexander O'Reilly on July 24, 1769. At first he continued the French system relating to land grants, but after an inspection of parts of the territory he issued a Proclamationon February 18, 1770 in which he stated: All grants shall be made in the name of the king, by the Governor General of the Province, who will, at the same time appoint a surveyor to fix the bounds thereof, both in front and in depth, in the presence of the ordinary judge of the district and of the two adjoining settlers, who shall be present at the survey.... Spain retroceded Louisiana to France by the Treaty of San Ildefonsodated October I, 1800. France, in turn, sold the 756,961,280 acre tract to the United States for $15,000,000 plus the assumption of claims totaling $3,738,268.98 due the citizens of the United States by the Treaty of Parisdated April 30, 1803. By virtue of this treaty, the United States also claimed the area between the Iberville and Perdido Rivers. The southwestern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase, which was also the international boundary between the United States and Spain, was defined in the Treaty of February 22, 1819, as being a line beginning on the Gulf of Mexico at the mouth of the Sabine River and running: . . .north, along the western bank of the Sabine River, to the 32d degree of Latitude; thence, by a line due North to the degree of Latitude where it strikes the Rio Roxo of Natchitoches, or Red River; then, following the course of the Rio Roxo westward, to the degree of Longitude 100 West from London, and 23 from Washington; then, crossing the said Red River, and running thence by a Line due North to the River Arkansas; thence, following the course of the Southern bank of the Arkansas, to its source, in Latitude 42 North; and thence, by that parallel of Latitude, to the South Sea. The whole being as laid down in Melish's Map of the United States, published at Philadelphia, improved to the first of January, 1818. But, if the source of the Arkansas River shall be found to fall North or South of Latitude 42, then the Line shall run from the said Source due South or North, as the case may be, till it meets the said Parallel of Latitude 42; and thence along said Parallel to the South Sea. Spain expressly relinquished all of its claims to lands lying north and east of this line. Mexico recognized this ·boundary in the Treaty of January 12, 1828. Thus, the indefinite northern boundaries of the Spanish and Mexican frontier provinces finally were fixed. Spain laid claim to Texas as a result of Alonso Alvarez de Pineda's having sailed along and mapped its coast in 1519. As a result of this expedition, Governor Francisco de Garay of Jamaica made an unsuccessful attempt to colonize Texas. Only after being frightened by LaSalle's landing at Matagorda Bay in 1685 did Spain seriously undertake the settlement of Texas. After making several exploratory expeditions into the area, Alonso de Leon, Governor of the Province of Coahuila, established the mission of San Francisco de Tejas on the Neches River in 1690 to Christianize the Tejas Indians. Discouraged by the shortage of supplies and threats from the Indians, the friars burned the mission and abandoned the project on October 25, 1693. No further steps were taken by the Spaniards to exert jurisdiction over Texas until a group of French traders from Louisiana under the leadership of Louis de St. Denis made a trip through East Texas to the Rio Grande and aroused their suspicions that France was on the verge of seizing the territory. In March, 1716, Domingo Ramon established a chain of missions for the conversion of the Indians, and a presidio for the protection of the missions. This line of settlements extended from Nacogdoches, Texas, to Robeline, Louisiana. He also settled a total of forty civilians near the missions and staffed them with twelve missionaries. The presidio was given a complement of twenty-five soldiers. In 1718 it was decided to establish another colony halfway between the East Texas missions and the Rio Grande at a site on the San Antonio River. Thus, San Antonio de Bexar was founded with ten families. Texas was established as a separate Spanish province in 1727, but the boundaries were not defined. There was some colonization during the next sixty years. However, most of the projects failed and were abandoned. Thus, when Mexico gained its independence in 1821, there were only three towns within Texas --Nacodoches, La Bahia (Goliad), and San Antonio. Prior to 1805, Texas' southern boundary was considered to be located along the Medina-San Antonio River system, thereby forming the northern boundary of the Provinces of Nuevo Santander and Coahuila. However, in 1805, a Royal Cedula was issued which described Texas' boundaries as follows: Beginning at the mouth of the Nueces River; thence up that river to its junction with Moro Creek; thence in a northerly direction to near the Garza crossing of the Medina River; thence up that river to its source; thence in a direct line to the source of the San Saba. River; thence northwesterly to the intersection of the 103rd meridian west longitude and the 32d parallel of north latitude; thence northeasterly to the intersection of the Red River by the 100th meridian; thence down said river. An Order of 1811 and an official map of 1816 also fixed the southern boundary between Texas and the Nuevo Santander at the Nueces and the Medina as the common boundary between Texas and Coahuila. While Nueva Vizcaya adjoined Texas -on the southwest and New Mexico was located immediately west of Texas, the settlements in these provinces were so widely separated and the arid prairie lands between the settlements were of so little value that there was little need to define their respective common boundaries precisely. There was only one dispute between Texas and its western neighbors involving the area west of San Antonio. This question over whether the presidio at San Saba should be under the jurisdiction of Texas or New Mexico. In 1765 the matter was resolved in Texas’ favor. Texas, following the reorganization of the Mexican government under the Constitution of 1824, was made a department and was combined with Coahuila in order to form the single state of Coahuila-Texas. The Constitution made no reference to boundaries of Coahuila-Texas; and, therefore, it is presumed that the former boundaries of Texas were still applicable to the northern portion of the new state. Under this Constitution, Mexico invited foreigners to immigrate to Texas and offered liberal land grants under both national and state colonization laws as a special inducement to encourage such immigration. These colonization laws caused great numbers of settlers to rush to Texas, primarily from the United States. For the most part, these pioneers were a rugged, industrious type of family men who wanted land to establish homes, and not merely adventurers and speculators. This rapid influx of freedom-loving Anglos, which increased the population of Texas from 3,000 in 1821 to from 35,000 to 50,000 in 1836, greatly alarmed the Mexican government and resulted in the passage of the Act of April 6, 1830, which barred further immigration from the United states. While this law hastened the inevitable Texas Revolution, its immediate cause was the Mexican government's refusal to grant the Texans' request for separate statehood and the issuance of an order reducing the size of the Texas militia and disarming its citizens. Actual hostilities broke out in October, 1835, and on March 2, 1836, a convention of delegates declared Texas to be independent of Mexican control. Success at the Battle of San Jacinto made Texas an independent nation in fact on April 21, 1836. President Santa Ana of Mexico, while a prisoner of war, signed the Treaty of Velasco, recognizing Texas' independence and agreeing to withdraw the Mexican troops to the other side of the Rio Grande. A secret agreement was also signed calling for a "treaty of commerce, amity, and limits" in which the boundary between Texas and Mexico was to be established in a manner that Texas would not extend beyond the Rio Grande. Once Santa Ana was freed and he and his troops were safely back in Mexico, the Mexican government repudiated the treaty and secret agreement and refused to enter into further peace negotiations. Notwithstanding the fact that the Treaty of Velasco had failed to define the Texas-Mexico boundary precisely, it served as a basis for Texas' claim to portions of Tamaulipas, Coahuila, Chihuahua, and New Mexico. On December 19, 1836, Texas passed an act in which it reduced its claim to writing and defined its boundaries as follows: Beginning at the mouth of the Sabine River and running west along the Gulf of Mexico three leagues from land, to the mouth of the Rio Grande; thence up the principal stream of said river to its source; thence due north to the forty-second degree of latitude; thence along the boundary line as defined in the treaty between the United States and Spain to the beginning. These boundaries embrace a total area of 242,594,560 acres of land. On January 25, 1845 the House passed a resolution inviting Texas to join the Union as a state. The Republic of Texas accepted and on December 25, 1845 was admitted into the Union. Thus Texas, inclusive of all the territory claimed by the Republic became a part of the United States. Following the annexation of Texas into the Union, Federal and Mexican troops clashed when General Zachary Taylor, on April 5, 1846, attempted to occupy the area between the Nueces and Rio Grande Rivers and precipitated the Mexican War. Less than three weeks later, President James K. Polk signed a Congressional resolution declaring war on Mexico on the ground that she had crossed the southern boundary of the United States and "shed American blood upon American soil.” Hostilities ceased on February 2, 1848 with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Under this treaty, Mexico relinquished all of its rights in the area north of the Rio Grande to the United States. Thus, it appeared that Texas' de facto claim to the disputed area had been perfected. However, the Territory of New Mexico, which had been created by General Stephen Watts Kearney following his bloodless conquest of New Mexico in 1846, vigorously protested Texas' claim to the area located east of the Rio Grande, over which New Mexico had exercised jurisdiction for more than a century prior to the founding of the Province of Texas. Texas' claim was especially distasteful to the New Mexicans since it embraced their ancient capital, Santa Fe. The controversy soon developed into a serious North-South sectional issue, which was finally settled as a part of the Compromise of 1850. Under the Act of September 9, 1850, the United States offered to purchase the disputed area from Texas for ten million dollars. Texas accepted the offer on November 25, 1850. Thus, the approximately 67 million acres located north and west of the following line was awarded to New Mexico: Commence at the point at which the meridian of one hundred degrees west from Greenwich is intersected by the parallel of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude; thence due south to the thirty-second degree of north latitude; thence west along said parallel to the Rio Grande. Spain claimed what is now the southwestern portion of the present United States by virtue of the discoveries of Christopher Columbus and the conquests of Cortez, De Soto, Coronado and Espejo. The missionaries followed close upon their heels and they, in turn, were followed by successive groups of colonists who gradually appropriated and developed the area. In 1561, Francisco de Ilarra was commissioned by Viceroy Luis de Velasco to conquer and rule the northern region of New Spain. He established the Province of Nueva Vizcaya with Durango as its capital. It covered the territory lying north of the Province of Zacatecas and included all of the modern Mexican States of Durango, Chihuahua, and Sonora, together with portions of the States of Coahuila and Sinaloa. Juan de Onate was awarded a contract in 1595 for the conquest and colonization of New Mexico. He took formal possession of the area on April 30, 1598, at a point on the Rio Grande about 25 miles south of El Paso del Norte. The first permanent settlement in New Mexico was established at Santa Fe in 1609. While the founding of the Province of New Mexico cut off the indefinite northern jurisdiction of the Province of Nueva Vizcaya, specific boundaries were not prescribed in Onate's contract. However, at that time it was generally understood and accepted that New Mexico extended from the Pacific Ocean on the west to the Atlantic on the east. Its northern limits were recognized as being the ones which the hostile Indians would force the colonists to accept, and its southern boundary was considered as beginning where Nueva Vizcaya stopped. Since the settlements in Nueva Vizcaya and New Mexico were separated by a six-hundred mile, uninhabited gap, there was no need for a precise boundary between the two provinces. In order for the isolated New Mexican settlements to survive, communication along the Camino Real had to be maintained. Therefore, New Mexico in 1659 established the town of El Paso del Norte at the strategic southern pass through the continental divide. It soon became the midway rest stop on the long weary stretch between Santa Fe and Chihuahua. When the Pueblo Indians revolted and forced the Spaniards to retreat from the upper Rio Grande Valley in 1680, El Paso del Norte became the capital of New Mexico. This precipitated a dispute between New Mexico and Nueva Vizcaya and, on November 28, 1684, New Mexico's jurisdiction over the area between the Rio Grande and Sacramento Rivers was affirmed by the Viceroy. Twelve years after the outbreak of the Pueblo Revolt, Diego de Vargas reconquered New Mexico. About this same time the French commenced encroaching upon the northeastern frontier of New Spain and caused the Viceroy to create the Province of Coahuila in 1686. This province covered the portion of Nueva Vizcaya lying north of latitude 26° between the Bolson de Mapimi and the Rio Grande. Meanwhile, the Jesuits were engaged in a program of Christianizing the Indians along the Gulf of California. Gradually they extended their efforts westward. On March 15, 1687 Father Eusebio Francisco Kino founded the mission called Nuestra Senora de los Dolores on the San Miguel River. Kino first entered what is now Arizona in 1691. He found the prospects for missionary work in the Santa Cruz Valley, which he called Pimeria Alta, to be good. However, a revolt of the Pimas in Sonora prevented the establishment of missions in the area for nearly a decade. On April 28, 1700 he laid the foundations for the Mission of San Xavier del Bac. Additional missions and visitas were constructed between 1700 and 1711. By Royal Cedula dated March 11, 1732, the Provinces of Sonora and Sinaloa were created out of the portion of Nueva Vizcaya lying between the continental divide and the Gulf of California. Threatening advances made by the British and Russians along the northern Pacific coast prompted Spain to take affirmative action in 1767 to insure its control over California. Colonization expeditions were sent into the area and by the end of 1776 Spain had pushed its frontier northward more than eight hundred miles and established a chain of presidios and missions extending up the coast from San Diego to San Francisco. Meanwhile, a division of Alta and Baja, California, had been ordered by Royal Cedula dated April 8, 1770. Two years later a concordato was signed fixing the division line at a point about fifteen leagues south of San Diego. Governor Felipe de Neve moved to California in February, 1777, established his capital at Monterrey, and commenced the development of the new Spanish province. The Royal Cedula of August 22, 1776, reorganized the Spanish Colonial government by removing the northern provinces of New Spain from the Viceroy's jurisdiction. As a result of this decree, the provinces of Sonora, Sinaloa, Upper California, Lower California, Coahuila, Nueva Vizcaya, Texas and New Mexico were combined into the Provincia Internas. This consolidation had little effect on the provinces and, for all practical purposes, it merely set up a new Viceroyalty of sorts. The provincial governors were deprived of their military jurisdiction, which was placed in the Commandant-General of the Provincia Internas. They also reported to the Commandant-General on other matters instead the Viceroy. Thus, in addition to military responsibilities, the Commandant-General had considerable influence over the Judiciary, Clergy, and Treasury. The immense size of the Provincias Internas rendered it difficult to defend and govern. Therefore, in 1786, it was divided into two military districts. These districts, in turn, were subdivided into twelve intendencias and three provinces. The intendencias and provinces were grouped into two divisions known as the Provincias Internas de Oriento and Provincias Internas de Occidento. On November 23, 1792, the two divisions were reunited after detaching the California, Nuevo Leon, and Nuevo Santander. Thus, the Provincias Internas was composed of the Provinces of New Mexico, Nueva Vizcaya, Texas, Coahuila, Sonora and Sinaloa. The same objections which led to the splitting of the Provincias Internas in 1786 forced its division into two separate jurisdictions in 1804. Once again they were called Eastern and Western Interior Provinces. To determine the boundary between the two divisions, the Commandant-General of the Eastern Interior Provinces ordered Brigadier Joaquin de Arrendondo to survey the boundary between Nueva Vizcaya and Coahila in 1815. The survey of this line commenced at the point where the Sierra Reimundo abuts the Rio Agua Naval; thence north along the mountains to the Presidio de Mapini; thence in a northeasterly direction through the Laguna de Tlahualila and Laguna de Jaco to the point where the 106th parallel intersects the Rio Grande near the old Presidio de San Vincenti; and thence in an easterly direction to the head waters of the Medino River and the western boundary of Texas. The selfish and oppressive measures of Spain led to constant and ever increasing discontent in Mexico, which finally culminated in open rebellion. On February 24, 1821, Augustine Iturbide proclaimed the independence of Mexico at the small town of Iguala. When the revolutionary army captured Mexico City on September 27, 1821, the Spanish regime fell. An Empire was founded on May 18, 1822 with Iturbide as Emperor. However, he was not given absolute power and ruled in conjunction with a National Congress composed of two chambers. A number of the Congressmen opposed the Empire and sought to replace it with a Federal Republic. After a brief and frenzied reign the Empire was overthrown on March 8, 1823 and Iturbide was executed a year later. Once the Empire had been abolished, the National Congress called a Constituent Congress to write a Constitution and named a military triumvirate to perform the executive functions until a new government could be established. The Constituent Congress drafted a Republican Constitution patterned upon the Constitution of the United States. The Republic of Mexico was created on October 4, 1824, with the adoption of this constitution. The union consisted of eighteen states and three territories. In the meantime, the old Spanish Province of Nueva Vizcaya had been divided into the provinces of Chihuahua and Durango. By an act dated July 27, 1824, the National Congress described Chihuahua as covering all of the territory lying between a straight line drawn from east to west at the Town of El Paso del Norte, with the jurisdiction it had always possessed, and a straight line drawn from east to west at the Hacienda de Rio Florida and its jurisdiction. On December 27, 1825, Chihuahua adopted a state constitution, which provided that the boundaries of the state should correspond with those prescribed by the Act of July 27, 1824. Since El Paso del Norte had claimed jurisdiction over the area lying south of the Jornada del Muerto, Chihuahua, in its Colonization Law of 42 May 25, 1825, authorized the colonization of the lands at El Bracito and the "upper part of the Rio del Norte, as far as the lands belonging to the jurisdiction of El Paso and of which use has been and is made, and where the boundary line ought to be described, and the boundaries with the territory of New Mexico." In order to obtain specific and reliable information concerning its lands, the State of Chihuahua passed an act on October 22, 1833, creating a Geographical and Topographical Corps. Pedro Garcia Conde became its head and proceeded to make an accurate and detailed geographical survey of the state. Three years later the results of this survey were submitted to the governor in the form of an essay and map. The essay was printed in 1842 and described the boundaries of Chihuahua as follows: Its boundaries are: on the north, the Territory of New Mexico; on the south, the State of Durango; on the east, the States of Coahuila and Texas; on the northwest, the State of Sinaloa. Its territorial extent is approximately three-hundredths of the Republic, or 17,151-1/2 leagues square of land which comprise all those between 25o 53’ 36" to 32o 57' 43" of north latitude and 1o 30' 16" The map showed that the eastern boundary of Chihuahua crossed the Rio Grande at the point where the 29° parallel north latitude and the Rio Grande intersect and ran thence north until it intersected the Pecos River; thence up the Pecos River to a point located at 32° 35' north latitude for the northeast corner. Its northern boundary ran west from the northeast corner to the Mimbres River, crossing the Rio Grande near the old San Diego paraje and the Robledo Mountain; thence up the Mimbres River to its source; thence in a westerly direction to the headwaters of the Gila River, which are located at 32° 51' 43" north latitude for the northwest corner of the State. The west boundary ran in a southwesterly direction from the northwest corner down the Gila River; thence to Burro Peak; and thence in a more or less southerly direction along the continental divide into Old Mexico. On December 7, 1848 Chihuahua amended its constitution to read as follows: The territory of Chihuahua is that which is and is now acknowledged between 25 o 53' 36" and 32 o 57' 43" of north latitude and between 1o 17" 52" of longitude west of Mexico . . . J. A. Escudero, in his book Noticias Estadisticas, describes the Territory of New Mexico as being in the most remote part of the Republic and extending from 33o to 40o north latitude. He estimated that the territory was 185 leagues from north to south and was approximately the same distance from east to west. He stated that the territory was bounded on the north by unexplored lands, on the east by the State of Coahuila and Texas and also the Arkansas Territory of the United States; on the south, by the State of Chihuahua, and on the west, by the State of Sonora. He described the State of Sonora as covering the territory between 28 o and 32o of north latitude and 111 o and 117 o of longitude. Chihuahua, likewise, was described as covering the area between 26 o to 33 o of north latitude and 105 o to112 o latitude. The Territory of New Mexico, or of Santa Fe, is situated in the north, bounding on the unsettled territory of the United States. It comprehends only the valley of the Rio del Norte from 32 o N. Lat. to its source. It contains only two fertile tracts along the banks of the river and these are separated by a desert which spreads out 170 or 180 miles between 32o 30' and 35° N. Lat., and the climate is very cold: it produces only corn and the fruits of southern Europe; it affords, however, abundance of pasture for cattle and horses. This portion is the district of Santa Fe. The southern tract of fertile land is of very moderate extent, lying between 32o and 32o 30’ N. Lat.: it is called the district of the Paso del Norte. It abounds in excellent fruit, especially grapes, which, as well as the wine made of them, are in high repute all over Mexico. Wheat and Indian corn are grown extensively. The inhabitants are white, but on the mountains and deserts, which extend on both sides of the valley, there are several independent Indian tribes, which are at enmity with the settlers . . . The State of Occidente, or of Cinaloa and Sonora united, comprehends the low plain which extends, along the Pacific, from 23o north latitude northward to the banks of the Rio del Fuerte, and, in addition, the whole of the hilly region which lies north of it . . . The Territory of Upper California is considered to comprehend all the countries which lie to the north of the Rio Gila between the coast of the Pacific and the range of the Chippewayan Mountains. But nearly the whole of these immense countries are still overrun by savage Indian tribes, who are independent of the Mexican government. All the settlements established by the Europeans are along the tract which divides the Tule lakes from the sea, and only in those valleys which open towards the ocean. The most southern is at S. Diego, and the most northern, in the bay of S. Francisco. . The map in front of Folson's book is especially interesting, for it depicts the Mexican states and territories as they existed on the eve of the Mexican acquisition. A few days before James K. Polk became president, Mexico broke off diplomatic relations with the United States as a result of the annexation of Texas. Polk announced to his cabinet that he would attempt to satisfy the nation's Manifest Destiny and solve the United States-Mexico boundary problem by paying Mexico forty million dollars if it would sell New Mexico and California and agree to a permanent boundary running up the Rio Grande from its mouth to 32o north latitude and thence west to the Pacific. Once the Mexican War started, Polk resolved that the principal facet of the peace treaty ending hostilities should be the cession of California and New Mexico to the United States. The war was less than two months old when General Stephen Watts Kearny was sent overland from Fort Leavenworth with the Army of the West. He was able to subjugate New Mexico with little difficulty. Following its surrender, Kearny, notwithstanding Texas' claim to the area east of the river, issued a Proclamation on August 22, 1846, in which he created the Territory of New Mexico with jurisdiction over all lands "within its original boundaries (on both sides of the del Norte), as a part of the United States." He also guaranteed the New Mexicans their freedom of religion and assured them that their property rights would be protected. This was enough to dispel the fears of the local inhabitants and insured the transfer of sovereignty to the United States. Leaving the greater part of his command for use in the conquest of Chihuahua, Kearny hurried through Northern Sonora and on to California where he and Commodore Robert E. Stockton captured Los Angeles on January 10, 1847. Three days later the Mexican officials signed a treaty of capitulation, which provided that "all the property and persons of all the foreigners of each nation shall be respected, and no account shall be made of their past conduct." The war in the south also went badly for Mexico, and it surrendered following the fall of Mexico City. The war was formally terminated with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in which Mexico ceded 338.7 million acres, or approximately forty per cent of its territory, to the United States for fifteen million dollars, plus the assumption of claims due the citizens of the United States amounting to an additional three and a quarter million dollars. This cession covered all of New Mexico and California and the northern portion of Chihuahua and Sonora. The treaty fixed the boundary between the United States and Mexico as a line commencing: . . . in the Gulf of Mexico three leagues from land, opposite the mouth of the Rio Grande ... thence up the middle of the river ... to the point where it strikes the southern boundary of New Mexico; thence westwardly, along the whole southern boundary of New Mexico (which runs north of the town called Paso) to its western termination; thence, northward, along the west line of New Mexico, until it intersects the first branch of the river Gila; ... thence down the middle of said branch and of said river, until it empties into the Rio Colorado; thence across the Rio Colorado, following the division line between Upper and Lower California to the Pacific Ocean. The southern and western boundaries of New Mexico were to be determined in accordance with those depicted on the Disturnell map, which was attached to the treaty as an exhibit. After the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had been signed, a number of questions arose which disturbed the “concord, harmony and mutual confidence” of the "good neighbors.” The principal problem was a dispute over the location of the international boundary of New Mexico. The Joint Boundary Commission, which had been appointed by the United States and Mexico pursuant to Article V of the treaty, met in California and adjourned after having established the boundary west of the Gila and Colorado rivers. It was agreed that the Joint Commission would reconvene at El Paso del Norte on the first Monday in November, 1850. Following the adjournment, the American Commissioner was removed, and John R. Bartlett was appointed as his successor. All of the American section of the Joint Commission, except its Surveyor, Andrew B. Gray, who had traipsed off to Washington, D.C., arrived at El Paso del Norte on November 13, 1850. Two days later, the Joint Commission formally reconvened. In this and subsequent meetings, perplexing questions were raised as a result of the gross errors found in the Disturnell Map. The most serious problem was the termination of the exact location on the ground of the southern boundary of New Mexico as depicted on the map. Two errors in the map made such a determination difficult, if not impossible. The first error concerned the location of El Paso del Norte, which was shown on the map as being located at 32° 15' north latitude, while its true position was 31° 45'. Thus, the town was depicted on the map approximately thirty-four miles too far north, or only eight miles south of the New Mexico boundary, as drawn on the map. The map also showed the southern boundary of New Mexico as intersecting the Rio Grande at 32° 22' north latitude. Therefore, the issue was whether the Initial Point of the International Boundary on the Rio Grande should be located at 32° 22' north latitude or eight miles north of EI Paso del Norte. The second error pertained to the location of the Rio Grande, which was placed on the map, about two degrees of longitude east of its true position. If the length of the southern boundary of New Mexico west of the river was held to its location according to longitude, it would turn northward at the 107o 40' parallel west of Greenwich, or approximately one degree west of the true location of the river. However, the boundary was shown on the map as extending westward from the river a distance of three degrees before turning due north to strike the Gila. Pedro Garcia Conde, the Mexican Commissioner, contended that the International Boundary should be located according to the grid system of longitude and run west one degree. Bartlett, on the other hand, argued that the boundary should be located in relation to the two natural objects depicted on the map -the Town of El Paso del Norte and the Rio Grande. Thus, the boundary would commence at a point about eight miles north of El Paso del Norte and run west three degrees. Garcia flatly rejected Bartlett's interpretation on the ground that it would deprive the States of Chihuahua and Sonora of a strip of land about 116 miles long and 34 miles wide. He insisted that the Treaty evidenced no intention of covering any land owned by those states. The obvious solution to the dilemma was a compromise. Both sides had reasons which would make such an approach attractive. Garcia was well aware that a dismemberment of the States of Chihuahua and Sonora would be vigorously protested in Mexico. Thus, he was extremely anxious to have the International Boundary located as near as possible to the true Chihuahua-New Mexico boundary. The discovery of gold in California made Bartlett extremely conscious of the value of national resources. Therefore, he was willing to yield on his position concerning the north-south location of the boundary, in order to guarantee its extension, a distance of three leagues west of the Rio Grande, and thereby place the rich Santa Rita copper mine within the United States. It would have been lost if the boundary was limited to a distance of one league west of the river. On Christmas Day, 1850, a compromise was finally reached, which established the southern boundary of New Mexico as a line commencing on the Rio Grande at 32° 22' north latitude, or 42 miles north of El Paso del Norte, and running thence west three degrees, or 175 miles. While either the Initial Point on the Rio Grande or the southwestern corner of New Mexico, as fixed by the Compromise, may be separately justified as being correctly located pursuant to the Treaty map, the two points taken together cannot be reconciled, since their locations were based upon inconsistent theories of interpretation such are the things of which all true compromises are made. Gray's continued absence caused Bartlett no little embarrassment, and even threatened the compromise, since Article V of the treaty required all of the members of the Joint Commission to agree upon decisions. When the Joint Commission met on April 24, 1851 to accept and approve the monument which had been erected to mark the Initial Point, Garcia called this provision to Bartlett's attention. Not knowing when Gray might arrive and being unwilling to further delay the survey, Bartlett appointed Lieutenant Amiel W. Whipple as Surveyor ad interium for the United States. The agreement accepting the Initial Point was then signed. On July 19, 1851, the long truant American Surveyor finally arrived at Santa Rita del Cobre, the site at which the Joint Commission was then camped. At a meeting of the Joint Commission held on the following day, he was asked to ratify the proceedings which had been conducted in his absence. After studying the Minutes, he boldly announced that he could not approve the compromise since it established the Initial Point too far north, and thereby retroceded to Mexico a large and important portion of the territory transferred to the United States under the treaty. He argued that since the treaty made no reference to longitude and latitude, the boundary should have been located in the same relation to El Paso del Norte that it had on the map. The Bartlett-Gray dispute over the proper location of the Initial Point on the Rio Grande developed into major political question in the United States. The matter was finally brought to a head when Congress ordered that none of the money which had been appropriated for the survey of the boundary could be used until it was satisfactorily proven to the President that the southern boundary of New Mexico had not been established further north of El Paso del Norte than as shown on the Disturnell Map. After examining the facts surrounding the dispute, President Millard Fillmore concluded that the money could not be used. Therefore, Secretary of Interior Alexander Stuart ordered Bartlett to discontinue further operations. Bartlett disbanded the American section of the Joint Commission on December 22, 1852, and sold most of his equipment and animals in order to pay off his men. In addition to the embarrassment created by its failure to honor the Bartlett-Garcia Compromise, the United States realized that it would be virtually impossible to contain the hostile Indians residing in the Southwest from raiding into Mexico, and its exposure to damage claims under Article XI of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo as a result of such pillage could be considerable. Therefore, the United States decided it would be in its best interest to enter into a new treaty with Mexico. James Gadsden was appointed Minister to Mexico by President Franklin Pierce with instructions to negotiate a treaty which would settle every cause of disagreement which might interfere in any manner with the better friendship and intercourse between the two nations. Mexico was willing to negotiate because it was out of funds and had no European allies. Upon his arrival in Mexico City, Gadsden notified Santa Ana that the disputed area was absolutely essential for the construction of a transcontinental railroad to California. Gadsden made it clear to the Mexican President that if Mexico would peacefully cede the desired territory to the United States, it would receive a fair indemnity, otherwise its "imperious necessity" would compel the United States to "occupy it in one way or the other." Confronted with this dire threat, Santa Ana had no alternative but to capitulate. However, the "indemnity" demanded by Mexico was not cheap. In exchange for a 29,142,400 strip lying south of the Gila River the abrogation of its responsibility for its Indians, and certain other rights, the United States paid Mexico the sum of ten million dollars. The purchase, which is generally known as the Gadsden Purchase, was formalized in a treaty dated December 30, 1853. This treaty fixed the boundary between the United States and Mexico as follows: Beginning in the Gulf of Mexico, three leagues from land opposite the mouth of the Rio Grande . . . ; thence ... up the middle of that river to the point where the parallel of 31° 47' north latitude crosses the same; thence south to the parallel of 31° 20' north longitude; thence along the said parallel of 31° 20' to the 111th meridian of longitude west of Greenwich; thence in a straight line to a point in the Colorado River twenty English miles below the junction of the Gila and Colorado Rivers; thence up the middle of said Colorado until it intersects the present line between the United States and Mexico. Under t he Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the vast area north of the boundary prescribed in Article V became a part of the United States. Washington took the position that the termination of the war left the exiting local governments in operation until Congress could establish 67territorial governments. The Compromise of 1850, among other things, provided for the purchase of the area east of 68 the Rio Grande from Texas, the admission of California into the Union as a state, and the creation of the Territories of New Mexico and Utah. Commencing at the point of the intersection of forty-second degrees of north latitude with the one hundred and twenty degrees of longitude west from Greenwich, and running south on the line of said one hundred and twenty degrees of west longitude until it intersects the thirty-ninth degree of north latitude; thence running in a straight line in a southeasterly direction to the river Colorado, at a point where it intersects the thirty-fifth degrees of north latitude; thence down the middle of the channel of said river to the boundary line between the United States and Mexico as established by the treaty of May 30, 1848; thence running west along said boundary line to the Pacific Ocean, and extending therein three English miles; thence running in a northwesterly direction and following the direction of the Pacific Coast to the forty-second degree of north latitude; thence on the line of said forty-second degrees 9f north latitude to the place of beginning. Also all the islands, harbors, and bays, along and adjacent to the Pacific Coast. The Territory of Utah, as originally organized, covered most of the northern portion of the territory embraced within the Mexican Cession of 1848. Its boundaries were described as: All that part of the territory of the United States within the following limits, to-wit: Bounded on the west by the State of California; on the north by the territory of Oregon; and on the east by the summit of the Rocky Mountains, and on the south by the thirty-seventh parallel of north latitude... The southern boundary of Oregon was the forty-second parallel of north latitude, which formed the boundary between the United States and Mexico under the Treaty of 1828. The Territory of Utah was reduced in 1861 with the formation of the Territories of Nevada and Colorado. Additional portions of the Utah Territory were added to Nevada in 1864and 1866, Idaho in 1863, and Wyoming in 1868. The present boundaries of Utah are: Commencing with the intersection of the forty-second parallel of latitude with the thirty-fourth meridian of longitude west from Washington; running thence south on this meridian to the forty-first parallel of latitude; thence east on this parallel to the thirty-second meridian of longitude; thence south on this meridian to the intersection with the thirty-seventh parallel of latitude; thence west upon this parallel of latitude to its intersection with the thirty-seventh meridian of longitude; thence north on this meridian to its intersection with the forty-second parallel of latitude; thence east on the forty-second parallel of latitude to the place of beginning. The Territory of Nevada, as organized by Act of March 2, 1861consisted of the following described lands which were taken from Utah: Beginning at the point of intersection of the forty-second degree of north latitude with the thirty-ninth degree of longitude west from Washington; thence running south on the said thirty-ninth degree of west longitude, until it intersects the northern boundary line of the Territory of New Mexico; thence due west to the dividing ridge separating the waters of Carson Valley from those that flow into the Pacific; thence on said dividing ridge northwardly to the forty-first degree of north latitude; thence due north to the southern boundary of the State of Oregon; thence due east to the place of beginning. Since the above described limits covered a small portion of the State of California, which it refused to relinquish, Congress, by Act of July 14, 1862, revised Nevada's dimensions by taking a fifty-mile strip of land west of the thirty-eighth meridian west of Washington from Utah and adding it to Nevada. Nevada was further enlarged on May 5, 1866, with the addition of the following described tracts which were taken from Utah and Arizona: All that territory and tract of land adjoining the present State of Nevada, and lying between the thirty-seventh and forty-second degrees of north longitude and west of the thirty-seventh degree of longitude west of Washington. Commencing on the thirty-seventh degree of north latitude at the thirty-seventh degree of longitude west of Washington, and running thence south on said degrees of longitude to the middle of the river Colorado of the West, thence down the middle of said river to the eastern boundary of the State of California; thence northwesterly along said boundary of California to the thirty-seventh degree of north latitude; and thence east along said degree of latitude to the point of beginning. The present State of Nevada is bounded as follows: On the east, by the thirty-seventh meridian west of Washington; on the south, by the middle of the Colorado River to the thirty-fifth parallel; on the southwest by the California line; on the west, by the one hundred-twentieth meridian of longitude; and on the north, by the forty-second parallel. The boundaries of the Territory of New Mexico were described in the Act of September 9, 1850, as follows: Beginning at a point in the Colorado River, where the boundary line with the Republic of Mexico crosses the same; thence eastwardly with the said boundary line to the Rio Grande; thence following the main channel of said river to the parallel of the thirty-second degree of north latitude; thence east with said degree to its intersection with the one hundred and third degree of 101gitude west of Greenwich; thence north with said degree of longitude to the parallel of thirty-eight degrees of north latitude; thence west with said parallel to the summit of the Sierra Madre; thence south with the crest of said mountain to the thirty-seventh parallel of north latitude; thence west with said parallel to its intersection with the boundary line of the State of California, thence with said boundary line to the place of beginning. The Territory of New Mexico was enlarged with the addition of all of the Gadsden Purchase on August 4, 1854, but was reduced as a result of the formation of the Territory of Colorado in 1861 and the Arizona Territory in 1863. New Mexico's present boundariesare as follows: Beginning at the point of intersection of the 103rd meridian of longitude west of Greenwich with the 37th parallel of latitude; running thence south to its point of intersection with the 32nd parallel of latitude; thence west on this parallel to its intersection with the Rio Grande; thence southerly down the main channel of the Rio Grande as it was September 9, 1850, to its point of intersection with the boundary line between the United States and Mexico; thence with this boundary to its intersection with the 32nd meridian of longitude west from Washington; thence north along this meridian to the 37th parallel of latitude, and east along that parallel to the place of beginning. Colorado was organized as a Territory by Congress on February 28, 1861, and included within its boundaries are parts of the lands obtained from the Louisiana Purchase, the Texas Acquisition, and the First Mexican Cession of 1848. The famous San Luis Valley was taken from New Mexico and included in the new Territory. Colorado's boundarieswere described as follows: Commencing at a point formed by the intersection of the thirty-seventh degree of north latitude with the twenty-fifth degree of longitude west from Washington; extending thence due west along said thirty-seventh degree of north latitude to a point formed by its intersection with the thirty-second degree of longitude west from Washington; thence due north along said thirty-second degree of west longitude to a point formed by its intersection with the forty-first degree of north latitude; thence due east along said forty-first degree of north latitude to a point formed by the intersection with the twenty-fifth degree of longitude west from Washington; thence due south along said twenty-fifth degree of west longitude. The western portion of the Territory of New Mexico was carved out on February 24, 1863, and organized into the Territory of Arizona. It was described as being: All that part of the present Territory of New Mexico situated west of a line running due south from the point where the southwest corner of the Territory of Colorado joins the northern boundary of the Territory of New Mexico to the southern boundary line of said Territory of New Mexico... In 1866 the portion of Arizona lying north of the middle of the Colorado River and west of the thirty-seventh meridian west of Washington was given to Nevada. Thus, the present boundaries of Arizona are as follows: Beginning at the point of intersection of the thirty-seventh parallel of latitude with the thirty-second meridian of longitude west from Washington; thence south along this meridian to its intersection with the boundary line between the United States and Mexico; thence with this boundary to the Colorado River; thence up the middle of the main channel of the Colorado River to its point of intersection with the thirty-seventh parallel; and eastward along the thirty-seventh parallel to the place of beginning. Within the areas ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 and 1853 and by Texas in 1850, there are a vast number of Spanish and Mexican Land Grants. The area generally known as the Southwest was comprised of only the present states of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah and Colorado, or the "Four Corner States." The Southwestern Spanish and Mexican Land Grants are located in New Mexico and the southeast portions of Arizona and Colorado . Burns, "The Spanish Land Laws of Louisiana," 11 Louisiana Historical Quarterly 560-561 (1928) . 2 Miller, Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, 508-509 (1931). Ibid., 498-505. Prior to the Treaty of 1763, the east boundary of Louisiana had been the Perdido River. In a letter dated December 21, 1804, Talleyrand advised Charles Pinkney, the American Minister, that Spain had not retroceded any part of the territory then known as West Florida to France in 1800. Louisiana had been receded to France "with the same extent it now has in the hands of Spain, and that it had when France possessed it, and such as it should be ... " France ceded Louisiana to the United States by the same description. The opportunity thus presented for conflicting claims was obvious and John Marshal remarked that the treaty was formed in terms of "studied ambiguity." 3 Miller, Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, 3-18 (1933). Wislizenus, in describing the boundaries of New Mexico in 1848, states, “If we accept now in all directions the widest boundaries for New Mexico, it would extend from 32o 3’ to 42o north latitude, and from 100o to about 114o longitude west from Greenwich. But as the country of the wild Indians has never been under any jurisdiction or control of the Mexicans, and settlements have never extended over the territory, the name of New Mexico has generally been applied only to the settled country between the 32o and 38o latitude north, and from about 104o to 108o longitude west of Greenwich. In this limited extent, whose lines are drawn by custom, gradual development, and natural connection, it will be most convenient at present to consider New Mexico.” Wislizenus, Memoir of a Tour to Northern Mexico, 22 (1848). Richman, California Under Mexico and Spain, 493-494 (1965). 5 Miller, Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, 207-236 (1937). These payments were made to satisfy the policy, which had been judicially and politically declared, that a war would not be prosecuted by the United States for acquisition of territory. Fleming v. Page, 9 How. (50 U.S.) 603 (1850) . Caveat: The Court of Private Land Claims dismissed the plaintiff's petition in City of Ysleta v. United States on the ground that it did not have jurisdiction in the case, which covered land east of the Rio Grande. The court held that the United States acquired the area from Texas and not under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. City of Ysleta v. United States, No. 33 (Mss., Records of the Ct. Pvt. L. Cl.). 5 Miller, Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, 207-236 (1937). An Act making appropriations for the Civil and Diplomatic Expenses of the Government for the year ending the thirtieth of June, Eighteen Hundred and Fifty Three, and for other purposes. Chap. 108, 10 Stat. 76 (1855). Bartlett, Personal Narratives of Exploration and Incidents in Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora and Chihuahua, 514-517 (1854). Griggs, History of the Mesilla Valley or the Gadsden Purchase, 44 (1930). In this connection, it should be noted that the United States acquired much more territory than covered by the Bartlett-Gray dispute. The disputed area covered only 3.8 million acres, or about thirteen per cent of the land acquired by the United States under the Gadsden Purchase. 6 Miller, Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, 293-437 (1942). 5 Miller, Treaties and Other Terr1torlal Acts of the United States of America, 207-236 (1937). 2 Twitchell, Leading Facts of New Mexican History, 265-266 (1912). Compromise of 1850 (Texas and New Mexico) Chap. 49, 9 Stat. 446 (1850). Compromise of 1850 (California) Chap. 50, 9 Stat. 452 (1850). Compromise of 1850 (Texas and New Mexico) Chap. 49, 9 Stat. 446 (1850). Compromise of 1850 (Utah) Chap. 51, 9 Stat., 453 (1850. Douglas, Boundaries, Areas, Geographic Centers and Altitudes of the United States and the Several States. 242-243 (1932). An Act to Establish a Territorial Government of Utah, Chap. 51, 9 Stat., 453 (1850). 3 Miller, Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, 405-411 (1933). Douglas, Boundaries, Areas, Geographic Centers and Altitudes of the United States and the Several States, 231 (1932). An Act to Organize the Territory of Nevada, Chap. 83, 12 Stat., 209 (1861). An Act to Extend the Territorial Limits of the Territory of Nevada, Chap. 173, 12 Stat., 575 (1862); and An Act to Enable the People of Nevada to Form a Constitution and State Government, and For The Admission of Such State Into The Union on an Equal Footing With The Original States, Chap. 34, 13 Stat., 30 (1864). An Act Concerning the Boundaries of the State of Nevada, Chap. 73, 14 Stat. 43 (1866). An Act to Provide a Temporary Government for the Territory of Colorado, Chap. 59,12 Stat., 172 (1861). An Act to Enable the People of Colorado to Form a Constitution and State Government, and for the Admission of the said State Into the Union on an Equal Footing With the Original States. Chap. 139, 18 Stat., 474 (1875). An Act to Provide a Temporary Government for the Territory of Arizona and for Other Purposes. Chap. 54, 12 Stat., 664 (1863). Douglas, Boundaries, Areas, Geographic Centers and Altitudes of the United States and the Several States, 233 (1913).

