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c3fa20f64a60944385e3e34ba29f2b15 | ?problem 44qp
a 2.50-l flask is filled with air at 2.00 atm. what size flask is needed to hold this much air at 735 torr? | a 2.50-l flask is filled with air at 2.00 atm. what size | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.21 | [
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"text": " northcentral university assignment cover sheet student: this form must be completely filled in follow these procedures: if requested by your instructor, please include an assignment cover sheet. this will become the first page of your assignment. in addition, your assignment header should include your last name, first initial, course code, dash, and assignment number. this should be left justified, with the page number right justified. for example: save a copy of your assignments: you may need to resubmit an assignment at your instructor’s request. make sure you save your files in accessible location. academic integrity: all work submitted in each course must be your own original work. this includes all assignments, exams, term papers, and other projects required by your instructor. knowingly submitting another person’s work as your own, without properly citing the source of the work, is considered plagiarism. this will result in an unsatisfactory grade for the work submitted or for the entire course. it may also result in academic dismissal from the university. mgt701987 thomas schaefer, dba ethics assignment 7 faculty use only <faculty comments here> <faculty name> <grade earned> <date graded> \n 2 introduction the purpose of this week’s paper is review a previously read article and evaluate it for design and whether or not the results of the study were logical. to do this, an analysis of the sarbanesoxley act (sox) of 2002 is first defined and subsequently analyzed for it’s effectiveness of restoring the public’s trust. in t his study the following will be discussed: 1) brief historical summary on sox enactment 2) the key ethical components of the sox 3) social responsibility implications regarding mandatory publication of corporate ethics, 4) one of the main criticisms of sox is that its implementation presents an unfair burden on smaller organizations. do you agree or disagree with this statement? why? 5) how might you suggest improvement of the sox legislation? brief historical summary on sox enactment in 2002, congress enacted the sarbanesoxley act otherwise known as sox was enacted. the purpose of this was to make an attempt at restoring the public’s trust by implementing code, improving organizational ethics, and audit procedures and whistleblower protection. orin (2008) discusses that the reason sox was enacted was to help people have faith in the corporate system again after the enron, worldcom, adelphia, and tyco scandals. simply put, sox is another layer of bureaucratic red tape put in place to ensure that publically traded companies and their managers do the right thing. by placing an additional layer of protection, aka paperwork, in place, the public should be able to have a higher degree of trust for the companies they are instructing with their investments. according to kessel (2011) the increased regulations are placed on companies to make an attempt at ensuring ethical compliance included costs that are far too extensive. as a business \n 2 owner, it becomes more logical to sell the company to larger organization. they would do this because is it easier and more profitable to sell it to a company willing to take on such regulations rather than keep it and got through the process. in the end, the cost may be more to the consumer due to the lack of competition at that level. the key ethical components of the sox the sox act created a number of ethical components. it’s first step, according to franzel (2014) was to create a public company accounting oversight board (pcaob). king and case (2014) mention that the mission of the pcaob was to provide oversight of the audits that public companies conduct. essentially it’s mission is to audit the auditor which the government believes is the public’s best interest. franzel (2014) also suggests that the board had four main responsibilities that include the following: 1) establish audit and professional standards 2) register firms that audit public companies, brokers, or dealers, 3) conduct and report on regular inspections on those audit firms, and 4) conduct investigations and disciplinary hearings on those in violation. social responsibility implications regarding mandatory publication of corporate ethics mellon and marley (2013) discuss the impacts of publishing corporate ethic standards within their article. one of the points they discuss is the grey line that exists between publicizing certain information and confidentiality. is there are a need for certain pieces of information to be placed in the eye of the public when it may dishonor certain confidentiality agreements? while one may jump to the conclusion of yes, of course, the question then becomes, why does our very own government not comply with the same standard. there are programs that are completed and conducted in the “black world” that are funded the same all of the other programs are funded , but are not reported in the same manner. the items purchased, the missions accomplished, etc. are not known to the public and until the top secret coding on the program is lifted, this \n 2 information is not and may never be seen. while, the government places law upon law to govern corporations, they sure do make it hard to see that they have the same social responsibility as a corporate entity. government is a big business. if one does not believe that this is truth, one can look at the $13.2 trillion dollars in debt that the us holds today (congressional budget office, 2015). so, to look at the social responsibility that a corporation holds to the public, one must acknowledge that this law needs to be extended to the largest corporation out there to be truly effective. one of the main criticisms of sox is that its implementation presents an unfair burden on smaller organizations. do you agree or disagree with this statement? why? i believe that this is one of the truest statements out there. by placing layer upon layer of reporting, paperwork, and audits on a small company, it may mean the difference between a company succeeding or bankrupting. a smaller business may have a very small profit margin, and with the additional regulation and expense they may never be able to transition into a profitable state. orin (2011) believes that industry is pushing to have so much regulation removed and is a firm believer that the government holds to their policies. while orin’s opinion may be that this type of policing is necessary for companies to remain ethical, i seriously doubt his level of involvement with smaller businesses looking to form an ipo. by understanding the unnecessary burden this regulation places on small business, large corporations will be able to continue to push them out of the market. bova, minuttimeza, richardson, and vyas (2014) bring up an excellent point in regards to sox and the mindset of a smaller company. when looking at the possibility of developing a sox type of infrastructure to comply with the regulations, companies may choose an exit strategy rather than dealing with the compliance issues. when looking at this concept from a \n 2 broader perspective, this is actually quite infuriating for a smaller business owner. if they were to try to make a profit by choosing to go public, they would have to attempt to find other ways to supplement their income or choose to sell the business. if the level of competition from a large business is already high, the chances that the next up and coming small business to become true competition would be significantly lower. if a consumer has to look at the large business in the us and also has an option to seek out companies outside the us to outsource the item or service, why would they not? this may be one additional reason a smaller company can’t get past a certain threshold. consumers that don’t mind paying a higher price and want an american made product are certainly paying the surcharge due to additional regulations. while they may not mind paying a higher price if the competition is between the larger corporation and a foreign entity, a newly formed ipo may never even have a chance. while sox and the additional regulation stemmed from a few companies that had poor management and decision making skills, it seems to defeat the purpose of capitalism. there are better ways to ensure companies comply than by adding an additional layer of control in the mix. how might you suggest improvement of the sox legislation? improvement of sox legislation can start by removing and decommissioning sox legislation and giving companies back the power they need to function as a business. the improvement then exists on the backend of the business with stricter laws. if the individuals are found doing the things that management in tyco and enron ended up doing, a simple bit of ethical compliance and additional red tape is not going to stop them. what may stop them is what happens as an end result. by allowing the management staff involved to go free after only a few years of incarceration due to their toprated lawyers, is a huge part of the problem. let’s take for example the article written by hays and ariail (2013). hays served 30 years in the \n 2 financial industry not only as a cpa with 6 years of audit experience, but within the cia as well as was the vp of a multibilliondollar division of a major oil company. he and his four partners signed a development agreement with enron and during this time he did an extensive review of enron’s financials. during his involvement with enron, he was essentially clueless of the wrongdoings that were taking place right in front of him. the company’s management and accountants did a thorough job of moving funds around on the balance sheet to fool investors as well as members of their own organization. the concept of fraud within an organization is not a new concept and i believe only true way to lessen the existence of fraud in this way it to simplify tax laws. tax laws are extensive and filled with so much confusing language that it creates an indefinite number of ways to work around the law or even within it. the way our tax law is written is overbearing and ridiculous. it begs people to take advantage of the system because there are only a certain few that understand it. if tax law were rewritten and brought down to a onepage sheet that consisted of; if you earn this much this is what you pay, the loop holes and confusion would cease to exist. it is those that have the resources and that have an understanding of the law that have a greater ability to hide, fool, and break the law with halliburton and exvp dick cheney at the tip of the spear. we as a society have certainly gone so far outside the limits of making logical sense that there is very little room for common sense. as long as the laws are so complex and complicated, there will always be fraud. to add in another level of red tape, sox, only diminishes smaller companies’ abilities to potentially compete with larger companies. i truly believe that our government is too busy putting bandaides on the problem rather than fixing the true problem at heart. article for review now, after reviewing sox, what it is and it’s implications we are to review an article and how its design and study results relate to the above discussion. in week three, we reviewed an \n 2 article by stephens, vance, pettegrew (2012). this article discussed ethics in teenagers and how teenage ethical decisions relate to the decisions made as adults. the design of the study took into account 30,000 us high school students and how they viewed their own ethics and morality. the study discussed how they not only viewed their own personal morality but also analyzed the rate at which they admitted to cheating on a test or homework. the study showed that while a high percentage of students cheated on either homework or a test throughout the year, that they valued their ethics and morality at a high level. the design and the study results were very logical. it all comes down to human nature. the human population can find ways to justify all sorts of ethical and moral dilemmas. this concept is apparent at an early age and it certainly continues on through adulthood. will a five yearold lie just to get attention or to get their way? the answer is a resounding yes. overall the concept of placing controls on humanity is a possibility, the problem will always remain that there will be loopholes and ways around the rules. to take this concept a step further and apply it to the study, we realize that while those loopholes exist, sox is trying to place controls on audits and auditors. i am confused as to why would they believe they can control humanity any further than high schools can control their students or a parent could keep 5 year old from telling a lie. even with regulation in place, the only way to ensure compliance is met is to allow for transparency and a clear understanding of the expectation. as the governing entities continue to complicate the issue, there will always be wiggle room that people utilize to circumvent the rules they put in place. conclusion overall, the purpose of this week’s paper is review a previously read article and evaluate it for design and whether or not the results of the study were logical. to do this, an analysis of \n 2 the sarbanesoxley act (sox) of 2002 is first defined and subsequently analyzed for it’s effectiveness of restoring the public’s trust. in this study the following will be discussed: 1) brief historical summary on sox enactment 2) the key ethical components of the sox 3) social responsibility implications regarding mandatory publication of corporate ethics, 4) one of the main criticisms of sox is that its implementation presents an unfair burden on smaller organizations. do you agree or disagree with this statement? why? 5) how might you suggest improvement of the sox legislation? \n 9 charpiajmgt701987 references bova, f., minuttimeza, m., richardson, g., & vyas, d. (2014). the sarbanesoxley act and exit strategies of private firms. contemporary accounting research, 31(3), 818850. doi:10.1111/19113846.12049 congressional budget office (2015). budget. retrieved october 6, 2015 from https://www.cbo.gov/topics/budget franzel, j. m. (2014). a decade after sarbanesoxley: the need for ongoing vigilance, monitoring, and research. accounting horizons, 28(4), 917930. doi:10.2308/acch50868 hays, j. b., & ariail, d. l. (2013). enron should not have been a surprise and the next major fraud should not be either. journal of accounting & finance (21583625), 13(3), 134 145 kessel, m. (2011). sarbanesoxley overburdens biotech companies. nature biotechnology, 29(12), 10811082 king, d. l., & case, c. j. (2014). sarbanesoxley act and the public company accounting oversight board’s first eleven years. journal of business & accounting, 7(1), 1122. orin, r. m. (2008). ethical guidance and constraint under the sarbanesoxley act of 2002. journal of accounting, auditing & finance, 23(1), 141171 stephens, w., vance, c. a., & pettegrew, l. s. (2012). embracing ethics and morality. cpa journal, 82(1), 1621. ",
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936226d83a7fd9e72093e5dfab873525 | in exercises 72 to 79, determine whether the graph of each equation is symmetric with respect to the a. x-axis, b. y-axis, and c. origin | solved: in exercises 72 to 79, determine whether the graph | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": "question 1 which of the following statements would support the ônature' argument for gender socialization? a mothers place more restrictions on their daughters' autonomy when compared to restrictions . placed on their sons' autonomy. b a flood of hormones causes adolescents to incorporate sexuality into their gender . attitudes and behavior. c some researchers have concluded that the elementary school playground is ògender schooló . d boys get more instruction from teachers than girls when they have trouble with a question. . 1 points question 2 james has flunked out of high school, has severed all of his ties with family and friends, and has no sense of where he is headed. according to erikson, james is experiencing: a. identity diffusion. b. negative identity. c. identity foreclosure. d. psychosocial moratorium. 1 points \n question 3 during childhood, cathy had high selfesteem. as she enters adolescence, cathy's selfesteem is most likely to: a. increase. b. remain the same or increase. c. remain the same or decrease. d. decrease. question 4 kurt is 15 and spends most of his energy wondering who he is and what kind of person he will become. erikson would describe him as facing the crisis called: a. basic trust versus mistrust. b. autonomy versus shame and doubt. c. industry versus inferiority. d. identity versus identity diffusion. 1 points question 5 jason is normally a very outgoing, confident young man, but this morning he is embarrassed and quiet because his mother yelled at him in front of his friends as she dropped him off at school. his present mood is reflective of a change in his: a. crystallized selfesteem. b. fluid selfesteem. \n c. barometric selfesteem. d. baseline selfesteem. 1 points question 6 dr. smith argues that adolescence is such a demanding time that adolescents need several years with as few responsibilities as possible so they can sort out their identities. his argument focuses on the idea of: a. individuation. b. separation. c. crystallization. d. psychosocial moratorium. 1 points question 7 steve has been classified as lacking commitment but currently exploring career options. what identity status (james marcia's model) would steve fall under? a. achievement b. foreclosure c. diffusion \n d. moratorium 1 points question 8 which of the following is not generally a predictor of selfesteem? a. academic achievement b. parental love c. supportive friends d. religious affiliation question 9 kikko hates country music but told keith, who is a big garth brooks fan and her latest love interest, that she adored country music and would love to go with him to see garth in concert. this type of behavior is called: a. negative identity. b. code switching. c. identity confusion. d. falseself. 1 points question 10 maria sees herself as an only child, as a person who likes art and music, who is shy, and who likes to read. maria's description fits best with the idea of: a. selfconceptio n. b. selfesteem. c. selfattribution. d. selfcontrol. ",
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474c53dcc3edd6e76567113919c4863d | in general, the higher the charge on the ions in an ionic compound, the more favorable the lattice energy. why do some stable ionic compounds have 1 charged ions even though 4, 5, and 6 charged ions would have a more favorable lattice energy? 23 | in general, the higher the charge on the ions in an ionic | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": " physical anthropology 3/21/16 fossils and their place in time and nature chapter 8 continued taphonomy most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks because of either constant flooding or other sources bring sediment onto the fossil problems w/ the fossil records ● decomposition and predation ● geological distortion/deformation ● weathering limitations of the fossil record ● low likelihood of anything becoming a fossil ● bias towards hard parts ○ cartilage and soft tissue not likely to fossilize ● missing pieces ○ causing not to have all the pieces for each fossil ○ causing to mix up fossils ● time bias ● no idea what animals actually look like ● environments pressure different ○ wet environments pressure better ○ acidic soils (tropics) will eat the fossils away the fossil record and the timing and tempo of evolution ● provides evidence for evolution and its process ● it is incomplete so their is some disagreement of time and tempo ● two models of it ○ gradualism vs. punctuated equilibrium ■ gradualism change is a slow process ■ punctuated equilibriumslow stasis than a rapid change ○ both will happen, case by case basis of which is appropriate bringing fossils to life ● what did they look like? ● exclusive: building the face of a newly found ancestor ○ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eatqu7hww5g time in perspective ● hard to comprehend ● eon4 total, half a billion years or more ● era 10 defined, several hundred million years ● period22 defined, 10s to 1 hundred millions years ● epoch34 defined \n physical anthropology 3/21/16 geological time: earth history ● 200 mya ○ pangean ● late jurassic (about 150 mya ● cretaceous (about 70 mya) ● present day stratigraphic correlation ● krakatau, indonesia ● 1883 ● massive volcano, deposit ash 3,700 miles away ○ creates a layer, a new strata ○ can no date that layer ○ chemical dating ● fluorine dating ● krapina neanderthal fossils ● dragutin gorjanovickarmberger ○ first guy to use fluorine levels to date fossils items ○ the longer the fossil is in the soil the more fluorine it will absorb ○ is a localized technique because fluorine levels are different based on the area biostratigraphic (faunal) dating ● index fossils ○ fossil pig molars \n physical anthropology 3/21/16 ○ irish elk ■ extinction 10.600 bpy ● have to be widespread ● evolve fairly quickly cultural dating ● deals with human artifacts ● its relatively recent ● ceramics ● stone tools ○ oldowan industry ○ 2.61.7 mya ○ don’t change for a long time relative and absolute dating ● previous methods were relative dendrochronology ● a.e. douglas 1920s ● dating by the growth cycle of trees carbon dating ● half lifes ● works for fossils up to about 60,000 years ● for older fossils use elements that are more unstable early hominin origins and evolution: the roots of humanity chapter 10 ● olduvai gorge, in east africa. ○ questions addressed in this chapter: ■ what is a hominin? ■ why did hominins evolve? ■ what was the evolutionary fate of the first hominins? ○ hominid = all the great apes ○ hominins = the humans ancestry tree ● what is a hominin? ○ what is different about humans ■ upright walking ■ nonhoning chewing ● the teeth do not get sharpened by each other ○ apes do have honing chewing ■ material culture \n physical anthropology 3/21/16 ■ speech ■ hunting and cooperation ■ domestication of plants and animals ○ foramen magnum ■ humans have it directly underneath the skull ■ gorillas have it in the back of the head ○ spine ■ s curve in the human spine ● allows for the human head to sit straight over the body ■ gorilla mostly straight ○ pelvis ■ humans hips are on the side ■ gorillas hips are on the back of the body ○ femur ■ human has an angle, body condylar angle ■ gorillas straight ○ feet ■ humans, an arch ■ gorillas, flat, an opposable thumb ○ teeth ■ canines ● humans have smaller canines ■ apes ○ honing (wearing at the back) versus apical (wearing at the point) wear ○ shearing versus grinding ○ male male aggression ○ have thinner enamel ■ allows for the teeth to remain sharp ● why did hominins evolve? ○ bipedal ■ 47million ○ tool use ■ 2.6 million ○ canines size ○ brain size ○ hunting hypothesis ■ charles darwin ● hominins evolved in africa ● hunting meat= tool use = large brain ● tool use = small canine ● tool use = free hands ● free hands = bipedalism \n physical anthropology 3/21/16 ○ the times don’t add up ■ patchy forest hypothesis ● peter rodman and henry mchenry ● african savanna ● two legs energetically more efficient than four? ○ problem is the earliest hominins come from straight up forests ■ provisioning hypothesis (dinner date) ● owen lovejoy ○ apes have a long interbirth interval ■ about 7 years ○ humans have a shorter interbirth interval ■ about 2 years ○ if you get more food have more infant ○ suite of anatomies and behaviors coevolve ■ food provisioning ■ bipedalism ■ pair bonding ● reduced canine size ■ cooperation ■ predicts reduced sexual dimorphism but that is not the case ● who were the first hominins? ○ fall in the time period 47million years ago ○ genre ■ not in agreement that these two are actually hominins ■ sahelanthropus tchadensis ● chad, central africa ● 67 million years old ○ forest near lake ● m. brunet ● not in east africa but out in the middle of africa ● discovered in 2001 ● anatomies ○ small brain(350cc) ■ low end for a chip ○ bipedal? foramen magnum is pointing down ○ nonhoning chewing ■ smallish canines ■ massive brow ridge ● flat face ■ orrorin tugenensis ● tugen hills, kenya, africa \n physical anthropology 3/21/16 ● 6million years old ○ forest ● m.pickford and b. senut ● anatomies ○ bipedal ■ based on femur ■ obturator externus groove, on the femur proves that there's a muscle important for bipedalism ■ tree climber ● based on hand bones ■ partially honing canines ○ next genus ardipithecus and the middle awash valley ■ almost everyone agrees they were hominins ○ ardipithecus kadabba ■ middle awash valley, ethiopia, africa ■ 5.25.8 million years old ● forest ■ t. white and y haileselassie ■ anatomies: ■ bipedal ● found a toe bone ● it proved that they can push off with there foot just like humans do ● perihoning complex ○ the honing canines are decreasing ○ it is transitional ○ ardipithecus ramidus ■ middle awash valley, ethiopia, africa ■ 4.416 million years old ○ forest ■ international team led by t. white and y. haileselassie ■ anatomies: ● bipedal ○ based on pelvis, femur, and foot ○ climbing based on hand and foot ■ she would not be able to walk on her knuckles ○ nonhoning canines the earliest hominins evolve \n physical anthropology 3/21/16 preaustralopithecine australopithecine teeth wear on tip of canine, nonhoning but with modified honing bones vestiges of apelike loss of traits arboreal traits brain small slight increase ● australopithecus ○ australopithecus anamensis ■ kenya and ethiopia, africa ■ 4 million years old ● woodland ■ m. leakey and t. white ■ anatomies ● bipedal ○ based on shin bone ■ was well adapted to upright walking but spent time tree climbing ● nonhoning canines ○ australopithecus afarensis ■ lucy ■ dikika, ethiopia (infant) ■ korsi ■ 33.6 million years ago ● woodland and grassland ■ d. johanson and others ■ anatomies ● small brain ● nonhoning canines ○ large molars and premolars ■ eats different diet ■ grasses, tubers, nuts, etc... ● bipedal ○ short and stout pelvis ○ femur bends in ● no language (hyoid bone) ○ important for speech production ■ animals bones w/cut marks ● meat, but no tools ○ australopithecus afarensis \n physical anthropology 3/21/16 ■ footprints ■ fingers are bent in the middle, not completely like a gorilla, but not straight like ours ○ australopithecus (kenyanthropus) platyops ■ burtele foot (3.4 ma) ■ kenya, africa ■ 3.5million years old ● woodland ■ m.leakey ■ anatomies ● flat face ● small molar teeth ○ can be placed into 3 different groups? ■ robust australopithecus ■ south african australopithecus ■ australopithecus garhi ○ australopithecus garhi ■ ethiopia, africa ■ 2.5 million years old ● woodland ■ t. white and y. haileselassie ■ anatomies ● large teeth (premolars and molars) ● long legs ● stone tools ○ oldowan stone tools (2.6 million years) ○ australopithecus first stonetool make; not homo ",
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3205b406683a6b0e8d117990f42a64ef | in the ground state of mercury, hg, a. how many electrons occupy atomic orbitals with n 3? b. how many electrons occupy d atomic orbitals? c. how many electrons occupy pz atomic orbitals? d. how many electrons have spin up ( )? | in the ground state of mercury, hg, a. how many electrons | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " soc 100 week 11 chapter 8 social stratification o working class 33% focus on getting by slightly favor liberal, but not by much targeted by political candidates due to variability value social life, education is necessary evil o lower class 20% living on the edge or apathy stays pretty consistent percentagewise 2008 grew to 25% religion – if there is one in the neighborhood they go, if not they don’t new class society o upper class is 20% upper, small diamond shape o lower/middle is 80% lower, large diamond shape o illustrates distribution better does not correspond to wealth distribution clicker what class did you grow up in? o overwhelmingly middle class clicker – where will you be in 20 years? o overwhelmingly middle class, and some upper who gets ahead – christopher jencks o education * years of certain levels of education o who your parents are * how many children father’s career o luck o race o sex o hard work o * education and parents are most important) functionalist see it as acceptable education requires hard work conflict – we don’t choose our parents, so it’s not fair income has been rising steadily since 1950 o however, distribution does not show change as equal among classes highest 20% income has risen greatly but as you go down the classes, income has remained almost the same from 1940’s – 1980 the increase in income was relatively equally distributed \n now only the upper classes are seeing a rise in income clicker – will you be better off fincancially than your parents o 40% yes o 30% no or uncertain more billionaires than ever o 2003 262 billionaires o 2016 – 1810 billionaires o riches – bill gates $75 billion o richest women $36.1 billion o oprah – 3 billion o pat striker 2.3 billion from fort collins likely the “anonymous” donator that donated 25 million for stadium o u.s has 8 of the top 10 billionaires national study – “differences in income in us are too large” o class figures – 61% agree, 10% disagree o national study 65% agree, 14% disagree some billionaires agree the giving pledge – billionaires donating half of their wealth reasons for lower class mobility in us o rise of the money culture making money > content/enjoyment of life o bank deregulation in 1980’s and 1990’s harmful to majority of us, beneficial to super wealthy o technology – jobs done by machines o rise of emerging markets, especially in china and india clicker emily and mark are high school teachers, volunteer every weekend, and are very religious what class are they in? o correct answer= average middle class poverty o relative poverty: poorer in relation to others with more money o absolute poverty: deprivation of resources that is lifethreatening or inability to afford minimum standards of food, clothing, shelter, and health o most poverty in us is relative poverty who is responsible for poverty o blame the poor: the poor are mostly responsible for their own poverty (functionalist) o blame society: society is primarily responsible for poverty (conflict) national study who’s responsible for helping the poor o 27% government o 24% people should take care of themselves o 46% combination of both what is major cause of poverty? \n o us, japan, australia – lack of individual effort o mexico, sweden, germany societal injustice poverty rate in us o normally assume a family of 4 with 2 kids under 18 o current 47 million 14.5% us population $24,250/year o 55% more than current poverty rate = 73 million, 22.5% us population $37,588 / year o lifestyle of those at 155% of poverty rate never go out to eat, to movies, entertainment, don’t take vacations, hire babysitters, buy anything in excess who are the poor o age: 19.9% of children under 18 9.5% of elderly 65 and above o race/ethnicity 28% of native americans 27% of african americans 23.5% of hispanic americans 10.5% asian americans 9.6% white o sex/gender 31% of female head of household 16% male head of household o workers 14% of the poor work fulltime 45% of the poor work at least parttime to reach 155% of poverty, you need to make $18.07/hour well over minimum wage hidden costs of class o judgement from others o feelings of hopelessness o acceptance of symbols of inability o loss of dignity and a sense of accomplishment homelessness o 2540% work o 37% are families with children o 25% are children o 2530% are mentally disabled o 30% are veterans o 40% drug and alcohol dependent cure for poverty? \n o answer depends on whom you blame clicker welfare vs. wealthfare what does government spend most money on? o 64% said health care for richest 10% of elderly medicare beneficiaries correct answer clicker – government housing subsidies end up going to ? o more to the middle class than the poor welfare distribution o distributed unequally in a manner that is deemed best o everyone gets some sort of entitlement how are we doing? o us is one of richest nations and has one of highest standards of living o some members of our society are benefitting handsomely while others are not o “rich getting richer, poor are getting poorer, so it all averages out” ",
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a9d379b28c95ecd1a0ad5d43dc16ea78 | 9396. lagrange multipliers use lagrange multipliers to find the maximum and minimum values of f (when they exist) subject to the given constraint. f 1x, y2 = 2x + y + 10 subject to 21x - 122 + 41y - 122 = 1 | solved: 9396. lagrange multipliers use lagrange | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": " chapter 4 notes: ● carol dweck crossword study: children who are told they are smart chose the easy option because they didn’t want that title taken away from them. but when they are told they worked hard, they are inspired to show more effort to achieve success. ● socializationleads to social reproduction: structural continuity over time. children learn from elders learn values and norms and practices the english language in america is an example of a characteristic that persists to this day. cultural learning is more intense during childhood. basic concepts agents of socialization ● the agents of socialization are groups or social contexts that have socialization occur. ● primary socializationnfancy and childhood where language and basic behavior is learned from the family to the child. ● secondary socialization hildhood and maturity, when schools and other outside work groups begin to influence behavior. helps learn norms and values and beliefs of the whole culture. the family . the range of family contacts is not standard across cultures (family systems vary too much) . modern society: smallscale family context. american society is usually mom/dad/siblings. other cultures incorporate more of the whole family. ● premodern societies had the family birth determine your future. that is, depending on what family you were born into would determine the individuals lifelong social position. however, in modern societies, region and social class impend on situation. the school formal process accept, react, be quiet, it’s socially accepted to accept the teacher’s authority automatically. peer groups form at schools and agebased classes reinforces influence. peer relationships ● peer group: age influenced, all similar in age and social status. ● agegrades: small traditional societies peer groups (usually male) with ceremonies of one grade to another. less apparent in western societies about how significant peers are. barrie thorne children create their own gender through interaction. peer groups influence gender socialization when children talk about their changing bodies. popular girls were changing, so others wanted to change too. children values/activities are still influenced by media. \n mass media ● mass media is a form of communication designed to reach mass audiences. the most popular study is the influence of violence in tv on children. ● george gerbner tv analysis of physical death or hram to others. cartoons showed more than ever. ● hodge and tripp: research has not incorporated children’s mental process. they interpret what they see rather than just see it. it is not violence that affects behavior, but the framework of attitudes within which is presented and read. ● eugene provenzo: nintendo effects. parents believed video games brought family together. however tv absorbtion made them want to play rather than go to school. ● marsha kinder: social effect from video games. gaming to cartoonist. ● patricia greenfield: mass scale electronic influence of video games on our social lives. work + only in large industrial societies do people go to places to work seperately from home. industrial societies call for a lot of adjustments on people’s behavior and outlook. social roles ● social roles: socially defined expectations for a person in a given situation or social position. functionalists regard these are unchanging parts of culture they are social facts. social roles don’t involve negotiation or creativity, they just direct an individuals behavior. they internalize the role. this is mistaken! humans exercise agency, they assume social roles through interaction, it’s not robotically instructed into them. identity ● the concept of identity in sociology is multifaceted. ● identity: who you are and what is meaningful to you. gender sexulity nationality ethnicity social class ● social identity: other people attribute characteristics to others. this also places them in relationship to those who share those characteristics. student mother lawyer catholic etc. \n + all individuals havemore than one social identity. but this plurality leads to conflict since they have a primary identity that is continuous across time/place. ● shared identities are predicated on common goals and values or experiences. they involve social movements as well as personal meaning. ● self identity personal id that sets us apart as individuals. we form our own unique id through self development and our connection to the world. revolves around symbolic interactionist. individual choice and agency are key in shaping self id outside of culture. more socially and geographically mobile due to urban growth and industry and and less social formations. now gender and sexual orientation play a greater role other than homogenous communities. the choices we make about what to wear and how to behave and spend our time help makes who we are as self aware beings. socialization through the life course ● the stages of human life are social and biological. in modern west society we die of old age, but in traditional society, we die younger. childhood + infancy to teen years + aries= young medievla children didn’t exist (work and paintings prove this) + the idea of child labor is morally repugnant is a recent change. traditional other societies still have children work. ● a children centered society is not one that has love and care from parents and adults. societies now are more child centered than traditional ones were, but the abuse they go through is common in present day society. the teenager + it is a recent idea. + biological changes in puberty (sexual reproduction and activity) are universal. ● agegrade cultures have easier ceremonies since the pace of change is slower. ● but in modern society, kids have to take away their toys and break childish pursuits, whereas in traditional society doing this was less jarring since the children were already mature to begin with. ● western culture they try to follow adults, but are treated like children lawfully. young adulthood women used to face the fate of childbirth more back then. ● people were usually closer to family and kin back then. but now marriage, family life and other contexts must resolve uncertainties. individuals choose marriage now, not arranged family marriages, so it’s more personal id now. more freedom= more responsiblity \n midlife crisis= should have done more to contribute to society in the long run. throw away opportunities that life had to offer. old age traditionally, age was authority. elders had the final say. industrial countries think less of them since they don’t contribute anymore. yet now there are more old people throughout the years. it’s hard to reward their hard lives in modern society whereas they used to be the pinnacle of respect in older times. be more physically healthy at old age to have prevalent “third age” since inner resources were looked upon greatly. theories of socialization ● one of the most distinctive features is that humans are self aware, animals are not. ● most prominent child development theories emphasize different aspects of socialization. ● cognition: the ways in which children learn to think about themselves in their environment. developed by piaget, but mead mainly considered the “i and me” concept of children. ● gh mead and the development of self + mead= interactionism + symbols and interpretation of meanings. also concentrate on the self. ● infants develop as social beings by imitating that which is around them. “taking the role of the other.” the older they get, the more they understand and try mimicking an adult role. only at this exact stage do they develop a true sense of self, identifying themselves as separate agents as a “me.” (see self through others) ● only learn by distinguishing i from me. i= unsocial infant/ wants and desires without thought social self= me. individual by the reactions of others, a person only obtains this when they become aware of this identity. this leads toself consciousness= a wareness of one’s distinct identity as a person seperate from others. obtained by socialization, learning the language is important. ages 89 witness organized games rather than unsystematic play. they understand morals and values. generalized other= the moral values and rules of a culture which they are developing. this grows from understanding the rules of play and understanding equal opportunity. jean piaget and the stages of cognitive development ● emphasis on child capability to make sense of world. skills grow depending on the skills completion before that one. ● sensorimitor stage birth to 2 years old= physically explore and touch things to understand. until 4 months, they don’t know anything exists out of their own vision. \n + the main accomplishment of this stage is understanding their environment has distinct and stable properties. ● preoperational stage (most research) age 27, symbolic faction and using words and language to describe. egocentric thought, they determine the world through their own position. they don’t know that other people have other perspectives. ● egocentric speech what each child says is more or less unrelated to what the other speaker said. they don’t understand speed and weight and causality or number. they talk to each other, but not like adults. ● concrete operational stage 711.abstract and logic starts to happen. mathematics and causality. less egocentric. + up to this stage (^) are universal, but not all adults reach the next stage. this all depends on schooling. ● formal operational stage 1 115. grasp abstract and hypothetical, review all parts of a problem and theoretically find a solution. freud’s theory + influential and controversial theory of gender id + centers around the possession or absence of the penis. ● it is not only anatomy that matters, but the absence of such a gential is symbolic of masculinity or femininity. age 45, boy unconsciously thinks father will remove his penis. gives up love of mother due to father. girls have penisenvy since they don’t have such an organ. if they level with mom, they are said to be “submissive” and recognize being “second best.” ● latency period (early and middle years of school) has little sexual activity until puberty happens. this is when samesex peer groups are most important in their lives. ● controversial due to: penis superior to vagina father as definitive figure gender too associated with genitals concentrated at 45, but it begins earlier for other authors chodorow’s theory + argues that learning gender identity has to do with infant attachment to parents during infancy. + mother is more important here since they are more associated to infants early lives. must be separated to gain self dependence. ● breaking process is different for genders. girls hug and kiss more, so they develop a sense of self continuously with other people as they get older since there is no sharp break from mother. her identity is either closely associated to the mother or then later to a man= sensitivity and emotional compassion. \n boys have radical rejection, they just don’t want to be feminine. they are more analytical and less dependent on others. less feeling, more action and glorification of their abilities. + this almost reverses freud’s emphasis. ● masculinity= defined by loss of connection to mother. formed through seperation and isolation. they feel in danger if they depend too much on others. ● femininity= no close relationship equals loss of selfesteem. women express themselves in terms of relationships. men are more manipulative. ● criticisms (by sayers) doesn’t explain struggle of independent women. only based on white middle class model families. femininity may conceal feelings of aggression only obliquely in certain contexts. ● male inexpressiveness t he difficulty men have in revealing their feelings to others. gilligans theory + focused on adult men and women, stemmed off chodorow. agrees with idea of women valuing relationships/ judge ability to care for others. women’s concern for relationships appears weak to men, even though the women are helping the male to begin with as a helpmate/caretaker. ● what is morally right or wrong? (200 people were asked) males say: ideals of duty and justice and freedom females say: theme of helping others (felt contradiction between harming others and following code) + women are successful in selfview when they help others rather than individual achievement. research on socialization today women in the workforce ● deborah car focused on the change of women over the centuries. studied middle class twentieth century families. women were expected to stay home and take care of children. men were the money makers and gender id was clear here. ● new midlife= the time for new beginnings in women. pick up new hobbies and learn from daughters and especially start their own business away from husbands. challenge: to translate private troubles into public issues show women they are not alone. older women now regret not being as active as their daughters currently are. daughters has difficulty staying close to family due to work, but they also had liberation and self esteem. early child care and youth development \n ● belsky researches studies different environments children grew up around and within, such as who they were raised by and such. (nichd) measured periodic amount of care and compared it to their progress on test scores and emotional capabilities. children in childcare were often less well behaved despite considering socioeconomic resources and mental health in parents. + the differences between child care and parentraised are very small. ● other important findings: children in child care had better vocabulary quality of parenting was more important than where they were cared for parents have more of a long term connection while child care is short family life was stable, school was always changing unanswered social questions about socialization ● gender socialization: the learning of gender roles through social factors of family/media. gender socialization: reactions of parents and adults parents reactions to their children are actually different depending on gender no matter if they think it’s the same or not. gave child different toys just based on gender, but it was the same child. gender learning + gender learning by infants is unconscious. + women’s cosmetics scent differently from males, so before a child can label itself as a boy or girl, it receives preverbal cues. ● age 2, small understanding of gender. only at 5 or 6 do they understand that sex doesn’t change and it’s all anatomy based. ● zammuner: toy preference study 710 years old. the italian culture chose more genderdifferentiated toys than the dutch since italy holds traditional view of gender more. girls chose genderneutral toys more than boys chose girl toys. storybooks and tv ● weitzman: books and gender study. girls were less frequent and were often confined to small tasks while males were independent and strong. women outside of the home were fantasy fairies and stuff while males were cops and kings and such. bulk of literature stays the same. feminists rewrite prince trope, but this is for adults. difficulty of nonsexist child rearing ● statham: study nonsexist child rearing, combined feminine and masculine things in study. it was easier to play with gender neutral toys than to ask boys to be sensitive and ask girls to be more adventurous. \n once gender is assigned, it’s a social construct. the question of video games ● breivik: urdered 77 people by practicing on gta4. ● gentile: strong correlation b/w violence in games and aggressive children. negligence and drug use too. even nonviolent children will get aggressive if they play these games games teach to push and shove, as well as violent media. + there is no causal effect the entertainment software association. the “results” lack concensus and are ambiguous. ● sternheimer: contrived definitions of aggression. would this violent player fine more in monopoly? would they blow their horn? would they read words aggressively? ● ferguson: countered gentile, violent games did not contribute. 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a63e913d151de8db11bdbf2b07fca76c | ch 4 - 91 | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": "business and government relations study guide ii: chapters 1013 & questions chapter 10: regulation: law, economics, and politics introduction ● regulation takes place through a public process that is relatively open and allows participation by interested parties ● regulatory decisions and rulemaking proceedings are extremely important to many firms, industries, and interest groups set of interventions ● controlling prices ● setting floor prices ● ensuring equal opportunity ● regularizing employment practices ● specifying qualifications ● providing for solvency ● controlling the number of market participants ● limiting ownership ● requiring premarketing approval ● ensuring product safety ● mandating product characteristics and technology ● establishing service territories ● establishing performance standards ● controlling toxic emissions and other pollutants ● specifying industry boundaries ● allocating public resources ● establishing technical standards ● controlling unfair international trade practices ● providing information ● rationing common pool resources ● protecting consumers ● controlling risks periods of regulatory reform ● four major periods of regulatory change ○ populist era (late 1800s) ○ progressive era and the new deal ○ social regulation (began in the 1960s) ○ economic deregulation (began in the 1970s) the constitutional basis for regulation ● the u.s. constitution not only provides the authority for regulation \n ○ it also limits its application ● many legal principles of regulation in the united states have come from court decisions that draw on the common law ● the fifth and fourteenth amendments place limits on regulation principal federal regulatory agencies and commissions delegation, rulemaking, due process, and discretion ● article i, section 1 of the constitution grants congress the sole power to enact laws ● congress enacted the administrative procedure act (apa) of 1946 to: ○ provide for public notice and comment prior to agency action ■ agencies adopt their own rulemaking procedures in a manner consistent with the apa ● the apa grants parties right to sue for judicial review of an agency action ○ a basis for that review is failure to follow the procedures required for an action ■ under the framework of procedural due process ● the apa requires: ○ agency actions not be “arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with law” ● the courts review regulatory actions for whether they are arbitrary or capricious \n influences on regulatory agencies \n market imperfections •natural monopoly •externalities •public goods •asymmetric information government imperfections ● market imperfections warrant government regulation ○ only a necessary condition for regulation to improve economic efficiency capture theory ● predicts that regulation initially will be found where there are market imperfections and over time will evolve to serve the interests of the regulated industry rentseeking theory ● regulation not established to address market imperfections ○ instead, it is established to benefit politically effective interests fairness ● regulation used to accomplish fairness goals ● can involve policies such as: ○ lifeline rates for telephone service for lowincome people ○ the provision of aid such as food stamps costofservice theory ● regulation in a number of industries has centered on costofservice pricing ● this costofservice regulatory system has been blamed for inducing high costs and slowing the introduction of new technology. chapter 11: financial markets and their regulation introduction \n ● the capital markets are an essential component of a capitalist economic system that allow individuals to ○ save their money in a broad array of financial instruments ○ transform those savings into funding for businesses, homebuying, and retirement the formal and informal banking systems ● depository institutions such as banks accept deposits and make loans ○ these institutions are required to maintain a fractional reserve requirement ■ allows the formal banking system to lend a multiple of the deposits held repurchase agreement “shadow banking” system ● operates outside the purview of regulators ○ provides much of the financing for banks, securities traders, and mortgage lenders ● securitization involves pooling contractual debt obligations and issuing new securities backed by those obligations ○ a component of the shadow banking system \n collateralized debt obligations credit default swap \n the federal reserve system ● established in 1913 ● serves as the central bank of the united states ● has broad responsibilities for managing the money supply ● has regulatory authority over national banks and state banks that participate in the federal reserve system securities regulation ● the first new deal legislation enacted was the securities act of 1933 ○ regulated the issuance of new securities ● in 1934, congress enacted the securities exchange act to: ○ extend regulation to stock exchanges and the trading of alreadyissued securities ● glasssteagall act of 1933 ○ forced banks to separate their commercial banking and investment banking businesses ○ later repealed by the grammleachbliley act of 1999 credit card regulation ● credit card (card accountability responsibility and disclosure) act of 2009 ○ increases the regulation of credit card issuers \n ● regulations intended to eliminate abuses can have effects on markets mortgage lending and subprime mortgages ● mortgage lending had been dominated by banks and savings and loans associations ● lenders held some of the mortgages they originated and sold the rest to: ○ governmentsponsored enterprises ○ federal national mortgage association (fannie mae) ○ federal home loan mortgage corporation (freddie mac) ● the federal housing administration (fha) provided financing for qualified borrowers ○ government policy supported expanding home ownership through government support of fannie mae, freddie mac, and the fha financial crisis inquiry commission ● principal conclusions of the majority: ○ it was avoidable ○ widespread failures in financial regulation and supervision ○ dramatic failures of corporate governance and risk management at many systemically important financial institutions ○ excessive borrowing, risky investments, and lack of transparency ○ inconsistent response of an ill prepared government ○ collapsing mortgagelending standards and the mortgage securitization pipeline ○ overthecounter derivatives contributed significantly ○ failures of the credit rating agencies were essential cogs in the wheel of financial destruction ● 10 essential causes identified by the dissenters: ○ credit bubble ○ housing bubble ○ nontraditional mortgages ○ credit ratings and securitization ○ financial institutions concentrated correlated risks ○ leverage and liquidity risk ○ risk of contagion ○ common shock (the fall in housing prices) ○ financial shock and panic ○ financial crisis causes economic crisis \n tarp, bailouts, and the stimulus ● the bush administration and congress created the troubled asset relief program (tarp) ○ administered by the department of the treasury ○ authorized with funding up to $700 billion to be used to shore up banks and stimulate the provision of credit to borrowers the doddfrank wall street reform and consumer protection act ● doddfrank act ○ provided for new regulations ○ strengthened enforcement ○ required new rule making by regulators ○ created a new regulatory agency the consumer financial protection bureau ○ restricted the pricing of credit card borrowings ○ increased the exposure of credit rating agencies to lawsuits ○ restricted securities trading by banks ○ required derivatives trades to go through clearinghouses ○ imposed new capital requirements on banks ○ did not address the roles of fannie mae and freddie mac financial stability oversight council ● established by the doddfrank act ● composed of the heads of 10 regulatory agencies with responsibility for: ○ monitoring the economy ○ responding to emergencies that threaten the stability of the financial system too big to fail ● the act: ○ authorized the government to seize and break up a firm whose collapse could result in substantial harm to the economy ○ required financial companies to develop “living wills” for closing down and provided for the orderly liquidation of failed companies \n the volcker rule ● included in the doddfrank act after heated debate ○ subsequently subject to extensive rulemaking activity to refine the restrictions ● allowed banks to trade on behalf of clients and to hedge their own risks derivatives and swaps ● to reduce risks and increase regulatory scrutiny: ○ the act gave the commodities and futures trading commission (cftc) regulatory authority over swaps and major swap market participants such as marketmakers securitization and excessive risks ● issuers of assetbacked securities were required to retain: ○ at least 5 percent of the risk unless the assets meet certain loan standards consumer protection ● complaints from consumers and consumer advocacy groups about financial products centered on: ○ abusive mortgages ○ high interest rates charged by payday lenders ○ financing practices of automobile dealers and student loan companies ● the doddfrank act created a consumer financial protection bureau (cfpb) ○ has authority over: ■ banks with assets over $10 billion ■ mortgage lenders ■ student loan companies ■ payday lenders compensation ● the doddfrank act directed the sec to address the compensation issue ● the sec: ○ promulgated “say on pay” rules requiring a nonbinding shareholder vote on executive compensation at least every 3 years ○ proposed rules requiring banks and financial services firms to: ■ report bonuses paid to individual employees ■ block bonuses that posed the risk of “material financial loss” for the firm \n credit ranging agencies ● provide information to investors about risks associated with securities ● government regulators have delegated to designated nationally recognized statistical rating organizations (nrsro) the assessment of risks associated with securities. global capital requirements regulation basel iii ● basel committee on banking supervision an organization of 27 nations that sets capital requirements for banks ○ requirements must be approved by the g20 nations ■ enacted into law by each nation chapter 12: environmental management and sustainability introduction ● public, government, and businesses recognize the importance of environmental protection and sustainability ● benefits include: ○ improved human health ○ a more vibrant natural environment ○ the preservation of ecosystems ○ a more sustainable relationship with the natural environment the environment and sustainability ● goals and action ● global climate change ● policy ● tradeoffs socially efficient control of externalities ● the control of externalities has taken the form of commandandcontrol regulation ● incentive approaches take into account the benefits and costs of attaining environmental objectives ○ achieves those objectives by aligning the social and private costs of pollution and its abatement \n the coase theorum ● pertains to market imperfections, including externalities and public goods ● focuses on the standard of social efficiency ● provide s a conceptual foundation for both regulation and the liability system \n transaction costs and the limits of the coase theorem ● the coase theorem implies that: ○ when bargaining between the parties to an externality is possible, social efficiency can be achieved capandtrade systems ● caps the total allowed emissions of a particular pollutant, issues permits (entitlements) for that amount, and allows the permits to be traded ○ also called tradable permits systems global climate change and emissions trading systems ● kyoto protocol ● emissions trading in the european union ● the regional greenhouse gas initiative (rggi) ● emissions trading within bp plc (british petroleum) kyoto protocol ● accomplishments under the kyoto protocol a subject of disagreement ○ developed countries have reduced their domestic emissions ■ research shows that this is due to increased imports displacing local production emissions trading in the european union ● the european union took the lead on multination emission ○ traded with the european trading system (ets) commencing in 2005 ● ets is a capandtrade system that covers 12,000 facilities in 15 eu member states ○ the eu goal was an 8 percent reduction by 2012 from a 1990 base emissions trading within bp plc (british petroleum) ● to address the global climate change issue: ○ in 1998 bp plc committed by 2010 to reduce its emissions of greenhouse gases (ghgs) by 10 percent from 1990 levels ● to achieve its goal, bp worked with environmental defense to develop an internal ghgs trading system for the company the regional greenhouse gas initiative ● formed in 2005 by 10 northeastern u.s. states \n ○ to operate a capandtrade system for reducing greenhouse gases emissions ○ auctioned 86 percent of the allowances generating $790 million through 2010 ● supported by companies that benefited from the funds generated by the auctions ○ other companies argued that it drove up costs and drove jobs away the environmental protection agency (epa) ● an independent agency located in the executive branch ● headed by an administrator appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate ● responsible for administering the major environmental acts enforcement ● the epa enforcement process requires: ○ filing of a notice of a complaint and a hearing before an administrative law judge standards setting and engineering control ● epa regulation has largely been command and control ○ uniform rules or standards are ordered and then enforced ● the epa sets emissions standards and air quality standards ● epa has increasingly used incentive approaches: ○ credits and offsets superfund ● administered by the epa ○ for the cleanup of existing toxic waste disposal sites ● epa attempts to identify the source of the dumping and force it to clean the site the nature of environmental politics ● environmental issues are complex because of: ○ scientific uncertainty about the consequences of pollution ○ incomplete information about the costs and benefits of environmental protection ○ disagreements about alternative approaches, such as liability versus regulation, to protection ○ differing perspectives about the protection of entitlements judicial politics ● politics of environmental protection often moves into judicial arenas ● environmental groups have succeeded in inserting citizen provisions in environmental statutes \n advocacy science ● much remains unknown about environmental hazards and their control ○ this scientific uncertainty is a source of contention in environmental politics ○ it provides an opportunity to use advocacy science as a component of a private politics strategy distributive politics ● environmental politics is motivated by: ○ distributive consequences of environmental policy ○ costs of environmental protection ○ benefits from the reduction in pollution and hazards private and public politics ● many environmental ngos active in public politics at the federal, state, and local levels ● environmental groups testify regularly in legislative and regulatory hearings ○ some demonstrate to attract media coverage to their side of the issue nimby and private politics ● nimby “not in mybackyard” ○ focuses on local environmental concerns, particularly as they involve possible risks to persons or property ○ directed toward: refuse disposal & toxic waste sites, chemical & oil plants, other facilities that may emit toxins ● energized by information provided by the federal government’s toxics release inventory (tri) ● the tri is a result of the “righttoknow” amendment to a 1985 superfund reauthorization bill voluntary collective environmental programs ● iso 14001 ● responsible care program ● criticisms of voluntary programs ○ called “greenwash” by environmental groups ○ allege that these programs sound good to the public ○ fail to live up to their promises chapter 13: the investor’s perspective: renewable energy introduction \n ● managing effectively in the nonmarket environment is essential for firms when: ○ a company is at a major strategic crossroad ○ there are market or nonmarket challenges ● strategy implementation is essential on an ongoing basis at an operational level to: ○ achieve performance goals ○ address challenges ○ seize opportunities investment decisions ● in making their decisions, investors assess: ○ opportunities and risks associated with firms ○ quality of their management ● the assessment of managerial quality depends on: ○ a firm’s leadership and market strategy ○ a firm's nonmarket strategy ○ the ability of management to anticipate and deal effectively with the emergence and development of nonmarket issues the environment of wind and solar power ● longterm opportunities for wind and solar power were enormous ○ supply costs were falling ○ demand for renewable power was expected to continue to grow ○ demand growth had been led by europe as a result of generous subsidies ■ as the subsidies were reduced, growth slowed ○ at the same time demand grew in china and the united states ■ more countries began to support wind and solar power ○ demand was expected to grow substantially in china and developing nations ● growth hinged on government support and the cost of other energy sources markets and government involvement ● retail electricity prices varied greatly across the states ○ both solar and wind power were quite variable ■ solar power output depended on the weather ■ wind power was most attractive in locations where the wind blows hard and steadily ○ solar/wind power faced nonmarket opposition because of: ■ the cost of subsidization ■ environmental nimby market signal ● market for solar panels in europe and the united states slowed to a crawl in 2010 \n ○ market in china grew at a rapid pace economic rationale for subsidization ● economic rationales for the subsidization of renewable power: ○ based on positive externalities ■ subsidization provides environmental improvements by displacing carbonbased power generated from coal or natural gas ■ subsidization provides security benefits to the extent that it reduced the dependence on imported fuels ○ intended to achieve cost efficiencies and increased output ■ subsidies could enable producers to realize economies of scale that would reduce costs and allow output to expand political rationale for subsidization ● positive externalities for the environment and security benefitted constituents ● subsidization generated pork: ○ recipients of the subsidies and their suppliers earned rents from the economic activity stimulated by the subsidization the costs of subsidization ● direct costs of subsidies are the corresponding government budget expenditures and liabilities ○ examples grants and loan guaranties solyndra inc ● in 2008 solyndra and solar power, inc., a leading installer of solar panels, agreed to a supply arrangement for $325 million of solar panels over the 2008–2012 period ● market risks: prices and costs ● non market risks *solar power opportunities and risks—market and nonmarket factors \n practice questions ch. 1013 true/false 1. when there are market imperfections, government intervention can improve its efficiency. true/ false 2. congress mandates that regulatory agencies provide for public notice and comment prior to agency action. true/ false 3. interested parties such as firms are prohibited from participating in formal and informal rule making proceedings. true/ false 4. regulation in the us takes place through a private process that is closed and lowprofile. true/ false 5. with the disintegration of the mortgage market, lenders do not bear the risk of failure of borrowers to repay loans. true/false 6. securitization involves pooling contractual debt obligations and issuing new securities backed by those obligations. true/false 7. securitization can reduce idiosyncratic risks but cannot reduce systematic risks. true/false 8. commandandcontrol regulation imposes uniform controls and standards on dissimilar sources of pollution. true/false 9. the coase theorem implies that a negative externality can be resolved when property rights are assigned to the pollutees, not the polluters. true/false 10. the coase theorem implies that when bargaining between two parties to an externality is possible, social efficiency can be achieved. true/false 11. voluntary environmental information disclosure by firms provides an accurate representation of their environmental performance. true/false 12. renewable energy (non hydroelectric) production has been dependent on subsidies because it is not cost competitive. true/false \n 13. the u.s. government provided subsidization on both the demand and supply sides of the market for renewable power. true/false 14. the nimby movement can hamper the development of renewable energy. true/false multiple choice 1. globedot is a leading manufacturer of information display systems based in california. it seeks uniform federal regulation to impose a carbon emission tax on all manufacturing firms. this is an example of \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_. a. natural monopoly b. rentseeking theory c. adverse selection d. moral hazard 2. which of the following regulatory approach has been blamed for inducing inefficiency across companies? a. deregulation b. costofservice regulation c. information disclosure requirement d. monopoly restrictions 3. in constructing cdos, the mortgage loans are sliced into tranches with the cash flowing first to the \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_. \n a. most safe tranche (lowest interest rate) b. most risky tranche (highest interest rate) c. noninvestment grade tranche 4. which of the following did not contribute to the financial crisis of 20072008? a. subprime lending b. high leverage ratio for banks c. credit default swaps d. regulation of derivatives 5. the regulatory responses to the financial crisis include all of the following except a. penalizing customers who defaulted on interest payments b. increasing the regulation of credit card issuers c. .reducing speculative investments by banks d. .regulating credit rating agencies 6. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ have become an effective means of achieving environmental goals at the least cost to society. a. commandandcontrol regulations b. incentivebased regulations c. costofservice regulations d. voluntary approaches 7. why were the loan guarantee and cash option awarded to renewable power producers jeopardized? a. .state public utility regulatory agencies were barred by law from determining renewable energy prices. b. the huge federal budget deficit required measures to reduce expenditure. c. state public utility regulatory agencies gave a negligible premium for renewable power. d. the price of natural gas rose considerably. short answers •what are alternative theories to explain where regulation is or is not imposed? \n •under what circumstances does the market fail to function properly and government intervention is justified? •explain commandandcontrol vs. incentivebased approach to environmental regulation. •explain the basics of emissions trading scheme. •explain two nonmarket factors that encourage investment in renewable energy. •explain two nonmarket factors that discourage investment in renewable energy. answer key true/false 1. t 2. t \n 3. f 4. f 5. t 6. t 7. t 8. t 9. f 10. t 11. f 12. t 13. t 14. t multiple choice 1. b 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. b",
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c7d6d80409f05074424647202b4c9fdd | ?problem 126p
a titanium bicycle frame contains the same amount of titanium as a titanium cube measuring 6.8 cm on a side. use the density of titanium to calculate the mass in kilograms of titanium in the frame. what would be the mass of a similar frame composed of iron?