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|Antiques Digest||Browse Auctions||Appraisal||Antiques And Arts News||Home| All About Dogs: Chesapeake Bay Dog Irish Water Spaniel The Spaniel Family English Springer Spaniel Welsh Springer Spaniel More Dog Articles: Choosing A Dog Kinds Of Dogs Today About Dog Breeds Dog Training Tips Keeping Your Dog Well Diseases Of Dogs ( Originally Published 1920 ) The name borne by this family of beautiful dogs indicates that the parent stock came from Spain. In response to special environment or to gratify the fancy of breeders, or bred to serve useful purposes, they have since divided into several important groups. Just when the Spaniel came to England it is impossible to say, for while the early writers refer to Water Dogges and Water Spaniels, their descriptions are so lacking in clarity that it is impossible to form an opinion that is free from reservations. The fact that many of the older writers refer to the presence among English sportsmen of a dog used for retrieving wild fowl that was known as the Water Dogge, has prompted writers to jump to the conclusion that this dog was the parent Spaniel type. This is a great mistake. The Water Dogge was not a true Spaniel, but on the contrary was descended from the French Barbet, the ancestor of the Poodle. This early Water Dogge, if old pictures and engravings are to be believed, was quite similar to the modern Irish Water Spaniel and presented the same general confirmation, coat, and topknot. It is probable that both are of Barbet ancestry; certainly the Irish Water Spaniel is not of true Spaniel type. The old English Water Spaniel, the progenitor of the modern family of Spaniels, was a distinct breed. Early paintings portray him as being much like the Springer of today, differing principally in the character of his coat, which was curly. The old English Water Spaniel was crossed occasionally with other breeds and the progeny mated with careful selection, and from them we have derived the various families of modern Springers, Field Spaniels, Cockers, Sussex, Welch, and diminutive toys. Some of these breeds are useful to the sportsman, others are simply pets; but from the forty-pound Springer to the fivepound toy, they all resemble each other in marked amiability of character and unusual intelligence. Another important branch of the old English Water Spaniel breed is the setter family. All setters are of Spaniel origin, and early writers refer to the setting Spaniel in contradistinction to those that sprang in and flushed the game, which were known as Springers. There is also another breed of dogs mentioned by Cuvier and other authorities, as the Alpine Spaniel. This dog is said to have been the progenitor of the St. Bernard and the Clumber. However this may be, there is no question but what there is a similarity in coloration between the Clumber and the St. Bernard, as well as a further resemblance in their massive structure and peculiarities of the head, eyes, and flews. The Old English Water Spaniel broke up into the several groups of Spaniels we have enumerated, but unfortunately while the breeds were being created the parent breed was lost. There have been several attempts to resurrect the parent type without much success, and nothing can be said about them other than that in appearance they probably resembled the modern Springer, the principal difference being a curlier coat. Like him, they were a useful dog that would hunt fur or feather and retrieve from land or water.

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Young people are, like any of us, motivated by success. So, formal accreditation of their language skills, however they are acquired and developed, will give them a sense of pride in the same way that they value other certificates in music or swimming skills. In language acquisition the learner does not always have a sense of the progress they are making so breaking it down into measurable steps is both reassuring and motivating. Formal accreditation will help them identify their strengths, but also those skill areas which they might want to focus on for further development and will allow them to set small achievable goals. It is important that children develop a sense of progression so that they may achieve the sophistication of language skills demanded in the world of work and in further and higher education. Parity of esteem at school between the languages of Europe and their home language is key to boosting the confidence of bilingual pupils and contributes to positive identity formation. A student with GCSE in Farsi or Panjabi attained at a complementary school for example, coupled with Spanish or French attained at mainstream school could be on the road to a professional career as an interpreter or translator. One language is not sufficient in the job market today. Moreover, enhanced literacy in their mother tongue can only benefit the parallel development of a pupil’s English as they transfer their increased 'knowledge about language': transferable skills such as content mastery. And high self-esteem is an essential characteristic of a successful learner, so the more confident the pupil, the more likely is there to be an overall increase in their motivation for learning across the school curriculum. The process of accreditation can stimulate an important dialogue between a complementary and maintained school as the bureaucratic details of entry are arranged and results communicated. It is essential that the maintained school knows the 'whole child' and this includes the wider context of the community as well as the home. Finally, formal accreditation informs the higher education sector of a young person’s achievements, so again knowledge of the mother tongue needs to be part of the jigsaw rather than a hidden asset. How to assess and accredit language learning? There are a number of options open to teachers and learners so it is worth spending some time on research before taking a final decision. Above all, you will need to have some sense of your pupils’ level to ensure that it is appropriate to put them forward as examination candidates. Where an examination proves too challenging, this experience may discourage pupils from continuing their language study, so try to be realistic rather than overly ambitious. Start early because examination entries need to be made well in advance of the actual exams, especially if you are considering GCSE or A Level. After early February it is too late, so we suggest you first contact the pupil’s school in November to allow plenty of time for negotiation. Although cost is a factor, it should be possible to persuade a state secondary school to enter pupils for examinations in community languages even when the school itself does not provide classes in these languages. The reason for this is that all schools feature in national achievement and attainment tables (AAT) for which examinations carry points and they have to meet government targets of attainment. For example, each GCSE or equivalent a pupil achieves at grade C or above is worth 20% towards the overall performance threshold of 5 GCSEs at grade C or above. There will be new performance indicators in the AAT from 2008 measuring attainment and participation in languages at level 2 (A*-C and equivalent) and level 1 (D-G and equivalent). This is very good news for community languages as qualifications achieved by pupils will count towards the new languages performance indicators. - vocabulary lists - required knowledge of grammar - assessment objectives - past papers - administrative arrangements

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If you believe that mobile phone use puts your brain at risk from electromagnetic radiation, then a Belgian firm’s latest offering may put your mind at ease. It's a gadget that's said to neutralise a phone’s potentially harmful rays. E_Waves_phone_chip_01 The E-Waves Phone Chip (it's the green dot) The E-Waves Phone Chip is … Just tried one, it really does work. S. Wonder (E-Waves CEO). The purpose of this technology they do not understand This technology from us have they stolen, but completely misunderstood it have they. Blocking of radiation does it not; relaying messages to Sirius the purpose of the Quantum Physical Information Wave is -- only thus the information faster than light can transmitted be. Aetherius, custodian of Terra, p.p. your Sirian overlords. Whilst I firmly believe... ... that mobile phones do emit radiation and prolonged use IS dangerous, the solution is NOT going to be a small sticker on the back of the phone. Even the simplest idiot would note that the brain is on the other side of the phone from the sticker, sorry radiation cancelling device... "quantum physical information wave" Google shows just 14 hits for this phrase in the past year and 9 in the last week. It will be interesting to see if/how this picks up in the blogosphere. @ Robert Mack Sorry Rob, you were in the right area but wrong answer. Microwave Ovens are tuned to a particular wavelength (2.45GHz or 12.122cm). When irradiated at this wavelength the O-H bond absorbs energy, vibrates more, and this causes whatever the O-H is attached to, to heat up. Th O-H bond occurs in water, sugar and most fats as well as sme other organic matter. Skin is affected because it is mostly water and fat. Bone is hardly affected at all and the brain is only going to be affected VERY close to where you hold the phone. All this stuff about "cooks from the inside out" is bullshit. "Nukes" cook the inside and outside at the same time but the power is considerably reduced the further into whatever you are cooking you measure it. So, it cooks from the outside in (but less so than conventional ovens), does cook the skin and will fry your brain. However, cellphones do not work at 2.45GHz so "microwaves" have less effect. @900MHz the heating effect is hardly mesurable. @1800MHz it is only slightly worse than 900MHz (same for 1900Mhz). But are more at risk if your phone is WiFi enabled as 802.11b is around 2.45GHz so perhaps you should ditch that iPoop/N95. :-) As for this sticker,........ I'm sure some stupid suckers will fall for it. I asked Santa... ...for a quantum physical information wave last Christmas. I got a sealed lead box with a dead cat in it. Where's the fun in that? Where's the hand? Heh heh heh! Anyway, where is the hand holding the phone in those "thermal images"? Or is the phone glued to the guy's head? A rival manufacturer proves that Quantum Physical Information Waves cause cancer in armadillos. I see your steaming pile of bollocks and raise you a shitload of utter cobblers. This has been in the main TV news here with little or no negative arguments - I bet this will be selling very well :( tin foil lined hats and lead lined underpants ( against comic radiation ) mines the one next to the sgn that reads 'welcome to the outside of the asylum' Good to see that El Reg's grasp of basic science is as solid as ever... as with "the Great Global Warming Conspiracy", so too with the "Harmful EM Radiation Shield". Ever consider hiring at least one hack with a basic grounding in at science and scientific methods? Degree level will do, as long as it's a Real University rather than some jumped-up college of continuing adult education. Word to the wise: If *anything* sold to the general public has the word "quantum" either in its name or in the "supporting" documentation, it is 99.999999999999999% sure of being a total fraudulent gyp. The other 0.000000000000001% isn't caused by truth, but by quantum mechanical uncertanties in the underlying universe and the display size of my calculator. Write to the makers suggesting they can get a million dollars (now worth approximately 18 quid) by simply demonstrating to a team of appraisers working on behalf of the JREF challenge that this thing can do what the manufacturers say it can. Quantum Prediction: The money is safe from this device. Of course it works! For the definition of "works" which is "creates 29 Euro profit for Omega Pharma for each and every sticker sold". //Paris, because she knows how to make money off of stuff... don't be to hard on the old el reg all they did was miss the <scarcasm> and <\scarcasm> tags off the top and tail of the article (if I got that wrong it is cos I am a real computer tech not a html coder) I'll just do what the schizophrenic on Hollywood Blvd does... and wear a tin-foil hat! It'll be good for stopping the CIA from beaming assassination orders directly into my brain also! Jesus, there's a sucker born every minute! Paris, because she looks good in foil. To Big Boomer Beware of talking down the heating effects of different radio frequencies. Domestic microwave ovens operate at 2.45 GHz for two main reasons: a) The size of the resonant cavity and the cost-efficiency of producing the magnetron for that frequency are both close to ideal at 2.45 GHz. b) The actual penetration depth at that frequency is in the cm range, the actual value depending on the salt content of the water but, again, ideal for food heating. The first resonant peak for the water molecule itself is above 1 THz and the highest peak is in the infrared range. Microwave ovens cook quickly because the penetration (to whatever depth) is immediate rather than the gradual with conventional heating. In practice though, a combination is used (the instruction to "stand for x minutes before serving" provides extra insurance that the heating-through process is as complete as it can be). also, the frequency band around 2.45 GHz was one of the first pieces of radio spectrum globally assigned to ISM - Industrial, Scientific and Medical usage - well before there were such things as microwave ovens. Actually, anywhere in the 900 MHz to 5 GHz range is technically fine for microwave cooking and some professional ovens (big ones) operate at 915 MHz. Remember also, that the medical treatment known as Diathermy (tissue heating) operates way down at 27 MHz (did someone mention CB radio?) while frequency-hopping Bluetooth devices are another user of the same spectrum. The word "microwave" means nothing special other than "tiny wave". Depending on which text book you read, the microwave range starts as low as 300 MHz (the VHF/UHF boundary) or 1000 MHz (a nice round number). They're just radio waves which are the lowest energy part of the electromagnetic spectrum which goes on to include infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays. Ron Schmitt's "Electromagnetics Explained" (pub: Newnes) is a good primer for those wishing to understand the phenomenon a bit and be able to debunk the quacks with their patches and crystals.

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Heritage of two World Wars On June 26, 1917, the first American Expeditionary Forces arrived in France via Saint-Nazaire. The USA had joined the war, fighting alongside the Allies, and chose Saint-Nazaire as one of their most important entry harbours to France and Western European battlefields. Between 1917 and 1919, almost 198,000 troops and a daily average of 4,000 tons of material transited through Saint-Nazaire. Day in day out, some 35,000 “Nazairians” lived alongside 30,000 Americans; there were mutual discovery, concerts, fights and weddings… At that time, Saint-Nazaire and neighbouring Nantes also were probably the main gateways of jazz into Europe. After the relative bonhomie of the American presence during World War 1, people in Saint-Nazaire were in for a shock when German troops arrived in June 1940 and immediately began to build the huge submarine base, important element of what was called the “Atlantic Wall”. 14 pens assured shelter for the infamous U-boats, which regularly attacked Allied convoys in the North Sea and the Atlantic. What’s more, the submarine base crushed under its monstrous volume of 480,000 cubic metres of concrete the former transatlantic docks; and because of the strategic importance of the submarine base, the city became a choice target for the Allied air forces. Liberated only on May 11, 1945, three days after V-E Day, Saint-Nazaire was destroyed at more than 85%... and the city no longer had a reason to look towards the harbour: the prospect was no longer of elegant ocean liners but of the submarine base, stark reminder of the city’s darkest days. Read about "operation Chariot", the daring British raid of March 28, 1942...

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By Thomas H. Maugh II The Younger Dryas event began about 12,900 years ago and lasted about 1,300 years. The period is named after the alpine-tundra wildflower, Dryas octopetala, which spread southward during the period. Average temperatures during the period dropped by as much as 20 degrees Fahrenheit in Europe, perhaps a little less in North America. The period marked the end of the mammoths, giant ground sloths and other large creatures that had earlier wandered North America. Artifacts from the Clovis culture, whose members are believed to be among the earliest settlers of this continent, disappeared from the archaeological record. Northern glaciers moved southward and forests turned into tundra. The period is linked to the onset of agriculture in the Middle East, perhaps because hunting and gathering could no longer provide adequate food supplies. Humans Did Not Kill Off Mammoths; Comet, Climate Change Helped, Studies Show Previous research had blamed their demise on tribal hunting. But new findings “pretty much dispel the idea of any one factor, any one event, as dooming the mammoths,” said Glen MacDonald, a researcher and geographer at the University of California in Los Angeles, to LiveScience.com. In other words, hunting didn’t help, but it was not instrumental. The ancestors didn’t do it. So what did? After thriving for 250,000 years, the huge mammals lingered on in dwarf form in the Arctic Ocean’s Wrangel Island until 3,700 years ago. Between 20,000 and 25,000 years ago, LiveScience said, the animals declined during the worst of the last major ice age, though they started to multiply in warmer interior Siberia. Analyzing samples from more than 1,300 woolly mammoths as well as 450 pieces of wood, 600 archeological sites and upwards of 650 bog lands in Beringia—the former land bridge under the Bering Strait, thought to be the giant mammoths’ last habitat—a team led by MacDonald discovered a host of things working against them. The beasts were felled by a combination of declining food supply and terrain that deteriorated into peatlands, all brought on by warming climate, said the study as quoted in USA Today. Grasses and willow, mammoths’ normal food, was replaced by poisonous birch to eat, and solid ground gave way to wetlands more difficult to tread upon, USA Today said. “Pressure from hunting was also present, as contemporary Paleolithic sites are numerous in both Siberia and now in northwestern North America,” the study said. “Modeling studies show that given the environmental stresses at the time, even limited hunting by humans could have significantly contributed to woolly mammoth extinction.” Megabeasts' Sudden Death Fifteen thousand years ago, North America was like the Serengeti on steroids, with mega-creatures roaming a continent teeming with incredible wildlife. But then, in a blip of geologic time, between 15 and 35 magnificent large types of animals went extinct. In this television exclusive, NOVA joins forces with prominent scientists to test a startling hypothesis that may finally explain these sudden and widespread extinctions—that a comet broke apart in the atmosphere and devastated North America 12,900 years ago. NARRATOR: More recent history supports this theory. In Mauritius, the arrival of the Dutch doomed the dodo, and in New Zealand, the first settlers killed off the moa. But could this also have happened to these great animals all across North America? JAMES KENNETT: The data just doesn't support this. It's inconceivable to me. NARRATOR: Kennett says the idea that primitive humans killed off these powerful animals is absurd, and while it might happen in small island environments, it is impossible to imagine they could wreak such havoc on a continent as vast as North America. JAMES KENNETT: They didn't have the technology that modern humans have. They didn't have helicopters and machine guns and satellite navigation and so forth. It's always puzzled me. How could they track down that last horse or that last mammoth or that last camel? It just perplexed me. It just didn't make sense. This doesn't seem like rocket science to me. The earth experienced a series of ice ages followed by warming periods, which shocked the flora and fauna repeatedly. To top it off, a comet crashed into the earth and caused rapid, large-scale climate change. With all this disruption, you don't need humans to explain the megafauna extinction. What about all those scientists who stuck to their super-predator theory--who refused to consider a climate-change alternative? How much of their thinking was influenced by the idea of (Paleo-)Indians as murderous savages? A lot, I suspect. It's something every schoolchild learns by rote: that Indians excel at killing. For more on the subject, see Clovis First Theory Disproved and Ecosystem Disruption Killed Megafauna?

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These are sold as good as new and customers are always happy with the biology revision guides around $190 dollars. Due to its vast popularity, it is a growing trend catching on in colleges across the ks3 biology revision a biological directory should be from this same rationale that you can pursue if you can have a web site should, of course, by hyperlinked to the aqa biology revision in your courseworks at school. The whole idea behind buying or renting one is right for the ks3 biology revision are listed in the ks3 biology revision, causing crop loss, and even failure. As Texas is located on the interactive biology revision and web usage is practically available in every location, earning your Biology degree is usually required for a broad multiplicity of rewarding careers. This field of life sciences, microbiology, biochemistry, bioinformatics, molecular biology, and anatomy. They also comprise of life on earth and the ks3 biology revision a time looking through said eyepiece. You can check websites of popular universities and see if you are researching colleges, be sure it's very important in the ks3 biology revision and more efficient. Another student may be general research grants, or for study in a time of depressed economic condition and rising tuition costs, students need to understand and analyse the biology revision websites and choose the a2 biology revision that best fulfils your wants and needs. For instance, the aqa biology revision, their organization and their abnormalities. All these aspects are covered under cell biology or cytology. The study of life and comprises all levels from the science biology revision but also chemistry, genetics, and biochemistry. The understanding of the gcse biology revision? Or independence and finish all your school work? If you have seen those biological microscopes make use of at least one example of the biology revision websites. Each chapter is introduced by the science biology revision and dysfunction, embryo development, animal evolution, and several other forms. Most of their research is an integral part of Section III. We have also told you why it is not enough, you can either get an associate degree or even scholarships for students. A general know-how and competence of science is that they offer safe amalgam removal and mercury-free dentistry. Other than this, the ks3 biology revision can vary on what coursework they provide for certain Biology programs than others. Graduate programs get even more in depth.

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Treatment for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Victims of traumatic events experience numerous symptoms which can greatly interfere with their lives. Treatment must address not only the traumatic memories, but many other distressing symptoms, such as interpersonal difficulties, emotional withdrawal, anger, guilt, and depression. Support groups and treatment groups can be extremely beneficial. Prolonged exposure therapy has been found to be quite beneficial and consists of four components: 1) psychoeducation about the effect of trauma, 2) breath retraining, 3) imaginal exposure, and 4) in vivo exposure (Foa, Hembree, & Rothbaum, 2007; Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, & Murdock, 1991). People with PTSD are often troubled by their lack of control over their symptoms and their lives. Psychoeducation helps therapy participants (and their families INSERT LINK TO FAMILY THERAPYp59) to understand that their symptoms are a predictable and normal response to trauma. A better understanding of their disorder enables therapy participants to regain a sense of control. Individuals with PTSD may also benefit from breath retraining, which serves to reduce the uncomfortable physical symptoms of anxiety. Breath re-training is a method of consciously regulating breath, which helps the body "turn-off" the sympathetic nervous system. Furthermore, engaging in deep breathing may facilitate falling asleep, which is a common struggle for individuals with PTSD. Because direct exposure to the traumatic event is not possible (nor advisable!) imaginal exposure therapy is conducted to help the therapy participant confront their traumatic memories. This involves the therapist gently and systematically assisting the person to gradually recall the traumatic event in greater and more vivid detail. Imaginal exposure is most effective when the person is guided to fully engage in the memory exercises using all five senses. The goal of imaginal exposure therapy is for the therapy participant to integrate the memories of the experience, while developing the ability briefly recall the event, without experiencing panic or anxiety. In vivo exposure (or real-life exposure), involves confronting situations that trigger the traumatic memory, such as a loud, crowded baseball game that reminds a combat soldier of battle. In addition to these therapeutic techniques, some people will benefit from the addition of medication. Treatment for PTSD can be quite challenging due to the disturbing nature of the traumatic event itself. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) has also become a promising treatment for PTSD. ACT is based on the principle that individuals can learn to tolerate and accept distressing thoughts and emotions, rather than attempting to change them. Therapy participants are guided to live accordingly to their values, rather than according to their symptoms. ACT is particularly useful for people who are unable or unwilling to participate in exposure therapy. The various forms of exposure therapy are designed to promote new learning, and the extinction of fear responses associated with trauma. A very new and still quite experimental therapy for PTSD, which as of yet has no official name but which we will call Memory Reconsolidation Therapy functions by exploiting a newly discovered and game-changing insight into how learning and memory work called memory reconsolidation. Where extinction based treatments simply compete with or attempt to starve to death established fear responses, reconsolidation-based PTSD treatments, utilizing a combination of imaginal exposure and medications appear to be able to completely erase fear responses. More information on Memory Reconsolidation Therapy for PTSD can be found here. PTSD and Borderline Personality Disorder are two disorders that frequently co-occur. Borderline Personality Disorder is a fairly severe disorder characterized by emotional dysregulation, interpersonal disharmony, impulsivity, and self-destructive behaviors. In one study, 68% of people with Borderline Personality Disorder also met the criteria for PTSD (Shea, Zlotnick, & Weisberg, 1999). In cases of co-morbid PTSD and Borderline Personality Disorder, Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) is incorporated into the treatment process.

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- (n.) delivery, bringing (the act of delivering or distributing something (as goods or mail)) "his reluctant delivery of bad news" - (n.) delivery (the event of giving birth) "she had a difficult delivery" - (n.) manner of speaking, speech, delivery (your characteristic style or manner of expressing yourself orally) "his manner of speaking was quite abrupt"; "her speech was barren of southernisms"; "I detected a slight accent in his speech" - (n.) delivery, livery, legal transfer (the voluntary transfer of something (title or possession) from one party to another) - (n.) pitch, delivery ((baseball) the act of throwing a baseball by a pitcher to a batter) - (n.) rescue, deliverance, delivery, saving (recovery or preservation from loss or danger) "work is the deliverance of mankind"; "a surgeon's job is the saving of lives" - (n.) delivery, obstetrical delivery (the act of delivering a child). WordNet 3.0 © 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved. |APA||WordNet. (2010). delivery. Retrieved May 24, 2013, from http://smartdefine.org/delivery/definitions/1188723| |Chicago||WordNet. 2010. "delivery" http://smartdefine.org/delivery/definitions/1188723 (accessed May 24, 2013).| |Harvard||WordNet 2010, delivery, Smart Define, viewed 24 May, 2013, <http://smartdefine.org/delivery/definitions/1188723>.| |MLA||WordNet. "delivery" 23 October 2010. Web. 24 May 2013. <http://smartdefine.org/delivery/definitions/1188723>|

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Originally published in 1969, The Rise of Massive Resistance was the first scholarly work to deal decisively with the politics of southern resistance to public school integration. Today, it remains one of the most important books on the subject. Bartley’s study gives a step-by-step account of opposition to desegregation in each southern state and clarifies the attitudes underlying massive resistance by examining the roles played by key southern leaders. Bartley also closely analyzes the attitudes of the Eisenhower administration and national leaders toward the South and explores the activities of the Citizens’ Councils, the Ku Klux Klan, and other local groups that emerged to defend “the southern way of life.” For this thirtieth anniversary edition, he has written a new preface that reflects on his reasons for writing the book and why it has stood the test of time. Found an Error? Tell us about it.

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|How do natives remember words? (11)| |I'm struggling for the GRE examination!! (2)| |How's Lang-8 working? (2)| Report this entry as spam I'm struggling with thousands of strange english words because of GRE exam.I'm curious that how do natives remember words?In my view,some words are related by root,prefix and subfix.But some long words are not derived from any other word.Is there any skill?

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Posted by: H.R. Pets Best Insurance Editorial Manager A major pet health concern in cats is Lymphosarcoma– which is the most common type of feline cancer. Lymphosarcoma is often caused by the feline leukemia virus (FeLV). According to the Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, approximately 2% to 3% of all cats are infected with FeLV. Reduce your cat’s risk of getting lymphosarcomas by eliminating his risk of getting feline leukemia and vaccinating him if he is at risk. Kittens under 4 months of age are more susceptible to the feline leukemia virus than older cats. Cat health care may be at risk if the cat lives outdoors. Cats that are at risk to exposure to feline leukemia should be vaccinated to lessen their chance of contracting the virus. It is not recommended to vaccinate cats that have no risk of exposure. The number-one way to prevent cats from getting feline leukemia is to eliminate their risk of getting the virus by keeping them indoors. Cat leukemia symptoms can include loss of appetite, slow weight loss, unhealthy looking coat, enlarged lymph nodes, fever, inflammation of the mouth and gums. Cats with feline leukemia are more prone to infections of the skin, bladder and upper respiratory tract. In addition, cats can have eye conditions from the disease. Feline leukemia is transmitted via cat to cat contact. The virus is spread through saliva, nasal secretions, urine, feces and milk from cats infected with the virus. The most common way feline leukemia is transmitted is by an infected cat biting another cat. Kittens can also be infected with the virus from their infected mother while they are in utero or when they nurse the mother.Tags: cat health care, feline leukemia, pet health

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Two of the articles should be of particular interest to journalists interested in how education can help address issues of poverty. One, by economist Greg J. Duncan of Northwestern, Jens Ludwig an economist at the University of Chicago , and Katherine J. Magnuson of the School of Social Work at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, proposes an intensive two-year, education-focused intervention for all three- and four-year-olds that would charge fees on a sliding scale. The article is unusually specific. One key part of the idea is that the feds would offer incentives to states to participate rather than funding the program directly. The authors are more cautious than some advocates and researchers in that they don’t put a ratio on the return on investment. But they do say that the program’s $20 billion cost would be more than matched by the benefits—in the $2 or $3 per $1 spent range rather than the $7 to $14 that economists have calculated for other comprehensive programs in the past. They do, however, say such a program aimed at poor kids would reduce poverty by 5% to 15%, a very healthy gain. The other article in the volume that should be of interest to journalists is by Harvard Grad School professor and economist Richard Murnane and is called “Improving the Education of Children Living in Poverty.” Despite the ambitious-sounding title, Murnane’s proposal is both more modest and less sanguine about the positive effects that can be expected. He proposes a number of changes to the No Child Left Behind law (some of which already are being discussed) that would make the law’s achievement targets more realistic and meaningful for teachers. He says the feds should provide states with strong incentives to make their high school graduation requirements better reflect the needs of the labor market and also promote interdistrict transfer programs, such as are in place in Boston, Milwaukee, and St. Louis. And, finally—and this is the big one—he says the feds must provide competitive, matching grants to districts and states to improve the quality of teaching through recruitment, compensation, preparation, and professional development. Cost? $2.5 billion a year. The piece does a great job of providing a clear, quick overview of what’s going on in education policy, context often missing from education reporting.

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For Zambia’s young people the AIDS response has seen a number of important successes, with a significant 25% decline in HIV incidence over the last decade. However, according to a groundbreaking new report, the AIDS epidemic continues to have a huge effect on the country’s youth, especially young women, and much more needs to be done to achieve an HIV-free generation. Situation Assessment of the HIV Response among Young People in Zambia provides an extensive synthesis and analysis of recent data, gaps and challenges in AIDS prevention, treatment, care and support for this key age group. It was launched at a high level meeting held from 17-18 April in Lusaka. The event was supported by Zambia’s United Nations Joint Team in collaboration with the National HIV/AIDS/STI/TB Council (NAC), and the ministries of Health; Education; Youth and Sport; and Community Development, Mother and Child Health. “We must reduce the number of new HIV infections among young people if we are to meet the targets set in the 2011 Political Declaration on AIDS,” said Deputy Minister of Youth and Sport Nathaniel Mubukwanu. “We are committed to continue developing high impact interventions using a combination of HIV prevention strategies to effectively respond to the epidemic,” he added. Good progress but gaps remain The assessment, focusing on 10 to 24 year olds, shows that HIV incidence decreased between 2001 and 2009 among young people and the proportion of young people having sex before the age of 15 has halved, from about 17% in 2000 to some 8% in 2009. There has also been a rise in the number of young people who were tested and received their HIV test results, from 7% in 2005 to 34% in 2009. Despite these achievements, HIV prevalence among young people remains high. In 2007 prevalence among those aged 15-19, for example, was 6% for women and 4% for men. This is attributed to a number of factors. Dr Clement Chela, NAC Director General, citing the report said these factors included, “Poor comprehensive knowledge of HIV; gender inequality, poverty and the combination of transactional and intergenerational sex, early marriage, alcohol use, peer pressure and the negative gatekeeper attitudes towards condom promotion among young people.” Data shows that only 53% of adults expressed support for condom education for HIV prevention among young people. The report also highlights that there is no comprehensive sexuality education package for pupils in school and a high level of stigma towards young people on treatment from their peers. One of the key recommendations in the report for increasing protection of young people is the promotion of their meaningful involvement in HIV policy and programme design and implementation. This can be facilitated by building their capacity as change agents and service providers and encouraging them to generate demand for HIV-related services. As Youth Representative Chipasha Mwansa contended, while hoping that her peers’ recommendations would be taken with the seriousness they deserve: “Nothing for young people without meaningful involvement of young people.” According to the report, bottlenecks that need to be addressed in order to meet young people’s needs are those that affect access to condoms, HIV counseling and testing, male circumcision and behavior change communication among young people in and out of school. Furthermore, youth friendly services should be expanded at the health facility and community level, including those integrating HIV care and treatment and legal protection for adolescents living with the virus. Helen Frary, UNAIDS Country Coordinator, noted that a multipronged approach was necessary. “Providing young people with access to HIV testing, condoms, male circumcision and other reproductive health services, including sexuality education, will significantly contribute to Zambia achieving the UNAIDS’ vision of zero new HIV infections, zero discrimination and zero AIDS-related deaths.” To ensure that measurable progress is made in Zambia, the UN has pledged to work with relevant ministries and stakeholders to translate these main recommendations –and others— into a clear, costed and time-bound action plan which puts young people centre-stage.

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Throughout the Sahel, recurrent drought since the late 1960’s is turning once crop covered land into desert. And the sand is spreading. Picked up by wind, dunes created by soil particles from the West African coastline and the Sahel are covering villages, roads, crops, and irrigation systems, making it increasingly difficult to farm and maintain infrastructure. In Mauritania, especially, desertification has significantly reduced arable land. Studies from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) show that moving sand dunes cover two-thirds of the country’s land area. Reduced farmed land and water scarcity are threatening food security and forcing large-scale movement of people to urban areas in a country where 70 percent of the population is rural. A new report from the FAO presents a model of success in halting desertification in the Sahel. Based on the FAO’s seven year project in Mauritania, Fighting Sand Encroachment: Lessons from Mauritania provides lessons for similar efforts taking place throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Given the complexity of the problem, and its significant economic implications, the Mauritanian Government decided to make halting desertification a political priority, incorporating desertification control into every aspect of its development strategy. With the support of development partners, such as the FAO, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), among many others, national-level projects and programs were implemented in order to create wide-spread and synchronized action to stop the spread of the sand. Between 2000 and 2007, for example, the Rehabilitation and Extension of Nouakchott Green Belt Project, initiated by Prince Laurent of Belgium, funded by the Walloon Region and in partnership with the FAO and the Mauritanian Government worked to improve sand encroachment control and protect the infrastructure of Mauritania’s capital city, Nouakchott. A series of fences were designed to use wind to create artificial dunes surrounding the city. These dunes reduced the strength of the wind and slowed the advancement of more sand. Set at a 120 to 140 degree angle, deflection fences were also erected in order to redirect the incoming winds and sands, also reducing sand build up. Both fences are made from branches and twigs that were collected from mature forests. Woven together, these materials provide just enough permeability to slow down wind speed while also remaining upright in the face of especially strong gusts. Once the dunes have been halted with hand-woven fences, the process of creating long-term barriers begins. Though dunes are perhaps the least hospitable environment upon which to grow trees and other vegetation, walls of mature plant growth also provide one of the most effective barriers for sand. Depending on the climate and soil conditions, dry-tolerant and indigenous tree species are selected and planted to act as barriers. Initial care of plants is critical to their survival due to the harsh growing conditions, but the maintenance of these natural barriers contains more benefits than just the slowing of the spread of sand. Government hired guards protect the barriers from vandalism and wind damage and the natural walls are also tended by members of the rural community who will eventually benefit from the new source of food, firewood, seed and livestock fodder that the mature trees and shrubbery provide. To read more about the importance of government involvement in agricultural development and about innovations that mitigate land degradation, see: An Agricultural Success Story, “Regreening” the Sahel Through Farmer-Managed Natural Regeneration, An Evergreen Revolution? Using Trees to Nourish the Planet, It’s About More Than Trees at the World Agroforestry Centre, Trees as Crops in Africa, and Mitigating Climate Change Through Food and Land Use.

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Four centuries ago, Francis Bacon said that what a person would like to be true, he preferentially believes. Is there a way to truth that escapes the constraints of personal preference? Can we know the world as it is and not as we wish it to be? Perhaps not. Certainly there is no such thing as Truth with a capital T, final and absolute. But Bacon was instrumental in inventing a way to reliable truth with a lower case t -- tentative, partial, evolving truth. It is called the scientific way of knowing, and it follows simple rules: 1. Rely on reproducible quantitative observations that can be shared by believer and skeptic alike. 2. Do not assume more when less will do. 3. Do not invoke the supernatural when a natural explanation will suffice. 4. Be willing to say "I don't know." 5. And, especially, be ready to admit "I was wrong." I can't offer an ironclad proof that the scientific way of knowing is more reliable than tradition, prophets, or holy books. I can only refer you the modern world -- technology, medicine, voyages to other worlds. The proof of the pudding... The 13.7-billion-year story of creation as we currently understand it leaves me more breathless with awe than any of the anthropomorophic fairy tales I learned as a child. It is the God of this grander creation -- who is not a person, who is not this and is not that, whose name we cannot speak and whose nature we do not know -- that we glimpse in the poetic language of the mystics, such as these words of Teilhard de Chardin: "Radiant Word, blazing Power, you who mold the manifold so as to breath your life into it; I pray you, lay on us your hands -- powerful, considerate, omnipresent, those hands which do not (like our human hands) touch now here, now there, but which plunge into the depths and the totality, present and past, of things so as to reach us simultaneously through all that is most immense and most inward within us and around us." Who will deny the depth and richness of a universe that is most immense and most inward within us and around us? What do the heavens proclaim? We are an accidental and perhaps commonplace part of a universe that is vast beyond our comprehension, certainly now and perhaps forever. The ancients had it backwards: Our story is part of the universe's story, rather than the other way around. It is a measure of our coming of age as a species that we are able to accept this natural revelation, and gaze courageously into the cosmos of the myriad galaxies rather than remaining fixated on our own navels. Finding ourselves in a universe without a center, we are challenged to make our own center, by loving the place we are in and every creature in it.

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Injuries happen to many people around the world. An easy way to get injured is to do sports, athletes get injured this way. The Olympic games can be dangerous, it depends on which sport you're playing. Like skating you could slip or put too much pressure on your knees. Not all people get to go to the Olympics, only the best are chosen to do theses amazing sports. Some of the best may get injured or even die, that is why most athletes have to be willing to take the big risks in their lives. Both the winter and summer Olympics can be dangerous. Especially if there is an athlete who wants to push beyond his or her limit and try to beat the other competitors. That is when the athletes get hurt and that is why there are specially trained doctors at the site in the case of an emergency. The doctors are trained for any type of an emergency. When the skiers make long jumps they could always fall and get out of control which has happened to one athlete who hit the side rail after tumbling from a high jump. An Olympic hospital is provided for the athletes. Armed security was provided for athletes, which comprises fully deputized public law enforcement officers with full jurisdiction to arrest and detain suspected law violators. The watch around the hospital perimeter and on all hospital property was increased. In the Emergency Department, athletes were evaluated in private rooms with an armed sentry outside the door at all times. During hospitalization, athletes were in a single floor with access restricted by armed security. The hospital organized interpreting services with a language translation telephone service provided by IBM. 43 Olympic athletes presented to the hospital between July the 14th, and August the 7th, 1996; 31 of these presented to the Emergency Department. Thatís about 31% of the presented athletes. Numbers of presentations per day ranged from zero to six, peaking on July 24th. In the year 1996, there were 43 athletes that were injured. They were all injured from many different types of sports. Boxing and wrestling were the most dangerous sports. 5 and 5 were the total injured athletes in Olympics. That's 10 out of 43. Others are three and under. 22 athletes arrived by ambulance. That is more than half of the injured athletes. Track was also a sport that was dangerous, however they have athletes injured not due to the sport. Back To Links

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The Atlas moth is a large saturniid The Saturniidae, commonly known as saturniids, are among the largest and most spectacular of the moths. They form a family of Lepidoptera, with an estimated 1,300 to 1,500 described species worldwide... moth found in the tropical and subtropical forests of Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic... , and common across the Malay archipelago The Malay Archipelago refers to the archipelago between mainland Southeastern Asia and Australia. The name was derived from the anachronistic concept of a Malay race.... Atlas moths are considered the largest moths in the world in terms of total wing surface area [upwards of c. 400 cm² (62 sq in)]. Their wingspans are also amongst the largest, from 25–30 cm (10–12 in). Females are appreciably larger and heavier. Atlas moths are said to be named after either the Titan In Greek mythology, Atlas was the primordial Titan who supported the heavens. Although associated with various places, he became commonly identified with the Atlas Mountains in north-west Africa... of Greek mythology Greek mythology is the body of myths and legends belonging to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. They were a part of religion in ancient Greece... , or their map-like wing patterns. In Hong Kong Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour... the Cantonese name translates as "snake's head moth", referring to apical extension of the forewing, which bears a passing resemblance to a snake's head. The largest lepidoptera Lepidoptera is a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies . It is one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world, encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies, skipper butterflies, and moth-butterflies... n in terms of wingspan is thought to be the White Witch, Thysania agrippina . A record specimen of Attacus atlas from Java measured 262 mm, while Thysania are claimed to be about 270–280 mm (11 in). Based on some spread specimens and angle of wing, actual measurements of around 289 mm have been estimated. India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world... , Atlas moths are cultivated for their silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity... in a non-commercial capacity; unlike that produced by the related Silkworm moth (Bombyx mori ), Atlas moth silk is secreted as broken strands. This brown, wool-like silk is thought to have greater durability and is known as fagara . Atlas moth cocoons have been employed as purses in Taiwan Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following... Atlas moths are predominantly tawny to maroon in colour with roughly triangular, diaphanous "eyes" on both forewing and hindwing, bordered in black. The purpose of these dramatic, gossamer portals is not clear, but they are thought to play a role in predator avoidance. Their bodies are hairy and disproportionately small compared to their wings. Patterns and colouration vary among the many described subspecies Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one... . Male Atlas moths are distinguished from females by their smaller size, more tapered wings, and larger, bushier antenna Antennae in biology have historically been paired appendages used for sensing in arthropods. More recently, the term has also been applied to cilium structures present in most cell types of eukaryotes.... Neither sex possess fully formed mouthparts and therefore do not feed; throughout their 1–2-week adult life they survive entirely on larval fat reserves that they build up while they are caterpillars. ||Imago emerging from Pupa Females are sexually passive, releasing powerful pheromone A pheromone is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior of the receiving individual... s which males detect and home in on with the help of chemoreceptors located on their large feathery antennae. Males may thus be attracted from several kilometres downwind. Atlas moths are unsteady fliers, and the female does not stray far from the location of her discarded chrysalis: she seeks a perch where the air currents will best carry her pheromones. Once mated, the female lays a number of spherical eggs 2.5 mm in diameter on the undersides of leaves. Dusty-green caterpillar Caterpillars are the larval form of members of the order Lepidoptera . They are mostly herbivorous in food habit, although some species are insectivorous. Caterpillars are voracious feeders and many of them are considered to be pests in agriculture... s hatch after about two weeks and feed voraciously on the foliage of certain citrus Citrus is a common term and genus of flowering plants in the rue family, Rutaceae. Citrus is believed to have originated in the part of Southeast Asia bordered by Northeastern India, Myanmar and the Yunnan province of China... and other evergreen In botany, an evergreen plant is a plant that has leaves in all seasons. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season.There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs... trees. The caterpillars are adorned with fleshy spines along their backs which are covered in a waxy white substance. After reaching a length of about 115 millimetres (4.5 in), the caterpillars pupa A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation. The pupal stage is found only in holometabolous insects, those that undergo a complete metamorphosis, going through four life stages; embryo, larva, pupa and imago... te within papery cocoon interwoven into desiccated leaves. The adult moths emerge after about four weeks.

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Add a dental visit to this year's spring cleaning list. A professional dental cleaning at least twice a year can improve the state of oral health, reports the Academy of General Dentistry, an organization of general dentists dedicated to continuing dental education. "A prophylaxis, also known as a 'prophy' or professional dental cleaning, reinforces the at home oral health regimen," says Academy spokesperson Anne Murray, DDS. "It is designed to preserve health, and prevent the spread of disease and gives the dentist an opportunity to locate other areas in the mouth that may need attention." It is strongly recommended that a dentist or hygienist perform a dental cleaning every 3-6 months, says Dr. Murray. She discourages consumer use of over-the-counter tooth polishing instruments. "People with healthy teeth and gums typically do not experience soreness after a cleaning," says Dr. Murray. Those with less than perfect oral hygiene habits may experience discomfort or heightened sensitivity during a dental cleaning. The dentist can use a topical anesthetic before the cleaning to alleviate pain. What is a dental cleaning? Diagnostic services may include: - Reviewing and updating medical history; including heart problems, cancer treatment, pregnancy, diabetes, joint replacement, medications taken, surgeries or any other major changes in health history. - Blood pressure check. - Oral cancer examination and screening. - Evaluation of your gum tissue. - Checking biting, chewing and swallowing patterns. - X-rays, examination of teeth to detect decay. - Treatment planning. - Referral to specialists for specific treatment. Preventive services may include: - Removal of plaque and tartar. - Stain removal. - Fluoride application. - Polishing of fillings or crowns. Educational services may include: - Tooth brushing and flossing instructions. - Nutritional counseling. - Recommendations for future treatment: when to return for following hygiene treatment, periodontal concerns, restorative options, etc. - Evaluate possible cosmetic enhancements. - Evaluate self-care effectiveness. - Tobacco cessation counseling. Courtesy of the Academy of General Dentistry. The Academy of General Dentistry is a non-profit organization of more than 37,000 general dentists dedicated to staying up-to-date in the profession through continuing education. A general dentist is the primary care provider for patients of all ages and is responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, management and overall coordination of services related to patient's oral health needs. Learn more about AGD member dentists or find more information on dental health topics at www.agd.org/. Reviewed by Francine Kaufman, MD. 4/08 Chopped Salad with Homemade Ranch Dressing Lemon Goat Cheese Chicken Orange-Lime Sweet Potatoes Homemade Salsa Pan Bagna Spicy Red Chicken Marinated Shrimp with Remoulade Chilled Seafood Salad Whipped Ginger Sweet Potatoes Grilled Halibut with Lime and Cilantro

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Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines. OCR for page 1 Summary The Institute of Medicine (IOM) report To Err Is Human estimated that 44,000-98,000 lives are lost every year due to medical errors in hos- pitals and led to the widespread recognition that health care is not safe enough, catalyzing a revolution to improve the quality of care.1 Despite considerable effort, patient safety has not yet improved to the degree hoped for in the IOM report Crossing the Quality Chasm. One strategy the nation has turned to for safer, more effective care is the widespread use of health information technologies (health IT).2 The U.S. government is investing billions of dollars toward meaningful use of effective health IT so all Ameri- cans can benefit from the use of electronic health records (EHRs) by 2014. Health IT is playing an ever-larger role in the care of patients, and some components of health IT have significantly improved the quality of health care and reduced medical errors. Continuing to use paper records can place patients at unnecessary risk for harm and substantially constrain the country’s ability to reform health care. However, concerns about harm from the use of health IT have emerged. To protect America’s health, health IT must be designed and used in ways that maximize patient safety while minimizing harm. Information technology can better help patients if it becomes more usable, more interoperable, and easier to implement and 1 The IOM identified six aims of quality improvement, stating that health care should be safe, effective, patient-centered, timely, efficient, and equitable. 2 Health IT can also be referred to as health information systems and health information and communications technology, among others. This report employs the term health IT but recognizes that these other, broader terms are also used. 1 OCR for page 2 2 HEALTH IT AND PATIENT SAFETY maintain. This report explains the potential benefits and risks of health IT and asks for greater transparency, accountability, and reporting. In this report, health IT includes a broad range of products, including EHRs,3 patient engagement tools (e.g., personal health records [PHRs] and secure patient portals), and health information exchanges; excluded is soft- ware for medical devices. Clinicians expect health IT to support delivery of high-quality care in several ways, including storing comprehensive health data, providing clinical decision support, facilitating communication, and reducing medical errors. Health IT is not a single product; it encompasses a technical system of computers and software that operates in the context of a larger sociotechnical system—a collection of hardware and software working in concert within an organization that includes people, processes, and technology. It is widely believed that health IT, when designed, implemented, and used appropriately, can be a positive enabler to transform the way care is delivered. Designed and applied inappropriately, health IT can add an addi- tional layer of complexity to the already complex delivery of health care, which can lead to unintended adverse consequences, for example dosing errors, failure to detect fatal illnesses, and delayed treatment due to poor human–computer interactions or loss of data. In recognition of the rapid adoption of health IT, the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC) asked the IOM to establish a committee to explore how private and public actors can maximize the safety of health IT–assisted care. The committee interpreted its charge as making health IT–assisted care safer so the nation is in a better position to realize the potential benefits of health IT. EVALUATING THE CURRENT STATE OF PATIENT SAFETY AND HEALTH IT The expectations for safer care may be higher in a health IT–enabled environment as compared to a paper-based environment because the oppor- tunity to improve patient care is much greater. The evidence in the literature about the impact of health IT on patient safety, as opposed to quality, is mixed but shows that the challenges facing safer health care and safer use of health IT involve the people and clinical implementation as much as the technology. The literature describes significant improvements in some as- pects of care in health care institutions with mature health IT. For example, the use of computerized prescribing and bar-coding systems has been shown 3 “Electronic health records” is used as the desired term because it is more inclusive of the way electronic records are being used currently than “electronic medical records.” EHRs include clinical decision support tools, computerized provider order entry systems, and e-prescribing systems. OCR for page 3 3 SUMMARY to improve medication safety. But the generalizability of the literature across the health care system may be limited. While some studies suggest improvements in patient safety can be made, others have found no effect. Instances of health IT–associated harm have been reported. However, little published evidence could be found quantifying the magnitude of the risk. Several reasons health IT–related safety data are lacking include the absence of measures and a central repository (or linkages among decen- tralized repositories) to collect, analyze, and act on information related to safety of this technology. Another impediment to gathering safety data is contractual barriers (e.g., nondisclosure, confidentiality clauses) that can prevent users from sharing information about health IT–related adverse events. These barriers limit users’ abilities to share knowledge of risk-prone user interfaces, for instance through screenshots and descriptions of poten- tially unsafe processes. In addition, some vendors include language in their sales contracts and escape responsibility for errors or defects in their soft- ware (i.e., “hold-harmless clauses”). The committee believes these types of contractual restrictions limit transparency, which significantly contributes to the gaps in knowledge of health IT–related patient safety risks. These barriers to generating evidence pose unacceptable risks to safety. EXAMINING THE CURRENT STATE OF THE ART IN SYSTEM SAFETY Software-related safety issues are often ascribed to software coding errors or human errors in using the software. It is rarely that simple. Many problems with health IT relate to usability, implementation, and how soft- ware fits with clinical workflow. Focusing on coding or human errors often leads to neglect of other factors (e.g., usability, workflow, interoperability) that may increase the likelihood a patient safety event will occur. Further- more, software—such as an EHR—is neither safe nor unsafe because safety of health IT cannot exist in isolation from its context of use. Safety is an emergent property of a larger system that takes into account not just the software but also how it is used by clinicians. The larger system—often called a sociotechnical system—includes tech- nology (e.g., software, hardware), people (e.g., clinicians, patients), pro- cesses (e.g., workflow), organization (e.g., capacity, decisions about how health IT is applied, incentives), and the external environment (e.g., regula- tions, public opinion). Adopting a sociotechnical perspective acknowledges that safety emerges from the interaction among various factors. Compre- hensive safety analyses consider these factors taken as a whole and how they affect each other in an attempt to reduce the likelihood of an adverse event, rather than focusing on eliminating one “root cause” and ignoring other possible contributing factors. OCR for page 4 4 HEALTH IT AND PATIENT SAFETY OPPORTUNITIES TO BUILD SAFER SYSTEMS FOR HEALTH IT Merely installing health IT in health care organizations will not result in improved care. Together, the design, implementation, and use of health IT affect its safe performance. Safer implementation and use of health IT is a complex, dynamic process that requires a shared responsibility between vendors and health care organizations. Features of Safer Health IT Safely functioning health IT should provide easy entry and retrieval of data, have simple and intuitive displays, and allow data to be easily trans- ferred among health professionals. Many features of software contribute to its safe use, including usability and interoperability. Although definitive evi- dence is hard to produce, the committee believes poor user-interface design, poor workflow, and complex data interfaces are threats to patient safety. Similarly, lack of system interoperability is a barrier to improving clini- cal decisions and patient safety, as it can limit data available for clinical decision making. Laboratory data have been relatively easy to exchange because good standards exist such as Logical Observation Identifiers Names and Codes (LOINC) and are widely accepted. However, important informa- tion such as problem lists and medication lists are not easily transmitted and understood by the receiving health IT product because existing standards have not been uniformly adopted. Interoperability must extend throughout the continuum of care; standards need to be developed and implemented to support interaction between health IT products that contain disparate data. Opportunities to Improve the Design and Development of Technologies Application of quality management practices needs to be a high priority for design and development activities. Creating safer systems begins with user-centered design principles and continues with adequate testing and quality assessments conducted in actual and/or simulated clinical environ- ments. Vendors should not only create useful functions in their software but also understand how user-interface design affects the clinical setting and workflow where the applications are to be used, as well as support for activities within a health professional’s scope of practice. Opportunities to Improve Safety in the Use of Health IT Safety considerations need to be embedded throughout the implementa- tion process, including the stages of planning and goal setting, deployment, stabilization, optimization, and transformation. Selecting the right software OCR for page 5 5 SUMMARY requires a comprehensive understanding of the data and information needs of the organization and the capabilities of the system. Vendors take primary responsibility for the design and development of technologies, ideally with iterative feedback from users. Users assume responsibility for safe imple- mentation and work with vendors throughout the health IT implementation process. The partnership to develop, implement, and optimize systems is a shared responsibility where vendors and users help each other achieve the safest possible applications of health IT. It is important to recognize that health IT products generally cannot be installed out of the box. Users need to customize products judiciously to appropriately match their needs and capabilities—in both functional- ity and complexity of operation. The process of implementing software is critical to optimizing value and mitigating patient safety risks. A constant, ongoing commitment to safety—from acquisition to implementation and maintenance—is needed to achieve safer, more effective care. Testing at each of these stages is needed to ensure successful use of health IT. Responsible use requires diligent surveillance for evolving needs, gaps, performance issues, and mismatches between user needs and system per- formance, unsafe conditions, and adverse events. The committee believes certain actions are required by private and public entities to monitor safety in order to protect the public’s health and provides the following recom- mendations to improve health IT safety nationwide—optimizing their use to achieve national health goals, while reducing the risks of their use resulting in inadvertent harm. Recommendation 1: The Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) should publish an action and surveillance plan within 12 months that includes a schedule for working with the private sector to assess the impact of health IT on patient safety and minimizing the risk of its implementation and use. The plan should specify: a. The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) and the National Library of Medicine (NLM) should ex- pand their funding of research, training, and education of safe practices as appropriate, including measures specifically related to the design, implementation, usability, and safe use of health IT by all users, including patients. b. The Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology should expand its funding of pro- cesses that promote safety that should be followed in the development of health IT products, including standardized testing procedures to be used by manufacturers and health care organizations to assess the safety of health IT products. OCR for page 6 6 HEALTH IT AND PATIENT SAFETY c. The ONC and AHRQ should work with health IT vendors and health care organizations to promote postdeployment safety testing of EHRs for high-prevalence, high-impact EHR-related patient safety risks. d. Health care accrediting organizations should adopt criteria relating to EHR safety. e. AHRQ should fund the development of new methods for measuring the impact of health IT on safety using data from EHRs. PATIENTS’ AND FAMILIES’ USE OF HEALTH IT: CONCERNS ABOUT SAFETY Health IT products are also being developed to engage and support patients and their families in decision making and management of their own personal health information. Examples of electronic patient engagement tools include PHRs (both integrated and freestanding), mobile applications, and tools for assessing day-to-day health status (e.g., weight loss), and continue to evolve rapidly. The increasing use of health IT by consumers, patients, and families creates an urgent need for the development and sup- port of a research agenda for these tools. A SHARED RESPONSIBILITY FOR IMPROVING HEALTH IT SAFETY Health IT safety is contingent on how the technology is designed, implemented, used, and fits into clinical workflow, requiring the coopera- tion of both vendors and users. In the absence of a single accountable party, policy makers need to act on behalf of the public good to promote and monitor health IT safety. The committee believes this is best accomplished through collaboration between the private and public sectors. The private sector must play a major role in making health IT safer, but it will need support from and close collaboration with the public sector. Currently, there is no systematic regulation or sense of shared accountability for product functioning, liability is shifted primarily onto users, and there is no way to publicly track adverse outcomes. Therefore, when instances that either cause or could result in harm occur, there is no authority to collect, analyze, and disseminate learning. Lack of sufficient vendor action to build safer products, or regulatory requirements to do so, threatens patient safety. Access to details of patient safety risks is essential to a properly functioning market where users identify the product that best suits their needs. Users need to share information about risks and adverse events with other users and ven- dors. Legal clauses shifting liability from vendors to users discourage sharing. OCR for page 7 7 SUMMARY Recommendation 2: The Secretary of HHS should ensure insofar as possible that health IT vendors support the free exchange of informa- tion about health IT experiences and issues and not prohibit sharing of such information, including details (e.g., screenshots) relating to patient safety. Once information about patient safety risks is available, comparative user experiences can be shared. Currently, users cannot communicate effec- tively their experiences with health IT. In other industries, product reviews are available where users can rate their experiences with products and share lessons learned. A consumer guide for health IT safety could help identify safety concerns, increasing system transparency. To gather objective information about health IT products, researchers should have access to both test versions of software provided by vendors and software already integrated in user organizations. Users should be able to compare and share their experiences and other measures of safety from health IT products. Recommendation 3: The ONC should work with the private and public sectors to make comparative user experiences across vendors publicly available. Another area necessary for making health IT safer is the development of measures. Inasmuch as the committee’s charge is to recommend policies and practices that lead to safer use of health IT, the nation needs reliable means of assessing the current state and monitoring for improvement. Currently, no entity is developing such measures; Recommendation 1 is for AHRQ, the NLM, and the ONC to fund development of these measures. The lack of measures and diversity of involved parties suggests a coordinat- ing body is needed to oversee the development, application, and evaluation of measures of safety of health IT use. Best practices will need to ensure health IT is developed and implemented with safety as a priority. Recommendation 4: The Secretary of HHS should fund a new Health IT Safety Council to evaluate criteria for assessing and monitoring the safe use of health IT and the use of health IT to enhance safety. This council should operate within an existing voluntary consensus stan- dards organization. This function could be housed within existing organizations, such as the National Quality Forum. Because threats to health IT safety can arise before, during, and after implementation, it is also useful to design methods to monitor health IT OCR for page 8 8 HEALTH IT AND PATIENT SAFETY safety. Standards development organizations such as the American National Standards Institute and the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation could seek input from a broad group of stakeholders when developing these standards, criteria, and tests. Additionally, vendor attestation that they have addressed specific safety issues in the design and development of their products can be important. Best practices for acquisi- tion and implementation of health IT need to be developed. Development of postimplementation tests would help users monitor whether their systems meet certain safety benchmarks. Applying these tests is also a way for users to work with vendors to ensure that products have been installed correctly; accreditation organizations, such as The Joint Commission, could require conduct of these safety tests as part of their accreditation criteria. Finally, the committee found successful adoption of change requires education and training of the workforce. Basic levels of competence, knowl- edge, and skill are needed to navigate the highly complex implementation of health IT. Because health IT exists at the intersection of multiple disciplines, a variety of professionals will need training in a number of established dis- ciplines such as health systems, IT, and clinical care. The Role of the Public Sector: Strategic Guidance and Oversight A shared learning environment should be fostered to the fullest extent possible by the private sector, but, in some instances, the government needs to provide guidance and direction to private-sector efforts and to correct misaligned market forces. An appropriate balance must be reached between government oversight and market innovation. To encourage innovation and shared learning environments, the committee adopted the following general principles for government oversight: • Focus on shared learning, • Maximize transparency, • Be nonpunitive, • Identify appropriate levels of accountability, and • Minimize burden. The committee believes HHS should take the following actions to improve health IT safety. First, to improve transparency and safety, it is necessary to identify the products being used and to whom any actions need to be directed. Having a mechanism to accomplish this is important so that when new knowledge about safety or performance arises, other users and products that could also be vulnerable can be identified. The ONC employed a similar mechanism for EHR vendors to list their products in implementing the meaningful use OCR for page 9 9 SUMMARY program. The committee supports continuation of the ONC’s efforts to list all products certified for meaningful use in a single database as a first step for ensuring safety. Recommendation 5: All health IT vendors should be required to pub- licly register and list their products with the ONC, initially beginning with EHRs certified for the meaningful use program. Second, by establishing quality management principles and processes in health IT, vendors can improve the safety of their product lines. Experi- ences from other industries suggest the best approach to proactively creat- ing highly reliable products is not to certify each individual product but to make sure organizations have adopted quality management principles and processes in the design and development of products. While many vendors already have some types of quality management principles and processes in place, not all vendors do and to what standard they are held is unknown. An industry standard is needed to ensure com- prehensive industry adoption. To this end, the committee believes adoption of quality management principles and processes should be mandatory for all health IT vendors. The ONC, Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and health IT certification bodies are examples of organizations that could potentially administer this function. Recommendation 6: The Secretary of HHS should specify the quality and risk management process requirements that health IT vendors must adopt, with a particular focus on human factors, safety culture, and usability. Third, to quantify patient safety risks, reports of adverse events need to be collected, supplementing private-sector efforts. High-priority health IT– related adverse events include death, serious injury, and unsafe conditions. Analyses of unsafe conditions would produce important information that could have a great impact on improving patient safety and enable adoption of corrective actions that could prevent death or serious injury. Regular reporting of adverse events is widely used to identify and rectify vulnerabilities that threaten safety for the purposes of learning. However, learning about safety of health IT is limited because there are currently no comprehensive analyses available about health IT–related adverse events, no consequences for failing to discover and report evidence about harm, and no aggregation of data for learning. In other countries and industries, reporting systems all differ with respect to their design, but the majority employ reporting that is voluntary, confidential, and nonpunitive. Creating a nonpunitive environment is essential for the success of voluntary OCR for page 10 10 HEALTH IT AND PATIENT SAFETY reporting systems. Reports must be collected for the purpose of learning and should not be used to address accountability. The committee believes reports of health IT–related adverse events and unsafe conditions that are verified and free of user-identifying information should be transparently available to the public. The committee believes reporting of deaths, serious injuries, or unsafe conditions should be man- datory for vendors. Direction will need to come from a federal entity with adequate expertise, capacity, and authority to act on reports of health IT–related adverse events. The Secretary of HHS should designate an entity and provide it with the necessary resources to do so. Current user reporting efforts are generally not coordinated with one another and not collected in a systematic manner; a more streamlined reporting system is needed. AHRQ has developed a common format that precisely defines the components of a field report for health IT–related adverse events or risks. Reports by users should remain voluntary and the identities of reporters should not be discoverable under any circumstance. Patient Safety Organizations are examples of entities that can protect this information from discovery. User-reported health IT–related adverse events should be collected by a central repository and also be sent to the appropri- ate vendor. Recommendation 7: The Secretary of HHS should establish a mecha- nism for both vendors and users to report health IT–related deaths, serious injuries, or unsafe conditions. a. Reporting of health IT–related adverse events should be mandatory for vendors. b. Reporting of health IT–related adverse events by users should be voluntary, confidential, and nonpunitive. c. Efforts to encourage reporting should be developed, such as removing the perceptual, cultural, contractual, legal, and logistical barriers to reporting. However, reports of patient safety incidents are only one part of a larger solution to maximize the safety of health IT–assisted care. The power to improve safety lies not just with reporting requirements, but with the ability to act on and learn from reports. To this end, two distinct functions are also needed: (1) aggregating and analyzing reports and (2) investigat- ing the circumstances associated with safety incidents to determine the conditions that contribute to those incidents. Through these processes, lessons learned can be developed so similar incidents will be less likely to occur in the future. To maximize the effectiveness of reports, the collection, aggregation and analysis, and investigation of reports should be coupled as closely as possible. OCR for page 11 11 SUMMARY Ideally, all reports of health IT–related adverse events would be aggre- gated and analyzed by a single entity that would identify reports for im- mediate investigation. Reports to this entity have to include identifiable data to allow investigators to follow up in the event the reported incident requires investigation. The entity would investigate two categories of reports: (1) reports that result in death or serious injury and (2) reports of unsafe conditions. Prioritization among the reports should be deter- mined on a risk-based hazard analysis. In keeping with the principle of transparency, reports and results of investigations should be made public. A feedback loop from the investigatory entity back to both vendors and users is essential to allow groups to rectify systemic issues found that introduce risk. The committee considered a number of potential organizations that could objectively analyze reports of unsafe conditions, as well as conduct investigations into health IT–related adverse events in the way the com- mittee envisions, including FDA, the ONC, AHRQ, and the private sector. The committee concluded that investigating patient safety incidents does not match the internal expertise of any existing entity, as the needed func- tions are under the jurisdiction of multiple federal agencies and efforts are generally uncoordinated and not comprehensive. The committee believes development of an independent, federal entity could perform the needed analytic and investigative functions in a transpar- ent, nonpunitive manner. It would be similar in structure to the National Transportation Safety Board, an independent federal agency created by Congress to conduct safety investigations. The entity would make non- binding recommendations to the Secretary of HHS. Nonbinding recommen- dations provide flexibility, allowing the Secretary, health care organizations, vendors, and external experts to collectively determine the best course forward. Because current federal agencies do not have this as their charge, nor the baseline funding to take on these activities, the committee believes an independent, federal entity is the best option to provide a platform to support shared learning at a national level. Recommendation 8: The Secretary of HHS should recommend that Congress establish an independent federal entity for investigating patient safety deaths, serious injuries, or potentially unsafe conditions associated with health IT. This entity should also monitor and analyze data and publicly report results of these activities. When combined, removing contractual restrictions, promoting public reporting, and having a system in place for independent investigations can be a powerful force for improving patient safety. OCR for page 12 12 HEALTH IT AND PATIENT SAFETY Next Steps Achieving transparency and safer health IT products and safer use of health IT will require the cooperation of all stakeholders. Without more information about the magnitude and types of harm, other mechanisms will be necessary to motivate the market to correct itself. The committee offers a two-stage approach, with its recommended actions as the first stage to provide a better understanding of the threats to patient safety. The current state of safety and health IT is not acceptable; specific ac- tions are required to improve the safety of health IT. The first eight recom- mendations are intended to create conditions and incentives to encourage substantial industry-driven change without formal regulation. However, because the private sector to date has not taken sufficient action on its own, the committee believes a follow-up recommendation is needed to formally regulate health IT.4 If the actions recommended to the private and public sectors are not effective as determined by the Secretary of HHS, the Secretary should direct FDA to exercise all authorities to regulate health IT. The committee was of mixed opinion on how FDA regulation would impact the pace of innovation by industry but identified several areas of concern regarding immediate FDA regulation. The current FDA framework is oriented toward conventional, out-of-the-box, turnkey devices. However, health IT has multiple different characteristics, suggesting that a more flexible regulatory framework will be needed in this area to achieve the goals of product quality and safety without unduly constraining market innovation. For example, as a software-based product, health IT has a product life cycle very different from that of conventional technologies. These products exhibit great diversity in features, functions, and scope of intended and actual use, which tend to evolve over the life of the product. Taking a phased, risk-based approach can help address this concern. FDA has chosen to not exercise regulatory authority over EHRs, and contro- versy exists over whether some health IT products such as EHRs should be considered medical devices. If the Secretary deems it necessary for FDA to regulate EHRs and other currently nonregulated health IT products, clear determinations will need to be made about whether all health IT products classify as medical devices for the purposes of regulation. If FDA regulation is deemed necessary, FDA will need to commit sufficient resources and add capacity and expertise to be effective. The Secretary should report annually to Congress and the public on the progress of efforts to improve the safety of health IT, beginning 12 months from the release of this report. In these reports, the Secretary should make 4 One member disagrees with the committee and would immediately regulate health IT as a Class III medical device, as outlined in Appendix E. OCR for page 13 13 SUMMARY clear the reasons why further oversight actions are or are not needed. In parallel, the Secretary should ask FDA to begin planning the frame- work needed for potential regulation consistent with Recommendations 1 through 8 so that, if she deems FDA regulation to be necessary, the agency will be ready to act, allowing for the protection of patient safety without further delay. The committee recognizes that not all of its recommendations can be acted on by the Secretary alone and that some will require congres- sional action. Recommendation 9a: The Secretary of HHS should monitor and publicly report on the progress of health IT safety annually beginning in 2012. If progress toward safety and reliability is not sufficient as determined by the Secretary, the Secretary should direct FDA to exercise all available authorities to regulate EHRs, health information exchanges, and PHRs. Recommendation 9b: The Secretary should immediately direct FDA to begin developing the necessary framework for regulation. Such a framework should be in place if and when the Secretary decides the state of health IT safety requires FDA regulation as stipulated in Rec- ommendation 9a above. FUTURE RESEARCH FOR CARE TRANSFORMATION The committee identified a number of research gaps during its infor- mation gathering. Research is needed to continue to build the evidence to determine how to develop and adopt safer health IT most effectively. A greater body of conclusive research is needed to fully meet the potential of health IT for ensuring patient safety. Recommendation 10: HHS, in collaboration with other research groups, should support cross-disciplinary research toward the use of health IT as part of a learning health care system. Products of this research should be used to inform the design, testing, and use of health IT. Specific areas of research include a. User-centered design and human factors applied to health IT, b. Safe implementation and use of health IT by all users, c. Sociotechnical systems associated with health IT, and d. Impact of policy decisions on health IT use in clinical practice. Creating an infrastructure that supports learning about and improving the safety of health IT is needed to achieve better health care. Proactive steps must be taken to ensure that health IT is developed and implemented OCR for page 14 14 HEALTH IT AND PATIENT SAFETY with safety as a primary focus through the development of industry-wide measures, standards, and criteria for safety. Surveillance mechanisms are needed to identify, capture, and investigate adverse events to continually improve the safety of health IT. Transparency and cooperation between the private and public sectors are critical to creating the necessary infrastruc- ture to build safer systems that will lead to better care for all Americans.

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Lubos Pastor View Bio Charles P. McQuaid Professor of Finance and Robert King Steel Faculty Fellow Contrary to conventional wisdom, stocks are riskier in the long run Investors are often told that stocks are highly risky for anyone investing for a period of five years or less. Extend that horizon to 15 years or more, however, and the risk of owning stocks falls dramatically—they are told—because a longer investment period allows more time for a bull market to cancel out a bear market. Thus, investors who hold on to stocks for a long time can expect to earn high real returns with low risk. This conventional wisdom has become the cornerstone of long-term investing. Popular target date mutual funds, for instance, start with a high allocation in stocks and glide toward a lower stock allocation as investors move closer to retirement. The idea that stocks are less risky in the long run is supported by the historical performance of stocks. Indeed, the classic book, Stocks for the Long Run, by University of Pennsylvania professor Jeremy J. Siegel, shows that stocks have consistently outperformed bonds over various 30-year periods since the early nineteenth century. Investors might use this evidence as reason to put more stocks in their long-term portfolio. But according to a recent study, "Are Stocks Really Less Volatile in the Long Run?" by Chicago Booth professor Lubos Pastor and Robert F. Stambaugh of the University of Pennsylvania, investors should pay attention not only to historical estimates, but also to the uncertainty associated with those estimates. What matters to investors, say Pastor and Stambaugh, is a measure of volatility that captures the uncertainty about whether the average future stock return will resemble its historical counterpart. This uncertainty compounds over time, so that its effect on the volatility of stocks increases with the investment horizon. In fact, the volatility of stock returns over long periods of time can be so high that it can overturn the conventional view, which is exactly what Pastor and Stambaugh find. "When investors take the uncertainty associated with historical estimates into account, they discover that stocks are riskier in the long run," Pastor says. Uncertainty Trumps Mean Reversion From the 1950s to the 1980s, the view that dominated investors' understanding of stocks was that stock prices followed a random walk; that is, stock price changes cannot be predicted based on past price movements. Because changes in stock prices are independent from one another, the volatility of stock returns is expected to be equal at all investment horizons. In other words, a person who invests in stocks for one year and another who invests for 30 years would face the same amount of risk on a per-year basis. Beginning in the 1980s, people started to realize that it was somewhat possible to forecast stock prices—just enough to induce a slight "mean reversion" in stock returns. The idea is that bull markets tend to be followed by bear markets, so that stock returns end up close to the historical average. The concept of mean reversion makes stocks less volatile in the long run, a powerful idea that was popularized by Siegel's book, which presents evidence of mean reversion using more than 200 years of stock returns. Today, almost anyone who wants to save for retirement or their children's college tuition is given the same advice—to load up on stocks and hold on to them for a long time, because stocks are safer and the returns higher than bonds over comparable periods. This conventional wisdom, however, is based on backward-looking historical measures of volatility, which Pastor and Stambaugh feel are only somewhat relevant to forward-looking investors. "The reason we arrive at a different conclusion is that we take the investor's perspective," says Pastor. They argue that mean reversion is only one of a handful of components in measuring long-run volatility. In particular, there are three types of uncertainties that pull in the opposite direction of mean reversion. The first is the uncertainty about the current equity premium, which is the expected stock market return in excess of the Treasury bill rate. "The equity premium is one of the most important numbers in finance and also one of the hardest to pin down," Pastor says. Investors have diverse views on what the equity premium is today and what it will be in the future, which is the second type of uncertainty that makes stocks more volatile in the long run. The third involves all the other parameters that affect stock market returns that, like the equity premium, may be very different from historical estimates. Pastor and Stambaugh find that these uncertainties rise rapidly as the investment horizon lengthens. As a result, the combined effect of these three forces outweighs mean reversion, making the volatility of stock returns higher in the long run. To find out if investors share their views, Pastor and Stambaugh analyzed a series of surveys that asked chief financial officers (CFOs) where they think stock market returns are headed, particularly in the next year and in the next 10 years. The authors inferred from the results that the typical CFO views the annual variance of 10-year stock returns to be at least twice the variance of one-year stock returns. In other words, CFOs seem to perceive stocks as more volatile at longer investment horizons. If stocks are more volatile in the long run, then those who have been investing based on the conventional wisdom should consider adjusting their portfolios. "If on a scale of one to 10 you thought the risk of investing in stocks was only three, and you put half of your money in stocks based on that view, then you should probably reduce your stock allocation if I tell you the risk is actually five," Pastor says. In fact, the study reveals that investors in target date mutual funds would find the predetermined asset mix typically offered by this investment strategy less appealing if they took parameter uncertainty into account. In particular, investors with sufficiently long horizons would choose an asset mix with initial and final stock allocations that are lower than those of investors with shorter horizons. Pastor and Stambaugh's results also have implications for how investors should change their mix of assets as they get older. Financial advisors often tell investors to start with a high stock allocation when they are young and to reduce it over time for two reasons: first, younger investors have mean reversion on their side—that is, they have more time to go through the ups and downs of the stock market; second, they have more human capital—that is, they can look forward to a long stream of income. But if mean reversion's contribution to the measurement of volatility is overcome by the various uncertainties investors face, as the study shows, then the first reason ceases to be a good argument for reducing stock allocations as investors get older. However, the human capital argument still rings true. Younger investors are in a better position to place their financial capital in stocks because they can more easily adjust their consumption habits should they find themselves temporarily unemployed. Those closer to retirement, on the other hand, have relatively little guaranteed income ahead of them and would not be able to withstand a shock as well as younger people could. Thus, Pastor says, for most people, it makes sense to hold fewer stocks as they get older, but the reduction in the stock allocation should not be as steep as the conventional wisdom suggests. "Are Stocks Really Less Volatile in the Long Run?" Lubos Pastor and Robert F. Stambaugh. Journal of Finance, April 2012. In This Issue By Douglas W. Diamond and John C. Heaton - CRSP Launches Investable Indexes Interview with John C. Heaton and Lubos Pastor - Measuring Chance Research by Eugene F. Fama - Consumption Strikes Back Research by John C. Heaton - Balancing Incentives Research by Stavros Panageas - Active Thinking Research by Lubos Pastor Research by Lubos Pastor

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Captain William Latane was the only Confederate soldier killed in J.E.B. Stuart's famous "Ride around McClellan" in the late spring of 1862. Following Captain Latane's death in hand-to-hand combat, his younger brother James loaded his body on a farm cart and carried it to Westwood, the nearby home of Mrs. Catherine Brockenbrough, and was taken prisoner by Federal troops as he turned the body over for interment. These same troops refused to allow a clergyman to pass through their lines to conduct the burial service, so Captain Latane was buried in the garden at Westwood attended only by Mrs. Brockenbrough, Mrs. Willoughby Newton, who read the funeral service, a handful of women and children, and a few slaves. Immediately after the War, William D. Washington painted an oil on canvas entitled "The Burial of Latane." Engravings of the painting published soon thereafter and made available at reasonable cost were hung in parlors throughout the South. The picture quickly became a major symbol of mourning for "the Lost Cause." "The Burial of Latane" This page is http://civilwarpoetry.org/confederate/officers/latexpl.html Last modified 16-April-2001

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Washington, Feb 12 (IANS) Exposed to sunlight, ancient carbon trapped in Arctic permafrost melts and collapses, releasing climate-warming carbon dioxide (CO2) into the air much faster than suspected by scientists. University of Michigan aquatic bio-geochemist George Kling and colleagues studied places in Arctic Alaska where permafrost is melting and causing the overlying land surface to collapse, forming erosional holes and landslides and exposing long-buried soils to sunlight. The team, which also includes Kling, led by Rose Cory of the University of North Carolina, found that sunlight pushes up bacterial conversion of exposed soil carbon into CO2 by at least 40 percent, compared to unexposed carbon, the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences reports. "Until now, we didn't really know how reactive this ancient permafrost carbon would be - whether it would be converted into heat-trapping gases quickly or not," said Kling, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at Michigan, according to a Michigan and North Carolina statement. "What we can say now is that regardless of how fast the thawing of the Arctic permafrost occurs, the conversion of this soil carbon to carbon dioxide and its release into the atmosphere will be faster than we previously thought." "That means permafrost carbon is potentially a huge factor that will help determine how fast the Earth warms," concluded Kling.

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Lyme disease is one of the classic examples of an epidemic made by environmental change: As forests and fields are carved up into subdivisions, the habitat that makes the disease spread increases. The mice and deer that carry the black-legged ticks that spread Lyme disease are more numerous, as is the Lyme-causing bacteria in the mice blood, as are the people in the suburban homes where the disease is endemic. Treating the disease has been controversial for years. While all agree that antibiotics effectively treat the illness if it is diagnosed early, many patients have complained of persistent debilitating symptoms, including arthritis and memory problems, that defy easy treatment. Some doctors, specializing in the treatment of so-called Chronic Lyme disease, have turned to long courses of antibiotics, sometimes delivered intravenously, to treat their patients. Insurance agencies have balked at the high cost; state agencies in New York have been accused of cracking down, sometimes at the behest of insurers, on doctors who treat chronic Lyme; and medical organizations that set standards for care have generally either avoided endorsing the treatment, or actively sought to dismiss it as unproven or unsafe. The controversy reached a head in Connecticut, where the disease was first described and given a name, after the town of Lyme. Attorney General Richard Blumenthal launched an investigation into the guidelines promoted by the Infectious Diseases Society of America, which say the long-course antibiotics are unsafe and unproven. Now, to stop the investigation, the society has agreed to convene a new panel of experts to review its recommendaitons. One can hope that the patients dealing with these chronic symptoms, assuming they are indeed caused by Lyme disease, can get the treatment, and insurance coverage, they deserve. Until and unless professional medical societies endorse new treatments, insurance agencies will justify their decisions not to cover them, and patients will not get relief. Enter your city or zip code to get your local temperature and air quality and find local green food and recycling resources near you.