a titanium bicycle frame contains the same amount of titanium as a titanium cube measuring 6.8 cm on a side. | solved: a titanium bicycle frame contains the same amount of titanium as a titanium cube | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.21 | [
{
"text": " northcentral university assignment cover sheet student: this form must be completely filled in follow these procedures: if requested by your instructor, please include an assignment cover sheet. this will become the first page of your assignment. in addition, your assignment header should include your last name, first initial, course code, dash, and assignment number. this should be left justified, with the page number right justified. for example: save a copy of your assignments: you may need to resubmit an assignment at your instructor’s request. make sure you save your files in accessible location. academic integrity: all work submitted in each course must be your own original work. this includes all assignments, exams, term papers, and other projects required by your instructor. knowingly submitting another person’s work as your own, without properly citing the source of the work, is considered plagiarism. this will result in an unsatisfactory grade for the work submitted or for the entire course. it may also result in academic dismissal from the university. jtb70138 gisela salas, phd global marketing environment assignment 8 faculty use only <faculty comments here> <faculty name> \n 2 introduction the changes taking place in the international marketplace are more prevalent than ever. global firms are subject to competition, large supply sources of supply, rapidly changing political, economic, social, technological, and climatic environments. as global firms begin to operate in this large, fast changing environment, the firms must find new and unique ways to bridge the gap between the current environment and the projected environment. multinational corporations (mncs) need to not only to comply with their home country’s laws but the laws within the newly selected operational area. within the confines of an mnc, the company’s leadership is responsible for finding ways to operate around the globe. examples that will be discussed are those that include american versus chinese cultures and the leadership operating within another country’s constraints. in addition to working within constraints of various cultures, leadership and managers’ must take cultural differences into consideration and plan appropriately. by planning for the differences between the cultures, successful business operations can be conducted. this week’s assignment will discuss the following: (a) bridging the gap, (b) leadership, (c) cultural differences, (d) trust in business, and (e) global business responsibility bridging the gap to bridge the gap between an american mnc working in china, and local chinese companies, a number of factors must be taken into consideration. american companies need to be aware of how the chinese conduct business. one of the main considerations will be the chinese and their relationship building process. in business, the chinese focus on building long term business and personal relationships. they often will contact an individual they know from \n 3 their current business dealings that have an established relationship that has an existing relationship with and bring all parties together. if a trusted company and personnel conduct business with the potential new company this establishes a report as the current business partner vouches for new business in the relationship. this may be difficult avenue for new vendors to establish themselves within until other relationships have been built. as the chinese people and partners become more comfortable with the individuals in their friendships and partnerships, communications become much more direct, allowing the gap between cultures to be bridged. (park, levine, weber, lee, terra, botero, & wilson, 2012). the chinese businessmen and women focus on utilizing high context communication styles and relationships. the high context communication style is a very passive form of communication, offering a bit of interpretation and translation into any conversation. this form of communication leaves a significant area open to guessing and assuming while reading between the lines. while the chinese may operate on one side of the spectrum, american’s fall on the other side of the spectrum. americans, in general, are very pointed and direct in their business dealings and require very little context to develop an understanding of what the desires and wants of the company. while low context language is a characteristic of american communication styles, and high context language is representative of the chinese business practices. high context language requires a significant amount of body language and interpretation of symbolic gestures while low context requires very little interpretation (zhu, 2009). an american company desiring to move into the chinese marketplace must recognize the differences between the cultures and study the specific nuances between them. in addition, a \n 4 strong entry method for an american company moving into the chinese marketplace is to form a partnership with a local company. as the u.s company partners with a local corporation, the company begins to build rapport. building rapport in this fashion would significantly benefit an american company. another area that could be a problem for an american company is the use of children for labor. the estimated total of child laborers being utilized as recently as 2011, is between 2 and 3.5 million children. this includes the number of children forced into labor not only by employers but parents as well. this is a significant issue and is now becoming more prevalent due to the increased media coverage (minli & jun sung, 2011). while american’s and a significant portion of the world see utilizing child labor as a significant issue, the chinese tend to have a different mindset. in some cases, parents in a chinese household may be necessary for children to work to help the family keep from starving. in some families this is the only way the family can survive. to bridge this gap, the u.s. company must find an appropriate strategy to conduct business without offending the chinese. leadership a man that exuded leadership and a mentor to my own work is steve jobs. apple is one of the most successful global companies in existence due to his perseverance and insightfulness. his character consisted of many qualities that were not appreciated by many, but his level of success was extraordinary. he was a harsh man, driven, and had very little time for other peoples’ opinions. although, what he did have was a creative side that allowed him to focus upon and blend art, creativeness, and technology. his instruction was very clear and his focus and intention shared with his employees. jobs was also known for following a path in life and business that were unique. conforming to a standard other than his own was not part of his plan \n 5 (cusumano, 2011). as on of the most controversial leaders and ceos within the current history, a researcher could debate as to the effectiveness of job’s leadership. one could assume that his leadership style as unbending and direct as it was potentially lost business for apple, but his creativity and level of vision could be debated as the reasons why apple was so successful in the first place (hurleyhanson & giannantonio, 2013). cultural differences marketers have an increasingly difficult position as they are responsible for not only getting the product out to market but the nuances of the people in the country the product is being marketed within. while it may seem obvious that understanding cultural differences are second nature to a marketer, they are not necessarily so. american marketers, as most american’s in general, have an opinion that other cultures should bend to the will of the american. other cultures do not appear to be as forward with the same opinion. in many cases, while traveling abroad, other cultures have a tendency to shy away from americans as we are viewed as unbending, too direct, and often times brash and offensive. while cultural differences should be considered second nature and reflexive, a majority of the time they are not. the statement “all too often cultures are insufficiently studied or wrongly interpreted by newly entering outsiders” is true. many marketers focus on certain aspects of a culture and then begin to apply the aspect to all others within that culture. the term used for this concept is stereotyping. while culture is generally analyzed and evaluated at a societal or national level, the culture needs to be analyzed at the regional, organizational, and individual level to effectively uncover smaller cultures within a culture (samaha, beck, & palmatier, 2014). one of the main challenges for any mnc is negotiating deals with people or companies \n 6 within different countries with differing values and beliefs. the challenge while conducting business in a new environment is doing so in a way that will not offend the other culture. with one small slip of the tongue or the perception of the body language being presented, could put an end a deal before it begins. negotiating in a foreign county can be difficult due to the context, high or low, direct or indirect communication, and the underlying meanings of body language. the variations of each of the items noted can be the make or break decision within a deal (payne, 2013). while a negotiator may believe a certain culture will act a certain way, there are no clear cut guidelines. in addition, the rules and the line may become very fuzzy, the negotiator must stay cognizant of the other culture. a personal example to provide a further insight of this existed while serving on active duty as a contracts manager in afghanistan. the rule of taking gifts from a contractor over $25 was not allowed. the guideline was outlined in the regulations and was a policy throughout the department of defense. while the local national afghan contractors knew about the rule; it was their custom to bring gifts to those offering a contact for bid. as the solicitation document was advertised for twentyfoot twalls, an afghan business owner chose to bring a large gift of flowers to me personally as the deputy commander in theater, otherwise known as the war zone. the flowers were freshly picked from the local lands as their dirt caked roots were still attached when presented. the gesture for me was a bit out of the norm as a u.s. citizen, in a position of authority, but this concept was customary to them. the procedure was to make the attempt to politely refuse the gift if it exceeded the $25 threshold. if politely declining didn't work and if the person would be highly offended if the gift was refused, an individual could accost the gift and subsequent spread it amongst the office or turn it into the judge advocate general (jag). after the jag received the gift, a formal report was created and \n 7 placed on file. if the gift was valuable, for instance jewelry or silk rugs, the gift was later sold and the funds distributed back to the office. from the military standpoint, this type of gesture was considered to be an improper gift known as a bribe, while the afghan businessmen may see the offering a purely a custom and polite gesture. another challenge for any mnc entering a foreign market is what actually constitutes a crime. each country has a unique set of rules and laws that make up the justice system. the rules from one country to another can vary from slightly different to completely different in nature. an mnc or even just the individuals working within that company can find the way to a jail sentence rather rapidly if laws are not followed. ignorance and/or not knowing the rules is not an excuse that is acceptable to the lawmakers and enforcers of other countries. it is the individual's responsibility to know and ensure the country's rules are understood prior to traveling and functioning in a given environment. even if all of the specific rules are not understood, a mitigation technique would involve hiring a local to help walk through the customs and courtesies within each individual country. recently after conducting an interview with s. long, (personal communication, december 30, 2015) this concept i found to be true. she was discussing a story of her most recent experiences while working abroad. ms. long and her coworker participated in the doctors without borders and found out the customs were very different while working in saudi arabia. ms. long’s coworker, a british citizen, was unaware of certain laws in saudi arabia. as they traveled to one of their sites, her coworker decided to light a cigarette in the back seat of the taxi. after lighting up, the taxi driver pulled over, grabbed her coworker by the hair and beat her so severely she need an emergency room. even as \n 8 a british citizen, this woman had little to no rights in this country. she was not pulled out for the actual lighting of a cigarette, but rather that she was a woman and lighting the cigarette. ms. long and her coworker put themselves in a hostile situation by not knowing the customs and law in saudi arabia. the laws, no matter how obscene they may seem to the rest of the world, ms. long’s friend could have been killed without any repercussions of the saudi government. according to the saudi government, the taxi driver had every right to discipline a woman that was not conforming to certain standard. now, this may be an extreme example of culture and a country's custom, any incident could cause issues if the rules and laws are not followed nor translated appropriately. child slavery and trafficking are significant issues to contend with while working within china's borders. china is a developing country with and overcrowded population. trafficking, slavery, and child labor will affect those businesses operating in china. a business may come into contact with one or all of these issues while working within the county (payne, 2013) the important part each business owner must know and understand is how to battle each effectively to avoid unethical business dealings. trust in business china and india both have similar cultures in the sense that they are focused on building relationships in business. trust is a significant factor between entities that are conducting business within the chinese culture. not only is the relationship factor a significant attribute of any business wishing to conduct business within china, but reputation is important as well. the chinese release products and conduct business with corporations that are proven in safety as well as reputation. this also relates directly back to developing relationships. the chinese are loyal \n 9 to the products that have developed positive relationships within the marketplace (cayla & arnould, 2008). relationships are also important for the people of india. social structures, networks, and norms are areas that the people of india firmly believe in. the structures and networks are set up over time allowing relationships to be built over a period of many years. this concept allows for a certain level of trust to be maintained. larger nations such as the u.s. are primarily focused upon profit and contracts, and are generally not concerned about other areas outside of profitability (levien, 2015). the family and social element within both india and china support a barrier to entry for outside firms. an outside firm would best function in this type of environment by developing a relationship with a local business and creating a partnership first and foremost. with the partnership, the local company can serve as the face of that partnership, allowing for an outside firm to perform on the backend. this strategy may or may not be effective if the connection between the two companies is identified by the consumers and the consumers do not approve. consumers may see this as a betrayal to the overall system, but on the other hand, the opportunity cost may be worth the risk. global business responsibility one of the questions for this week’s assignment takes a look at milton friedman’s viewpoint towards corporate responsibility in the global business environment. as a researcher, one must ask, who is milton friedman and why do we care? milton friedman, according to wikipedia (2015) was “…an american economist who received the 1976 nobel memorial prize in economic sciences for his research on consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and the complexity of stabilization policy.” milton friedman’s contention that the only \n 10 responsibility of a global business is “to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game?” friedman’s theory was that corporate social responsibility went only as far as to make and increase profits (wikipedia, 2015). the question was asked is if i personally agree with this philosophy. the answer to this question is no, not at all. corporations are entities and just as humans, they have responsibility and liabilities. as we can see from the past, companies that were not held accountable and were only in business to make money, did so at a cost to not only other people, but to wildlife and the environment as well. while people that enter into the business world may not consider the responsibilities they need to face if something goes wrong. it’s not a shock to most of the world that most companies would do what they could to not have to be responsible for a potential issue. when it comes to money, greed consistently brings out the worst in people and to defeat this, laws must be put into place to protect land, wildlife, as well as human life. an example of a corporate entity being made to take responsibility, even if saving face is what made the final determination to clean up the mess, was bp. bp’s oil spill in 2010 killed 11 workers, caused injuries to 17 others, created billions in environmental damage, as well as losses to companies in the business of seaside tourism and real estate (winkler, & gordon, 2013). other issues that need to be considered during an oil spill are ties to renewable sources, damage to ecosystems, future economic worries, and safety issues with seafood harvests in oiled areas. in addition, full ecosystems can be lost with the newly polluted water whether the aquatic life rests on the tainted waters or eats the prey living in the ocean that have been tainted (gill, ritchie, picou, langhinrichsenrohling, long, & shenesey, n.d). in addition, businesses closed and weren’t opened. if an area is a tourist attraction is \n 11 affected by an oil spill in the area and business are not able to take in enough income, the doors will close, and many on a permanent basis. once the businesses close, people may have to relocate to find employment or begin a new business, lessening the funds in the community even further. also, those individuals that fish and utilize the sea to provide an income, can also be affected. people that have lived their entire lives providing an income for their families are now faced with dire conditions. the company that had the spill needs to fully compensate individuals for the current and future loss. this issue can become very difficult when attempting to place a figure on the level of damage inflicted. during these types of scenarios, greed can be found on every end. no one wants to give up profit and those with the loss will want to do everything that can be done to acquire every last penny. finding an equitable adjustment for all parties involved is extremely to do as there are now more individuals involved. now, companies have to pay attorney’s fees, surveyors, assessors, judges, and the list goes on. in 2010, there was yet another oil spill that was large enough to make the news. there were eleven crew members of exxon’s deepwater horizon drilling rig killed, and others injured in a significant accidental spill. this large spill affected thousands of fishermen, marine life and organisms, as well as marshes and the lands along the coast of louisiana, mississippi, alabama, and florida. during this spill 4.4 million barrels of oil were discharged, and while exxon was able to clean up a significant portion of the oil, the effects of the spill will be seen for decades to come (griggs, 2011). while bp and exxon were charged with cleaning up the mess they created, there were mandated to pay out current as well as potential future losses as well. the companies were sued by hundreds of people, from employees to family members of employees, to land owners, to \n 12 wildlife associations. the damage that was caused was greater than anyone could have imagined and while that is a significant issue, the fact that the u.s. federal government had to assist the people affected by the spills. the government assisted with ensuring individuals were properly taken care of and housed, fed, and clothed during the time of crisis. the question that needs to be asked was; why are government funds, otherwise known as taxpayer dollars are being utilized to clean up a mess created by an extremely large global organization (mancuso, alemayehu, fox, & fulk, 2014). \n 13 conclusion the changes taking place in the international marketplace are more prevalent than ever. global firms are subject to competition, large supply sources of supply, rapidly changing political, economic, social, technological, and climatic environments. as global firms begin to operate in this large, fast changing environment, the firms must find new and unique ways to bridge the gap between the current environment and the projected environment. multinational corporations (mncs) need to not only to comply with their home country’s laws but the laws within the newly selected operational area. within the confines of an mnc, the company’s leadership is responsible for finding ways to operate around the globe. examples that will be discussed are those that include american versus chinese cultures and the leadership operating within another country’s constraints. in addition to working within constraints of various cultures, leadership and managers’ must take cultural differences into consideration and plan appropriately. by planning for the differences between the cultures, successful business operations can be conducted. this week’s assignment will discuss the following: (a) bridging the gap, (b) leadership, (c) cultural differences, (d) trust in business, and (e) global business responsibility \n 14 references cayla, j., & arnould, e. j. (2008). a cultural approach to branding in the global marketplace. journal of international marketing, 16(4), 86112. doi:10.1509/jimk.16.4.86 cusumano, m. a. (2011). the legacy of steve jobs. communications of the acm, 54(12), 26 28. doi:10.1145/2043174.2043184 czinkota, m. r., & ronkainen, i. a. (2013). international marketing. mason: southwestern gill, d., ritchie, l., picou, j., langhinrichsenrohling, j., long, m., & shenesey, j. (n.d). the exxon and bp oil spills: a comparison of psychosocial impacts. natural hazards, 74(3), 19111932. griggs, j. w. (2011). bp gulf of mexico oil spill. spill. energy law journal, 32(1), 5779 hurleyhanson, a. e., & giannantonio, c. m. (2013). staying hungry, staying foolish: academic reflections on the life and career of steve jobs. journal of business & management, 19(1), 79 levien, m. (2015). social capital as obstacle to development: brokering land, norms, and trust in rural india. world development, 747792. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.04.012 mancuso, l. c., alemayehu, b., fox, m. a., & fulk, h. k. (2014). covered in oil—again. entrepreneurial executive, 191934. milton friedman. (2015). in wikipedia. retrieved january 1, 2016 from https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/milton\\_friedman minli, l., & jun sung, h. (2011). child labor in the people’s republic of china: an ecological systems analysis. international social work, 54(4), 565. doi:10.1177/0020872810382804 park, h. s., levine, t. r., weber, r., lee, h. e., terra, l. i., botero, i. c., & wilson, m. s. (2012). individual and cultural variations in direct communication style. international journal of intercultural relations, 36179187. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.12.010 payne, r. j. (2013). global issues. new jersey: pearson education, inc. samaha, s. a., beck, j. t., & palmatier, r. w. (2014). the role of culture in international relationship marketing. journal of marketing, 78(5), 7898. doi:10.1509/jm.13.0185 winkler, d. t., & gordon, b. l. (2013). the effect of the bp oil spill on volume and selling prices of oceanfront condominiums. land economics, 89(4), 614631 \n 15 zhu, y. (2009). managing business relationships in new zealand and china: a semantic perspective. management international review, 49(2), 225248. retrieved from http://www.springer.com/business+%26+management/journal/11575 personal interview. sarah long (2015) ",
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c3640deedfe6e10ec6d98f6d59953290 | in exercises 46 to 67, graph each function | in exercises 46 to 67, graph each function | ch 5 - 52 | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " lecture 14: the critical period hypothesis critical period for language acquisition: eric lenneberg, a biolinguist, said yes o if a young person (before puberty) has part or all of the left hemisphere of their brain removed (that is where the ability to speak and understand language is housed), then they will be able to relearn language. o however, if the person has already reached puberty then they will not be able to relearn a language. o this is because during the critical period (before puberty), you can learn language but once that period is over you won’t be able to relearn it. (however if you know on language you can learn another) forbidden experiment the forbidden experiment is to deprive children of language input for certain periods of time and see how well, if at all, they will be able to learn a language after that. some old kings and emperors did this because they were curious, and thought that the children would end up speaking the original, first language. genie was found at age 13. she was deprived of all language input and was tied to a potty chair during the day and sometimes night. her language ability was the same as a toddler's, barely able to babble. after years, she was able to say words and eventually groups of two or three words. this is similar to the 2 word presyntax stage of very young children, however she didn’t seem to know the rules of syntax. o she might say something like “applesauce buy store” the reason why genie was unable to acquire language is because if is the innate language acquisition device isn’t activated through hearing a language within the critical period, then it will disappear. o if it is activated, as it is for most people, then we will be able to learn a second language later in life however it will take effort and you will speak with an accent. there are other cases of these “feral children”, such as victor who was found at 13 wandering the woods, he had been adopted by stray dogs after being abandoned by his parents. without stimulation, if a person is seriously neglected then their brain will physically shrink. conclusion if you are not exposed to a language before puberty, you will not be able to learn a language. also, psychological and social deprivation could have impeded cognitive development. this might have impacted the children’s ability to learn language. second language acquisition it is common for people to grow up learning multiple languages. learning a language before the age of 7 makes someone fully fluent in that language \n learning a language before the age of 15 (or puberty) makes someone almost completely fluent. learning a language after the age of 15 will be difficult and take hard work. they will always speak with an accent. o this is because the language acquisition device for that language was never “installed” during the critical period and has shut down. the length of exposure to language does not influence someone’s fluidity. it is when you were exposed to the language. a child who learns a language from 35 years will always be more fluent than someone who learns a language from 1530 years. you are not able to become fluent in a language after puberty because the critical period has passed. o critical period hypothesis weak form: it is possible for someone who has learned a first language early in life to learn a second language. o critical period hypothesis strong form: the ability to learn a language is not due to how much you are able to practice it, but rather when you learned it. how did genie learn as much as she did? her language acquisition device was not activated during the critical period but, before the universal grammar humans used a simpler, innate grammar device called protolanguage protolanguage is older than language as we know it. we still have this ability, however around age 2 we activate syntax and our “advanced” way of language. genie had to rely on protolanguage because that was built in, and she wasn’t exposed to language so it couldn’t switch over to the lad. protolanguage doesn’t have syntax. it can manifest itself in some circumstances: o all two year olds o genie, and other people deprived like her o foreigner speech, particularly is someone is frantic o possibly other primates o pidgin (created when two languages are merged) o parentese (speaking to young children) the words are for concrete concepts. phonology is simple and recursion is not used. gesturing is typically used. people aren’t really sure where protolanguage is stored in the brain, but it might be on the right side. \n lecture 14: the critical period hypothesis critical period for language acquisition: eric lenneberg, a biolinguist, said yes o if a young person (before puberty) has part or all of the left hemisphere of their brain removed (that is where the ability to speak and understand language is housed), then they will be able to relearn language. o however, if the person has already reached puberty then they will not be able to relearn a language. o this is because during the critical period (before puberty), you can learn language but once that period is over you won’t be able to relearn it. (however if you know on language you can learn another) forbidden experiment the forbidden experiment is to deprive children of language input for certain periods of time and see how well, if at all, they will be able to learn a language after that. some old kings and emperors did this because they were curious, and thought that the children would end up speaking the original, first language. genie was found at age 13. she was deprived of all language input and was tied to a potty chair during the day and sometimes night. her language ability was the same as a toddler's, barely able to babble. after years, she was able to say words and eventually groups of two or three words. this is similar to the 2 word presyntax stage of very young children, however she didn’t seem to know the rules of syntax. o she might say something like “applesauce buy store” the reason why genie was unable to acquire language is because if is the innate language acquisition device isn’t activated through hearing a language within the critical period, then it will disappear. o if it is activated, as it is for most people, then we will be able to learn a second language later in life however it will take effort and you will speak with an accent. there are other cases of these “feral children”, such as victor who was found at 13 wandering the woods, he had been adopted by stray dogs after being abandoned by his parents. without stimulation, if a person is seriously neglected then their brain will physically shrink. conclusion if you are not exposed to a language before puberty, you will not be able to learn a language. also, psychological and social deprivation could have impeded cognitive development. this might have impacted the children’s ability to learn language. second language acquisition it is common for people to grow up learning multiple languages. learning a language before the age of 7 makes someone fully fluent in that language \n learning a language before the age of 15 (or puberty) makes someone almost completely fluent. learning a language after the age of 15 will be difficult and take hard work. they will always speak with an accent. o this is because the language acquisition device for that language was never “installed” during the critical period and has shut down. the length of exposure to language does not influence someone’s fluidity. it is when you were exposed to the language. a child who learns a language from 35 years will always be more fluent than someone who learns a language from 1530 years. you are not able to become fluent in a language after puberty because the critical period has passed. o critical period hypothesis weak form: it is possible for someone who has learned a first language early in life to learn a second language. o critical period hypothesis strong form: the ability to learn a language is not due to how much you are able to practice it, but rather when you learned it. how did genie learn as much as she did? her language acquisition device was not activated during the critical period but, before the universal grammar humans used a simpler, innate grammar device called protolanguage protolanguage is older than language as we know it. we still have this ability, however around age 2 we activate syntax and our “advanced” way of language. genie had to rely on protolanguage because that was built in, and she wasn’t exposed to language so it couldn’t switch over to the lad. protolanguage doesn’t have syntax. it can manifest itself in some circumstances: o all two year olds o genie, and other people deprived like her o foreigner speech, particularly is someone is frantic o possibly other primates o pidgin (created when two languages are merged) o parentese (speaking to young children) the words are for concrete concepts. phonology is simple and recursion is not used. gesturing is typically used. people aren’t really sure where protolanguage is stored in the brain, but it might be on the right side.",
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322b2ef1bb25a1e4f7b623ea111e6e18 | ?problem 1ce
exercise 1. this software determines the number of elements in the ring z[i]/ (where i2 = -1). run the program for several cases and formulate a conjecture based on your data.
exercise 2. this software determines the characteristic of the ring z[i]/ (where i2 = -1). run the program for several cases and formulate a conjecture based on your data.
exercise 3. this software determines when the ring z[i]/ (where i2 = -1) is isomorphic to the ring za2 + b2. run the program for several cases and formulate a conjecture based on your data. | exercise 1. this software determines the number of | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " hydrolysis of acetals, imines, enamines acetals mechanism: hydrolysis with a base is not effective meaning there will be no reaction occurring imines enamine sulfur nucleophile act the same os oxygen. \n convert ketone to alkane. reagent: h with raney ni 2 hydrogen (hydride) nucleophile mechanism: carbon nucleophile grignard reaction \n cyanohydrin formation cyanohydrin the carbon with alcohol group and cn group. cyanide ion can act like a nucleophile. disadvantage : extreme toxicity and volatility of hydrogen cyanide mechanism: advantage : synthetic utility witting reaction reagent: ● carbonyl with phosphonium (p(c h ) ) 6 5 3 this reaction forms alkene \n mechanism: a sn prefer less hindered molecule. (note: just look at the phosphonium. it prefers the less hindered segment.) baeyervilliger oxidation of aldehyde and ketone reagent: ● peroxyacid aldehyde forms carboxylic acid ketone forms ester mechanism: priority for placement/migrant of the oxygen atom: h > 3° > 2° ≈ phenyl > 1° > methyl chapter 21: carboxylic acid and their derivative nomenclature of carboxylic acid iupac name 1. remove “e” with “oic acid” \n 2. carbon of the carboxylic acid is position 1 common name position is labeled with greek letter starting at the carbon of the acid. methanoic acid / formic acid 3bromopentanoic acid / β−bromovaleric acid naming the carboxylic salts ● first name the cation ● name the anion by replacing “ic acid” with “ate” potassium 3chloropentanoate ● with 2 carboxylic acids, put “dioic acid” preparing carboxylic acid ● oxidation cleavage of alkynes ○ 1. o3 with 2. h 2 ● oxidation of primary alcohol ○ na 2r o2 w7th h so 2 h 4 2 ● oxidation of alkylbenzenes ○ na 2r o2 w7th h so 2 h 4 2 ● hydrolysis of nitriles ○ h with heat carboxylation of grignard reagent reagent: + ● 1. co w2th 2. h o3 \n reaction of carboxylic acid reagent: ● 1. lah with h o + 3 ● bh ∙3hf mechanism: introduction to carboxylic acid derivation with no change to the oxidation state of the carbon is called, carboxylic acid derivatives. x name cl acid halide coor acid anhydride or ester nh 2 amide \n nitrile, rcn, is a acid derivative. naming acid halide replace “ic acid” with “yl halide” benzoyl chloride naming acid anhydride replace “acid” with “anhydride” acetic benzoic anhydride naming easter replace “ic acid” or “oic acid” with “ate” ethyl acetate naming amide replace “ic acid” or “oic acid” with “amide” acetamide \n if the amide group have a alkyl group substituents, their names are place with a “n” as the locant. n,ndimethylacetamide naming nitrile replace “ic acid” with “oniltrile” benzonitrile reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives most to least 1. acid halide 2. acid anhydride 3. ester 4. amide for an acid halide, ● inductive effect the electronegative atom makes the carbon more electrophilic. ● resonance have three resonance where one of the three is not significant.(between ccl) for an amide, ● inductive effect the nitrogen atom is a weak electronegative atom in comparison with halide or oxygen. ● resonance have three resonance where all three are significant.(between cn) nucleophilic acyl substitution ● a twostep process \n mechanism: ● this substitution must not be written as a sn. in acidic condition, avoid formation of a strong base. mechanism: in basic condition, avoid formation of a strong acid. so, acid starts with proton transfer base start with nucleophilic attack preparation and reaction of acid chloride ● reaction with carboxylic acid ● reagent: \n ○ socl 2 mechanism: hydrolysis of acid chloride mechanism: alcoholysis of acid chloride aminolysis of acid chloride \n ",
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642968404576e972aa840b7752b6f964 | use thevenins theorem to find in prob. 4.12. | use thevenins theorem to find in prob. 4.12. | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.31 | [
{
"text": " timeline supreme court cases legislation important things ● 1887 ○ federal government instituted a policy of assimilation. ○ native languages and rituals were banned. ○ school were limited and tightly controlled. ● 1896 ○ plessy v ferguson ■ approved segregated facilities ● 1938 ○ gaines v canada ■ missouri had a law school that was reserved for white students. there was no law school in the state that admitted black students. when a black student was denied entrance at the university of missouri. the student sought awrit of mandamus to be admitted ● 1944 ○ naacp party control ■ naacp turn this down via the supreme court in 1944 “the party couldn’t make that decision because the party is an extension of the government” ● 1946 ○ oklahoma state law ■ women denied from law school. thurgood marshall fought for her to go to school. she was the first african american woman to become the first women on the oklahoma board of regents ● 1948 ○ housing covenanters illegal ● 1950 ○ mclaurin v oklahoma state regent ■ a student seeking a doctoral degree in education was admitted to the university of oklahoma but was segregated within the institution ● it was separate just not equal ○ sweatt v painter ■ case involved university of texas law school and its substandard relative created just for black students. ● 1954 ○ brown v board ■ because the supreme court began ruling on a different question: can separate but equal ever be equal? in this case the supreme court answered that question by saying no: \n ● “we conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of “separate but equal” has no place. separate educational facilities are inherently unequal” ■ of course that was not the end of the story. it took many more years before schools were actually integrated. and in many of those cases federal action was needed ● heart of atlanta v us ○ due to the advertisement in other states it is an interstate commerce this ends jim crow laws ● 1960 ○ ruby bridges is the first student to desegregate ● 1963 ○ equal pay act ● 1964 ○ civil rights act of 1964 ■ cut off federal aid to school districts still practicing segregation ■ only part where women are mentioned is in the provision about employment ● 1965 ○ voting rights act of 1965 (civil rights act of 1965) ● 1968 ○ civil rights act of 1968 ■ can not discriminate the sale of housing based on race, religion color, national origin, sex, and ildren ● 1971 ○ supreme court ruling equal protection ■ first time supreme court ruled that a law which discriminated on basis of sex violated tqual protection clause ● 1972 ○ education amendment ○ supreme court ruling intermediate scrutiny ■ the supreme court recognizentermediate scrutinys the standard for assessing laws and actions that treat women and men differently ● 1974 ○ equal credit opportunity act ■ allows women to be added to their spouse's credit card to help build their credit while they stayed me ● 1990 ○ the americans with disabilities act became law. the law extends the protections of thcivil rights act of 1to persons with disabilities. vocabulary ● civil rights legislation ○ covenants \n ■ the deed of the house states that the house can only be sold to white people because the community also had a covenant the community remains white ○ invidious classification ■ harmful classification based on ● race ● ethnicity ● national origin ● religion ● gender ● sexual orientation ● political views ○ discrimination ■ refer to irrational suspicion or hatred of people, and differential treatment on the basis of their race, religion, sex, skin color, ethnic background, national origin, or sexual orientation ○ jim crow laws ■ laws passed to create a segregated society ○ naacp legal defense and education fund ■ key to bringing suits against the states ■ thurgood marshall was crucial to naacp ○ writ of mandamus ■ is a court order to a public official ordering him or her to do what they are supposed to do ○ civil rights act 1964 ■ cut off federal aid to school districts still practicing segregation ● title 2 of the civil rights act of 1964 makes it an offense to discriminate against any customer or patron in a place of public accommodation because of race, color, religion or national origin. ● only part where women are mentioned is in the provision about employment ○ civil rights act of 1965 (voting rights act of 1965) ○ civil rights act of 1968 ■ can not discriminate the sale of housing based on race, religion color, national origin, sex, and children ○ white primaries ■ general elections open to everyone but primaries exclusively for whites ○ poll taxes ■ to vote, one haide to pay a fee. they were really small amounts but they were cumulative ○ literacy test ■ very difficult to pass ○ limited registration \n ■ offices open perhaps one to two days per month ● 1965movement led by sclc (mlk) and sncc with a focus in alabama from selma to montgomery (50 miles) . later known as bloody sunday. met by alabama state troopers on horseback with cattle prods, tear gas and forced them to go back. 90% of americans had a tv and saw photos of it ● lbj tells congress to pass theoting rights act of 1965 (civil rights act of 1965) ○ bloody sunday ○ patriarchy ■ is a form of social organization in which the man is recognized as the head of the family ■ is the dominant legal, religious, and cultural view in the world today ○ the feminine mystique ■ talked about how unhappy women were because the female american dream was different than the male american dream this awoke females across nation ○ republican mother ■ cultural ideal from beginnings of the nation ■ from beginning until around 1908 ○ romantic paternalism ■ this was the legal standard: women needed some protection in the workplace. many laws were adopted me including restrictions on hours, amount women could be required to lift and so on ○ protectionism ○ equal pay act of 1963 ■ women and men have to receive equal pay for equal work, with exceptions for merit, productivity, and seniority ○ education amendment 1972 ○ equal credit act of 1974 ■ allows women to be added to their spouse's credit card to help build their credit while they stayed home ○ the equal rights amendment ■ in 1972 it was purposed and sent to the states to have 10 years to be ratified. all but three states ratified. seen more as symbolic by the women's movement ○ lulac league of united latin american citizens and maldef mexican american legal defense and education fund ○ cesar chavez ■ organized farm workers and brought about better conditions for those that work in the field, got ballots printed in spanish for people to vote ● legislative branch ○ session \n ■ each year of congress ○ political party ■ how congress is organized ○ reapportioned ■ after each census, districts have to be redrawn and members reallocated. the 435 members are ○ redistricting ■ when district lines are redrawn ○ jerry meandering ■ when districts are drawn politically ○ pork barrel spending important things to know ● civil rights ○ rational based test ■ is this classification rationburden is on the persowho objects to the classification to show why it is not. ■ does it make sense to divide people at 21 (those who drink and those who don’t) ○ strict scrutiny test ■ this test applies when laws or practices divide peace y r ■ those passing such a law or using such a practice must show that it serves a compelling government interest ● affirmative action is the only law to pass this test ○ intermediate scrutiny test ■ this is the inbetween category. dividing peoexis in this category. thereby allowing for men and women to be treated differently in certain instances, like the military draft. such classifications must serve an important government purpose ● burden in on the government ○ most of these rulings deal with physical things in regards to women (pregnancy) ● think of the draft only men sign up for the draft not wome ○ ruby bridges 1960 ■ first child to integrate schools in new orleans. she is accompanied by u.s. marshals ○ lunch counter sitin greensboro, north carolina ● legislative branch ○ differences ● house senate \n ● every house member ● every senator represents a represents a district state ● serves 2 year ● serves 6 year terms ● house must originate revenue ● approves presidential bills closer to people appointments (cabinet, courts) ● house initiates impeachment ● approves treaties and passes articles of ● holds trails on articles of impeachment impeachment ● has a rules committee, which ● water leadershipindividual controls debate power senators very powerful centralized around speaker ● can filibuster legislation relatively high turnover ● 100 members with two from compared with senate each state ● 435 members based on size of state ■ ",
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61d0536f18ac815c33e32f889ac2e214 | tell how many roots of the following polynomial are in the right half-plane, in the left half-plane, and on the j-axis: [section: 6.2] ps s 5 3s 4 5s 3 4s 2 s 3 | tell how many roots of the following polynomial are in the | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
{
"text": " tuesday 4/5/16 why did the united states enter the war? 1. financial commitment to the allies a. war was economic boom for us b. our money was going towards britain and france 2. shared principles of democracy a. opposition to german militarism b. not everyone was probritish 3. german attacks on american neutrality a. sinking of the lusitania because germans didn’t want america and britain to trade (?) b. “unrestricted submarine warfare” beings early 1917, america declares war with germany in april 1917 america at war: what was its contribution to victory? ● america didn’t determine the strategy ● the donkeys ( 1961) ● german 210mm guns artillery was the big killer of soldiers in the war of 19141918 ● war of attrition us didn’t have any tactics ● us needed, “men, men and more men” ● germans end the war agreeing to an armistice (armistice day, 11/11) problems of peacemaking wilson at versailles why did the us enter the war? 1. financial commitment to the allies 2. shared principles of democracy 3. german attacks on american neutrality and... 4. how could we influence the postwar peace, if we were not actively involved in fighting the war? ● “peace without victory,” wilson, january 1917 (before we enter the war) ● “fourteen points” speech, wilson, january 1918 ○ end to secret treaties, establish league of nations \n wilson’s new world order ● spread democracy because democracies did not engage in wars of conquest ● an end to trade barriers would reduce tensions that led to war ● a “league of nations” rather than arms and alliances would be the key to international order there were two problems: one was the europeans the reality of versailles ● britain would not accept freedom of the seas ● “open diplomacy” was conducted behind closed doors ● peace without victory became the “war guilt clause” for germany ○ made the germans resentful and determined to “get even” when the opportunity presented itself in the future ● selfdetermination for some; but other border realignments just created new problems the other problem was the us opposition to the treaty *** in textbook ● november 1918 elections gave control of congress to the republicans ○ president wilson did not involve republicans in the peace negotiations, even though he needed a republicandominated senate to approve any treaty (art ii, sec 2 of the constitution) ● irreconcilables did not want anything to do with a league of nations ● reservationists not necessarily against a league of nations but wanted restrictions on its authority over the united states ● opposition to article 10 did it commit nations to using force to maintain the peace and guarantee territorial integrity? the twenties events of 19181919 ● influenza killed 500,000 americans (more american soldiers died of this than at the hands of the germans) ● “red scare” generated by bolshevik (communist) revolution in russia and bombing campaign in us *** in textbook ● 1919 more strikes than in any other year of american history ● chicago white sox threw the world series! ● manufacturing inexpensive consumer goods (electric mixer, the vacuum, refrigerator, washing machine) ● age of consumption ● instant gratification, fulfillment with consumption \n a consumer culture ● a society in which the majority of people seek fulfillment and defines identity through acts of consumption ● new values like, “instant gratification” rather than selfdenial, restraint, saving for the future, and so on (the supposed values of the older generation) ● “problems” resolved through consumption the automobile: backbone of industry ● 1900 → 300 firms produced 4,000 cars ● 1922 → ford produced 2 million cars ● 1927 → one car for every 5.3 people in the us; in france one for every 44 people; in germany one for every 196 model t cost went down automobiles encouraged consumption i.e. general motors cadillac → different styles of cars came out every year so your car could complement your personality promote dissatisfaction so people buy new cars ● clyde barrow (bonnie and clyde) “i always prefer to steal a ford.” car industry set up credit for consumers (so people can get a loan) ● mass entertainment! ● 1929 40% houses had radios ● film industry! increasingly homogenized america… people dressing the same way, buying the same products, watching the same movies, but this creates tension in society because of this new culture culture clash *** in textbook ● the triumph of nativism (immigration restriction) ● “national origins” or immigration act of 1924 ● instituted a permanent quota system, with total immigration capped at 164,000 based on percentages (2 percent) of ethnic origins shown in 1890 census ● example: italy’s quota was 3,845, great britain’s was 65,361 \n thursday 4/7/16 culture clash ● the triumph of nativism (immigration restriction) ● the second ku klux klan ○ earlier kkk was in south, this one is in the midwest (oh, in, tx, ok, or) ○ 100% americanism no more immigrants! ● the scopes trial ○ can’t teach evolution too secular ○ similar to plessy vs. ferguson separate but equal politics of the 1920s resurgent republicanism warren harding (1920) ● “i can handle my enemies; it’s my damn friends i have to worry about!” ● ^^^ corruption during harding administration ● trickledown theory of economics calvin coolidge (1924) ● coolidge joke: “did you hear that former president coolidge was found dead?” “really! how could they tell?” herbert hoover (1928) ● hoover is “certainly a wonder and i wish we could make him president of the united states. there would not be a better one.” fdr the great depression (under the hoover administration) ● “great engineer” ● said he would donate presidential salary to charity why depression? ***in textbook ● the stock market crash, 1929? ○ shares decreased by about 40% ● depressed agricultural prices and farm closures ● lack of diversity in economy ● overproduction of consumer goods “... all of the policies of the new deal failed to end the great depression; it ended when the united states began rearming in 1941...” n economic history of the us so… in order to end a depression, go to war \n ● depressions happen about every 2530 years ● but this great depression is the only one that doesn’t go away immediately and becomes a worldwide depression some figures: ● national income: ○ $87.4 billion in 1929 ○ $41.7 billion in 1932 ● by 1932, 2025% national unemployment with higher statewide numbers: ○ 50% in cleveland ○ 80% in toledo ● bank closures to 1933 wiped out $7 billion in savings ● hoover believed the great depression was only temporary ○ government never did anything to help the depression and it would go away ○ hoover believes he should do the same as it got worse, he looked bad ○ democrats were trying to embarrass hoover ○ hoovervilles, hoover flags, “hard times are still hoovering over us” election of 1928 almost all the states election of 1932 only took 6 states fdr ● had the draft of a speech against high tariffs, another supporting it, and told his speech writers to mesh the two together ● new deal ● willingness to try new things ● confident grin ● attempted assassination of fdr, but wounding others ● fireside addresses road to recovery? ● bank holiday ○ emergency banking act, 9 march 1933 this bill was passed unanimously by the house (seven “no” votes in the senatenread by any member ● the hundred days 15 major pieces of legislation national recovery administration ● governmentsanctioned cartels ● industrial compacts and codes to set wages, hours, and working conditions ● part of the national industrial recovery act (nira) \n civilian conservation corps ● a workrelief program ● 3 million young men employed; paid $30 a month (had to send $25 home) ● national forests; flood control; beautification projects public works administration ● first of the major “makework” programs of the new deal ● allotted $3.3 billion for public works (idea is to put money into people’s pockets quickly) jmu was built using pwa project money! problems ● conservatives thought that new deal programs were corrupting “american ideals” fdr was going too far! ● radicals saw the great depression as proof that capitalism was dead fdr was not doing enough to recognize that reality! ● and economic indicators did not indicate that much recovery was taking place floyd olson of minnesota and the farmlabor party upton sinclair ● democratic candidate for governor of california in 1934 ● epic end poverty in california program; seize idle lands and factories and turn them over to workers’ and farmers’ cooperatives huey long of louisiana ● “share our wealth society” (1934) ● fdr: long was “one of the two most dangerous men in the country.” ● dictatorship the “second” new deal ● social security act (1935) ● wpa work progress administration ○ $11 billion works program (included the exslave interviews) ○ nation’s single largest employer ● wagner act, or national labor relations act (1935) \n ",