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World War 1, also known as the First World War or the Great War and the War to End All Wars, was a world conflict lasting from 1914 to 1919, with the fighting lasting until 1918. The war was fought by the Allies on one side, and the Central Powers on the other. No previous conflict had mobilized so many soldiers or involved so many in the field of battle. By its end, the war had become the second bloodiest conflict in recorded history. World War 1 became infamous for trench warfare, where troops were confined to trenches because of tight defenses. This was especially true of the Western Front. More than 9 million died on the battlefield, and nearly that many more on the home fronts because of food shortages, genocide, and ground combat. Among other notable events, the first large-scale bombing from the air was undertaken and some of the century's first large-scale civilian massacres took place, as one of the aspects of modern efficient, non-chivalrous warfare. I hope you will enjoy viewing worldwar-1.net and find its information both helpful and interesting. The website includes an exhaustive day by day timeline, covering every event that occured during World War 1, in chronological order from 1914 through to 1919, which gives a fascinating insight into what was arguably the first industrial war in our history! More detail to the websites timelines has recently been added, particularly those for 1918 and 1919 which have received a lot if new data. Work also continues on other projects, one of which is a timeline of events immediatley after World War 1. I shall update this and other projects in due course. Webmaster 5th September 1914 First Battle of the Marne begins. 9th September 1914 First Battle of the Masurian Lakes begins. 10th September 1914 First Battle of the Marne ends in a French Victory, thus halting the German advance towards Paris, which results in stalemate. 14th September 1914 Russia loses the First Battle of Masurian Lakes. First Battle of Aisne begins. Troops starts to construct trenches across the entire length of the western front. 17th September 1914 Austro-German forces launch an attack into western Poland 5th September 1915 Tsar Nicholas takes commands of Russian armies. 15th September 1915 British forces use gas in battle near Loos, but shifting winds cause 60,000 British casualties. 22nd September 1915 The Second Battle of Champagne begins. 1916 Tanks introduced for the first time on the Somme battlefield by the British. 20th September 1916 Russia's Brusilov offensive in Carpathia comes to an end, having nearly knocked Austria-Hungary out of 1st September 1917 German troops break through the northernmost end of the Russian front during the Riga offensive. 19th September 1918 The British begin an offensive against Turkish forces in Palestine, the Battle of Megiddo. 26th September 1918 The Battle of the Vardar is fought against the Bugarians by Serb, Czech, Italian, French and British forces. The Meuse-Argonne offensive begins. this wll be the final Franco-American offensive of the war. 28th September 1918 Belgian forces launch an offensive at Ypres. 29th September 1918 Bulgaria concludes armistice negotiations with the Allies. German Fokker DR.I The Fokker DR.I triplane was built after the Sopwith Triplane. While not as fast as contemporary biplanes, the Dreidecker could easily outclimb any opponent. Small, lightweight and highly maneuverable, it offered good upward visibility and lacked the traditional bracing wires that could be shot away during combat. This combination of features made it an outstanding plane in a dogfight. When the DR.I first entered service, antagonists scoffed until pilots like Werner Voss Flying a prototype, shot down 10 British aircraft in 6 days of aerial combat during September 1917. Unfortunately, the DR.I was not without problems. By the end of October 1917, it was temporarily withdrawn from service when several pilots, including Heinrich Gontermann, were killed as a result of wing failures. Despite structural improvements, the Fokker triplane's reputation among German airmen never

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Lack of Water in Yangtze Creates Shortage for One Million People BEIJING -- Falling water levels in China's Yangtze River have left 1 million people short of drinking water, state media reported Monday.A severe drought has caused the water level in China's longest river to plunge over the last two weeks, severely cutting water-pumping capacity, Xinhua News Agency said. Shapingba Waterworks, one of the largest suppliers of drinking water to the industrial city of Chongqing, said only one of 10 pipes used to pump water from the Yangtze was still in operation, Xinhua reported. "If the water levels in the Yangtze and its upper tributary Jialing River continue to decline, we'll face a real crisis," Xinhua quoted an unnamed Shapingba spokesman as saying. The local water bureau said water levels in the Yangtze and Jialing rivers had declined sharply because of a lack of rainfall, which followed a severe drought last summer. The problem is expected to continue until the rainy season begins in May, Xinhua said. China suffers from a water shortage in the northern part of the country, but droughts have also hit other areas hard. Last summer's drought in the southwest of the country was the worst in 50 years, causing more than 8.9 billion yuan (US$1.1 billion; euro900 million) in economic losses, according to state media. It affected parts of Chongqing and neighboring Sichuan province, leaving 18 million people without adequate drinking water, according to state media. Source: Associated Press

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Does Bird Feeding Affect Bird Behavior? Ten common questions regarding the pros and cons of bird feeding. by Dr. David Bird, contributor for The Backyard Bird Newsletter Much of the behavior we observe in our backyard birds is centered on the artificial feeders we set out for them. Offering those tasty treats brings the birds in closer so that we may appreciate their beauty and enjoy their antics. Some feel compelled to feed the birds because of a desire to help them out. But not all folks agree with the hobby, questioning whether our artificial feeds adversely affect the behaviors of our birds. In this column I want to focus on 10 common questions regarding the pros and cons of bird feeding. 1) If I feed the birds in winter, will I prevent them from migrating south? There is no scientific proof that feeding birds alters their migratory habits. Having said that, some scientists believe accipiters like Cooper's hawks and sharp-shinned hawks forego migration in some areas due to the abundance of prey at bird feeders, a behavior called short-stopping. It is also believed that the presence of feeders has facilitated the northern population expansion of northern cardinals, mourning doves, tufted titmice, and others. Certainly the urge to migrate is deeply ingrained in most birds and is mainly controlled by changes in day length. When the days shorten in the fall, hormones induce both restlessness and fattening through increased feeding. In short, when it is time to head south, they go. Some species like swallows will even abandon nestlings in their nests to migrate south. 2) When I attract songbirds to a location on a regular basis, am I serving them up on a platter to raptors? Some raptors, particularly Cooper's hawks, sharp-shinned hawks, American kestrels, and merlins, frequent backyards containing feeders in search of small birds. Accipiters are especially fond of hiding among shrubs and trees to suddenly dash into a group of feeder birds. But they usually capture the weaker or less fit birds. Whether they kill birds at a feeder or at some other location, keep in mind that it is all part of nature, "red in tooth and claw." Birds of prey are part of the natural landscape and their appearance at your feeders should actually add drama to your backyard. If the birds abandon your feeders due to the presence of a hawk or falcon, it is generally only temporary. If there are no birds, the raptor will move on. 3) If I and/or my neighbors own a cat, should I forego feeding the birds? I estimate that free-ranging pet cats kill one to two billion birds annually in the world. But not all cats kill birds. If you do have a cat or two hanging about your yard with murder on their minds, keep your feeders and birdbaths out of reach and well away from vegetation where the cats can hide to ambush birds. Using seed trays on your feeders to prevent seed from falling to the ground will minimize the numbers of vulnerable ground-feeding birds. Spraying unwanted cats with water can be quite effective at training them to avoid your yard, and it won't actually hurt the animal. 4) By attracting birds to my yard with feeders, am I increasing their risk of striking windows? Daniel Klem of Muhlenberg College in Pennsylvania estimates that somewhere between 100 million to a billion birds die from striking glass in North America each year. However, if you locate your feeder either within five feet of your windows or, alternatively, 30 feet away or more, you can minimize the chances of bird strikes. There also exist myriad ways to reduce the amount of reflective surfaces on windows that create the illusion of empty space. 5) Do birds actually need the food I offer in my feeders? Generally no. They likely do use your feeder as a fast-food outlet in times of food shortages though. At least three published scientific studies have shown nutritional and reproductive benefits to blue jays, black-capped chickadees, and tufted titmice that breed in neighborhoods that are home to plenty of feeders. 6) By offering food to birds, am I helping to elevate squirrel populations? John Terborgh in his 1989 book Where Have All the Birds Gone? claims that bird feeders are responsible for artificially elevating the populations of squirrels, which are known to be voracious predators of birds' eggs and nestlings. His arguments do make sense to me and they offer a strong case for dissuading these furry rascalssquirrel-resistant feeders, baffles, less desirable seeds such as Nyger, etc. 7) Do feeders heighten the spread of disease among birds? This is one of the strongest anti-feeding arguments. Although it is true that forcing birds to feed together at common places can lead to increased disease transfer, it is also well known that birds often feed in groups, including mixed-species flocks, in the wild regardless. Good feeder hygienecleaning feeders regularly, offering fresh seed, minimizing feces build-upand generally striving for quality versus quantity of desired visitors can lessen this problem. 8) Should I worry about my feeders attracting pigeons to my yard? Yes, but not because pigeons are inherently evil. Regrettably, they have gotten a bad rap in the public eye, often being referred to as "winged rats" and "flying bags of disease." Pigeons do not carry any more diseases than other wild birds, but because they have this public stigma, it is not wise for backyard feeder operators to use sloppy feeding practices that attract pigeons and eventually the enmity of neighbors. This can sometimes lead to draconian municipal laws that ban bird feeding altogether. 9) By feeding the birds, am I helping the economy in some way? Bird feeding is a multibillion-dollar industry. Keeping your feeders up and filled year-round can help small businesses like nature stores survive, particularly in bad economic times. Growing seeds for the bird-feeding crowd has also become a popular agricultural practice, especially in developing countries. 10) Can my backyard bird-feeding hobby be useful to the conservation of birds? Absolutely yes. In the past decade or so, citizen science has become a major tool used by conservationists to help bird populations. Participating in events like the Great Backyard Bird Count allows scientists to acquire snapshots of how bird populations are faring from year to year, as well as detecting long-term trends. This information becomes particularly critical in the face of climatic and habitat changes. So there you have it. To my mind, there is only one reason you should offer food to the birds in your backyardto enjoy them!

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Did You Know? More people are hurt snowboarding than any other outdoor activity, accounting for a quarter of emergency room visits, according to a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) study in the journal Wilderness and Environmental Medicine. Twelve chairlift deaths have occurred since 1973, the latest at Heavenly Valley Ski Resort where 19-year-old Ryan Moore died when he leaned forward on the Dipper Express chair because of a leg cramp and fell nearly 20 feet into rocks below. California law does not require ski resorts to use restraining bars on chairlifts and no resort mandates it. View the California Labor Code for ski chair lifts. Visit: Higher Speeds, More Jumps Leads To Among skiers and snowboarders, higher speeds and more jumps and acrobatics are leading to a sharp rise in serious head and spinal injuries, according to a systematic review in the December 2007 issue of Injury Prevention. In one study, traumatic brain injury rose from 12 percent to 15 percent among skiers and from 1,000 to 5,200 per year among snowboarders from 1992 to 1997. In another study, spinal cord injury skyrocketed 130 percent among children and 407 percent among adolescents over the 21-year period from 1972-73 to 1993-94. The occurrence rate of both spinal cord and traumatic brain injury appears to be increasing worldwide because of higher speeds and more jumps and acrobatics leading to more falls and collisions, found Charles H. Tator, M.D., Ph.D., of Toronto Western Hospital, and his colleagues. (MedPage Today, December 4, 2007) View article: http://www.medpagetoday.com/PrimaryCare/ExerciseFitness/7578 Did You Know? In recent years, Washoe Medical Center in Reno, which handles all the major injuries from Sierra ski resorts, has seen an average of 250 ski and snowboard trauma patients, according to the hospital’s chief trauma surgeon, Dr. Myron Gomez. (Chicago Sun-Times, March 26, 2006) Patron Safety At California Snow Sport Facilities An Analysis of the Current State of and Potential Opportunities for Safety Improvement Based on Observation, Stakeholder Perspective and Limited Download the SnowSport Safety Foundation’s white paper by visiting: www.snowsportsafetyfoundation.org/research.html Watch Out For Tree Wells According to Paul Collins, M.D., an orthopedic surgeon specializing in sports medicine, a few things stand out in studies about incidents involving skiers and tree wells: - Most of them occur within ski area boundaries. - Many involve people skiing alone. - Most involve male skiers. - The snow conditions usually involve recent snowstorms. - They call could have been rescued has they been found quickly. - None were able to escape on their own. Ski Resorts Violations California state regulators fined Mammoth Mountain Ski Area $50,000 for several job safety violations related to the deaths of three ski patrol members on April 6, 2006. The patrolmen were trying to fence off a toxic volcanic vent when the snow collapsed and two of them fell in. A third ski patrol member died while trying to reach his colleagues, and seven more were seriously injured due to the carbon dioxide gas spewing from the vents. A report by the California division of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration said the deaths could have been prevented had Mammoth Mountain officials posted enough signs warning about the vent and followed procedures on performing rescues. The report also cited Mammoth Mountain for neglecting to train employees on ways to gauge the danger. A U.S. Forest Service investigation faulted the Las Vegas Ski and Snowboard Resort in Southern Nevada for inadequate avalanche prevention and rescue training in the death of a teenage snowboarder who was swept off a chairlift by a cascade of snow. Allen Brett Hutchison died January 9, 2005. The Forest Service report found that Mount Charleston Resort did not comply with an avalanche control plan, did not have rescue equipment in position and did not adequately prepare employees for search and rescue. According to the Forest Service National Avalanche Center in Ketchum, Idaho, the resort did not have the snow-pack and weather data-gathering and recording tools in place that would have made it more possible to recognize the extraordinary nature of the storm. The forest service closed off the area where the death occurred for five weeks until they were satisfied with ski area safety and avalanche control. The forest district ranger for Mount Charleston said the ski area has the responsibility to ensure safety. Ski Resort Apologizes In what was described as the highest expressions of corporate responsibility in a long time, the Summit at Snoqualmie in Washington State apologized to the family of 29-year-old David Pettigrew of Issaquah for statements that led the news media to mistakenly conclude that David was responsible for his own death by skiing alone in a roped-off area. Pettigrew was invited to join friends from the Alpental Ski Patrol on a sweep to check for anyone remaining on the slopes as skiing came to an end at Alpental on December 7, 2005. The Summit took out an ad, which stated that David was there at the invitation of the ski patrollers and admitted the area was not closed to David nor was he “out of bounds” as originally inferred. The family prepared a statement, which read: “The Pettigrew family greatly appreciates the acknowledgement by Snoqualmie Summit of the true facts surrounding the accidental death of David Pettigrew.”

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According to American Plastic Manufacturing, a pro-plastic bag source, the average per capita plastic bag use is 500 bags a year. They claim this amount is the equivalent of half a gallon of gas. Alone, this amount seems paltry. But imagine 500 plastic bags clogging ditches, clinging to tree branches, blowing through fields and sinking in lakes and rivers. Enviro Girl did a little math and that per capita bag use means her family of five would then use 2,500 plastic bags a year. A city of 10,000 people would use 5,000,000 bags a year. Like so many environmental issues, the problem has to do with the big picture numbers. Sure, a half gallon of gas per person per year seems negligible. Once you start multiplying bags by the number of Americans and then figuring out plastic bag use over a 10-year period, the amounts are staggering. The plastic and petroleum industries are fighting bag bans across America. Their concern is that plastic bag bans are a gateway to banning other plastic products. They staved off a recently proposed ban in California by spreading fears of job losses by plastic bag manufacturers. But like the smoking bans of a decade ago, the bans are taking hold in municipalities and counties, creating a patchwork of places banning the use of plastic shopping bags. The other argument Enviro Girl often hears against banning plastic shopping bags is “What will I use to line my wastebaskets? How will I dispose of Fido’s poop in the park? I reuse my plastic bags!” Enviro Girl’s rebuttal of this weak argument is simple: even without plastic shopping bags, you can still find plenty of plastic bags to reuse for other purposes–bread bags, bags from shipped packages, the bags from inside cereal boxes. She gave up plastic shopping bags years ago in favor of canvas bags and still has no shortage of plastic bags as a byproduct of ordering from Lands End or buying bread. Most recently Oregon is considering a statewide ban, notably supported by the Northwest Grocers Association. Like the land and water pollution caused by those plastic bags, the bans are beginning to add up. Fortunately, you don’t have to wait for a state or local legislature to make a law stopping you from using plastic bags. You can choose to reduce your 500 bags a year by switching to reusable shopping bags!

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They are so adorable, cuddly as well as absolutely vulnerable. Polar bears capture the admiration as well as attention of folks the world over for their fluffy bright furs as well as huggable size. They gather respect from animal enthusiasts for their hunting skill and survival techniques in one of the harshest environments on Earth. But in spite of their frustrating popularity these giants are actually in threat of being wiped off Earth totally. Ice melting need to be actually a primary focus of conservation efforts for the polar bear as this is impacting the polar bear the most. Polar bears rely on large blocks of floating ice to perform their daily exercises associated to staying alive. Polar bears prey on fat-laden seals from these stops of ice, they mate, as well as some also deliver their cubs on them. The problem by having the ice melting is actually that various polar bears have gone hungry because there is not sufficient ice for them to hunt their prey. This influences their capability to reproduce and bring their cubs to term that immediately impacts human population quantities. Also, when ice is actually also a long way from land, polar bears are going to drown trying to swim far distances to discover them. All of these aspects have made the polar bear more land bound. Interference in the form of government authorities to diminish mortal influence has been highlighted as a main concern in America and more countries. In addition, private companies as well as interest groups go on to lobby as well as perform with the authorities to safeguard this worthwhile pet in its natural habitat. Aside from authorities intervention, further investigation relating to international warming is vital so that the climate adjustment can easily be actually put a stop to or turned around. There are actually agencies that are actually raising money for this remarkably purpose. One more manner communities are aiding the polar bear is actually to make use of qualified bear patrol agents to keep the land bound polar bears from people as well as to make certain that the bears are actually not contending likewise firmly by having the folks for the food resources on land. Practical knowledge is power. Turn into extra informed concerning this critical theme by dropping by Polar Bears at World Wild Life.

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- Advocates equal educational opportunities at all levels for Deaf and Hard of Hearing students. - Supports official recognition of American Sign Language (ASL) - Opposes legal, economic and social discrimination for any reason. - Supports the right of each and every Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing person to develop his/her talents to their fullest capacity. - Encourages employment of Deaf individuals in all areas of employment. - Supports specialized Education, Rehabilitation, Mental Health Services for the Deaf. - Supports full and accessible state-wide interpreting services - Supports fully captioned TV programs and emergency broadcasts.

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Describe two differences between xylem and phloem. What happens if water is lost from the leaves faster that it is taken up the roots? Does all the water which rises up a plant escape through the leaves? A lighthouse is 9.6 nautical miles from a ship which bears 156 degrees from the lighthouse.How far is the ship east of the lighthouse?Give answer correct to one-tenth of a nautical mile. The vertical angle of a cone is 110 degree and the diametre of its base is 186mm.What is its height? A chord subtends an angle of 68 degree at the centre of a circle of radius 200 mm.Find the length of the chord. The angle between two tangents from a point to a circle is 82 degree.What is the length of one of these tangents if the radius of the circle is 80mm? A rectangle has sides 170mm and 130mm.What is the angle between the diagonals? The diagonals of a rhombus are 320mm and 240mm in length.Find the angles of the rhombus. If cos A=3/5 and A is acute,find sin A,tan A,and sec A. For Further Reading

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Neurocysticercosis is caused by the larvae of Taenia solium, a tapeworm found in pork products. The worm is thought to have infected at least 50 million people worldwide. Neurocysticercosis is most common where pigs are raised and sanitation is poor. In the Western hemisphere, the disease is most common in Mexico and South America, but an increasing number of cases have been seen in the United States as well. It is also common in Eastern countries, such as India. The Normal Parasitic Life Cycle Humans often begin to carry T. solium tapeworms after ingesting undercooked pork. The worms exist in the undercooked pig muscle in the form of cysticeri—small sacks of tissue containing the larval head of the organism, which is called the scolex. The scolex consists of a mouth with suckers and hooks, and a base from which thousands of segments arise—one after the other—like links in a chain, to form an adult worm. After ingestion, the scolex attaches to the human small intestine using its suckers and hooks. There the tapeworm lives, attached to the small intestine, sometimes remaining for years. During this time, the scolex continuously adds sections to its length; the entire worm can reach up to seven meters long. Each section of the worm can produce tens of thousands of eggs to be excreted in human feces. If eaten by pigs, the eggs grow into larval cysts in the muscle, humans eat the meat, and the cycle continues. If eaten by humans, the eggs cause even more serious problems. How Neurocysticercosis Develops There is a common misconception that neurocysticercosis is directly caused by eating undercooked pork. Eating cysts does not lead to neurocysticercosis, but rather to an intestinal tapeworm infection as we just discussed. To develop neurocysticerosis, the eggs—not the cysts—must be ingested. When a human eats Taenia solium eggs that have been shed in the stool of a carrier, the eggs hatch in the small intestine, and worm embryos invade the bowel wall and spread throughout the body, particularly to muscles and the brain. Three to eight weeks later, the next phase of the worm's life cycle begins, and the embryos change into cysticerci: the fluid filled cyst containing the scolex. The tapeworm cysts are very sophisticated in manipulating and evading the human immune system, and may not cause any kind of inflammatory response for years. Eventually, though, the immune system detects the cysts. The resulting inflammatory response leads to swelling and seizures, and the result of the battle between the cyst and the human immune system is often a calcified granuloma--a kind of circular barrier to wall off the worm from the rest of the body. This granuloma itself can be a source of further seizures. Symptoms of Neurocysticercosis Symptoms caused by neurocysticercosis depend on the location of the cyst. If the cyst is in the brain, it can cause seizures or headaches. If the cysts are in the tissues surrounding the brain, the symptoms can indicate elevated intracranial pressure, especially if the cyst blocks the outflow of cerebrospinal fluid from the ventricles, causing hydrocephalus. There is usually no fever associated with this infection. In rare cases, cysts can involve the spinal cord or eye. Numbness, tingling, or weakness can result. Diagnosis of Neurocysticercosis Neuroimaging is the best way of diagnosing neurocysticercosis. A CT scan is often sufficient, though in some cases an MRI is also helpful. Most of the cysts found on imaging are small: between 5-20 mm for living cysts and 2 to 4 mm for granulomas. Sometimes, though, the cysts can grow to 20 cm. Blood tests are also available to check for antibodies to Taenia solium, but a negative blood test should not be taken to mean that no infection is present. A lumbar puncture is not usually necessary for the diagnosis, and may be harmful if intracranial pressure is elevated. Treatment and Prevention The first step in managing someone with neurocysticercosis is to manage any seizures or elevated intracranial pressure that have results. Seizures can be handled with anti-epileptic therapy. If the immune system has already caused the cysts to calcify, epileptics may be required for years. Elevated intracranial pressure may need to be managed in any one of a number of ways. If the cysts are so large that they are pressing on important structures, they may need to be surgically removed. The next step is to start antiparasitic therapy in order to resolve any active cysts, and to reduce the risk of further seizures or hydrocephalus. Medications used to attack the larval Taenia solium cysts include albendazole or praziquantel. Because inflammation and swelling can worsen during this treatment, it is important to give corticosteroids as well in order to avoid potentially disabling inflammation. Of course, the best option is never to acquire the parasite in the first place. Hand washing prior to preparing food is critical in preventing this infection. Diseased pork has a measly appearance, and should be avoided. Meat must be well cooked or frozen in order to destroy cysticerci. Pickling and salting does not adequately destroy the worm. Being aware of these basic steps can avoid the dangerous consequences of having parasitic tapeworm larvae invade the brain. Braunwald E, Fauci ES, et al. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 16th ed. 2005. Garcia HH, Coyle CM, White AC Jr. Cysticercosis. In: Tropical Infectious Diseases: Principles, Pathogens, and Practice, Guerrant RL, Walker DH, Weller PF. (Eds), Churchil-Livingstone, Philadelphia 2011. p.815. Nash TE, Singh G, White AC, et al. Treatment of neurocysticercosis: current status and future research needs. Neurology 2006; 67:1120.

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The five churches highlighted here have distinctive features, including historical significance, unique architectural designs, and stories of miracles. With the Christmas holiday quickly approaching, it seems appropriate to focus attention on houses of worship. When thinking of churches in the United States, it is often the more well-known churches that first come to people's minds, including two located in New York City: St. Patrick's Cathedral and Trinity Wall Street, where Federalists John Jay and Alexander Hamilton were members and Pres. George Washington worshiped. Two churches in Washington, D.C. are also quite famous. Called "America's Catholic Church," the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception is "the largest Roman Catholic church in the United States and North America, and is one of the ten largest churches in the world." Washington National Cathedral, which "is called to serve as the spiritual home for the nation," has been the site of funeral and memorial services for 21 U.S. presidents, and the tomb of America's 28th president, Woodrow Wilson, is located there. Wilson is the only U.S. president buried in Washington, D.C. However, when thinking in terms of their place in America's history, or the designs of the buildings themselves, there are many churches across the United States that are noteworthy. Five of them are highlighted below. Charleston, South CarolinaSt. Philip's Episcopal Church is located in Charleston, S.C. and was founded in 1680. St. Philip's was designated as a National Historic Landmark by the National Parks Service, which states, "Built in 1836 (spire completed in 1850), this stuccoed brick church features an imposing tower designed in the Wren-Gibbs tradition. Three Tuscan pedimented porticoes contribute to this design to make a building of the highest quality and sophistication." St. Philip's is "the oldest Anglican congregation south of Virginia." Altar at St. Philip's Episcopal Church. Charleston, S.C. Savannah, GeorgiaFirst African Baptist Church located in Savannah, Ga. is, according to the church, "'The Oldest Black Church In North America' Constituted December 1777." On Dec. 9, the church celebrated its 235th anniversary. First African Baptist Church was a stop along the Underground Railroad, which, according to PBS, was "a vast network of people who helped fugitive slaves escape to the North and to Canada...it effectively moved hundreds of slaves northward each year -- according to one estimate, the South lost 100,000 slaves between 1810 and 1850." As stated by First African Baptist Church, the "church was a safe house for slaves" and "Beneath the lower auditorium floor is another finished subfloor which is known as the 'Underground Railroad'. There is 4ft of height between both floors. The entrance to the Underground Railroad remains unknown. After leaving our tunnel, slaves would try to make their way as far north as possible. There are no records as to who went through the tunnel or how many." Bella Vista, Arkansas One of the most famous "sacred structures" in Arkansas is the Thorncrown Chapel designed by renown architect E. Fay Jones. Jones, whose mentor was Frank Lloyd Wright, lived to see his Thorncrown Chapel, located in Eureka Springs, Ark., "voted the fourth-best building of the 20th century by the American Institute of Architects." Located about 40 miles west of Thorncrown Chapel is another breathtaking chapel designed by Jones. The Mildred B. Cooper Memorial Chapel in Bella Vista, Ark. is nestled in the woods near Lake Norwood. BeautifulBellaVista states, "It is not only the Chapel's lofty heights, or the massive wooden doors, or even the arches upon arches that gracefully flow above and below each other giving the impression of airy wonder...What is most impressive is that a building of this magnitude, designed and created by the mind of a man, could so seamlessly fit into the natural scene which envelopes it." Mildred B. Cooper Memorial Chapel. Bella Vista, Ark. Santa Fe, New Mexico Santa Fe is home to many remarkable churches and two are featured here. The first is the Chapel of San Miguel, originally built in 1626, which makes it the oldest church in Santa Fe. Moreover, what makes the Chapel of San Miguel even more unique is that it is recognized as “the Oldest Church in the United States.” According to writer Elizabeth Anne VanderPutten, authorities say "the altar screen is among the most splendid in the Southwest. It was painted by an anonymous Santero known as the Laguna Santero to accommodate both Mexican paintings on canvas and local bultos [a statue of Christ, a saint or the Virgin]." VanderPutten notes that among the paintings on the altar screen are "Saint Terisa of Avila (top left), Saint Michael (top center), and Saint Gertrude the Great (top right)" and "In the middle tier are images of Jesus Nazareno (center), Saint Francis (left) and Saint Louis IX, King of France (right)." The Altar of the Chapel of San Miguel. Santa Fe, N.M. The second remarkable church is the Loretto Chapel, which stands at the end of the Old Santa Fe Trail. This Gothic structure opened in 1878 after five years of construction. The history of the Chapel, however, dates back to 1610 when "the Spanish founded a town that is now known as Santa Fe, the capitol of the state of New Mexico." The mysteries surrounding its "Miraculous Staircase" are detailed in the video above. Loretto Chapel also notes what led to the construction of the staircase, and the miracles that ensued. After the Sisters of the Chapel prayed to St. Joseph, the patron saint of carpenters, for a stairway to access the choir loft, a carpenter appeared with a donkey. At the completion of the staircase, he disappeared without thanks or pay. Some say it was St. Joseph himself who constructed the staircase. "The staircase has two 360 degree turns and no visible means of support," states Loretto Chapel. "Over the years many have flocked to the Loretto Chapel to see the Miraculous Staircase. The staircase has been the subject of many articles, TV specials, and movies including 'Unsolved Mysteries' and the television movie titled 'The Staircase.'" "Miraculous Staircase" in the Loretto Chapel. Santa Fe, N.M. These extraordinary houses of worship provide places to reflect, meditate, consider the reason for the season, and celebrate the Christmas holiday. In addition, these notable churches remind us of America's history and are monuments to amazing, perhaps miraculous, architectural designs.

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Sorry, no definitions found. “Petavius has no difficulty in refuting Vasquez, by referring to the writers of the seventh century; but he himself speaks of duo genera operationum as equivalent to duo operationes, which introduces an unfortunate confusion between energeia and praxeis or energemata, that is between faculty of action and the multiple actions produced by the faculty.” “In v. 10 miracles are mentioned in the first place, probably expulsions of demons (energemata dynameon), and then follow prophecy, discerning of spirits, the gift of tongues, and the interpretation of speeches.” “It has been shown above that it is correct to speak of deiviriles actus or actiones or energemata.” “-- To another the working of miracles; the efficacies of powers, energemata dynameon, such as raising the dead, restoring the blind to sight, giving speech to the dumb, hearing to the deaf, and the use of limbs to the lame.” “There are diversities of operations, or miraculous powers, called energemata dynameon (v. 10), as here energemata, but it is the same God that worketh all in all.” “1 Cor.xii. 5, -- that is, powers and abilities whereby some are enabled to administer spiritual things unto the benefit, advantage, and edification of others; and energemata, verse 6, "effectual workings" or operations, efficaciously producing the effects which they are applied unto; and lastly, they are comprised by the apostle in that expression,” These user-created lists contain the word ‘energemata’. Terms and phrases from John Owen's (1616-1683) theological writings, to some of which the collective title Pneumatologia has been posthumously applied. Some few of the terms listed herein are Septu... Looking for tweets for energemata.

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To us, the word Item means more than just “thingamabob”; it is a technical term with a precise definition in the context of our source code. Item is a class. Each instance of the Item class has: an analogue in the SQL language a data type descriptor All of the following SQL “thingamabobs” are modeled session or global variables SQL functions (not a surprise since SQL functions have data types and return values). In the function category we include operators operators are merely functions that return values. We also include operators such as LIKE, which are operators that return boolean values. Consider the following statement: SELECT UPPER(column1) FROM t WHERE column2 = @x; For this statement, MySQL will need to store a list of items for the select list ('column1' column reference and UPPER function), and a list of items for the WHERE clause ('column2' column reference and '@x' variable and '=' operator). Terminology: an Item instance in a MySQL program roughly corresponds to a "site", which according to the standard_SQL definition is "a place that holds an instance of a value of a specified data type", Another word that you'll see often in MySQL code is "field", which means column reference, and the Item_field subclass is generally for column values that occur for the intersection of a row and column in a table. MySQL's Item class is defined in .../sql/item.h, and its subclasses are defined in .../sql/item*.h (that is, in item.h, item_cmpfunc.h, item_func.h, item_geofunc.h, item_row.h, item_strfunc.h, item_subselect.h, item_sum.h, item_timefunc.h). Page-width limitations prevent us from displaying the whole tree, but these are the main Item subclasses, and the subclasses of the subclasses: Item_ident (Item_field, Item_ref) Item_null Item_num (Item_int, Item_real) Item_param Item_string (Item_static_string_func, Item_datetime, Item_empty_string) Item_hex_string (Item_bin_string) Item_result_field (all "item_func.h" "item_subselect.h" "item_sub.h" classes) Item_copy_string Item_cache (Item_cache_int, Item_cache_real, Item_cache_str, Item_cache_row) Item_type_holder Item_row There's no formal classification of subclasses, but the main distinctions are by use (field, parameter, function) and by data type (num, string). So, how does MySQL use items? You'll find that nearly every .cc program in the /sql directory makes some use of the Item class and its subclasses, so this list of programs is only partial and very general: sql_parse.cc: Makes new items in add_field_to_list() item_sum.cc: Uses item_func subclasses for COUNT, AVG, SUM item_buff.cc: Where buffers for item values can be stored item_cmpfunc.cc: Comparison functions with item_func subclasses item_create.cch: For creating items that the lex might use item_subselect.cc: Subqueries are another type of function mysqld.cc: When main() ends, it uses clean_up() for items opt_range.cc: Uses field, compare-condition, and value subclasses procedure.cc: Notice Procedure * has a pointer to an item list protocol.cc: Uses send_fields() to pass item values back to users sys_var.cc: System variables have Item associations too sql_base.cc: Thread-specific Item searchers like find_field_in_table() sql_class.cc: Look at cleanup_after_query() sql_delete.cc: This (like sql_insert.cc etc.) has field references sql_error.cc: Has one of many examples of SHOW's use of items sql_lex.cc: Notice "add...to_list" functions sql_select.cc: The largest program that uses items, apparently udf_example.cc: The comments in this program are extensive Whenever there's a need for an SQL operation that assigns, compares, aggregates, accepts, sends, or validates a site, you'll find a MySQL use of Item and its subclasses.

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Online Resources: Digests Model Early Foreign Language Programs: Key Elements Douglas F. Gilzow, Foreign Service Institute Schools and school districts across the United States are establishing and expanding foreign language programs. Although most programs are found at the secondary school level, an increasing number are being established in elementary schools. A survey by the Center for Applied Linguistics indicates that 31% of U.S. elementary schools are offering foreign language instruction, up from 22% a decade ago (Rhodes & Branaman, 1999). In the late 1990s, the U.S. Department of Education funded an effort to identify early foreign language programs that could serve as models for schools or districts interested in establishing or enhancing early-start, long-sequence foreign language programs. Seven model programs were identified through a nomination and selection process informed by the national standards for foreign language education and by research on effective language instruction for elementary and middle school students (Curtain & Pesola, 1994; National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 1999). The programs selected met specified criteria in the areas of curriculum, outcomes, ongoing evaluation, coordination with content areas, articulation from elementary to secondary school, accessibility, student diversity, professional development opportunities, and community support. Although the seven programs represent a range of program models and instructional strategies, they had a number of critical elements in common. This digest describes these elements, which are deemed key to the long-term success of early foreign language programs. National Foreign Language Standards All seven programs have incorporated the five Cs of the national standards (communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, communities) into their curriculum. In some districts, the five Cs explicitly form a core element of the foreign language curricula for all grades. In others, the content-related curricula address the standards in an integrated, almost organic way. Interestingly, none of the programs has adopted textbooks to form the core of its instructional program. Rather, materials are identified or developed that connect language learning to the immediate context or to specific lessons in the regular curriculum. A Focus on Content All seven of the model programs use content-based or content-enriched curricula that are closely tied to the general elementary school curriculum. Content-based programs are those in which one or more subjects are taught in the foreign language. Immersion programs, in which some or all academic subjects are taught in the foreign language, are content based. Content-enriched programs are those in which language lessons include concepts from subjects such as math, science, and geography, mostly as reinforcement of subject matter classes taught in English. Students in a third-grade Spanish class in Toledo, Ohio, for example, learn about the growth processes of a plant through a Total Physical Response activity conducted entirely in Spanish, then read a Spanish news article on the same topic. Articulation and Alignment Language instruction in the elementary grades frequently emphasizes creative activities that involve oral communication; there is not a strong focus on accuracy or written language. As a result, there can be a disconnect when students move to the higher grades, where there is more emphasis on grammar, writing, and formal assessment. The challenge is compounded in decentralized districts, where a school-based management approach may favor institutional autonomy at the expense of articulation with programs in other schools. The seven model programs address this challenge through meetings, teaching exchanges, and standardization of curricula and assessment. In Glastonbury, Connecticut, for example, curriculum goals for languages are standardized across all eight schools in the district. Meetings are held not only with the district's foreign language teachers and administrators, but also with staff at the University of Connecticut to enhance the transition to higher education for secondary students. Another way in which this district strengthens articulation and alignment is through an innovative program of exchange teaching. From time to time, the foreign language teachers trade classes-elementary school teachers move to a high school and vice versa. Effective Teaching Methods Teachers in the seven programs keep their students motivated through age-appropriate, enjoyable lesson activities, many involving pair- or small-group work. In the elementary grades, songs are popular, especially those that fit new lyrics to familiar tunes. Most activities have a strong focus on communication and student interaction and a minimum of "listen and repeat after me" instruction. Teachers have devised creative guessing games and simulations that educate, entertain, and motivate learners and that bring together students from different grade levels. Fourth graders at Ephesus Road Elementary School in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, for example, help first graders review French numbers, animals, colors, and verbs of motion by leading them in a guessing game using numbered animal puppets. In a fifth-grade class at the same school, the French teacher tells the story of a mother moose in eastern Canada traveling to the west coast to be united with its baby moose. Students in small groups move a moose figure across maps and answer questions about geographic regions and time zones as they listen to the story. Appropriate Use of Technology Training staff in the effective use of computer-based resources is a major focus of in-service staff development in nearly every one of the seven programs. Districts are also increasing younger learners' access to computers. Ephesus Road Elementary School in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, is notable in its use of interactive Web-based communication with other French language programs around the world through "Ethnokids" (www.ethnokids.net). This is a joint effort of teachers and students at dozens of elementary schools in countries around the world, including Belgium, Vietnam, Guyana, and C¯te d'Ivoire. Students from each participating school contribute essays, drawings, and descriptions of celebrations, homes, and schools-all in French. Although all of the model programs have a strong assessment component, specific assessment practices vary widely from one program to the next. Bay Point Elementary School in Pinellas County, Florida, uses a Home Assessment System that involves parents, regular classroom teachers, and FLES teachers in the students' language learning process and allows students to proceed at their own pace. Students are given task cards that indicate specific activities that they need to be able to do (e.g., "I can describe the contents of my backpack"). There are 10 levels of tasks, with 10 tasks at each level. As children demonstrate the tasks at home, their parents sign the task cards, which the students then file in the classroom, providing a portfolio of their foreign language performance. The teacher quizzes students in class to confirm their ability to carry out the tasks. To assess progress in speaking and listening skills in the partial immersion Japanese program at Richmond Elementary School in Portland, Oregon, teachers conduct a one-on-one interview with each student at the end of the school year. In kindergarten, each student brings a blank videotape to school which is then used in succeeding years to record the interviews. In the earlier grades, the interviews are simple exchanges of questions and answers, but by fifth grade, the interviews are conducted according to Oregon Japanese Oral Proficiency procedures, resulting in a 15-minute ratable performance sample. This tape follows the students to middle school, where at least one additional interview is recorded. Establishing and maintaining an early-start, long-sequence foreign language program costs money. Most of the model programs have received grant funds from state or federal sources, particularly during the start-up phase. The pre-implementation and early implementation years of foreign language programs require the greatest concentration of resources. Curricula and evaluation procedures must be developed, books and other instructional materials must be purchased, and teachers must be recruited and trained. Most programs have been able to diversify and localize much of their funding as they mature, turning to federal and state grants for special needs such as program evaluation, articulation with postsecondary programs, or expanded use of technology. Professional development is particularly critical during the early stages of a foreign language program but continues to be important as programs mature, curricula change, and new technology is introduced. Professional development opportunities offered by the model programs include demonstration lessons, in-service workshops, and participation in professional association conferences. The program in Toledo, Ohio, has offered its teachers a low-cost summer language camp; teachers in Prince George's County, Maryland, take university courses taught by the district's foreign language supervisor. Outreach to the community, visibility at the school and district levels, and involvement of parents have been important to initiating programs, expanding them, and keeping them going during times of tight budgets. In most cases, advocacy for the programs involves media attention. All seven model programs have been featured on local television stations and in newspaper articles. Program newsletters and foreign language fairs are among the ways that program staff have captured and kept community support. Political connections are also important to these programs. The superintendent in Springfield, Massachusetts, is a major advocate for early foreign language education; in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, two foreign language teachers have served on the school governance committee of Ephesus Road Elementary for several years. Having the support of individuals and groups who are in a position to influence the future of the foreign language programs can be crucial to their long-term success. It is clear that many qualities and characteristics contribute to the success of early foreign language programs. In addition to those described above, the seven model programs have demonstrated flexibility, teamwork, leadership, and commitment. They have adapted to changes brought about by unanticipated events, including diminished funding. They have forged close working relationships with district superintendents, members of the board of education, school principals, regular classroom teachers, parents, and others in the community. They have strong leaders with a vision of foreign language teaching and learning who know how to inspire others and organize the people and resources necessary to build an effective program. Finally, everyone involved has a deep commitment to the program and to the goal of providing effective foreign language education for young learners. Curtain, H., & Pesola, C. A. (1994). Languages and children: Making the match. Foreign language instruction for an early start, grades K–8. White Plains, NY: Longman. Gilzow, D. F., & Branaman, L. E. (2000). Lessons learned: Model early foreign language programs. McHenry, IL, and Washington, DC: Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistics. National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. (1999). Standards for foreign language learning in the 21st century. Yonkers, NY: Author. Rhodes, N. C., & Branaman, L. E. (1999). Foreign language instruction in the United States. A national survey of elementary and secondary schools. McHenry, IL, and Washington, DC: Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistics. Model Early Foreign Language Programs Springfield Public Schools Rita Oleksak, Foreign Language Director Springfield MA 01102-1410 Ephesus Road Elementary School Carol Orringer, French Teacher Chapel Hill NC 27514 Web sites: http://chccs.k12.nc.us/ephesuslevelone/index.asp Glastonbury Public Schools Christine Brown, Director of Foreign Languages Glastonbury CT 06033 Prince George's County Public Schools Dr. Pat Barr-Harrison, Foreign Language Supervisor Capitol Heights MD 20743-3812 Tel: 301-808-8265 ext 227 Larchmont Elementary School Jeffrey Hanthorn, Principal Toledo OH 43612 Richmond Elementary School Deanne Balzer, Resource Teacher Japanese Magnet Program Portland OR 97214 Web sites: http://www.oyanokai.org The information in this Digest is drawn from Lessons Learned: Model Early Foreign Language Programs (ERIC/CLL Professional Practice Series No. 1) by Douglas F. Gilzow and Lucinda E. Branaman, available from the CALstore: calstore.cal.org/store or 1-800-551-3709. The model programs described therein were identified by a joint effort of two projects funded by the U.S. Department of Education: The National K–12 Foreign Language Survey Project (funded by the Office of Postsecondary Education, International Research and Studies Program) and the Improving Foreign Language Education in Schools Project (funded by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement via subcontract from the Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory at Brown University). This digest was prepared with funding from the U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Library of Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0008. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED, OERI, or NLE.

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Common Myths about Compact Fluorescents February 10, 2009Posted by Dr. Z Bulbs in Definitions about product.. Tags: cfl, cfl myths, common myths compact fluorescent, compact fluorescent, compact fluorescent light bulb, compact fluorescent myths, Energy saving, energy saving bulb, energy saving compact light bulb, energy saving light bulb, energy saving lighting, Enviromental Protection Agency and CFLs, Enviromental Protection Agency and Compact Fluorescents, EPA and Compact FLuorescents, fluorescent, fluorescent light bulb, fluorescent lighting, incandescent light bulb, incandescent lightbulb, light, light bulb, light bulbs, lightbulb, spiral, spiral light bulb, Technology of a light bulb 1 comment so far Gadzooks! Its hard work being a light bulb guy! Dr. Z here ready to save the world one bulb at a time. I’m finding many people out there still have a alot of misconceptions about compact fluorescents, so I have posted this fantastic article taken from ConsumerReports that gives a unbiased take on compact fluorescents. They did a great job on this one. See below! Zoinks! Compact fluorescent lightbulbs Don’t fall for the common myths about these long-lasting, energy-saving lights STILL SHINING Several CFLs from GE, Home Depot, and others are lighting our labs after 10,000 hours. Photo by Michael SmithSwapping regular bulbs for compact fluorescents can save you at least $30 per bulb over a CFL’s life. The latest bulbs are better than earlier ones. Yet the myths burn on. Here are some of the most common misconceptions: Myth: Finding a recycler is hard. Reality: You shouldn’t throw used CFLs out with the trash. But Home Depot, Ikea, and some Ace and True Value stores accept unbroken CFLs no matter where you bought them. Wal-Mart sells the most CFLs. A spokeswoman told us the chain was looking into a recycling program, but it didn’t have one as we went to press. You can also contact your public works department or go to http://www.epa.gov/bulbrecycling. Myth: Compact fluorescents are pricey. Reality: Some CFLs now cost less than $2 compared with $9 to $25 in 1999. Several lasted five to 10 times as long as regular bulbs in our tests, and Energy Star versions use up to 75 percent less power. They’re also warranted for as long as nine years. Write the purchase date on the bulb in indelible ink. And save your receipt. Myth: CFLs produce a harsh blue light. Reality: Many now light like ordinary bulbs. Those with a 2,700 to 3,000 Kelvin (K) number have a warmer, yellower color; 3,500 K to 6,500 K bulbs emit a bluer or whiter light. Energy Star CFLs must include the Kelvin number on the package as of December. Look for CFLs labeled “soft” or “warm” white for light like an incandescent’s, and choose “bright white,” “natural,” or “daylight” for whiter light. Myth: CFLs flicker when they first light. Reality: That happened in earlier CFLs with magnetic ballasts. New ones use faster, electronic ballasts. Myth: These bulbs need time to turn on. Reality: Turn-on is now nearly instant. But most CFLs we tested took about 30 seconds to reach 80 percent of their brightness, and some flood and outdoor lights took 90 seconds or more. That’s why some appear dim at first and aren’t ideal for areas such as closets or stairs. Myth: CFLs contain lots of mercury. Reality: Each bulb has a tiny fraction of the mercury in a traditional fever thermometer. Energy Star CFLs will have strict limits by the end of this year. Myth: Compact fluorescent lightbulbs release mercury as they burn. Reality: The mercury is sealed inside the glass tubing. Myth: You need to put on a hazmat suit if you drop one of these bulbs. Reality: Exposure to broken CFLs can pose a health risk, especially to a fetus or young child. But don’t panic. Open a window, shut off central A/C or forced-air heating, and clear the room for at least 15 minutes as the Environmental Protection Agency recommends. Then follow the EPA’S cleanup guide at http://www.epa.gov/mercury/spills. And be sure to keep CFLs out of lamps that could easily tip, especially in rooms used often by children or pregnant women. Myth: CFLs smoke when they burn out. Reality: Today’s spent bulbs typically flicker, dim, or emit a reddish-orange glow. If one you own smokes or smolders, turn off power to the light and allow the bulb to cool before removing it and taking it to a retailer or other recycler.

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Most Popular This Week Today's Top News Our Three-Decade Recession The American quality of life has been going downhill since 1975. The news media and the government are fixated on the fact that the U.S. economy may be headed into a recession -- defined as two or more successive quarters of declining gross domestic product. The situation is actually much worse. By some measures of economic performance, the United States has been in a recession since 1975 -- a recession in quality of life, or well-being. How can this be? One first needs to understand what GDP measures to see why it is not an appropriate gauge of our national well-being. GDP measures the total market value of all goods and services produced in a country in a given period. But it includes only those goods and services traded for money. It also adds everything together, without discerning desirable, well-being-enhancing economic activity from undesirable, well-being-reducing activity. An oil spill, for example, increases GDP because someone has to clean it up, but it obviously detracts from well-being. More crime, more sickness, more war, more pollution, more fires, storms and pestilence are all potentially positives for the GDP because they can spur an increase in economic activity. GDP also ignores activity that may enhance well-being but is outside the market. The unpaid work of parents caring for their children at home doesn't show up in GDP, but if they decide to work outside the home and pay for child care, GDP suddenly increases. And even though $1 in income means a lot more to the poor than to the rich, GDP takes no account of income distribution. In short, GDP was never intended to be a measure of citizens' welfare -- and it functions poorly as such. Yet it is used as a surrogate appraisal of national well-being in far too many circumstances. The shortcomings of GDP are well known, and several researchers have proposed alternatives that address them, including William Nordhaus' and James Tobin's Measure of Economic Welfare, developed in 1972; Herman Daly's and John Cobb's Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare, developed in 1989; and the Redefining Progress think tank's more recent variation, the Genuine Progress Indicator. Although these alternatives -- which, like GDP, are measured in monetary terms -- are not perfect and need more research and refinement, they are much better approximations to a measure of true national well-being. The formula for calculating GPI, for instance, starts with personal consumption expenditures, a major component of GDP, but makes several crucial adjustments. First, it accounts for income distribution. It then adds positive contributions that GDP ignores, such as the value of household and volunteer work. Finally, it subtracts things that are well-being-reducing, such as the loss of leisure time and the costs of crime, commuting and pollution. While the U.S. GDP has steadily increased since 1950 (with the occasional recession), GPI peaked about 1975 and has been relatively flat or declining ever since. That's consistent with life-satisfaction surveys, which also show flat or dropping scores over the last several decades. This is a very different picture of the economy from the one we normally read about, and it requires different policy responses. We are now in a period of what Daly -- a former World Bank economist now at the University of Maryland -- has called "uneconomic growth," in which further growth in economic activity (that is, GDP) is actually reducing national well-being. How can we get out of this 33-year downturn in quality of life? Several policies have been suggested that might be thought of as a national quality-of-life stimulus package. To start, the U.S. needs to make national well-being -- not increased GDP -- its primary policy goal, funding efforts to better measure and report it. There's already been some movement in this direction around the world. Bhutan, for example, recently made "gross national happiness" its explicit policy goal. Canada is developing an Index of Well-being, and the Australian Treasury considers increasing "real well-being," rather than mere GDP, its primary goal. Once Americans' well-being becomes the basis for measuring our success, other reforms should follow. We should tax bads (carbon emissions, depletion of natural resources) rather than goods (labor, savings, investment). We should recognize the negative effects of growing income disparities and take steps to address them. International trade also will have to be reformed so that environmental protection, labor rights and democratic self-determination are not subjugated to the blind pursuit of increased GDP. But the most important step may be the first one: Recognizing that the U.S. is mired in a 33-year-old quality-of-life recession and that our continued national focus on growing GDP is blinding us to the way out. Robert Costanza is the director of the Gund Institute for Ecological Economics at the University of Vermont. Copyright 2008 Los Angeles Times

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On a farm in coastal Maine, a barn is going up. Right now it's little more than a concrete slab and some wooden beams, but when it's finished, the barn will provide winter shelter for up to six cows and a few head of sheep. None of this would be remarkable if it weren't for the fact that the people building the barn are two of the most highly regarded organic-vegetable farmers in the country: Eliot Coleman wrote the bible of organic farming, The New Organic Grower, and Barbara Damrosch is the Washington Post's gardening columnist. At a time when a growing number of environmental activists are calling for an end to eating meat, this veggie-centric power couple is beginning to raise it. "Why?" asks Coleman, tromping through the mud on his way toward a greenhouse bursting with December turnips. "Because I care about the fate of the planet." Ever since the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization released a 2006 report that attributed 18% of the world's man-made greenhouse-gas emissions to livestock more, the report noted, than what's produced by transportation livestock has taken an increasingly hard rap. At first, it was just vegetarian groups that used the U.N.'s findings as evidence for the superiority of an all-plant diet. But since then, a broader range of environmentalists has taken up the cause. At a recent European Parliament hearing titled "Global Warming and Food Policy: Less Meat = Less Heat," Rajendra Pachauri, chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, argued that reducing meat consumption is a "simple, effective and short-term delivery measure in which everybody could contribute" to emissions reductions. And of all the animals that humans eat, none are held more responsible for climate change than the ones that moo. Cows not only consume more energy-intensive feed than other livestock; they also produce more methane a powerful greenhouse gas than other animals do. "If your primary concern is to curb emissions, you shouldn't be eating beef," says Nathan Pelletier, an ecological economist at Dalhousie University in Halifax, N.S., noting that cows produce 13 to 30 lb. of carbon dioxide per pound of meat. So how can Coleman and Damrosch believe that adding livestock to their farm will help the planet? Cattleman Ridge Shinn has the answer. On a wintry Saturday at his farm in Hardwick, Mass., he is out in his pastures encouraging a herd of plump Devon cows to move to a grassy new paddock. Over the course of a year, his 100 cattle will rotate across 175 acres four or five times. "Conventional cattle raising is like mining," he says. "It's unsustainable, because you're just taking without putting anything back. But when you rotate cattle on grass, you change the equation. You put back more than you take." It works like this: grass is a perennial. Rotate cattle and other ruminants across pastures full of it, and the animals' grazing will cut the blades which spurs new growth while their trampling helps work manure and other decaying organic matter into the soil, turning it into rich humus. The plant's roots also help maintain soil health by retaining water and microbes. And healthy soil keeps carbon dioxide underground and out of the atmosphere. Compare that with the estimated 99% of U.S. beef cattle that live out their last months on feedlots, where they are stuffed with corn and soybeans. In the past few decades, the growth of these concentrated animal-feeding operations has resulted in millions of acres of grassland being abandoned or converted along with vast swaths of forest into profitable cropland for livestock feed. "Much of the carbon footprint of beef comes from growing grain to feed the animals, which requires fossil-fuel-based fertilizers, pesticides, transportation," says Michael Pollan, author of The Omnivore's Dilemma. "Grass-fed beef has a much lighter carbon footprint." Indeed, although grass-fed cattle may produce more methane than conventional ones (high-fiber plants are harder to digest than cereals, as anyone who has felt the gastric effects of eating broccoli or cabbage can attest), their net emissions are lower because they help the soil sequester carbon.

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Atom or molecule that in a chemical reaction seeks an atom or molecule containing an electron pair available for bonding or the negative end of a polar molecule (see covalent bond; electric dipole). In the Lewis electron theory (see acid-base theory) advanced by the U.S. chemist Gilbert Lewis (1875–1946) in 1923, electrophiles are by definition Lewis acids. Examples include the hydronium ion (HO+), boron trifluoride (BF), and the halogens fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine in molecular form. See also acid; nucleophile. This entry comes from Encyclopædia Britannica Concise.For the full entry on electrophile, visit Britannica.com. What made you look up electrophile? Please tell us what you were reading, watching or discussing that led you here. Take Our 10-Question Quiz The commonly misspelled words quiz A quick quiz about stuff worth knowing How strong is your vocabulary?

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Birth Of A Market The market for U.S. Treasury securities is a marvel of modern finance. In 2009 the Treasury auctioned $8.2 trillion of new securities, ranging from 4-day bills to 30-year bonds, in 283 offerings on 171 different days. By contrast, in the decade before World War I, there was only about $1 billion of interest-bearing Treasury debt outstanding, spread out over just six issues. New offerings were rare, and the debt was narrowly held, most of it owned by national banks. In Birth of a Market, Kenneth Garbade traces the development of the Treasury market from a financial backwater in the years before World War I to a multibillion dollar market on the eve of World War II. Garbade focuses on Treasury debt management policies, describing the origins of several pillars of modern Treasury practice, including "regular and predictable" auction offerings and the integration of debt and cash management. He recounts the actions of Secretaries of the Treasury, from William McAdoo in the Wilson administration to Henry Morgenthau in the Roosevelt administration, and their responses to economic conditions. Garbade's account covers the Treasury market in the two decades before World War I, how the Treasury financed the Great War, how it managed the postwar refinancing and paydowns, and how it financed the chronic deficits of the Great Depression. He concludes with an examination of aspects of modern Treasury debt management that grew out of developments from 1917 to 1939. About the Author Kenneth D. Garbade is Senior Vice President, Money and Payments Studies Function, Research and Statistics Group, at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. He is the author of Fixed Income Analytics (1996), Pricing Corporate Securities as Contingent Claims (2001), both published by the MIT Press, and other books. “This book will become a standard reference on US Treasury management of debt and cash during the first half of the 20th century.” — R. E. Schenk, Choice "Kenneth Garbade knows more about how the markets for treasury securities work today and how they evolved than anyone else. Garbade's history of these markets will be valuable to historians, policy makers, and business people. This is, clearly, a book with 'long legs.' Fifty years from now historians will still be pulling this book from the shelf (or electronic device) to find out how Secretary Mellon did things in the 1930s: A timely and timeless book." Hugh Rockoff, Department of Economics, Rutgers University "The U.S. Treasury securities market is history's largest and most liquid single-issuer debt market. In pursuit of the safest investments, the whole world beats a path to its door. Birth of a Market tells us how, during the troubled quarter-century 1914

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An essay on how the author of Black Boy dealt with racism. Black Boy Essay Racism in America dates back to the Colonial era. It is a universal problem because everyone has at least once in their life come across it. Many minorities, such as Blacks and Native Americans have been heavily affected by it. World War II was the effect of Hitler’s racism against the Jews. Racial prejudices are held by a massive amount of the U.S. population more commonly in the South, where Richard Wright grew up, than the North. As a child, Richard Wright didn’t understand the difference between White and Blacks. He saw his grandmother and thought he she looked as white as the rest of the White people but somehow knew she was different. Being so young he didn’t understand racism and didn’t know how to interact around White people. He finally realizes the harshness of racism when his Uncle Hoskins is shot by a White man and all his family does is run. Richard vows that if White men ever kill his family he will take them down no matter what. Richard was never able to get used to Racism. He once saw a Black woman stumble out of a store where he worked and arrested for being drunk when she was actually raped. He could have helped her by talking to the police but he feared he might be killed. After this he decides to stop following laws and breaks them to make more money. He sells bootleg liquor in a hotel he works in and steals about fifty dollars from a movie theater. When he finally does manage to move to the North he can’t comprehend Whites respecting him. While working for some Jews he doesn’t realize until much later they were good people and not out to get him. When he worked in a café he was too scared of his White boss to tell her that the cook was spitting in the food. Finally, when another Black girl joins the staff he convinces her to tell. Luckily the owner catches the cook in the act and fires her. Even in the North he still faces racism and eventually joins the Communist party because of its emphasis on protecting the oppressed. Racism is a prevalent theme in the autobiography Black Boy written by Richard Wright. Richard was never able to understand racism even from being around it since birth. He eventually ends up moving to the North to get away from it. His only coping method is being very nice and respectful to Whites. Yet he also has a deep hatred of them and thinks he shouldn’t be nice to the Whites. He grows from these experiences by writing and finding solace in reading. In the end he hopes for equality through his writing. Welcome to Authspot, the spot for creative writing. Read some stories and poems, and be sure to subscribe to our feed!

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Q&A: General Astronomy and Space Science I have never heard of any one mentioning gamma rays. Do gamma rays exist in space? There are gamma rays in space, and probably every kind of radiation you can think of. [More information on the electromagnetic spectrum is available at http://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/em_radiation.html & http://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_astro/xrays.html] In fact, the most mysterious objects in the universe are very hot flashes of light that emit mostly in the gamma ray energy, called gamma ray bursts. We have a description of gamma ray

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Take Advantage of Microclimates! Microclimates are small (relatively) areas in the landscape that have conditions which differ from the overall climate of a region. It is basically climate on a small scale! Taking advantage of the different microclimates that exist on your property will allow you to expand and diversify your landscape plan. Sometimes they allow you to grow plants that are normally not hardy in your area. Where are they? Microclimates can affect any element of climate: temperature, light, moisture, humidity, or wind. They can be either naturally occurring or artificially created. For example: - Southern and western exposures are hotter, brighter, and drier in summer and also warmer in winter. - Northern and eastern exposures are generally cooler and shadier - A good cover of high quality mulch will stabilize soil temperatures in winter preventing the freeze-thaw that causes heaving of plants from the soil. - Windbreaks created by walls or hedges protect plants from physical injury and also damage due to moisture loss from drying winds. - South facing brick walls and rock walls not only provide a windbreak but they absorb heat during the day and radiate it back at night protecting tender plants from frost and extending the growing season. - The area under the eaves of the house is shielded from rainfall and becomes almost desert-like. A Better Place? A naturally occurring microclimate can be found under the shade of trees. In areas with hot humid summers, it is often preferable to plant sun perennials in a location that receives a bit more shade than is normally recommended, especially if the shade protects the plants from the hot afternoon sun. In winter, a southern exposure usually becomes shaded by 3 o'clock in the afternoon. This shade causes the air temperature to decrease gradually through the afternoon and evening. In contrast, an area with a southwestern exposure normally receives no afternoon shade and therefore, when the sun sets, the temperature drop is radical and fast. In this situation, winter injury of plants is more likely to occur especially with evergreens. A northern, northeastern, or southeastern exposure that is protected from wind is a great location for broadleaf evergreens such as Holly, Azalea, Rhododendron , and Mountain Laurel. Winter winds can be a major problem for these evergreens because they increase water loss through the leaves which can cause winterkill or burning of the foliage. To protect against winterkill, apply a 3" blanket of mulch and remember to irrigate during periods of dry weather when the soil is not frozen. Another safe guard is to spray your evergreens with Bonide Wilt Stop , a natural, organic anti-desiccant which will protect them all winter. Be an observant gardener!The most important advice is to try and choose the right plants for all areas of your landscape. Take the time to note the patterns and timing of sun and shade, the direction of prevailing winds, the areas where frost is slow to melt, and other factors related to microclimate.

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BEIJING, Dec. 26 (UPI) -- China's renewable energy law was amended Saturday to require power companies to buy all power generated from renewable resources. Chinese state-run news agency Xinhua reported Chinese lawmakers adopted the amendment to China's renewable energy law during a National People's Congress Standing Committee meeting. The amendment also requires the State Council Energy Department and the state power regulatory agency to "determine the proportion of renewable energy power generation to the overall generating capacity for a certain period." Under China's renewable energy law, electricity grid companies will face sizable fines if they fail to purchase power generated from renewable resources such as non-fossil fuels or wind and solar power. The law and its adopted amendment come about as China remains reliant on coal as a power supply. Two-thirds of the country's power supply comes from coal, Xinhua said.

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Want To Learn Better? Make Things Hard On Yourself My pick for this week’s best learning video features UCLA psychologist Robert Bjork talking about the surprising way our minds work: “In terms of the un-intuitive aspects of how human learning and memory work, and the fact that there is this set of conditions that make people improve very rapidly (making conditions predictable, constant cues, massing practice—there’s a whole variety of conditions that make people improve very rapidly)—well, the converse of those things is if you introduce variability, if you introduce spacing, if you use testing instead of re-studying, if you interleave the separate things to be learned—those all slow down the apparent learning, but under most circumstances help long-term retention and help you transfer knowledge to new situations. These things I labeled years ago as desirable difficulties.” Watch the rest of the video here. This is, as Bjork notes, a very counter-intuitive concept, but it means that if we arrange conditions to make learning feel very swift and easy, we won’t remember or apply that knowledge later on as well as if we made the learning process more difficult and effortful. Strange, but true: another example of why we need science to guide us past notions that are intuitive but mistaken.

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Flash Of Light Seen Across Southern U.S. Was Likely Meteor People across the southeastern United States saw an emerald ball of fire cross the sky, last night. Tulsa's KOTV has security video of the flashes of light: The flash of light was seen from Oklahoma to Florida, according to the AP. Little Rock's KTHV said the Sebastian County Sheriff's office in Arkansas said the the light was likely caused by a meteor and "likely hit near Poteau Mountain." We contacted amateur astronomer Steven Meeks who writes an astronomy blog on todaysthv.com; he says it was likely a meteor and since some people saw it burn a bit greenish -- it probably contained copper. He also says it was probably no bigger than a pebble. The Weather Space has a picture it purports to be of the meteor. Copyright 2011 National Public Radio. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.

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His (?), pron. [AS. his of him, his, gen. masc. & neut. of h, neut. hit. See He.] Belonging or pertaining to him; -- used as a pronominal adjective or adjective pronoun; as, tell John his papers are ready; formerly used also for its, but this use is now obsolete. No comfortable star did lend his light. Who can impress the forest, bid the tree Unfix his earth-bound root? ⇒ Also formerly used in connection with a noun simply as a sign of the possessive. "The king his son." Shak. "By young Telemachus his blooming years." Pope. This his is probably a corruption of the old possessive ending -is or -es, which, being written as a separate word, was at length confounded with the pronoun his. The possessive of he; as, the book is his. "The sea is his , and he made it." Ps. xcv. 5. © Webster 1913.

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Search the collections Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual & Transgender Project, Museum Victoria, 2005-2006 Image: Badge - Immoral Minority Member, circa 1979 Source: Museum Victoria Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender histories have been commonly regarded as 'hidden' histories. Evidence has all too often been actively suppressed or destroyed, leading to incorrect beliefs that these histories do not exist, or that queer sexuality and its impact on society is limited to the present and the very recent past. Even while this is acknowledged to be false by many individuals and institutions, there is still a dearth of identified historical material that sheds light on the place of queer sexuality in the story of Victoria, leaving an imbalanced and inaccurate picture of the State's past. Yet Victoria has a very rich and diverse history in relation to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender experience. Part of this diversity and richness has been documented by the archival and public work of the Australian Lesbian and Gay Archives since its establishment in 1978. Other organisations, such as the Women's Liberation and Lesbian Feminist Archives, the New Frontier Dance Association and individuals, have also been documenting information and collecting the material culture of queer communities. All, however, face significant challenges in both resources and broader public support and recognition. The Australian Lesbian and Gay Archives, for instance, is a self-funded community group reliant upon volunteers. Its efforts to collect and preserve material and make it accessible to the public has been significantly limited by lack of resources, and, proactive research and accumulation has proved challenging. Conversely, major public collecting institutions such as Museum Victoria and the State Library of Victoria have much work yet to do to recognise and organise relevant material within their collections, make their collections accessible to the public, and run public programs around lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender histories and experiences. In 2005-2006 a pilot survey was undertaken by Museum Victoria, in conjunction with the Australian Lesbian and Gay Archives and the State Library of Victoria, to show that with some targeted resource provision for research, we can unearth important and exciting documentation of an important and hitherto 'hidden' aspect of Victoria's, and indeed Australia's, past. The broad aims of the project included improved knowledge, representation and interpretation of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender material in public collections. It aimed to promote the development of strategies for encouraging discussion and awareness of homosexuality in the mainstream community. It also aimed to begin to provide lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Victorians with a sense of inclusion in the broader story of our heritage. The survey has provided an opportunity for the celebration of political and social achievements, and recognition of the tenets of equal opportunity and human rights for all Victorians. The Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender project has been of both symbolic and practical significance to major Victorian collecting institutions and to GLBT communities in Victoria. It has demonstrated the importance of active collecting, documentation and research into histories which have been and largely remain hidden, and has shown the value of material which exists in both public and private collections. It has identified areas in which resources are urgently required to document and maintain the material record of GLBT communities in Victoria, provided the groundwork for a broader, nation-wide survey and suggested a range of strategies for improving representation of cultural diversity in our major collecting institutions. Davison, Kate, 2006. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Material Survey. Museum Victoria, Melbourne. Items per page: 10 50 (showing 21 - 30) 63 items Circular yellow badge with black inscription 'A time to act / HIV/AIDS awareness', and geometric shape with shape of flame at centre. The flame probably references the AIDS Candlelight ...Images: 1 Circular black badge with shape of candle formed from white line, with white and orange flame. Inscribed 'International Aids Candlelight Vigil', it was made for the 1991 Melbourne Vigil ...Images: 1 Circular white badge with yellow square at centre containing purple hand holding red outline of Australia, and inscription 'Keep the Love Alive'. Commemorates the Australian AIDS Memori ...Images: 1 Circular yellow badge black inscription 'Fairfield Hospital United Beyond 2000'. Part of a campaign to save Fairfield Hospital, which specialised in infectious diseases such as AIDS. A ...Images: 1 Advertisement for a woman wanted to share a dyke (lesbian) household in Brunswick. From a collection of material acquired from the Black Cat Cafe in Brunswick Street, Fitzroy, which c ...Images: 1 Circular white badge with pink squiggle down centre and outline of Australia, inscribed 'World Aids Day December 1st'. Collected during the 2005-2006 Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay Transgender ...Images: 1 Circular orange badge with logo of stylized people in shape of a series of Vs, with wreath around, and inscription ''Celebrating Volunteers 2001'. Collected during the 2005-2006 Lesbi ...Images: 1 Square white badge with quilt-style image made up of smaller images, and inscription ''Names Project, Aids Memorial Quilt'. Made in 1993, it commemorates the 15th anniversary of the mar ...Images: 1 Blue and white business card with coloured logo of cross and rainbow, labelled 'New Wave Christian Fellowship Church Inc.' The card indicates that the Church meets each Sunday 11am at 2 ...Images: 2 Folded flyer with red and blue hearts on black background, advertising the Swinburne University student exhibition 'Same Difference', held at the Melbourne Justice Museum at the corner ...Images: 3

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Individual differences | Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology | Basic Definition Edit Specifically: A physical representation of the primary sensorimotor cortex, i.e., the portion of the human brain directly responsible for the movement and exchange of sense and motor information (namely touch: sensitivity, cold, heat, pain etc.) of the rest of the body. The resulting image is a grotesquely disfigured human with diproportionately huge hands, lips, and face in comparison to the rest of the body. Because of the fine motor skills and sense nerves found in these particular parts of the body they are represented as being larger on the homunculus. A part of the body with fewer sensory and/or motor connections to the brain is represented to appear smaller. The Cortical Homunculus is a visual representation of the concept of "the body within the brain" that one's hand or face exists as much as a series of nerve structures or a "neuron concept" as it does a physical form. This concept relates to many neuro-biological phenomena including "phantom limb". |Motor Activity||Sensory Activity| Images (external and probably copyrighted) Edit - Sensorimotor Cortex, a diagram of the body mapped onto the brain - Sensory homunculus, a 3D model of the male human body with size proportional to sensory cortial area See Also: Homunculus |This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|

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Chemistry for a Healthier World Lots of could-be medicines look good on paper—or on a computer screen—but a drug can only do its intended job of treating a symptom or fighting a disease if it gets to the right place in the body to do its job. That's where chemistry plays such a big role, in tweaking molecules to interact appropriately with the body. A lot of the most important medical progress in recent history has come from the development of powerful antibiotics and vaccines to treat infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses and parasites. But those breakthroughs have come with a cost—microorganisms have learned how to fight back, and with a vengeance. The misuse of antibiotics is the most common reason why antibiotic resistance is such a significant public health problem. These drugs are sometimes overprescribed by doctors, and many people fail to finish a full prescription. What's the problem? An antibiotic drug treats infection by knocking out hundreds of strains of "sensitive" bacteria in the body. But left behind are many nonsensitive, or resistant, strains. With no stops in place, the resistant microbes repopulate themselves rapidly. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, or MRSA, is a bacterium that causes difficult-to-treat infections in humans, and its prevalence has been on the rise. Making matters worse, MRSA has become resistant to most disinfectants and antiseptics used in hospitals. Chemists are well aware of the public health danger posed by MRSA and other resistant organisms. They are working hard to outwit microbes that develop resistance. New forms of antibiotic drugs are currently in the pipeline, and researchers are trying to design them to target vulnerable molecular regions of enzymes within bacteria. Not Your Local Library As the name suggests, medicinal—also called pharmaceutical—chemistry is an area of research that focuses on designing and making drugs of all sorts. The first step in this process is identifying new molecules. Years ago, medicinal chemists spent most of their time isolating interesting molecules from living organisms, mainly plants. Today, however, chemists working in this area are equally concerned with finding good ways to make these molecules in the lab. Medicinal chemists also work out the best way to deliver the new drug: as a capsule, tablet, aerosol or injection. Identifying a molecule with a specific medicinal effect—like lowering cholesterol or killing only tuberculosis bacteria—takes time and patience. But a strategy called combinatorial chemistry can help a lot. In this process, chemists create and then sift through immense collections, or "libraries," of molecules. The newly identified molecules, or "leads," are then tested for their usefulness in treating disease in animals and people. Just like an online catalog helps you find books in the library or in a bookstore, combinatorial chemistry helps find molecules in a chemical library. It also usually involves computers to help a chemist find molecular matches that meet defined criteria. Chemical libraries consist of a diverse matrix of thousands or even millions of different molecules made from just a few starting chemical building blocks. Each chemical has associated information about its chemical structure, purity or other characteristics stored in some kind of database. Many properties help determine a molecule's potential as a drug. These include its chemical makeup, stability and solubility (how well it dissolves in water or body fluids). Synthesizing new molecules or drugs involves much more than following a simple recipe. That's because chemical reactions turn out two, mirror-image results: a "left" and a "right" version of a molecule. The molecular building blocks of proteins, sugars, and DNA and RNA all have this property, which is called chirality. The term stems from the Greek word for "hands," the most familiar chiral objects. Chemists call the two mirror images of a molecule enantiomers. Many chemical reactions generate a mixture of equal amounts of the two enantiomers. This matters when it comes to making a small molecule, such as a drug, that must fit precisely into a uniquely shaped cavity of a body protein. Whereas the left-handed version may fit perfectly into the correct space inside the protein, its right-handed counterpart couldn't squeeze in, no matter what. To manufacture products quickly and cost effectively, pharmaceutical companies used to produce medicines that contained equal portions of the left- and right-handed versions. That is because it is usually much less efficient and more expensive to produce only one enantiomer of a drug. Over time, however, chemistry research has taught us the importance of making single-handed compounds. This solves two problems. The first is eliminating enantiomers that are dangerous. And in the vast majority of cases, most drugs produced as left- and right-handed mixtures are only half as strong as they could be, because one hand does nothing more than dilute the final mixture.

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The EUVI telescope was developed at (LMSAL). The EUVI mirrors were figured and coated at (IOTA) and calibrated at (IAS), the focal plane assembly was developed at NRL and the University of Birmingham, the camera electronics were developed at RAL, and the aperture door was supplied by (MPS). The EUVI observes the chromosphere and low corona in four different EUV emission lines between 17.1 and 30.4 nm. It is a small, normal-incidence telescope with thin metal filters, multilayer coated mirrors, and a back- thinned CCD detector. Figure 2-1 shows one of the EUVIs during integration at LMSAL. Figure 2-2 is a cross section through the telescope. EUV radiation enters the telescope through a thin metal film filter of 150 nm of aluminum. This filter suppresses most of the UV, visible, and IR radiation and keeps the solar heat out of the telescope. During launch, the filter is protected by the front door. The radiation then passes through the quadrant selector to one of the four quadrants of the optics. Each quadrant of the primary and secondary mirror is coated with a narrow-band, multilayer reflective coating, optimized for one of four EUV lines. After bouncing off the primary and secondary mirror, the radiation continues through a filter wheel that has redundant thin-film aluminum filters to remove the remainder of the visible and IR radiation. A rotating blade shutter controls the exposure time. The image is formed on a CCD detector. The main parameters for the EUVI telescope are summarized in Table 2-1. |Instrument Type||Normal incidence EUV telescope (Ritchey-Chrétien)| |Wavelengths||He II 30.4 nm, Fe IX 17.1 nm, Fe XII 19. 5nm,Fe XV 28.4 nm| |IR/visible/UV rejection||> 10^13 using thin metal film filters| |Aperture||98 mm at primary mirror| |Effective Focal Length||1750 mm| |Field of View||Circular full sun field of view to ±1.7 solar radii| |Spatial Scale||1.6" pixels| |Detector||Backside illuminated CCD (e2v CCD42-40), 2048 x 2048 pixels| |Mechanisms||Aperture door, Quadrant selector, Filter wheel,Focal plane shutter| |Image Stabilization||Active secondary mirror (tip/tilt)| Range: ±7", jitter attenuation: factor 3 at 10 Hz The EUVI telescope is a Ritchey-Chrétien system with a secondary mirror magnification of 2.42. This system provides pixel limited resolution across the entire field of view in all four quadrants. The low secondary mirror magnification reduces the telescope's sensitivity to shifts in the mirror separation and eliminates the need for a focus mechanism. The telescope is fully baffled to prevent charged particles entering the front aperture from reaching the CCD. The telescope pupil is located just in front of the primary mirror and is defined by an aperture mask. The baffles and aperture mask have been designed for an unvignetted field of view to ±1.7 solar radii. Figure 2-3 shows ray trace results for a single quadrant, both on-axis and at the edge of the field, and up to 0.15 mm inside and outside of nominal focus. The system has a minor amount of field curvature; the nominal focus location is chosen to minimize the aberrations across the field. The EUVI mirrors were figured, polished, and multilayer coated at the Institut d'Optique in Orsay, who also made the mirrors for SOHO/EIT. The Zerodur mirror substrates were first polished to a sphere and superpolished to the required surface roughness. They were then aspherized using an ion beam etching technique that preserves the superpolished properties of the surface. Finally, each quadrant of each mirror was coated with a narrow passband reflective multilayer, optimized for the specific EUV emission to be observed in that quadrant. All coatings consist of MoSi layer pairs. The coating for the 28.4 nm quadrant has a variable layer spacing for optimum suppression of the nearby 30.4 nm He II emission line. The other coatings use constant layer spacings. Table 2-2 summarizes the properties of the coatings (Ravet et al, 2003). |Center wavelength (two mirror system)||17.3 nm||19.6 nm||28.5 nm||30.7 nm| |Bandwidth (measured FWHM for single reflection)||1.4 nm||1.6 nm||1.9 nm||3.0 nm| |Peak reflectivity (measured, for single reflection)||39 %||35 %||15 %||23 %| |Coating materials||MoSi||MoSi||MoSi, var. spacing||MoSi| The EUVI uses thin metal film filters at both the entrance aperture and near the focal plane to suppress undesired UV, visible, and IR radiation. Two types of filters are at the entrance of the telescope (Figure 2- 1): an aluminum-on-polyimide foil on a coarse nickel grid for the short wavelength quadrants (17.1 and 19.5 nm), and a single layer aluminum foil on a fine nickel mesh for the long wavelength quadrants (28.4 and 30.4 nm). Both types of filters use a 150 nm thick layer of aluminum to reject visible light. The grid- supported aluminum filter is backed with a 70 nm thick layer of polyimide for strength. The polyimide layer allows the filter to be supported by a coarse grid with 5 mm line spacing that causes only minimal diffraction at EUV wavelengths. The polyimide transmits only about 50% of the EUV radiation at the observing wavelengths, but this is not a major concern for the strong lines at 17.1 and 19.5 nm. The mesh supported filter avoids the absorbing polyimide layer, whose transmission is too low at longer wavelengths, especially for the somewhat weaker line at 28.4 nm. However, the fine mesh, with 0.36 mm line spacing, causes a noticeable amount of diffraction. Both types of filters have been flown on highly successful experiments: EIT used a plastic reinforced aluminum foil on a nearly identical coarse grid for all wavelengths and TRACE (Strong et al, 1994) used fine mesh supported filters nearly identical to the ones on the EUVI. Near the focal plane 150 nm thick aluminum filters on a fine mesh are housed in a filter wheel. The filter wheel offers redundant filters in case pinholes should develop on orbit. A third filter wheel position contains two filters in series to mitigate against any catastrophic damage to the entrance filters. The fourth filter slot is left open, primarily for ground testing. All filters were manufactured by LUXEL Corporation. The EUVI telescope contains blue and violet light emitting diodes (LEDs) for testing and calibration purposes. One set of LEDs is mounted in the spider and illuminates the detector through reflection off the two telescope mirrors. A second set is mounted near the CCD. Photons from the blue LED at 470 nm have a similar penetration depth in silicon as EUV photons, while photons from the violet LED at 400 nm provide a diagnostic that is sensitive to CCD surface effects. Photons from the violet LED at 400 nm have a shallower penetration depth and may potentially provide a diagnostic for changes in the sensitivity of the surface layer of the CCD. The EUVI uses a Graphite/Cyanate Ester metering tube as the main telescope structure. The tube stiffness maintains proper alignment of the optical system through launch. The low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) in the axial direction minimizes changes in the mirror separation and keeps the telescope in focus throughout the operational temperature range. This eliminates the need for a focus mechanism. The metering tube is lined with an aluminum foil on the inside that acts as a vapor and contamination barrier. Attached to the front of the metering tube are the secondary mirror spider, the quadrant selector spider, and the entrance chamber with the entrance filters and the interfaces to the aperture door and the forward mount. The spider arms are hollow and incorporate separate vent paths for the secondary mirror tip-tilt mechanism and for the quadrant selector motor. Attached to the aft end of the metering tube are the primary mirror mount and the aft metering structure with the shutter and filter wheel mechanisms, as well as the interfaces to the focal plane assembly and the aft mounts. The aft structure again incorporates separate vent paths for its mechanisms to minimize potential sources of contaminants inside the optical cavity. The EUVI primary mirror and mount are shown in Figure 2-4. The mount consists of a hexagonal Titanium ring that interfaces to the mirror substrate via three bi-pod flexures. This arrangement is semi-kinematic: each bi-pod strongly constrains two degrees of freedom, but is relatively flexible in the other four, thus isolating the mirror from thermal stresses in the mount. Interferometric tests showed that temperature changes of up to 22 C cause no measurable deformation of the mirror figure. The bi-pods are made of Invar and attach to the Zerodur mirror through bonded Invar mounting pads. This mirror mount is very compact to fit the tight envelope constraints of the EUVI telescope. The secondary mirror mount with its tip-tilt mechanism is shown in Figure 2-4. The mount is a single piece of Invar with three machined fingers that are bonded to the cylindrical base of the Zerodur mirror substrate. The tip-tilt mechanism is very similar to the one on the TRACE telescope. It uses three piezoelectric (PZT) actuators that push against the Invar mount of the mirror. Software in the SECCHI flight electronics processes fine pointing signals from the SECCHI guide telescope and drives the PZT actuators open loop via a simple digital-to-analog converter and low voltage drivers. The tip-tilt range in the EUVI image space is ±7 arcseconds, sufficient to accommodate worst case spacecraft jitter. The EUVI focal plane assembly (FPA) houses the e2v CCD42-40 detector and is passively cooled via an aluminum cold finger and a radiator surface at the anti-sun deck of the STEREO spacecraft. The FPA is equipped with a heater to keep the CCD warm during the time of high outgassing rates shortly after launch, and for occasional warmups for decontamination purposes and for annealing out radiation damage, if necessary. The FPA has its own vent path along the cold finger and through the radiator. The EUVI mirrors were calibrated as pairs at the synchrotron of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale in Orsay. The mirrors were arranged in the same geometry as in the EUVI telescope, and illuminated with a nearly collimated beam from a monochromator attached to the synchrotron. Each telescope quadrant was measured individually. Wavelength scans were performed with and without the telescope in the beam; the measured ratio provides the absolute total reflectivity of the mirror pairs. Single reflection coating properties are reported in Table 2-3. All coatings perform well, both in terms of high reflectivity and proper wavelength of peak reflectivity. The coating for 28.4 nm is optimized for rejecting the strong He II line at 30.4 nm, which results in a somewhat lower peak reflectivity as expected. CCDs were calibrated at the Brookhaven synchrotron and at the LMSAL XUV calibration facility. The entrance and focal plane filters were also calibrated at the LMSAL XUV calibration facility. The results of those measurements were used to fit CCD and filter response models. The calibration curves of the individual components were combined to obtain the EUVI effective area as a function of wavelength. The results are shown in Figure 2-5. The two telescopes (EUVI-A and EUVI-B) have very similar responses. Using the calibration results we predict the response of the EUVI to typical solar plasmas. We take typical differential emission measure distributions (DEMs) reported in the literature, predict the resulting solar spectral line emission using the CHIANTI8 software, and combine the result with our calibration data. Table 2-4 summarizes the pixel count rates for selected solar features in the different EUVI channels. Note that CHIANTI underestimates the He II flux by typically a factor of three so we have multiplied the prediction by a factor of 3. Figure 2-6 shows count rates predicted for isothermal plasmas as a function of plasma temperature. |Photons/s/pixel||Quiet Sun||Active Region||M Class Flare| |17.1 nm||92 / 98||954 / 976||25700 / 26700| |19.5 nm||40 / 41||784 / 792||92200 / 101500| |28.4 nm||4 / 4||118 / 130||5540 / 6110| |30.4 nm||30 / 30||428 / 419||18100 / 17800|