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37af9a5f4a26b51497a7b976a0604828 | in exercises 1 to 10, state whether the equation defines y as a function of x. x2 + y2 = 9 | in exercises 1 to 10, state whether the equation defines y as a function of x. x2 + y2 = | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " constitutional criminal procedure rules and procedures that govern the pretrial processing of criminal suspects and the conduct of criminal trials the main source of the procedural law is the body of the constitution known as the bill of rights (the first 10 amendments) eighth amendment o protect liberties including no excessive bail required nor excessive fines imposed no cruel and unusual punishment inflicted fourteenth amendment o due process and equal protection clauses us supreme court creates constitutional law o states must follow the constitution particularly rights designated by the bill of rights fourth amendment o right to search and seizure o rights for police officers and criminal prosecution o exclusionary rule (early 1900s) weeks v. united states (1914); mapp v. ohio (1961) weeks used the mail for illegal gambling and the police went into his home without his permission without a warrant weeks won mapp dollree mapp was helping a terrorist suspect; police obtain a warrant and search her house and do not find anything but find pornographic material (illegal at the time) and she is arrested turns out the warrant was fake conviction was vacated both of these cases deal with finding the line between the right to privacy and the fourth amendment the home is a protected private place, but doesn’t mean that police can’t enter if appropriate need a warrant legal authority to enter into a private location given by a judge police officer need probable cause in order to get warrant from judge probable cause= some evidence, suspicion about someone committing a crime or about to commit a crime some cases when police do not need a warrant exclusionary rule evidence thrown out because it was obtained illegally by police o “fruit of the poisonous tree”= evidence obtained illegally \n the second evidence found that was led to the police by the first evidence found illegally they never would have found it without illegally getting the first thats stupid and confusing o when is it acceptable for a police to enter without a warrant?? “the plainview doctrine” if police are at the door and they can see evidence from where they are they can come in and make an arrest “the openfields rule” they can see something illegal going on on someone’s land, a no trespassing sign around a fence doesn’t stop law enforcement from seeing it exigent circumstances“stop and frisk policy” planning/ in commission of a crime= police can obtain and search arrest when police arrest you they can search you or your bag if they have that suspicion consent if police knock on your door and you allow them to search jail/prison do not have a right to privacy in your cell automobiles often police are allowed to search cars without a warrant o 5th amendment miranda rights you have the right to remain silent anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law you have the right to an attorney if you cannot afford an attorney, on will be appointed for you 5 distinct liberties right to a grand jury trial before indictment of a federal crime right to be free of multiple persecution for a single criminal offense (double jeopardy) jury finds you innocent, that prosecutor cannot try you again right to remain silent when being prosecuted right to liberties provided by due process of law the right to receive just compensation when the government takes private property for public use o 6th amendment right to seven liberties speedy trial public trial impartial jury must be informed of the charges or accusations held against you \n to be able to confront witnesses against them to be able to have witnesses on their favor to have assistance of counsel the courts courts and their importance what is a court? o agency or unit that has the authority to decide upon cases, controversies in law, and disputed matters of fact brought before it. o three elements: proper legal authority (authority given by the constitution) congress= “legislative courts” state legislators ***only courts in the constitution= the supreme court found in the judicial branch of government empowered to make decisions that are binding role of the courts in criminal justice today o adjudication: determines who is and is not guilty ensure lower courts applied the law correctly o oversight: oversees operations of criminal justice officials (e.g. police officers) structure o american criminal justice system o dual court system comprised of: state courts federal courts organization of the courts o subjectmatter jurisdiction felonies, misdemeanors, or infractions offense types (fraud, sex offenders, drugs/alcohol) offenders (first time offender, juveniles <18, mentally disabled, veterans) *the nature of the case can determine which court will have jurisdiction o geographic jurisdiction the political boundaries of cities, counties, and states where the crime occurs matters o federal courts hear the following types of cases (aka federal jurisdiction) suits involving the gov suits involving two or more states suit involving public ministers suits involving laws passed by congress, treaties, and maritime laws o jurisdiction hierarchal jurisdiction \n trial courts hear the facts of the case appellate courts review the work of the trial court judge original jurisdiction lawful authority of a court to hear cases that arise within specified geographical area or that involve particular kinds of law violations appellate jurisdiction lawful authority of a court to review a decision made by a lower court tiers of courts supreme court the court of last resort us circuit courts of appeals intermediate level appeals structure of federal courts us magistrate courts o the lowest level of the federal court system, magistrate courts operate as courts of limited jurisdiction us district courts (trial courts*******) o try felony cases involving federal laws and civil cases in which the amount of money in controversy exceeds $75,000 california and texas have the most districts pennsylvania is the 3rd circuit (nj too) us court of appeals review federal and state appellate court cases when there is a federal issue present does not retry the case or review the facts only matters of procedure and substance of the law the us supreme court the nation’s highest appellate body court of last resort for all cases tried in federal and state courts 9 supreme court justices bonus on test= name all justices o justice clarence thomas o chief justice john g. roberts**** o justice anthony m. kennedy o justice ruth bader ginsburg o justice sonia sotomayor o justice stephen g. breyer o justice samuel a. alito, jr. o justice elena kagan o antonin scalia just died o a lot of them were prosecuting attorneys before supreme court justices 4 judges have to agree to see a case for it to make it to the supreme court \n when the supreme court decides to hear a case they grant a writ of certiorari o an order of a superior court requesting that the record of an inferior court be brought forward for review or inspection judges are appointed!!! state courts there are 50 separate state court systems plus one for d.c state organization does not always parallel the relatively simple organizational structure of the federal judiciary types of state courts most have 4 levels o 1 courts of limited jurisdiction roughly constitute 90% of all courts “subject matter” consists of minor offenses (traffic courts) sanctions are usually very minor try civil cases for very small amounts of money records of court proceeding are not kept make difficult to appeal the court’s decision if appealed, go before the general jurisdiction courts of a new trial, o 2 specialized courts o 3 courts of general jurisdiction (not all state have this) o 4 appellate courts intermediate level of appeals courts of last resort state court structure justice of the peace courts o five states (az,de,la, mt, tx) o local level courts that handle minor level disputes o texas justice of peace (jop) courts have original jurisdiction over “class c misdemeanors” o justices of the peace sometimes issue search and arrest warrants, perform wedding ceremonies, and can serve as coroners in less populous counties magistrate courts o handle a number of minor offenses and preliminary court proceedings, including some pretrial intervention programs and bail o gatekeeper function: diverts some minor cases to alternative treatment programs o similar to jop courts; no jury trials chief magistrate assigns cases and sets court dates municipal/city/county/metropolitan courts \n general jurisdiction courts o often serve as a major trial courts o some specialize in certain types of cases o common pleas (ny= supreme) o criminal cases best known for conducting high profile felony cases before full juries o civil cases usually involve dollar amounts over a specified threshold state supreme courts o have the last word over matters arising from the lower courts o often petitioned with more cases than they can review during a term o each state has its own rules for selecting cases o some types of cases go directly to state supreme courts (ex: death penalty only 33 state still have it) o some states will have additional courts of “last resort” federal system has 3 tiers states mostly have 4 tiers intermediate appellate courts pa: superior and commonwealth courts commonwealth ct original jurisdiction for civil actions against state superior court: no original jurisdiction and takes appeals from final orders of courts of common pleas appellate courts most convictions are affirmed on appeal verdict will be reversed, case may be remanded back for a new trial defendants may attempt an appeal to the us supreme court appeal must be based on o claimed violations of the defendant's rights as guaranteed under federal law or the us constitution access to federal courts has been limited o herrena v. collins 1993 o new evidence of innocence is no reason for a federal court to order a new state trial if there is no grounds for a constitutional argument procedures initial appearance (pretrial procedure) the law requires that a person be taken before a neutral judicial officer also known as the gerstein hearing \n protects individual rights by reviewing the law enforcement officer’s decision of probable cause for an arrest (4th amendment) should occur within 48 hours of arrest procedure o defendant is informed of charges and possible penalties o defendant is provided with a copy of any charging documents o defendant is informed of their right to retain counsel (or have an attorney appointed) o bail may be preliminary granted or denied (a separate bail hearing usually occurs later) more than 75% of misdemeanor cases defendant pleads guilty ****check on police by judge to make sure the police had enough probable cause to arrest/detain a suspect charging when the defendant is formally charged 3 primary ways: o complaint is filed police or private citizen accusing person of committing a crime commonly used for misdemeanor charges o indictment grand jury (group of citizens, usually ranges from 1623 people) closed door, secretive proceedings, public can’t watch not open court primary for felonies **true bill of indictment= allows court to proceed and recognizes that criminal activity has occurred o information prosecution presented at the preliminary hearing primarily for felonies preliminary hearing used as checks on prosecutorial authority in jurisdictions that do not utilize grand juries held in open court (before a judge, usually a magistrate) judge determines if there is probable cause o if there is probably csue then the judge “binds over” the defendant for tria o if not enough evidence: \n reduction of charges ti misdemeanor may dismiss the charges completely bail defined: o security provided to the court that the defendant will appear at every stage in the cj system o bail serves 2 purposes: helps ensure reappearance of the accused in court prevents unconvicted persons from suffering imprisonment unnecessarily you would be sitting in jail from 16 months issues to be considered for bail eligibility: crime type and circumstances capital crime suspects don’t get bail o ⅔ of all felony defendants were released on bail o ½ of all violent criminals were released on bail o 8% of suspected murderers o 42% robbery suspects o 44% motor vehicle theft o 49% burglary o 55% rape suspects o *those on parole are more likely to be detained o issues to be considered for bail eligibility crime type and circumstances flight risk dangerousness of defendant (prior history) person’s financial ability to pay cash bill o bail release mechanisms police field citation release direct release programs police/court bail schedule 6 types of bail o full cash allowed bail with a set cash amount; to obtain your freedom you have to pay in full in the beginning o deposit cash pay 10% of bail price up front o surety bail use property as bail; post home to pay for bail o conditional bail o unsecured bail o release on recognizance (ror) no money or conditions, they will just take your word that you will come back arraignment \n a formal proceeding in which the charging document is read to the defendant in open court defendant is asked to enter a formal plea on each charge (usually 2 options) o guilty (perhaps already a plea bargain) o not guilty (case will be scheduled for trial) o nolo contendere (no contest) judge puts you down as not guilty can admit there is sufficient evidence for conviction not required to actually admit guilt some jurisdictions this means that the plea cannot be used against the defendant in a civil trial some jurisdictions: mentally ill defendants can enter a plea of guilty by reason of insanity (less than 1% of all felony cases and 77% of those are unsuccessful) alford plea accept guilt but say you are innocent o why would innocent person take this deal? bc you think the jury might convict you anyway o plea bargaining is guaranteed discovery process by which the parties exchange relevant info about the case no constitutional right: statutes, judicial decisions, and court rules have established obligations to disclose certain info as part of the defendant’s due process rights to a fair trial o list of witnesses o relevant evidence o prosecution must disclose all exculpatory evidence (brady v. maryland 1963): any evidence that may be favorable to the defendant duke lacrosse case prosecutor found evidence 3 lacrosse players didn’t actually commit the crime and didn’t report it brady was accused of homicide, but really someone already confessed and said brady did not but the prosecution did not tell defense and trial went on, brady appeals and gets a lesser sentencing plea bargaining exchange of prosecutorial and judicial concessions for guilty plea o initial charges may be reduced (charge bargaining) o prosecutor may promise to recommend lenient sentence (sentence bargaining) o prosecutor may alter charge (count bargaining) \n 2 counts of something, count bargaining= cut out one count if you admit guilt to one of the counts plea bargaining occurs frequently in justice system true o 96% of cases for federal system o 95% of criminal convictions are a result of negotiated guilty pleas in state system exam= chapter 811 the courtroom workgroup judges prosecution defense counsel sheriffs clerks stenographers witnesses the judge and the justice system primary duty=oversee the trial process (referee) decided case in bench trials determines the sentence (except in capital cases) selection of judges o election (state) partisan nonpartisan problems bias very political “tough on crime” low voter turnout o appointed (federal by president) biased qualified? o merit selection prosecutorial discretion sometimes referred to as the “gatekeepers” of the cjs (most powerful players) decision options o go forward and charge the defendant to court o nolle prosequi o negotiate plea bargain affects decisions \n o resources funding political influence election o legal evidence lack “problem” whether police’s actions were right or wrong offense severity conviction? o extralegal age offender race gender ses prior record ***sexual assault/rape= very difficult to get case to trial/prosecute o bc it's he said/she said the defense attorney counterpart of the prosecuting attorney in criminal process accused has constitutional right to counsel (6th amendment) only in criminal cases o gideon v. wainwright (1963) felony charges made states provide you an attorney in felony offenses private vs. public attorney private = min of $25,000 80% can’t afford that appointed (state attorney) or contract (individual firm helps out) o argersinger v. hamlin (1972) misdemeanors extend right for an attorney to misdemeanors must observe aba code and provide zealous defense within boundaries of law roles of defense attorney o walsh and hemmens (2008) o ensure defendants rights are not violated (intentionally or by error) o make sure the defendants know all of their options before they make a decisions \n o provide the defendant with the best possible defense (without ethical/ legal violations) o to argue for the lowest possible sentence or best possible plea bargain sentencing the goals of modern sentencing o deterrence o incapacitation o retribution/just dessert o rehabilitation o equity/restitution presentencing investigation report o a report designed to help the judge decide on the appropriate sentence within the limits established by law o prepared by the probation or parole officer information in a presentence report o a typical presentence report includes the following infor: personal info about the offender and his or her background a description of the offense and its circumstances a description of the offender’s criminal record rap sheet= records of arrest prosecution family info and current family status education history employment and military history health history and status (including drug history) financial status mental health status sentencing recommendation made by the probation officer high risk factors in a psi o antisocial personality patterns o pro criminal attitudes o social support for crime o substance abuse o family and marital problems traditional sentencing option o fines o probation o imprisonment o death sentencing models o states penalize their convicted offenders in different ways o indeterminate model \n o determinate model",
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00667433742dc1cca378cb26807bd88c | in exercises 3540, use the formula on page 527 to find the inverse of the matrix (if it exists). 1
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| get answer: in exercises 3540, use the formula on page 527 to find the inverse of the | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
{
"text": " ethical and philosophical foundation of crj 03.05.2015 question: identify and discuss three ethical issues in the juvenile justice system. how have they been addressed? the families, society and the police departments make its best effort to prevent crime. especially, they try to keep the kids away from committing crime so that they don’t have to enter the juvenile justice system. despite all these efforts, kids always get involved in crime; hence, they enter into the juvenile justice system where they have to face incarceration, mandatory probation hours etc. the main reason of putting them behind the bars is to teach discipline and scare them from committing any further crime. however, federal reports have shown, putting troubled kids into more punitive situation can cause them to commit more crime and ruins all the opportunity to learn new skills and ways of behaving that are more positive. the society and the juvenile justice system should make more efforts in preventing crime before the kids enters the juvenile justice system so that they have a better chance of leading a successful life. according to federal reports, a very few juveniles go towards a healthy successful life after finishing their sentence and twothirds of them are more likely to come back within three to five years period. in this case, the juvenile justice system is failing to accomplish the primary reason they are created for which is to make sure that the juveniles don’t come back to doing crimes and start leading a more disciplined life. the critics and authors have argued that it is ethically wrong to put kids around 1619 ages in punitive situation because they are causing more harm instead of causing anything better. the president and ceo of the atlantabased southern education foundation, kent mcguire argued that they are still kinds. even though they have committed crime they deserve to be taught what is right and not put in more severe situation like long term incarceration and social isolation (morones, 1). thus, it is a mutual concern that the juvenile justice system should enforce more academic curriculum for the juveniles and not put them in more punitive situations for their betterment. one of the most alarming and concerning question raises when the federal report shows a very high percentage of african american and hispanic juveniles behind the bars but very low \n portion of white juveniles. according to the federal report, “on any given day, 70,000 students are in custody in juvenilejustice systems across the country. nearly, twothirds of those young people are either african american or hispanic, and an even higher percentage are male.” (morones, 1). another author, florencio ramirez stated that under his jurisdiction, about 95 percent juveniles are either africanamerican or hispanic. he questions to the readers, does this mean that the other races are not committing crime? especially white population are one of the rarest population that has been seen behind the bars. however, this does not conclude that they are not committing crime in the society. it is pretty visible that there is racial disparities among the society and the juvenile justice system. even if when the white population enters the juvenile justice system, they tend to get away with their crime and not face any punitive action because of their privilege. it is highly unethical to have racial disparities among the system because it tend to hurt the society in large. ramirez tells his readers, “reducing racial disparities requires specific strategies aimed at eliminating bias and ensuring a level playing field for youth of color” (ramirez, 2). to make it safe and fair for everybody in the society and the juvenile system, it is required to have a nonbiased look towards this. another ethical issue that the kids in juvenile system tend to face is lack of education and help with learning and developing social skills. kids that tend to drop out from high school or middle school tend to go towards crime more than the kids who is regular at their schools. these kids need special help in getting back to their track so that they can start going to school again and prevent themselves from committing any further crimes. however, proper education system is not available at the juvenile justice system. several authors and critics suggested that the juvenile justice system lacks coordination between learning and teaching during a student’s stay, and inconsistency in curricula (morones, 1). the federal report suggests students made very little academic progress while they were under juvenile justice system. kids that enters this system are usually with mental issues and poor learning skills. they should not be treated as regular kids. hence, their academic curricula is supposed to be modified and different from regular student’s curricula. many juvenile justice system workers don’t understand the severity and thus they kept doing the process years after years. now, light had been brought up to this situation and several essential steps are needed to be takes in order to solve this injustice. kids that enter the system \n with poor social skills, a little or no learning skill and poor mental health have to be taken in special consideration and set up essential help group to support them and help them to succeed in life. the juvenile justice system’s goal should be to make these kids life better, not worse than what it was before. adults and the children were basically treated the same under the justice system until the twentieth century. after that, two different justice systems were established to make the children’s life a better place and prevent them from committing any further crime. even they there were two different systems and policies for adults and kids, they still lacked numerous ethical and important aspects of a justice system. after writing on article and seeing the federal reports, many states and counties decided to modify their system in order to prevent crimes in a better way and help the kids more than they have ever done. reports have shown, the less children drop out from school or college is the less people joins the juvenile justice system every year. hence, several states started establishing more discipline in schools to lower down the drop out number. georgia was successful in lowering down that number by 44 percentage which helped them to lower down the crime percentage of the whole entire year. since 2010, every states have been working on removing racial disparities from every system under resolving crime. especially the southern states have been decreased the rate of racism in juvenile justice system. to improve the educations system under juvenile justice system, officers have changed their curricula and started to pay extra attention towards the mentally disabled kids and the kids with poor social skills; so that they can go back to school after their sentences and lead a better life with their friends and families. \n work cited: alyssa morones (2014). juvenilejustice system not meeting educational need, report says. education week.com florenceio ramirez (2008). juvenile delinquency. americanbar.org \n ethical and philosophical foundation of crj 03.18.2015 question: thinking about ‘corrections’ its purposes and ethical drawbacks identify and discuss some ethical issues in corrections and efforts to address them. corrections is one of the most important part of the criminal justice system. every system is associated with various different issues. when it comes to correction issues, people tend to talk about the problems with budget and healthcare rather than talking about the ethical aspect of it. however, there are several ethical issues related with corrections system that needs to be looked at and fixed at everyone’s earliest concern. there are several ethical problems that authors, critics or officers have pointed out in last couple years. this paper will focus on three main ethical issues regarding the correction system and what step are taken as well as needs to be taken in order to eradicate them. the three main ethical issues are inmate mental health, prison privatization and prison or corrections stuff ethics. every prison in united states fills their lockers with inmates with mental issues. putting inmates with mental issue in traditional prisons is hardly a new news. this has been going on since decades and people finally decided to change it in last couple years. the writer robert winters (2013) wrote in his article ‘examining two fundamental ethical issues in u.s. corrections’ that, “today about 10 percent of the national offender population can be characterized as having a “serious” mental illness, and about 20 percent have some form of antisocial personality disorder as defined by the minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (mmpi)” (p.2). the criminal justice system used to put a large number of mentally ill inmates because they didn’t realize the important of treating them. treating those patients is more expensive than putting them behind traditional lockers and fulfilling their quota. hence, no actions were taken in order to change this unfairness for several years. but what they didn’t understand was, if they put them in traditional jails and don’t take care of them they will end up staying there for a longer time than the other inmates. studies say that these ill inmates stays in prison 5 times longer than the other inmates. which will cause in spending more money on them \n anyway. so why not build centers or organizations that will take care of them in the first place and help them to get better. the next main ethical issue of the correction system is prison privatization. the government collects a certain amount of tax from all the citizens for the correction system. therefore, there’s a quota of inmates that need to be fulfilled every year to collect that required money from citizens. this means, the law enforcement has to put people in jail regardless they are guilty or not to reach a certain number. this is highly unethical because inmates might not deserve all those punishment but they would still have to because the system requires them to. every year people see cases after cases where inmates don’t get fair trial and get locked up behind the bars for several years for no reason. the congress has created this law; hence, the congress enforces every sector of criminal justice system to fulfil this quota without thinking what the prisoners might have to go through. it is not only unfair for the prisoners, but also unfair for the taxpayers that are working so hard to raise all these money but giving it away because the law requires them to do so. the congress should take a better look at it and either lower the quota number or get rid of this whole quota system so save money and people’s life. the last but not the least issue of the correction system is correction stuff ethics. it is debatable that every stuff at prisons or correction office works as honestly as possible every day. the correction or prison officers have quotas to fulfil; which is one of the main reasons why sometimes they put people in the system who don’t deserve. correction officers can’t let people get out of the programs because they have to hold them coming back. in this scenarios, the system doesn’t care if people are guilty, guilty enough to serve long term prison sentence or if they are succeeding in life after getting out of the system. as a result, it is difficult for the officers too to be fair to everyone and make sure that everyone gets their fair share in every section of the criminal justice system. these officers often don’t get paid enough to deal with all these troubles every day. often it gets hectic too because they deal with all kinds of dangerous criminals in office or outside of office. they put their own life in risk to solve other criminals’ lives. as a result, some officers tend to not complete their duties honestly. often they get discouraged too when they see criminals not getting better in the society. they think, there is no \n hope for them, so why even bother. these are some of the reasons why correction or prison officers get distracted or discouraged at their jobs to do it with full honesty and fairness. all these ethical issues mentioned above were neglected for several years. however, the criminal justice system has finally looked at them and trying to take proper steps to eradicate all these issues from the society. several counties in united states are building health center where they take care of the mentally ill inmates. proper care have been provided in those centers so that they can get better soon and the system can move them to either the traditional jail or can let them go to the society. instead of wasting billions and billions of money on those ill inmates, the system is taking the right step by treating them well. prison quota system has been in society for a long time and many writers have been writing about it and prosecutors have been debating about it so that the criminal justice system can get rid of it. every action serves some positive and some negative service. this quota system is not different either; as a result, the society might not be able to get rid of it entirely, but they are working on making everything fairer than it has been so far. if the government get rid of the quota system, it will make a large impact on making the correction officers life ten times easier. they wouldn’t have to worry about keeping the inmates in and they would be able to help out everyone if they want to. also increasing their payment would help the situation in several ways too. each year the counties are putting more and more money towards the correction system to help the society. if things keep going in such rate, people of this society can finally hope to get a better correction system. \n work cited: robert winter (2013). examining two fundamental ethical issues in u.s. corrections. retrieved from http://www.corrections.com/news/article/32769examiningtwofundamentalethicalissuesinu scorrections \n ethical and philosophical foundation of crj 03.26.2015 question: interrogation is an integral part of law enforcement; however, they are some ethical issues that must be recognized. identify and discuss three ethical issues. police department often brings eye witnesses or suspects to their office to question in order to reach the bottom of every case. this process is known as interrogation system in law enforcement. it has been an integral part of the case solving process and helped the law enforcement plethora of times. however, interrogation has been raised several ethical question in last couple years. it is evident that the law enforcement has been breaking the code of ethics and crossing the line in order to have their suspects to spill secrets. the question is, is it morally okay for police officers to cross this line to save the nation? or should they stop even if it might cost the nation a huge damage? this paper will focus on three main ethical questions that have been arose by the law makers regarding the interrogation process. the first issue is breaking the “do no harm” rule. united states has pledged not to punish anyone to get information, they don’t haze, period. however, for having ‘time clicking’ circumstances, police officers were often forced to break this rule. the second ethical issue is questioning someone indirectly, such as, lying to them or tricking them in order to spill the answers. this tactic has helped the police department in solving many cases, but there has been incidents where innocent people were forced to claim guilty because there was no way out. the last but not the least is being sexually harassed or seduced by a police officer or detective in order to gain some information. all these may help the law enforcement to solve crimes, but they also might be ethically wrong or those to be keep doing. the first ethical issue regarding interrogation is punishing people in order to spill information. according to the code of ethics, police officers cannot torture and punish anyone to get any information from them. for example, if someone is under police’s custody, they have to be fed and put in a comfortable situation when he/she is being asked questions. police officers cannot make them suffer by not giving food and torture them with anything while those people are under their custody. however, police officers have broken this code of ethics numerous times \n when its life and death situation. in these ‘clock ticking moment’ they have to apply certain kinds of torture in order to solve or stop any crime. one of this tactics used by the police department is called ‘waterboarding’ which is a kind of torture but nearly not as bad as electric shock or putting up for starvation. polices usually use them only when they know the nation is under attack and they think they are doing this for the best of everyone. the question is, is it still ethical to torture those people that are being interrogated for the sake of saving the nation. the author paul lauritzen mentions in his book “the ethics of interrogation” that it is a tough situation for the law enforcement officers to decide what’s ethically right and what needs to be done at that certain time. officers tend to choose the fastest tactic, which is scare them or make them uneasy to tell the officers what they know; which is without a doubt a breakage of the ‘do no harm’ rule. another tactic that police officers apply to avoid punishing is to investigate ‘indirectly’; which means officers will either lie or beat around the bush to confuse the person in custody to get information out of them. these type of incidents kept happening throughout the history of crime investigation. police department always either denied or refused to talk about it. recently in a conference, edward ohlbaum shared a story when he was working as a public defendant for a case in 1979. the defendant had confessed to a robbery because he failed a polygraph test. but later they found out, the police department didn’t use any legit polygraph machine. instead, they faked it and defendant had absolutely no idea about it. they solved the case; but the question was either the tactic was fair to the defendant or not. because often people confess to thing they didn’t do because of being under pressure. if police officers keep a possible terrorist and scare him to deport his family or harm them, he might spill the truth about terrorism or confess because he doesn’t want his family to be harmed. this situation can go both ways. it is kind of hard to say when an officer is making the right move and when he’s not by tricking someone. the person under investigation might lie too while held in custody if he’s being tricked by the police. that will only cause harm to the case rather than solving it. officers argue that tricking them helps than jeopardize it for the majority of the time. but the question is, is it fair to the other person or not? is it helping the officers in solving crime or it is putting someone else’s life in danger? \n women getting sexually harassed or seduced by men is not a new news to anyone. women have to face such things in every sphere of the society. the criminal justice system is no different. when women have to go through the system, there is a high risk of getting sexually harassed at some point; either it is in prison or in interrogation room. as men are more dominant and intimidated looking, they can easily scare women while they are in the system to get any information out of them. some police officers not only intimidate them with their masculinity but also try to harm them while being on the criminal justice system. there has been several cases where women have reported being sexually harassed by the police department; such as, anita hill in 1991 who was sexually harassed and humiliated by a supreme court officer. she was a young law professor who was questioned and humiliated while she was being interrogated. another tactic that officers use to get information from a female suspect is to seduce them. polices officers always have ca’s who provide them information; but some tend to engage with their ca’s in a romantic way to get more benefitted. one of the popular television shows, dexter covers a similar story where a detective cheats on his wife with one of cas’ and takes advantage of her which eventually costs her life. this incident is nothing new, male police officers have been taking advantage of female suspects for ages and there is no way anyone can see it to be ethical. it is highly unethical to be sexually harassed or used in any way even if it helps the officers to solve the crime. it is everyone’s right that comes first, and then solving any crime. \n work cited: peter wehner (2009). morality and enhanced interrogation techniques. commentary web exclusive. emilia mckee (2012). the use of deception and other ethical implications in interrogation methods. temple law review. \n ethical and philosophical foundation of crj final exam there are 7 elements of crime- harm, severity, legality, mens rea, actus reas, causation, concurrence, punishment. 3 agencies of criminal justice system- police, court, correction. two models of criminal justice system- crime control model and due process model. correction in us in considered as ‘rehabilitation’. truth sentencing- enacted in 1984, you have to serve at least 80% of your time. branches of government- legislature, judicial, executive. rule of law- “no one is above the law” there are 100 senators and 435 house of representatives. two types of ‘writs’- habes corpus and social diversion is built on labeling theory. 2 sources of international human rights- customary law and treaty law sentencing that counts as cruel punishment- intermediate sentencing first three words of the constitution – “we the people” first ten amendments are called the ‘bill of rights’ how many amendments does the constitution have- 27 congress has two parts: the u.s. senate and the u.s. house of representatives. the supreme law of the land- the constitution. highest court of us- supreme court john glover roberts jr. law clerk: a law clerk or a judicial clerk is a person who provides assistance to a judge in researching issues before the court and in writing opinions. brief: a written legal document used in various legal adversarial systems that is presented to a court arguing why one party to a particular case should prevail. writ of certiorari: a type of writ, meant for rare use, by which an appellate court decides to review a case at its discretion. writ of habeas corpus: a writ of habeas corpus is used to bring a prisoner or other detainee (e.g. institutionalized mental patient) before the court to determine if the person's imprisonment or detention is lawful. rule of four: in order to make a decision, four justices have to say ‘yes’. two main ethical issues for lawyers- the lecture and prepping witnesses. \n statistical backdrop of the immigration in us- 1910 – 1930 – steady growth of immigrant population; 1940 – 1970 – saw a decrease in numbers; 1980 – 2010 - increase was evident; by 2010 – the immigrant share of the population was 13%, a significant increase from 5% in 1970. primary states where immigrants moved in- california, texas, illinois, new jersey, florida, and new york. strain theory for immigration- “the american dream” diversion: occurs before trial. probation: occurs after a person has been convicted. goal of diversion: reduce recidivism through rehabilitation. diversion programs: drug courts, domestic violence, community, and mental health courts. shaming – temporary but labeling- permanent two ways of using diversion: unconditional diversion and conditional diversion. 3 stages of the drug court: detoxication, stabilization, and after care. 3 brunches of theory: applied, normative, meta country of origin variables: gdp, homicide rate, world governance, and religion. assimilation paths of immigration- straight line and downward assimilation",
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14fa0ad4a679a32b3944700bfb6307cd | draw the frequency-domain network and calculate o(t) in the circuit shown in fig. p8.25 if i1(t) is 200 cos (105 t + 60) ma, i2(t) is 100 sin 105 (t + 90) ma, and s(t) = 10 sin (105 t) v. also, use a phasor diagram to determine c(t). 30 250 nf i 1(t) i 2(t) + o(t) + + s(t) c(t) figure p8.25 | draw the frequency-domain network and calculate o(t) in | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": "biology 1050 dr. vancechalcraft experimental design copy these into notebook i. experimental design a. variables 1) dependent a. define the response variable you are measuring b. what is another name for a dependent variable? response variable 2) independent a. define predictor variable you hypothesize is responsible for the variation in the response variable. b. what is another name for an independent variable? predictor variable b. describe controls in an experiment. control subjects – no predictor variable experimental subjects – has predictor variable control group must treat individuals in control groups and experimental groups the same, except for exposure to predictor variable 1 \n biology 1050 dr. vancechalcraft c. what role does random assignment have in experiments? d. replication a. define *should have replication should apply the predictor variable to > 1 subject should measure the response variable on > 1 subject b. example: e. sample size a. define 2 \n biology 1050 dr. vancechalcraft number of subjects in single treatment group (number in experimental group) one group describes the amount of replication larger sample size usually means more reliable results b. what does sample size describe? c. when will the results of an experiment usually be more reliable? d. what was the sample size in our example experiment? f. example a. observation you have some friends who breastfeed who brestfeed their babies and their babies hardly ever get sick. your sister uses formula to feed her baby and her baby has been sick a lot. b. hypothesis it’s healthier to breast feed your baby, unlike feeding them formula instead. babies fed formula get sick more often than breast fed babies. c. prediction if babies are fed formula, then they will require more sick visits to the doctor than breast fed babies from birth to 1 year of age. 3 \n biology 1050 dr. vancechalcraft d. experiment we get 100 healthy, fullterm babies as volunteers. we assign 50 babies to be breastfed; the other 50 babies will be fed formula. we count the number of sick visits to the doctor from birth to 1 year of age. e. what is the sample size in this experiment? 50 in this experiment f. what was the control group in the example experiment? babies who are breastfed g. what was the experimental group in the example experiment? babies who are fed formula h. what is the dependent variable in this example? number of sick doctor visits in a year i. on which graph axis does the dependent variable usually go? graphed on the yaxis/vertical axis 4 \n biology 1050 dr. vancechalcraft j. what is the independent variable in this example? breastfed babies and formula fed babies k. on which graph axis does the independent variable usually go? xaxis/horizontal axis l. conclusion forumla fed babies required more sick visits to the doctor within a year than breastfed babies m. is it possible to prove a hypothesis? a hypothesis cant be proven true but it can be supported or proven false. ii. statistics a. why use statistics? describe data tell us the probability that our experimental group and control group differ by chance alone. statistics cannot correct poor experiments. a. can statistics tell us if an experiment is valid? 5 \n biology 1050 dr. vancechalcraft b. why are statistics necessary to describe data? c. how can we tell if the response of our control group and experimental group really differ? b. using correlation to test hypotheses a. what is a correlation? a relationship between 2 variables b. example people with higher stress get more colds. (people who are stressed more get sick easily) cannot make conlusions about casuation from correlations c. does a correlation between two factors mean that one of the factors causes the other factor? why or why not? 6 \n biology 1050 dr. vancechalcraft there may be other factors that add to people getting colds. iii. communicating scientific information a. after a scientist completes an experiment, how does he/she communicate the results to other scientists? they send their journals to other scientists for them to review. (peer review) the peers decide if they want to publish it or not and return to authors for revision. > journal publishes the revised paper or a. what does a journal do with a paper it receives? b. what is peer review? means a paper is reviewed by other scientists in the same field. c. after peer review, what happens to a paper? 1) paper returned to authors for revision or 2) journal publishes the revised paper 7 \n biology 1050 dr. vancechalcraft or 3) rejected because of poor experimental design, or the findings are not appropriate for the journal. d. what are primary sources? are articles written by the researchers themselves that have gone through peer review e. what are secondary sources? media reports appear in radio, newspapers, magazines, and/or tv. (comments from other scientists are published in subsequent volumes of the journal. b. evaluating scientific information a. what are 2 types of “evidence” that make people believe erroneously that links between 2 things exist when in fact they do not? b. what is pseudoscience? where people present scientific info that sounds legit but it isn’t correct. c. what can someone do to avoid believing pseudoscience is valid? d. what is anecdotal evidence? 8 \n biology 1050 dr. vancechalcraft e. how was the invalid link between vaccinations and autism erroneously made and advertised to the public? f. what do valid studies about vaccines and autism rates conclude? 9",
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53f4b6d88091c5c5424b0ec31338922f | ?problem 10e
use the heuristic argument to show that the joint pdf of the two order statistics yi < yj is | use the heuristic argument to show that the joint pdf of | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": "reading summaries: greenberg, modernism used art to call attention to art. it uses aspects of flat canvas and paint pigment as positives that should be embraced in art, while the academy wanted to hide them. clark, “olympia’s choice” the painting insists on its own materiality and existence through olympia’s stare and posture that confront the viewer directly. pollock, “modernity and feminity” the work of cassatt and morisot with female/feminist experiences brings women into the place of the viewer of the painting and allows females to relate to the work. most painting is catered to the male viewer, but these artists go against that. foster, “primitive scenes” the identification of other cultures as closer to nature and animals, along with a lack of sexuality and gender is due to the white imperialistic viewpoint. ponty, “cezanne’s doubt” phenomenology used by cézanne goes past impressionism. he uses live perspective, multiple colors, and no outlining to achieve this. steinberg, “the philosophical brothel” “the demoiselles d'avignon seems to me to have one insistent theme to which everything in the picture contributes: the naked brothel interior, the male complicity in an orgy of female exposure, the direct axial address, the spasmodic action, the explosive release in a constricted space, and the reciprocity of engulfment and penetration. the picture is both enveloping and transfixed; it sorties and overwhelms and impales itself. and it ought to be seen as it was painted hung low in a narrow room, so that it spills over into it, topped by the entrant wedge of the table. in one sense the whole picture is a sexual metaphor, and picasso will have used all his art to articulate its erotics. but it is also the opposite, a forced union of dream image and actuality. the picture is about the image in its otherness locked in with the real world. and like those mystics of old who used sexual metaphor to express union with the divine, so picasso will have used sexuality to make visible the immediacy of communion with art. explosive form and erotic content become reciprocal metaphors.” krauss, passages in modern sculpture ch 1 and 3 krauss compares two forms of sculpture. traditional (rationalist, neoclassical) and modern. characteristics of classic sculpture are narrative/history/time, frontality (a fixed \n vantage point that supports a central narrative) and sculptural allusion (figure/ground relationship in relief medium also supports the central narrative). points of divergence from modernism include: nonnarrative strategies, nomimetic/illusionistic, and marks of process that reveal the sculpture’s making. both of them rejected the technologically based role of analysis in sculpture, creating work that questioned the very role of narrative structure by gravitating toward that which is unitary and unanalyzable. although surrealist sculpture, developing in the 1930s, exploited certain aspects of their work, the aims of surrealism were such that much of what was most radical in duchamp’s and brancusi’s conception of sculpture was either ignored or transformed. indeed, it was not until the 1960s that duchamp’s concern with sculpture as a kind of aesthetic strategy and brancusi’s concern with form as a manifestation of surface assumed a central place in the thinking of a new generation of sculptors. krauss, “grids” there are two ways in which the grid functions to declare the modernity of modern art. one is spatial; the other is temporal. in the spatial sense, the grid states the autonomy of the realm of art. flattened, geometricized, ordered, it is antinatural, antimimetic, antireal. in the temporal dimension, the grid is an emblem of modernity by being just that: the form that is ubiquitous in the art of our century, while appearing nowhere, nowhere at all, in the art of the last one. benjamin, “the work of art in its age of its technical reproductability” th by the 19 century, technology had reached a level that artwork could be reproduced easily, causing a profound change in its effect, and also captured a place of its own among the artistic processes. the reproduction of artworks and the art of film have two different manifestations on art in its traditional form. in reproductions, the works unique existence in a particular place is lacking. by replicating a particular work over and over, it gets detached from the sphere of tradition and subtitutes a mass existence for a unique existence. the unique value of the “authentic” work of art has its basis in ritual, the source of its original use value. with the emancipation of specific artistic practices from the service of ritual, the opportunities for exhibiting the products increase. february 9, 2016 cezanne, uncle dominique, 1866 & the abduction, 1867 oldest of the impressionist painters. he was technically in the generation of manet but wasn’t involved in the movement until later with seurat in his earliest paintings, you can see how he is very odd. he wants to be close to the realism that characterized courbet \n he has put down his brushes and is using a spatula sort of tool that smears the paint and lays it down thick scenes of fantasy, return to various mythological metaphors no one accepted it or knew what to do with these paintings o uses an erotic and sexual metaphor for his work cezanne, house of the hanged man, 187273 & the bridge at maincy, 187980 this is the cezanne that associates himself with the impressionists didn’t have to worry about selling his paintings and could just focus on his art drawn to the techniques of impressionism o painting en plein air, divided brush strokes, contrasting colors in house… the setting is in the suburbs outside paris exiles human life form the scene o associates this painting with an abstractive theme o was the hung man murdered or was it suicide? techniques against impressionism o uses black linear paint, as though he wants to bring back this classical technique or isn’t able to give up the drawing aspect that impressionism ends o spreads his paint, causing solidarity o uses the traditional positioning of a tree to provide depth and push the surface toward the viewer motif of the bridge at the center, more or less geometric assembly o non modern techniques o he wanted to search for the cylinder in nature and find geometric shapes o unideal forms of shapes cezanne, chateau de medan, 1880 seurat vs. cezanne o close geographically and biographically o constructive brush stroke was the same o seurat’s mechanic way of painting was similar to cézanne’s systematic pattern cezanne, gulf of marseille seen from l’estaque, 1886 and the basket of apples, 189094 landscape and still life the landscape has very complex forms o breaks with the realist trend in modernism o naturalism is not at play in terms of light and color o doesn’t have the 3 planes of landseasky o the sea pushes to you, looks closer than the buildings o deep perspectival ambiguity as he rethinks the geometric forms the still life o void of the human body and figure \n o painting that finds solidity of things and go away from political themes o wedding between classicism and modernism as said by some art historians o space begins to fragment, the wine bottle is slightly oblique/not symmetrical cezanne, still life with plaster cast, 1894 instead of centered and stable, everything is in a volatile state it’s as if the ground rises up in the air geometry is the classicist law of form that brought order and thought, bit modernism wanted to cast this down o this is why cezanne being presented as a classicist presents problems cezanne, mount ste. victoire…, 1882 & pines and rocks. 1895 an attempt to portray the structure of the world didn’t go to landscape and still life as a retreat from political painting but rather he wanted to find answers and experience subjectivity is the world’s structure uniform? is it truly geometric as the classicists tried to make it appear? cezanne, apples. 187778 see the constructive stroke building the forms the very shape/evocation of the circle become a kind of poem on the eternal nature and nonsolidity of form denies that anything is truly in a geometric form shapes are made by what the eye perceives cezanne, idyll. 1870 & temptation of st. anthony, 1870 body was in crisis he is painted as a pensive person bodies will not conform cezanne, a modern olympia, 187374 & 186970 the body aligns itself with the body that we see and is more maternal cezanne, bather with outstretched arms, 1877 & the large bather, 1885 a space at the edge of the world the world is something to be looked at but also to be engaged with his feet get giant and are blood red the painting is more about how one feels about themselves and their perception of their body th tuesday, february 16 \n cezanne, bathers at rest, 187577 bodies in the world o not part of the classical myth of river gods in pastoral spaces o immersion of the body in the physical world proportion begins to shift and change phenomenological themes o one of the great enigma paintings of the bathers series o there isn’t much of a narrative cezanne, bathers, 1883 gaze at each other, model how we view the scene bodies seem incomprehensible cezanne, large bathers, 18941905 the repetition of this painting as a statement piece this is the first version o bodies are spread vertically o experiencing the world with eyes and flesh at the same time 19001905 o second attempt o more confusing, less readable o more focused on a figure that is entering the scene o desire and sexuality is embodied in the forms/shadows used in the work o categories are being called into question 18981906 o third attempt o embraced the unfinished aspect of painting, or he was unable to finish it o geometric shapes return, but are still imperfect o fusion of bodies, loss of separation end of the 19 century vision of the crisis in modernism art is now all about connection and becomes a kind of bodily tactic joseph maria olbrich, house of the vienna secession, 1898 institution of artists who went away from the academic embraces a kind of return to classicism in the architecture of the building compared to a religious building or temple geometric shapes, nature themed décor klimpt, philosophy and medicine, 19001907 various stages of suffering and eroticism moves away from enlightenment irrationality, a release of desires opposed to containment klimpt, beethoven frieze, 1902 be one with the wall/architecture \n bodies seem to float death, sickness, insanity th the depiction of an article about beethoven’s 9 symphony not about sight for sight sake, the beginning of the idea that you can visualize sound consists of 3 panels that correspond with the 3 parts of the music after darkness there is light as the music become more upbeat february 18, 2016 henri matisse and pablo picasso associate the figure of the artist with the bohemian, not a model of the bourgeoisie transformation of painting form as seen by the body o not idealized or youthanized matisse, sideboard & table, 1899 and carmelina, 1903 moves backwards in modernism still life composition, lightened by the sun, short brush strokes o postimpressionism carmelina goes back to manet o realism/modernism matisse, “luxe, calm, et volupte”, 1904 modernist pastoral, the body in a landscape accepts divisionism o divided strokes, thick rather than small o divided colors henri rousseau, the hungry lion throws itself on an antelope, 1905 selftaught painting returning to a vision of primordial nature in the jungle andre derain, the dance, 19056 vibrant colors and hues new movement called “fauves” named after the french word for beasts primitive and wild matisse, the woman with a hat, 1905 & open window, 1905 continued explosion in terms of color and hue woman with a hat o portrait of his wife o genre about looking and the optical o combination of the small brush strokes and also larger ones that swirl in the background open window o still type of divided brushstrokes matisse, woman with a green stripe, 1905 he is letting color run wild \n shows us the change from divisionism brush strokes gives us a flattened background there is no outside light or color lack of naturalistic motivation o the green down her face o yellow on one side, rosy pink on the other picasso, portrait of gertrude stein, 1906 nothing is about the space of color all browns and tans picasso, self portrait, 1901 & the absinthe drinker, 1902 periods organized around color embraced tonalities of blue picasso, the boy with a pipe, 1905 & the family of saltinbanques, 1905 less about chroma as chroma thinking about bodies themselves opposed to color, he will push line gertrude stein america writer dear friend of picasso and matisse o she starts to collect modernist painting, causing her to be in the center of the movement o held salons in her house picasso tried over 50 times to paint her portrait but couldn’t o eventually he leaves and goes to spain and is able to finish it o drew inspiration from iberian sculpture o the solidarity of sculpture is important to him matisse, le bonheur de vivre (the joy of life) pleasure and color returning to a golden age like is seen in past paintings explosion of movement in the theme of wild colors and bodies it’s as if they are dancing seems to be going back to the caves origins of cave art matisse, joy of life comparison to the divine creating bodies (the creation of adam) the eroticism can be compared to the myth that narcissus walking and seeing his reflection in the water and falling in love this central moment in the work is between the two women, who are sort of inverses in his early conception, it seem like he thinks the joy of life is based in the primordial life of the cave fantasies of birth and reproduction \n oexplosion of color and form figures much more sexualized in his sketches kissing/embracing figures are fused, fetus like central figures echo michelangelo and caravaggio picasso, the two nudes and studies for two nudes, 1906 picasso never titled his own paintings gargantuan women, taking on masculinity and muscular features obetween male and female makin the body inherently massive resembles/echoes narcissus scene the figures seem to echo each other, but not direct reflection odifferences: pointing vs. grasping fingers olost profile vs. iberian sculpture picasso, effort to respond to joy of life les demoiselles d' avignon, 1907 onamed by picasso's friends oflips matisse's pastoral imagebody in modernity, commodity oturning again to a figure of prostitute and the brothel ofragmentation of space challenging mimetic basis of space ototal experience of visual mastery of the body osketchesclothed figures, spanish drinking vessels by spring 1907 male figures are gone, more like final work males: sailor figure and doctor figure (man of pleasure, man of knowledge) but, painting gin final form is no longer a narrative oicon/imagenot narrative phallic symbols watermelon, leg, fragment, table itself o obodily curves 2nd figure, standing but looks like reclining like a horizontal figure flipped up fragmented space/perspective aspects of the image enact phallicization of space obreak down of western ideas to enact an engagement with fragmented spaces, disproportionate figures othe work was not shown for many years oeruption of discontinuity, depictions of faces some like iberian masks rough features, new influences from african sculptures ohead w/ scarification, 1907, a detail in the work scarification marks on faces, but could also influence sculpture stylistic inconsistency or multiplicity oself portrait wide, disassociated eyes of the demoiselles picasso seeing himself in identification with his painted figures \n picasso, three women 1908 & matisse, music, 1910 picasso fusion of male/female n central figure matisse echoes picasso's \"great hoax\" five figures, squatting, touching themselves feb. 25, 2016 modernist sculpturelater than modernism in painting when sculpture was in the 19th century…. françois’s rude, departure of the volunteers of 1792, 1833 erection of the arc de triumphe on champs du elysee decoration of the arc, cruciform composition hybrid sculpture, relief sculptureonly partially in the round narrative sculpture, neo classical edward steichen, photograph from 1908 of auguste rodin's monument to balzac, 1897 taken at night, illuminated by moon composed as a public monument and rejected crisis in public perception of sculpture itself wants to create a sculpture in honor of a writer early plaster form and final version (bronze cast) o body cloaking itselfbody is somehow enigmatic now o early conceptionb's body is large, strange stance o is he in stasis? in motion? both? o headearly cast mask like, strangely empty void sidelooks pained, grief o headless bodyeroticism, holding his sex/masturbating o final version head seems strangely detached, dissonant fragments body rips back, towards oblique, changes as we move around o now seen as a departure from academic sculpture, and placed in its intended place rodin, man with the broken nose, 186264 and age of bronze, 1877 rodin teaches himself man with broken nose is the first work he sends to the salon sculptural fragment of human body o o furrows: relief seems intended to interact optically with light o surfaces reflect light/capture shadows, optical enhancements o face caste into nonidealized body, conception of the body itself is disfigured influenced by michelangelo’s sculpture after trip to italy o said to have broken nose age of bronze o surely influenced by michelangelo o figure in rodin’s mimics contrapposto \n o accused of casting from an actual figure/living body o figure looks too real, beyond idealization o rodin never made another life size sculpture rodin, torso of a man, 187778 seem to be reflecting on ancient sculpture echoes ruinous image/effect of time in the present o does not fix imperfections intense fragmentation of body, embraces the process rodin, head of couching woman, 1882 eyes seem gouged out sketch given elevation to final product violence/violation of the ideal space of the body \"iris, messenger of the gods\" 189091 classical myths arms and head missingthought to be extraneous almost pornographic something at the limits of what bodies can do eruption of body in flight, open like origin of the world rodin, adam, 188081 emerging form r's thoughts and reflections on a large project seems to refer to contrapposto but is not o imbalanced, one leg almost twice as long as the other pointing figurelike creation of man the shadow o rodin reuses figures but changes arms, heads, etc. o puts together pieces of previous bodiescollage o replaced pronated arm rodin, three shades, 1902 related to the shadow extended, not pronated arms three castes of the same figure using repetition to break down the stasis of sculpture cancels access to the body meant to be on the apex of his final project rodin, the gates of hell, 18801917 meant as a doorway for the museum of decorative arts worked on his whole life cast in its last site rodin seems to be going back o back to the renaissance o doors of paradise baptistery doors, hard to see how this would function pictorially o at the very center: the thinker \n o meant to tower over the door reflecting on michelangelo’s mortuary sculptures the prodigal son, 18801882 o sculpture that wants to tell a story o figure erupts all over gates of hell o no single narrative logic o improvised version of hell each time it is caste, meaning seems to change phenomenological week 9 picassos demoiselles begins to make us thing and take formal explanations and themes outside of the canvas no more selfcritical, now confronts the world georges braque, l’estaque, 1906 & viaduct at.., 1907 gravitated toward matisse excessive hues and color back to where cézanne was before, thinking about “the father of us all” cezanne’s legacy pushed artists severed him of phobism braque, large nude, 1908 questions the mimetic relationship turned headlike squatting figure horizontal figure rotated into the vertical crisis picture, kept private braque, houses at l’estaque, 1908 & the new castle at la rocheguyon, 1909 the geometry of squares of squares and cubes a critic named this as cubism this would mean the painter wanted to idealize form and shape and return to the geometry of classicism very little color; attending to the way in which space can be utilized color isn’t as important light and shadow are used more braque, violin and palette, 1909 & violin and pitcher, 1910 cubism our ability to see in these paintings is severely undermined we see paintings but can’t see figures or objects \n ability to feel braque, the emigrant, 1911 & picasso, ma jolie, 1911 very similar paintings proclaim to be pictorial spaces that are broken down picasso is turning to mass culture, music, and language all things outside of painting picasso, birdman’s meal, 1903 tactile and optical are engaged within modernism ruptured later blue period works march 8, 2016 francis picabia, dance at the spring, 1912 very large painting cubist, fleshly pink colored hues marchel duchamp, nude descending a staircase, 1912 robotic, machinic form picabia, dance at the spring, 1912 & the spring, 1912 begins to paint massce paintings browns and blacks with some sort of skin tones image of the body picabia, the procession, seville, 1912 our eyes dive down, if not into the painting picasso, houses of a hill, horta de ebro, 1909 set in spain like picabia’s they hated each other, critique each others cubism at this point language of contradiction between excessively physical and bodily with the absence of any of these things picabia, the city of new york.., 1913 water colorspink hues its as if he is saying “my painting is phenemlogical” and interacts with the body not just depicts it \n rotated painting to make it more incomprehensible duchamp, bride stripped by.. he made the 3 non squares by the physical action of copying the shapes a veil made in the wind somewhat by chance hans arp, collage arranged according to the laws of chance, 19161917 constructed by tearing construction paper into canvas anti artistic, anti cultural trying it to the world duchamp, bride… sent his work to an exhibition and on the way back it completely shattered he abandoned this work in 1923 physical prodecures: opening to the world, letting dust gather on it picabia, egoist and polygamy, 1918 deeply indexical kind of art seems to be abstract drawings picabia, the holy virgin & the young girl. 1920 contradiction between chance and purposeful creation questioning the cliché of how sexuality and gender are presented whoredom and promiscuity miro, the birth of the world, 1925 & andre masson, figure, 1927 the line created by chance gives it over to the world and to that which is unknowable within ourselves picasso, guernica, 1937 reaction to modern military events modermisn retyrning to history painting but no longer through the mimetic reembraced monochromatic colors wounded bodies, mostly women & children modernism after impressionism: calls for no more galleries picasso sees the endless themes of violence in classical works",
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42388d4a4529baa4b69a111962bd37f5 | if the motor draws in the cable with an acceleration of 3 m>s 2 , determine the reactions at the supports a and b. the beam has a uniform mass of 30 kg>m, and the crate has a mass of 200 kg. neglect the mass of the motor and pulleys. | if the motor draws in the cable with an acceleration of 3 | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.31 | [