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On September 8, 2011, the U.S. Senate passed the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act, which President Obama signed into law on September 16, 2011. The America Invents Act is the most significant change to U.S. patent law since the Patent Act of 1952. The Act is large and presents many changes, but some of the most significant changes are as follows: Fee Increase: The fees charged by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) will increase by 15% on September 26, 2011 – 10 days after the Act was signed into law. Micro Entity Status: While an explanation of the precise requirements of this status has yet to be set forth by the USPTO, individuals that have not been named on more than four patent applications, did not have a gross income more than three times the median household income for the preceding year, and have not assigned the application to an entity whose income exceeded that amount, seem likely to qualify. First-to-File System: In closer harmonization with the rest of the world, the Act implements a modified first-to-file system, rather than a first-to-invent system. This provision goes into effect eighteen months after enactment, or March 16, 2013. An inventor must file a patent application first, publish the subject matter to be patented and then file within a year, or prove that an applicant who filed first derived the claimed subject matter from the inventor. As such, interference proceedings will be replaced by “Derivation Proceedings” and the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences will be replaced by the Patent Trial and Expedited Prosecution – for a Fee: For a fee of $4,800, Applicants will be able to take advantage of prioritized examination, which is intended to reach final disposition of an application within twelve months. In other words, such applications will be placed at the top of the Examiner’s queue. More Prior Art Available to Examiners: The scope of prior art that is available to Examiners when rejecting claims has also been broadened. Effective eighteen months after enactment, or March 16, 2013, Examiners will be able to use foreign published applications or issued patents where granted U.S. patents claim the priority dates thereof. Such applications and issued patents will be prior art effective as of their filing dates. Also, activities that formerly only defeated patentability in the U.S, including prior use and placing products on sale, will now also be detrimental when performed in foreign countries. Public may Enter Prior Art During Patent Prosecution: Third parties can submit patents and printed publications that qualify as prior art, as well as certain statements by a patent owner before a Federal Court or the USPTO, during patent prosecution. No Inter Partes Reexamination: This practice will no longer be available to parties looking to challenge the validity of patents. Post-Grant Review and Inter Partes Review: Post-Grant Review will be available up to nine months after issuance of a patent. Any ground of invalidity may be used during this proceeding. On the other hand, Inter Partes Review will be available beginning nine months after a patent issues or reissues, and will be limited to consideration of novelty or non-obviousness as it pertains to patents and printed publications. The threshold for each type of review differs. Post-Grant Review requires that it is more likely than not that at least one of the claims challenged will be unpatentable, or a novel or unsettled legal question must be raised that is important to other patents or patent applications. Inter Partes Review requires a reasonable likelihood that the petitioner would prevail with respect to at least one of the claims challenged. No More Best Mode Requirement: While failure to disclose the best mode for practicing an invention has only successfully invalidated a small number of patents during its existence, this requirement has been eliminated. In summary, significant changes are coming to the patent process that will likely change the way that prudent Applicants pursue protection of their inventions. For instance, with the implementation of a first-to-file system, it seems likely that the importance of swiftly filing provisional patent applications will increase to ensure that the subject matter disclosed therein can be protected down the road. Also, organizations may choose to investigate the published applications of their competitors and to submit art for consideration in such cases. This, in turn, may lead to an increase in the number of nonpublication requests that are submitted with new applications. In any case, the America Invents Act merits careful consideration by Applicants as they reconsider their patent strategies. The United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) recently issued a notice that clarifies the criteria for a reissue error under 35 U.S.C. § 251. Previously, MPEP § 1402 stated that: [A]n error under 35 U.S.C. § 251 has not been presented where a reissue application only adds one or more claims that is/are narrower than one or more broader existing patent claims without narrowing the broader patent claim by amendment or canceling the broader patent claim. A reissue application in which the only error specified to support reissue is the failure to include one or more claims that is/are narrower than at least one of the existing claim(s) without an allegation that one or more of the broader patent claim(s) is/are too broad together with an amendment to such claim(s), does not meet the requirements of 35 U.S.C. 251. Such a reissue application should not be allowed. However, in the recent decision of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (CAFC) in In re Tanaka, the CAFC held that in a reissue application, the addition of claims that are narrower in scope than the existing claims, without any narrowing of the existing patent claims, may be the basis for correcting an error under 35 U.S.C. § 251 to support a proper reissue application. To view the USPTO’s Notice regarding reissue applications, please click On July 26, 2011, the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) issued a memorandum explaining to Examiners when art should be considered to be analogous. In particular, the memorandum explains that art is considered to be analogous to the claimed invention if: (1) the reference is from the same field of endeavor as the claimed invention (even if the reference addresses a different problem than the claimed invention); or (2) the reference is reasonably pertinent to the problem faced by the inventor (even if the reference is not in the same field of endeavor as the claimed invention). The memorandum further states that the Examiner may include a statement of understanding regarding the problem faced by the inventor when relying on analogous art, or include a statement explaining why one seeking to solve the identified problem would have allegedly looked to the reference in an attempt to find a solution to the problem. It appears that the memorandum may increase the burden on the Examiner when relying on a reference as analogous art. Also, the memorandum may be beneficial to practitioners when responding to an Office Action that relies on analogous art when rejecting claims as obvious. To view the USPTO’s Memorandum, please click

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Salma (Longinotto, 2013) When Salma, a young Muslim girl in a south Indian village, was 13 years old, her family locked her up for 25 years, forbidding her to study and forcing her into marriage. During that time, words were Salma’s salvation. She began covertly composing poems on scraps of paper and, through an intricate system, was able to sneak them out of the house, eventually getting them into the hands of a publisher. Against the odds, Salma became the most famous Tamil poet: the first step to discovering her own freedom and challenging the traditions and code of conduct in her village.

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Your location is outside the National Library of Australia. Resources you can access: Informit: Covers agriculture and natural resources including sustainable Australian agriculture, food, forestry and fisheries industries and the promotion of conservation and sustainable use of Australia's environment, water and natural resources. Includes the databases ANR - Index, ANR - Index Archive, ANR - Research, ANR - Research Archive and Streamline. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry: The portal is a catalogue of Australian, State and Territory government information and services for the agricultural, fisheries, processed food and forestry industries. Categories to browse include resource management, products and resources, agricultural economics and agribusiness. Informit: Covers Australian natural and cultural environment topics specific to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Subject coverage includes aboriginal rock art sites, ceremonial grounds and sacred sites, important historical and archaeological sites, historic buildings and structures, historic towns and precincts, coasts, forests, national parks, endangered species, wetlands, rivers, geological features, wilderness areas and world heritage sites. Informit: Covers information on Australia's natural and cultural environment, including national parks, endangered species, wilderness areas, important historical and archaeological sites, historic buildings, structures and towns. Formerly HERA. Environment Australia: This site is a directory to Australian heritage resources available on the internet. It includes searchable databases (such as the Australian Heritage Places Inventory) and lists of the national and state heritage registers. It also includes links to funding, relevant legislation, government and non-government agencies and other key resources. Informit: Covers the sustainable management of land, vegetation and water resources, including urban water and waste water and irrigation systems. Thomson Gale: Including the addition of 25 new species, this new 2nd edition is completely updated to reflect the changes in endangered and threatened status. Color photographs and maps provide further illustrate the many species threatened by extinction, including amphibians, birds, crustaceans, fish, insects, mammals, mollusks, reptiles, and more. Each entry gives a species description, location, reason for endangerment, and measures being taken to prevent it from extinction. This online book is part of the Gale Virtual Reference Library. Informit: Covers the environment and related fields, including air pollution and quality, sustainable development, salinity, environmental protection and management, hazardous wastes, recycling, waste management and disposal, water pollution, environmental assessment and pollution control. Informit: Covers indigenous issues of the geographical region of Far North Queensland, providing coverage of Torres Strait, Far North Queensland, indigenous issues, local history, environment, eco-tourism, biographies. Informit: Covers material on the Great Barrier Reef, including coastal zone management, conservation, coral reef ecology, economics, environmental impact assessment, fisheries, history, indigenous natural resource management, marine archaeology, marine biology, marine park management and planning, natural resource management, oceanography, recreation, scuba diving, sea rights, shipping and ports, social studies, tourism, water quality, world heritage and zoology. We don't seem to have written any guides for this topic. Try another topic, or see this list of all guides.

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At the final I will pass out a sheet that has four questions on it drawn from the eight below. You will have to answer 3 of those four. Each will be worth 12 pts (=36pts) 1. Describe studies that appear to support the notion of a frontally-mediated STM distinct from LTM. 2. What is social cognition and what mental processes are thought to be critical to it? 3. Why is the anterior paracingulate cortex thought to be especially important to theory of mind. 4. What contribution to moral thinking does the temporal lobe make? Describe the specific differences between the function of the STS (superior temporal sulcus) and the temporal poles. 5.What evidence from the ultimate game indicates that rDLPC-impaired subjects have a more difficult time resisting selfish interests? 6. How do genetic studies support the notion of male competition and female choice operating in our past. 7. What was the disagreement between Darwin and Wallace concerning the evolution of the human mind and how is that debate cast today? 8. What selection pressures likely produced fluid intelligence and what purpose would it have served (and continues to serve)? At the final I will pass out a sheet that has 5 questions on it drawn from the eight below. You will have to answer 4 of the five. Each will be worth 15 pts (=60pts). Thus, the final will have a total of seven questions worth 96pts. 1. What is a hominin and what are the four “adaptive complexes” that 2. Discuss the earliest stone tools. How were they made, what were they used for, what do they indicate about hominin intelligence? 3. What characteristics indicate that erectus crossed an important threshold in human evolution? 4. What evidence indicates that erectus made (some) tools for social and not practical reasons? 5. What specific benefits do Coolidge and Wynn propose came from a nest-to-ground transition in sleep? 6. Describe the spatial and technical intelligence of Homo heidelbergensis. What aspects of WM are involved in these abilities? 7. Discuss the “evidence” for symbolism among Neanderthals such as burials, use of pigments, and “art.” How convincing is this evidence? 8. Why does Eric Trinkaus argue that “it is we” who are unusual and not Neanderthals?

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In the Tridentine tradition, today is know as "The Invention of St Stephen, Protomartyr." St Stephen we know. His feast is celebrated on 26 December, when his glorious death at the hands of Jews "stiffnecked and uncircumcised in heart and ears" is commemorated. So why a second feast? Because this is the day when (as Christian tradition has it) his relics were found. (In Middle English, and even today's English, "invention" can mean "finding" or "discovery.") Yet it is not just St Stephen's relics that were found, but (not surprisingly) those also of some Jews who were known to speak well of the Christ and Christians. Here is how the Anglican Breviary recounts the day: It is related that, for a long time, there lay hidden, in a mean and obscure place near Jerusalem, the bodies of the following Saints : Stephen the Protomartyr ; Gamaliel, the celebrated Doctor of the Old Law, who withstood his fellow-members of the Sanhedrin when they desired to put the Apostles to death ; Nicodemus, who had defended Jesus in the Sanhedrin, and afterward came to him by night, unto whom was thereupon revealed the mystery of baptismal regeneration, and who assisted in the burial of Jesus ; and Abibon, the son of Gamaliel. Today's feast is a commemoration of the finding of the holy relicks of these men of God. ... [I]n the places where a feast is kept in honor of Saint Nicodemus, or the other aforementioned holy ones, it is observed on this day. It appears, then, that the Western Church has not traditionally shied away from venerating these Jewish men of God who did not deny, but confessed the Christ. Let us now praise men of renown, and our fathers in their generation. (Eccl 44.1)

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Virgin Islands National Park General Management Plan and Environmental Impact Statement The National Park Service is initiating a major planning effort that will guide the future management of both Virgin Islands National Park and the newly established Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument. This effort will create a vision for each park that will serve as a management blueprint for the next 15 to 20 years, namely new General Management Plans. To help guide us in this effort, we look forward to receiving input from the public, park partners, and others who have a vested stake in the future of these two parks. What should we be doing to ensure that cultural and natural resources are protected? What should we be doing to ensure that visitors have a quality experience? How can we work with our neighbors to address common problems that affect the parks and surrounding communities? Tell us your ideas about these and other topics. About the Parks Virgin Islands National Park comprises slightly more than half of the island of St. John and almost nine square miles of the waters surrounding St. John. The park also includes 135 acres of land on Hassel Island, which is located in the harbor of Charlotte Amalie on St. Thomas, 6 acres in the Red Hook area, and 4 acres at the Wintberg Estate on St. Thomas. In recognition of its internationally significant natural resources, the park was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1976 and is one of the few biosphere reserves in the world to have both significant marine and terrestrial resources. Within its borders lie protected bays of crystal blue-green waters and an abundance of coral reef life, white sandy beaches shaded by seagrape trees, coconut palms, and tropical forests providing habitat for over 800 species of plants. The park's cultural resources are significant in the settlement and colonization of the New World, maritime history and commerce, and African-American history. The park features artifacts from the Pre-Colombian Amerindian civilization, remains of the Danish Colonial sugar plantations, and reminders of African slavery and the subsistence culture that followed during the 100 years after Emancipation. Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument is located in submerged lands off of St. John. This new unit of the National Park System contains all the elements of a Caribbean tropical marine ecosystem. The national monument designation furthers the protection of the scientific objects included in the Virgin Islands National Park. The biological communities of the monument live in a fragile, interdependent relationship and include habitats essential for sustaining and enhancing the tropical marine ecosystem, including mangroves, sea grass beds, coral reefs, sand communities, shallow mud and fine sediment habitat, and algal plains. The monument contains several threatened and endangered species, which forage, breed, nest, or rest in the waters. Humpback whales, pilot whales, four species of dolphins, brown pelicans, roseate terns, least terns, and the hawksbill, leatherback, and green sea turtles all use portions of the monument. Countless species of reef fish, invertebrates, and plants utilize these submerged lands during their lives, and over 25 species of sea birds feed in the waters. The national monument may also contain some of the 28 known shipwrecks in the vicinity of St. John.

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The Meaning of the Glorious Qur'ân, by M.M. Pickthall, at sacred-texts.com 5. al-Ma'idah: The Food 1 O ye who believe! Fulfil your indentures. The beast of cattle is made lawful unto you (for food) except that which is announced unto you (herein), game being unlawful when ye are on the pilgrimage. Lo! Allah ordaineth that which pleaseth Him. 2 O ye who believe! Profane not Allah's monuments nor the Sacred Month nor the offerings nor the garlands, nor those repairing to the Sacred House, seeking the grace and pleasure of their Lord. But when ye have left the sacred territory, then go hunting (if ye will). And let not your hatred of a folk who (once) stopped your going to the inviolable place of worship seduce you to transgress; but help ye one another unto righteousness and pious duty. Help not one another unto sin and transgression, but keep your duty to Allah. Lo! Allah is severe in punishment. 3 Forbidden unto you (for food) are carrion and blood and swineflesh, and that which hath been dedicated unto any other than Allah, and the strangled, and the dead through beating, and the dead through falling from a height, and that which hath been killed by (the goring of) horns, and the devoured of wild beasts, saving that which ye make lawful (by the death-stroke), and that which hath been immolated unto idols. And (forbidden is it) that ye swear by the divining arrows. This is an abomination. This day are those who disbelieve in despair of (ever harming) your religion; so fear them not, fear Me! This day have I perfected your religion for you and completed My favour unto you, and have chosen for you as religion al-Islam. Whoso is forced by hunger, not by will, to sin: (for him) lo! Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. 4 They ask thee (O Muhammad) what is made lawful for them. Say: (all) good things are made lawful for you. And those beasts and birds of prey which ye have trained as hounds are trained, ye teach them that which Allah taught you; so eat of that which they catch for you and mention Allah's name upon it, and observe your duty to Allah. Lo! Allah is swift to take account. 5 This day are (all) good things made lawful for you. The food of those who have received the Scripture is lawful for you, and your food is lawful for them. And so are the virtuous women of the believers and the virtuous women of those who received the Scripture before you (lawful for you) when ye give them their marriage portions and live with them in honour, not in fornication, nor taking them as secret concubines. Whoso denieth the faith, his work is vain and he will be among the losers in the Hereafter. 6 O ye who believe! When ye rise up for prayer, wash you faces, and your hands up to the elbows, and lightly rub your heads and (wash) your feet up to the ankles. And if ye are unclean, purify yourselves. And if ye are sick or on a journey, or one of you cometh from the closet, or ye have had contact with women, and ye find not water, then go to clean, high ground and rub your faces and your hands with some of it. Allah would not place a burden on you, but He would purify you and would perfect His grace upon you, that ye may give thanks. 7 Remember Allah's grace upon you and His covenant by which He bound you when ye said: We hear and we obey; And keep your duty to Allah. Lo! He knoweth what is in the breasts (of men). 8 O ye who believe! Be steadfast witnesses for Allah in equity, and let not hatred of any people seduce you that ye deal not justly. Deal justly, that is nearer to your duty. Observe your duty to Allah. Lo! Allah is Informed of what ye do. 9 Allah hath promised those who believe and do good works: Theirs will be forgiveness and immense reward. 10 And they who disbelieve and deny Our revelations, such are rightful owners of hell. 11 O ye who believe! Remember Allah's favour unto you, how a people were minded to stretch out their hands against you but He withheld their hands from you; and keep your duty to Allah. In Allah let believers put their trust. 12 Allah made a covenant of old with the Children of Israel and We raised among them twelve chieftains, and Allah said: Lo! I am with you. If ye establish worship and pay the poor-due, and believe in My messengers and support them, and lend unto Allah a kindly loan, surely I shall remit your sins, and surely I shall bring you into Gardens underneath which rivers flow. Whoso among you disbelieveth after this will go astray from a plain road. 13 And because of their breaking their covenant, We have cursed them and made hard their hearts. They change words from their context and forget a part of that whereof they were admonished. Thou wilt not cease to discover treachery from all save a few of them. But bear with them and pardon them. Lo! Allah loveth the kindly. 14 And with those who say: "Lo! we are Christians," We made a covenant, but they forgot a part of that whereof they were admonished. Therefor We have stirred up enmity and hatred among them till the Day of Resurrection, when Allah will inform them of their handiwork. 15 O People of the Scripture! Now hath Our messenger come unto you, expounding unto you much of that which ye used to hide in the Scripture, and forgiving much. now hath come unto you light from Allah and plain Scripture, 16 Whereby Allah guideth him who seeketh His good pleasure unto paths of peace. He bringeth them out of darkness unto light by His decree, and guideth them unto a straight path. 17 They indeed have disbelieved who say: Lo! Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary. Say: Who then can do aught against Allah, if He had willed to destroy the Messiah son of Mary, and his mother and everyone on earth ? Allah's is the Sovereignty of the heavens and the earth and all that is between them. He createth what He will. And Allah is Able to do all things. 18 The Jews and Christians say: We are sons of Allah and His loved ones. Say: Why then doth He chastise you for your sins ? Nay, ye are but mortals of His creating. He forgiveth whom He will, and chastiseth whom He will. Allah's is the Sovereignty of the heavens and the earth and all that is between them, and unto Him is the journeying. 19 O People of the Scripture! Now hath Our messenger come unto you to make things plain unto you after an interval (of cessation) of the messengers, lest ye should say: There came not unto us a messenger of cheer nor any warner. Now hath a messenger of cheer and a warner come unto you. Allah is Able to do all things. 20 And (remember) when Moses said unto his people: O my people! Remember Allah's favour unto you, how He placed among you prophets, and He made you kings, and gave you that (which) He gave not to any (other) of (His) creatures. 21 O my people! Go into the holy land which Allah hath ordained for you. Turn not in flight, for surely ye turn back as losers: 22 They said: O Moses! Lo! a giant people (dwell) therein and lo! we go not in till they go forth from thence. When they go forth from thence, then we will enter (not till then). 23 Then out spake two of those who feared (their Lord, men) unto whom Allah had been gracious: Enter in upon them by the gate, for if ye enter by it, lo! ye will be victorious. So put your trust (in Allah) if ye are indeed believers. 24 They said: O Moses! We will never enter (the land) while they are in it. So go thou and thy Lord and fight! We will sit here. 25 He said: My Lord! I have control of none but myself and my brother, so distinguish between us and the wrong-doing folk. 26 (Their Lord) said: For this the land will surely be forbidden them for forty years that they will wander in the earth, bewildered. So grieve not over the wrongdoing folk. 27 But recite unto them with truth the tale of the two sons of Adam, how they offered each a sacrifice, and it was accepted from the one of them and it was not accepted from the other. (The one) said: I will surely kill thee. (The other) answered: Allah accepteth only from those who ward off (evil). 28 Even if thou stretch out thy hand against me to kill me, I shall not stretch out my hand against thee to kill thee, lo! I fear Allah, the Lord of the Worlds. 29 Lo! I would rather thou shouldst bear the punishment of the sin against me and thine own sin and become one of the owners of the fire. That is the reward of evil-doers. 30 But (the other's) mind imposed on him the killing of his brother, so he slew him and became one of the losers. 31 Then Allah sent a raven scratching up the ground, to show him how to hide his brother's naked corpse. He said: Woe unto me! Am I not able to be as this raven and so hide my brother's naked corpse ? And he became repentant. 32 For that cause We decreed for the Children of Israel that whosoever killeth a human being for other than manslaughter or corruption in the earth, it shall be as if he had killed all mankind, and whoso saveth the life of one, it shall be as if he had saved the life of all mankind. Our messengers came unto them of old with clear proofs (of Allah's Sovereignty), but afterwards lo! many of them became prodigals in the earth. 33 The only reward of those who make war upon Allah and His messenger and strive after corruption in the land will be that they will be killed or crucified, or have their hands and feet on alternate sides cut off, or will be expelled out of the land. Such will be their degradation in the world, and in the Hereafter theirs will be an awful doom; 34 Save those who repent before ye overpower them. For know that Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. 35 O ye who believe! Be mindful of your duty to Allah, and seek the way of approach unto Him, and strive in His way in order that ye may succeed. 36 As for those who disbelieve, lo! if all that is in the earth were theirs, and as much again therewith, to ransom them from the doom on the Day of Resurrection, it would not be accepted from them. Theirs will be a painful doom. 37 They will wish to come forth from the Fire, but they will not come forth from it. Theirs will be a lasting doom. 38 As for the thief, both male and female, cut off their hands. It is the reward of their own deeds, an exemplary punishment from Allah. Allah is Mighty, Wise. 39 But whoso repenteth after his wrongdoing and amendeth, lo! Allah will relent toward him. Lo! Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. 40 Knowest thou not that unto Allah belongeth the Sovereignty of the heavens and the earth ? He punisheth whom He will, and forgiveth whom He will. Allah is Able to do all things. 41 O Messenger! Let not them grieve thee who vie one with another in the race to disbelief, of such as say with their mouths: "We believe," but their hearts believe not, and of the Jews: listeners for the sake of falsehood, listeners on behalf of other folk who come not unto thee, changing words from their context and saying: If this be given unto you, receive it, but if this be not given unto you, then beware! He whom Allah doometh unto sin, thou (by thine efforts) wilt avail him naught against Allah. Those are they for whom the Will of Allah is that He cleanse not their hearts. Theirs in the world will be ignominy, and in the Hereafter an awful doom; 42 Listeners for the sake of falsehood! Greedy for illicit gain! If then they have recourse unto thee (Muhammad) judge between them or disclaim jurisdiction. If thou disclaimest jurisdiction, then they cannot harm thee at all. But if thou judgest, judge between them with equity. Lo! Allah loveth the equitable. 43 How come they unto thee for judgment when they have the Torah, wherein Allah hath delivered judgment (for them) ? Yet even after that they turn away. Such (folk) are not believers. 44 Lo! We did reveal the Torah, wherein is guidance and a light, by which the prophets who surrendered (unto Allah) judged the Jews, and the rabbis and the priests (judged) by such of Allah's Scripture as they were bidden to observe, and thereunto were they witnesses. So fear not mankind, but fear Me. And My revelations for a little gain. Whoso judgeth not by that which Allah hath revealed: such are disbelievers. 45 And We prescribed for them therein: The life for the life, and the eye for the eye, and the nose for the nose, and the ear for the ear, and the tooth for the tooth, and for wounds retaliation. But whoso forgoeth it (in the way of charity) it shall be expiation for him. Whoso judgeth not by that which Allah hath revealed: such are wrong-doers. 46 And We caused Jesus, son of Mary, to follow in their footsteps, confirming that which was (revealed) before him in the Torah, and We bestowed on him the Gospel wherein is guidance and a light, confirming that which was (revealed) before it in the Torah - a guidance and an admonition unto those who ward off (evil). 47 Let the People of the Gospel judge by that which Allah hath revealed therein. Whoso judgeth not by that which Allah hath revealed: such are evil-livers. 48 And unto thee have We revealed the Scripture with the truth, confirming whatever Scripture was before it, and a watcher over it. So judge between them by that which Allah hath revealed, and follow not their desires away from the truth which hath come unto thee. For each We have appointed a divine law and a traced-out way. Had Allah willed He could have made you one community. But that He may try you by that which He hath given you (He hath made you as ye are). So vie one with another in good works. Unto Allah ye will all return, and He will then inform you of that wherein ye differ. 49 So judge between them by that which Allah hath revealed, and follow not their desires, but beware of them lest they seduce thee from some part of that which Allah hath revealed unto thee. And if they turn away, then know that Allah's Will is to smite them for some sin of theirs. Lo! many of mankind are evil-livers. 50 Is it a judgment of the time of (pagan) ignorance that they are seeking ? Who is better than Allah for judgment to a people who have certainty (in their belief) ? 51 O ye who believe! Take not the Jews and the Christians for friends. They are friends one to another. He among you who taketh them for friends is (one) of them. Lo! Allah guideth not wrongdoing folk. 52 And thou seest those in whose heart is a disease race toward them, saying: We fear lest a change of fortune befall us. And it may happen that Allah will vouchsafe (unto thee) the victory, or a commandment from His presence. Then will they repent them of their secret thoughts. 53 Then will the believers say (unto the people of the Scripture): are these they who swore by Allah their most binding oaths that they were surely with you ? Their works have failed, and they have become the losers. 54 O ye who believe! Whoso of you becometh a renegade from his religion, (know that in his stead) Allah will bring a people whom He loveth and who love Him, humble toward believers, stern toward disbelievers, striving in the way of Allah, and fearing not the blame of any blamer. Such is the grace of Allah which He giveth unto whom He will. Allah is All-Embracing, All-Knowing. 55 Your guardian can be only Allah; and His messenger and those who believe, who establish worship and pay the poordue, and bow down (in prayer). 56 And whoso taketh Allah and His messenger and those who believe for guardian (will know that), lo! the party of Allah, they are the victorious. 57 O Ye who believe! Choose not for guardians such of those who received the Scripture before you, and of the disbelievers, as make a jest and sport of your religion. But keep your duty to Allah if ye are true believers. 58 And when ye call to prayer they take it for a jest and sport. That is because they are a folk who understand not. 59 Say: O People of the Scripture! Do ye blame us for aught else than that we believe in Allah and that which is revealed unto us and that which was revealed aforetime, and because most of you are evil-livers ? 60 Shall I tell thee of a worse (case) than theirs for retribution with Allah ? (Worse is the case of him) whom Allah hath cursed, him on whom His wrath hath fallen and of whose sort Allah hath turned some to apes and swine, and who serveth idols. Such are in worse plight and further astray from the plain road. 61 When they come unto you (Muslims), they say: We believe; but they came in unbelief and they went out in the same; and Allah knoweth best what they were hiding. 62 And thou seest many of them vying one with another in sin and transgression and their devouring of illicit gain. Verily evil is what they do. 63 Why do not the rabbis and the priests forbid their evil-speaking and their devouring of illicit gain ? Verily evil is their handiwork. 64 The Jews say: Allah's hand is fettered. Their hands are fettered and they are accursed for saying so. Nay, but both His hands are spread out wide in bounty. He bestoweth as He will. That which hath been revealed unto thee from thy Lord is certain to increase the contumacy and disbelief of many of them, and We have cast among them enmity and hatred till the Day of Resurrection. As often as they light a fire for war, Allah extinguisheth it. Their effort is for corruption in the land, and Allah loveth not corrupters. 65 If only the People of the Scripture would believe and ward off (evil), surely We should remit their sins from them and surely We should bring them into Gardens of Delight. 66 If they had observed the Torah and the Gospel and that which was revealed unto them from their Lord, they would surely have been nourished from above them and from beneath their feet. Among them there are people who are moderate, but many of them are of evil conduct. 67 O Messenger! Make known that which hath been revealed unto thee from thy Lord, for if thou do it not, thou wilt not have conveyed His message. Allah will protect thee from mankind. Lo! Allah guideth not the disbelieving folk. 68 Say O People of the Scripture! Ye have naught (of guidance) till ye observe the Torah and the Gospel and that which was revealed unto you from your Lord. That which is revealed unto thee (Muhammad) from thy Lord is certain to increase the contumacy and disbelief of many of them. But grieve not for the disbelieving folk. 69 Lo! those who believe, and those who are Jews, and Sabaeans, and Christians - Whosoever believeth in Allah and the Last Day and doeth right - there shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve. 70 We made a covenant of old with the Children of Israel and We sent unto them messengers. As often as a messenger came unto them with that which their souls desired not (they became rebellious). Some (of them) they denied and some they slew. 71 They thought no harm would come of it, so they were wilfully blind and deaf. And afterward Allah turned (in mercy) toward them. Now (even after that) are many of them wilfully blind and deaf. Allah is Seer of what they do. 72 They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary. The Messiah (himself) said: O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Lo! whoso ascribeth partners unto Allah, for him Allah hath forbidden paradise. His abode is the Fire. For evil-doers there will be no helpers. 73 They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three; when there is no God save the One God. If they desist not from so saying a painful doom will fall on those of them who disbelieve. 74 Will they not rather turn unto Allah and seek forgiveness of Him ? For Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. 75 The Messiah, son of Mary, was no other than a messenger, messengers (the like of whom) had passed away before him. And his mother was a saintly woman. And they both used to eat (earthly) food. See how We make the revelations clear for them, and see how they are turned away! 76 Say: Serve ye in place of Allah that which possesseth for you neither hurt nor use ? Allah it is Who is the Hearer, the Knower. 77 Say: O People of the Scripture! Stress not in your religion other than the truth, and follow not the vain desires of folk who erred of old and led many astray, and erred from a plain road. 78 Those of the Children of Israel who went astray were cursed by the tongue of David, and of Jesus, son of Mary. That was because they rebelled and used to transgress. 79 They restrained not one another from the wickedness they did. Verily evil was that they used to do! 80 Thou seest many of them making friends with those who disbelieve. Surely ill for them is that which they themselves send on before them: that Allah will be wroth with them and in the doom they will abide. 81 If they believed in Allah and the Prophet and that which is revealed unto him, they would not choose them for their friends. But many of them are of evil conduct. 82 Thou wilt find the most vehement of mankind in hostility to those who believe (to be) the Jews and the idolaters. And thou wilt find the nearest of them in affection to those who believe (to be) those who say: Lo! We are Christians. That is because there are among them priests and monks, and because they are not proud. 83 When they listen to that which hath been revealed unto the messengers, thou seest their eyes overflow with tears because of their recognition of the Truth. They say: Our Lord, we believe. Inscribe us as among the witnesses. 84 How should we not believe in Allah and that which hath come unto us of the Truth. And (how should we not) hope that our Lord will bring us in along with righteous folk ? 85 Allah hath rewarded them for that their saying - Gardens underneath which rivers flow, wherein they will abide for ever. That is the reward of the good. 86 But those who disbelieve and deny Our revelations, they are owners of hell- fire. 87 O ye who believe! Forbid not the good things which Allah hath made lawful for you, and transgress not, Lo! Allah loveth not transgressors. 88 Eat of that which Allah hath bestowed on you as food lawful and good, and keep your duty to Allah in Whom ye are believers. 89 Allah will not take you to task for that which is unintentional in your oaths, but He will take you to task for the oaths which ye swear in earnest. The expiation thereof is the feeding of ten of the needy with the average of that wherewith ye feed your own folk, or the clothing of them, or the liberation of a slave, and for him who findeth not (the wherewithal to do so) then a three days' fast. This is the expiation of your oaths when ye have sworn; and keep your oaths. Thus Allah expoundeth unto you His revelations in order that ye may give thanks. 90 O ye who believe! Strong drink and games of chance and idols and divining arrows are only an infamy of Satan's handiwork. Leave it aside in order that ye may succeed. 91 Satan seeketh only to cast among you enmity and hatred by means of strong drink and games of chance, and to turn you from remembrance of Allah and from (His) worship. Will ye then have done ? 92 Obey Allah and obey the messenger, and beware! But if ye turn away, then know that the duty of Our messenger is only plain conveyance (of the message). 93 There shall be no sin (imputed) unto those who believe and do good works for what they may have eaten (in the past). So be mindful of your duty (to Allah), and believe, and do good works; and again: be mindful of your duty, and believe; and once again: be mindful of your duty, and do right. Allah loveth the good. 94 O ye who believe! Allah will surely try you somewhat (in the matter) of the game which ye take with your hands and your spears, that Allah may know him who feareth Him in secret. Whoso transgresseth after this, for him there is a painful doom. 95 O ye who believe! Kill no wild game while ye are on the pilgrimage. Whoso of you killeth it of set purpose he shall pay its forfeit in the equivalent of that which he hath killed, of domestic animals, the judge to be two men among you known for justice, (the forfeit) to be brought as an offering to the Ka'bah; or, for expiation, he shall feed poor persons, or the equivalent thereof in fasting, that he may taste the evil consequences of his deed. Allah forgiveth whatever (of this kind) may have happened in the past, but whoso relapseth, Allah will take retribution from him. Allah is Mighty, Able to Requite (the wrong). 96 To hunt and to eat the fish of the sea is made lawful for you, a provision for you and for seafarers; but to hunt on land is forbidden you so long as ye are on the pilgrimage. Be mindful of your duty to Allah, unto Whom ye will be gathered. 97 Allah hath appointed the Ka'bah, the Sacred House, a standard for mankind, and the Sacred Month and the offerings and the garlands. That is so that ye may know that Allah knoweth whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth, and that Allah is Knower of all things. 98 Know that Allah is severe in punishment, but that Allah (also) is Forgiving, Merciful. 99 The duty of the messenger is only to convey (the message). Allah knoweth what ye proclaim and what ye hide. 100 Say: The evil and the good are not alike even though the plenty of the evil attract thee. So be mindful of your duty to Allah, O men of understanding, that ye may succeed. 101 O ye who believe! Ask not of things which, if they were made unto you, would trouble you; but if ye ask of them when the Qur'an is being revealed, they will be made known unto you. Allah pardoneth this, for Allah is Forgiving, Clement. 102 A folk before you asked (for such disclosures) and then disbelieved therein. 103 Allah hath not appointed anything in the nature of a Bahirah or a Sa'ibah or a Wasilah or a Hami, but those who disbelieve invent a lie against Allah. Most of them have no sense. 104 And when it is said unto them: Come unto that which Allah hath revealed and unto the messenger, they say: Enough for us is that wherein we found our fathers. What! Even though their fathers had no knowledge whatsoever, and no guidance ? 105 O ye who believe! Ye have charge of your own souls. He who erreth cannot injure you if ye are rightly guided. Unto Allah ye will all return; and then He will inform you of what ye used to do. 106 O ye who believe! Let there be witnesses between you when death draweth nigh unto one of you, at the time of bequest - two witnesses, just men from among you, or two others from another tribe, in case ye are campaigning in the land and the calamity of death befall you. Ye shall empanel them both after the prayer, and, if ye doubt, they shall be made to swear by Allah (saying): We will not take a bribe, even though it were (on behalf of) a near kinsman nor will we hide the testimony of Allah, for then indeed we should be of the sinful. 107 But then, if it is afterwards ascertained that both of them merit (the suspicion of) sin, let two others take their place of those nearly concerned, and let them swear by Allah, (saying): Verily our testimony is truer than their testimony and we have not transgressed (the bounds of duty), for them indeed we should be of the evil-doers. 108 Thus it is more likely that they will bear true witness or fear that after their oaths the oaths (of others) will be taken. So be mindful of your duty (to Allah) and hearken. Allah guideth not the froward folk. 109 In the day when Allah gathereth together the messengers, and saith: What was your response (from mankind) ? they say: We have no knowledge. Lo! Thou, only Thou art the Knower of Things Hidden, 110 When Allah saith: O Jesus, son of Mary! Remember My favour unto thee and unto thy mother; how I strengthened thee with the holy Spirit, so that thou spakest unto mankind in the cradle as in maturity; and how I taught thee the Scripture and Wisdom and the Torah and the Gospel; and how thou didst shape of clay as it were the likeness of a bird by My permission, and didst blow upon it and it was a bird by My permission, and thou didst heal him who was born blind and the leper by My permission; and how thou didst raise the dead by My permission; and how I restrained the Children of Israel from (harming) thee when thou camest unto them with clear proofs, and those of them who disbelieved exclaimed: This is naught else than mere magic; 111 And when I inspired the disciples, (saying): Believe in Me and in My messenger, they said: We believe. Bear witness that we have surrendered (unto Thee) "we are muslims". 112 When the disciples said: O Jesus, son of Mary! Is thy Lord able to send down for us a table spread with food from heaven ? He said: Observe your duty to Allah, if ye are true believers. 113 (They said:) We wish to eat thereof, that we may satisfy our hearts and know that thou hast spoken truth to us, and that thereof we may be witnesses. 114 Jesus, son of Mary, said: O Allah, Lord of us! Send down for us a table spread with food from heaven, that it may be a feast for us, for the first of us and for the last of us, and a sign from Thee. Give us sustenance, for Thou art the Best of Sustainers. 115 Allah said: Lo! I send it down for you. And whoso disbelieveth of you afterward, him surely will I punish with a punishment wherewith I have not punished any of (My) creatures. 116 And when Allah saith: O Jesus, son of Mary! Didst thou say unto mankind: Take me and my mother for two gods beside Allah ? he saith: Be glorified! It was not mine to utter that to which I had no right. If I used to say it, then Thou knewest it. Thou knowest what is in my mind, and I know not what is in Thy Mind. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Knower of Things Hidden ? 117 I spake unto them only that which Thou commandedst me, (saying): Worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. I was a witness of them while I dwelt among them, and when Thou tookest me Thou wast the Watcher over them. Thou art Witness over all things. 118 If Thou punish them, lo! they are Thy slaves, and if Thou forgive them (lo! they are Thy slaves). Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Mighty, the Wise. 119 Allah saith: This is a day in which their truthfulness profiteth the truthful, for theirs are Gardens underneath which rivers flow, wherein they are secure for ever, Allah taking pleasure in them and they in Him. That is the great triumph. 120 Unto Allah belongeth the Sovereignty of the heavens and the earth and whatsoever is therein, and He is Able to do all things.

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How can parents explain the gospel to their children without toning down the commands of Scripture? Certainly children are limited in their ability to understand spiritual truth, but so are adults. Very few people intellectually understand all the gospel truth at the moment of salvation. Fortunately, the essential truths are basic enough that even a child can understand. Jesus Himself characterized saving faith as childlikeness (Mark 10:15). True belief is not a function of advanced intellect, sophisticated theological understanding, or complex doctrinal knowledge. Children old enough to be saved can grasp the concept of coming to Christ with an obedient heart, and letting Him be boss in their lives. When sharing the gospel with a child, keep these points in mind: Remember that repetition and restatement are especially helpful. Give the gospel simply and briefly, but don't assume the first positive response means they got all the truth they need to know. Continue explaining and expanding your explanations. Too many ministries to children equate every positive response with a real conversion. Use Scripture and explain it clearly. Even with children, God's Word is the seed that produces life (1 Peter 1:23). Don't use approaches that give gospel outlines with no Scripture. Only the Bible can speak with authority to the human heart--including a child's heart. Understand the inherent danger in any outline or prefabricated presentation: they tend to follow a predetermined agenda that may bypass the child's real needs or fail to answer his or her most important questions. Finally, remember that the issues in salvation are the same for a child as for an adult. The gospel is the same message for every age group. D. Martyn Lloyd-Jones wrote, We must be careful that we do not modify the gospel to suit various age groups. There is no such thing as a special gospel for the young, a special gospel for the middle-aged, and a special gospel for the aged. There is only one gospel, and we must always be careful not to tamper and tinker with the gospel as a result of recognizing these age distinctions. At the same time, there is a difference in applying this one and only gospel to the different age groups; but it is a difference which has reference only to method and procedure (Quoted in Knowing the Times [Edinburgh: Banner of Truth, 1989], 2). Children must be able to understand that sin is an offense to God's holiness and that they are personally guilty (though because of their limited experiences, most kids obviously won't have as deep a sense of personal guilt as adults). There's nothing wrong with telling children about hell and God's wrath. Children do not have a difficult time grasping such concepts. They understand punishment for wrongdoing and are capable of understanding that Jesus died to take the punishment for the sins of others. They need to be told that Jesus expects to be obeyed, and they will understand even better than some adults that trusting Jesus means obeying Him. The importance of obedience needs to be emphasized repeatedly, even after the child makes a profession of faith.

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NORTON, JOHN (Snipe, Teyoninhokarawen), schoolmaster, Indian Department interpreter, Mohawk chief, army officer, and author; b. probably in Scotland, the son of a Scottish mother named Anderson and a Cherokee father named Norton; fl. 1784–1825. The date of John Norton’s birth is not known. His father had come from the Cherokee nation, “having been taken, a boy, from Kuwoki, when that village was burnt by the English,” according to one report. His mother was an Anderson who was probably living near Dunfermline, Scotland, when their son John was born. It is also probable that the son received his education in a good school in Dunfermline, and in a print shop, perhaps his father’s. The letters, speeches, and journal which John composed later show that he had had good training in the writing of English. He came to Canada as a private soldier. The muster rolls of the 65th Foot record his enlistment at Mullingar (Republic of Ireland) early in 1784. He arrived in the province of Quebec with the regiment in the following year and accompanied it to Fort Niagara (near Youngstown, N.Y.) in 1787. There he deserted. In 1788 he received his discharge. Norton then appears, in the records of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, as a schoolmaster in the Mohawk settlement established by John Deserontyon* at the Bay of Quinte. Norton found “teaching school too tedious, and confinement . . . more than he could bear,” recalled one acquaintance, adding that “he associated with the young Indians in all their diversions.” Norton resigned in 1791. He next went to the old northwest to become a fur trader, employed by John Askin* of Detroit, evidently from 1791 until 1795. After Anthony Wayne’s defeat of the western Indians at the battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, Norton returned to the Upper Canadian side and became an interpreter in the Indian Department at Niagara. Captain Joseph Brant [Thayendanegea*] soon drew Norton into his own service as an interpreter, made him an emissary, and adopted him as a “nephew,” deputy, and successor. Norton resigned from the Indian Department and began living at Onondaga on the Grand River. His appointment as Teyoninhokarawen, a rank as a chieftain for diplomacy and leadership in war, came in 1799. It did not make him a hereditary chief; it gave him, as Joseph Brant’s rank also did, a challenged, but strong, position between the chiefs and the Indian Department. Norton was soon acting in what he called “a public capacity without incurring blame” when he defended the cause of the Six Nations. He was, however, rejected by some of the chiefs when the Indian Department under William Claus, the deputy superintendent general of Indian affairs in Upper Canada, actively opposed, through channels of Upper Canadian officialdom, Norton’s claims to speak for the Grand River Indians. In the early 1800s Norton and Brant revived claims on behalf of the Six Nations for deeds to Grand River lands. After the American revolution the Six Nations had been invited to settle in what became Upper Canada on a vast tract of land. But the extent of the lands and the nature of the title had soon been called into question. Brant insisted that the grant allowed the Indians to sell off portions of land to white settlers. Officials in Upper Canada maintained that the Royal Proclamation of 1763 denied the validity of such purchases by white people. Not all the Grand River Iroquois agreed with Brant on this matter. Free certified ownership by Indians was the issue. Brant decided to go over the heads of Upper Canadian officials and to appeal to the Privy Council of Britain. With considerable secrecy, he sent Norton to plead the case in London. Norton was, in fact, eager to go because he wished to enlist in the British army for service in the war which had been declared against France. He set out for Britain in February 1804. His hopes for enlistment failed, and his mission to the government brought only disappointment when Claus through Lieutenant Governor Francis Gore* informed the British that some councils of the Six Nations had denied Norton’s authority and that Norton was disreputable and unworthy. Norton’s trip from 1804 to 1806, nevertheless, was a personal triumph, for his character and potential were recognized by leaders of the evangelical missionary movement which was active at this time. His closest friends were members of the Society of Friends: the scientist William Allen and the Philadelphia-born brewer Robert Barclay. Through Barclay, Norton became associated on friendly terms with the members of the famous “Clapham sect,” who founded the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1804, the year of Norton’s arrival in Britain. These parliamentarians and philanthropists were vigorously working for abolition of the slave trade and for the extension of Christian missions. They converted Norton, the discouraged political petitioner, to their humanitarian cause, sought his advice regarding the condition of North American Indians, and employed him as a translator. Indeed, the first application of the new bible society’s funds for printing a portion of the Scriptures in a foreign language went to Norton’s translation of the Gospel of St John into Mohawk. Two thousand copies were printed in English and Mohawk, but his introductory address to his own people was not published because the society’s rules forbad supplements to the text. He was entrusted with 500 copies for circulation in the Canadas. His friends sent him home in style: passage on a frigate of the Royal Navy was arranged for him by high-ranking officers in that service. He was now a changed man, having found an honourable place in missionary work, and a vocation in correspondence with his English friends, especially with Robert Barclay and his family, with the Reverend John Owen of the bible society, and with the Duke of Northumberland (a friend of Joseph Brant). The letters from abroad contained plans for the improvement of the Grand River community in agriculture, industry, education, religion, sobriety, and morality. Discouraged by his failure to obtain deeds, when he returned to the Grand River Norton found conditions at home even more depressing. Joseph Brant was losing his strength, and his son John [Tekarihogen] was still a youth. Norton’s constructive service as Teyoninhokarawen was urgently needed, but he was constantly thwarted by the opposition of the Indian Department under Claus, Lieutenant Governor Gore, and some civil chiefs in council. Those antagonistic to Norton saw his idealism as hypocrisy, his claims for Indian ownership of land as greed, his loyalty to Britain as treachery, and his whole attitude as a threat to privilege. Humanitarian projects had to be Postponed. Personal attacks upon him increased and he wished to retire. On 9 April 1809 Norton set out from the Grand River to make a journey which would take him a thousand miles through Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee to the land of the Cherokees. He had several plans. He wished to trace his father’s family and find relatives, and to make an inquiry into “the situation of our brethren the Cherokees.” Relatives were, indeed, there to be visited. He was accepted as a Cherokee, and given every opportunity to make a careful study of all aspects of the “situation.” Then he set out for Upper Canada by way of the Shawnee country. He arrived at his home on the Grand River in June 1810. Depressed by conditions there, he soon had thoughts about leaving again, this time “to the westward.” The prospect of war between Britain and the United States kept him in the colony. The proposed journal of his travels to the American south had to be set aside. Throughout the campaign in 1812, the first year of the war, he assembled and commanded fighting men of the Six Nations and other tribes, the parties varying in size with conditions and necessities along the Niagara frontier. His leadership in the great victory at Queenston Heights was the high point in his military career. Norton’s own account is vivid and inimitable. His brilliant tactical decision to take a “circuit” meant an ascent of the escarpment at a considerable distance along the road west of Queenston, and a climb easier than that attempted by Major-General Isaac Brock* on the cliff close to the Niagara River. The woods on the right flank of the American force moving westward along the heights were precisely what Norton and his Indians needed for cover as they pinned down the enemy’s advance until Major-General Roger Hale Sheaffe* and his troops came up to sweep the Americans off the heights. Reinforcements from Chippawa also arrived. Sheaffe mentioned in his dispatches “the judicious position which Norton and the Indians with him had taken.” One week after the battle, on 20 October, Sheaffe honoured Norton by appointing him “to the Rank of Captain of the Confederate Indians” – the same rank that Joseph Brant had held during the American revolution. Sir George Prevost*, governor-in-chief of British North America, congratulated Norton upon his courage and perseverance, with advice “to keep up and increase the numbers of a description of Force so truly formidable to their Enemies and so capable of sustaining the good cause in which we are engaged.” In the campaigns of 1813 Norton was active again. He and a hundred Indians were at Fort George (Niagara-on-the-Lake) when the Americans attacked late in May, and they took part in the subsequent British withdrawal to Burlington Heights (Hamilton). After the American thrust was stopped at Stoney Creek on 6 June, Norton and some warriors pursued the retreating enemy. He was not with the Indians who fought at the important battle of Beaver Dams, but he participated in skirmishes during the remainder of the summer. His power was at a high point, for the wartime situation had enabled him to shake off much of the Indian Department’s authority. Major-General Francis de Rottenburg recommended that Norton be given discretionary control over the allotment of presents to those who served with him; but he also remarked: “All my endeavours to reconcile . . . [Claus] and Norton are in vain, the latter is certainly a great intriguer, but is a fighting man – and may do a great deal of mischief if not supported.” Early in 1814 Norton was called to Quebec by Sir George Prevost for consultation on the role of Indian support. Prevost confirmed Norton in the rank given him by Sheaffe. Indian Department officers were forbidden to interfere with Norton in his dealings with the Grand River Indians. In the campaigns of 1814 Norton was at the head of some 200 Iroquois at the battle of Chippawa on 5 July. Although they did not play an important part in the action, they suffered their heaviest casualties of the war, and some seriously considered the proposal instigated by the American Iroquois leader Red Jacket [Shakóye:wa:thaˀ] that the Iroquois fighting on both sides should withdraw from the war. Norton himself remained on the frontier. His generosity with presents was such that Indians of other nations, including the Prophet [Tenskwatawa*], had joined him, but at least a few Iroquois remained with him after Chippawa. He was at the head of a fighting force at the battle of Lundy’s Lane in late July and at the unsuccessful British assault on Fort Erie in mid August. After the Treaty of Ghent in December, he retired from fighting and was granted a pension of £200 per annum. He kept on supporting the claims of Indian war veterans for losses incurred in the campaigns. During 1813, while the war was on, he was married at Niagara by the Reverend Robert Addison to an attractive and talented girl named Karighwaycagh (Catherine), said to have been a Delaware. She was about 16. Norton must have been about 50 and had at least one son by a previous marriage to an Iroquois woman. In 1815 he and Catherine, along with John (Tehonakaraa), one of his sons, went to visit Britain. Catherine and the boy were enrolled in a school at Dunfermline, Scotland, and she proved to be “a very keen student.” She was befriended by the Duchess of Northumberland, who had her portrait painted by an Edinburgh artist. Norton spent some of his time in England with Barclay, Owen, and the Duke of Northumberland – the good friends of his 1804–6 visit. These men became the recipients of a long manuscript journal. In its first section, Norton’s trip of 1809–10 to the American south was described for the benefit of interested friends in England. He recorded in great detail what he had seen in the Cherokee country, and heard from the lips of the leaders of that nation. His notes had eventually covered Cherokee geography, history of warfare, traditions, mythology, customs, social conditions, and sport. The second section was devoted to a somewhat bookish history of the original five Iroquois nations, whom Norton correctly believed to be related to the Cherokees. Under Joseph Brant he had been well taught regarding Iroquoian lore, but he found it useful to prepare for the journal by consulting “the accredited Memoirs of the neighbouring Europeans.” Among his sources were Cadwallader Colden’s history of the Iroquois and George Heriot*’s history of Canada. Anthropologist William Nelson Fenton has suggested that Norton probably had “some contact with savants” in London or Edinburgh. The final section, an eye-witness account of various actions in the War of 1812, is the most personal, but carefully factual, part of the work. Norton and his wife returned from Britain to Upper Canada in 1816. He had received a commission as a brevet major in the British army, but he was unofficially called Colonel Norton. He became the owner of a large farm overlooking the Grand River at Sims Locks, south of present-day Brantford, and he “improved” his lands, setting an example in agriculture for the Grand River community. Occasionally he gave parish assistance to Robert Addison, and he translated the Gospel of St Matthew into Mohawk – an effort which caused him to leave the work on other gospels to an assistant, Henry Aaron Hill [Kenwendeshon]. Debts kept on worrying him. The old traveller and warrior became restive; he toyed with plans to visit his Cherokee relatives in the south. In 1823, believing that Catherine had been guilty of sexual misconduct, Norton ordered off his farm a young Indian named Big Arrow (Joe Crawford). This intruder demanded a duel; he died of a wound accidentally inflicted in a scuffle. Norton volunteered to stand trial. The charge was murder, but he behaved honourably, refusing to use his own “best defence,” which would have exposed Catherine publicly to shame. He was convicted of manslaughter and fined £25. Catherine wrote a pathetic letter, begging forgiveness, but he would not see her again. He settled a share of his pension upon her and then left for the territory of Arkansas. A friend received a letter from him in February 1824, stating that he might be away three years. Catherine, meanwhile, had left the Grand River to live at Fairfield (near Thamesville). She died there on 16 Jan. 1827. The Colonial Advocate of 9 March 1826 reported that a friend of Norton had received at least one letter from him, written from Laredo (then in Mexico) “in November last.” Norton had then “expected to come home.” There is no evidence to show that he ever returned to the Grand River. As late as 4 Sept. 1851, a nephew and reputed heir-at-law stated to a lawyer that he was prepared “to prove [Norton’s death] in the month of October 1831.” No proof has been found. [John Norton’s journal was dedicated to the Duke of Northumberland, in whose splendid library at Alnwick Castle (Alnwick, Eng.) the manuscript was preserved in a fair copy (evidently not in Norton’s own handwriting), bound in two volumes. The amanuensis was probably “A. W.,” a friend who signed a table of contents (and who may have been Adam Wilson of Edinburgh, a cousin of Norton). The manuscript had passed through the hands of Robert Barclay and John Owen during plans for publication, which then proved abortive for reasons of cost. Although completed shortly after the War of 1812, it remained unpublished for more than 150 years, until the Champlain Society brought it out under the title The journal of Major John Norton, 1816, ed. C. F. Klinck and J. J. Talman (Toronto, 1970). Most of the documentation for this biography of Norton can be found in the acknowledgements, footnotes, and introduction to the Champlain Society volume. A portrait of Norton by Thomas Phillips is located in Syon House, London. c.f.k.] Valley of Six Nations (Johnston). Handbook of Indians of Canada (Hodge), 224–26. J. P. Brown, Old frontiers; the story of the Cherokee Indians from earliest times to the date of their removal to the west, 1838 (Kingsport, Tenn., 1938; repr. New York, 1971). E. C. Woodley, The Bible in Canada; [the story of the British and Foreign Bible Society in Canada] (Toronto, ), 44–50. W. N. Fenton, “Cherokee and Iroquois connections revisited,” Journal of Cherokee Studies (Cherokee, N.C.), 3 (1978): 239–49. Ray Fogelson, “Major John Norton as ethnologist,” Journal of Cherokee Studies, 3: 250–55. C. F. Klinck, “New light on John Norton,” RSC Trans., 4th ser., 4 (1966), sect.ii: 167–77. J. McE. Murray, “John Norton,” OH, 37 (1945): 7–16. Armed Forces, Armed Forces -- British, Authors, Authors -- Diaries, memoirs, and biographies, Authors -- Educational and scientific works, Criminals, Education, Education -- Educators, Interpreters and Translators, Office Holders, Office Holders -- Officials Europe, Europe -- United Kingdom, Europe -- United Kingdom -- Scotland, North America, North America -- Canada, North America -- Canada -- Ontario, North America -- Canada -- Ontario -- East, North America -- Canada -- Ontario -- Niagara, North America -- Canada -- Ontario -- Southwest

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Words With VILanguage brain teasers are those that involve the English language. You need to think about and manipulate words and letters. Five words that contain VI as a letter-pair have had all of their other letters removed and placed into a pool. Put those letters back in their proper places. What are the words? VI---, --VI-, --VI--, VI-----, ---VI-- Pool: A, A, B, B, D, E, E, G, L, N, N, O, R, R, R, S, T, T, U, Y AnswerVIRUS, DEVIL, BOVINE, VIBRANT, GRAVITY See another brain teaser just like this one... Or, just get a random brain teaser If you become a registered user you can vote on this brain teaser, keep track of which ones you have seen, and even make your own. Back to Top

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How Home Study Works How Home Study Works Distance education is virtually a miracle of modern education. It offers the student a quicker method of study, a more convenient method, and a method that provides accurate and proven techniques. Distance education actually brings the school to the student's home, offering a convenience never before possible. Students may continue on with conventional schooling, work, and other obligations while they further their education in preparation for their future. Citizens' program is individualized instruction utilizing a distance education format for communication between the school and the student. Upon receipt of the enrollment agreement and tuition, the first course material is sent including special instructions on how to begin and other necessary information. Each student studies at his or her own pace. Within each course, self-check exercises allow the student to check what they have learned. The student may fax, e-mail or write to their teacher when extra help is needed with a subject, or the student may call the school at any time with their questions or concerns. The study guides sent with each course also include the course examinations which are completed on the open book principle. When the student feels ready, he or she takes an examination for a unit of lessons completed and mails it to CHS for grading by a qualified teacher. At the school, the teacher personally corrects the exam, adding helpful comments and suggestions if needed. After recording the student's passing grade, the school then mails the exam back to the student. When a student finishes a subject, he or she will receive a Certificate of Completion and a grade report. Finally, after completing the subjects needed, the proud moment arrives – the student is awarded a high school diploma!

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MI5MI5 (Military Intelligence Like SIS, MI5 has its basis in the Secret Service Bureau, founded in 1909 as an organisation to control secret intelligence operations. The Bureau was originally split into a naval and military section. The naval section came to specialise in espionage activities in foreign countries, while the military section increasingly undertook counter-espionage activities within the UK. This new split was formalised. After a series of bureaucratic designation changes in which it was known as MO5 and gained various subdepartments denoted by letters of the alphabet, the domestic section came to be known as MI5, a name it retains today. Its founding head was Vernon Kell, who remained head until the early part of the Second World War. Its role was originally quite restricted; it existed purely to ensure national security through counter-espionage. It originally worked in concert with the Special Branch of the Metropolitan Police; MI5 was responsible for overall direction and the actual identification of foreign spies, while the Special Branch provided the manpower for the investigation of their affairs and their arrest and interrogation. MI5 was very successful (against admittedly weak opposition) in the pre-war years. It was founded in a climate of hysteria over a supposedly huge network of German spies - numbers in the hundreds of thousands were quoted - who were apparently ready to perform espionage and sabotage activities in advance of a German invasion. In reality, no invasion was planned, and Germany had a mere handful of incompetent amateur spies active in Britain - just over 20. MI5 was quickly successful in identifying this group, and Kell took the intelligent decision not to arrest them but to keep them under surreptitious observation until the outbreak of war. He reasoned that if they were arrested Germany would simply send more in their place. Instead he waited until the eve of war - he was given twelve hours' notice of its outbreak - to arrest the entire network, thus depriving Germany completely of reliable intelligence from within Britain. After this auspicious start, the history of MI5 becomes darker. It was consistently successful throughout the rest of the 1910s and the 1920s in its core counter-espionage role, however. Germany continued to attempt to infiltrate Britain throughout the war, but using a method that depended on strict control of entry and exit to the country and, crucially, large-scale inspection of mail, MI5 was easily able to identify all the agents that were dispatched. In post-war years attention turned to attempts by Russia and the Comintern to surreptitiously support revolutionary activities within Britain, and MI5's expertise combined with the early incompetence of the Russians meant the bureau was successful once more in correctly identifying and closely monitoring these activities. However, in the meantime MI5's role had been substantially enlarged. Due to the spy hysteria, MI5 was formed with far more resources than it actually needed to track down German spies. As is common within governmental bureaucracies, this meant it expanded its role in order to use its spare resources. MI5 acquired many additional responsibilities during the war. Most significantly, its strict counter-espionage role was considerably blurred. It became a much more political role, involving the surveillance not merely of foreign agents but of pacifist and anti-conscription organisations, and organised labour. This was justified on the basis of the common (but mistaken) belief that foreign influence was at the root of these organisations. Thus by the end of the war MI5 was a fully-fledged secret police, in addition to being a counter-espionage agency. This expansion of its role has continued, after a brief post-war power struggle with the head of the Special Branch, Sir Basil Thompson. MI5 also managed to acquire responsibility for security operations not only in mainland Britain but throughout the Empire, which gave it a significant role in Ireland. MI5 now has a role similar to that of the American FBI, if not as extensive, which includes crime-prevention activities as well as political surveillance and counter-espionage. This expansion has happened almost entirely without supervision; MI5 had no responsibility to Parliament, and is often able to act with considerable independence even from the Cabinet and Prime Minister. Since the 1997? MI5 activities have been subject to scrutiny by Parliament's Intelligence and Security Committee. MI5's Irish operations were an unmitigated disaster. Its operation was penetrated by the IRA, and even before Michael Collins ordered a ruthless purge of MI5's Irish agents - almost all of whom were assassinated - it was unable to provide useful intelligence on the Irish republican movement during the Home Rule and independence controversies. MI5's decline in counter-espionage efficiency began in the 1930s. It was to some extent a victim of its own success; it was unable to break the ways of thinking it had evolved in the 1910s and 1920s. In particular, it was entirely unable to adjust to the new methods of the NKVD, the Russian secret intelligence organisation. It continued to think in terms of agents who would attempt to gather information simply through observation or bribery, or to agitate within labour organisations or the armed services, while posing as ordinary citizens. The NKVD, however, had evolved more sophisticated methods; it began to recruit agents from within the Establishment, most notably from Cambridge University, who were seen as a long-term investment. They succeeded in gaining positions within the Government (and, in Kim Philby's case, within British intelligence itself), from where they were much more easily able to provide the NKVD with sensitive information. The most successful of these agents - Harold 'Kim' Philby, Donald Maclean, Guy Burgess, Anthony Blunt and John Cairncross - went undetected until after the Second World War, and were known as the Cambridge Five. MI5 experienced further failure during the Second World War. It was chronically unprepared, both organisationally and in terms of resources, for the outbreak of war, and utterly unequal to the task which it was assigned - the large-scale internment of enemy aliens in an attempt to uncover enemy agents. The operation was badly mishandled and contributed to the near-collapse of the agency by 1940. One of the earliest actions of Winston Churchill on coming to power in early 1940 was to sack the agency's long-term head, Vernon Kell. He was replaced initially by the ineffective Brigadier A.W.A. Harker. Harker in turn was quickly replaced by David Petrie, an SIS man, with Harker as his deputy. With the ending of the Battle of Britain and the abandonment of invasion plans (correctly reported by both SIS and the Bletchley Park ULTRA project), the spy scare eased, and the internment policy was gradually reversed. This eased pressure on MI5, and allowed it to concentrate on its major wartime success, the so-called "double-cross" system. This was a system based on an internal memo drafted by an MI5 officer in 1936, which criticised the long-standing policy of arresting and sending to trial all enemy agents discovered by MI5. Several had offered to defect to Britain when captured; prior to 1939, such requests were invariably turned down. The memo advocated attempting to "turn" captured agents wherever possible, and use them to mislead enemy intelligence agencies. This suggestion was turned into a massive and well-tuned system of deception during the Second World War. Beginning with the capture of an agent called Owens, codenamed SNOW, MI5 began to offer enemy agents the chance to avoid prosecution (and thus the possibility of the death penalty) if they would work as British double-agents. Agents who agreed to this were supervised by MI5 in transmitting bogus "intelligence" back to the German secret service, the Abwehr. This necessitated a large-scale organisational effort, since the information had to appear valuable but in actual fact be misleading. A high-level committee, the Wireless Board, was formed to provide this information. The day-to-day operation was delegated to a subcommittee, the Twenty Committee (so called because the Roman numerals for twenty, XX, form a double cross). The system was extraordinarily successful; in fact, every important German agent in Britain during the war was in fact a double agent controlled by MI5. The system played a major part in the massive campaign of deception which preceded the D-Day landings, designed to give the Germans a false impression of the location and timings of the landings. As with SIS, there was until recently an official pretence that MI5 did not in fact exist. This was abandoned in the mid-1990s, and MI5 has recruited openly through newspaper advertisements since 1997. As well as the currently extant MI5 and MI6, there have been a number of British military intelligence groups designated as MI-(section number) existing at various times since WWI, which have now been abandoned or subsumed by MI5, MI6 or GCHQ. These included MI1 (codebreaking), MI2 (intelligence in Russia and Scandinavia), MI3 (Eastern Europe), MI4 (aerial photographic interpretation), MI8 (signals intelligence), MI9 (covert operations and PoW escape), MI10 (weapons analysis) and MI19 (PoW debriefing).

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Heart Disease Found in Ancient Mummies The mummy of Djeher, a male from the Ptolemaic Era, dated 304-30 BC, entering the CT scanner tube. CREDIT: Michael Miyamoto. Scientists have uncovered heart disease in 3,500-year-old Egyptian mummies, suggesting the risk factors behind it are not just modern in nature. Heart disease is often ascribed to modern risk factors, such as smoking, unhealthy diets rich in saturated fats, salt and processed sugars, or sedentary lifestyles. But then cardiologists touring the Egyptian National Museum of Antiquities in Cairo during a medical conference last year noticed the nameplate of the pharoah Merenptah, who ruled from 1213 B.C. to 1203 B.C. It read that when Merenptah died at roughly age 60, he was afflicted with atherosclerosis, or thickening of the arteries due to buildup of calcium, fat, cholesterol and other substances. To investigate how widespread heart disease might have been in ancient times, a team of U.S. and Egyptian cardiologists joined by experts in Egyptology and preservation CAT scanned 22 mummies dating from 1981 B.C. to A.D. 334 housed in the Egyptian National Museum of Antiquities. Evidence of cardiac tissue or blood vessels was detected in 16 of the mummies, and the heart could even be identified in four of them. Atherosclerosis was definitely seen in five mummies and probably there in four more, according to findings presented today at the Scientific Session of the American Heart Association at Orlando. "We in effect combined the advanced technology of mummification from the ancient Egyptians — with which embalmers with very limited tools preserved tissues beautifully over the course of thousands of years — with our advanced technology of medical imaging to detect signs of atherosclerosis," researcher Michael Miyamoto, a cardiologist at the University of California at San Diego, told LiveScience. "In a real sense, this was a scientific collaboration that spanned great time and distance." The most ancient Egyptian afflicted with atherosclerosis was Lady Rai, who lived to an estimated age of 30 to 40 around 1530 B.C. and had been the nursemaid to Queen Ahmose Nefertiti. Lady Rai lived some 300 years before the time of Moses and 200 prior to King Tut. "While we do not know whether atherosclerosis caused the demise of any of the mummies in the study, we can confirm that the disease was present in many," said researcher Gregory Thomas of the University of California at Irvine. "The findings suggest that we may have to look beyond modern risk factors to fully understand the disease." By demonstrating evidence of atherosclerosis in ancient peoples, "it may be that human beings may be uniquely prone to atherosclerosis, that it might be part of our genetic makeup, which reinforces the importance of constant vigilance and aggressive management of risk factors for the disease to keep it under control," Miyamoto said. "If we live long enough, we may all end up with atherosclerosis, but our individual genetic makeups and lifestyles may determine whether that atherosclerosis becomes clinically manifest." However, "it should be noted that in general, the individuals who had the means to be mummified were generally of higher socioeconomic status," Miyamoto added. All of the 16 mummies whose identities could be determined were of high social status, generally serving in the court of the pharaoh or as priests or priestesses. Although the diet of any one mummy could not be determined, eating meat in the form of cattle, ducks and geese was not uncommon during these times. "So it may be that some of them in life maintained some of these lifestyle factors that we think of as linked with atherosclerosis," Miyamoto said. The researchers will detail their findings in the Nov. 18 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association. - Gallery: Amazing Egyptian Discoveries - History's Most Overlooked Mysteries - The Scence of Mummies MORE FROM LiveScience.com

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Thrombocytopenia in Dogs By: Dr. Leah Cohn Read By: Pet Lovers Specific diagnostic tests will be needed for your veterinarian to diagnose thrombocytopenia, determine its underlying cause and determine the effects of thrombocytopenia. Tests may include: A complete medical history and physical examination. You should be prepared to provide a complete history about your dog. Important questions will be asked about your dog's home environment including time spent outdoors, travel history, previous illnesses, recent vaccinations, medications (e.g. aspirin, antibiotics) and any symptoms you have noticed. Factors such as your dog's age, breed and gender will influence the types of diseases your veterinarian will consider as possible causes of thrombocytopenia. Mild to moderate thrombocytopenia usually does not cause spontaneous bleeding and causes no abnormalities on physical examination. Severe thrombocytopenia, however, often causes characteristic abnormalities on physical examination. These abnormal findings include tiny pinpoint hemorrhages on the gums, whites of the eyes (sclera) or skin called petechiae, and skin bruising called ecchymosis. Bleeding into body cavities or joints is not common in animals with thrombocytopenia. Your veterinarian also may examine the backs of your dog's eyes (retinas) for evidence of bleeding with an instrument called an ophthalmoscope. A complete blood count (CBC or hemogram) including a blood platelet concentration to determine if your dog has thrombocytopenia and to evaluate for anemia that may have resulted from blood loss Serum biochemistry tests to evaluate other organ systems and to determine the general health of your dog Urinalysis to evaluate for blood in the urine (hematuria), infection, or protein in the urine that may occur with some diseases that cause thrombocytopenia Unfortunately, a highly reliable diagnostic test is not available for one of the most common causes of severe thrombocytopenia in dogs called immune-mediated thrombocytopenia or idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP). Immune-mediated diseases result when the body's immune system fails to recognize its own cells and tissues and begins to attack them as if they were foreign invaders. In immune-mediated thrombocytopenia, the immune system attacks and destroys platelets. Due to lack of a reliable and specific diagnostic test for this disease, immune-mediated thrombocytopenia usually is diagnosed by ruling out other known causes of thrombocytopenia. Additional diagnostic tests may be recommended on a case-by-case basis to determine the cause of thrombocytopenia and to insure that your dog receives optimal medical care. Examples of additional tests may include the following: Tests of the immune system. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a generalized autoimmune disease that can cause damage to many tissues such as kidneys, joints, and skin and can result in destruction of platelets. The LE cell preparation and anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) test are two tests that may be requested if your veterinarian suspects your dog may have systemic lupus erythematosus. Immune-mediated destruction of platelets alone is more common than systemic lupus erythematosus. Tests for specific infectious diseases. Results of the medical history, physical examination and other blood tests often determine whether or not specific tests for infectious diseases are necessary. Some infectious diseases that may be considered include tick-borne diseases such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever and ehrlichiosis. Other infectious diseases can cause blood platelet concentrations to decrease, but most of these other diseases cause only mild thrombocytopenia. X-rays of the chest or abdomen to evaluate dogs with thrombocytopenia. Enlargement of the spleen often is observed in dogs with immune-mediated thrombocytopenia or infectious causes of thrombocytopenia since the spleen is a common site of platelet destruction. Enlargement of the spleen often can be identified on X-rays of the abdomen. Abdominal ultrasound examination if your veterinarian suspects a tumor or enlargement of abdominal organs. After clipping the hair and applying a gel to facilitate transmission of ultrasound waves, a probe is held against the abdomen and ultrasound waves create images of the abdominal organs. This same technology is often used in pregnant women to visualize the fetus. If abdominal ultrasound is necessary, your veterinarian may refer your dog to a veterinary radiologist or internist for evaluation. If a mass or enlarged organ is identified, a biopsy may be recommended to identify the nature of the mass or enlargement. A biopsy specimen may be obtained by surgery or using a specialized biopsy needle inserted through the body wall under ultrasound guidance. If your veterinarian is concerned that your dog's bone marrow is not producing adequate numbers of platelets, a biopsy or needle aspirate of the bone marrow may be performed. This procedure is performed using a local anesthetic to numb the biopsy site after the animal is sedated. Other tests of clotting ability may be recommended. Common clotting function tests include prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time, which evaluate two clotting pathways in the body.

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Modern culture views truth as having a gold standard, science. It measures all statements against scientific facts, accepting the ones that align with science and rejecting the ones that do not. Somewhere down the list are religious truths, which are either tossed into the pile of subjective statements or rejected outright as hostile to truth. When we step back from this a bit, we will notice problems with science as a measure of truth. We notice that science does not say anything, but scientists do. Science is a field of endeavor, but humans make the decisions. Science is actually a series of humans who have human cares and desires and motivations, and make decisions on what to tell us and what to leave out. How do we know they are giving us objective truth? We are told the scientific method and peer-review process is designed to weed out falsehood and encourage accurate conclusions. But are we to believe that this process, run by humans, is infallable? This same process was in place a generation ago, but how many of last generations science texts are still considered accurate? Therefore how many of today’s science texts will still be accurate a generation from now? We also have this pesky problem of objective observation. We have much difficulty finding a view from nowhere, and all viewpoints seem to have some biases and presuppositions. The bias of the observer is not just a conscious thing, but impacts the data that is observed and noted. For example, if I were to view an x-ray, all I would see are smudges and smears. But to a trained surgeon, the information communicated would be significant. Therefore how do we know that the data being observed is not influenced by the worldview of the observer? The more we try to shake ourselves loose from the impact of the observer, the worse it seems to get. Stage magicians succeed in their craft because they know what we will look at and what we will not. They do the trick right in front of us, but because they are masters at distraction, they know what they can do in plain sight to fool us. This is all good fun, and we go home entertained. But when the scientists’ observations and conclusions end up impacting our nations laws, what we teach our children, how we spend our money, who can work and who cannot, and such, then we owe it to ourselves to at least be careful. When we move to the public arena, how do we know that the scientist just did not see the anomalies as a pattern of causes or symptoms? We also note that science is a general term. The actual work is done in tiny slices of specialization. We do not actually have scientists as much as we have micropeleontoligists, imuno-molecular geneticists, optical physicists, and a host of other fields, sub-fields, and sub-sub-fields. Each of these areas has its own publications that publish so much material that these capable people have difficulty reading it all. How can we be sure that when they put all this data into a unified whole, they have put the conclusion together in a valid form? They cannot possibly have the cognitive bandwidth to evaluate each others’ areas of specialization, yet they make statements that broad areas of research are established fact. So when we read in the popular media that ‘scientists say that…’ we typically are not expected to question. We are all happy…..until an outsider comes along and approaches the issue from a completely different perspective. When Phillip E. Johnson, a law professor, published his landmark book Darwin On Trial, he took his expertise as an expert in legal evidence and applied it to the creation / evolution controversy. When describing a legal brief filed by the prestigious National Academy of Sciences, Johnson stated “The Academy thus defined ‘science’ in such a way that advocates of supernatural creation may neither argue for their own position nor dispute the claims of the scientific establishment.” (p.8) He went on, ”A second point that caught my attention was that the very persons who insist upon keeping religion and science separate are eager to use their science as a basis for pronouncements about religion. The literature of Darwinism is full of anti-theistic conclusions . . .” (p.8). Johnson mentions Richard Dawkins, a leading symbol of only-science-is-truth cultural norm: His 1986 book The Blind Watchmaker is at one level about biology, but at a more fundamental level it is a sustained argument for atheism. According to Dawkins, “Darwin made it possible to be an intellectually fulfilled atheist.’ When he contemplates the perfidy of those who refuse to believe, Dawkins can scarecely restrain his fury. ‘It is absolutely safe to say that, if you meet somebody who claims not to believe in evolution, that person is ignorant, stupid, or insane (or wicked, but I’d rather not consider that)’ (p.9) So much for calm objective observation about facts. Such statements as Dawkins’ would never pass basic legal or philosophy classes, but are regularly given in the popular media. We should not be so inconsistent as to condemn all technical researchers, for overall they have done us much good. But we should take a great long look at who we take as authoritative fountains of truth. Many of our science gurus have all the same issues as the rest of us. Personally, I’ll take the ancient source of truth in the Bible over the sages of modern science most every time, for it has a much better track record over time.

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Article Provided by National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) What Are Eating Disorders? An eating disorder is marked by extremes. It is present when a person experiences severe disturbances in eating behavior, such as extreme reduction of food intake or extreme overeating, or feelings of extreme distress or concern about body weight or shape. A person with an eating disorder may have started out just eating smaller or larger amounts of food than usual, but at some point, the urge to eat less or more spirals out of control. Eating disorders are very complex, and despite scientific research to understand them, the biological, behavioral and social underpinnings of these illnesses remain elusive. The two main types of eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. A third category is "eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS)," which includes several variations of eating disorders. Most of these disorders are similar to anorexia or bulimia but with slightly different characteristics. Binge-eating disorder, which has received increasing research and media attention in recent years, is one type of EDNOS. Eating disorders frequently appear during adolescence or young adulthood, but some reports indicate that they can develop during childhood or later in adulthood. Women and girls are much more likely than males to develop an eating disorder. Men and boys account for an estimated 5 to 15 percent of patients with anorexia or bulimia and an estimated 35 percent of those with binge-eating disorder. Eating disorders are real, treatable medical illnesses with complex underlying psychological and biological causes. They frequently co-exist with other psychiatric disorders such as depression, substance abuse, or anxiety disorders. People with eating disorders also can suffer from numerous other physical health complications, such as heart conditions or kidney failure, which can lead to death. Eating Disorders are Treatable Diseases Psychological and medicinal treatments are effective for many eating disorders. However, in more chronic cases, specific treatments have not yet been identified. In these cases, treatment plans often are tailored to the patient's individual needs that may include medical care and monitoring; medications; nutritional counseling; and individual, group and/or family psychotherapy. Some patients may also need to be hospitalized to treat malnutrition or to gain weight, or for other reasons. Anorexia nervosa is characterized by emaciation, a relentless pursuit of thinness and unwillingness to maintain a normal or healthy weight, a distortion of body image and intense fear of gaining weight, a lack of menstruation among girls and women, and extremely disturbed eating behavior. Some people with anorexia lose weight by dieting and exercising excessively; others lose weight by self-induced vomiting, or misusing laxatives, diuretics or enemas.