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"text": " perception in context constancies and contrast effects perceptual set topdown processing vs. bottomup processing bottomup: receptive fields, feature detectors, and the binding problem topdown: perceptual set and contextual interpretation empiricism and associationism pavlovian conditioning basic methods and results acquisition ● the cr slowly grows as the animal experiences more and more pairings of the cs and us extinction ● undoing of a previously learned response so that the response is no longer produced spontaneous recovery ● the cs elicits the cr even though someone went through extinction and had a rest period inhibition ● theories pavlov's account expectations, blocking, & surprise the garcia effect biases familiarity the conditioning model of anxiety disorders biases in fear conditioning social transmission of phobias drug conditioning instrumental (operant) learning instrumental learning james and willful action ● golfer knows what swing should look like ● magic writing: unconsciously write on paper while blindfolded comparative psychology thorndike ● law of effect ● cat in a puzzle box and hits lever and escapes for food \n comparing pavlovian and instrumental learning skinner ● sharp distinction between classical and instrumental conditioning ○ instrumental responses are operants: operate on environment bringing about a change that leads to consequence ● studied pigeons to aid in war effort shaping ● you can shape & create target behavior with successive approximations secondary reinforcer ● conditioned; money, grades, and tokens immediate reinforcement ● occurs immediately after the desired or undesired behavior successive approximations ● series of rewards that act as positive reinforcement towards final behavior some applications clinical: behavior modification ● patient can be rewarded for getting out of bed or moving around the room creativity ● dolphins or other entertainment animals computer assisted instruction ● used in mental institutions ● dicky and his glasses avoidance learning ● learn a behavior to avoid a stressful situation basics ● rat doesn’t wait for heat lamp(bad thing); automatically jumps on ledge persistence ● dog will jump over a barrier hundreds of times to avoid bad thing; never come in contact with the bad thing punishment ● learns to avoid by not doing something; kid avoids punishment by not running into the street mnemonic strategies introduction: working memory and longterm memory mnemonics brute force rehearsal ● repeating doesn’t get things into memory ● can only remeber 7 + 2 items with rehearsal(short term memory) maintenance rehearsal ● 7 + 2; short term memory; simply repeat list elaborative rehearsal ● add meaning or rhythm to a set of info \n ● professors phone number interactive imagery ● create image that makes the objects interact; eagle and locomotive method of loci ● find someplace you have well established in your head and place items there asic method \"s\" and synesthesia ● “human memories are remarkably alike. they just use them differently.” ● gave digit span test: “s” repeated back 30 digits; filled in a 10x10 digits sheet forward, backward, and diagonally ● synesthesia: experience info in every sense rhythm and rhyme ● giving a rhythm or rhyme makes it easier to memorize prospective memory ● know there is something in particular that you need to remember but don't always think about it; tie to retrieval cues that will be present at the time you need it peg words ● peg words to number to create interactive images ● 1 bun, 2 shoe, 3 tree, 4 door, 5 hive meaningful surrogates ● add personal meaning to words or phrases substitution ● substituting a word to help remember another word/number chunking ● think in terms of chunks rather than individual pieces of information links ● put in in personal environment to link it to your life generation ● learned through generations discovering organization ● discover the existing organization of the material imposing organization ● create your own organization that works best for you precise elaboration ● elaborating in a way that is more closely tied to the meaning of the words intentional versus unintentional learning ● learn more when you don’t mean to learn the material the stage model of memory processing iconic memory ● remembering for a brief time after you can’t see anymore working memory compared to longterm store \n ● working memory contains short term memory & systems that can operate on short term memory> can get to long term memory through consolidation; has a capacity of 7 + 2 at any time ● long term memory information can be pulled back into short term memory introspective differences ○ how we perceive our own memories capacity ● working memory has a smaller capacity than long term memory confusion errors ● short term confusion is sound, long term confusion is meaning serial position in free recall ● remember better at the beginning and end of a data set than the middle amnesia ● often caused by alcoholism or damage to the brain; alcohol causes decreased thiamine anterograde(korsakoff’s syndrome) ● person looks and acts normal but will have problems with certain topics; short term memory is normal but loses consolidation; cannot get new information into long term memory; memory does not recover; wipes out consolidation permanently retrograde (consolidation) ● affects what’s happened in the past; may not remember before amnesia happened; electroconvulsive therapy wipes out short term memory and beginning stages of consolidation; greatest memory lost is the events right before the cause of the amnesia, can go back an entire day; temporarily wipes out consolidation the memory process encoding ● processing events and information in your brain retrieval retrieval cues ● cue that’s going to trigger a memory hierarchical search ● search for something in memory but start further up the hierarchy statedependent memory ● the state that you’re in becomes part of the retrieval cue reconstruction ● fill in memory with information that seems plausible testing (practicing retrieval) ● forgetting loss of retrieval cues ● lose cues when you move away interference \n ● learn something and subsequently learn something else thinking, problemsolving, and judgment thinking as covert action problem solving algorithms versus heuristics ● algorithm is strictly analytical; heuristics is an estimate based off previous knowledge; heuristic= rule of thumb expertise chunking ● above heuristics ● rule of thumb depth of processing set ● a particular set of information that one relies on rigidity functional fixedness ● when you think of things in terms of their normal function heuristicbased errors in reasoning representativeness ● you decide a category that something belongs to by how representative that thing is by our notion of things that belong in said category anchoring ● the first information you hear anchors your judgement and you adjust it based on the proceeding information availability ● estimate how frequently something is by how readily we can pull it up in our memory language syntax ● arrangement of words to create a coherent sentence semantics the \"dictionary\" model (collins & quillian) ● a good dictionary is carefully edited so people don’t get lost; words have a hierarchical organization \n typicality ● faster at categorizing things that are closer to the image; hear bird, think ro in cognitive development approaches to development: nature vs nurture maturational ● you mature and grow; happens automatically experiential ● people are products of their experiences interactional ● development involves both experience and maturation piaget's approach basic concepts schemas ● any organized action pattern ● certain order for ordering food at a restaurant assimilation and accommodation ● assimilation: adding new information to a schema ● accommodation: change schema to fit new information piegots 4 major periods sensorimotor ● lasts about 1 ½ years sucking ● newborn develop this skill within hours of birth ● can get better at extracting milk object permanence ● knowing an object exists even though you can’t see it preoperational ● last until the child is 15 years old failure to conserve ● knowing there is the same amount of something, it’s just in a different container egocentrism ● the child is unable to understand that people have different perspectives concrete operations ● 58 years old ● learns conservation formal operations ● social support ● speeds up development \n egocentric speech or thought development ● children just think aloud rather than actually talking to each other another approach: child as novice metamemory ● children have terrible short term memory ● can only remember 3 + 1 ● teaching rehearsal increased their short term memory for a period of time counting oneonone ● assign a number name to an object at a rate of 1 per object stable order ● the certain order in which we count (1,2,3,4,5) cardinality ● the last number is the last number assigned and the number of object in the whole group order irrelevance ● you get the same number of objects regardless of which order you count them abstraction (applies to any set) ● use counting cue to count other things such as people or animals language acquisition ➔ glue words together around 1 year old first language ● 222 year old people acquire 515 words a day ● language must be acquired while young, often before puberty ● children have a greater plasticity telegraphic utterances ● just enough words to carry the meaning of a message overgeneralization ● over applies a word; goed, went critical period ● period in which information is most easily aquired second language ● an adult can learn a second language more easily than first language animal language/studies early attempts clever hans ● horse could read arithmetic problems and correctly answer by stomping foot ● would stop stomping when the crowd gasped ● didn’t actually know arithmetic, but rather displayed sensitivity to social cues trained chimpanzees \n ● raised chimps as best as possible to be human children ● the whole point was to see if chimps could develop human language washoe and others ● chimp raised in compound where people all used sign language ● washoe could use 100+ signed words ● chimps use words to stand for other things, but have no clear human language birds ● song birds pick up songs from their parents while they are young emotional development attachment freud: “cupboard love” ● whoever provides food will become the center of the child's attachment animal models imprinting (lorenz) ● experimented with birds ● animals form a strong attachment and will follow for a long time the first moving object that they encounter ● got birds attached to objects such as a tractor contact comfort (harlow) ● harlow’s monkeys ● orphan monkey would cling to artificial mothers ● monkeys would cling to terry cloth mother and only feed from the wire mother ● motherless monkeys were terrible mothers themselves childhood attachment loss (bowlby) ● studied children who were separated from their parents ● children form intense bonds around 6 months of age protest ● child who has been attached and separate is very unhappy; cries, kicks, hits; lasts days to weeks despair ● child becomes inactive; whimpers quietly rather than kicking ● subject to certain kinds of infections and suffer higher rates of mortality detachment ● children form attachment tonew primary care takers the uses of attachment sexuality development ● rearing can affect sexual development strange situations social/emotional learning of fears \n ● anxieties and fears can be learned ● visual cliff: babies learn to not crawl off the “cliff” ○ babies got cues that it was dangerous by watching their mothers cohort effects: reasons to be skeptical agoraphobia: fear of going into public places john b. watson argued there is no such thing as conscious though children love their mothers bc they have working breasts ",
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b758cdfb4eb16d8fafe64c86302fef26 | farmersville, california, 36 n, and penticton, british columbia, 49 n | farmersville, california, 36 n, and penticton, british | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": "1 define an operating system an operating system is a program/software that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. 2 computer types micro, mini, mainframe, super 3 describe the evolution and trends of the operating system 1940: first generation computer based on vacuum tube technology 1950: second generation focused on cost effectiveness 1960: third generation multiprogramming, program scheduling 1970 virtual memory developed to solve physical limitation 1980 multiprocessing 1990 demand for internet capability, and multimedia applications 2000 virtualization 4 distinguish an operating system from a computer system computer system is software (program). hardware (physical machine and electric components. operating system is part of computer system (software) and manages all hardware and software \n 5 computer object oriented design load only the critical elements into the main memory and call other objects as needed. kernel (operating system nucleus) o resides in memory at all times, performs essential tasks, and protected by hardware kernel reorganization o memory resident: process scheduling and memory allocation o modules: all other functions advantages o modification and customization without disrupting integrity of the remainder of the system o software development more productive 6 explain the operations of an operating system monitor its resources continuously. enforce the policies that determine who gets what, when and how much. allocate the resource when appropriate deallocate the resource when appropriate 7 list the different categories of operating systems five types/categories: batch, interactive, realtime, hybrid, embedded two distinguishing features = response time and how data enters into the system \n 8 identify the key operating system managers memory manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of memory. it checks the validity of each request for memory space and, if it’s a legal request, allocates the amount needed to execute the job. ram processor manager: a composite of two submanagers, the job scheduler and the process scheduler, which decides how to allocate the cpu. cpu device manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of devices. it monitors every device, channel, and control unit and chooses the most efficient way to allocate all of the system’s devices. keyboard, printer, disk drive file manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of files. program files, data files, compilers. network manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling access to and the use of networked resources. network comms, protocols 9 describe the early memory management allocation schemes singleuser contiguous, fixed partitions, dynamic partitions common requirements of old memory management techniques (disadvantages of the old schemes) entire program loaded into memory contiguous storage stays in memory until job completed each places severe restrictions on job size sufficient for first three generations of computers multiprogramming not supported in singleuser contiguous 10 describe the new memory management allocation schemes paged memory allocation o divides each incoming job into pages of equal size demand paging scheme o pages brought into memory only as needed segmented memory allocation scheme \n o each job divided into several segments (logical pieces), where the segments are different sizes segmented/demand paged memory o combination of segmentation and demand paging virtual memory o combination of ram and disk space that running processes can use. firstfit memory allocation first partition fitting the requirements o advantage: faster in making allocation o disadvantage: leads to memory waste bestfit memory allocation smallest partition fitting the requirements o advantage: makes the best use of memory space o disadvantage: slower in making allocation 11 explain the process management concept and concurrency of operating systems processor manager composite of two submanagers job scheduler: higherlevel scheduler o job scheduling responsibilities o job initiation based on certain criteria process scheduler: lowerlevel scheduler o process scheduling responsibilities o determines execution steps o process scheduling based on certain criteria hold (handled by job scheduler) ready (handled by process scheduler) waiting (handled by process scheduler) running (handled by process scheduler) finished (handled by job scheduler) six algorithm types firstcome, firstserved (fcfs) – nonpreemptive shortest job next (sjn) – nonpreemptive priority scheduling – nonpreemptive shortest remaining time (srt) – preemptive round robin (rr)– preemptive multiplelevel queues – more of a package, 1 queue per policy \n concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other multiple processes within os multiple threads within a process there is no need for ‘rules’ if there is no shared resources (e.g. data) or resource/data is constant (readonly), otherwise we need synchronization… lack of process synchronization consequences • deadlock: “deadly embrace” • system comes to standstill • resolved via external intervention • starvation • infinite postponement of job 12 identify the four basic functions of device management monitoring of status of each device enforcing policies to determine which process will get a device and for how long. allocating the device deallocating the device dedicated devices (e.g. printer) shared devices (e.g. hard disk) virtual devices a virtual device is a combination of dedicated and shared devices. it is actually a dedicated device which is transformed to a shared device. (e.g. printer converted to shareable device through a spooling program which reroutes all print requests to a disk.) sequential access disk dasd flash memory optical disk, magnetic disk, fixed and movable head \n ready – determined by process scheduling algorithms waiting – signal to continue processing running – l/0 request page fault divide each job into equal size pages brought into memory only as needed each job divided into different size, segment are different size combination combination of ram and disk space that running process can use it checks the validity of each request for memory space and, if it’s a legal request, allocates the amount needed to execute the job. which decides how to allocate the cpu. controlling access to and the use of networked resources. 13 explain the fundamentals of file management and the structure of the file management system in a computer system, the file manager keeps track of its files with directories that contain the filename, its physical location in secondary storage, and important information about each file. file storage tracking policy implementation file allocation if user access cleared file deallocation field – group of related byte record – group of related field file – group of related record (information used by specific program) file organization refers to the arrangement of records within the file \n sequential record organization easiest to implement because records are stored and retrieved serially, one after the other. direct record organization uses direct access files, which, of course, can be implemented only on direct access storage devices indexed sequential record organization combines the best of sequential and direct access.",
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96dc0f201e6b99bef7450a4ce816e199 | the baylor gpa scale revisited (see problem 78 in section 1.2.) the function used to convert baylor school percentage grades to gpas on a 4-point scale is the function has domain [65, 100]. anything below 65 is a failure and automatically converts to a gpa of 0. (a) find the inverse function algebraically. what can the inverse function be used for? (b) does the inverse function have any domain restrictions? (c) verify with a graphing calculator that the function found in (a) and the given function are really inverses. | the baylor gpa scale revisited (see in section 1.2.) the | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " chapter 12 notes material not required from chapter 12: figures 2, 6, 1820, 29, 32, 34.b, 42; tables 4, 6 and 9; p394395 sections on “flow autoregulation, reactive hyperemia, and response to injury”; p399 section on “velocity of capillary blood flow”; sections 12.7, 12.12, 12.17 and 12.18; section f key terms in intro circulatory system aka cardiovascular system: responsible for transportation of molecules/substances over long distances; contains the following heart: the pump blood vessels/vascular system: interconnected tubes blood: fluid connective tissue, contains water, solutes, cells 12.1 – components of the circulatory system blood o formed elements: includes erythrocytes (rbc), leukocytes (wbc, fight infection and cancer), platelets (cell fragments, blood clotting) o 99% rbc carrying oxygen to tissues/carbon dioxide from tissues o plasma: liquid that formed elements are dissolved in o hematocrit: % rbc in blood; normally 4245% depending on gender (the rest is plasma) plasma o plasma proteins: most of plasma solutes by weight; exert osmotic pressure that favors absorption of extracellular fluid into capillaries albumins (most abundant, synthesized in liver), globulins, fibrinogen (functions in clotting) o serum: plasma with fibrinogen/other proteins in clotting removed o also contains nutrients, wastes, hormones, mineral electrolytes (na , k , etc.) blood cells are all descended from multipotent hematopoietic stem cells erythrocytes (rbc) o major function: gas transport (oxygen/carbon dioxide); contain large amounts of hemoglobin that reversibly bind to gases (1415.5 g/100 ml blood depending on gender) o biconcave disk and small size allow for large surface area to volume ratio for oxygen/carbon dioxide to rapidly diffuse to/from cell o produced in bone marrow; do not contain nuclei and organelles after differentiation into rbc (only some ribosomes present in young rbc or reticulocytes; mature/lose ribosomes in a day) o average life span: 120 days (1% or 250 billion cells are replaced each day) breaks down in spleen and liver (produces bilirubin as result) o erythropoiesis: rbc production; needs iron, folic acid, vitamin b 12 iron: needed for oxygen binding to hemoglobin in rbc \n o must be replaced by ingestion of ironcontaining foods as it is lost through sweat, feces, urine, menstrual blood o iron deficiency: leads to inadequate hemoglobin production o hemochromatosis: excess iron in body; leads to abnormal iron deposits, organ damage o homeostatic control is in intestinal epithelium (which absorbs iron from food) o ferritin: protein in body that stores iron (in liver) to buffer against deficiency o transferrin: irontransport plasma protein that collects iron released from old rbc and takes it to bone marrow for recycling into new rbc folic acid and vitamin b 12 o folic acid: found in leafy plants, yeast, liver; required for synthesis of thymine ( formation of dna and cell division) o folic acid deficiency fewer rbc produced o vitamin b : 12quired for action of folic acid; found only in animal products; contains cobalt o intrinsic factor needed in gi tract to absorb vitamin b ; lack of protein causes 12 pernicious anemia (vitamin b d12iciency rbc deficiency) hormones o erythropoietin: controls erythropoiesis; secreted into blood by connective tissue cells in kidneys acts on bone marrow to stimulate proliferation and differentiation secreted at a rate to produce rbc equal to loss of rbc (receives negative feedback from oxygen decreased oxygen to kidneys leads to increase erythropoietin production) testosterone can stimulate release ( why hematocrit is higher in men) anemia: decreased ability of blood to carry oxygen; due to one of following: o decrease in total number of rbc with normal quantity of hemoglobin o low concentration of hemoglobin per rbc o combination of both sicklecell disease: caused by single base mutation that leads to abnormal hemoglobin molecules that interact with each other to form fibrous polymers, causing sickle shape o blocks capillaries, leads to tissue damage/pain, destruction of rbc, anemia o heterozygotes only show symptoms when oxygen levels are unusually low and have resistance to malaria (blood infection spread by mosquitos) polycythemia: more rbc than normal (increased hematocrit) causes increased viscosity (more friction) and difficulty in moving blood through vessels, puts strain on heart o basis for “blood doping” leukocytes o major function: immune defenses o neutrophils: phagocytes in blood; most abundant; released during infections/inflammation; contains antibacterial protein defensing o eosinophils: blood/mucosal linings of gi/respiratory/urinary tracts; release toxic chemicals to kill parasites \n o monocytes: phagocytes in blood; develop into microphages in tissues/organs o macrophages: located to encounter invaders at skin/lining of respiratory and digestive tracts; can engulf viruses/bacteria o basophils: secretory cells that produce anticlotting factor and histamine o lymphocytes: t and b types; protect against specific viruses, bacteria, toxins, cancer cells by either directly killing or creating antibodies platelets o produced when megakaryocytes (large bone marrow cells) pinch off and enter circulation o functions in blood clotting regulation of blood cell production o only bones of chest/base of skull/spinal vertebrae/pelvis/limb bones produce blood cells after childhood o hematopoietic growth factors (hgfs) help proliferation and differentiation and inhibit apoptosis of new cells (ex: erythropoietin) many types produced by a variety of cells can be used to supplement deficiencies due to disease/damage circulation o bulk flow: rapid flow of blood through body produced by pressures created by pumping heart; all components of blood move together o branching allows all cells to be within 2 layers from blood vessels (specifically capillaries) for nutrient/metabolic waste product exchange (diffusion and mediated transport) o pulmonary circulation (right ventricle via the pulmonary trunk lungs (pulmonary arteries from trunk go to each lung) left atrium via pulmonary veins) o systemic circulation (left ventricle via the aorta body right atrium via the inferior vena cava and the superior vena cava) allows systemic tissues to receive oxygenated blood and independent variation in blood flow through different tissues as needed (figure 12.6) portal system: unique system used by liver and anterior pituitary glands for blood circulation o arteries arterioles capillaries: blood moving away from heart o capillaries venules veins: blood moving towards heart o microcirculation: arterioles, capillaries, venules o left side of the heart has high oxygen content, right side has low oxygen content 12.2 – pressure, flow, and resistance hemodynamics: collective term for all 3 factors o blood flow (f): always from regions of high to low pressure o hydrostatic pressure = pressure (p): force exerted by blood, generated by heart contractions (l/min; δp in mmhg) \n o resistance (r): how difficult it is for blood to flow between two points at any given pressure difference; can only be measured by f and δp greater viscosity, greater length of tube, or smaller radius = greater resistance r=1/r 4 o f=∆ p/r applies to flow through blood vessels and through heart chambers (resistance comes from valves in this case) ultimate function of circulatory system: ensure adequate blood flow through capillaries of various organs 12.3 – anatomy general structures o pericardium: protective fibrous sac surrounding heart o epicardium: fibrous layer in between pericardium and heart o myocardium: wall of the heart, cardiac muscle cells, lined on inside with endothelial cells (endothelium) o interventricular septum: separates right and left ventricles o atrioventricular valves (av valves): separates atrium and ventricle; one way blood flow atrium ventricle; open/close passively due to pressure differences (opens when atrial pressure is higher; closed with high ventricular pressure) tricuspid valve: right side bicuspid valve: left side (aka mitral valve) chordae tendineae: fibrous strands connected valves to papillary muscles to prevent valves from inverting (prolapse; can occur with injury and disease) o semilunar valves: pulmonary and aortic valves; open/close passively due to pressure differences to ensure blood moves in one direction through heart o there are no valves at entrances of superior and inferior venae cavae or pulmonary veins atrial contraction is enough to constrict backflow cardiac muscle o cardiac muscle cells in myocardium must be very resilient to come together and exert pressure on blood enclosed during a contraction only 1% of heart cells are replaced per year o entire heart (all cells) contract with each beat 3 billion contractions without rest in a lifetime o innervation by sympathetic (entire heart; release norepinephrine for beta adrenergic receptors) and parasympathetic (special cells in atria; release ach for muscarinic receptors) nerve fibers blood supply o no exchange of nutrients/metabolic waste occurs until blood passes through capillaries \n coronary arteries: arteries supplying myocardium (coronary blood flow) so cells can exchange nutrients/waste products 12.4 – heartbeat coordination efficient pumping of blood requires that the atria contract first, followed almost immediately by the ventricles o contraction is triggered by depolarization starting at the sinoatrial (sa) node in right atrium near entrance of superior vena cava; gap junctions allow this to happen quickly/excite entire heart o sa node acts as pacemaker for heart, determines heart rate sequence of excitation: o action potential in sa node depolarization spreads through atria atrioventricular (av) node at base of right atrium (connected to sa node via internodal pathways) through ventricles via bundle of his divides into left and right bundle branches that reach bottom of heart/walls of ventricles propagation of action potentials through av node is slow; atria will contract first and ventricles will contract when atria relax fiber bundles are composed of pukinje fibers: large diameter, rapid conduction, low resistance gap junctions myocardial cell action potentials + + o resting membrane is more permeable to k than na = negative resting membrane potential; depolarizing is due to influx of na + + + o na depolarization transient k repolarization depolarized plateau 2+ound 0 mv as k permeability declines and ca enters cell (ltype ca channels: long lasting) ca channels inactivate, k exits and causes repolarization o ventricular cells have a longer plateau than atrial cells nodal cell action potentials o pacemaker potential: gradual depolarization of the sa node (does not have a steady resting potential) that causes an action potential when threshold is eventually reached; contributed to by: + progressive reduction in k permeability unique set of channels that open at negative membrane potential values (f (funny)type channels for na influx) 2+ t(transient)type ca channels: opens briefly and gives important final depolarizing boost o sa node is brought to threshold faster than av node due to pacemaker currents automaticity: ability of sa node for spontaneous, rhythmic self excitation (inherent rate is about 100 depolarizations per minute) determines how quickly threshold is reached/action potential is generated o pacemaker mechanism creates action potential depolarizing due to ca (not 2+ na ) slow transmission of cardiac excitation to av node repolarization \n o ectopic pacemakers: when slower inherent pacemaker rates of other cells in conducting system create own rhythm (still driven to threshold by sa node) av conduction disorder: reduction/elimination of action potential transmission from sa node to av node due to disease/druginduced malfunction of av node; cause ectopic pacemakers to start very slow (2540 beats/min); causes ventricles to contract out of synch with atria fix av conduction disorders with artificial pacemaker electrocardiogram (ecg or ekg): tool for evaluating electrical events in the heart o recording electrodes detect currents running through fluids surrounding heart after action potentials in multiple cells (not direct record of changes in membrane potential across individual cells) o shows p wave (atrial depolarization), qrs complex (ventricular depolarization), t wave (ventricular repolarization) atrial repolarization takes place during qrs complex; cannot be seen o ecg leads record at different locations on limbs and chest for comparison o use to diagnose myocardial defects excitationcontra2+ion coupling o when ca influxes into cell through ltype channels and creates plateau, ryanodine receptors in sarcoplasmic reticulum are stimulated to release even more ca ca activates thin filaments muscle contraction ca returns to 2+ + 2+ sarcoplasmic reticulum via ca atpase pumps and na /ca countertransporters o more ca released = stronger contraction (i.e. during exercise) refractory period o summation of contractions is impossible due to long absolute refractory period unlike skeletal muscle; absolute refractory period lasts almost as long as contraction (250 msec) 12.5 – mechanical events of the cardiac cycle cardiac cycle: recurring cycle of atrial and ventricular contractions and relaxations o two major phases: systole (ventricular contraction and blood ejection) and diastole (ventricular relaxation and blood filling) systole can be broken down into isovolumetric ventricular contraction (contraction of ventricles while valves are closed, increases ventricular bp and develops tension, but muscle does not shorten) and ventricular ejection (pressure in ventricles exceeds pressure in aorta/pulmonary trunk, valves open, muscles shorten to push blood out) stroke volume (sv): volume of blood ejected from each ventricle during systole diastole can be broken down into isovolumetric ventricular relaxation (ventricles begin to relax while valves are closed), ventricular filling (av valves open to allow blood flow), and atrial contraction \n o ***see page 381 in textbook for a really indepth explanation of cardiac cycle (timing of pressure/electrical/mechanical changes) o at rest, 80% of ventricular filling occurs before atrial contraction (early diastole) ensures that filling is not seriously impaired during periods when the heart is beating rapidly and that diastole duration is reduced heart rates greater than 200 beats/min don’t leave enough time for filling and blood volume leaving heart decreases (bad) explains why conduction defects that affect atrial pumping abilities do not seriously impair ventricular filling (ex: during atrial fibrillation when atria fails to work as effective pumps) pulmonary circulation pressures o pressure changes in right ventricle and pulmonary arteries are same as left ventricle and aorta (pg. 381) typical pulmonary arterial systolic and diastolic pressures are 25 mmhg and 10 mmhg (lowpressure system, thinner walls) systemic arterial pressures are 120 mmhg and 80 mmhg both have same stroke volume heart sounds: result from cardiac contraction normally head through a stethoscope o “lub” = closure of av valves; onset of systole o “dup” = closer of pulmonary and aortic alves; onset of diastole o heart murmurs: other sounds heard from heart, usually indicative of disease or defects laminar flow: smooth blood flow (normal) may become turbulent with defect (detected with heart murmurs) stenosis: abnormally narrowed valve, causes turbulent blood flow insufficiency: blood flowing backward through a damaged, leaky valve septal defect: blood flowing between two atria or two ventricles through a small hole 12.6 – the cardiac output cardiac output (co): the volume of blood each ventricle pumps as a function of time, usually expressed in l/min o at steady state, co flowing through the systemic and pulmonary circuits is the same o co=hr×sv hr = heart rate (beats/min) sv = stroke volume (l/beat) o co of 5.0 l/min average for a resting, averagesized adult (nearly all of 5.5 l total blood volume is pumped around the circuit once each minute) o co will increase with strenuous exercise o hr and sv do not always change in the same direction (ex: sv can decrease with blood loss, but hr will increase) control of heart rate \n o in the absence of nervous/hormonal influences, the heart beats around 100 beats/min (inherent autonomous discharge rate of the sa node) at rest, influence of parasympathetic neurons results in resting hr of 70 75 beats/min o parasympathetic and sympathetic postganglionic neurons end on the sa node parasympathetic = hr decreases (reduces inward current, hyperpolarizes sa node cells by increasing permeability to k = slower depolarization) sympathetic = hr increases (increases ftype channel permeability = faster depolarization) also innervate other parts of conducting system (sympathetic = increases conduction velocity through entire cardiac system; parasympathetic = decreases rae of spread of excitation through atria and av node) o epinephrine (adrenal medulla) speeds heart up by acting on same beta adrenergic receptors as norepinephrine released by neurons o body temperature, plasma electrolyte concentrations, hormones, adenosine (myocardial cell metabolite) also affect cardiac nerves (figure 12.26) control of stroke volume (volume of blood ejected during each contraction) o a change in force during contraction can produce a change in stroke volume (will never fully empty ventricles) changes in enddiastolic volume (preload: volume in ventricles before contraction) changes in magnitude of sympathetic ns input to ventricles changes in afterload (ex: changes in arterial pressures that ventricles pump against) o frankstarling mechanism: all other factors being equal, the sv increases as the enddiastolic volume increases, seen in a ventricularfunction curve lengthtension relationship: enddiastolic volume is a major determinant of how stretched the ventricular sarcomeres are just before contraction must contract harder with greater stretch (more voume) complex mechanism: stretching cardiac muscle cells towards optimum length decreased space between thick and thin filaments more cross bridges can bind during a twitch increased sensitivity to troponin for binding ca and increased ca release from sarcoplasmic reticulum at any given hr, an increase in venous return = increase co (increase enddiastolic volume, increase sv) so blood does not accumulate in pulmonary circulation sympathetic regulation o distributed to entire myocardium o norepinephrine acts on betaadrenergic receptors to increase ventricular contractility (strength of contraction at any enddiastolic volume) along with increase hr \n any increased force of contraction and stroke volume resulting from sympathetic regulation is independent from any change in enddiastolic ventricular volume not related2+o franksterling mechanism (figure 12.28a) overall ca concentrations increases more quickly in cytosol, reaches greater excitation value, and returns to preexcited state more quickly faster, stronger contraction o ejection fraction: helps quantify contractility (directly related) ef=sv/edv edv = enddiastolic volume 50%75% under resting conditions in healthy heart o neglect parasympathetic effects on ventricular contractility afterload o the greater the load, the less contracting muscle fibers can shorten at a given contractility (figure 9.17 for review) an increased arterial pressure tends to reduce sv skip 12.7 12.8 – arteries thick walls containing large quantities of elastic tissue; “elastic tubes” large radii allow lowresistance conduction of blood to various organs as well as act as a “pressure reservoir” for maintaining blood flow through tissues during diastole arterial blood pressure o compliance: δv/δp; how easily a structure will stretch (greater compliance = greater ability to stretch) o a volume of blood equal to about 1/3 of sv leaves arteries during systole; rest of sv remains in arteries which increases pressure allows blood to continue to be driven into arterioles during diastole (figure 12.33) ventricular contraction always occurs before arterial pressure can reach zero (equal pressure of blood entering heart as leaving heart) o systolic pressure (sp): maximum arterial pressure reached during peak ventricular ejection o diastolic pressure (dp): minimum arterial pressure occurring just before ventricular ejection o usually measured as systolic/diastolic (ex: 120/80 mmhg) o pulse pressure: difference between systolic and diastolic pressure (ex: 40 mmhg) can be felt as pulse/throb in arteries in neck/wrist/etc. magnitude dependent on sv (direct relationship), speed of ejection of sv (direct), and arterial compliance (indirect; higher pressure with lower compliancy) o arteriosclerosis: stiffening of arterial walls, progress with age and leads to higher pulse pressure \n o mean arterial pressure (map): average pressure driving blood into tissues averaged over the entire cardiac cycle 1 map=dp+ (sp−dp) 3 compliance has no major influence on map (effects on systolic and diastolic pressure change but in opposite directions) measurement of systemic arterial pressure o sphygmomanometer: blood pressure cuff used to measure systolic and diastolic pressures (used in conjunction with a stethoscope) inflate until no sound is heard, release air slowly and record first number when sound is first heard again (systolic) and second number when sound disappears again (diastolic) korotkoff’s sounds: highvelocity turbulent blood flow that produces audible vibrations (with stethoscope) *** not the same as the lubdup sounds heard when valves close 12.9 – arterioles 2 major functions: in organs, responsible for determining the relative blood flows to given organs at any given mean arterial pressure and as a whole, determine mean arterial pressure o f=∆ p/r=map/resistance organ venous pressure is ignored (close to zero); map is constant throughout body o differences in flow are determined by differences in the resistance to flow offered by each tube wide tubes = les resistance = greater flows if radius of each tube is independently altered, blood flow through each is independently altered (smaller radius = less flow) large main arteries serve as pressure reservoir contain smooth muscle that can relax (vasodilation, increased radius) or contract (vasoconstriction, decreased radius) o pattern of bloodflow distribution depends upon degree of arteriolar smooth muscle contraction within each organ/tissue intrinsic tone: spontaneous contractile activity of arteriolar smooth muscle; sets baseline level of contraction that can be increased/decreased by external signals o increase in contractile force above it causes vasoconstriction o decrease in contractile force causes vasodilation o controlled by local controls and extrinsic (reflex) controls local controls: mechanisms independent of nerves/hormones that organs/tissues use to alter their own arteriolar resistances (selfregulate blood flow) o active hyperemia: manifestation of increased blood flow during increased metabolic activity; direct result of arteriolar dilation \n metabolic activity decreased oxygen (used in atp production), increased co ,2h ions (lactic acid), adenosine (atp byproduct), k ions (action potential repolarization), eicosanoids (phospholipid byproduct), bradykinin (peptide generated from protein kininogen generated from enzyme kallikrein secreted from gland cells) and nitric oxide arteriolar dilation most highly developed in skeletal/cardiac muscle and glands extrinsic controls: reflex mechanisms serves wholebody needs (ex: regulating arterial blood pressure; redistributing blood flow for specific function such as heat loss) o sympathetic neurons innervate most arterioles release norepinephrine to bind to alphaadrenergic receptors vasoconstriction (vasodilation via reducing presence of hormone) *** betaadrenergic receptors in heart, alphaadrenergic in arterioles allows for antagonists to block actions of norepinephrine in certain places reflex serves wholebody needs (ex: regulating arterial blood pressure; redistribute o parasympathetic neurons do not have important innervations in arterioles o noncholinergic, nonadrenergic, autonomic neurons release neither ach or norepinephrine release vasodilator substances particularly nitric oxide; contributes to control of gi system blood vessels innervate arterioles in penis/clitoris to mediate erection (sildenafil (viagra) and tadalafil (cialis) work by enhancing nitric oxide pathway to facilitate vasodilation) o hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine can bind to alphaadrenergic receptors on arteriolar smooth muscle and cause vasoconstriction can also bind to beta 2adrenergic receptors and relax muscle (less common than alpha in most vascular beds no effect; arterioles in skeletal muscle are important exception) angiotensin ii: constricts most arterioles vasopressin: released by posterior pituitary in response to decreased blood pressure + atrial natriuretic peptide: vasodilator by regulating na balance and blood volume; overall physiological importance unknown endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle o can be acted on by substances/mechanical stimuli to secrete several paracrine agents that diffuse to the adjacent vascular smooth muscle to induce relaxation/constriction o nitric oxide: important paracrine vasodilator (aka edrf) released continuously in significant amounts by endothelial cells in arterioles (maintains basal level vasodilation) \n responds quickly to large number of chemical mediators involved in reflex/local control o prostacyclin (prostaglandin i [pg2 ]): 2icosanoid, vasodilator; is not secreted until needed o endothelin1 (et1): vasoconstrictor released by endothelial cells in response to mechanical/chemical stimuli can function as a hormone if high enough concentrations in blood are reached for widespread arteriolar vasoconstriction arteriolar control in specific organs o figure 12.39 – factors that determine arteriolar radius o table 12.7 – importance of local and reflex controls in specific organs 12.10 – capillaries approximately 5% of blood is moving through capillaries at any time, allowing exchange of nutrients, metabolic end products, and cell secretions o some exchange also occurs in venules permeate every tissue in body except cornea; cells are no more than a few cells away from the nearest capillary o allows for highly efficient diffusion/exchange has essential role in tissue function leads to questions about angiogenesis (capillary growth and development) and what stimulates it in injury/healing/cancer o known that vascular endothelial cells initiate new capillary networks through stimulation by angiogenic factors (cancer cells also secrete these) angiostatin: naturallyoccurring peptide involved in inhibition of blood vessel growth can be used to reduce size of tumors in mice anatomy of capillary network o thinwalled tube of endothelial cells only one layer thick o no surrounding smooth muscle or elastic tissue o in some organs, they have a second set of cells that surround basement membrane to affect diffusion ability of substances (i.e. in brain) o intercellular clefts: waterfilled spaces in between flat cells of endothelial wall o fusedvesicle channels: form when endocytotic and exocytotic vesicles fuse o vasodilation/vasoconstriction of other vessels (arterioles) affects blood flow through capillaries blood sometimes enters through metarterioles that connect arterioles to venules moves though precapillary sphincter into capillary (can close off capillary completely if needed; open when tissue is active) diffusion across the capillary wall: exchanges of nutrients and metabolic end products o blood flow is slow to maximize exchange time o substance movement between interstitial fluid and plasma relies on diffusion, vesicle transport, and bulk flow (sometimes mediated transport too) in all capillaries (except brain), diffusion is only important means of net nutrient/oxygen/waste movement \n o lipidsoluble substances (oxygen and co ) easi2y diffuse while ions/polar molecules need to pass through waterfilled channels in endothelium waterfilled channels allows rate of ion/polar molecule movement to be high (not as high as lipid rates) intercellular clefts and fused vesicles only small amounts of protein can diffuse (usually need vesicular transport) o “leakiness” of capillaries differs between organs due to waterfilled channels one extreme: tight capillaries (brain) with no intercellular clefts, only tight junctions need carriermediated transport through bloodbrain barrier other extreme: large intercellular clefts (liver) that allow even proteins to move easily o transcapillary diffusion gradients occur as a result of cellular utilization of substance (established by local metabolic rate: increased metabolism leads to increased need for glucose/oxygen and increased production of co ) 2 glucose: continuously transported from interstitial to cells by carrier mediated transport mechanisms oxygen: moves in same direction as glucose (into cells) by diffusion carbon dioxide: continuously produced by cells and diffuses from cells to interstitial fluid (ultimately diffusing into capillary) active hyperemia and increased cellular utilization of materials both lead to increasing diffusion gradients increasing rate of diffusion bulk flow across the capillary wall: distribution of extracellular fluid o bulk flow of proteinfree plasma to distribute the extracellular fluid volume (plasma and interstitial fluid) o capillary walls are highly permeable to water and all plasma solutes except proteins proteinfree plasma moves by bulk flow when hydrostatic pressure difference exists (capillary blood pressure vs. interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure) filtration capillary blood pressure is usually higher hydrostatic pressure difference exists to filter proteinfree plasma out of capillaries into interstitial fluid (protein stays in capillaries) o osmotic flow of water brings solutes with it to penetrate membranes (to balance nonpenetrating solute concentrations); high to low concentration o effects of solutes crystalloids: lowmw solutes present in large quantities in plasma; can easily penetrate capillary pores ( concentrations in plasma/interstitial fluid are the same); includes na , cl, and k + colloids: plasma proteins that cannot move though capillary pores and have low concentrations in interstitial fluid water concentration is slightly lower in plasma than interstitium, creating osmotic gradient from interstitium to capillary o starling forces: four factors that determine net filtration pressure nfp=p +π cp −if if c \n capillary hydrostatic pressure, osmotic force due to interstitial fluid protein concentration, interstitial hydrostatic pressure, osmotic force due to plasma protein concentration (respectively) + = favors movement out of capillary; – = favors movement into capillary *** usually can ignore p ifvirtually 0 mmhg) if net outward pressure exceeds inward pressure, bulk filtration of fluid will occur (leaving proteins behind in capillaries as fluid leaves) can be applied to pulmonary circulation (starling forces favor filtration slightly more in lungs than other tissues) o regional differences in capillary pressure capillary hydrostatic pressures vary in different regions of the body and are strongly influenced by laying down/standing/sitting capillary hydrostatic pressures are also subject to physiological regulation mostly by changes in resistance of arterioles in that region dilating arterioles = increased capillary hydrostatic pressure (less pressure is lost in overcoming resistance between arteries and capillaries) favors movement of fluid out of capillary/increased filtration edema: abnormal accumulation of fluid in interstitial spaces (due to imbalance in starling’s forces) o can be caused by heart failure (increased venous pressure reduces blood flow out of capillaries excess filtration and accumulation of interstitial fluid) o can occur in systemic or pulmonary tissues o injury ( release of histamines/etc.) can cause dilated arterioles increase in capillary pressure and filtration increased size of intercellular clefts/ability of plasma proteins to escape from bloodstream increase in protein osmotic force in interstitial fluid can increase filtration/edema o can be caused by abnormal decrease in protein plasma concentration (water does not need to remain in capillaries to balance concentration leaves capillary) caused by liver disease (decreased protein production) or kidney disease (protein loss in urine) or kwashiorkor (protein malnutrition) 12.11 – veins capillaries venules veins last set of tubes that blood flows through on way back to heart o pressure difference between peripheral veins (1015 mmhg) and right atrium (close to 0 mmhg) drives venous return in systemic circulation adequate pressure due to low resistance to flow from veins (large diameters) major functions: act as lowresistance conduits for blood flow from tissues to heart and reflexively alter diameters in response to changes in blood volume to maintain venous return pressure \n o peripheral veins in arms/legs contain oneway valves that ensure blood moves towards heart o rate of venous return = major determinant of enddiastolic ventricular volume ( sv) determinants of venous pressure o volume of fluid in tube o compliance of walls o veins can accommodate large volumes of blood with relatively small increase in internal pressure 60% of total blood volume is in systemic veins, but pressure is only 10 mmhg (compared to 15% of blood in systemic arteries at 100 mmhg) o walls contain smooth muscle innervated with sympathetic neurons (norepinephrine release muscle contraction, increase pressure) drives more blood into right side of heart can also respond to hormonal/paracrine vasodilators and vasoconstrictors o skeletal muscle pump: increases local venous pressure of veins running through muscles during contraction; forces more blood to heart o respiratory pump: diaphragm descends during inhalation increase in abdominal pressure increase in intraabdominal vein pressure; also results in decrease in pressure in intrathoracic veins/right atrium; bigger pressure difference forces more blood to heart any changes in venous return almost immediately causes equivalent changes in cardiac output through frankstarling mechanisms ( they are the same except for transient differences) skip 12.12 12.13 – baroreceptor reflexes arterial baroreceptors o respond to changes in pressure o found where left and right common carotid arteries divide into two smaller arteries that supply the head with blood (carotid sinus) and in the arch of the aorta (aortic arch baroreceptor) afferent neurons travel from these points to the brainstem and provide input to the neurons of cardiovascular control centers o at a particular steady pressure (ex: 100 mmhg), there is a certain rate of action potential discharge from neurons, which increases/decreases with increased/decreased pressure medullary cardiovascular center o located in the medulla oblongata o receive input from the various baroreceptors throughout the body uses it to determine the action potential frequency sent back to the vagus (parasympathetic) neurons in the heart/sympathetic neurons in the heart/arterioles/veins \n increased rate of discharge = decreased sympathetic activity and increased parasympathetic activity angiotensin ii and vasopressin are also altered (decreased pressure = increased secretion = arteriole constriction) arterial baroreceptor reflex operation o ex) decreased arterial pressure (due to hemorrhage) = decreased rate of firing leads to increased heart rate (due to increased sympathetic activity and decreased parasympathetic activity) increased ventricular contractility arteriolar constriction increased venous constriction net result: increased cardiac output, increased total peripheral resistance, and bp returns to normal o functions primarily as a shortterm regulator of arterial bp will adapt to prolonged change in bp (new set point) other baroreceptors contribute to a feedforward component of arterial pressure control 12.14 – blood volume and longterm regulation of arterial pressure baroreceptors cannot set longterm arterial pressure as they will adapt to any prolonged change blood volume controls longterm regulation blood volume influences venous pressure/return, enddiastolic/stroke volumes, and cardiac output o all related, thus increased blood volume increases arterial pressure (and increased arterial pressure decreases blood volume) negative feedback loops blood volume can only stabilize longterm arterial pressure if blood volume itself is stabilized o urinary and circulatory systems both interact to help maintain this 12.15 – other cardiovascular reflexes and responses causes of increased blood pressure: o decreased arterial oxygen concentration o increased arterial carbon dioxide concentration o decreased blood flow to brain o pain originating in the skin (from viscera/joints decrease in bp) other physiological states (eating, sexual activity, sleeping) affect bp mood influences bp (lower when happy) changes triggered by higher brain centers to medullary cardiovascular center cushing’s phenomenon: increased intracranial pressure causes a dramatic increase in mean arterial pressure o cranium cannot expand to accumulate pressure pressure is directed inwards on brain, which decreases blood flow to all parts of brain accumulation of waste/not enough oxygen o fluid must be removed to fix \n 12.16 – hemorrhage and other causes of hypertension hypotension: low blood pressure, regardless of cause o consequences: reduced blood flow to brain/muscles hemorrhage: type of hypotension caused by significant deceased blood volume o immediate response: arterial baroreceptor reflex cannot restore all the way back to normal: directly affected factors (stroke volume, cardiac output, arterial pressure) remain below normal; values not directly affected (affected only by reflex; heart rate, total peripheral resistance) are higher than normal increased peripheral resistance vasoconstriction (less blood flow) why skin can become pale/cold o interstitial fluid will move into capillaries due to decreased hydrostatic pressure autotransfusion; can restore blood volume to normal in 1224 hours after moderate hemorrhage o both responses can restore up to 30% blood volume lost blood volume must actually be restored by increased fluid ingestion/minimized water loss (initiated by increased thirst/reduction in water and salt lost in urine) mediated by hormones rbc must be recreated to replenish blood severe sweating, burns, diarrhea, and vomiting can also cause hypotension o depletes body of water and essential ions cardiac contractility can cause hypotension (ex: during a heart attack) strong emotion can cause hypotension (and sometimes fainting) vasovagal syncope o higher brain centers inhibit sympathetic activity to circulatory system/enhance parasympathetic activity ( decreased blood flow to brain & arterial pressure) shock: any situation in which a decrease in blood flow to the organs and tissues damages them o hypovolemic shock: caused by decrease in blood volume secondary to hemorrhage or loss of fluid other than blood o lowresistance shock: due to a decrease in total peripheral resistance secondary to excessive release of vasodilators (allergy/infection) o cardiogenic shock: due to extreme decrease in cardiac output from any variety of factors (ex: during heart attack) o deterioration of the heart leads to decreased cardiac output more shock; which can become irreversible skip 12.1712.18 12.19 – hypertension hypertension: chronically increased systemic arterial pressure (above 140/90 mmhg) o 26% of adults worldwide affected; 34% u.s. citizens affected \n o left ventricle is chronically pumping against an increased arterial pressure develops muscle mass: left ventricular hypertrophy initially helps maintain heart function; leads to diminished contractile function and heart failure over time o can lead to atherosclerosis, heart attacks, kidney damage, stroke (blockage/rupture of a cerebral blood vessel, causing brain damage) risk of heart disease/stroke doubles with every 20 mmhg increase in systolic pressure and every 10 mmhg increase in diastolic pressure primary hypertension: hypertension of uncertain cause; more common o suspected genetic/environmental factors changes in lifestyle can reduce factors (weight loss, reduced salt intake, cessation of smoking/heavy drinking, clean eating, exercise) o genes associated with angiotensinaldosterone system and regulation of endothelial cell function/arteriolar smooth muscle contraction suspected o most significant factor: increase in total peripheral resistance caused by reduced arteriolar radius secondary hypertension: identified causes o renal hypertension: due to kidney damage increased renin release leads to excessive concentrations of angiotensin ii (vasoconstrictor) and low urine production treat with lowsodium diet and diuretics o endocrine disorders (syndromes involving hypersecretion of cortisol, aldosterone, thyroid hormone) can cause it o medications (oral contraceptives, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs) can cause it o sleep apnea linked to it table 12.11 – drugs used to treat hypertension by decreasing cardiac output and/or total peripheral resistance 12.20 – heart failure collection of signs and symptoms that occur when the heart does not pump an adequate cardiac output o may be pumping against a chronically increased arterial pressure (hypertension) or structural damage to the myocardium due to decreased coronary blood flow and etc. can group patients into two categories o diastolic dysfunction: reduced compliance of the ventricle (abnormal stiffness) results in reduced ability to fill adequately at normal diastolic filling pressures leads to reduced enddiastolic volume = reduced sv contractility is still normal causes: systemic hypertension hypertrophy o systolic dysfunction: results from myocardial damage (ex: from heart attack); decrease in cardiac contractility (lower sv at any given enddiastolic volume) presents as decrease blood ejection; enddiastolic volume increases \n triggers arterial baroreceptor reflexes, which are elicited more than usual because afferent baroreceptors become less sensitive o less discharge = brain thinks pressure decrease has occurred tries to compensate (increased hr, total peripheral resistance, concentrations of hormonal vasoconstrictors) eventually leads to increased fluid retention and massive expansion of extracellular fluid o when fluid retention increases, problems arise ventricles with systolic dysfunction will become very distended with blood worsens situation edema will eventually occur, swelling of the legs and feet failure of left ventricle with fluid will lead to pulmonary edema (fluid in lungs), which impairs normal gas exchange o left ventricle fails to pump blood to the same extent as the right ventricle increased blood volume in pulmonary vessels faster rate of filtration than lymphatics can deal with o worse at night due to laying down while sleeping treatment of heart failure: o correct precipitating cause (ex: hypertension) with drugs o cardiac transplant 12.21 – hypertrophic cardiomyopathy condition that frequently leads to heart failure one of the most common inherited cardiac diseases (1 in 500 people) characterized by increased thickness of heart muscle, especially interventricular septum and wall of left ventricle o interferes with cardiac output to meet metabolic requirements o angina pectoris: chest pain experienced by reduction of blood flow to heart disruption of orderly array of myocytes and conducting cells in walls o can lead to dangerous/fatal arrhythmias usually symptomless until too late causes unknown; possible genetic factors identified (involving myosin, troponin, and tropomyosin) treatment: drugs to prevent arrhythmia, surgical repair of septum and valve, heart transplant 12.22 – coronary artery disease and heart attacks coronary artery disease: changes in one or more of the coronary arteries causes insufficient blood flow (ischemia) to the heart o many patients with coronary artery disease experience recurrent transient episodes of inadequate coronary blood flow/angina before ultimately suffering a heart attack myocardial infarction: death of portion of heart affected by myocardial damage \n o symptoms: prolonged chest pain (often radiating from left arm), nausea, vomiting, sweating, weakness, shortness of breath o diagnosis made by ecg and detection of specific cardiac muscle proteins in plasma o ventricular fibrillation: abnormality in impulse conduction triggered by damaged myocardial cells; cause of sudden death during myocardial infarction cardiopulmonary resuscitation (cpr) can sometimes save individuals (series of chest compressions and mouthtomouth) defibrillation: electrical current passed through heart in effort to correct abnormal electrical activity heart attacks are experienced by about 1.1 million americans (over 40% die from it) causes o atherosclerosis: major cause; thickening of portion of arterial vessel wall closest to lumen with plaques made of many smooth muscle cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, deposits of cholesterol/fatty substances, and dense layers of connective tissue matrix reduces coronary blood flow can result in coronary thrombosis: blood clot; total occlusion, generally triggers heart attack likely caused by initially damage/inflammation that becomes excessive, cigarette smoking, excess cholesterol, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and stress prevention o exercise (can red",
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77ae6fa7f7f83c819fe96e137f869b4a | a ladder 9.00m long leans against the side of a building. if the ladder is inclined at an angle of 75.0 to the horizontal, what is the horizontal distance from the bottom of the ladder to the building? | a ladder 9.00m long leans against the side of a building. | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": "business and government relations study guide ii: chapters 1013 & questions chapter 10: regulation: law, economics, and politics introduction ● regulation takes place through a public process that is relatively open and allows participation by interested parties ● regulatory decisions and rulemaking proceedings are extremely important to many firms, industries, and interest groups set of interventions ● controlling prices ● setting floor prices ● ensuring equal opportunity ● regularizing employment practices ● specifying qualifications ● providing for solvency ● controlling the number of market participants ● limiting ownership ● requiring premarketing approval ● ensuring product safety ● mandating product characteristics and technology ● establishing service territories ● establishing performance standards ● controlling toxic emissions and other pollutants ● specifying industry boundaries ● allocating public resources ● establishing technical standards ● controlling unfair international trade practices ● providing information ● rationing common pool resources ● protecting consumers ● controlling risks periods of regulatory reform ● four major periods of regulatory change ○ populist era (late 1800s) ○ progressive era and the new deal ○ social regulation (began in the 1960s) ○ economic deregulation (began in the 1970s) the constitutional basis for regulation ● the u.s. constitution not only provides the authority for regulation \n ○ it also limits its application ● many legal principles of regulation in the united states have come from court decisions that draw on the common law ● the fifth and fourteenth amendments place limits on regulation principal federal regulatory agencies and commissions delegation, rulemaking, due process, and discretion ● article i, section 1 of the constitution grants congress the sole power to enact laws ● congress enacted the administrative procedure act (apa) of 1946 to: ○ provide for public notice and comment prior to agency action ■ agencies adopt their own rulemaking procedures in a manner consistent with the apa ● the apa grants parties right to sue for judicial review of an agency action ○ a basis for that review is failure to follow the procedures required for an action ■ under the framework of procedural due process ● the apa requires: ○ agency actions not be “arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with law” ● the courts review regulatory actions for whether they are arbitrary or capricious \n influences on regulatory agencies \n market imperfections •natural monopoly •externalities •public goods •asymmetric information government imperfections ● market imperfections warrant government regulation ○ only a necessary condition for regulation to improve economic efficiency capture theory ● predicts that regulation initially will be found where there are market imperfections and over time will evolve to serve the interests of the regulated industry rentseeking theory ● regulation not established to address market imperfections ○ instead, it is established to benefit politically effective interests fairness ● regulation used to accomplish fairness goals ● can involve policies such as: ○ lifeline rates for telephone service for lowincome people ○ the provision of aid such as food stamps costofservice theory ● regulation in a number of industries has centered on costofservice pricing ● this costofservice regulatory system has been blamed for inducing high costs and slowing the introduction of new technology. chapter 11: financial markets and their regulation introduction \n ● the capital markets are an essential component of a capitalist economic system that allow individuals to ○ save their money in a broad array of financial instruments ○ transform those savings into funding for businesses, homebuying, and retirement the formal and informal banking systems ● depository institutions such as banks accept deposits and make loans ○ these institutions are required to maintain a fractional reserve requirement ■ allows the formal banking system to lend a multiple of the deposits held repurchase agreement “shadow banking” system ● operates outside the purview of regulators ○ provides much of the financing for banks, securities traders, and mortgage lenders ● securitization involves pooling contractual debt obligations and issuing new securities backed by those obligations ○ a component of the shadow banking system \n collateralized debt obligations credit default swap \n the federal reserve system ● established in 1913 ● serves as the central bank of the united states ● has broad responsibilities for managing the money supply ● has regulatory authority over national banks and state banks that participate in the federal reserve system securities regulation ● the first new deal legislation enacted was the securities act of 1933 ○ regulated the issuance of new securities ● in 1934, congress enacted the securities exchange act to: ○ extend regulation to stock exchanges and the trading of alreadyissued securities ● glasssteagall act of 1933 ○ forced banks to separate their commercial banking and investment banking businesses ○ later repealed by the grammleachbliley act of 1999 credit card regulation ● credit card (card accountability responsibility and disclosure) act of 2009 ○ increases the regulation of credit card issuers \n ● regulations intended to eliminate abuses can have effects on markets mortgage lending and subprime mortgages ● mortgage lending had been dominated by banks and savings and loans associations ● lenders held some of the mortgages they originated and sold the rest to: ○ governmentsponsored enterprises ○ federal national mortgage association (fannie mae) ○ federal home loan mortgage corporation (freddie mac) ● the federal housing administration (fha) provided financing for qualified borrowers ○ government policy supported expanding home ownership through government support of fannie mae, freddie mac, and the fha financial crisis inquiry commission ● principal conclusions of the majority: ○ it was avoidable ○ widespread failures in financial regulation and supervision ○ dramatic failures of corporate governance and risk management at many systemically important financial institutions ○ excessive borrowing, risky investments, and lack of transparency ○ inconsistent response of an ill prepared government ○ collapsing mortgagelending standards and the mortgage securitization pipeline ○ overthecounter derivatives contributed significantly ○ failures of the credit rating agencies were essential cogs in the wheel of financial destruction ● 10 essential causes identified by the dissenters: ○ credit bubble ○ housing bubble ○ nontraditional mortgages ○ credit ratings and securitization ○ financial institutions concentrated correlated risks ○ leverage and liquidity risk ○ risk of contagion ○ common shock (the fall in housing prices) ○ financial shock and panic ○ financial crisis causes economic crisis \n tarp, bailouts, and the stimulus ● the bush administration and congress created the troubled asset relief program (tarp) ○ administered by the department of the treasury ○ authorized with funding up to $700 billion to be used to shore up banks and stimulate the provision of credit to borrowers the doddfrank wall street reform and consumer protection act ● doddfrank act ○ provided for new regulations ○ strengthened enforcement ○ required new rule making by regulators ○ created a new regulatory agency the consumer financial protection bureau ○ restricted the pricing of credit card borrowings ○ increased the exposure of credit rating agencies to lawsuits ○ restricted securities trading by banks ○ required derivatives trades to go through clearinghouses ○ imposed new capital requirements on banks ○ did not address the roles of fannie mae and freddie mac financial stability oversight council ● established by the doddfrank act ● composed of the heads of 10 regulatory agencies with responsibility for: ○ monitoring the economy ○ responding to emergencies that threaten the stability of the financial system too big to fail ● the act: ○ authorized the government to seize and break up a firm whose collapse could result in substantial harm to the economy ○ required financial companies to develop “living wills” for closing down and provided for the orderly liquidation of failed companies \n the volcker rule ● included in the doddfrank act after heated debate ○ subsequently subject to extensive rulemaking activity to refine the restrictions ● allowed banks to trade on behalf of clients and to hedge their own risks derivatives and swaps ● to reduce risks and increase regulatory scrutiny: ○ the act gave the commodities and futures trading commission (cftc) regulatory authority over swaps and major swap market participants such as marketmakers securitization and excessive risks ● issuers of assetbacked securities were required to retain: ○ at least 5 percent of the risk unless the assets meet certain loan standards consumer protection ● complaints from consumers and consumer advocacy groups about financial products centered on: ○ abusive mortgages ○ high interest rates charged by payday lenders ○ financing practices of automobile dealers and student loan companies ● the doddfrank act created a consumer financial protection bureau (cfpb) ○ has authority over: ■ banks with assets over $10 billion ■ mortgage lenders ■ student loan companies ■ payday lenders compensation ● the doddfrank act directed the sec to address the compensation issue ● the sec: ○ promulgated “say on pay” rules requiring a nonbinding shareholder vote on executive compensation at least every 3 years ○ proposed rules requiring banks and financial services firms to: ■ report bonuses paid to individual employees ■ block bonuses that posed the risk of “material financial loss” for the firm \n credit ranging agencies ● provide information to investors about risks associated with securities ● government regulators have delegated to designated nationally recognized statistical rating organizations (nrsro) the assessment of risks associated with securities. global capital requirements regulation basel iii ● basel committee on banking supervision an organization of 27 nations that sets capital requirements for banks ○ requirements must be approved by the g20 nations ■ enacted into law by each nation chapter 12: environmental management and sustainability introduction ● public, government, and businesses recognize the importance of environmental protection and sustainability ● benefits include: ○ improved human health ○ a more vibrant natural environment ○ the preservation of ecosystems ○ a more sustainable relationship with the natural environment the environment and sustainability ● goals and action ● global climate change ● policy ● tradeoffs socially efficient control of externalities ● the control of externalities has taken the form of commandandcontrol regulation ● incentive approaches take into account the benefits and costs of attaining environmental objectives ○ achieves those objectives by aligning the social and private costs of pollution and its abatement \n the coase theorum ● pertains to market imperfections, including externalities and public goods ● focuses on the standard of social efficiency ● provide s a conceptual foundation for both regulation and the liability system \n transaction costs and the limits of the coase theorem ● the coase theorem implies that: ○ when bargaining between the parties to an externality is possible, social efficiency can be achieved capandtrade systems ● caps the total allowed emissions of a particular pollutant, issues permits (entitlements) for that amount, and allows the permits to be traded ○ also called tradable permits systems global climate change and emissions trading systems ● kyoto protocol ● emissions trading in the european union ● the regional greenhouse gas initiative (rggi) ● emissions trading within bp plc (british petroleum) kyoto protocol ● accomplishments under the kyoto protocol a subject of disagreement ○ developed countries have reduced their domestic emissions ■ research shows that this is due to increased imports displacing local production emissions trading in the european union ● the european union took the lead on multination emission ○ traded with the european trading system (ets) commencing in 2005 ● ets is a capandtrade system that covers 12,000 facilities in 15 eu member states ○ the eu goal was an 8 percent reduction by 2012 from a 1990 base emissions trading within bp plc (british petroleum) ● to address the global climate change issue: ○ in 1998 bp plc committed by 2010 to reduce its emissions of greenhouse gases (ghgs) by 10 percent from 1990 levels ● to achieve its goal, bp worked with environmental defense to develop an internal ghgs trading system for the company the regional greenhouse gas initiative ● formed in 2005 by 10 northeastern u.s. states \n ○ to operate a capandtrade system for reducing greenhouse gases emissions ○ auctioned 86 percent of the allowances generating $790 million through 2010 ● supported by companies that benefited from the funds generated by the auctions ○ other companies argued that it drove up costs and drove jobs away the environmental protection agency (epa) ● an independent agency located in the executive branch ● headed by an administrator appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate ● responsible for administering the major environmental acts enforcement ● the epa enforcement process requires: ○ filing of a notice of a complaint and a hearing before an administrative law judge standards setting and engineering control ● epa regulation has largely been command and control ○ uniform rules or standards are ordered and then enforced ● the epa sets emissions standards and air quality standards ● epa has increasingly used incentive approaches: ○ credits and offsets superfund ● administered by the epa ○ for the cleanup of existing toxic waste disposal sites ● epa attempts to identify the source of the dumping and force it to clean the site the nature of environmental politics ● environmental issues are complex because of: ○ scientific uncertainty about the consequences of pollution ○ incomplete information about the costs and benefits of environmental protection ○ disagreements about alternative approaches, such as liability versus regulation, to protection ○ differing perspectives about the protection of entitlements judicial politics ● politics of environmental protection often moves into judicial arenas ● environmental groups have succeeded in inserting citizen provisions in environmental statutes \n advocacy science ● much remains unknown about environmental hazards and their control ○ this scientific uncertainty is a source of contention in environmental politics ○ it provides an opportunity to use advocacy science as a component of a private politics strategy distributive politics ● environmental politics is motivated by: ○ distributive consequences of environmental policy ○ costs of environmental protection ○ benefits from the reduction in pollution and hazards private and public politics ● many environmental ngos active in public politics at the federal, state, and local levels ● environmental groups testify regularly in legislative and regulatory hearings ○ some demonstrate to attract media coverage to their side of the issue nimby and private politics ● nimby “not in mybackyard” ○ focuses on local environmental concerns, particularly as they involve possible risks to persons or property ○ directed toward: refuse disposal & toxic waste sites, chemical & oil plants, other facilities that may emit toxins ● energized by information provided by the federal government’s toxics release inventory (tri) ● the tri is a result of the “righttoknow” amendment to a 1985 superfund reauthorization bill voluntary collective environmental programs ● iso 14001 ● responsible care program ● criticisms of voluntary programs ○ called “greenwash” by environmental groups ○ allege that these programs sound good to the public ○ fail to live up to their promises chapter 13: the investor’s perspective: renewable energy introduction \n ● managing effectively in the nonmarket environment is essential for firms when: ○ a company is at a major strategic crossroad ○ there are market or nonmarket challenges ● strategy implementation is essential on an ongoing basis at an operational level to: ○ achieve performance goals ○ address challenges ○ seize opportunities investment decisions ● in making their decisions, investors assess: ○ opportunities and risks associated with firms ○ quality of their management ● the assessment of managerial quality depends on: ○ a firm’s leadership and market strategy ○ a firm's nonmarket strategy ○ the ability of management to anticipate and deal effectively with the emergence and development of nonmarket issues the environment of wind and solar power ● longterm opportunities for wind and solar power were enormous ○ supply costs were falling ○ demand for renewable power was expected to continue to grow ○ demand growth had been led by europe as a result of generous subsidies ■ as the subsidies were reduced, growth slowed ○ at the same time demand grew in china and the united states ■ more countries began to support wind and solar power ○ demand was expected to grow substantially in china and developing nations ● growth hinged on government support and the cost of other energy sources markets and government involvement ● retail electricity prices varied greatly across the states ○ both solar and wind power were quite variable ■ solar power output depended on the weather ■ wind power was most attractive in locations where the wind blows hard and steadily ○ solar/wind power faced nonmarket opposition because of: ■ the cost of subsidization ■ environmental nimby market signal ● market for solar panels in europe and the united states slowed to a crawl in 2010 \n ○ market in china grew at a rapid pace economic rationale for subsidization ● economic rationales for the subsidization of renewable power: ○ based on positive externalities ■ subsidization provides environmental improvements by displacing carbonbased power generated from coal or natural gas ■ subsidization provides security benefits to the extent that it reduced the dependence on imported fuels ○ intended to achieve cost efficiencies and increased output ■ subsidies could enable producers to realize economies of scale that would reduce costs and allow output to expand political rationale for subsidization ● positive externalities for the environment and security benefitted constituents ● subsidization generated pork: ○ recipients of the subsidies and their suppliers earned rents from the economic activity stimulated by the subsidization the costs of subsidization ● direct costs of subsidies are the corresponding government budget expenditures and liabilities ○ examples grants and loan guaranties solyndra inc ● in 2008 solyndra and solar power, inc., a leading installer of solar panels, agreed to a supply arrangement for $325 million of solar panels over the 2008–2012 period ● market risks: prices and costs ● non market risks *solar power opportunities and risks—market and nonmarket factors \n practice questions ch. 1013 true/false 1. when there are market imperfections, government intervention can improve its efficiency. true/ false 2. congress mandates that regulatory agencies provide for public notice and comment prior to agency action. true/ false 3. interested parties such as firms are prohibited from participating in formal and informal rule making proceedings. true/ false 4. regulation in the us takes place through a private process that is closed and lowprofile. true/ false 5. with the disintegration of the mortgage market, lenders do not bear the risk of failure of borrowers to repay loans. true/false 6. securitization involves pooling contractual debt obligations and issuing new securities backed by those obligations. true/false 7. securitization can reduce idiosyncratic risks but cannot reduce systematic risks. true/false 8. commandandcontrol regulation imposes uniform controls and standards on dissimilar sources of pollution. true/false 9. the coase theorem implies that a negative externality can be resolved when property rights are assigned to the pollutees, not the polluters. true/false 10. the coase theorem implies that when bargaining between two parties to an externality is possible, social efficiency can be achieved. true/false 11. voluntary environmental information disclosure by firms provides an accurate representation of their environmental performance. true/false 12. renewable energy (non hydroelectric) production has been dependent on subsidies because it is not cost competitive. true/false \n 13. the u.s. government provided subsidization on both the demand and supply sides of the market for renewable power. true/false 14. the nimby movement can hamper the development of renewable energy. true/false multiple choice 1. globedot is a leading manufacturer of information display systems based in california. it seeks uniform federal regulation to impose a carbon emission tax on all manufacturing firms. this is an example of \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_. a. natural monopoly b. rentseeking theory c. adverse selection d. moral hazard 2. which of the following regulatory approach has been blamed for inducing inefficiency across companies? a. deregulation b. costofservice regulation c. information disclosure requirement d. monopoly restrictions 3. in constructing cdos, the mortgage loans are sliced into tranches with the cash flowing first to the \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_. \n a. most safe tranche (lowest interest rate) b. most risky tranche (highest interest rate) c. noninvestment grade tranche 4. which of the following did not contribute to the financial crisis of 20072008? a. subprime lending b. high leverage ratio for banks c. credit default swaps d. regulation of derivatives 5. the regulatory responses to the financial crisis include all of the following except a. penalizing customers who defaulted on interest payments b. increasing the regulation of credit card issuers c. .reducing speculative investments by banks d. .regulating credit rating agencies 6. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ have become an effective means of achieving environmental goals at the least cost to society. a. commandandcontrol regulations b. incentivebased regulations c. costofservice regulations d. voluntary approaches 7. why were the loan guarantee and cash option awarded to renewable power producers jeopardized? a. .state public utility regulatory agencies were barred by law from determining renewable energy prices. b. the huge federal budget deficit required measures to reduce expenditure. c. state public utility regulatory agencies gave a negligible premium for renewable power. d. the price of natural gas rose considerably. short answers •what are alternative theories to explain where regulation is or is not imposed? \n •under what circumstances does the market fail to function properly and government intervention is justified? •explain commandandcontrol vs. incentivebased approach to environmental regulation. •explain the basics of emissions trading scheme. •explain two nonmarket factors that encourage investment in renewable energy. •explain two nonmarket factors that discourage investment in renewable energy. answer key true/false 1. t 2. t \n 3. f 4. f 5. t 6. t 7. t 8. t 9. f 10. t 11. f 12. t 13. t 14. t multiple choice 1. b 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. b",
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552a4d4c1303bebee17edbeffb600ac1 | show that the line containing the points (a, b) and (b, a), a "* b, is perpendicular to the line y = x. also show that the midpoint of (a, b) and (b, a) lies on the line y = x. | show that the line containing the points (a, b) and (b, | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " hdfs 1070 lecture notes 3/25, page 1 later adolescence and family tasks lecture notes 3/25/16 later adolescence (1824) focus on identity and individuation: dominant anxiety of later adolescence is identity work identity triangle (again): need to establish a working model of ourselves in order to be an adult occupation o career decision making process—career decision making is a drawn out process that is based on information and experiences interacting with one another. interaction between education, collecting information, and having experiences. experience is a big part of career decision making. you can’t decide one day on the spot, you need the experience and exposure to information on different careers. career decision making takes time. only 20% of college graduates are working in the fields related to their major 10 years after graduating. this suggests that we should encourage people to be educated and have experiences and then make decisions about their career path instead putting so much emphasis on career decision in college. lifestyle values psychosocial crisis: identity versus identity confusion as you move into your 20’s, you work on a more mature identity. identity confusion: to launch yourself into adulthood, you have to have a fairly mature identity. the absence of that identity manifests in confusion about who you are. manifestations of identity confusion? what is an anxious identity? o they don’t commit to any working models. can’t settle on values, lifestyle, and a career they are seekers without a path. there comes a point in time when we are expected to achieve a place of comfort with our identity so we can make choices and decisions. if this doesn’t happen, you are perpetually in an adolescence stage of life. anxiety and identity foreclosure o there is anxiety to make these decisions and to commit to a working model of yourself. this can result in foreclosing: some people prematurely shut down working on their identity and make decisions prematurely about their identity in an effort to protect themselves from this ongoing anxiety. these people have huge regrets when they get older because their identity choices don’t bring them joy. they don’t feel like they are growing over time, they feel more stifled. ex. people who hate their job. they didn’t take the time to gather information and have the experience to make a decision of what career they want. they feel locked in and become bitter and angry. central process: role experimentation \n hdfs 1070 lecture notes 3/25, page 2 in order to have an identity, you need to experiment with different identities and spend time collecting information. experimentation involves experiencing yourself in different situations, environments, doing things with different people and different places. according to erikson, in order for this experimentation to take place, you should have a psychosocial moratorium. for youth, there should be a moratorium period on psychosocial development. instead of pressuring people more to work on these anxiety provoking issues, they should back off and pressure less and provide youth with a period of time where they are free to experiment without excessive pressures and anxieties to make decisions. it should be a period of time when you are given permission to play and experiment. ex. letting your child take a year off from college to volunteer in a different country. ex. going abroad or taking a gap year. individuation (from both peers and family) adolescence must establish a sense of individuation from both their peers and families. young people are moving towards a place where they act with greater authority over their lives, where they act with a greater sense of autonomy, and are able to self regulate. reflected in young people becoming increasingly better at taking responsibility for their life, taking responsibility for their care, and acting in an age appropriate autonomous way. reducing your dependence on parents and peers. moving towards becoming financially less dependent on others. ex. if parents have financial control on you, you feel less individuation because they have that power over you with decision making for example. indicators of individuation –balancing autonomy and connection in ageappropriate ways reworking patterns of “dependencies” financial dependencies: parents pay for many things, which makes them have more power over their adolescent child functional dependencies: ability to manage your day to day care. manage your bills, take car of your car, do things instead of having parents to it for you. emotional dependencies: when we are, we give other people power over us because we attribute too much significance to their approval or disapproval of us. the power we give to other people with their approval or disapproval of us. as you grow older, this should be decreased. it is critical for adolescence as they move into their 20s to become more and more individuated. be less functionally, financially, and emotionally dependent on others. individuation can be conceived of as both a requirement for identity development and an outcome of identity development! . individuation from peers as a foundation for “individual identity.” o as you individuate from your peers, you are way more likely to experiment and act on what is important you you rather than succumb to peer pressure \n hdfs 1070 lecture notes 3/25, page 3 individuation from family as a foundation for “individual identity.” o as you individuate from your parents, their approval and disapproval matters less and they have less control over you in that aspect o they exercise less control over your life individual identity as a foundation for individuation from peers individual identity as a foundation for individuation from family family tasks for the family with adolescents system needs to provide “support” for identity and individuation reworking boundaries: the primary task for a family with adolescents is the reworking of boundaries. parents have to have less involvement with your life and provide greater autonomy and independence. renegotiating patterns of authority: a subtask. have to trust that their child will make their own decisions. when children are young, it is reasonable for parents to expect they will do what they are told. as children merge and go towards adulthood, parents don’t really have a right to tell them what to do. they can make suggestions, but they have to give up exercising excessive authority and trust they will take control over their own life. note on parent/adolescent conflict as related to the reworking of boundaries the job of adolescence is to push for autonomy. parents say “give me proof that you can be trusted to act with high autonomy and i will give you control over your life.” this creates conflict. the conflict isn’t because they have different values, it is because one is pushing for autonomy and one is pushing for evidence of autonomy. this conflict is necessary to rework that balance. individuation enhancing: give them the opportunity to earn authority over their lives and experience themselves as autonomous. note on parent/ adolescent conflict as related to the renegotiation of patterns of authority power legitimacy continuum – distinctions between authority and oppression: conflict in the adolescence years revolve around whether kids accept the parents’ authority over them as legitimate. parents have to be authorities and also constantly provide opportunities for the kids to experience individuation. if kids feel oppressed, they will not view the parent as legitimate. o legitimate expressions of parental power youth view parents as having this legitimate authority \n hdfs 1070 lecture notes 3/25, page 4 leads to the experience of intimacy: the key to intimacy is all around authority and autonomy dynamic. it is based around kids experiencing the parents’ control over them as being legitimate. o nonlegitimate expressions of parental power youth feel unfairly dominated and control leads to an escalation of conflict erodes foundation of intimacy sabatelli, ronald. “later adolescence and family tasks.” hdfs 1070. university of connecticut, storrs. 25 march 2016. lecture. \n hdfs 1070 lecture notes 3/25, page 5 what is necessary for parents to be willing to renegotiate boundaries and patterns of authority? it is necessary for youth to push for greater autonomy and authority parents require “evidence” of responsibility the authorityresponsibility dance! note on the lies that adolescents tell! research shows that all adolescents lie. they lie because it is a way of bypassing the conflict that occurs around the dynamic between authority and responsibility. this is a way of an adolescent to claim authority without going through the conflict. why do some parents need to be “pushed” to rework boundaries and patterns of authority? what do they have to be anxious about? parents don’t give up authority easily because they are anxious about giving their children control and authority. when you give adolescents authority, there is a lot to be concerned about such as drunk driving. when they go off to college, the parents have no way of knowing if you are going to class and have no access to your grades unless you share them. the task for parents is to demonstrate individuation enhancing patterns: no different than the toddler years patters. genuine concern individuation enhancing patterns: parents need remain present but not intrusive in an age appropriate way. don’t tell you what you should do or force you to do things. empathically responsive to the tensions experienced by youth (requires decentering and the ability to selfsooth). important for parents to be empathically responsive to the tensions of their age appropriate stress. parents need to monitor their use of “should”. “should” creates tension between the parent and child. individuation inhibiting patterns: more anxiety than less anxiety expelling: parents are telling you you are on your own. communicates that you don’t matter and have no support. amplifies pressure to find out identity issues. binding: parents don’t let go. the child never experiences competency and autonomy. prevent them from developing skills and resources for being autonomous. delegating: the parents encourage their kids to follow a certain path to enhance the parent’s identity. the parents are vicariously living through and deriving an identity from the kid’s emerging identity. this robs kids of the opportunity of exploration and \n hdfs 1070 lecture notes 3/25, page 6 experience. you see this more where kids early on are identified as being special in some ways; when the kid has a gift for the violin and the parents keep telling him or her they have to do this as a career. the kid is not given an opportunity to explore and experience other things. \n 3/23/16 lecture notes, page 1 adolescence 3/23/16 lecture notes adolescence as a stage in life built upon epigenetic assumptions what happens in the earlier stages of development serves as a foundation for development and each stage has very specific stage tasks that serve as a foundation for further development. define adolescence transitional stage after childhood and before adulthood. it is critical for individuals to be able to form a coherent identity because that coherent identity serves as a platform for the early adult years. individuals need a comfortable identity to succeed as a young adult and on. early versus later adolescence early (13–18) later (19–25 & rising) why two stages instead of one? because adolescence now takes longer for people, which elongates the full entry into adult status why is it taking longer? requirements for adulthood are more complex o have to have more job skills, more maturity, have to make more money, have to live more independently than ever before economic factors (interact with one another): o inflation: assimilate those pressures into your daily life. pay more for food than ever before, pay more for fuel, housing, medical costs. everything is at a much higher rate. education has risen. this puts people in a downward economic spiral. o economic downward mobility: we are the first cohort to experience this. the cohorts before us experienced upward mobility (meaning you would exceed your parents’ standard of living). likelihood of achieving your parents’ standard of living and succeeding your parents’ standard of living is low today. pressures in adolescence – revolve around identity development identity: a work in process which revolves around 3 different factors: the identity triangle: continuous tension throughout the adolescence years. continuously required to take a stand for these values. this pressure comes from everywhere and everyone. life style \n 3/23/16 lecture notes, page 2 occupation ideology identity development process in early adolescence the tensions revolve more around lifestyle and ideology than around occupation crisis becomes, then, one of: group identities vs alienation you continuously deal with everyone but more so deal with your parents pressuring you to figure out those 3 factors (lifestyle, occupation, ideology). you are also pressured to go along with peers. we become less egocentric in our adolescence years. cognitive egocentrism: we become more capable of understanding other people’s points of view. becoming more capable of understanding the norms for conformity—when a young child thinks about his life in an egocentric way (noncognitive egocentric), he or she doesn’t reflect about what other people think about him or her and is unaware of conformity. as they become less egocentric, they become more aware of conformity pressures, social expectations and demands, which makes them more vulnerable to societal pressures and peer pressure. peer pressure (group identities vs. alienation): we define ourselves by the groups we are connected to and also define ourselves to the groups we are alienated from. there is a dynamic tension between these 2 forces which helps us develop our lifestyle, values, and career. ex. tension between a group of students who strive to do their best in school and students who blow all their work off and skip class. these early working models provide a foundation for a more mature working model that will eventually find our identity. o group identities: pressure to develop your identities within a group. align ourselves with certain groups based on their values and ideologies. exists on a continuum: the degree by which you can achieve your goals in a certain peer group. the peer groups that we fit into and get along with are people who reduce our anxiety. (who we are) o alienation: powerful component of the identity development process. it is a negative form of involvement with groups. don’t subscribe to the norms, goals, expectations of that group. in opposition to what the group stands for. makes a stand about who we are. alienated from the groups that make us most anxious. (who we are not) central process of early adolescence: peer pressure peer pressure compels us to consider how and to what degree we are connected to or alienated from various social systems \n 3/23/16 lecture notes, page 3 alienation is reflected in the degree to which one feels that one can achieve their goals by participation in various social systems. exists on a continuum involves reactions that we have to various social systems \n 3/23/16 lecture notes, page 4 attitudinal manifestations of degrees of alienation: normlessness: don’t subscribe to their norms, they have no meaning for us meaninglessness: what provides them with a sense of meaningness has no meaning to us powerlessness social isolation purposelessness: alienation becomes a problem if you wind up with no group to fit into. ultimately those who are completely alienated from the peer world, their families, their teachers: they feel a profound sense of normlessness, meaninglessness, powerlessness, and isolation. reactive systems: one may be more or less alienated from these groups. the systems that you connect with are just as important because they provide you with information that you use to form your identity which you use as a platform to serve for your adult years. a red flag comes up when kids are alienated from multiple system and the only group that they wind up fitting with is equally alienated from others. when you run into kids in early adolescence years like this, they are scary because they feel no purpose or meaning. they endorse a point of view where the values of society are insignificant. they also might have sociopathic tendencies. types of reactive systems are: family school systems/teachers peers community/neighborhoods note – for each individual there could be other systems of influence that he or she reacts to o church o employers early identity, thus is grounded in: we define ourselves through our positive connections to others we define ourselves in reaction to the systems we feel alienated from these define our values, lifestyle choices, help to shape our career objectives \n 3/23/16 lecture notes, page 5 kids who are really at risk are the ones who are alienated from multiple systems. the more you are alienated from different systems, the more isolated and alone you are. this is not a comfortable place for young people, so alienated children find others that are just as equally alienated. their group belief becomes: everyone is a jerk, stupid, and there is no meaning in what other people value. kids like this become more reactive and are more likely to go down the destructive path and organize their identity to be antisocial, non subscribing to morality and ethics, and more likely to form a collective distain to others. this could lead to maladaptive and deconstructive ways. these behaviors are reflective of their formed identity. “hypothesis: the more one is alienated from family, school, and neighborhood systems (who are extensions of parental authority) the more the connections to peers become important. hypothesis: the more one is alienated from family, school, and neighborhood systems, the more likely one will find a group to connect with that is also alienated from these systems. hypothesis: peer groups that share high degrees of collective alienation from family, school and neighborhood systems are likely, also, to be alienated from other peer systems. hypothesis: the more identity is based on reactive alienation from family, school, neighborhood and peer systems, the greater the likelihood that one is likely to engage in maladaptive modes of adaptation – the more likely, in other words, one’s identity is likely to lead them to act in maladaptive ways.” (sabatelli) modes of adaptation to alienation: compelling question here is what does a person do when he or she is negatively involved with a broad array of social systems – to put it another way, what does a person do when he or she believes that these broader systems serve as an obstacle to personal development? when we are alienated there are different ways to adapt to alienation: pay attention to the definitions, not the words! rebellion – what they do is they attempt to change the systems to find a better fit between them and those they are alienated from. they try to change the goals of others in groups they are alienated from in order to have a better fit. ex. if an outcast because don’t do drugs (think they are evil) and everyone else does, go out and preach to others about the dangers of drugs and alcohol. alienation makes them anxious and they respond in a way to get others to conform to their view. self estrangement –you accept the alienation as a defining feature of yourself, become okay with not fitting in. it takes a long time for \n 3/23/16 lecture notes, page 6 people to become comfortable with their alienation because it is painful and uncomfortable. not critical or angry at others, just on own path and know that he or she doesn’t fit well with other groups. conformity – you change yourself to better fit with the broader system. even though its not really you, you do it to fit in. these pressures overcome/overwhelm your own values. oftentimes an individual will experience helplessness because they can’t be themselves. when you see certain adolescences that are depressed, a working hypothesis is to encourage a therapist to find out if they are caught up in the cycle of conforming to fit in when the they don’t really see it as who they are. ex. even though you don’t think getting high is a good thing to do, you do it anyway to fit in and matter to others. retreat – abandon any hope of connection to broader systems; they just retreat. there is no point in being a part of anything, no hope and no connection. retreat into a world of relationships where they all share a disregard for values and attitudes of broader systems. engage in 1 or 2 predominant destructive ways of retreating: selfdestructive retreats – derive one’s identity from committing to behaviors and beliefs that others find objectionable but are at the same time quite harmful to the self. results in them being identified as a problem and having difficulties with authority. ex. drinking heavily, don’t go to school, always giving the finger to others otherdestructive retreats –get angry and commit to the destruction of other systems. ex. habitually vandalizing things, feel it is okay to harm others, disregard laws and moral codes of conduct, and act out in anger to others they are alienated from. all of us experience some degree of alienation. in the mode of responding to alienation, we are defining our identity and moving forward in a way that results in us to be connected to society with unique values and beliefs and aspirations. super alienated people never reach that and experience a lot of dysfunction. sabatelli, ronald. “early adolescence and alienation.” hdfs 1070. university of connecticut, storrs. 23 march 2016. lecture.",
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ad25bcadba10083c7e95db5426d0d3b0 | ?problem 41e
change of concentration with time (section)
(a) the gas-phase decomposition of so2ci2. so2ci2(g)? so2(g) + ci2(g). is first order in so2ci2. at 600 k the halflife for this process is 2.3 x 105 s. what is the rate constant at this temperature? (b) at 320 °c the rate constant is 2.2 x 10-5 s-1. what is the half-life at this temperature? | solved: change of concentration with time (section)(a) the | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": " 1 bio 1144 bio ii with dr. williamson animal bodies and homeostasis ● cells →tissues →organs → organ system ○ tissues are a group of similar cells that operate together for a common goal. organs are a group of tissues that operate together for a common goal. organ systems are groups of organs that operate together for a common goal. ● epithelial tissues: epithelium and glands ○ epithelium ■ epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and acts as the lining of body cavities. it is avascular, which means that there is no direct blood supply to the tissue so molecules enter by diffusion through underlying connective tissues. epithelial cells are tightly packed together and have little extracellular matrix. there is a thin film of acellular, gellike material between the epithelial cells and the underlying connective tissue. this film is called the basal lamina or the basement membrane. it is secreted by the cells on both sides. ■ organization ● number of cell layers the number of cell layers between the basement membrane and the surface has a specified name. simple means 1 layer and stratified means 2 or more layers. ● cell shape ○ squamous these cells are very thin and irregularly shaped. ○ cuboidal these cells are equal in height and width when viewed from the side and have a spherical nucleus in their centers. ○ columnar these cells are taller than they are wide and they have an oval shaped nucleus in the lower third of the cell. ● epithelial tissue types ○ simple squamous a single layer of flat, irregularly shaped cells. they act as sites of exchange, chemical excretion and molecule absorption. ○ simple cuboidal a single layer of cells that are as wide as they are tall. they act as sites of molecule absorption, chemical excretion, and are protective. ○ simple columnar a single layer of cells that are taller than they are wide. they act as sites of chemical excretion, molecule absorption, and are protective. ○ pseudostratified columnar a single layer of columnar cells but it looks like multiple layers because some of them are larger than others. regardless, it is one layer because each cell is in contact with the basal membrane. ○ stratified squamous multiple layers of flat, irregularly shaped cells. this kind of tissue acts as protection. in the case of skin cells in humans and many mammals, the layers grow upwards and as they do so they become filled with keratin until they die. this keratin allows them to resist water loss and protect the underlying cells and tissue from damage from uv light and pathogens. ○ stratified cuboidal multiple layers of cells that are as wide as they are tall. this has limited distribution throughout the body and acts as transportation. \n 2 ○ stratified columnar multiple layers of cells that are taller than they are wide. this has limited distribution in the body and functions as transportation. ○ transitional epithelial tissue this type of tissue is only found in the urinary tract, specifically in the bladder. they have folds in their plasma membranes to accommodate stretching of the bladder as it expands with urine. ○ glands ■ glands are actually pocketlike structures that are derived from epithelial tissue. ■ parts ● parenchyma these are the secretory units and ducts. ● stroma connective tissue surrounding the above as protection and support. ■ types ● exocrine exocrine glands have ducts that allow them to transport the products of the glands. ● endocrine they lack ducts and are highly vascularized (have blood vessels surrounding them) and the hormones they secrete are carried through the blood. ● connective tissues ○ the primary functions of connective tissue are to: provide structural support to organs and other tissues as well as bind them together, act as a medium of exchange, act as defense and protection, and some function for fat storage. the cells that comprise these tissues are dispersed in extracellular matrix. ■ extracellular matrix a substance comprised of fibers, cells, and other secretions. ● ground substance a gellike material that functions to promote diffusion and resists compression and stretching. it is composed of glycosaminoglycans (gags) and proteoglycans. ○ gags these are polymers of disaccharides that are highly negatively charged and allow for attraction of water. ○ proteoglycans these are cores of protein that the gags are directly attached to. they further the attraction of water. ● fibers these are strands of protein that are secreted by the cells of the connective tissue. ○ collagen these are the most common type. they have great tensile strength and provide structural support and prevent great stretching. ○ elastic these allow for elasticity (stretching and then returning to the original form with little warping) and stabilize the matrix. ○ reticular these are types of collagen fibers that help provide the structural framework for the matrix. ● cells there are multiple types of cells in the matrix that help it exist. ○ fibroblasts these secrete the materials that make up the matrix. ○ mast cells these cells initiate inflammatory responses. ○ macrophages they are phagocytes (cells that consume materials actively) that remove debris from other cells in the matrix and prevent infection by consuming pathogens. ○ leukocytes these prevent infection by consuming pathogens. ○ plasma cells these secrete antibodies, which prevent infection from pathogens that have previously entered the body. ■ types of connective tissue ● loose also called areolar, the collagen fibers within are randomly arranged. \n 3 ● dense the collagen fibers within the matrix are densely packed and arranged systematically. ● adipose this is fat tissue and allows the body to have shape and contour. ● cartilage this functions as a support tissue. ● bone this functions as a support tissue as well. ● blood this allows for transport of materials and protection from pathogens. ● muscle tissues ○ muscle tissue are specialized for contraction to allow the body mobility. ○ types ■ skeletal the contractive movement of this muscle is voluntary and each cell has multiple nuclei. it is also striated, which means that there is a regular pattern of proteins in the cells that allow the muscle to contract. this pattern shows up as a regular pattern of dark and light. most of these muscles are associated with bones and body movement but some (like the muscles in the upper part of the throat) help move cartilage. ■ cardiac the contractive movement of this muscle is involuntary and the cells are striated and have 1 or 2 nuclei. the cells also branch and connect to multiple others to form something similar to a net. this net of muscle allows for faster communication between the cells to sync the contractions, which is vital as regular heartbeats are necessary. most cardiac muscle is associated with the myocardium of the heart. ■ smooth the contractive movement of this muscle is involuntary, is striated, and the cells have only one nucleus. they surround the walls of hollow organs and glands. ● nervous tissue ○ nervous tissue is comprised of neurons and neuroglial cells, which allow for the transmission of information. ○ neurons ■ neurons are the only cells in the body capable of conducting nerve impulses, which control the rest of the body functions. ● dendrites dendrites are short tendrils that branch out from the cell body. they conduct the nerve impulse into the cell body. ● cell body called the soma. it contains most of the cytoplasm as well as the main organelles. it conducts the signal that the dendrites drew inwards and sends it down the axon. ● axon the cell body has a single, long tendril at the end opposite the dendrites. this tendril is called the axon. it conducts the nerve impulse out of the neuron and towards the dendrites of other neurons as it branches at its ends. ○ neuroglial cells these are cells that surround the neurons and work as protection and support as well as helping the nerve impulse move along the chain. they do not conduct the impulses though. ● homeostasis ○ homeostasis is the process of the body adjusting to changes in external stimuli in order to maintain a stable internal environment. it just means the body is trying to say the same as it always is. ■ set point the normal value for the variable under distress. ■ sensor the sensors for the variable monitor its variations and signal the integrator. ■ integrator the integrator reads the signals from the sensors and compares them to the set point to determine whether or not to signal the effector. ■ effector the effector is a mechanism that acts to establish the set point of the variable again. ○ feedback systems homeostasis operates under the fundamental feature of feedback systems, which are systems of responding to changes in both the internal and external environments. ■ negative feedback the most common. \n 4 ● they prevent small deviations from the set point from becoming too large. ● it determines the degree of the variation and responds accordingly to reverse the change. it also prevents the effector from overcompensating and making the issue worse but in the other direction. ● example: thyroxine concentration in the blood. the hypothalamus signals the anterior pituitary to signal the thyroid to produce thyroxine. the thyroxine produced then acts as a signal to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to stop sending signals out so that excess thyroxine is not forced into the system by the thyroid. ■ positive feedback this are very, very rare in biological systems. ● they amplify deviation from the set point. ● example: oxytocin acts as the chemical signal to induce labor in mammals. oxytocin triggers the contractions that begin labor and those contractions of the muscle produce more oxytocin, which increases the contractions, which causes more oxytocin to be produced and so on. ■ feedforward regulation ● this response is pre emptive/anticipatory. the body prepares for a deviation from the set point before it happens. many of these responses result from learning. ● example: in athletic competitions, athletes’ heart rates and breathing rates increase before they even start the competition because the body anticipates what is about to happen and prepares for it by flooding the body with adrenaline. digestive systems ● organisms ingest organic macromolecules for two general purposes: the generation of energy in the form of atp and the “creation” of smaller, more usable molecules using the macromolecules. ● functions ○ ingestion ○ digestion the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food. mechanical breakdown is physically crushing and dividing the food via teeth, stomach muscle contractions, etc. chemical breakdown is the chemical alteration of the materials via chemical reactions with enzymes. ○ absorption digested food is absorbed by the epithelial cells lining the gi tract. ○ transport food is moved from organ to organ to allow for continued absorption and processing of the materials. ○ elimination undigested or unabsorbed food is removed in the feces. ● feeding mechanisms different ways of eating. ○ suspension feeding (filter feeders) they filter organic molecules from the wall with cilialined tracts (like in bivalve mollusks and sea squirts) or filterlike “organs” such as the baleen of baleen whales. ○ bulk feeders they eat food in large chunks. ■ carnivores they consume meat by preying on animals. these are predators and scavengers. they have sharp, angular teeth designed for ripping and tearing. they have large canines. ■ herbivores they consume plant matter. these are grazers. they have large, ridged, wide surfacearea teeth suited for grinding and crushing plant matter. they have molars. ■ omnivores they consume both plants and animals. they have both ripping and tearing canines and grinding molars and premolars. ○ fluid feeders they consume fluid food. they do not need teeth in most cases but some developed them to puncture living prey to consume the body juices of the animal. ● mechanisms of digestion and absorption ○ intracellular digestion \n 5 ■ this is mainly present in sponges because food enters the cells directly via phagocytosis. ■ this process cannot meet the metabolic demands of large, active animals for very long and they have no ability to store food. ○ extracellular digestion ■ food is primarily digested outside of the cells. this protects the interior of the cells from the hydrolytic enzymes that would destroy or harm them. this allows the organism to consume large amounts of food, which enters the digestive cavity to be stored, slowly digested, and gradually absorbed by the cells of the body. ■ gastrovascular cavity ● simplest form of extracellular digestion. a single opening serves as both the entry for food and the exit for waste. food is partially digested in the cavity and then the dissolved particles are absorbed by phagocytosis. ■ alimentary canal gi tract ● a single, elongated tube with an entry end for food and an exit end for waste. it is lined by epithelial cells that synthesize the digestive enzymes, secrete hormones, and transport and absorb digested food. ● the walls of the canal contain smooth muscle to operate the mechanical breakdown actions. ● there are several specialized regions of the canal. eac has a different environment and serves a different purpose. ● vertebrate digestive systems ○ vertebrates have an alimentary canal as well as accessory structures such as teeth, a tongue, salivary glands, etc. ○ parts ■ oral cavity ● teeth begin the mechanical breakdown of the food by tearing/grinding the food. incisors (thin front teeth) act to bite off food, canines (sharp angular teeth) act to tear and shred food, and molars and premolars (every other tooth) act to grind the food down. ● salivary glands they produce saliva to moisten food. the saliva also has antimicrobial agents and has salivary amylase, which is an enzyme that begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates. ● tongue it has lingual papillae, which are basically ridges that help to grip food and also contain taste buds. it aids in swallowing, especially by helping to create the bolus (the wet ball of food and saliva that gets swallowed). ■ pharynx the area generally referred to as the throat. ● tonsils they are lymphoid tissue (immune system) that are found surrounding the port of entry into the body cavity. the lymphocytes within provide protection from pathogens. ■ esophagus the tube conducting the food to the stomach. ● peristalsis the actual movement of the muscles surrounding the esophagus that acts in a wavelike motion to force food down into the stomach. it is involuntary. ● crop some organisms have it, some don’t. it is a storage organ and is just a dilated area before the stomach that acts as a storage space for food. little to no digestion occurs here. ■ stomach the large, most dilated part of the canal. ● muscle contractions force the food to break apart via mechanical breakdown and the stomach regulates the rate of emptying of the chyme into the small intestine. \n 6 there is no lipid or carbohydrate digestion here. chyme is the liquified, acidic slurry of food and enzyme created in the stomach. nasty. ● glands ○ parietal cells they secrete the hydrochloric acid in the stomach that allows for chemical breakdown of food. and killing of microbes and other pathogens. ○ chief cells they secrete pepsinogen, which, once it interacts with hydrochloric acid, becomes pepsin. pepsin is a general dissolver of proteins. they secrete pepsinogen instead because if they created the pepsin within themselves the pepsin would destroy the proteins within the chief cells themselves. ● herbivores they have to digest the cellulose in the plants they eat but lack cellulase. therefore, they have microbes in their canal that consume the cellulose and produce the needed monosaccharides. ○ simple stomach in nonruminant herbivores (meaning they don’t throw their food up to chew and swallow it again) such as rabbits, horses, and rats. the first region of the large intestine is called the cecum and has the cellulose digesting microbes. ○ complex stomach ■ forestomach is comprised of three parts prior to the true stomach. ● rumen cellulose digesting microbes. ● reticulum cellulose digesting microbes. ● omasum absorbs water and salt from food. ■ abomasum true stomach. contains acids and proteolytic enzymes. ■ intestines ● small intestine long tube that the stomach empties the chyme into. it finishes the digestion of proteins and carbohydrates into amino acids and monosaccharides, respectively. it also begins and ends the digestion of lipids and nucleic acids into glycerol & fatty acids and nucleotides, respectively.the length of the si varies but is generally longer in herbivores because they need more time to digest the plant materials. ○ surface modifications the surface area of the small intestine is greatly increased to provide for more absorption. ■ plicae circulares there are folds in the wall that project into the lumen (the space). ■ villi the individual bumps are called villi and increase the surface area. ■ microvilli the cells comprising the outer wall of the villi have highly folded regions of their plasma membranes as well. ● large intestine it’s primary function is to store and concentrate feces and absorb remaining salt and water. bacteria within it feed on remaining food and produce vitamins, which is a positive. it includes the cecum in some cases and also includes the colon, rectum, and anal canal. ○ accessory digestive glands ■ pancreas it produces extra digestive enzymes and also adds the chemical bicarbonate, which acts as a buffer so the ph of the intestine does not become too acidic. \n 7 ■ liver the liver produces bile for the emulsification (just remember the word and think of it as making things easier to digest) of lipids (fats). ■ gall bladder it stores and concentrates the bile created by the liver. nervous system ● the nervous system is comprised of all neurons and the many types of cells that protect them, which are called neuroglial cells. it is divided into the central nervous system (cns), which is comprised of the brain and spinal column and the peripheral nervous system (pns), which is comprised of everything else. in the peripheral nervous system a nerve is a group of axons that are bound together and a ganglion is a group of somas (cell bodies). ● neuroglia ○ these are the supportive cells. they do not conduct or generate an action potential or graded potential. they simply protect, feed, and aid the neurons. ○ astrocytes only in thecns. they form what is called the bloodbrain barrier. to get material to neurons there are many capillaries that go through the brain tissue. these capillaries are not directly next to neurons, instead they are surrounded by astrocytes, which