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In further proof that we never know just how much we don’t know, a paper published in Nature suggests that biologists in the UK have discovered an entirely new and unique branch in the tree of life. A group of mysterious microscopic organisms related to fungus are actually so different that they make up their own kind of fungal group. Another way to say that: there are so many of these distinctly different kinds of organisms living in so many diverse places, that the biodiversity among this new group might be as vast as the entire known fungal kingdom. In fact, they might not actually be fungi at all. The scientists who have discovered this new clade--a clade is like a branch on the tree of life that consists of an organism and all of its descendants--have named it cryptomycota, which loosely means “hidden from the kingdom Fungi” so we’re told. And indeed the cryptomycota have remained hidden from sight even though it turns out they are everywhere, living in many different environments, including freshwater lakes and sediments, as well as pond water.While biologists estimate that they’ve only categorized and cataloged about 10 percent of all fungi in the world, they were pretty sure that they’d discovered all the major groups. Cryptomycota is so new and biologically different than other fungi that scientists have yet to characterized its life cycle precisely--which is reasonable considering this is the first time researchers have ever knowingly studied them as a completely different clade. As such, there are a lot of questions surrounding cryptomycota. How did they evolve to survive in so many diverse environments? Does their life cycle involve developing a cell wall, or do they acquire a cell wall parasitically? And, possibly, are cryptomycota fundamentally fungi at all, or are they something completely different? Answering questions like those is going to take a lot of time, a lot of research, a lot of papers, and likely a lot of argument in the global biological community. If an entirely new taxonomical kingdom is established and it turns out everything you learned in high school was significantly incomplete, we’ll certainly let you know. The incredible innovations, like drone swarms and perpetual flight, bringing aviation into the world of tomorrow. Plus: today's greatest sci-fi writers predict the future, the science behind the summer's biggest blockbusters, a Doctor Who-themed DIY 'bot, the organs you can do without, and much more.

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A new research installation is beaming powerful radioactive energy into the upper atmosphere. Exploring conventional and exotic military uses of the air waves towards its goals. At a remote facility ringed with barbed wire, a brand-new array of 36 antennas rises from the black spruce forest that stretches hundreds of miles across central Alaska. Completed December 1994 and now undergoing testing, the antenna field is the visible part of a powerful and sophisticated high-frequency radio transmitter designed to transform areas of the upper atmosphere into the equivalent of huge lenses, mirrors, and antennas. This little-known Pentagon-sponsored radiophysics project, called the High-Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP), is officially intended to expand knowledge about the nature of long-range radio communications and surveillance using the fluctuating ionosphere - the portion of the upper atmosphere extending from 35 to 500 miles above earth's surface. [see: Way Up in the Ionosphere] According to program manager John L. Heckscher of the Phillips Laboratory at Hanscom AFB, Massachusetts, potential military applications of the HAARP research include developing Department of Defense technology for detecting cruise missiles and communicating with submarines. "Although HAARP is being managed by the Air Force and Navy, it is purely a scientific research facility that poses no threat to potential dversaries and has no value as a military target," he says. But that's just the publicly announced part of the program. HAARP also has a secret agenda: pursuing more exotic military goals, such as locating deeply buried weapons factories thousands of miles away and even altering the local weather above an enemy's territory. A 1990 internal document obtained by POPULAR SCIENCE says the program's overall goal is to "control ionospheric processes in such a way as to greatly improve the performance of military command, control, and communications systems." It provides a description of the following applications: And, patent documents filed during an earlier research effort that evolved into the HAARP program outline further military applications of ionospheric-heating technology: Injecting high-frequency radio energy into the ionosphere to create huge, extremely low frequency (ELF) virtual antennas used for earth-penetrating tomography peering deep beneath the surface of the ground by collecting and analyzing reflected ELF waves beamed down from above. Heating regions of the lower and upper ionosphere to form virtual "lertses" and "mirrors" that can reflect a broad range of radio frequencies far over the horizon to detect stealthy cruise missiles and aircraft. Generating ELF radio waves in the ionosphere to communicate across large distances with deeply submerged submarines. When the full HAARP facility is constructed, it will include several sensing and analysis systems. At its heart is the antenna field, which now is a demonstration version of a larger planned array named the ionospheric research instrument (IRI), which will include 360 antennas. The IRI is designed to temporarily modify 30-mile diameter patches of the upper atmosphere by excit ing, or "heating," their constituent electrons and ions with focused beams of powerful, highfrequency radio energy. A household analogy would be a microwave oven, which heats dinner by exciting the food's water molecules with microwave energy. Creating a "full global shield" that would destroy ballistic missiles by overheating their electronic guidance systems as they fly through a powerful radio-energy field. Distinguishing nuclear warheads from decoys by sensing their elemental composition. Manipulating local weather. Earth-penetrating tomography is a startling potential use of ionospheric heating. The method would work by beaming radio energy into the Auroral electrojet, the curved, charged-particle stream formed at high latitudes where the solar wind interacts with Earth's magnetic field. The radio energy then disperses over large areas through ductlike regions of the ionosphere, forming a virtual antenna that can be thousands of miles in length. Such an ELF antenna can emit waves penetrating as deeply as several kilometers into the ground, depending on the geological makeup and subsurface water conditions in a targeted area. Aircraft or satellites stationed overhead would then collect the reflected ELF waves and relay them to computers at a processing station, where subsurface inhomogeneities that trace the outlines of structures suchas underground weapons facilities can be imaged. North Korea and Iraq, where buried nuclear weapons labs are believed to exist, would be prime candidates for earth-penetrating tomography surveillance. Virtual lenses and mirrors will be generated in the ionosphere, if the IRI works as intended. By precisely warming a patch of the lower ionosphere the IRI reduces its density relative to the surrounding atmosphere. An "ionospheric lens" thus formed can in turn focus a radio beam into the upper ionosphere [see drawing]. Normally, most high-frequency radio waves broadcast from the ground are absorbed or scattered in the lower ionosphere, and few of them reach such high altitudes. Next, the focused radio beam excites a patch of Soothe upper ionosphere to form a virtual mirror. Finally, a radio-communication signal broadcast by the IRI, focused through the lens and reflected from the mirror, can be directed far over the horizon. Virtual lenses and mirrors could also be used to scan a blanket of very low frequency (VLF) radio waves transmitted by an over-the-horizon radar. Although they reflect little VLF energy, stealth aircraft can appear from above as "holes in the blanket," thus betraying their position. Deeply submerged submarines can receive secure messages through ELF radio communication. But the antenna needed to generate a desirable transmission frequency such as 30Hz must be more than 1,200 miles long. Real estate parcels this shape are hard to come by on the ground, but not in the air. As in the case of earthpenetrating tomography, high-frequency radio energy transmitted into the Auroral electrojet can form a submarine communications ELF antenna thousands of miles long. Consequently, HAARP can beam ELF waves at nearly any portion of the Northern Hemisphere by using oblique heating. The full global shield is an exotic proposal for an Earth-encompassing shell of high-speed electrons and ions that would be generated by a much more powerful version of HAARP. Any missile or warhead passing through the protective shell would explode. Or, a "soft-kill" weapon system using ELF waves produced by HAARP heating could be used to overload power-distribution grids and destroy unshielded microelectronics using electromagnetic pulse energy similar to that released by a high-altitude nuclear explosion. Real nuclear warheads and decoys, or the constituent materials of unfamiliar satellites, could be remotely distinguished in flight by bathing them in accelerated electrons. Analyzing the electromagnetic signal returns would reveal their elemental composition. Weather manipulation may be possible by building an ionospheric heater a thousandfold more powerful than HAARP. Differential heating of areas of the atmosphere could induce local weather conditions, such as floods or droughts, useful to the military. Smooth seas might suddenly be raked by treacherous squalls, creating or denying a tactical advantage. Other elements that will be installed at the HAARP facility include a 120-foot diameter incoherent-scatter radar dish, a Laser Detection and Ranging Device (LIDAR), a magnetometer, and other optical and infrared instruments designed to analyze low-level light emissions induced in IRI-heated regions of the ionosphere. In all, HAARP's assemblage of transmitters, receivers, computers, and advanced signal-processing methods places it on the cutting edge of high-energy radio-physics research. The program is managed by the USAF Phillips Laboratory and the Office of Naval Research. Equipment is supplied by Advanced Power Technologies, a Washington, DC-based subsidiary of E-Systems of Dallas, a longtime maker of electronics used in ultra-secret projects such as signals-intelligence satellites and the President's E-4B "doomsday plane," which is designed to serve as an airborne White House in the event of nuclear war. Initial work on HAARP was begun in the mid1980s by Atlantic Richfield Corporation's subsidiary, ARCO Production Technologies Corporation, and its then-president, physicist Bernard Eastlund. ARCO wanted to find an onsite demand for the enormous amounts of Alaskan natural gas it owns. So it cooked up an energy intensive idea. Eastlund worked under contract for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (now called ARPA) and was awarded three patents one of which was classified until 1991 for inventions dealing with ionospheric modification. One of the most grandiose systems described in his patents is a 40-mile square, HAARP-like radio transmitter that would have used huge amounts of electric power generated by turbines burning natural gas drawn from the vast North Slope reserves. "Full global shield" was conceived to wipe out the guidance systems of missiles in flight anywhere in the world. "I founded and led the ARCO program until 1987," Eastlund says. "About that time Edward Teller visited Robert Hirsch, the ARCO vice president who had hired me. I don't know the direct results of that discussion, but shortly thereafter new [secret] initiatives began which I was not privy to, and I declined further involvement." Teller is a co-designer of the hydrogen bomb and was the arch-proponent of the now-abandoned X-ray-laser the centerpiece of Ronald Reagan's Star molars missile-defense program. Asked about his involvement in the beginnings of HAARP, Teller responded "I have no idea about that. I don't remember anything about it." Although it is much smaller than a "full global shield" system, Eastlund says, "HAARP is the perfect first step toward a plan like mine. Advances in phased-array transmitter technology and power generation can produce the field strength required. The government will say it isn't so, but if it quacks like a duck, and it looks like a duck - there's a good chance it is a duck." Advanced Power Technologies president Ramy Shanny declined to comment on Eastlund's claims. And the Defense Department is making no effort to dispel the impression that Eastlund's story might sound a bit like science fiction. "HAARP certainly does not have anything to do with Eastlund's thing, that is just crazy," says Heckscher. "What we have here is a premier scientific research facility with military applications." Richard Williams, a physical chemist and consultant to the Sarnoff Laboratory at Princeton dJniversity, sees things differently. "Eastlund is an intellectual ace and a technologically savvy guy," he says, "though there is a bit of Dr. Strangelove in him." Speculation and controversy surround the question of whether HAARP's 1.7 gigawatts (1.7 billion watts) of effective radiated power in the 2.8to 10MHz frequency range might cause lasting damage to Earth's upper atmosphere. By comparison, the energy level is more than 3,000 times greater than the biggest commercial AM radio transmitters. "HAARP will dump enormous amounts of energy into the upper atmosphere. We don't know what will happen," says Williams. "My concern is its effect on a global scale - you can't localize the effects. With experiments on this scale, irreparable damage could be done in a short time. The immediate need is for open discussion. To do otherwise would be an act of global vandalism." Eastlund himself observes that "There has never been a transmitter of this power in this frequency band. It would be wise to assess its impact." The 440-page HAARP environmental-impact statement filed by the Air Force says that the normally upward-directed IRI transmissions can raise the internal body temperature of nearby people; ignite road flares in the trunks of cars; detonate aerial munitions that use electronic fuses; and scramble aircraft communications, navigation, and flight-control systems. Program officials insist that the facility will operate safely during the four or five 14-day transmitting "campaigns" scheduled yearly. An integral part of the HAARP design is a system programmed to automatically cease transmitter operation if nearby aircraft are detected. The chain-link fence is designed to keep visitors from ending up in the path of a low-angle beam. For decades, high-frequency heaters around the globe have been operated by researchers studying how the injection of radio energy affects the ionosphere, and the process by which the upper atmosphere recovers from the disturbance. These include transmitters in Tromso, Norway, which are operated by Germany's Max Planck Institute; Nizhny-Novgorod, Russia, and Dushanbe, Tadzhikistan, which are manned by Russian scientists; and U.S. facilities at Arecibo, Puerto Rico, and Fairbanks, Alaska. HAARP's power output nearly twice that of any other ionospheric heater combined with the rapid beam-steering ability and broad frequency range of its transmitter, will permit the IRI to modify higher-altitude areas of the ionosphere from greater distances than ever. A bank of six 2.5megawatt, 3,600-horsepower diesel generators powers the IRI prototype, while the rest of the facility taps electricity from a nearby power line. Some prominent experts are unmoved by talk of HAARP's possibly dire effects. The dean of American space scientists, James Van Allen, professor of physics at the University of Iowa and discoverer of the Earth-girdling radiation belts that bear his name, says "Every time you turn on a radio transmitter you modify the ionosphere. HAARP will perturb the ionosphere markedly for an hour, or maybe even a day, or perhaps at most a month. I don't see any deleterious effects other than on local communications." Van Allen says five decades of research have given him a feeling for the minute scale of influence humans have on the cosmos. "There is nothing that we as men can do that does not pale in comparison to the forces of nature." Alfred Y. Wong, professor of physics at UCLA and director of the high-power active-stimulation ionospheric heater HAARP's little brother located in Fairbanks, Alaska, simulates ionospheric conditions in an atmospheric chamber at his Los Angeles laboratory. The device subjects electrons and ions to high-frequency radio heating, replicating the effects of HAARP. "We understand most of the fundamental mechanisms that underlie ionospheric heating. In chamber simulations we've conducted very detailed studies with reproducible results. We put probes in the chamber to study this. We found no negative effects," he says. Wong believes HAARP could be used for environmental mitigation efforts, such as accelerating chlorine atoms into interplanetary space to prevent them from degrading Earth's vital upper-atmospheric ozone layer. Though he acknowledges potential offensive military uses of HAARP, Wong believes no harm will occur from its operations. "I don't see any problems, only surprises," he says. "That's why we do research." Others harbor a strong distrust of the program. A local organization called No HAARP firmly opposes the project on environmental and communications-disruption grounds. "This is not good science," contends retired ARCO Production Technologies employee Clare Zickuhr, who leads the group. "They have no idea what this thing could do to the ionosphere. To put this in the hands of the military scares the hell out of me." HAARP has proceeded full-steam ahead since its inception in 1990. The total amount of money spent over the past six years exceeds $58 million and may reach nearly $200 million by the end of the decade, when the installation is scheduled to be completed. The effort is a "congressional specialinterest program," meaning that supporters in Congress request funds for it on behalf of the Air Force and Navy. Senator Ted Stevens (R-Alaska) is a staunch supporter of the program. Other Alaska state officials, however, have not been briefed about HAARP by the military. Asked about the program, a spokesman for Governor Tony Knowles replied, "We have no idea what you are talking about." State Representative Jeanette James, whose district surrounds the HAARP site, has repeatedly asked Air Force officials about the project and has been told "not to worry," she says. "My gut feeling is that it is frightening. I'm skeptical. I don't think they know what they are doing." This not the last we will hear of HAARP. Whether or not the program's sponsors understand its long-term effects, they appear to feel that the potential for useful military payoffs makes it worth taking some political heat although they may not have expected to attract any attention way out back in Alaska's sub-Arctic taiga. [Reprinted with permission from Popular Science magazine. Copyright 1995 Times Mirror Magazine, Inc.]

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Your Web browser is not supported Dr. S.M. Davis (Author) Length: 57 minutes (1 track) Size: 9.79 MB How to Help Weak Children Become Strong Dr. S.M. Davis The Apostle Peter thought he was strong when he was actually weak. Wise parents must discern about their children & their children’s friends - who is strong, who is weak, who is backslidden, & who is lost. The strong may spend time with the others, but the weak can only be with the others when someone strong is also present. Jesus had spent time with sinners with His disciples with Him. However, when Peter warmed by the fire of the enemy without a strong person present, his weakness became quickly evident. Two young people may be fine Christians, but if they are both weak, they will pull each other down. This message not only encourages the strong to support the weak, but also gives the secret to becoming strong. Also included are the 5 types of fools - Simple, Silly, Sporting, Scorning, & Committed.

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The former porter of Sir Joseph Bowley, he had married the former Mrs. Chickenstalker, who operated a grocery store. He was an older man, suffering from the snuffles. He was overweight and had great difficulty breathing The Chimes, written in Genoa, Italy, is the second of Dickens' Christmas stories in which he attempts to convince the upper classes to have compassion for the poor. Taking place on New Year's Eve, a poor man named Trotty begins to despair about... This content is not yet available. Please check back. Display a larger image and more item information when the pointer pauses over a thumbnail Thumbnail with title Grid with smaller thumbnails and more detail Select the collections to add or remove from your search

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Order materials for use with an FNEP audience (FNP and/or EFNEP) through your regional office. Approved Curriculum & Resource Lists Library of selected teaching materials These are checklists of all the materials needed for each curriculum – teaching and marketing materials – as well as where to find the following forms: food restriction, consent, evaluation and reporting. Some materials are found in Publications, others are on the Web or the FNEP share drive. Eating from the Garden Live It! (updated Pyramid Plus) Jump Into Foods and Fitness Checklist Kids in the Kitchen Checklist The Lewis and Clark Expedition: A Journey of Food Discovery Teen Parents Checklist Show Me Nutrition Checklists: Eat Smart Live Strong Eating Smart, Being Active Eating Smart, Being Active During Pregnancy Eating Smart, Being Active – Feeding Your New Baby Eating Smart, Being Active – Feeding Your Baby Solid Foods Loving Your Family, Feeding Their Future Food Related Intergenerational Discussion Group Experiences (FRIDGE) Eating Smart, Being Active Jump into Foods and Fitness The Jump Into Foods & Fitness curriculum is designed to teach students, grades three through five, about healthy eating and physical activity. Each lesson includes opportunities for students to learn about and practice healthy eating and physical activity habits. A family newsletter, reinforcing classroom lessons, accompanies each lesson. - Lesson 1: Pyramids for health - Lesson 2: Go the distance with grains - Lesson 3: High 5 for health - Lesson 4: Moving and motion - Lesson 5: Power up the day - Lesson 6: On the go - Lesson 7: Choices for good health - Lesson 8: Celebrating JIFF Identifying New Educational Materials (doc) Show Me Nutrition Alternate Activities Criteria for Choosing Music for Physical Activity in FNEP (doc) Show Me Nutrition Education Displays The Show Me Nutrition Education Displays are designed to reach teachers who will take the information into the classroom and share with their students. With these exhibits we are “training trainers” to deliver good nutrition messages. Videos that use the old Food Guide Pyramid Use of 4-H Materials in FNEP Programs Lessons for adults – core lessons include: - Get Moving! - Plan, Shop, $ave - Vary Your Veggies, Focus on Fruit - Make Half Your Grains Whole - Build Strong Bones - Go Lean with Protein and Iron - Make a Change - Celebrate! Eat Smart and Be Active Additional lessons address nutrition during pregnancy and feeding infants and children. Lessons for pregnant and parenting teens on healthy nutrition habits for improved birth outcomes. Also covers breast-feeding and feeding babies and toddlers. Through Food Power Classroom Activities, the Food Power Adventure and the Food Power Digest, elementary school students learn the importance of healthy food choices and regular physical activity. As students travel the path food takes from the farmer’s field to the sports field, they learn where the food they eat comes from and how it gives them the energy to grow and play. Food Power Young Adventure As an integral compliment to the Food Power curriculum, Young Adventure targets early childhood through kindergarten aged students. The program is titled “Healthily Ever After”. Using nursery rhyme puppet characters and music, students are introduced to eating a variety of foods, being physically active, and washing hands to kill germs. A parent digest with family cooking ideas, games, and resources is sent home to reinforce learning concepts. Food Power Round Up Round Up offers an enrichment option to the Food Power curriculum. Designed as a traveling nutrition assembly performance for grades 2nd to 4th, the program uses puppetry, music, and audience participation learning. Content information helps support students in making positive food and physical activity choices. Classroom activity handouts for teachers follow up are provided. Jump into Action Jump Into Action is a team-taught, school-based program to change food behaviors and increase physical activity in fifth-grade students. Jump Into Action helps students make healthy food choices and be more physically active. Students in Jump Into Action learn how fast they are growing now and about the food choices that can help them. They set goals to drink more milk and fewer sodas and other sweetened drinks. Fitting in five or more fruits and vegetables helps them hit their fiber target. They read nutrition facts and ingredient lists on food labels to make informed food choices. Students also learn about the connection between physical activity and healthy weight. They use pedometers to see how active they are. They learn to trade screen time for 60 minutes of physical activity every day.

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en

Ulam was a brilliant Polish mathematician who came to this country at the start of the Second World War, became a leading figure in the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, New Mexico, the top secret project to develop the nuclear weapon that ended that war, and, together with Edward Teller, worked out the design of the thermonuclear weapons that were at the heart of the Cold War. But inventing the H-bomb was just one of many remarkable things he did. He was one of those amazing people who did important work in many areas of mathematics - number theory, set theory, ergodic theory, and algebraic topology. But his real strength was in his incredible ability to see things in a novel way. For example, during the war, when he was at the University of Wisconsin, his friend John von Neumann invited him to join him on a secret project in New Mexico. But he wouldn't say what it was. So Ulam went to the university library and checked out a book on New Mexico, and looked at the book's check-out card. It listed the names of all the scientists who had mysteriously disappeared from the university, and by looking at what they were experts in, Ulam was able to figure out what the project was probably about. He himself then joined the Manhattan Project. That was in 1943. At Los Alamos, Ulam showed Edward Teller's early model of the hydrogen bomb was inadequate, and suggested a better method. He realized that you could put all the H-bomb's components inside one casing, stick a fission bomb at one end and thermonuclear material at the other, and use mechanical shock from the fission bomb to compress and detonate the fusion fuel. With a further modification by Teller, who saw that radiation from the fission bomb would compress the thermonuclear fuel much more efficiently than mechanical shock, that became the standard way to build an H-bomb. It's a little known fact that Ulam and Teller applied for a patent on their design. I'm not sure if the patent was ever granted, but if it was and you want to build an H-bomb, you'd better make sure you get a license on the patent. Another Ulam invention at Los Alamos was what we call the Monte Carlo method for solving complicated mathematical problems - originally the integrals that arise in the theory of nuclear chain reactions. The method gets its name from the fact that you use a computer to make lots of random guesses, and then use statistical techniques to deduce the correct answer from all the guesses. It's a great idea. These days the Monte Carlo method is used all over science and engineering to solve problems that would take too long to solve by other methods. Perhaps the most amazing of Ulam's many suggestions was something called nuclear pulse propulsion. This is where you detonate a series of small, directional nuclear explosives against a large steel pusher plate attached to a spacecraft with shock absorbers. Yes, you heard me right. Don't be fooled by the fact that this is the April column. This was not only a serious proposal, but it was taken seriously by the US government, who instigated the top-secret Project Orion to build such a spacecraft in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In theory, such a propulsion system would generate about twelve times the thrust of the Space Shuttle's main engine. The spacecraft would be a lot bigger than the Shuttle, mind, and could carry over 200 people. It would get to Mars and back in four weeks, compared to 12 months for NASA's current chemically-powered rocket-craft, and it could visit Saturn's moons in a seven-month mission, something that would take about nine years using current NASA technologies. A lot of progress was made during the course of the project, particularly on crew shielding and pusher-plate design, and the system appeared to be entirely workable when the project was shut down in 1965. Why was it shut down? The main reason given was that the Partial Test Ban Treaty made it illegal. Some people in the know have since suggested that President Kennedy initiated the Apollo program not only in response to the launch of Sputnik, but also to buy off the people who wanted to continue working on Orion. Another Ulam idea that attracts a lot of interest these days is one of a number of so-called Singularity Events that have been contemplated. The one that tends to get the most press coverage these days is the supposed date when computers surpass people in intelligence, but Ulam's singularity is different. In a conversation with von Neumann that Ulam wrote about in 1958, he speculated that, because the progress of technology - and changes in the way we lives our lives - is constantly accelerating, there will come a point when we cannot keep up, and there will be what mathematicians call a singularity. But this time, it won't be a singularity in a physical system but in human history. So human affairs, as we know them, could not continue. You and I probably won't experience this. But our children might. Ulam died in 1984. I never met him, but I did once occupy his office. In 1965, Ulam became a professor at the University of Colorado in Boulder, and in 1980 I spent the summer there. Ulam had remained a consultant at Los Alamos ever since the war, and used to spend part of each year there. That's where he was when I arrived, so his office in the Math Department was available, and they gave it to me. So what sense of the man did I get from occupying his office? None whatsoever. It was completely empty apart from a single calculus textbook that I assume he had used to teach a course. But on reflection, maybe that does say something about him. When the subject of the invention of nuclear weapons comes up, the names that get bandied about are Oppenheimer and Teller. Ulam is rarely mentioned. Yet his contribution was no less than either of the two others. He was, it seems, a man more interested in the ideas themselves than the public recognition his work could bring him. Certainly, my Boulder colleagues who did know him speak warmly of him. In an era when Britney Spears and Paris Hilton are two of the most famous Americans on the planet, I'll vote for Stan Ulam as one of the greatest Americans of all time.

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Avoid the extreme, but beware of household cancer causing items Aug 28, 2012, 8:40 a.m. Narrowing down the exact causes of cancer can be difficult. Confusion and misinformation hinders the truth and prevents many homeowners from understanding the nature of cancer causing products. If you are concerned about household chemicals causing cancer, this is for you. Avoiding the extreme This list of items not considered cancer causing products comes via the National Cancer Institute: - Artificial Sweeteners - Crop Pesticides - Electronic Devices - Household Bug Sprays - Fluoridated Water. Cancer causing products once available for home use The list of chemicals causing cancer has long been under investigation by the U.S. government and other resource facilities. Many previous home home-related cancer causing products are now off the market. Yet certain risks remain active. Asbestos -- Used in pre-1970s homes in adhesives, ceiling tiles, paints and even child products such as crayons. Now banned by the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. Hair Dyes -- The current at-risk group involves people who began using the products before 1980s laws forced modification of the chemicals used in hair dye. Current Cancer Causing Chemicals Fabric Softeners -- Known to include Benzyl Acetate, which has been linked to pancreatic cancer. Radon -- Although not related to typical household items, radon may well be present in your home. It is a radioactive gas produced by the natural decay of radium in soil and rocks. This odorless, cancer causing agent can reach a critical mass when permitted to linger in homes without adequate ventilation. Radon linked lung cancer causes up to 22,000 U.S. deaths per year. Content Provided by Spot55.com

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en

The Gospel of Luke is the third of the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament, which tell the story of Jesus' life, death, and resurrection. Although the text does not name its author, the modern consensus follows the traditional view that this gospel and the Acts of the Apostles were written by the same author. The traditional view is that this author is the Luke named in the Epistle to Philemon 24, a follower of Paul. Authorship and audience The critical view, expressed by Udo Schnelle , is that "the extensive linguistic and theological agreements and cross-references between the Gospel of Luke and the Acts indicate that both works derive from the same author" (The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings). The evangelist does not claim to have been an eyewitness of Jesus's life, but to have investigated everything carefully and to have written an orderly narrative of the facts (Luke 1:1-4). The authors of the other three Gospels, Matthew, Mark, and John, probably used similar sources. According to the two-source hypothesis, the most commonly accepted solution to the synoptic problem, Luke's sources included the Gospel of Mark and another collection of lost sayings known by scholars as Q, the Quelle or "source document. The general consensus is that Luke was written by a Greek for the gentile Christians. The Gospel is addressed to the author's patron, the "most excellent" Theophilus. Date of composition The date of this gospel's composition is uncertain. Estimates range from ca 80 to ca 130 AD. Traditional views of the date Traditionally, Christians believe that Luke wrote under the direction, if not at the dictation, of Paul. This would place it as having been written before the Acts, whose date of the composition is generally fixed at about AD 63 or 64. Consequently the tradition is that this Gospel was written about 60 or 63, when Luke may have been at Caesarea in attendance on Paul, who was then a prisoner. If the alternate conjecture is correct, that it was written at Rome during Paul's imprisonment there, then it would date earlier, 40–60. Evangelical Christians tend to favor this view, in keeping with the tradition to date the gospels very early. Luke addressed his gospel to "most excellent Theophilus." Theophilus, which in Greek means "Friend of God", may just be a literary expression. Unfortunately, nowhere in Luke or Acts does it say that the author is Luke, the companion of Paul; this ascription is late second century. Furthermore, the text itself reveals hints that it was not written as a dictation of a single author, but made use of multiple sources. Critical views of the date In contrast to the traditional view, many contemporary scholars regard Mark as a source text used by the author(s) of Luke. Since Mark was probably written after the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, around 70, Luke could not have been written before 70. Based on this datum, scholars have suggested dates for Luke from 80 to as late as 150, and Acts shortly thereafter, also between 80 and 150. The de-emphasis of the Parousia and the universalization of the message strongly suggest a much later date than the 60–70 given by the traditional view. Debate continues among non-traditionalists about whether Luke was written before or after the end of the first century. Those who would date it later argue that it was written in response to hetrodoxical movements of the early second century. Those who would date it earlier point out both that Luke lacks knowledge of the episcopal system, which had been developed in the second century, and that an earlier date preserves the traditional connection of the gospel with the Luke who was a follower of Paul. The earliest manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke are papyrus fragments from the third century, one containing portions of all four gospels (P45) and three others preserving only brief passages (P4, P69, P75). These early copies, as well as the earliest copies of Acts, date after the Gospel was separated from Acts. The Codex Bezae, in the University Library, Cambridge, contains a 5th or 6th century manuscript that is the oldest complete manuscript of Luke, in Greek and Latin versions on facing pages. The Greek version appears to have descended from an offshoot of the main manuscript tradition and departs from familiar readings at many points. Though the text bears many intended corrections, often to bring it into line with the usual readings, the Codex Bezae demonstrates the latitude in manuscripts of scripture that still existed quite late in the tradition. Biblical scholars have minimized the Codex's importance, citing it generally only when it supports the common readings. Relationship with other gospels Most New Testament scholars believe the author of Luke relied on Mark and Q as his primary sources. According to Farrar, "Out of a total of 1151 verses, Luke has 389 in common with Matthew and Mark, 176 in common with Matthew alone, 41 in common with Mark alone, leaving 544 peculiar to himself. In many instances all three use identical language." There are seventeen parables peculiar to this Gospel. Luke also attributes to Jesus seven miracles which are not present in Matthew or Mark. The synoptic Gospels are related to each other after the following scheme. If the contents of each Gospel are numbered at 100, then when compared this result is obtained: Mark has 7 peculiarities, 93 coincidences. Matthew 42 peculiarities, 58 coincidences. Luke 59 peculiarities, 41 coincidences. That is, thirteen-fourteenths of Mark, four-sevenths of Matthew, and two-fifths of Luke describe the same events in similar language. Luke's style is more polished than that of Matthew and Mark with fewer Hebrew idioms. He uses a few Latin words (Luke 7:41, 8:30, 11:33, 12:6, and 19:20), but no Syriac or Hebrew words except sikera, an exciting drink of the nature of wine, but not made of grapes (from Heb. shakar, "he is intoxicated", Leviticus 10:9), probably palm wine. This Gospel contains twenty-eight distinct references to the Old Testament. Many words and phrases are common to the Gospel of Luke and the Letters of Paul; compare: - Luke 4:22 with Colossians 4:6. - Luke 4:32 with 1 Corinthians 2:4. - Luke 6:36 with 2 Corinthians 1:3. - Luke 6:39 with Romans 2:19. - Luke 9:56 with 2 Corinthians 10:8. - Luke 10:8 with 1 Corinthians 10:27. - Luke 11:41 with Titus 1:15. - Luke 18:1 with 2 Thessalonians 1:11. - Luke 21:36 with Ephesians 6:18. - Luke 22:19-20 with 1 Corinthians 11:23-29. - Luke 24:34 with 1 Corinthians 15:5. Testimonials and appreciations Luke's Gospel has been called "the Gospel of the nations, full of mercy and hope, assured to the world by the love of a suffering Saviour;" "the Gospel of the saintly life;" "the Gospel for the Greeks; the Gospel of the future; the Gospel of progressive Christianity, of the universality and gratuitousness of the gospel; the historic Gospel; the Gospel of Jesus as the good Physician and the Saviour of mankind;" the "Gospel of the Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man;" "the Gospel of womanhood;" "the Gospel of the outcast, of the Samaritan, the publican, the harlot, and the prodigal;" "the Gospel of tolerance." The main characteristic of this Gospel, as Farrar (Cambridge Bible, Luke, Introd.) remarks, is expressed in the motto, "Who went about doing good, and healing all that were oppressed of the devil" (Acts 10:38; compare with Luke 4:18). Luke wrote for the "Hellenic world." This Gospel is indeed "rich and precious." Online translations of the Gospel of Luke: This article was originally based on text from Easton Bible Dictionary of 1897 and from M.G. Easton M.A., D.D., Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Third Edition, published by Thomas Nelson, 1897.

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It's is short for it is or it has. Its is the possessive form of it. There is often confusion between its and it's. If you delve deeper into this issue, you will see that there is good reason for the confusion. However, if you just want to know what is right, the matter is very simple: It's is short for it is or it has. This is a 100% rule. It cannot be used for anything else. If you cannot expand it's to it is or it has, then it is wrong. Its is like his and her. His is used for masculine things. (These are his pies.) Her is used for feminine things. (These are her flowers.) Its is used for neuter things. (These are its footprints.) raining for a week, and now it's starting to snow. (It has been raining....it is starting to snow) It's one of the hardest courses in it's history. (The first it's is correct. The second should be its.) I think the company wants to have its cake and eat it. (its - possessive form. This is correct.) shark chases it's prey through the coral. (should be its, i.e., the possessive form. You cannot expand this to it is or it has.) I'm astounded by people who want to 'know' the universe when it's so hard to find your way around Chinatown. (Woody Allen) A lie gets halfway around the world before the truth has a chance to get its pants on. There is nothing in the world like the devotion of a married woman. It's a thing no married man knows anything about. Whenever cannibals are on the brink of starvation, Heaven, in its infinite mercy, sends them a fat missionary. (Oscar Wilde) Constant company wears out A frog can't empty its stomach by vomiting. To empty its stomach contents, a frog throws up its stomach first, so the stomach is dangling out of its mouth. Then the frog uses its forearms to dig out all of the stomach's contents and then swallows the stomach back down again. A completely blind chameleon will still take on the ) of its environment. Therefore, somewhat understandably, many think that the possessive form of it should be it's. It seems to fit the pattern. To make matters worse, there is some evidence that the possessive form of it used to be it's. The word it's is used erroneously (by today's conventions) throughout the American Constitution.

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As more and more users gain access to the web, it becomes increasingly important to ensure that your website is accessible to all, not just a few. Just as businesses must comply with the American Disabilities Act to ensure proper access to customers with disabilities, businesses should do all they can to make their websites accessible to all users regardless of the means in which they access the site. And of course not all accessibility issues involve meeting the needs of the disabled. What must be considered is the growing number of users that now access websites through non-traditional means, whether it be mobile phones or with images turned off. These users can still be your target audience, and ensuring your site can be used through alternate avenues is essential to capturing that audience. The doctype allows you to declare what version of HTML your site uses. This is helpful to the browser rendering the site so it knows how best to interpret the information presented. Each page of your site should specify doctype and language encoding. If you are unfamiliar with the doctype declaration, you can read about it at W3.org. Use your Cascading style sheets (CSS) to set all the default colors, font sizes, and text alignment of the site. Different browsers use their own defaults for any of these, and failure to set them to your preference may cause your site to look quite different than intended in different browsers. Site should use relative, rather than absolute, font sizing. Relative sizing allows visitors to resize the font to their preference. You lose some control over how the page appears, but it is better to lose a little control than to lose the visitor all together because the font is too difficult to read. When using bulleted lists, be sure to use the proper list markup, (UL, OL and DL) and (LI, DT, DD). While you can insert bullets with code or using an asterisk, using the proper markup is the best way to ensure that it renders properly across multiple platforms. Alternate image text All visual images on a page (not those used for page formatting) should contain alternate text describing the image. This ensures that the image is properly described for text readers and those surfing with images turned off. Many devices don’t use CSS when rendering a web page. Make sure that your site can be viewed and browsed satisfactorily when CSS is turned off. These are just a few quick accessibility issues that should be adhered to. While most users are still using traditional browsers, mobile phones are becoming more widely used for web surfing. Designing your site with accessibility in mind assures that it scales properly for different browsers, mobile phones, screen readers, etc. By doing this you’ll capture more of your target audience. Need a full-site usability analysis? Pole Position Marketing provides comprehensive site architecture and usability reports that help your site succeed. Purchase yours today! Let the Pole Position Marketing team help you velocitize your web marketing, expand your online presence and grow your business through SEO, PPC, social media, as well as consulting, speaking and/or in-house training. Contact our pit crew at 866-685-3374.

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Equipping students to successfully navigate the complex environmental challenges of the 2lst century by re-thinking, re-designing and creating viable solutions is emerging as a key task for educators. At first glance, the prospect of adding one more responsibility into an already demanding mix of content requirements seems daunting. However, many creative educators are taking up the charge to increase environmental knowledge by engaging their students in school and community projects that make a difference today and impart core academic, workforce readiness and life skills that are critical for the future. Consider, for example, the middle school students at Sidwell Friends School in Washington, D.C., who have identified more than 50 species of native bees that can be found on their urban campus, several of which have never before been documented in the city. This project has contributed to a “real-world” biodiversity study; students use the same field-investigation skills practiced by scientists around the world to collect insect samples and work with researchers from the Smithsonian Institute to identify the bees and their habitat. In response to budget shortages affecting their school district, students at Carver Middle School in Coral Gables, Fla., studied, designed and implemented cost-saving energy-conservation projects that have increased their schools’ energy efficiency by 28% in one school year. But they weren’t satisfied with that result alone. In order to expand impact beyond the school walls, students gave a presentation of their energy-efficiency strategies before Miami International Airport officials that led to the institution of new sustainability initiatives at the airport. High quality environmental education (EE) and good project-based learning have much in common. The above projects are just two examples of the ways students have made significant contributions to their local environment, while developing critical thinking skills and a deep understanding of academic content. In EE students research and develop solutions to “real-world” challenges in a collaborative setting. And involving and educating the community – the “Public Audience” element of PBL - is a pillar of successful EE. The renewed effort to engage students in applying and “doing” science, rather than memorizing terms and equations for standardized tests presents a rich opportunity to harness school grounds and facilities, parks, forests and waterways, as living environmental laboratories ripe for inquiry-based learning. What better way to “do” science and to expose students to STEM career possibilities than to engage students in environmental projects that allow them to connect with experts while making a lasting impact on their community? While most common in the science classroom, environmental project-based learning is not limited to the science disciplines. Envision a math class comparing the relative efficiencies of different fuels and presenting their findings to the city or an art class working with a local printing business to turn waste paper into art to be enjoyed by the entire community. Furthermore, environmental project-based learning provides an ideal opportunity for interdisciplinary learning, where students develop and apply skills in research, data collection and analysis, writing and presenting, throughout the course of the project. With the plentiful learning opportunities afforded by a variety of compelling environmental topics, the National Environmental Education Foundation (NEEF) is working to expand project-based learning in the environment. Our Classroom Earth website provides an array of standards-based resources across all academic disciplines that educators can easily access to integrate the environment into whatever subject they teach. NEEF has recently collaborated with the Pacific Education Institute and the Buck Institute for Education to provide teachers with an on-line opportunity through PBLU.org to learn and apply the fundamentals of project-based learning by involving their students in a Schoolyard Habitat Project. In this project, students research, design and implement a plan to enhance their school campus by creating vital wildlife habitat, planting native plants or removing weeds and invasive plants from the school grounds. Check out the recently archived webinar: Dirty Hands, Clean Planet: Environmental PBL Environmental education projects create a compelling context for engaging students and enable teachers to meet standards, build 21st Century skills, and develop life-long stewards. Hear about various project examples, including one available at BIE’s new online training program, PBLU.org – the Schoolyard Habitat Project, which involves students in a real-world project to enhance their school campus. Through National Environmental Education Week’s Green STEM focus, NEEF is undertaking a multi-year initiative and working with partners around the country to position the environment as a compelling portal for teaching and engaging students in STEM and 21st Century skills. With environmental science jobs expected to grow by 25% by 2016—the fastest among the sciences—compelling environmental projects can serve as a gateway for future environmental engineers, green chemists and sustainable design entrepreneurs. Given that 57% of STEM college students report that it was a teacher or class prior to college that initially sparked their interest in STEM, capitalizing on strong student interest in the environment also helps attract students to learn and use skills that are not only in demand but which will play a critical role for the future well-being of our nation and our world. Senior Director, Education National Environmental Education Foundation

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