absorb the material from the blood and then transfer it to the neuron. they protect the neurons from damaging materials such as alcohol. this trait makes them the metabolic support system for cns neurons. ○ microglia only in thcns . these are tiny, freemoving cells that are phagocytes. this means that they just kind of run around the brain eating up waste material, dead cells, and pathogens. ○ ependyma only in the cns. these line the central canal (the hollow area that the spinal cord is held in) of the spinal column and the ventricles of the brain (there are “hollow” areas in the brain called ventricles. these cells are ciliated and produce the cerebrospinalfluid, which is the liquid in which the brain and spinal cord are suspended. ○ oligodendrocytes only in the cns. these form the myelin sheath. myelin is not so much a material as a name for the protective coat around a neuron’s axon. oligodendrocytes are cells in the space between neurons that project parts of their cell membranes outwards. these projections wrap around the axons to form the sheath. they form many of these projections, sometimes attaching to multiple neurons, to the point that they look like spiky balls stuck to the axons. ○ schwann cells only in pns. these form the myelin sheath in thpns. these are single cells that wrap their entire bodies around part of the axon. they are small so there are a lot of these wrapped around a single axon. there are spaces between the cells. ● neurons ○ neurons are the structural/functional unit of the nervous system. they send and receive signals to various parts of the body and are present in all animals except sponges. ○ parts ■ the cell body of a neuron is called the soma, which contains the nucleus and most of the organelles of the neuron. groups of soma in the cns are called nuclei while groups of soma in the pns are called ganglia. ■ dendrites are multiple, short branches at one end of the soma that generate a graded potential when excited by another neuron’s action potential from its axon. ■ the axon is the long, singular projection at the end of the neuron opposite the dendrites. it generates the action potential and the first segment of the axon is called the axon hillock. ○ types of neurons ■ sensory neurons also called afferent neurons. they send information from the pns to the cns. ■ interneurons these neurons transmit signals to other neurons. \n 8 ■ motor neurons also called efferent neurons. they send information from the cns to the pns. ■ nerves in the pns ● sensory clusters of sensory neuron axons. ● motor clusters of motor neuron axons. ● mixed clusters of axons from both types of neurons. ● electrical properties of neurons and signal conduction ○ the plasma membrane of a neuron is the barrier that separates charged particles on either side. the concentration of these ions is different inside and outside the cell and this difference is what generates an electrical force (in volts) and when the cell is like this it is electrically polarized. the number that defines the difference across the plasma membrane is called the membrane potential. ○ resting membrane potential ■ this is the membrane potential of the plasma membrane when the neuron is at rest. the neuron is at rest at any time that it is not conducting an action potential. the charge within the neuron is normally 70 millivolts. the negative charge is mainly due to the presence of proteins, which have many negative charges, within the cell. ■ this potential is established because of the ion concentration gradient, which is that difference in ion concentration discussed above. the two big ions that control this gradient are sodium (na) and potassium (k). ● the na+/k atpase pump (think of that as one word) is a protein pump in the plasma membrane that constantly moves 3 na out of the cell and 2 in. this forces more positive charge to the outside of the cell and establishes the gradient. ● ungated na + and ungated k channels these are protein channels that allow for fast, passive movement into and out of the cell for their respective ions. + because there is a higher concentration of outside the cell and a higher concentration of k inside, the na rushes in and th rushes out when the + + neuron is at rest. there are 10100 times more channels than na channels so k is considered more valuable to the cell. ○ neuron communication ■ neurons “communicate” by rapid changes in the mp. the direction of ion movement across the plasma membrane depends on the electrochemical gradient (ecg), which determines the mp. this is established by two different types of ion channels in the plasma membrane: voltage gated, which open/close in response to the mp, and ligand gated, which open/close when ligands (binding molecules such as neurotransmitters) + + bind to the receptors. these channels allow for the transference of even mor and k. ● depolarization the neuron becomes less polarized because the gp from the dendrites opens the voltage gated channels and na+ rushes in. it’s called depolarization because, since the resting membrane potential is negative, the positive ion influx forces it positive for a moment. ● hyperpolarization the neuron, to adjust for the change it was forced to undergo, forces a lot of those positive ions out and briefly goes even more negative than the resting membrane potential, which is why it’s hyperpolarization. ■ signal transduction ● graded potentials these are changes in the mp of the dendrites that are triggered by an action potential from the axon of another neuron. they spread a short distance before dying out but if a gp is strong enough, or if enough of them are generated at one time, then the potential moves through to the neuron. \n 9 ● action potentials these are long distance electrical signals that include a large depolarization. they actually reverse the mp for a brief time. they begin at the axon hillock and travel down the axon. these are all or none events in that if the graded potentials are not strong enough, an ap won’t be generated at all, but if they are then one will be. the ap is actively regenerated all down the axon. they initiate the gp at the dendrites of the next cells. aps goes in one direction. they go from axon hillock to axon terminal, never the other way. ○ generation ■ depolarization the gps from the dendrites travel to the axon hillock. if the signal is strong enough (able to force the inside of the cell to go up to 50mv instead of 70mv) then an ap is generated. this causes the voltage gated na+ channels to open, which allows quick na+ influx, forcing the inside of the cell to temporarily become positively charge (referred to as temporary reversal of mp). ■ repolarization once the inside of the cell is positive the inactivation gate for the voltage gated na+ channel closes the channel. then the voltage gated k+ channels open about a millisecond later and allow the k+ within the cell to flood out to put the cell back at rmp. as the k+ rushes out the cell briefly becomes more negative than 70mv so the na +/k atpase pump works to establish the rmp again. ■ absolute refractory period this is a very short time period where the voltage gated na+ channels are inactive and completely incapable of opening. this nonresponsiveness is key so that the axon does not accidentally send the ap backwards and it also limits the rate of the ap generation. ○ factors affecting conduction ■ the larger the diameter of an axon, the faster the conduction will be. ■ myelination myelinated axons are significantly faster at conducting signals. the gaps between the cells that make the myelin sheath (oligodendrocytes in the cns and schwann cells in the pns) are called the nodes of ranvier and allow for saltatory conduction, which is conduction that seems to allow jumping of the ap from node to node. ■ synapses ● the junction between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another, the junction between a muscle cell and axon, or the junction between a gland and an axon. they can be electrical or chemical. most are chemical, though some allow the electrical charge to jump between the axon and dendrites. ○ chemical synapses ■ they use neurotransmitters, which are either inhibitory or excitatory molecules released into the synapse by the axon terminals. there are more than 100 in animals, including: gaba, which is the most common inhibitor, glutamate, which is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter, and acetylcholine, which is excitatory in skeletal muscles and the brain but inhibitory in cardiac muscle. ■ signal transmission process \n 10 ● the presynaptic neuron’s axon terminals contain vesicles (balls of cell membrane) that float in their cytoplasm that hold the neurotransmitters. when calcium is allowed the permeate the cell membrane it binds to the vesicles and forces them to meld with the cell membrane and release the neurotransmitters they contain into the synaptic cleft, which is the space between the axon terminal and dendrites. the neurotransmitter binds to the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron and either opens the dendrite’s channels (excitatory) or closes them (inhibitory). the neurotransmitters that are not used up by this process are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron in the reuptake process. then this happens again and again and again. ● nervous system overview by phyla ○ cnidarians they have the simplest nervous system as it is nothing but a net of neurons that activate all or most of the neurons in the net if one area is activated. ○ echinoderms they have a ring of nerves around their mouth, which has nerves that radiate into the arms. this allows the mouth and the appendages to operate independently. ○ platyhelminthes there are long strands of nerves that go down the length of the flatworm and they are connected to each other by transverse nerves, which are just connectors. they have a cerebral ganglia (a collection of neurons in their head that seems like a rudimentary brain) and the system works for the basic communication between senses and motor control. ○ annelids very much like platyhelminthes but they have more neurons overall and there are ganglia in all of the ventral nerve cords. they also have a true rudimentary brain. ○ arthropods they have a true brain with subdivisions with separate functions. ○ mollusks they are very similar to annelids but they have paired nerve cords and a pair of anterior ganglia. they also have welldeveloped brains. ○ chordates they have a full cns and pns and their nervous system develops from the neural tube in the embryo. ● details of the cns and pns ○ general vertebrate brains develop from the embryonic neural tube and there are three divisions to this organ. there is thindbrain, which is the area towards the back of the brain that coordinates the body’s basic functions in order to preserve homeostasis. thmidbrain is the middle section of the brain and this generalized area processes the sensory input received from the sensory organs and is in direct control of specialized tasks such as unconscious movements like blinking. theforebrain, which sits at the front, is in control of the voluntary motor functions, helps the midbrain process sensory data, and control the personality as well as thoughts. \n 11 ○ ○ ○ details ■ the brain itself is called cerebrum . the cerebrum is split into two hemispheres of tissue that are covered in a surface layer of tissue callecerebral cortex (cortex means outer layer). this cortex holds about 10% of all the neurons in the cerebrum. the two hemispheres of the cerebrum are connected to one another by a small structure called thecorpus callosum . the left hemisphere is typically associated with language and speech processing while the right hemisphere is associated with facial recognition, emotions, and memory. ■ the brain is further divided inlobes: lobes are general areas of the brain that are predisposed to a specific function of control. frontal lobe is associated with the motor functions and conscious thought. the parietal lobe is associated with the senses of touch and location (understanding your place in space is, in fact, a sense). the occipital lobe is associated with vision and ttemporal lobe is associated with language and hearing. ■ basal nuclei these are areas of the brain that have great control over movement and planning. people affected by parkinson’s disease have damage to these nuclei, which causes loss of motor control. \n 12 ■ the limbic system the limbic system is comprised of tholfactory bulbs, amygdala , andhippocampus . the olfactory bulbs connect memories with smells. the entire limbic system is associated with memories and emotions. the amygdala is the direct controller of emotions and interpretation of them while the hippocampus actually stores the memories. ■ thalamus the thalamus is the “relay center” of the brain. all sensory input, excluding smell, travels through it to be distributed to the proper lobe of the brain. ■ hypothalamus the hypothalamus is a hormone producer in the brain, which makes it part of the endocrine system as well as the nervous. its hormones regulate the pituitary gland, which is the gland that controls the other glands of the body. in sum, the hypothalamus is the ceo who tells the pituitary (a franchisee) what to tell its workers (the endocrine glands) what to do. ■ epithalamus this is not a single structure, instead it is several in one. these structures control multiple things such as hunger, regular behaviors, and melatonin production in thpineal gland. ■ brainstem the brainstem is composed of themedulla oblongata ,pons, and midbrain. the midbrain relays many sensory inputs and uses tracts to communicate this information. the pons is a relay for information fromcerebellum (which controls balance and coordination but is a structure separate from the brainstem) to the rest of the brain. the medulla oblongata helps with basic reflexes and automatic processes like breathing. you sever the medulla and you’re dead almost immediately, no exceptions. ■ spinal cord the spinal cord is not the vertebrae, it is a literal cord of nervous tissue that runs through the hollows that are within the vertebrae. it acts as the pathway for the nerves of the pns to send their info to the brain and for the commands of the cns to reach the pns. ■ meninges the spinal cord and the entire brain are covered in a protective layer of membranes that are collectively called the meninges. thdura mater is the thickest meninge and is the outermost one. thearachnoid mater is a weblike meninge below the dm and the pia mater is a very thin membrane that actually touches the brain and spinal cord meningitis is inflammation of these tissues, which causes pressure on the brain or sc and causes severe pain, inhibition of normal function, and death. ■ peripheral nervous system (pns) ● in vertebrates there are two separate divisions of the pns:somatic and the autonomic . the somatic is entirely focused on voluntary control of movements. the autonomic controls everything else, such as heart rate. the autonomic is further divided into two divisions:parasympathetic and the sympathetic. the parasympathetic slows down an action, such as slowing the heart rate but does the opposite with eating, it tells you to eat more. the sympathetic does the opposite. it causes an action to increase with the exception of eating, which it tells you to stop doing. muscular system ● the muscular system is specifically designed for movement via specialized cells perfected for contraction. muscle tissue shows the traits of irritability (reactive to a stimulus), excitability (responsive to nerves and hormones), extensibility (stretching), and elasticity (reforming). vertebrates have three types of muscle tissue: cardiac, skeletal, and smooth. ○ skeletal \n 13 ■ ■ skeletal muscle is formed by the fusion of multiple cells in the embryo. these cells are arranged side by side and parallel to each other. if you look at a sheet of graph paper, imagine each block is a cell, that is how muscle cells are arranged. each cell is long and has multiple nuclei that are placed towards the ends of the cells. they cannot undergo mitosis to form new cells but they are able to regenerate themselves. ■ a muscle is a single organ composed of muscle cells and their protective tissumuscle fibers are individual muscle cells, which are naturally extremely long. a bundle of muscle fibers is called fascicle. a bundle of fascicles groups together to formmuscle. in skeletal muscles there are three types of connective tissue that help to protect the muscle cells: thepimysium ,perimysium , and endomysium . the epimysium covers the entire muscle and is very thick. the perimysium is within the muscle and surrounds the fascicles. the endomysium is a layer that surrounds every individual muscle fiber. ■ sarcomeres muscle cells are able to contract because of their functional units, the sarcomeres. sarcomeres are regularly spaced segments of proteins arranged in a very specific order that repeats end to end. myofibrils are cylinders of contracting proteins that surround the myofilaments. ● ● myofilaments are thick and thin protein filaments that slide over one another in order to produce the contraction. ○ thin filaments ■ actin actin molecules form two chains that form a helix. each of these chains has a binding site for myosin. (orange balls in a chain above) ■ tropomyosin this protein is one long rope that wraps around the actin when the muscle fiber is relaxed in order to block the myosin binding site. (white rope in pic above) ■ troponin complex the troponin complex is a small area of proteins that sit at a point on the tropomyosin. it is comprised of tni; which binds to the actin; tnt, which binds to the tropomyosin, and tnc, which binds to calcium. (tnc is the \n 14 only part shown above but consider that to have the other two pieces as well) ○ thick filaments ■ myosin myosin molecules are dimers of two myosin molecules bound to each other’s tails. these molecules have an actin and atp binding region on their heads and their tails just join them to each other. a myosin filament is comprised of several hundred of these molecules bound to each other in a chain. ● ● sarcomeres have the appearance of being striated (patterned in color by alternation) because the thin filaments stretch over all of the sarcomere except for a space in the middle while the myosin filaments are held in the middle. a dark area appears where the thin and thick filaments overlap and a lighter area shows where it's just thin filaments. to bind the sarcomeres to one another there is an area where there are proteins that bind the thin filaments of two sarcomeres together, this area is called tzdisk. the light band is called an iband while the dark area is called aband. the very small area of light that is in the middle of the sarcomere is calledhzone and the dark line in the center of the hzone is called tmline. these are illustrated in the pearson image above. ■ contraction ● the muscle fiber has?",
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33f6fc4345c46e892e4adb8a4e5c27d5 | calculate the ph of a 0.200 m solution of c5h5nhf. hint: c5h5nhf is a salt composed of c5h5nh and f ions. the principal equilibrium in this solution is the best acid reacting with the best base; the reaction for the principal equilibrium is | calculate the ph of a 0.200 m solution of c5h5nhf. hint: | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": " tuesday 4/5/16 why did the united states enter the war? 1. financial commitment to the allies a. war was economic boom for us b. our money was going towards britain and france 2. shared principles of democracy a. opposition to german militarism b. not everyone was probritish 3. german attacks on american neutrality a. sinking of the lusitania because germans didn’t want america and britain to trade (?) b. “unrestricted submarine warfare” beings early 1917, america declares war with germany in april 1917 america at war: what was its contribution to victory? ● america didn’t determine the strategy ● the donkeys ( 1961) ● german 210mm guns artillery was the big killer of soldiers in the war of 19141918 ● war of attrition us didn’t have any tactics ● us needed, “men, men and more men” ● germans end the war agreeing to an armistice (armistice day, 11/11) problems of peacemaking wilson at versailles why did the us enter the war? 1. financial commitment to the allies 2. shared principles of democracy 3. german attacks on american neutrality and... 4. how could we influence the postwar peace, if we were not actively involved in fighting the war? ● “peace without victory,” wilson, january 1917 (before we enter the war) ● “fourteen points” speech, wilson, january 1918 ○ end to secret treaties, establish league of nations \n wilson’s new world order ● spread democracy because democracies did not engage in wars of conquest ● an end to trade barriers would reduce tensions that led to war ● a “league of nations” rather than arms and alliances would be the key to international order there were two problems: one was the europeans the reality of versailles ● britain would not accept freedom of the seas ● “open diplomacy” was conducted behind closed doors ● peace without victory became the “war guilt clause” for germany ○ made the germans resentful and determined to “get even” when the opportunity presented itself in the future ● selfdetermination for some; but other border realignments just created new problems the other problem was the us opposition to the treaty *** in textbook ● november 1918 elections gave control of congress to the republicans ○ president wilson did not involve republicans in the peace negotiations, even though he needed a republicandominated senate to approve any treaty (art ii, sec 2 of the constitution) ● irreconcilables did not want anything to do with a league of nations ● reservationists not necessarily against a league of nations but wanted restrictions on its authority over the united states ● opposition to article 10 did it commit nations to using force to maintain the peace and guarantee territorial integrity? the twenties events of 19181919 ● influenza killed 500,000 americans (more american soldiers died of this than at the hands of the germans) ● “red scare” generated by bolshevik (communist) revolution in russia and bombing campaign in us *** in textbook ● 1919 more strikes than in any other year of american history ● chicago white sox threw the world series! ● manufacturing inexpensive consumer goods (electric mixer, the vacuum, refrigerator, washing machine) ● age of consumption ● instant gratification, fulfillment with consumption \n a consumer culture ● a society in which the majority of people seek fulfillment and defines identity through acts of consumption ● new values like, “instant gratification” rather than selfdenial, restraint, saving for the future, and so on (the supposed values of the older generation) ● “problems” resolved through consumption the automobile: backbone of industry ● 1900 → 300 firms produced 4,000 cars ● 1922 → ford produced 2 million cars ● 1927 → one car for every 5.3 people in the us; in france one for every 44 people; in germany one for every 196 model t cost went down automobiles encouraged consumption i.e. general motors cadillac → different styles of cars came out every year so your car could complement your personality promote dissatisfaction so people buy new cars ● clyde barrow (bonnie and clyde) “i always prefer to steal a ford.” car industry set up credit for consumers (so people can get a loan) ● mass entertainment! ● 1929 40% houses had radios ● film industry! increasingly homogenized america… people dressing the same way, buying the same products, watching the same movies, but this creates tension in society because of this new culture culture clash *** in textbook ● the triumph of nativism (immigration restriction) ● “national origins” or immigration act of 1924 ● instituted a permanent quota system, with total immigration capped at 164,000 based on percentages (2 percent) of ethnic origins shown in 1890 census ● example: italy’s quota was 3,845, great britain’s was 65,361 \n thursday 4/7/16 culture clash ● the triumph of nativism (immigration restriction) ● the second ku klux klan ○ earlier kkk was in south, this one is in the midwest (oh, in, tx, ok, or) ○ 100% americanism no more immigrants! ● the scopes trial ○ can’t teach evolution too secular ○ similar to plessy vs. ferguson separate but equal politics of the 1920s resurgent republicanism warren harding (1920) ● “i can handle my enemies; it’s my damn friends i have to worry about!” ● ^^^ corruption during harding administration ● trickledown theory of economics calvin coolidge (1924) ● coolidge joke: “did you hear that former president coolidge was found dead?” “really! how could they tell?” herbert hoover (1928) ● hoover is “certainly a wonder and i wish we could make him president of the united states. there would not be a better one.” fdr the great depression (under the hoover administration) ● “great engineer” ● said he would donate presidential salary to charity why depression? ***in textbook ● the stock market crash, 1929? ○ shares decreased by about 40% ● depressed agricultural prices and farm closures ● lack of diversity in economy ● overproduction of consumer goods “... all of the policies of the new deal failed to end the great depression; it ended when the united states began rearming in 1941...” n economic history of the us so… in order to end a depression, go to war \n ● depressions happen about every 2530 years ● but this great depression is the only one that doesn’t go away immediately and becomes a worldwide depression some figures: ● national income: ○ $87.4 billion in 1929 ○ $41.7 billion in 1932 ● by 1932, 2025% national unemployment with higher statewide numbers: ○ 50% in cleveland ○ 80% in toledo ● bank closures to 1933 wiped out $7 billion in savings ● hoover believed the great depression was only temporary ○ government never did anything to help the depression and it would go away ○ hoover believes he should do the same as it got worse, he looked bad ○ democrats were trying to embarrass hoover ○ hoovervilles, hoover flags, “hard times are still hoovering over us” election of 1928 almost all the states election of 1932 only took 6 states fdr ● had the draft of a speech against high tariffs, another supporting it, and told his speech writers to mesh the two together ● new deal ● willingness to try new things ● confident grin ● attempted assassination of fdr, but wounding others ● fireside addresses road to recovery? ● bank holiday ○ emergency banking act, 9 march 1933 this bill was passed unanimously by the house (seven “no” votes in the senatenread by any member ● the hundred days 15 major pieces of legislation national recovery administration ● governmentsanctioned cartels ● industrial compacts and codes to set wages, hours, and working conditions ● part of the national industrial recovery act (nira) \n civilian conservation corps ● a workrelief program ● 3 million young men employed; paid $30 a month (had to send $25 home) ● national forests; flood control; beautification projects public works administration ● first of the major “makework” programs of the new deal ● allotted $3.3 billion for public works (idea is to put money into people’s pockets quickly) jmu was built using pwa project money! problems ● conservatives thought that new deal programs were corrupting “american ideals” fdr was going too far! ● radicals saw the great depression as proof that capitalism was dead fdr was not doing enough to recognize that reality! ● and economic indicators did not indicate that much recovery was taking place floyd olson of minnesota and the farmlabor party upton sinclair ● democratic candidate for governor of california in 1934 ● epic end poverty in california program; seize idle lands and factories and turn them over to workers’ and farmers’ cooperatives huey long of louisiana ● “share our wealth society” (1934) ● fdr: long was “one of the two most dangerous men in the country.” ● dictatorship the “second” new deal ● social security act (1935) ● wpa work progress administration ○ $11 billion works program (included the exslave interviews) ○ nation’s single largest employer ● wagner act, or national labor relations act (1935) \n ",
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0c6b5c84794e513fc06c49f8b144793d | in exercises 130, solve each equation. be sure to check your proposed solution by substituting it for the variable in the original equation. 5x 3x 4x 10 2 | in exercises 130, solve each equation. be sure to check | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " geo 101 – the dynamic earth exam 3 study guide this is not all inclusive – what is the significance of a sedimentary basin? they are the location of most of the earths hydrocarbon reserve what do transgressions and regressions tell us? transgressions are when sea level rise – shoreline migrates inland regression is when sea levels fall coast migrates seaward why does sea level change? ecstatic – global sea level change o sedimentary local variation from accumulation and/ or compaction of sediment o tectonic continents and/ or sea floor rising and falling how are diagenesis and metamorphism related to each other and what causes each? digenesis as temperature and pressure increase still in deeper in the subsurface, the changes that take place in the rocks on more profound. at a high temperature and pressure metamorphism begins and make new mineral s the transition between metamorphism and diagenesis occurs between 150 and 300 degrees celsius what kinds of changes occur during metamorphism? recrystallization same mineral, different size and shape of grains changes the size and shape of grains without changing the identity of the mineral phase change same chemical composition transforms one mineral into another mineral with the same composition but a different crystal structure neocrystallization new minerals growth of new mineral crystals that differ from those of the protolith (clay and quartz) turn into (quarts garnet and mica) pressure solution (must be in water) minerals change shape – elongate wet rock is squeezed more strongly in one direction than in others. mineral grains dissolve where their surfaces are pressed against other grains plastic deformation happens when a rock is squeezed or sheared at elevated temps and pressures. under these conditions grains behave like soft plastic and change shape without breaking how do geologists classify metamorphic rocks? parent rocks \n o component minerals sandstone quartzite shale – slate limestone marble texture o foliated layer or stripes forms by rotation or recrystallization o nonfoliated o shape, size, and arrangement of grains what causes foliation? foliation layer or stripes o forms by rotation and recrystallization what does metamorphic grade tell us? degree of metamorphic change what do metamorphic facies and index minerals tell us? metamorphic facies o group of minerals that are created under specific temperatures and pressures index mineral o tells what forms with specific temperature and pressures where does metamorphism happen? contact metamorphism o existing rock heated by intruding magma o low grade metamorphism regional metamorphism o associated with mountain building burial o very deeply buried sediment dynamic o fault zones subduction zones o high pressure and low temperature shocks o meteorite impact what is the rock cycle? series of processes in which rock forms; any type of rock can be reformed into any other type of rock what causes earthquakes? movement of magma volcanic explosion giant landslides \n water pumping or injection underground nuclear bomb tests plate tectonics o new fault or old fault know the major types of faults, the subcategories under each, what kind of movement occurs at each fault type, and why that particular type of movement occurs with that fault. dip slip o normal – occur where there is tension or stretching of earths crust o reverse thrust compression (opposite of normal), pops up (mountains), much steeper o oblique extension or shorting (moves in two directions at once) strike slip o left lateral o right lateral what is elastic rebound theory and what does it explain? idea that earth can take a certain amount of pressure o has a certain breaking point like a twig snapping in half what are the kinds of displacement that occur along faults? how far each side of fault moves away from each other o fault creep moves a little bit everyday o periodic energy release earth is moving and pressure builds o store up energy be able to explain foreshock, aftershock and earthquake triggering. foreshock fault is beginning to move aftershock fault is adjusting to the new position earthquake triggering more earthquakes outside aftershock area o hanging wall rock is above fault o foot wall rock is below fault what are the types of seismic waves and their characteristics? body wave travels through the earth o p right to left o s up and down o p waves compressional waves particle motion is parallel to the wave direction can go through outer core o s waves shear wave particle motion is perpendicular to the wave direction cant move through outer core o each wave changes velocity depending what they are going through \n surface wave o love wave moves like a snake (side to side particle motion) deeper you go the less motion o rayleigh waves make a lot of damage, creates most shaking during quake up, back, around counter clockwise elliptical particle motion how are earthquakes recorded, measured, and located? seismograph o measures intensity, direction and duration of an earthquake seismograms o record of ground motion as function of time primary wave 1 t nd shear 2 locating o p waves are faster than s waves determine difference (sp) distance 8(sp) earthquake size o magnitude measure energy release o intensity look at damage (centered around humans) o which earthquake magnitude measurement scale is considered the most accurate? why? richter o uses maximum amplitude of s wave s p time good for shallow local quakes mercalli o based on human experience o measures damage to humans and their structures most accurate o moment magnitude uses several wave types rock properties area of fault amount of slip where do earthquakes occur, and where will you find shallow or deep earthquakes? \n occur around all of the plate boundaries deep o subduction zones shallow o divergent plate boundaries normal fault o continental rift zone normal fault o continental collision zone reverse and thrust (compression) o convergent plate boundaries normal and thrust faults o transform strike slip fault center of plate o rare – 5% o not fully understood earthquake how and why does each earthquake hazard happen and what are the results? ground shaking – amount of damage is determined by shaking o ground displacement o land slide movement of rock and sediment downslope o liquefaction mixing of soil and ground water o fire stoves, gas, electrical line rupture o tsunami wide wave (large volume) 500 mph can predict only hours o disease no clean water, sewage spilling, no transportation can earthquakes be predicted? what can we do to mitigate the damage? not really o can be predicted where but not when to mitigate damages o monitory usgs maps o early warning systems o being prepared o construction techniques what are the factors that determine the kind of deformation that will take place? type of rock temperature pressure rate of deformation which geologic features are caused by deformation? what are their characteristics? faults brittle joint brittle o natural cracks no opposing movements \n o veins minerals precipitate in joints folds ductile o compressive strain o anticline o syncline o monocline stair step o plunging asymmetrical o nonplunging symmetrical o basin bowl oldest is on the edge o dome oldest in the center what information does a geologist get from strike and dip? strike o compass direction of outcrop angle relative to north (measured clockwise) dip o perpendicular to strike measures amount and direction of tilt what happens at each place where orogenies occur? a mountain building event o subduction zone oceanic plate pushes into another creating a mountain o continental collision two plates meet in the middle and crumple up deforming each other example: himalayas o continental rifting stretching, faulting, and volcanoes o what is isostasy? lithosphere “floats” on asthenosphere o gravity pulls down lithosphere idea that earth is always in equilibrium o squeeze in one place and another place pops out what is a craton? what are the parts of a craton? craton: crust that hasn’t experienced an orogeny for at least 1 billion years, center/ parts: o shield precambrian exposed rocks o platform precambrian rocks covered by sediment \n ",
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ee19b5861b0dda2b5a65d941743222fa | he force f has a magnitude of 80 lb and acts within the octant shown. determine the magnitudes of the x, y, z components of f. y f 80 lb fx fy x a 60 z fz b 45 prob. 260 | he force f has a magnitude of 80 lb and acts within the | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.21 | [
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"text": "pols 1101: intro to american government spring 2016 study guide for unit 2 exam understanding american democracy key concepts: make sure to know and understand the three general ways and ten specific ways that americans citizens are legally and institutionally enabled to exert control over government. the three general ways: 1. helping to elect who serves in the government 2. working outside the normal democratic process in order to improve it 3. seeking to influence the behavior of those serving in the government \n the ten specific ways: 1. working for and/ or donating money to a political party 2. openly advocating for a candidate running for elected office (and perhaps thereby persuading others to vote for that candidate) 3. voting in free elections 4. working for and or donating money to a candidate’s campaign 5. running for public office 6. suing government in court 7. directly voicing views and needs to government officials 8. donating money to an interest group that engages in lobbying 9. starting an interest group that seeks to influence the behavior of government official 10. you can serve on a jury 11. engage in activities outside the normal democratic process to create changes to the normal democratic process itself \n make sure to know and understand the advantages democratic governments have over nondemocratic / authoritarian governments. 1. democracies are more likely than authoritarian governments to do good things for the people 2. stable democratic governments are more likely than authoritarian governments to promote the education and physical health of citizens 3. stable democratic governments are more likely than authoritarian governments to intervene to prevent or relatively quickly address famines 4. people who live in democracies are on average happier than those who live under authoritarian governments vocabulary: authoritarian government (or nondemocratic government) the label used in this textbook for referring to all nondemocratic \n governments—that is, governments that are in no meaningful sense by the people because the people do not have the legal rights and freedoms necessary for exercising ongoing significant control over government. civil disobedience protesting, demonstrating, producing political art and music, boycotting, writing books, producing documentaries, and engaging in sitins democracy (or democratic government) form of government that is by the people in the sense that the people, understood as all adult citizens, are enabled to exercise ongoing significant control over the government by exercising legal rights and freedoms designed to give them that control. free elections elections in which (1) more than one candidate runs for office, (2) the candidates present real alternatives by promising to promote different public policies (or stand for different values or principles) if elected, (3) no adult citizen is unjustly denied the right to vote, (4) all who have the right to \n vote have reasonable opportunity to exercise that right, and (5) everyone’s vote is counted. chapter 5: public opinion key concepts: understand and discuss the concept of public opinion. public opinion matters for three reasons: (1) citizens’ political actions are driven by their opinions, (2) public opinion helps explain the behavior of candidates, political parties, and other political actors; politicians look to public opinion to determine what citizens want them to do, (3) public opinion can also shed light on the reasons for specific policy outcomes. what factors influence public opinion? political knowledge and political values. political values are based on views about the purpose and scope of government. political knowledge is limited among the general public. \n politically knowledgeable—including a hefty investment of time, energy, and resources—ability to carry on a political conversation or cast an informed vote. know how political values are shaped. political values are shaped by the process of political socialization. political socialization influences your political opinion. political socialization can consist of family, religion, schooling, friends, coworkers, and members of his or her community. how does group identity influence a person’s political opinions? people learn about politics from the people around them. people may rely on others who “look like” them as a source of opinions. candidates and political consultants often formulate their campaign strategies in terms of groups. discuss how the public influences the government and why the government would/should listen to public opinion. 1.in a representative democracy, national leaders represent the will of the people. \n 2.provides accurate and timely information on the people’s preferences for public policy. 3.when leaders do not reflect public opinion in the decisions they make, it leads to lower levels of trust in government. 4.the political system permits leaders to ignore public opinion and skirt accountability. 5.changes in technology have open up new avenues for informing the decision making of elected officials and holding them accountable for those decisions. how is public opinion measured? when can polls be trusted? public opinion is measured through opinion polls. for public opinion polls to be trusted, they must be conducted in a scientific manner and carefully worded to capture valid and reliable results. discuss the concept of sampling. what is random sampling? surveys are composed of random samples, small subsets of the population being studied, in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being studied. because \n samples of populations are surveyed rather than every member, the survey results may not be completely accurate. vocabulary: public opinion the population’s collective attitudes and beliefs about politics and government primacy principle what is learned first tends to leave a strong and lasting impression that remains with a person throughout life gender gap a term that refers to the regular patterns by which women are more likely to support democratic candidates. women tend to be significantly less conservative than men and are more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose higher levels of military spending. straw poll an informal poll that does not employ scientific methods like random sampling party identification children are likely to identify with the same political party as their parents \n political ideology a coherent set of beliefs about the role of government. how broad should government’s reach be? for what services should the government be responsible? what are the rights and duties of citizens, and what are the duties of the government? random sampling a method of selecting survey participants in which each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected sample – relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole honeymoon period the first several months of a new presidential administration, during which the newly elected president generally faces little public criticism margin of error a statistic related to the sample size of a survey that suggests the numerical degree to which the survey results may or may not reflect the opinions of the broader public. \n political socialization family, religion, and schooling, an individual’s political socialization can be influenced by friends, coworkers, and members of his or her community rallyaroundtheflag effect the increased popular support given to the president in times of crisis. \n chapter 6: the media key concepts: explain the relationship between the media, the public, and the government the media help citizens to hold their government accountable for political decisions and lead individuals to change their attitudes about public policy. media serves the public by providing information that both educates audiences on political affairs and oversees the everyday workings of government. identify the role that media plays in informing the public about politics and government. the issues the media choose to present and the way they present them do affect how people think about politics. compare and contrast the different types of media and how they affect public opinion and knowledge television: broadcasts range from simple, factbased reporting as on nbc, cbs, and abc to radical, onesided, and \n humorous as on the o’reilly factor, the daily show with john stewart, and the colbert report. radio: programs are often centered on a single, strongly opinionated individual who fields questions and comments from listeners and offers his or her own insights. the majority of politically based radio programs are conservatively oriented. internet: offers every kind of previously mentioned media, though usually in limited fashion. there are many blogs that report on politics, but they tend to rely on information collected by outside sources, rather than doing their own reporting. the internet also provides a forum for the average citizen with a connection to voice his or her opinion for the world to hear. discuss trends in media viewer and readership viewership of network news has steadily declined since the advent of cable television. newspaper circulation and readership are on the decline. \n discuss the business model of the media and how it affects what is consumed by the public media operates on marketdriven journalism. therefore, story coverage is driven by audience appeal rather than by educational, social, or political value. discuss the different mechanisms and laws that regulate the media media are compelled to increase the entertainment value of their content in order to attract audiences and increase advertising revenues. market driven journalism. soft news or infotainment. if a market is dominated by a single media provider, then the information available to the public is limited to that offered by the provider. the fcc regulates broadcast media (radio, tv, telephone, cable) enforcing federal laws. know how the media in the u.s. differs from the media in other countries in most other democracies, government organizations are involved to some extent in the ownership and operation of broadcast news sources. although publicly owned broadcast \n sources in these countries are generally free from political interference, they are usually required by law to provide basic levels of public affairs coverage. in the system of commercial ownership in the u.s., media outlets are free to cover whatever they choose. compare and contrast the concepts of agenda setting, priming and framing (and give examples of each). agenda setting the process of getting issues on the political agenda, or those issues to which the public and decisionmakers are paying attention and on which there is active political debate. example: the media attention devoted to the efforts by president obama and democrats in congress to reform the nation’s health care system. in september of 2009, newspaper coverage of health care policy peaked. in the same month, concern about health care also peaked, with 26 percent of americans saying that the issue was the most important problem \n facing the country. as newspaper coverage declined, so did the public perception that health care was the most important problem facing the country. priming the process by which the media influence the way people think about an issue or event. through its presentation of information, the media shape how people consider issues and events and interpret related information. example: in the months leading up to the 2004 presidential election, news outlets focused a great deal of coverage on the iraq war, priming voters to think about which presidential candidate would be best able to handle national security issues. framing the process by which media encourages viewers to interpret journalistic stories in a particular way. media can frame stories for the public using selective presentation of facts or specific descriptive language. \n example: the day after the white house health care summit in february of 2010, two different media outlets posted the following headlines: “ready to go it alone, dems push on health care”24 —msnbc, february 26, 2010 “in gamble, obama and dems prepare to ram health care through” —fox news, february 26, 2010 though logically similar, the terms “ram” and “push” evoke different interpretations of the democratic plan to move forward with the proposed reforms. know the concepts of yellow journalism and muckraking, and know the difference between them. muckraking journalism focused on exposing corruption in government or industry. \n example: the progressives utilized the print media in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to expose government corruption and promote political and social reform yellow journalism a style of reporting in which journalists exaggerate or even fabricate news stories to increase circulation example: new york newspapers helped to provoke the spanishamerican war by publishing articles falsely charging that the spanish had destroyed the u.s.s. maine. know how watergate affected the way the media covers issues the watergate scandal caused a fundamental change in the relationship between the president and the press, with the media adopting a much more aggressive and critical posture toward government. increasingly, the press came to view its role as providing not just neutral coverage but adversarial oversight. how does persuasion occur? \n this persuasion can indirectly result from agenda setting, priming, and framing, but it can also directly result from persuasion. three factors determine the likelihood of persuasion: source characteristics, message characteristics, and audience characteristics. in other words, persuasion depends on who says what to whom. vocabulary: television media leading source of news for u.s. public. televised speeches and news conferences give president ability to communicate directly with public. televised candidate debates important, especially in presidential rage radio media led to immediate reporting of news allowed president to speak directly to public. \n franklin roosevelt successfully used radio to influence public opinion in \"fireside chats\". continues as important news delivery vehicle print media newspapers and magazines newspapers started in colonial times and reached peak influence in early 20th century; in decline since 1950s. magazines devoted to public affairs started in mid 19th century, attracted mass readership in 20th century, but also now in decline. new media sources of political information that are not a part of traditional print or broadcast media. primarily found in digital sources like the internet, new media are characterized by their interactivity, or the consumer’s role in defining and shaping the information \n infotainment also called soft news, infotainment combines information and entertainment. this form of media emphasizes stories that are entertaining even if they are lacking in seriousness, significance, or timeliness. fcc regulates broadcast media (radio, tv, telephone, cable) enforcing federal laws. independent regulatory agency insulated from direct control by president or congress. marketdriven journalism a market in which private ownership of media encourages journalistic practices driven by increasing advertising revenue, circulation, and profit margins. this type of market leads to story coverage driven by audience appeal rather than by educational, social, or political value muckraking journalism focused on exposing corruption in government or industry. muckraking was prevalent in the u.s. from the 1890s to the 1930s and influenced many legislative reforms of the period. \n yellow journalism a style of reporting in which journalists exaggerate or even fabricate news stories to increase circulation. this sensationalistic mode of journalism was prevalent in the u.s. at the turn of the 19th century. agenda setting the process of getting issues on the political agenda, or those issues to which the public and decision makers are paying attention and on which there is active political debate. priming the process by which the media influence the way people think about an issue or event. through its presentation of information, the media shape how people consider issues and events and interpret related information. framing the process by which media encourages viewers to interpret journalistic stories in a particular way. media can frame stories for the public using selective presentation of facts or specific descriptive language. persuasion source characteristics, message characteristics, and audience characteristics \n lead individuals to change their attitudes about public policy chapter 7: voting and political participation key concepts: define political participation and give examples of different kinds. which kinds of participation are most common and why? political participation simply refers to any kind of action that is aimed at changing or supporting government policy or officials. conventional participation refers to common actions, considered culturally acceptable at a given time in history, that \n communicate preferences through established institutions. modern forms of conventional participation include contacting elected officials, working on election campaigns, voting, associating with political parties or interest groups, and signing petitions. unconventional participation refers to actions that are less common, take place outside of established institutions, and/or challenge cultural norms. such actions can include participation in demonstrations, protests, strikes, boycotts, sit ins, or terrorist activities aimed at sending a political message . identify why political participation matter and identify the key role that individuals play in the government political participation, whether conventional or unconventional, plays an important role in a democracy because it allows citizens to communicate their will to public officials. forms of political participation also provide channels of expression for those seeking to influence government. \n when are people most likely to vote or participate in politics? why? people with more education, higher incomes, and whitecollar jobs are more likely to participate politically than people of a lower socioeconomic status. be able to identify other factors that affect the likelihood of voting and for whom someone will vote. a combination of specific forces—partisan loyalty, policy issues, candidate characteristics, and economic conditions— can help explain the vote choices that americans make. what trends do we observe concerning voter turnout? the first is that voter turnout has generally declined since the 1960s. the second is that voter turnout in the u.s. remains lower than in other industrialized countries. how does the u.s.’s voter turnout compare to that of other industrialized nations? voter turnout in the united states is lower than in a number of other countries with regular elections. vocabulary: \n conventional participation culturally acceptable political activity that communicates preferences through established institutions. unconventional participation political activity that takes place outside of established institutions and challenges cultural norms. prospective voting voter behavior that evaluates candidates based on forecasts of their future political behavior. retrospective voting voter behavior that evaluates candidates based on their experience or past performance. socioeconomic status the combination of education, occupation, and income that can be used to gauge one’s position in society. balancing the ticket the practice of presidential nominees selecting a running mate who broadens the public appeal of the campaign. social capital the degree of civic connectedness within a political community. franchise the right to vote \n chapter 8: political parties key concepts: identify and define what a political party is and how they influence government. a political party consists of three separate components: the party organization, the party in government, and the party in the electorate. parties help to informally structure elections by running candidates for office under specific party labels. what three components make up a political party? explain each one. \n a political party consists of three separate components: the party organization, the party in government, and the party in the electorate. which parties are dominant in the united states? what are the origins of our current parties? how and why have parties in the united states changed over time? (be specific about each realignment.) the u.s. political system has been dominated by the republican and democratic parties. when the house voted in favor of adams, jackson turned his attention to the formation of a new party focused on the expansion of political participation, expansion of the nation’s territory, and opposition to government economic regulation in 1828, jackson was elected president under the banner of the newly formed democratic party. the old democraticrepublicans who did not favor jackson or his laissezfaire economic policies soon formed the whig party. \n explain the advantages and disadvantages of a two party system (chart in your book) the advantages and disadvantages of the american twoparty system advantages disadvantages fosters stability offers few new ideas reflects median of public opinion tends to be slow to change checks and balances political power engenders little difference in party guarantees a legislative majority platforms simplifies vote choice limits access to minor parties ensures a clear winner restricts vote choice promotes accountability discourages coalition building leads to polarized and adversarial politics know how and why third parties function in political systems such as the one we have in the united states. third parties may introduce important issues and pressure the system for needed reform. what is polarization? has it been increasing or decreasing in recent years according to your textbook? political polarization refers to cases in which an individual's stance on a given issue, policy, or person is more likely to be \n strictly defined by their identification with a particular political party or ideology. the two parties have become increasingly polarized since the 1950s, with fewer republicans and democrats taking moderate positions. how has party identification changed since the 1950s among voters? more people are independent instead of identifying with the democratic or republican party. the decline in american party identification indicates that the power of parties in the electorate has diminished over time. what are critical elections? a critical election is one in which groups of voters change their loyalty from one party to another. know the differences between a referendum, an initiative, and a recall. initiative a means by which voters consider measures to change local ordinances, state statutes, or constitutions. \n referendum a means for citizens to participate in policymaking by voting directly on a variety of measures, including initiatives or recalls. recall a means for voters to remove an elected official before the expiration of the officeholder’s term know how parties are organized. are they centralized or decentralized? the party organization refers to a set of structures at the national, state, and local levels. n this organizational system, power is centralized under a national committee; the two largest such organizations are the democratic national committee (dnc) and the republican national committee (rnc). how did the founding fathers feel about political parties? what does the constitution say about them? the federalists believed that the survival of the young nation required a stronger central government. the antifederalists \n feared that a strong central government would threaten individual rights and state sovereignty. the entire constitution was written to structure a government independent of political parties. key terms: open primary a primary in which voters can vote for the candidates of either the democratic or the republican party closed primary a primary election in which voters must first declare to which party they belong political parties an organized coalition of interests that seeks to influence government and policy by getting members elected to public office and by coordinating the actions of elected officials. party platform the document or statement developed by a political party to include its official positions on issues of public concern. \n party organization national office, staff, rules, bylaws, budget, includes state and local headquarters, keep the party running between elections duverger’s law the principle by which political systems with singlemember plurality districts are likely to have a twoparty system. political machine a party organization at the state or local level that sought political influence by offering rewards, in the form of government jobs and services, to sympathetic voters and party workers. initiative a means by which voters consider measures to change local ordinances, state statutes, or constitutions. referendum a means for citizens to participate in policymaking by voting directly on a variety of measures, including initiatives or recalls. recall a means for voters to remove an elected official before the expiration of the officeholder’s term. \n \n chapter 9: interest groups key concepts: what is an interest group, and how does it differ from a party? interest groups are organizations of people seeking to influence government and public policy. unlike the two major political parties, interest groups in the u.s. are relatively small and typically organized around a discrete set of issues. while parties structure the institutions of government, such as the committee system in congress, interest groups petition government as outsiders. while parties structure the electoral system through candidate recruitment, control over the nomination process, and influence over the rules of the electoral game, interest groups work at the grassroots level to educate voters, raise money, and increase awareness. know how interest groups are formed and maintained. what is the “free rider” problem? how does it apply to interest groups and what can they do to overcome this obstacle? \n what is the function of a lobbyist? whom do interest groups represent? be sure to know what factors cause a person or an entity’s interests to be more or less represented by an interest group. be able to discuss the different types of interest groups and their roles in government discuss the function of the iron triangle and the role interest groups play in it be able to explain how interest groups influence government. be specific and be sure to include each branch of government. be able to compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of interest groups and their effect on government know the difference between pluralist and elitist theories of interest groups. key terms interest groups any group that seeks to influence public policy grassroots advocacy the act of asking the general public to contact legislators and government officials concerning the issue at hand \n direct lobbying direct interaction with public officials for the purpose of influencing policy decisions lobbyists provide current and meaningful information to government officials private interests those interests that benefit individuals or select groups without benefiting the whole public interests those interests that benefit the whole as opposed to benefiting a select group of private interests lobbying political activity that aims to influence government policymaking. those who engage in lobbying are known as lobbyists amicus curiae briefs a type of brief filed by a “friend of the court,” or someone who is not directly involved in the case at hand. interest groups often file this type of brief to provide information to the court to assist in its decisionmaking process. political action committee organizations established by individuals or private groups with the aim of raising money to \n contribute to candidates for elective office. pacs are regulated by the federal election commission \n ",
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ac2e82a94456853ede4835d840159aef | use the graph of to sketch the graph of a. y = f(2x) b. y = f 1
3. y
2
1
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1
8 6 4 x 8642 | use the graph of to sketch the graph of a. y = f(2x) b. y | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": "april 11th 1. exchange rates a. value of a currency in terms of another 2. exchange rate types a. floating exchange rates i. the value of a currency is determined in foreign exchange markets b. pegged exchange rate i. the value of a currency is set to another’s, and it doesn’t change c. dollarization i. aligning a currency’s value with the us dollar 3. accounts a. current account i. international transactions for goods and services ii. net exports (nx) = exports imports b. capital account i. financial assets (stocks, bonds, etc) ii. direct foreign investments 1. vestas etc 4. financial crisis key points a. wealth on wall street b. housing bubble i. housing values spiraled when it popped ii. homeowners who had borrowed a lot had massive debts they couldn’t pay off iii. the decline in consumption and housing production (i) lead to a recession iv. as more homes are foreclosed, mbs and cdo demand collapsed c. markets i. markets went into a panic; many major financial institutions were insolvent or near bankruptcy 1. this indicated a path to a depression d. financial crisis legacy i. supply side growth is the determinant of gdp growth in the long run ii. due to a lack of law reform, a similar situation is likely in the future april 13th 1. exchange rates \n a. jan 2001: $1 e1.06 e1 = $0.94 b. jan 2002: $1 e1.13 e1 = $0.88 c. jan 2016: $1 e0.88 e1 = $1.14 i. 2001 to 2002; dollar appreciation & euro depreciation ii. 2002 to 2016; dollar depreciation & euro appreciation 2. $ depreciation vs. euro a. exchange e40,000 germanmade car $500 us made bike rate $1 : e1.06 german price:e40,000 us price:$37,735 german price:e530 us price:$500 $1 : e0.76 g price: e40,000 us price: $52,631 g price: e380 us price: $500 b. german goods become more expensive for american consumers as the dollar depreciates. us goods become cheaper for germans as the euro appreciates. 3. a. supply of $ in the foreign exchange market (floating exchange rate) b. current account i. us purchase of imported goods and services ii. increased dollar supply as the dollar appreciates iii. when foreign buyers purchase us exports of goods and services c. capital account i. us purchase of foreign financial assets is direct foreign investment by usfirms ii. foreign purchase of us financial assets iii. foreign direct investment into the us \n d. e. 4. pegged exchange rate \n a. f i. y/$ is the float rate ii. y/$ p is the desired peg rate 1. to peg a currency, create a higher demand for $ in foreign exchange markets 2. pegged exchange rates can increase/decrease demand for exports iii. \n april 15th test review 1. current events a. arizona immigration reform i. # of illegal immigrants decreased by 40% 1. this lowered costs for taxpayers by $1b 2. wages went up 3. job opportunities went up 4. decreased state gdp growth b. bernie sanders tax plan i. pretty much raise taxes on everything 1. payroll tax 2. capital gains tax 3. high income, low income ii. annual taxes paid by households increased ~$8000/yr iii. avg after tax disposable income decreases by ~12% c. taxes and tax policy i. three different types ii. bush vs obama tax systems 1. bush system favored higher tax brackets 2. obama \n d. mpc i. govt spending multiplier 1. ii. tax multiplier 1. iii. beta 1. how a stock moves in relation to the market 2. if beta = 1 a. when market goes down 1%, stock will go down 1% b. when market goes up 1%, stock will go up 1% c. moves with market 3. if beta > 1 a. when market goes up 1%, stock will move up more than 1% 4. if beta < 1 a. when market goes up 1%, stock will move up less than 1% iv. p/e ratio 1. price / (earnings / share) v. peg ratio 1. pe ratio / % growth e. money i. 3 roles 1. medium of exchange 2. unit of account \n 3. store of value ii. fiat currencies vs. commodity currencies f. monetary policy i. restrictive vs. expansive policies 1. restrictive: fed sells us treasury bonds a. interest rates go up i. leads to decrease in investment ii. leads to decrease in gdp 2. expansive: fed buys bonds a. interest rates go down i. leads to increased investment ii. leads to increase in gdp ",
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1115bdfba5df6a6da46bd31dd836951e | the automobile is originally at rest s = 0. if it then starts to increase its speed at v # = (0.05t 2) ft>s 2 , where t is in seconds, determine the magnitudes of its velocity and acceleration at s = 550 ft. | the automobile is originally at rest s = 0. if it then | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.31 | [
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"text": "notes for the week of 4/11 management 300 key terms: management – guiding employees to complete their various roles and tasks. leadership – the ability to influence employees to voluntarily pursue organizational goals. managerial leadership – the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives. authority – the right to perform or command that comes with a given job. power – the extent to which a person is able to influence others so they respond to orders. readiness – the extent to which a follower possesses the ability, skills, and willingness to complete a task. management – guiding employees to complete their various roles and tasks providing reward and punishments contingent on performance best stable situations planning organizi8ng directing controlling leadership – the ability to influence employees to voluntarily pursue organizational goals can and should be present at all levels in an effective organization roles: passionate enthusiast visionary cheerleader coach investing trust and love \n managers vs. leaders managers a. coping with complexity b. planning, organizing, directing, and controlling c. executing plans and delivering goods and services d. being conscientious e. acting responsibly f. putting customers first leaders a. coping with change b. being visionary c. being inspiring, setting the tone and articulating the vision d. managing people e. being inspirational / charismatic f. acting decisively g. putting people first – responding to and acting for followers managerial leadership – the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives. authority – the right to perform or command that comes with a given job. power – the extent to which a person is able to influence others so they respond to orders. personalized power – power directed at helping oneself socialized power – power directed toward helping others legitimate power – results from formal positions within the organization reward power – results from authority to reward their subordination coercive power – results form an authority to punish their subordinates expert power – results from expertise sophisticated knowledge develops over time results from specialized information \n mundane knowledge acquired through experience referant power – derived from personal attraction relationship or connection power – results from social alliances or influence information power – access to and control over important information generic influence tactics rational persuasion – using reason, logic, or facts inspirational appeals – building enthusiasm or confidence by appealing to other’s emotions, ideals, or values. consultation – getting other to participate in the decisions ingratiating tactics – acting humble or friendly or making someone feel good or important before they make a decision personal appeals – drawing on friendship and loyalty exchange tactics – swapping favors coalition tactics – building support by amassing followers pressure tactics – using demands threats or intimidation legitimating tactics – basing requests on one’s authority, organizational rules and politics, or implied support from superiors possible responses to generic influence tactics: a. enthusiastic commitment b. grudging compliance c. outright resistance 5 approaches to leadership 1. trait approaches 2. behavioral approaches 3. contingency approaches 4. fullrange approach 5. four additional perspectives trait approach – an attempt to identify the distinctive characteristics that account for the effectiveness of leaders \n organizations may incorporate personality and leadership traits into selection and promotion aspiring leaders should invest in cultivating adaptive leadership traits traits play a central role in how people view/perceive leaders key positive leadership traits (ralph stogidll’s) 1. dominance 2. intelligence 3. selfconfidence 4. high energy 5. taskrelevant knowledge kouzes and posner’s five traits 1. honesty 2. competent 3. forwardlooking 4. inspiring 5. intelligent bass and bass’s 6 traits 1. task competence – intelligence, knowledge, problemsolving skills 2. interpersonal competence – ability to communicate and ability to demonstrate caring and empathy 3. intuition 4. traits of character – conscientiousness, discipline, moral reasoning, integrity, honesty 5. biophysical traits – physical fitness, hardiness, energy level 6. personal traits – selfconfidence, sociability, selfmonitoring, extraversion, self regulating, selfefficiency. gender studies women tend to have more leadership traits than men, but hold fewer leadership positions old assumption: women do not want to aspire to top positions new thinking on women in management careers \n women have traits that make them better than men in some instances and vice versa areas where women score higher than men producing high quality work goalsetting mentoring teamwork/being collaborative mentoring teamwork/being collaborative seeking less personal glory being motivated less by selfinterests less turf conscious recognizing trends generating new ideas engaging in participative management social leadership women tend to be more unwilling to complete or sacrifice kids and family are too important modesty women tend to give credit to others rather than taking it for themselves lack of a mentor less likely than males to have access to a supportive mentor because they can be excluded from important social networks starting out lower and more likely to quit because women start lower, they lack significant general management experience, and have not been around long enough to be selected. project globe (global leadership and organizational behavior effectiveness) ongoing attempt to develop an empirically based theory to describe understand and predict the impact of specific cultural variables on leadership and organizational processes and the effectiveness of these processes surveyed 17000middle managers from 951 organizations across 62 countries developed a list of universally liked and disliked leader attributes \n the behavioral approach – behavioral leadership – approach attempt to determine the distinctive styles used by effective leaders leadership style – the combination of traits, skills, and behaviors that leaders use to interact with others university of michigan’s leadership model job centered behavior – close attention to job and work procedures with the principal concerns being achieving production efficiency, keeping costs down and meeting schedules employee – centered behavior – managers pay more attention to employee satisfaction and making work groups cohesive ohio state’s leadership model initiating structure – focuses on getting things done and performing behavior that organizes and defines what group members should be doing consideration – focuses on building trust, supporting feelings, and establishing a warm friendly, supportive climate peter drucker’s tips for improving leadership effectiveness 1. determine what needs to be done 2. determine the right thing to do for the welfare of the entire enterprise or organization 3. develop action plans that specify desired results, probable restraints, future revisions, check0ins points, and implications for how one should spend his or her time 4. take responsibility for decisions 5. take responsibility for communication action plans and give people the information they need to get the job done 6. focus on opportunities rather than problems. do not sweep problems under the rug and treat change as an opportunity rather than as a threat 7. run productive meetings. different types of meetings require different forms of preparations and different results. prepare accordingly. 8. think and say “we” rather than “i” consider the needs an opportunities of the organization before thinking of your opportunities and needs 9. listen first speak last contingency leadership model \n 2 leadership orientations diagnosed with the least preferred coworker scale up 1. taskoriented – concerned with the task as hand (best in high or low control situations) 2. relationshiporiented – concerned with people (best in midlevel control situations) three dimensions of situational control (how much influence do you have in the situation) diagnosed by answering the questions in parenthesis 1. leadermember relations – (do employees accept me?) 2. task structure – (do employees know exactly what to do?) 3. position power – (do i have power to reward or punish?) pathgoal leadership model pathgoal leadership model – holds that the effective leader makes available to followers desirable rewards in the workplace and increases their motivation by clarifying the paths or behavior in the workplace and increase their motivation by clarifying the paths or behavior, that will help them achieve those goals providing them with support recommendations: the meaningful rewards to goalaccomplishment promote intrinsic motivation through empowerment share leadership key lessons use more than one leadership style help employees achieve their goals modify leadership style to fit employees and task characteristics pathgoal leadership 1. leader behaviors a. pathgoal clarifying (directive) \n b. achievementoriented c. work facilitation d. supportive e. interaction facilitation f. grouporiented decision making (participative) g. representation and networking h. valuebased 2. employee characteristics a. locus of control b. task ability c. need for achievement d. experience e. need for pathgoal clarity 3. environmental factors a. task structure b. work group dynamics 4. leadership effectiveness a. employee motivation b. employee satisfaction c. employee performance d. leader acceptance e. interaction facilitation f. workunit performance situational leadership theory – leadership behavior reflects how leaders should adjust their leadership style according to the readiness of the followers readiness – the extent to which a follower possesses the ability, skills, and willingness to complete a task. situational leadership in action 5 steps to applying situational leadership theory 1. identify important outcomes 2. identify relevant leadership behavior 3. identify situational condition 4. match leadership to the conditions at hand 5. determine how to make the match the fullrange model fullrange leadership – leadership behaviors vary along a full range of leadership styles \n fullrange model: transactional leadership transactional leadership – focuses on clarifying employees’ roles and task requirements and providing rewards and punishments that are contingent on performance key management behaviors: setting goals and monitoring progress best is stable situations motivates people to do ordinary things prerequisite to any effective leadership style transformational leadership: transforms employees to pursue organizational goals over selfinterests good in rapidly changing situations motivates people to do exceptional things encourage higher levels of intrinsic motivation, trust, commitment, and loyalty excite passion, inspiring passion factors that can influence transformational leaders 1. individual characteristics a. best characteristics include: extroverted, agreeable, proactive, open to change 2. organizational culture a. best characteristics include: adaptive and flexible 4 key behaviors of transformational leaders 1. inspirational motivation – “let me share a vision that transcends us all” i. charismatic leadership using interpersonal attraction to inspire motivation, acceptance, and support 2. idealize influence – “we are here to do the right thing” i. inspire trust by acting ethically with consistency and integrity 3. individualize consideration – “you have the opportunity here to grow and excel” i. actively encourage employees to grow by giving them challenging work and more responsibility ii. act as mentors \n 4. provide intellectual stimulation – “let me describe the great challenges we can conquer together” i. clearly communicate the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats ii. encourages employees to view problems as personal challenges and develop a sense of purpose positive outcomes of transformational leadership 1. greater organizational effectiveness 2. greater leadership effectiveness and employee job satisfaction 3. more employee identification with their leaders and with their immediate work group 4. greater commitment to organizational change 5. higher levels of intrinsic motivation, group cohesion, work engagement, setting of goals consistent with those of the leader, and proactive behavior key considerations it can improve results for both individuals and groups it can be used to train employees any level it requires ethical leaders things managers should do to be effective transformational leaders employ a code of ethics – the company should create and enforce a clearly stated code and ethics choose the right people – recruit, select, and promote people who display ethical behavior make performance expectations reflect employees treatment – develop performance expectations around the treatment of employees these expectations can be assessed in the performanceappraisal process reward high moral conduct identify, reward, and publicly praise employees, exemplify high moral conduct. 4 additional perspectives 1. leadermember exchange (lmx) – emphasizes that leaders have different sorts of relationships with different subordinates a. ingroup exchange (trust, respect, liking, sense of common fate) i. partnership relationships \n b. outgroup exchange (no trust and no respect) i. overseen relationships 2. servant leaders a. focus on providing increased service to others – meeting the goals of both followers and the organization – rather than to one’s self b. require a longterm transformational approach to life and work 3. leadership a. can involve onetoone, onetomany, withingroup, betweengroup, and collective interactions via information technology i. ebusiness – interaction within and between organizations ii. ecommerce – interaction with customers and suppliers 4. shared leadership a. leaders and followers need each other, and the quality of the relationship determines how they behave b. research show that followers seek and admire leaders who create feelings of significance, community, and excitement c. followers vary in compliance from helpers (most compliant) to independents (least compliant) characteristics of servant leaders focus on listening ability to empathize with other’s feelings focus on healing suffering selfawareness of strengths and weaknesses use of persuasion rather than positional authority to influence others broadbased conceptual thinking ability to foresee future outcomes belief they are stewards of their employees and resources commitment to the growth of people drive to build community within and outside the organization",
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"text": " northcentral university assignment cover sheet student: this form must be completely filled in follow these procedures: if requested by your instructor, please include an assignment cover sheet. this will become the first page of your assignment. in addition, your assignment header should include your last name, first initial, course code, dash, and assignment number. this should be left justified, with the page number right justified. for example: save a copy of your assignments: you may need to resubmit an assignment at your instructor’s request. make sure you save your files in accessible location. academic integrity: all work submitted in each course must be your own original work. this includes all assignments, exams, term papers, and other projects required by your instructor. knowingly submitting another person’s work as your own, without properly citing the source of the work, is considered plagiarism. this will result in an unsatisfactory grade for the work submitted or for the entire course. it may also result in academic dismissal from the university. ib70028 isabel wan, phd international business assignment 8 faculty use only <faculty comments here> <faculty name> \n 2 introduction the purpose of the final assignment is to select four countries and compare and contrast the business environment of each country. in order to become successful as a manager, marketer, or ceo of an international business, one must understand the environment where business is being conducted. to do this, one must review a variety of different types of data and analyze appropriately. the types of information required for this analysis includes the following: (1) performance information, (2) challenges, (3) advantages, and (4) disadvantages for selected st countries in the 21 century. corporate social responsibilities and the global financial crisis also play a significant role in the global environment. once this understanding is formulated, an individual can begin to compare and contrast various regions throughout the world to determine the best strategy moving forward. the following paper will include an analysis of each country and will include an evaluation, comparison analysis, and discussion of the business environment within each selected country. this evaluation will allow for a multinational company (mnc) to have an understanding of the stability of each country addressed for potential entry. in addition, this understanding will help a mnc to not only how to enter a country but how to be successfully strategize and wade through cultural barriers. selected countries the original primary selection method utilized to select four countries to evaluate is based upon areas i am personally interested in conducting business within. after making the attempt to find scholarly articles on the smaller islands and countries chosen, i had to look to find alternatives. the main focus was to look to countries that utilized a more direct communication \n 3 approach; as the alternative indirect approach would prove to be more frustrating than what it would be worth to me. while most of my choices are similar in nature to the u.s., i am including an alternative country, china. by incorporating china, a differing perspective can be shown within this paper. the countries selected for this study are as follows: 1) new zealand, 2) australia 3) brazil, and 4) china . challenges identified one major challenge that every intercultural country will face is intercultural sensitivity or the lack thereof. while cultures begin to come together, the members that are part of the newly formed teams will need to become sensitive to the cultural attributes of the group. while the differences between cultures certainly make the work environment unique, each culture may want to label their own as superior. the limited understanding that each culture may have of one another may need to be identified and sensitivity training provided to avoid unnecessary conflict. by understanding those differences up front, the ability to accept and appreciate each culture becomes possible. as a u.s. citizen attempting to conduct business in a strict islamic country, one may view the differences in culture as appalling and backwards. to be effective in this environment, one must take a step back and at least make the attempt to understand the history and the reasoning behind why the other culture thinks the way it does. now, to take a deeper look at the chosen countries and the associated challenges. new zealanders tend to focus on small, communitybased business partners. the residents tend to choose to conduct business amongst friends in their tight niche community with people termed “business mates”. the relationships built are extremely informal and community based. the challenge to enter into business in new zealand will be to build enough trust to become part of \n 4 the existing community. to do so, this will take time to build the relationship (park, levine, weber, lee, terra, botero, & wilson, 2012) . australia offers very few barriers to entry, especially with american firms. the legal and corporate structures are very close in nature and entry is easily acquired. the one main area that could be a potential barrier is the level of competition. the easier the entry, the higher the level of completion from local and foreign businesses. brazil’s challenges when it comes to entering this market include the pure number of businesses battling for a market share. this emerging global market is being saturated with foreign companies that are trying to be the first in line. as a smaller company entering the market, businesses like walmart may take the upper hand (luthans & doh, 2012). lastly, one of china’s challenges that recently made the news is the level of pollution in the country. not only were schools shut down for several days but businesses as well. the population in china is high as well as the output of pollution. entering china will require a lot of thought and preparation on green and sustained building. performance the next area to evaluate is performance during the global financial crisis. during the global financial crisis only a few countries reported doing well. those that did, fell into the category of the brics countries. china was one of those countries. the reason they did so well was because the chinese government had placed over $2 trillion in reserves and economic growth remained above 7%. in addition, the population in general save more than 40% of their income. with the savings in hand, government and individual, china was not as affected by the \n 5 crisis as they had planned for times such as these. in addition, china utilized $600 billion to stimulate it’s economy and develop infrastructure (payne, 2013). brazil is a second brics country that did well during the global financial crisis. brazil’s growth was 5.7% in 2005, 3.2% in 2006, 4% in 2007, and 5.1% in 2008 due to the confidence in it’s economy as well as a positive and smooth presidential election and appreciation of the brazilian real. brazil offers a stable economy as well as a central location close to the u.s. and strong european countries. it has become one of the fastest growing automobile exporters, the second largest location for direct foreign investment next to china for developing countries, and one of the largest passenger airplane manufacturing countries (luthans & doh 2012). australia also took a significant hit during the global financial crisis. the australian dollar depreciated rapidly by over 30% in 2008. to attempt to stimulate the economy, australia’s reserve infused the country with additional funds to become more liquid. a significant portion of the dollar’s depreciation was recovered in 2009. until 2008, new zealand’s treasury, kaitohutohu kaupapa rawa, the country experienced an average gdp growth rate until the global financial crisis. as the crisis took place, the country started a recession and began a decline. new zealand’s gdp during the global crisis has steadily declined by 2.2% in 2009, 2.2% in 2010, and subsequently declined by 3.3% in 2014 (reserve bank of australia, 2010). ethical perspective elkington (2012) discussed the concept of sustainable development and social responsibility of multinational corporations. companies like bp, monsanto and shell are only a few named that need to take into consideration the rules of the global world rather than just the \n 6 originating country. multinational companies can no longer ignore the human element behind conducting business in various locations and a variety of cultures. while standards are put into place for u.s. citizens, they are not necessarily in place for third world countries. in addition, other areas of concern such as corruption, bribery, overworking employees, and utilizing child labor need to be analyzed and addressed. to further clarify what is meant by ethical perspective, i will share a personal example of conducting business in afghanistan. osha standards are put into place for expatriate contractors. they are not necessarily put in place for local national contractors. the contracts written by the u.s. government are written differently for local national personal and contractors versus those contractors brought in from countries located outside of afghanistan. during my tenure in country, one of the contracts was to build facility that would house an army detachment. in the time we were on base, the contract that was put into place was awarded to an afghan company. the personnel did not have to comply with ohsa standards as the standard only applied to expatriate contractors. as the local national company’s workers began to place the roof on the facility in january. the afghan workers were seen in their moccasins on the metal roof, working in slick conditions. they did not have fall protection of any kind. this meant they were not hooked to anything and they were thirty plus feet off of the ground. the workers’ shoes did not have rubber soles, and the method of getting onto the roof was a wobbly, concocted ladder. in addition, the workers were seen having their very own snowball fight from one side of the roof to the other. all of this was done under the noses of headquarters staffing. at one point, one of the local nationals slipped and almost came off of the rooftop. now, while discussing this story, the point being made is who has the responsibility to ensure that everyone \n 7 working on contract has the same standard? is it reasonable to say that local national companies have to abide by the same rules, and in turn are then mandated to purchase safety equipment to meet the standard from the company conducting business in that country? while multinational companies work in other countries, a company must decide what is the correct balance between complying with the typical standard of the home country, and the location of where business is being conducted. whose has the responsibility for work being conducted safety? in addition, which set of rules and can a company mandate third world country workers to comply? it it feasible to demand compliance with first world country standards? these are the questions that must be answered prior to ever conducting business within a country that holds a different standard. now, how does this scenario apply to the four countries selected? it applies because of the emerging markets and strong markets that are building multinational companies within each country’s borders. the companies need to make decision up front on what their goals are and what their ethical responsibilities are in the operating environment. brazil and china known as up and coming, developing countries. china may be the most controversial when it comes to ethical standards. while working in china, the decisions that come to mind are those that have to do with child labor, unequitable pay, gender equality, corruption, contract kickbacks, and favoritism for contract awards towards family and friends. the positive aspect of a business that is sourcing products from china will find that products made more quickly and are less expensive. with that in mind, a multinational company must make the decision as to which ethical standards they may need to break or to what extent they willing to bend for that cheaper product. while china has a considerable level of successful \n 8 business dealings without corruption or the other negative connotations, the negative aspects also need to be considered. in brazil, one of the concerns is in regards to ethics is consulting a legal team. while in the more westernized countries, legal counsel is utilized to avoid ethical issues, it is a concern to contact them in brazil. brazil managers and nonmanagers alike tend to steer away from legal council finding it to be more of a risky concept to utilize legal versus not utilizing legal (leila trapp, 2011). ethical standards in new zealand are much like the u.s. individuals that work in new zealand find that while generally ethical standards are high, that the belief is that the standards have been compromised over the last few years. individuals find that further down the line in the chain of command, the more likely it is to have to bend the rules and the overall standard in order to make a successful transaction happen (alam, 1999). while business ethics is growing as an important issue in australia, the overall concern by senior management, the overall concern by lower level employees believe that ethical standards are lacking (miltonsmith, 1997). in a later study, it was noted that the code of ethics is not a normalcy in australia. australians do believe in an ethical standard, but they do not have the same belief in creating and following a written policy (callaghan, m., wood, g., payan, j. m., singh, j., & svensson, g, 2012). communications building business relationships is extremely important concept to become successful in the international environment. each culture has a different method and form and way of communication desires and wants. the difficulty becomes knowing which form of \n 9 communicating is being utilized as well as understanding the nuances behind each type. by studying each of the four identified countries, a baseline can be developed. once that baseline is identified, a marketer or business owner could understand how not to offend the other country’s culture as well as work within the alternative guidelines towards success. to begin, new zealand boasts a very similar culture to the u.s. in the form of business communications. new zealand has a culture that incorporates the direct communication method as well as low context methods. low context styles focus on monochrome styles, tangible or shortterm business goals, and one relationship at a time. the business relationship is a very pointed and direct relationship where most issues are discussed openly and meanings are clear and up front. china on the other hand is a high context culture boasting indirect communication. the chinese tend to imply their message through body language and meanings are imbedded in an individual’s actions. they also have a tendency to focus on a multitude of relationships at the same time (zhu, 2009). australia utilizes many of the same communication methods that new zealand and the u.s. utilize. australians, even in business, are generally easy going, friendly, and informal. negotiators and managers conducting business in australia need to pay attention to sporting events in the area, local news, and entertainment. in addition, informal and friendly conversation, a sense of humor, and eye contact are all important. australians move towards utilizing first names very quickly. it is important for individuals conducting business in australia to have a business card readily available, to be on time, and while a gift is not required, a small one is appreciated (clark & vemuri, 2008). \n 10 brazil is a bit tougher to navigate as there are four distinct subcultures within the country. a marketer, negotiator or manager must identify which subculture they are working with and subsequently choose the appropriate communication strategy. the personality traits such as achievement, selfdirection, enjoyment, security, and restrictive conformity vary amongst the four different subcultures. as one learns to navigate the various areas of brazil and begins to understand the differences, an individual can alter the strategy to end in success (volkema, 2012). challenges and differences challenges and differences are prevalent in each culture. finding a way to understand those differences will be part of any successful business strategy. one of the ways to ensure that business students are taught about the various cultures they intend to conduct business within. students and employees alike will need extensive crosscultural training to provide another frame of reference. if the individual is not properly trained, the only frame of reference that individual will ever know is his or her own. this creates a limited understanding of the way the other country’s team members operate and will certainly be the cause of disputes in the future (durocher, 2009). to attempt to combat cultural disputes and potentially offending team member sand coworkers, a mnc moving into a new country must evaluate a number of areas. bharadwaj (2013) discussed the following areas as key areas to research and prepare answers for prior to conducting business in another environment: 1) approach towards formality and individual status 2) attitude towards uncertainty, 3) attitude towards time, 4) role of hierarchy, 5) role of gender, 6) choice of communication channels, and 7) degree of formality. by having a good \n 11 understanding of each of these items, an individual can be much more prepared for the alternative business environment. one of the primary challenges to entering the australian market is making assumptions that the other culture is understood. u.s. marketers may think they understand another culture and their philosophies, but in the end, truly may not. by making the assumption that american business personnel understand australian culture, many points can be missed. while both of the cultures are similar in nature, the smallest of nuances that are missed may be the difference between signing the deal or being eliminated from the deal (clark & vemuri, 2008). in brazil, there are a number of entry barriers including: (1) restricted access to financing (2) inefficient government assistance systems, (3) shortages of skilled labor, and (4) weak institutional frameworks (cardoza, fornes, farber, gonzalez, & ruiz gutierrez, 2015). as the chinese conduct business, the initial team meeting is utilized to start the relationship building process. the chinese businessmen and women tend to focus on bringing in a third party that knows both parties to vouch for each other. by doing so, this begins building the relationship as well as helps to gain trust and confidence in each party. new zealand and australia are more independent and tend not to rely on a third party to build relationships, but rather utilize direct relationship building strategies and shortterm goals. chinese managers tend to focus more on the personal touch, feelings, and friendship while conducting business. new zealanders on the other hand do not. their primary focus was on the achievement of business goals and getting to the end state as quickly as possible. the new zealand managers focused on developing and building business relationships to achieve objectives while the chinese managers would focus on business as well as friendship. the end goal for the chinese was to build long \n 12 term business and personal relationships. as the chinese became more comfortable with the individuals in their friendships, communication would become much more direct (park, levine, weber, lee, terra, botero, & wilson, 2012). conclusion in conclusion, multinational corporations face a number of varying issues when it comes to entering a new market. the incentives for conducting business in the international environment can be lucrative, but at the same time can be challenging. the purpose of this assignment was to select four countries and evaluate the business environment for each country. the countries selected for this study were: 1) new zealand, 2) australia, 3) brazil, and 4) china. the focus of the selection was based on countries that as a business leader, i would choose to conduct business within. the criteria were based upon a preference of countries with direct communication and low context styles. the differences and challenges identified will help to further tailor the list to the ideal location. in addition, china was added to provide a variation to the above paper. the culture differences between each of the cultures were discussed not only in communication styles, but perspective, ethical perspectives, as well as advantages and disadvantages in the various environments. \n 13 references alam, k. f. (1999). business ethics in new zealand organisations: views from the middle and lower level managers. journal of business ethics, 22(2), 145153 bharadwaj, a. (2013). teaching intercultural business communication to management students: challenges and strategies. 3(2) 7484. retrieved from http://www.bmr.business journalz.org callaghan, m., wood, g., payan, j. m., singh, j., & svensson, g. (2012). code of ethics quality: an international comparison of corporate staff support and regulation in australia, canada and the united states. business ethics: a european review, 21(1), 1530. doi:10.1111/j.14678608.2011.01637.x cardoza, g., fornes, g., farber, v., gonzalez duarte, r., & ruiz gutierrez, j. (2015). barriers and public policies affecting the international expansion of latin american smes: evidence from brazil, colombia, and peru. journal of business research, doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.10.148 clark, e., & vemuri, r. (2008). conducting business in australia: prospects and strategies for international managers. global business & organizational excellence, 27(5), 4964. doi:10.1002/joe.20222 durocher,dennis o., jr. (2009). teaching intercultural communication competence to business students. journal of international business education, 4, 119134. retrieved from http://www.neilsonjournals.com/jibe/ elkington, j. (2011, may 5) what is the triple bottom line? [video file]. retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l5mpouhmpmk leila trapp, n. (2011). staff attitudes to talking openly about ethical dilemmas: the role of business ethics conceptions and trust. journal of business ethics, 103(4), 543552. doi:10.1007/s1055101108799 luthans, f., & doh, j. (2012). international management: culture, strategy, and behavior 8th new york, ny mcgrawhill irwin miltonsmith, j. (1997). business ethics in australia and new zealand. journal of business ethics, 16(14), 14851497 park, h. s., levine, t. r., weber, r., lee, h. e., terra, l. i., botero, i. c., & wilson, m. s. (2012). individual and cultural variations in direct communication style. international journal of intercultural relations, 36179187. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.12.010 \n 14 reserve bank of australia. (2010). the global financial crisis and its impact on australia. retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/lookup/1301.0chapter 27092009–10 the new zealand kaitohutohu kaupapa rawa. (n.d.) new zealand economic and financial overview 2010. the economy of new zealand: overview http://www.treasury.govt.nz/ economy/overview/2010/04.htm volkema, r. (2012). understanding initiation behavior in brazilian negotiations: an analysis of four regional subcultures. brazilian business review (english edition), 9(2), 88108 zhu, y. (2009). managing business relationships in new zealand and china: a semantic perspective. management international review, 49(2), 225248. retrieved from http://www.springer.com/business+%26+management/journal/11575 ",
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c148f1058274aa24a201f10b947861bf | ?problem 42e
rates of radioactive decay (section)
the half-life for the process 238u?206pb is 4.5 × 109 yr. a mineral sample contains 75.0 mg of 238u and 18.0 mg of 206pb. what is the age of the mineral? | rates of radioactive decay (section)the half-life for the | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.39 | [
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"text": " unit 1: proteins section 1.1: introduction: ph & charge of amino acids prokaryote cell eukaryotic cell robert hooke coined the biological term cell so called because his observations of plant cells reminded him of monks' cells which were called \"cellula\". cytoplasm: the fluid contained within the cell that holds and surround the cell's organelles in a liquid environment which is necessary for many of the cell's vital functions to occur. the materials that are found within the cytoplasm are also typically found within the cell membrane. typically, the cytoplasm contains materials that are known as cytoplasmic inclusions. o these inclusions are typically starch granules, mineral crystals, or lipid droplets that are floating around within the cytoplasm. cytosol: the gellike translucent fluid that is part of the cytoplasm, consisting mostly of water. suspends inclusions and organelles where most of the cells chemical reactions occur [ex: transportation and communication] \n unit 1: proteins ionic bonds: salt bonds covalent bonds: stronger that hydrogen bonds hydrogen bond: when a h atom is shared between two atoms of n and/or o (and sometimes s) directionality of the hydrogen bond affects its strength o the attraction between the partial electric charges is greatest when the three atoms involved in the bond (in this case o, h, and o) lie in a straight line. linear = stronger bent = weaker + + ph = log (h ) = log[1/(h )] log x = log (1/x) acid dissociation: - oh h o \n unit 1: proteins acetic acid acetate (ac )- k = = 1.74 x + a h 10-5m buffering action is simply the consequence of two reversible reactions taking place simultaneously and reaching their points of equilibrium as governed by tweiraequilibrium constants, k and k . hendersonhasselbalch equation: (a-) (ha) ph = pk + log a titration of acetic acid: pk1 ph = buffering region: where the change in ph is minimal. its absolute minimum is when ph=pka \n unit 1: proteins when ph=pka the acid concentration equals the conjugate base concentration and the net charge changes by 1, (loses/gains a proton depending on which way the equation is being driven) change on charge as ph increases: pk1 - 0 1 0 -0.5 -1.0 the net charge of acetic acid before oh is added is 0 and the net charge after oh is added is 1 because 1 mole of acetic acid loses a proton for every 1 mole of oh added . (net charge is in red under the equation) as ph decreases, the net charge of any biological system has to become more positive or less negative. titration comparison between 3 different acids + + nh4 ↔ nh 3 + h pka = 9.25 h po - ↔ hpo 2- + h+ pk = 6.86 2 4 4 a acetic acid ↔ acetate + h pk = 4.76 a \n unit 1: proteins structure of amino acids: all of the amino acids normally found in proteins (except glycine) are chiral and have the l configuration. the r group, or side chain, attached to the αcarbon is different in each amino acid. required to recognize the 20 amino acids (tests are multiple choice) and know their abbreviation major ionic form at ph 7 & nonpolar aliphatic r group glycine alanine proline valine gly, g ala, a pro, p val, v leucine isoleucine methionine leu, l ile, i met, m \n unit 1: proteins major ionic form at ph 7 & aromatic r group phenylalanine tyrosine tryptophane(e) phe, f y w major ionic form at ph 7 & polar & uncharged r group serine threonine cysteine ser, s thr, t cys, s \n unit 1: proteins asparagine glutamine asn, n gln, q major ionic form at ph 7 & positively charged & r groups lysine arginine histidine lys, k arg, r his h major ionic form at ph 7 & negatively charged & r group aspartate glutamate asp, d glu, e \n unit 1: proteins example: titration of glycine ph = 9.60 ph = 2.34 pk1 pk2 +1 0 -1 for every oh added, structure of: glycine loses an h, group acid base ~pk a range reducing its charge by 1. the carboxyl group loses a carboxyli proton before the c 1.5 to 4 ammonium group because it is a stronger acid (stronger acids lose imidazole 6 to 7 protons easier/faster than weaker acids/bases) sulfhydry 7 to 9 l amino 8 to 10 phenolic 8 to 10 guanido 11 to 13 \n unit 1: proteins example: titration of glutamic acid ph = 9.67 ph = 4.25 ph = 2.34 +1.0 +0.5 0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 example: titration of histidine +1 02 pk1 ph = 9.17 \n d e h y k r amin unit 1: proteins o acid: ph: ph = 6.0 0 1 ph = 1.82 2 3 4 pkpk2 5 6 +2 01 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 \n unit 1: proteins section 1.2: proteins \n unit 1: proteins proteins are all polypeptides, but not all polypeptides are proteins peptide bonds are amides and formed by a condensation reaction - h o + 2 + h o 2 the elimination of water between amino acid 1 and amino acid 2 form the peptide bond between the two amino acids. the amino acids join between the ammonia and the carboxyl groups. peptides are named beginning with the aminoterminal residue, which by convention is placed at the left. the peptide bonds are shown here in red. structure of a protein: the primary structure = the primary sequence = the amino acid sequence. amino acids are numbered form the amino (n) terminal to the carboxyl (c) terminal. amino (n) terminal carboxyl (c) terminal \n unit 1: proteins oxidation of 2silfhydryl groups to a disulfide bond + - + + 2 h + 2 e insulins amino acids chains bind together by inter or intra disulfide bonds. in amino acids chains, specific cysteine’s will bind together. cysteine’s that are part of the same chain bond together via interdisulfide bonds while cysteine’s that are part of two different amino acid chains bond via interdisulfide bonds. huma t i n t n porcin e \" \" \" a bovin a v \" a difeerences between amino acid sequence of insulin between humans and other animals feline a v h a human insulin is made thru genetic engineering by inserting the human gene into a bacterium. the bacterium will make human insulin. before this method was developed, pig pancreases were used to harvest insulin for use by humans. (unfortunate for people whose body’s recognized the insulin to be foreign.) the greater the difference in structure between the host protein and the foreign protein, the greater chance the host sees the foreign protein as \"notoneofus\" and thus turns on the immune response against the foreign protein. porcine and bovine insulins are not on the market anymore because they are not very marketable. now, people have to purchase human insulin which sucks for animals with diabetes. \n unit 1: proteins conformation proteins are polypeptides with molecular weight of at least 10,000 on average, 1 amino acid weighs 110d example: how many amino acids are in a protein with molecular weight of 10,000? 40,000? 10,000 / 110d = 90 amino acids 40,000 / 110d = 360 amino acids example: what is the molecule weight of a protein containing 512 amino acids? 512 x 110d = 55,000 constraints are what give proteins their shape. o each peptide bond has some doublebond character due to resonance and cannot rotate. o as with all amides, the carbonyl o has a partial charge and the amide n a partial + charge. o almost (but not all) peptide bonds in proteins have this trans configuration. (resonance) a peptide bond (the 6 atoms forming the plane are in red) models of the αhelix nterminal do not confuse and alpha and double helix c atoms = green; o atoms = red; n atoms = blue; side groups = orange; h atoms are not shown. \n unit 1: proteins cterminal pitch is the distance along the alpha helix for one turn of the helix = 5.4 a rise is the distance along the alpha helix for one amino acid residue = 1.5 a or 3.6 amino acid residues per turn the dimensions are fixed and known. hydrogen bonds between atoms in the polypeptide backbone (not in the side groups) give the protein its helical structure o hydrogen bonds are weak but a bunch of them together are strong. o hydrogen bonds occur at between atoms that are four amino acids apart [ex: amino acid 100 bonds to amino acid 104, 101 bonds to 105, 102 binds to 106, etc] (n and n+4) r 1 r2 r 3 r 4 r5 r6 r 7 r8 n c c n c c n c c n c c n c c n c c n c c n c c h h o h h o h h o h h o h h o h h o h h o h h o placement of the hydrogen bonds. the red atoms share hydrogen bonds with the next red atom and etc for the rest of the colors the conformation of each and every protein must be experimentally determined. only 70% of hemoglobin or myoglobin is found to be in the helical structure. (100% keratin is in alphahelix and 0% chymotrypsinogen is in the alphahelical structure) hydrophobic interactions when molecules combined, the surface are to volume ratio decreases (this increases the stability of hydrophobic molecules) m the same concept can be applied to children and adults. children have a smaller mm surface area to volume ratio so they m loses heat faster than adults. food will also cook differently depending on the amount you cook at once because the surface area to volume ration is different. less stable: more stable: more less interaction interaction hydrophilic interactions nacl dissolves in water. na will interact with o while cl will interact with h . “like dissolves like” \n unit 1: proteins proteins have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions hydrophobicity is the main driving force behind protein conformation general rule: hydrophobic amino acids in the interior of a folded protein; hydrophilic amino acids on the outside where they can interact with the aqueous solvent. the black spheres represent hydrophobic amino acids while the white spheres represent hydrophilic amino acids. some amino acids are amphipathic (neither hating nor loving of water/ having a passion for both) hydrophobic amino acids: f, m, i, l, v (in decreasing order of hydrophobicity) hydrophilic amino acids: h, q, n, e, k, d the rest are amphipathic (w and y can act as either hydrophobic or hydrophilic) cellular membrane ~30 å an amino acid is 1.5a long and there are 20 amino acids per 30a in a lipid bilayer 30a / (1.5a/aa) = 20 amino acids conversion: 30a = 20 amino acids \n unit 1: proteins 1.5a = 1 amino acid reminder: 1å = 10 10m the tails (hydrophobic region) in the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane often form an alphahelical structure the more bonds formed, the more stable the compound (if a carbonyl o and an amino n cannot hydrogen bond with water, they tend to hydrogen bond with themselves) most proteins are stabilized to a large extent by forming lots of h bonds but amino acids in the lipid portion of a membrane cannot form h bonds with water because water is excluded from that region. but these amino acids can form h bonds with themselves since alphahelices are an especially common and stable conformation that depends upon h bonding between amino acids alphahelices are common in hydrophobic environments oxygen and nitrogen readily form hydrogen bonds because they are so polar bacteriorhodopsin: a 7transmembrane protein the single polypeptide chain folds into seven hydrophobic α helices, each of which traverses the lipid bilayer roughly perpendicular to the plane of the membrane. transmembrane proteins transverse the membrane once nterminal outside aptactivated channel inside schematic representation showing the membrane topology of a typical p2x receptor subunit. first and second transmembrane domains are labeled tm1 and tm2. \n unit 1: proteins alphahelix is within the dynamite. px2 receptors are involved in a variety of physiological processes. [ex: apoptosis, contraction of the vas deferens during ejaculation, modulation of vascular tone, macrophage activation] integral and peripheral membrane protein an alphahelical structure generally (but not always) form in the membranespanning region of a protein o the more bonds formed, the more stable is a compound. most proteins are stabilized to a large extent by forming lots of h bonds, especially with the polypeptide backbone. but amino acids in the lipid portion of a membrane cannot form h bonds with water because water is excluded from that region. however, these amino acids can form h bonds with themselves. since alphahelices are an especially common and stable conformation that depends upon h bonding between atoms (n and o) in the polypeptide backbone alpha helices are common in hydrophobic environments. note that these h bonds are in the polypeptide backbone, not in the side groups o beta sheets can also form, since they are also stabilized by h bonds between amino acids, but they are much less common in membranespanning proteins than are alphahelices. antiparallel betapleated sheets there can be several layers of amino acid chains (only two layers are shown for simplicity) n c c n the hydrogen bonds in antiparallel betasheets are linear (and hence stronger than the bent h bonds in parallel betasheets). \n unit 1: proteins n c parallel betapleated sheet n c the hydrogen bonds in parallel betasheets are bent (instead of being linear). antiparallel beta pleated sheets more stable than parallel bsheets more common than parallel parallel beta pleated sheets \n unit 1: proteins r groups alternate up and down beta sheets are often twisted, not flat the arrow points to the c terminal betabarrel structure found in porins nonhelical structure tertiary structure of a protein folding of the 2° structural elements plus the spatial arrangements of the aminoacid side chains denaturation is the disruption of conformation without breaking peptide bonds. proteins unfold (results in loss of biological activity which is usually irreversible) [ex: heating, alcohol, high/low ph] \n unit 1: proteins egg whites will lose solubility when it is cooked (eggs have to be denatured before being eaten because the enzymes have to get to the peptide bonds to digest the egg) fevers develop in order to denature the virus alcohol is used to sterilize by denaturing bacteria (the bacteria lose biological activity) changing ph also changes charge. (repel or attract proteins) folding proteins proteins are synthesized in an unfolded state. folding is directed by auxiliary proteins. the primary sequence also helps a protein fold correctly. o many problems in the biotech industry is incorrect folding incorrect folding results in cystic fibrosis, alzheimer’s disease, mad cow disease, etc quaternary structure many proteins have more than one polypeptide (subunits) a human cell contains about 20,000 different proteins. contains about 100,000,000 proteins in total \n units 1: proteins section 1.3: hemoglobin & myoglobin myo means muscle and globin means blood: myoglobin is a protein found in the muscle while hemoglobin is found in blood. many require cofactors and a prosthetic group cofactor: a small molecule required for the biological activity of a protein prosthetic group: a cofactor tightly bound to the protein via covalent bond(s) myoglobin and hemoglobin: mb + o mb-o 2 2 the porphyrin ring hb + o hb-o system 2 2 the structure of the cofactor, heme porphyrins consist of 4 pyrrole rings linked by methene bridges structure is more or less planar there is continuous resonance over the entire protoporphyrin ring system. the iron must be in +2 redox state to function 2 to bind to o and f8 histidine), must have 6 bonds 2+ 3+ o fe is red while fe is brown myoglobin showing heme cofactor 8 alpha helical structures bound by primary sequence structures 153 amino acids in human myoglobin c-terminal molecular weight is 17,199d n-terminal \n units 1: proteins a coordinate covalent bond is a covalent bond (i.e., shared electrons between 2 atoms) where one atom alone provides both electrons. hemoglobin in red blood cells found only in erythrocytes (red blood cells) has quaternary structure (alpha 2 beta 2) (unlike myoglobin) and 4 subunits each subunit of hemoglobin molecule has 1 heme; 4 hemes per 1 hemoglobin; 4 o 2can bind to a hemoglobin structure of human deoxyhemoglobin: the alpha subunits are in blue; the beta subunits in purple; alpha chain of hemoglobin: molecular weight is 15,126d 141 amino acids beta chain of hemoglobin: molecular weight is 15, 867d 146 amino acids respiratory system in invertebrates takes up oxygen in lugs/gills and the hemoglobin binds oxygen. the hemoglobin transports oxygen through the arteries to the peripheral tissue. the oxygen is released and can be used for metabolism producing co 2 some of the oxygen is bound to myoglobin in muscle. the co 2nd bicarbonate is transported through blood (in veins) (by hemoglobin) and out of body. oxygen concentration in lungs is higher than in tissue erythrocytes red blood cells (erythro=red, cyte=cell) adults have ~25 trillion erythrocytes ~280 million hemoglobin molecules in 1 erythrocyte allosteric proteins is a protein whose functional site can be altered by the binding of a small molecule at a non overlapping site. \n units 1: proteins it is triggered to alter its function in response to the binding of a target compound (allosteric ligand) at a site that is distal from the active site of the protein allosteric ligands bind at the allosteric site, resulting in conformational changes that alter the functional site(s) allosteric ligand = allosteric effector (may be + or ) functional site allosteric site allosteric ligand (+ or cooperativity is a - effector) type of an allosteric regulation (allosteric ligand or effector) binding of the ligand to one site on the protein affects the binding properties of a different site on the same protein can be positive or negative modulation of biological activity (↑ or ↓ functionality) in cooperativity, the allosteric ligand is both a functional ligand for the pro2ein (e.g., o for hemoglobin; a substrate for an enzyme), as well as an allosteric modulator of the protein's activity it is generally an activator of the protein o e.g., o 2is a positive allosteric effector of hemoglobin as well as the biological ligand at the active site oxygen binding curves for myoglobin and hemoglobin % deoxymb or % oxymb or deoxyhb dexoyhb \n units 1: proteins mb lungs hba (sea level) mb + o ↔ mb(o ) 2 2 tissues hb + n o ↔ 2 partial pressure of oxygen (torr) myoglobin has a hyperbolic curve while hemoglobin has a sigmoid shaped curve myoglobin contains 1 polypeptide while hemoglobin contains 4 polypeptides making hemoglobin it a quaternary structure. this is why the curves are different hemoglobin does not release all of the oxygen it picks up, some of it returns to the lungs fraction saturation = bound2o / total heme groups % saturation = fraction saturation x 100 torr = 1mm hg at 0 c = 0.133 kpa 760 torr = 1 atm 750 torr = 100 kpa deoxyhemoglobin has several salt bonds (formed because of positive and negatively charged atoms) that stabilize the “t state” shape. oxyhemoglobin does not have salt bonds, it is in the “r state” shape. o t (deoxyhb) = tight, tense, taut o r (oxyhb) = relaxed the binding of oxygen to heme iron in myoglobin or hemoglobin the conformation of deoxy is more curved than the oxy conformation his (f8) his (f8) \n units 1: proteins deoxy (t state) oxy (r state) when a molecule of oxygen binds to a heme, the heme iron ion is drawn into the plane of the porphyrin ring in its respective subunit. this causes the same conformational change in the other three subunits, increasing the affinity of their heme groups for oxygen. deoxyhemoglobin resists oxygenation because it is stabilized by hydrogen bonds and salt bridges in its tense state (oxygenation will break these stabilizing interactions) color of blood color of blood in arteries is bright red while the color of blood in veins is dull red the iron gives blood its red color in the arteries, iron binds 6 oxygen. iron binds 5 oxygen’s in veins. conformation of oxy and deoxyhemoglobin oxy (r) deoxy (t) sequential model for binding of o2 by hemoglobin 2,3bisphosphoglycerate (bpg) \n units 1: proteins = glycerate % sa effect of bpg on binding of oxygen to hemoglobin tur no bpg ati on 5 mm bpg 8 mm bpg partial pressure of oxygen without bpg, hemoglobin is not functional because it is shifted so far to the left, it would not deliver oxygen to the tissue. (0xy form has been stabilized) • shift of the oxygen-binding curve for hemoglobin to the right = shift of the oxygen-binding curve for hemoglobin down = stabilizing the t state (deoxy form) of hemoglobin • shift of the oxygen-binding curve for hemoglobin to the left = shift of the oxygen-binding curve for hemoglobin up = stailone adaptation to higher altitudes is to increase bpg production stabilizing the deoxy form of hemoglobin and delivering more oxygen to tissue one bpg binds to the beta subunits of deoxyhemoglobin in the middle of the molecule by its negative charges binding to the positive charges on the side groups of the hemoglobin as oxygen binds, less bpg binds stabilizing the oxy (r) form and vice versa deoxyhb (t) \n units 1: proteins another way of showing this balancing act: hb-o intermediate deoxyhb + o 2 2 oxygen is picked up in the lungs/gills and transported through the arteries by hemoglobin the tissue or stores (for aquatic invertebrates). once the oxygen has been utilized carbon dioxide is transported back to the lungs through veins. effect of ph on binding of oxygen to hemoglobin ph 7.6 ph 7.4 ph 7.2 when co 2 dissolves in water in tissue, phartial pressure of oxygen (torr) decreases and the oxygen binding curve shifts to the right/down, stabilizing the deoxy form. as co2 is removed the ph increases and the oxy form is stabilized effect of ph on the conformation of hemoglobin when ph decreases (increases in ionic bonds/hydrogen concentration increases) the deoxy form is favored and vise versa comparative binding of oxygen to hba and hbf hba = alpha beta hbf = alpha gamma the fetal hemoglobin curve sits to the left of the adult hemoglobin. the fetal hemoglobin favors the oxy form (r) form. fetal oxygen binds more oxygen than adult hemoglobin o when adult and fetal hemoglobin pass each other in capillaries, the fetal hemoglobin “steals” oxygen form the adult hemoglobin and binds oxygen more tightly. \n units 1: proteins hbf hba hb + n o ↔ % 2 hb(o ) 2 n partial pressure of oxygen (torr) difference between the hbabeta chain and the hbfgamma chain: enfrllgnvl vcvlahhfgk eftppvqaay qkvvagvana lahkyh enfkllgnvl vtvlaihfgk eftpevqasw qkmvtavasa lssryh (ser instead of hisb143) ser has no charge (unlike his which is positively charged) so there are reactions in hbf that are missing binding of 2,3bisphosphoglycerate to beta chain of deoxyhemoglobin bpg binds less tightly in hbf, therefore there is less shift toward the deoxy form. because the oxy form is more favored in hbf than in hba, hbf can steal oxygen form hba in hbf, the amino acid at position beta 143 is ser, which does not have an ionic side group and thus does not ionically bond the negativelycharged bpg, thus lowering the affinity of the hemoglobin for bpg. this shifts the oxygenbinding curve toward the right (or up or toward the r form of hemoglobin). thus hbf can \"steal\" oxygen from maternal hba. ser in gam deoxy ser in gam \n units 1: proteins adults retain some of their fetal hemoglobin persistent fetal hemoglobinemia: disorder that causes adult to produce fetal hemoglobin instead of normal hemoglobin. there are no major or minor symptoms and people live normal lives. hemoglobin’s (and all globins) have invariant positions that require certain amino acids (like his at the f8 position or gly in the b6 position). o the his binds to the iron in heme which is required for life and cannot be changed. o gly has a the smallest side groups so the b helix can pass by (fit by) the e helix section 1.4: enzymes almost all enzymes are proteins. they have a binding site and a catalytic site. they speed up the rate of a reaction. o enzymes do not alter the equilibrium constant or the concentrations. enzymes shorten the time it takes to reach equilibrium o enzymes are specific as to which reactions they catalyze and substrates they bind to substrates must collide a the correct orientation and have more energy than the product to react enzymes only bind substrates at substratebinding sites \n units 1: proteins e + s es ep e + p e = enzyme (specifically the substrate-binding site) s = substrate es = the enzyme-substrate complex ep = the enzyme-product complex p = product substratebinding site = those amino acids in the enzyme involved in binding the substrate(s) active site = those amino acids in the enzyme directly involved in catalysis o the substratebinding site and the active site always overlap (where the substrate binds is where catalysis occurs) substrate binding and induced fit induced fit: when a substrate binds to the substratebinding site on an enzyme, the conformation of the enzyme changes. \n units 1: proteins the rate of reaction slows with time. as a reaction approaches equilibrium the rate slows as substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction increases but the initial rate of reaction does not change with substrate concentration v0 = how fast p forms (or s disappears) when there is no reverse rx the maximum velocity, vmaxis extrapolated from the plot, becau0e v approaches but never quite reaches vmax the substrate concentration at whic0 v is half maximam is k , the michaelis constant 1 0.75 vmax vo 0.5 0.25 0 0 25 50 75 100 (substrate) v /2 max k m [s] >> [e] michaelismenten plot (the curve) is obtained from multiple experiments km = the substrate concentration that results 0n a v of 1/2 of the maximal initial velocity (vmax) vmax[s] km + [s] \n units 1: proteins michaelis-menten equation: v = ------------ 0 if [s] is low, km tends to be low as the substrate concentration increases, the concentration of the enzymesubstrate complex increases until all the binding sites on the enzyme are occupied (= saturating concentration of this is three differnet experiments substrate) km values differ greatly. they cannot be predicted. they must be determined experimentally o km is independent of enzyme concentration if [s] << m , rate is relatively slow but have \"fine\" control of rate (v ) by varying [s] if [s] >> m , rate is close to max but have less control oo rate (v ) by varying [s] if v is high, the rate of a reaction tends to be high and vice versa max v max = 1.0, 0.7, 0.3 mm per min km is the same for all three enzymes v 0 (mm per min) vmaxepends on 2 major parameters substrate concentration (mm) 1) vmax is proportional to [enzyme] decrease [enzyme] by 50%, vmax will decrease by 50% 2) total vmax is proportional to the vmax for a single enzyme molecule competitive inhibition competitive inhibition can be overcome by increasing the concentration of substrate so that there are so many substrate molecules that they out compete the inhibitor \n units 1: proteins competitive inhibitors typically have structures similar enough to the structure of the substrate that they \"fool\" the enzyme active site into binding them. however, the inhibitor structure does not allow the reaction to proceed to produce product. in competitive i, the competitive inhibitors bind to the enzyme's active site. in the presence of a competitive inhibitor: vmax is not altered; km is increase. (it takes more substrate for vo to reach 1/2 vmax) v0 (i) = \"km \" = (mm per min) 0 mm 1 mm 10 mm 6 mm substrate concentration (mm) 50 mm 26 mm antifreeze ingestion (ethylene glycol poisoning) is countered with alcohol. o the ethanol competes with ethylene glycol for the same binding site on alcohol dehydrogenase. as the ethanol concentration increases, less ethylene glycol can bind to the active site and thus formation of toxic glycolaldehyde is slowed. after about a day, the very watersoluble ethylene glycol is excreted by the kidneys. carbon monoxide can bind to the iron in hemoglobin causing carbon monoxide poisoning o counteract by increasing the oxygen concentration where oxygen can compete with the carbon monoxide. (carbon monoxide binds more tightly to iron than oxygen) \n units 1: proteins ph optimum for the activity of an enzyme these curves are constructed from measurements of initial velocities when the reaction is carried out in buffers of different ph. the ph optimum for the activity of an enzyme is generally close to the ph of the environment in which the enzyme is normally found. pepsin chymotrypsin relative reaction velocity 1 3 5 7 9 11 ph optimal temperature of an enzyme the rate of almost all chemical reactions increase with increased temperature since enzymecatalyzed reactions depend on the native conformation of the enzyme, thermal denaturation of the catalyst is a competing process thermal denaturation of the enzyme no relative velocity yes temperature (k) \n units 1: proteins optimal temperature and ph is an adaptation of the cell to exist in its environment \n unit 1: protein section 1.5: enzyme mechanisms 1 chymotrypsin is a protease in the small intestine that helps digest proteins to amino acids. it is synthesized and stored in the pancreases until it is needed. has three polypeptide chains held together by disulfide bonds his57, asp102, and ser195 are involved in the mechanism h2o + the amino acid on the nterminal (r1) is usually, f, y, or w chymotrypsin is an endopeptidase o an endopeptidase catalyzes the hydrolysis of a peptide bond that is not at the nterminal or c terminal site (catalyzes a peptide bond that is on the \"inside\" of the peptide) basecatalyzed hydrolysis of a peptide bond hoh + + 7 but the biological reaction must proceed at ph ~7 where (oh ) is far too low (~10 m) o solution: use a ro oxyanion as the base o problem: alcohols are not acidic in water; they aave a pk ~16. the only way to create ro at pk ~7 is to ↓ pa of the alcohol (roh from ~16 to ~8 ) outline of mechanism of serine proteases 1st product + + + \n unit 1: protein (must ↓ pk af the serine alcohol from ~16 to ~8 so can form ro to act as base to attack the carbonyl c) + + + 2nd product first (as with any enzyme) the substrate binds to the substratebinding site on chymotrypsin. now the sero atom must attain enough of a charge to attack the electrophilic carbonyl c of the substrate peptide bond (shown as a thick black bond in the slide). since an alcohol is normally not an aciddissociable group in water (remember that pure vodka is not sour; pka for water ≈ 14; pka for ethanol ≈ 16), the ser hydroxyl needs some help to lower its ak sufficiently so that the o takes on basic properties (i.e., has a charge) so it can attack the carbonyl c in the substrate. o this help comes from the adjacent base form of imidazole which can attract the hydroxyl h while the hydroxyl o is attacking the carbonyl c of the substrate. mechanism of serine protease: the catalytic triad substrate the adjacent imidazole group (in the base form)lowers the pka of the serine hydroxyl from ~16 to a low enough value so that the o atom can serve as a base (i.e., have a charge) to attack the carbonyl c atom of the substrate peptide bond. but the imidazole group by itself cannolower the pka of the oh group sufficiently; it needs the adjacent negative charge on the asp side chain traise the pka of the imidazole group (which is normally ~6 to 7) so it can interact with the ser to make the hyrdroxyl o more electronegative (= nucleophilic). \n unit 1: protein when a pk aecreases, the base form is stabilized; when a ak increases, the acid form is stabilized. the tetrahedral c intermediate is stabilized by the oxyanion hole, which we do not discuss here (even though it is very important). but remember that a tetrahedral c with 3 o or n atoms attached is inherently unstable; one of the co or cn bonds will likely break. another way of stating this: the charge on the adjacent asp carboxylate stabilizes the acid form (with a + charge) of the imidazole group; i.e., tha pk for the imidazole group significantly from the \"usual\" value of 6 to 7. this allows the uncharged imidazole group to act as a stronger base (since the acid form is more stable now); i.e., extract a proton from the serine alcohol group. the unstable tetrahedral intermediate breaks the cn bond (the original peptide bond in the substrate) to split the original peptide into 2 smaller peptides: o the product peptide with the new nterminal is transiently bonded to the imidazole group; the peptide product with the new cterminal group is still covalently attached to the enzyme via an ester bond with the ser hyrdroxyl group. o the imidazole group returns to the base (uncharged) form. h hoh r' n h + 1st product (shorter peptide with the base fonew n-terminal amino acidcts)a proton from water allowing a hydroxide (with charge) to attack the electrophilic c of the ester. net effecta ↓ pk of water = ↑ the (ho). \n unit 1: protein now water (which is actually a substrate in this reaction) comes into play. it displaces the peptide product with the new nterminal; i.e., one of the two products of the reaction is now free. the other peptide product is still covalently attached to the ser hydroxyl group. the base form of the imidazole extracts a proton from the water to allow the resulting hydroxide ion (with a charge) to attack the carbonyl c (with a partial + charge) of the ester to form again a relatively unstable tetrahedral intermediate. 2nd product (shorter peptide with new the tetrahedral c is unstable resulting in cleavage of the ester bond between the ser hydroxyl and the product carboxylic acid, which is the cterminal of the c-terminal shorter peptide product. the second product is releases and the enzyme (molecule with serine) is now amino acid) ready to accept the next substrate \n unit 1: protein summary: the binding site or chymotrypsin, trypsin, and elastase (serine proteases) \n unit 1: protein chymotrypsin trypsin elastase f, y, w k, r g, a the h atoms shown for chymotrypsin and trypsin are the side groups of glycine residues. the binding pocket of chymotrypsin is lined with hydrophobic amino acids that interact with a hydrophobic sidechain of trp, tyr, phe or met in the substrate. the binding pocket of trypsin has an aspartate group at the end of the binding pocket (asp189 instead of ser189 in chymotrypsin). the negative charge on the aspartate can form a salt bond with the postitive charge on the side group of lysine or arginine in the substrate molecule. note that the aspartate in the binding pocket is not the same aspartate that is in the catalytic triad the binding pocket of elastase is blocked by protruding aminoacid side groups. the pocket thus becomes shallow and only the small aliphatic sidegroups of gly, ala and val of the substrate can bind there catalytic triad inhibitor \n unit 1: protein enzymes with the catalytic triad (shd) are inhibited by organofluorophosphates the organofluorophosphate binds to the serine of the catalytic triad, irreversibly inhibiting the enzyme acetylecholinesterase acetylcholine acetate choline organofluorophosphates inhibit cholinesterase which inactivates the neurotransmitter acetylcholine this esterase has the same catalytic mechanism as serine proteases irreversible inhibition by sarin \n unit 1: protein sarin is an organofluorophosphate inhibits cholinesterase which inactivates the neuro transmitter acetylcholine ser of the acetylcholine + h2o → acetate + choline catalytic this esterase has the same catalytic mechanism triad as serine proteases nerve poison used by sadam hussein, aum shinrikyo and bashar alassad \n unit 1: protein section 1.6: enzyme mechanisms 2 thymidylate synthesis is a key reaction in the synthesis of deoxythymidylate (dtmp), a precursor of dna synthesis. o the enzyme replaces a h atom with a methyl group (not easily complicated mechanism) o key role in cell division important target for chemotherapy o thfa: tetrahydrofolic acid (a reduced form of the b vitamin folic acid) o o h h c h c ch 3 n c n c c dumc c c dtmp n n o h o h dribose5'p dribose5'p dribose5'p dribose5'p 5 6 1 5-f-uracil 5-fdump 5furacil is converted to 5fdump by a series of 4 enzymecatalyzed reactions (shown immediately above) that are in an existing pathway for deoxynucleotide synthesis. for each of these 4 enzymes, the f atom at the 5 position of uracil is perceived as a h atom; reaction proceeds the same whether uracil or 5 furacil is the pyrimidine. this is because f is a very small atom, as is h. in addition, none of the reactions catalyzed by the first 4 enzymes involve the c5. it is only when the 5fluoro compound reaches thymidylate synthase that the presence of a f instead of a h at position 5 makes a difference they must be converted into the active compound before achieving the desired pharmacological effect. \n unit 1: protein mechanism for thymidylate synthase 146 1) a base (s) in cys of the enzyme attacks the c6 of uracil. a carbanion is formed around the c5 of uracil 2) the carbanion at c5 of uracil attacks the methylene group of folic acid, breaking a cn bond. 3) a second proton is extracted from uracil by base attack, breaking the other cnbond. the h comes off as h . f cannot form f , only f. why? answer: f is very electronegative. 4) a hydride shift from c6 of tetrahydrofolate to the ch2 group on the c5 of uracil completes the reaction. h 5fdump as a suicide inhibitor mechanismbased inhibitor/trojan horse inhibitor highly specific and very effective in inhibiting thymidylate synthesis binding of a substrate analogue to the substratebinding site of an enzyme with the formation of an irreversible complex via a covalent bind during the normal catalytic reaction",
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df6ae1e320063509da5c74e183740db2 | in the circuit of figure 10.11, assume that the currents and charges are all zero prior to the switch being closed at time 0. find the loop currents for time t > 0. 50 103 f 10 h i2 | in the circuit of figure 10.11, assume that the currents | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": "1 define an operating system an operating system is a program/software that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. 2 computer types micro, mini, mainframe, super 3 describe the evolution and trends of the operating system 1940: first generation computer based on vacuum tube technology 1950: second generation focused on cost effectiveness 1960: third generation multiprogramming, program scheduling 1970 virtual memory developed to solve physical limitation 1980 multiprocessing 1990 demand for internet capability, and multimedia applications 2000 virtualization 4 distinguish an operating system from a computer system computer system is software (program). hardware (physical machine and electric components. operating system is part of computer system (software) and manages all hardware and software \n 5 computer object oriented design load only the critical elements into the main memory and call other objects as needed. kernel (operating system nucleus) o resides in memory at all times, performs essential tasks, and protected by hardware kernel reorganization o memory resident: process scheduling and memory allocation o modules: all other functions advantages o modification and customization without disrupting integrity of the remainder of the system o software development more productive 6 explain the operations of an operating system monitor its resources continuously. enforce the policies that determine who gets what, when and how much. allocate the resource when appropriate deallocate the resource when appropriate 7 list the different categories of operating systems five types/categories: batch, interactive, realtime, hybrid, embedded two distinguishing features = response time and how data enters into the system \n 8 identify the key operating system managers memory manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of memory. it checks the validity of each request for memory space and, if it’s a legal request, allocates the amount needed to execute the job. ram processor manager: a composite of two submanagers, the job scheduler and the process scheduler, which decides how to allocate the cpu. cpu device manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of devices. it monitors every device, channel, and control unit and chooses the most efficient way to allocate all of the system’s devices. keyboard, printer, disk drive file manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of files. program files, data files, compilers. network manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling access to and the use of networked resources. network comms, protocols 9 describe the early memory management allocation schemes singleuser contiguous, fixed partitions, dynamic partitions common requirements of old memory management techniques (disadvantages of the old schemes) entire program loaded into memory contiguous storage stays in memory until job completed each places severe restrictions on job size sufficient for first three generations of computers multiprogramming not supported in singleuser contiguous 10 describe the new memory management allocation schemes paged memory allocation o divides each incoming job into pages of equal size demand paging scheme o pages brought into memory only as needed segmented memory allocation scheme \n o each job divided into several segments (logical pieces), where the segments are different sizes segmented/demand paged memory o combination of segmentation and demand paging virtual memory o combination of ram and disk space that running processes can use. firstfit memory allocation first partition fitting the requirements o advantage: faster in making allocation o disadvantage: leads to memory waste bestfit memory allocation smallest partition fitting the requirements o advantage: makes the best use of memory space o disadvantage: slower in making allocation 11 explain the process management concept and concurrency of operating systems processor manager composite of two submanagers job scheduler: higherlevel scheduler o job scheduling responsibilities o job initiation based on certain criteria process scheduler: lowerlevel scheduler o process scheduling responsibilities o determines execution steps o process scheduling based on certain criteria hold (handled by job scheduler) ready (handled by process scheduler) waiting (handled by process scheduler) running (handled by process scheduler) finished (handled by job scheduler) six algorithm types firstcome, firstserved (fcfs) – nonpreemptive shortest job next (sjn) – nonpreemptive priority scheduling – nonpreemptive shortest remaining time (srt) – preemptive round robin (rr)– preemptive multiplelevel queues – more of a package, 1 queue per policy \n concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other multiple processes within os multiple threads within a process there is no need for ‘rules’ if there is no shared resources (e.g. data) or resource/data is constant (readonly), otherwise we need synchronization… lack of process synchronization consequences • deadlock: “deadly embrace” • system comes to standstill • resolved via external intervention • starvation • infinite postponement of job 12 identify the four basic functions of device management monitoring of status of each device enforcing policies to determine which process will get a device and for how long. allocating the device deallocating the device dedicated devices (e.g. printer) shared devices (e.g. hard disk) virtual devices a virtual device is a combination of dedicated and shared devices. it is actually a dedicated device which is transformed to a shared device. (e.g. printer converted to shareable device through a spooling program which reroutes all print requests to a disk.) sequential access disk dasd flash memory optical disk, magnetic disk, fixed and movable head \n ready – determined by process scheduling algorithms waiting – signal to continue processing running – l/0 request page fault divide each job into equal size pages brought into memory only as needed each job divided into different size, segment are different size combination combination of ram and disk space that running process can use it checks the validity of each request for memory space and, if it’s a legal request, allocates the amount needed to execute the job. which decides how to allocate the cpu. controlling access to and the use of networked resources. 13 explain the fundamentals of file management and the structure of the file management system in a computer system, the file manager keeps track of its files with directories that contain the filename, its physical location in secondary storage, and important information about each file. file storage tracking policy implementation file allocation if user access cleared file deallocation field – group of related byte record – group of related field file – group of related record (information used by specific program) file organization refers to the arrangement of records within the file \n sequential record organization easiest to implement because records are stored and retrieved serially, one after the other. direct record organization uses direct access files, which, of course, can be implemented only on direct access storage devices indexed sequential record organization combines the best of sequential and direct access.",
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bfb2483e7e8286c36f340eef0dfb14fe | pierre company has a 12% note payable with a carrying value of $20,000. pierre applies the fair value option to this note. given an increase in market interest rates, the fair value of the note is $22,600. prepare the entry to record the fair value option for this note. | pierre company has a 12% note payable with a carrying | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": " chapter 7 – sensory physiology five classes of sensory receptors – there are 5 classes of sensory receptors that detect different stimuli. one important thing to note is that the term receptor has two distinct meanings. one refers to sensory receptors and the other refers to proteins on plasma membranes or inside cells. so we have sensory receptors and protein receptors. a stimulus is the energy or chemical that impinges upon and activates a sensory receptor. an adequate stimulus is the type of stimulus to which a particular sensory receptor responds in normal functioning. a sensory transduction is when the stimulus is transferred into an electrical response. furthermore, any given sensory receptor gives rise to only one sensation. the following lists the 5 classes of sensory receptors: 1. mechanoreceptors – respond to mechanical stimuli such as pressure and stretch, and are responsible for touch, blood pressure, and muscle tension. 2. thermoreceptors – detect sensations of cold or warmth 3. photoreceptors – respond to particular ranges of light wavelengths 4. chemoreceptors – respond to the binding of particular chemicals to protein receptors on the sensory receptor membrane 5. nociceptors – specialized neuronal endings that respond to a number of different stimuli, such as heat or tissue damage receptor potential – in sensory receptors, the transduction process begins with the opening of ion channels either directly or through a secondmessenger system. these channels are either located on the distal end of the axon or on a special receptor cell, that transfers neurotransmitters to the dendrite of another afferent neuron. receptor potential is the change in graded potential caused by ion channels allowing an influx across the sensory receptor membrane. so, to reiterate, ion channels are the main source of creating receptor potential (graded potential) on the receptor membrane to eventually an action potential if the graded potential is strong enough to reach the axon’s voltagegated na channels. also, the more intense the graded potential, the more frequently the action potential fires, up to its limit due to the absolute refractory period. adaptation is a decrease in sensory receptor sensitivity, which results in a decrease in action potential frequency. primary sensory coding – coding is the conversion of stimulus energy into a signal that conveys the relevant sensory information to the central nervous system. important characteristics of a stimulus are as follows: type of energy, intensity, and location. 1. stimulus type – this is called modality. the type of sensory receptor a stimulus activates plays the primary role in coding the stimulus modality. a given sensory receptor is particularly sensitive to only one modality. also, the receptive fields for different modalities overlap, so that a single stimulus, such as an ice cube on the skin, can give rise to sensations of pressure and temperature at the same time. \n 2. stimulus intensity – as the strength of a local stimulus increases, receptors on adjacent branches of the same afferent neuron are activated, resulting in a summation of their local currents. stronger stimuli also tend to affect a larger area and activate similar receptors on the endings of other afferent neurons. 3. stimulus location – this refers to where the stimulus is being applied. stimulus location is coded by the site of sensory receptor, which sends an action potential along specific anatomical pathways, called labeled lines, to a specific region of the cns associated with that particular modality and location. sensory information pathway – a sensory pathway is also known as an afferent sensory pathway. these chains of afferent neurons travel in parallel bundles to the cns. in the cns, they synapse with ascending pathways, which project up to the brain. there are 2 types of ascending pathways: 1. specific ascending pathway – the ascending pathways in the spinal cord and brain that carry information about only single types of stimuli (different types of receptors). they pass through the brainstem and thalamus and then go to specific sensory areas of the cerebral cortex (except olfactory pathways). these specific sensory areas are called primary cortical areas. a. somatosensory cortex – a strip of cortex that lies in the parietal lobe which gets information from somatic receptors from the outer parts of the body including skin, skeletal muscle, tendons, and joints. b. visual cortex – located in the occipital lobe which gets information from the eyes. c. auditory cortex – located in the temporal lobe which gets information from the ears. d. olfactory cortex – located on the undersurface of the frontal and temporal lobes which gets information from the olfactory projections. 2. nonspecific ascending pathway – activated by sensory units of several different types and therefore signals general information. they just indicated that something is happening. cortical association – cortical association areas are brain areas that lie outside the primary cortical areas but are adjacent to them. unlike primary cortical areas, cortical association areas are not considered part of the sensory pathways, but are important in the perception of senses. after information is sent to the primary cortical areas, it is then relayed to the cortical association areas for further processing. some of the neurons in the in the cortical association areas can receive and integrate input from more than one type of sensory stimuli (multiple primary cortical areas get processed by a single cortical association area). an example is vision and neck position causing an awareness of head position. therefore, cortical association areas are involved in complicated perception. factors that affect perception include: \n 1. receptor adaptation 2. emotions, experience and personality 3. not all stimuli give rise to conscious sensation a. blood pressure in arteries 4. lack of receptors for certain stimuli a. radio waves 5. damaged neural pathways 6. drugs short summary of neural happenings: 1. 1+ type of receptors can exist in a sensation area (eyes, skin, ears, etc.) 2. the action potentials from the sensation area travel to their respective primary cortical area via ascending pathways 3. 1+ primary cortical areas can relay information to 1+ cortical association areas a. ability of cortical association areas gives rise to various perceptions somatic sensation – this describes sensations from the skin, muscles, bones, tendons, and joints and is initiated by a variety of sensory receptors (mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and thermoreceptors all give rise to the sensation of ‘touch”). touch and pressure are associated with mechanoreceptors. some of these mechanoreceptors adapt quickly, so that they only fire when the stimulus is changing. fastadapting mechanoreceptors give rise to touch, movement, and vibration. on the other hand, some mechanoreceptors adapt slowly which give rise to pressure. spatial discrimination happens according to the size of the receptor field. for example, some receptors have small, well defined receptor fields, like in the fingertips. 4 receptors are prevalent in somatosensory systems: 1. meissner’s corpuscle – fastadapting mechanoreceptor (touch and pressure) 2. merkle’s corpuscle – slowadapting mechanoreceptor (touch and pressure) 3. pacinian corpuscle – fastadapting mechanoreceptor (vibration and deep pressure) 4. ruffini corpuscle – slowadapting mechanoreceptor (skin stretch) neural pathways of somatosensory systems – peripheral afferent nerve fibers from somatic receptors synapse on neurons that form specific ascending pathways projecting into the somatosensory cortex via the brainstem and thalamus. all peripheral afferent nerve fibers either synapse on the anterolateral pathway (ascending pathway) in the gray matter in the spinal cord, or enter the dorsal column pathway (ascending pathway) in the white matter where the fibers do not synapse until they reach the brainstem. once inside the somatosensory cortex, the endings of axons from specific somatic pathways are grouped according to peripheral location. visible light – light is anything in the visible spectrum. the wavelengths capable of stimulating receptors in the eye range from about 400 to 750 nm. different wavelengths of light within this band are perceived as color. \n anatomy of the eye: photoreceptors – first of all, accommodation refers to the adjustments made for distance due to changes in lens shape. the retina is an extension of the central nervous system that contains photoreceptors. the two types of photoreceptors are called cones and rods. 1. rods – respond to very low levels of illumination 2. cones – respond only to high levels of illumination light passes all the way through all cell layers into the back of the retina, where the rods and cones are located. directly behind the retina is a layer called the pigment epithelium. this layer absorbs light so that there is no reflection and scattering back on the photoreceptors, which would cause an image to blur. photoreceptors contain molecules called photopigments, which absorb light. rods contain rhodopsin. all photopigments contain membrane proteins called opsins, which surround and bind to a chromophore (retinal) molecule. chromophores are light sensitive molecules. the opsin in each photoreceptor is different and binds to chromophores in different ways, causing each photopigment to absorb light at a specific energy. photoreceptors ← photopigments (opsins) ← chromophore (retinal) \n phototransduction – each photoreceptor contains over a billion photopigments (opsins). photoreceptors act in reverse to many other sensory receptors in that its resting state is depolarized. photoreceptors hyperpolarize in response to an adequate stimulus. the following outlines the steps of phototransduction: 1. guanylyl cyclase (an enzyme) converts gtp into a high concentration of intracellular cgmp. 2. cgmp (a ligand) maintains the ligandgated ion cation channels open, so there is a + 2+ persistent influx of na and ca . a. therefore, in the dark, cgmp concentrations are high and the photoreceptor is depolarized. also, there are a lot of intracellular cations in the dark. 3. light shines on a chromophore (retinal) molecule, changing its shape. 4. the change in chromophore shape alters the shape of the opsin. 5. opsin interacts with transducin, a gprotein receptor. 6. transducin activates the enzyme, cgmpphosphodiesterase, which degrades cgmp. 7. cation channels close. 8. the membrane potential hyperpolarizes to produce the sensation of light. photoreceptor adaption – there are 2 types of adaptation: 1. dark adaptation – vision is only supplied by the rods in a dark room. in a lighted area, rhodopsin is completely activated. restoration to resting state (of the chromophore) takes several minutes. once at its resting state, retinal becomes light sensitive again. 2. light adaptation – rods are overwhelmingly activated as the retinal receives a lot of light energy at once. eventually, rhodopsin is inactivated and the rods become unresponsive so that only less sensitive cones are operating. neural pathways of vision – light signals are converted to action potentials through the interaction of photoreceptors with bipolar cells and ganglion cells (clusters of neurons in the cns). photoreceptors and bipolar cells undergo graded potentials in response to the hyperpolarization of rods and cones. photoreceptors interact with bipolar and ganglion cells in 2 ways, called the onpathway and the offpathway. in both pathways, photoreceptors are depolarized in the absence of light, causing the neurotransmitter glutamate to be released onto bipolar cells. in the presence of light, photoreceptors are hyperpolarized and glutamate is not released. from here, the pathways differ: 1. onpathway – light hyperpolarizes photoreceptors, causing glutamate release to stop. in these bipolar cells, glutamate receptors are inhibitory, so the absence of glutamate depolarizes the bipolar cell. this causes an increase in the frequency of action potentials. 2. offpathway – light hyperpolarizes photoreceptors, causing glutamate release to stop. in these bipolar cells, glutamate receptors are excitatory, so the absence of glutamate hyperpolarizes the bipolar cell, causing a decrease in the frequency of action potentials. \n the axons of the ganglia form the output from the retina, which is called the optic nerve (cranial nerve ii). the two optic nerves meet at the base of the brain to form the optic chiasm, where the fibers cross and travel within the optic tracts to the opposite side of the brain into the visual cortex. color vision – this begins with the activation of photopigments in cone photoreceptor cells. there are 3 types of cones: red, green, and blue. with any wavelength of incoming light, the different cones respond with different graded potentials. anatomy of the ear: sound transmission – sound waves enter the external auditory canal. air molecules push against the tympanic membrane, causing it to vibrate at the same frequency as the sound wave. the middle ear cavity is exposed to atmospheric pressure via the eustachian tube which is connected to the pharynx through slits. when the slits are closed, and the pressure changes, the pressure stretches the tympanic membrane and causes pain. 1. sound waves vibrate the tympanic membrane. 2. vibrations enter the middle ear. \n 3. the malleus, incus, and stapes amplify the sound pressure through the oval window and into the cochlea. the total force applied to the tympanic membrane and oval window are the same, but the force per unit area in the oval window is much higher. 4. the cochlear duct is a membranous tube within cochlea. the cochlear duct is filled with fluid called endolymph, which is similar in electrolyte composition to intracellular fluid. outside the cochlear duct is filled with perilymph. the scala vestibuli is above the cochlear duct and begins at the oval window. the scala tympani are below the cochlear duct and begin at the round window. anyways, waves of pressure are created in the scala vestibuli. this pressure is transmitted into the cochlear duct and dissipated by the round window at the scala tympani. 5. the side of the cochlear duct nearest the scala tympani is the basilar membrane, which sits the organ of corti that contains the ear’s sensory receptor cells. the sound waves from step 4 cause the basilar membrane to vibrate. hair cells of the organ of corti – receptor cells of the organ of corti are called hair cells. hair cells are mechanoreceptors. there are two types of hair cells, inner and outer hair cells. the tectorial membrane overlies the organ of corti, and embeds the projections of the outer hair cells. when there is pressure in the cochlea, the basilar membrane is displaced, and mechanically gated ion channels open in the hair cells. this causes depolarization, creating influx of ca from voltagegated calcium channels, triggering release of the neurotransmitter, glutamate. this causes generation of an action potential in the neurons, whose axons form the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve viii). finally, low frequency sounds distort the helioctrema region while high frequency sounds distort the region closest to the middle ear. cochlear fibers synapse in the brainstem. the interneurons send information through the thalamus and into the auditory complex in the temporal lobe. vestibular system – the vestibular system consists of the vestibular apparatus, a series of membranous tubes that connect with the cochlear duct. the vestibular apparatus consists of 3 semicircular canals and two saclike swellings called the utricle and saccule. 1. semicircular canals – the 3 semicircular canals are oriented in the 3 main 3d planes so rotation can be detected. receptor cells are located in 3 gelatinous masses (1 for each semicircular canal) called the cupula, which is encapsulated by a bulge called the ampulla. during head movement, the ampulla is pushed against the stationary endolymph fluid, causing the bending of hair cells, which alters the release of neurotransmitters. 2. the utricle and saccule – the utricle and saccule provide information about linear movement due to changes in head movement relative to the forces of gravity. the hair cells of the utricle and saccule are covered by a gelatinous substance in which tiny stones called otoliths are embedded. the otoliths (calcium carbonate crystals) make the \n gelatinous fluid heavier than the endolymph, so the gel will move according to the forces of gravity and will pull against the hair cells so the mechanoreceptors are stimulated. a. utricle – hair cells point straight up (respond when you tip your tip) b. saccule – hair cells are at right angles (respond when you go from lying to standing)",
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579113eb992eab42d49e9dc34bca77c8 | ?problem 52p
a beetle 4.73 mm long is examined with a simple magnifier of focal length f = 10.1 cm. if the observer’s eye is relaxed while using the magnifier, and has a near-point distance of 25.0 cm, what is the apparent length of the beetle? | a beetle 4.73 mm long is examined with a simple magnifier | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.21 | [
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"text": " chapter 12 notes material not required from chapter 12: figures 2, 6, 1820, 29, 32, 34.b, 42; tables 4, 6 and 9; p394395 sections on “flow autoregulation, reactive hyperemia, and response to injury”; p399 section on “velocity of capillary blood flow”; sections 12.7, 12.12, 12.17 and 12.18; section f key terms in intro circulatory system aka cardiovascular system: responsible for transportation of molecules/substances over long distances; contains the following heart: the pump blood vessels/vascular system: interconnected tubes blood: fluid connective tissue, contains water, solutes, cells 12.1 – components of the circulatory system blood o formed elements: includes erythrocytes (rbc), leukocytes (wbc, fight infection and cancer), platelets (cell fragments, blood clotting) o 99% rbc carrying oxygen to tissues/carbon dioxide from tissues o plasma: liquid that formed elements are dissolved in o hematocrit: % rbc in blood; normally 4245% depending on gender (the rest is plasma) plasma o plasma proteins: most of plasma solutes by weight; exert osmotic pressure that favors absorption of extracellular fluid into capillaries albumins (most abundant, synthesized in liver), globulins, fibrinogen (functions in clotting) o serum: plasma with fibrinogen/other proteins in clotting removed o also contains nutrients, wastes, hormones, mineral electrolytes (na , k , etc.) blood cells are all descended from multipotent hematopoietic stem cells erythrocytes (rbc) o major function: gas transport (oxygen/carbon dioxide); contain large amounts of hemoglobin that reversibly bind to gases (1415.5 g/100 ml blood depending on gender) o biconcave disk and small size allow for large surface area to volume ratio for oxygen/carbon dioxide to rapidly diffuse to/from cell o produced in bone marrow; do not contain nuclei and organelles after differentiation into rbc (only some ribosomes present in young rbc or reticulocytes; mature/lose ribosomes in a day) o average life span: 120 days (1% or 250 billion cells are replaced each day) breaks down in spleen and liver (produces bilirubin as result) o erythropoiesis: rbc production; needs iron, folic acid, vitamin b 12 iron: needed for oxygen binding to hemoglobin in rbc \n o must be replaced by ingestion of ironcontaining foods as it is lost through sweat, feces, urine, menstrual blood o iron deficiency: leads to inadequate hemoglobin production o hemochromatosis: excess iron in body; leads to abnormal iron deposits, organ damage o homeostatic control is in intestinal epithelium (which absorbs iron from food) o ferritin: protein in body that stores iron (in liver) to buffer against deficiency o transferrin: irontransport plasma protein that collects iron released from old rbc and takes it to bone marrow for recycling into new rbc folic acid and vitamin b 12 o folic acid: found in leafy plants, yeast, liver; required for synthesis of thymine ( formation of dna and cell division) o folic acid deficiency fewer rbc produced o vitamin b : 12quired for action of folic acid; found only in animal products; contains cobalt o intrinsic factor needed in gi tract to absorb vitamin b ; lack of protein causes 12 pernicious anemia (vitamin b d12iciency rbc deficiency) hormones o erythropoietin: controls erythropoiesis; secreted into blood by connective tissue cells in kidneys acts on bone marrow to stimulate proliferation and differentiation secreted at a rate to produce rbc equal to loss of rbc (receives negative feedback from oxygen decreased oxygen to kidneys leads to increase erythropoietin production) testosterone can stimulate release ( why hematocrit is higher in men) anemia: decreased ability of blood to carry oxygen; due to one of following: o decrease in total number of rbc with normal quantity of hemoglobin o low concentration of hemoglobin per rbc o combination of both sicklecell disease: caused by single base mutation that leads to abnormal hemoglobin molecules that interact with each other to form fibrous polymers, causing sickle shape o blocks capillaries, leads to tissue damage/pain, destruction of rbc, anemia o heterozygotes only show symptoms when oxygen levels are unusually low and have resistance to malaria (blood infection spread by mosquitos) polycythemia: more rbc than normal (increased hematocrit) causes increased viscosity (more friction) and difficulty in moving blood through vessels, puts strain on heart o basis for “blood doping” leukocytes o major function: immune defenses o neutrophils: phagocytes in blood; most abundant; released during infections/inflammation; contains antibacterial protein defensing o eosinophils: blood/mucosal linings of gi/respiratory/urinary tracts; release toxic chemicals to kill parasites \n o monocytes: phagocytes in blood; develop into microphages in tissues/organs o macrophages: located to encounter invaders at skin/lining of respiratory and digestive tracts; can engulf viruses/bacteria o basophils: secretory cells that produce anticlotting factor and histamine o lymphocytes: t and b types; protect against specific viruses, bacteria, toxins, cancer cells by either directly killing or creating antibodies platelets o produced when megakaryocytes (large bone marrow cells) pinch off and enter circulation o functions in blood clotting regulation of blood cell production o only bones of chest/base of skull/spinal vertebrae/pelvis/limb bones produce blood cells after childhood o hematopoietic growth factors (hgfs) help proliferation and differentiation and inhibit apoptosis of new cells (ex: erythropoietin) many types produced by a variety of cells can be used to supplement deficiencies due to disease/damage circulation o bulk flow: rapid flow of blood through body produced by pressures created by pumping heart; all components of blood move together o branching allows all cells to be within 2 layers from blood vessels (specifically capillaries) for nutrient/metabolic waste product exchange (diffusion and mediated transport) o pulmonary circulation (right ventricle via the pulmonary trunk lungs (pulmonary arteries from trunk go to each lung) left atrium via pulmonary veins) o systemic circulation (left ventricle via the aorta body right atrium via the inferior vena cava and the superior vena cava) allows systemic tissues to receive oxygenated blood and independent variation in blood flow through different tissues as needed (figure 12.6) portal system: unique system used by liver and anterior pituitary glands for blood circulation o arteries arterioles capillaries: blood moving away from heart o capillaries venules veins: blood moving towards heart o microcirculation: arterioles, capillaries, venules o left side of the heart has high oxygen content, right side has low oxygen content 12.2 – pressure, flow, and resistance hemodynamics: collective term for all 3 factors o blood flow (f): always from regions of high to low pressure o hydrostatic pressure = pressure (p): force exerted by blood, generated by heart contractions (l/min; δp in mmhg) \n o resistance (r): how difficult it is for blood to flow between two points at any given pressure difference; can only be measured by f and δp greater viscosity, greater length of tube, or smaller radius = greater resistance r=1/r 4 o f=∆ p/r applies to flow through blood vessels and through heart chambers (resistance comes from valves in this case) ultimate function of circulatory system: ensure adequate blood flow through capillaries of various organs 12.3 – anatomy general structures o pericardium: protective fibrous sac surrounding heart o epicardium: fibrous layer in between pericardium and heart o myocardium: wall of the heart, cardiac muscle cells, lined on inside with endothelial cells (endothelium) o interventricular septum: separates right and left ventricles o atrioventricular valves (av valves): separates atrium and ventricle; one way blood flow atrium ventricle; open/close passively due to pressure differences (opens when atrial pressure is higher; closed with high ventricular pressure) tricuspid valve: right side bicuspid valve: left side (aka mitral valve) chordae tendineae: fibrous strands connected valves to papillary muscles to prevent valves from inverting (prolapse; can occur with injury and disease) o semilunar valves: pulmonary and aortic valves; open/close passively due to pressure differences to ensure blood moves in one direction through heart o there are no valves at entrances of superior and inferior venae cavae or pulmonary veins atrial contraction is enough to constrict backflow cardiac muscle o cardiac muscle cells in myocardium must be very resilient to come together and exert pressure on blood enclosed during a contraction only 1% of heart cells are replaced per year o entire heart (all cells) contract with each beat 3 billion contractions without rest in a lifetime o innervation by sympathetic (entire heart; release norepinephrine for beta adrenergic receptors) and parasympathetic (special cells in atria; release ach for muscarinic receptors) nerve fibers blood supply o no exchange of nutrients/metabolic waste occurs until blood passes through capillaries \n coronary arteries: arteries supplying myocardium (coronary blood flow) so cells can exchange nutrients/waste products 12.4 – heartbeat coordination efficient pumping of blood requires that the atria contract first, followed almost immediately by the ventricles o contraction is triggered by depolarization starting at the sinoatrial (sa) node in right atrium near entrance of superior vena cava; gap junctions allow this to happen quickly/excite entire heart o sa node acts as pacemaker for heart, determines heart rate sequence of excitation: o action potential in sa node depolarization spreads through atria atrioventricular (av) node at base of right atrium (connected to sa node via internodal pathways) through ventricles via bundle of his divides into left and right bundle branches that reach bottom of heart/walls of ventricles propagation of action potentials through av node is slow; atria will contract first and ventricles will contract when atria relax fiber bundles are composed of pukinje fibers: large diameter, rapid conduction, low resistance gap junctions myocardial cell action potentials + + o resting membrane is more permeable to k than na = negative resting membrane potential; depolarizing is due to influx of na + + + o na depolarization transient k repolarization depolarized plateau 2+ound 0 mv as k permeability declines and ca enters cell (ltype ca channels: long lasting) ca channels inactivate, k exits and causes repolarization o ventricular cells have a longer plateau than atrial cells nodal cell action potentials o pacemaker potential: gradual depolarization of the sa node (does not have a steady resting potential) that causes an action potential when threshold is eventually reached; contributed to by: + progressive reduction in k permeability unique set of channels that open at negative membrane potential values (f (funny)type channels for na influx) 2+ t(transient)type ca channels: opens briefly and gives important final depolarizing boost o sa node is brought to threshold faster than av node due to pacemaker currents automaticity: ability of sa node for spontaneous, rhythmic self excitation (inherent rate is about 100 depolarizations per minute) determines how quickly threshold is reached/action potential is generated o pacemaker mechanism creates action potential depolarizing due to ca (not 2+ na ) slow transmission of cardiac excitation to av node repolarization \n o ectopic pacemakers: when slower inherent pacemaker rates of other cells in conducting system create own rhythm (still driven to threshold by sa node) av conduction disorder: reduction/elimination of action potential transmission from sa node to av node due to disease/druginduced malfunction of av node; cause ectopic pacemakers to start very slow (2540 beats/min); causes ventricles to contract out of synch with atria fix av conduction disorders with artificial pacemaker electrocardiogram (ecg or ekg): tool for evaluating electrical events in the heart o recording electrodes detect currents running through fluids surrounding heart after action potentials in multiple cells (not direct record of changes in membrane potential across individual cells) o shows p wave (atrial depolarization), qrs complex (ventricular depolarization), t wave (ventricular repolarization) atrial repolarization takes place during qrs complex; cannot be seen o ecg leads record at different locations on limbs and chest for comparison o use to diagnose myocardial defects excitationcontra2+ion coupling o when ca influxes into cell through ltype channels and creates plateau, ryanodine receptors in sarcoplasmic reticulum are stimulated to release even more ca ca activates thin filaments muscle contraction ca returns to 2+ + 2+ sarcoplasmic reticulum via ca atpase pumps and na /ca countertransporters o more ca released = stronger contraction (i.e. during exercise) refractory period o summation of contractions is impossible due to long absolute refractory period unlike skeletal muscle; absolute refractory period lasts almost as long as contraction (250 msec) 12.5 – mechanical events of the cardiac cycle cardiac cycle: recurring cycle of atrial and ventricular contractions and relaxations o two major phases: systole (ventricular contraction and blood ejection) and diastole (ventricular relaxation and blood filling) systole can be broken down into isovolumetric ventricular contraction (contraction of ventricles while valves are closed, increases ventricular bp and develops tension, but muscle does not shorten) and ventricular ejection (pressure in ventricles exceeds pressure in aorta/pulmonary trunk, valves open, muscles shorten to push blood out) stroke volume (sv): volume of blood ejected from each ventricle during systole diastole can be broken down into isovolumetric ventricular relaxation (ventricles begin to relax while valves are closed), ventricular filling (av valves open to allow blood flow), and atrial contraction \n o ***see page 381 in textbook for a really indepth explanation of cardiac cycle (timing of pressure/electrical/mechanical changes) o at rest, 80% of ventricular filling occurs before atrial contraction (early diastole) ensures that filling is not seriously impaired during periods when the heart is beating rapidly and that diastole duration is reduced heart rates greater than 200 beats/min don’t leave enough time for filling and blood volume leaving heart decreases (bad) explains why conduction defects that affect atrial pumping abilities do not seriously impair ventricular filling (ex: during atrial fibrillation when atria fails to work as effective pumps) pulmonary circulation pressures o pressure changes in right ventricle and pulmonary arteries are same as left ventricle and aorta (pg. 381) typical pulmonary arterial systolic and diastolic pressures are 25 mmhg and 10 mmhg (lowpressure system, thinner walls) systemic arterial pressures are 120 mmhg and 80 mmhg both have same stroke volume heart sounds: result from cardiac contraction normally head through a stethoscope o “lub” = closure of av valves; onset of systole o “dup” = closer of pulmonary and aortic alves; onset of diastole o heart murmurs: other sounds heard from heart, usually indicative of disease or defects laminar flow: smooth blood flow (normal) may become turbulent with defect (detected with heart murmurs) stenosis: abnormally narrowed valve, causes turbulent blood flow insufficiency: blood flowing backward through a damaged, leaky valve septal defect: blood flowing between two atria or two ventricles through a small hole 12.6 – the cardiac output cardiac output (co): the volume of blood each ventricle pumps as a function of time, usually expressed in l/min o at steady state, co flowing through the systemic and pulmonary circuits is the same o co=hr×sv hr = heart rate (beats/min) sv = stroke volume (l/beat) o co of 5.0 l/min average for a resting, averagesized adult (nearly all of 5.5 l total blood volume is pumped around the circuit once each minute) o co will increase with strenuous exercise o hr and sv do not always change in the same direction (ex: sv can decrease with blood loss, but hr will increase) control of heart rate \n o in the absence of nervous/hormonal influences, the heart beats around 100 beats/min (inherent autonomous discharge rate of the sa node) at rest, influence of parasympathetic neurons results in resting hr of 70 75 beats/min o parasympathetic and sympathetic postganglionic neurons end on the sa node parasympathetic = hr decreases (reduces inward current, hyperpolarizes sa node cells by increasing permeability to k = slower depolarization) sympathetic = hr increases (increases ftype channel permeability = faster depolarization) also innervate other parts of conducting system (sympathetic = increases conduction velocity through entire cardiac system; parasympathetic = decreases rae of spread of excitation through atria and av node) o epinephrine (adrenal medulla) speeds heart up by acting on same beta adrenergic receptors as norepinephrine released by neurons o body temperature, plasma electrolyte concentrations, hormones, adenosine (myocardial cell metabolite) also affect cardiac nerves (figure 12.26) control of stroke volume (volume of blood ejected during each contraction) o a change in force during contraction can produce a change in stroke volume (will never fully empty ventricles) changes in enddiastolic volume (preload: volume in ventricles before contraction) changes in magnitude of sympathetic ns input to ventricles changes in afterload (ex: changes in arterial pressures that ventricles pump against) o frankstarling mechanism: all other factors being equal, the sv increases as the enddiastolic volume increases, seen in a ventricularfunction curve lengthtension relationship: enddiastolic volume is a major determinant of how stretched the ventricular sarcomeres are just before contraction must contract harder with greater stretch (more voume) complex mechanism: stretching cardiac muscle cells towards optimum length decreased space between thick and thin filaments more cross bridges can bind during a twitch increased sensitivity to troponin for binding ca and increased ca release from sarcoplasmic reticulum at any given hr, an increase in venous return = increase co (increase enddiastolic volume, increase sv) so blood does not accumulate in pulmonary circulation sympathetic regulation o distributed to entire myocardium o norepinephrine acts on betaadrenergic receptors to increase ventricular contractility (strength of contraction at any enddiastolic volume) along with increase hr \n any increased force of contraction and stroke volume resulting from sympathetic regulation is independent from any change in enddiastolic ventricular volume not related2+o franksterling mechanism (figure 12.28a) overall ca concentrations increases more quickly in cytosol, reaches greater excitation value, and returns to preexcited state more quickly faster, stronger contraction o ejection fraction: helps quantify contractility (directly related) ef=sv/edv edv = enddiastolic volume 50%75% under resting conditions in healthy heart o neglect parasympathetic effects on ventricular contractility afterload o the greater the load, the less contracting muscle fibers can shorten at a given contractility (figure 9.17 for review) an increased arterial pressure tends to reduce sv skip 12.7 12.8 – arteries thick walls containing large quantities of elastic tissue; “elastic tubes” large radii allow lowresistance conduction of blood to various organs as well as act as a “pressure reservoir” for maintaining blood flow through tissues during diastole arterial blood pressure o compliance: δv/δp; how easily a structure will stretch (greater compliance = greater ability to stretch) o a volume of blood equal to about 1/3 of sv leaves arteries during systole; rest of sv remains in arteries which increases pressure allows blood to continue to be driven into arterioles during diastole (figure 12.33) ventricular contraction always occurs before arterial pressure can reach zero (equal pressure of blood entering heart as leaving heart) o systolic pressure (sp): maximum arterial pressure reached during peak ventricular ejection o diastolic pressure (dp): minimum arterial pressure occurring just before ventricular ejection o usually measured as systolic/diastolic (ex: 120/80 mmhg) o pulse pressure: difference between systolic and diastolic pressure (ex: 40 mmhg) can be felt as pulse/throb in arteries in neck/wrist/etc. magnitude dependent on sv (direct relationship), speed of ejection of sv (direct), and arterial compliance (indirect; higher pressure with lower compliancy) o arteriosclerosis: stiffening of arterial walls, progress with age and leads to higher pulse pressure \n o mean arterial pressure (map): average pressure driving blood into tissues averaged over the entire cardiac cycle 1 map=dp+ (sp−dp) 3 compliance has no major influence on map (effects on systolic and diastolic pressure change but in opposite directions) measurement of systemic arterial pressure o sphygmomanometer: blood pressure cuff used to measure systolic and diastolic pressures (used in conjunction with a stethoscope) inflate until no sound is heard, release air slowly and record first number when sound is first heard again (systolic) and second number when sound disappears again (diastolic) korotkoff’s sounds: highvelocity turbulent blood flow that produces audible vibrations (with stethoscope) *** not the same as the lubdup sounds heard when valves close 12.9 – arterioles 2 major functions: in organs, responsible for determining the relative blood flows to given organs at any given mean arterial pressure and as a whole, determine mean arterial pressure o f=∆ p/r=map/resistance organ venous pressure is ignored (close to zero); map is constant throughout body o differences in flow are determined by differences in the resistance to flow offered by each tube wide tubes = les resistance = greater flows if radius of each tube is independently altered, blood flow through each is independently altered (smaller radius = less flow) large main arteries serve as pressure reservoir contain smooth muscle that can relax (vasodilation, increased radius) or contract (vasoconstriction, decreased radius) o pattern of bloodflow distribution depends upon degree of arteriolar smooth muscle contraction within each organ/tissue intrinsic tone: spontaneous contractile activity of arteriolar smooth muscle; sets baseline level of contraction that can be increased/decreased by external signals o increase in contractile force above it causes vasoconstriction o decrease in contractile force causes vasodilation o controlled by local controls and extrinsic (reflex) controls local controls: mechanisms independent of nerves/hormones that organs/tissues use to alter their own arteriolar resistances (selfregulate blood flow) o active hyperemia: manifestation of increased blood flow during increased metabolic activity; direct result of arteriolar dilation \n metabolic activity decreased oxygen (used in atp production), increased co ,2h ions (lactic acid), adenosine (atp byproduct), k ions (action potential repolarization), eicosanoids (phospholipid byproduct), bradykinin (peptide generated from protein kininogen generated from enzyme kallikrein secreted from gland cells) and nitric oxide arteriolar dilation most highly developed in skeletal/cardiac muscle and glands extrinsic controls: reflex mechanisms serves wholebody needs (ex: regulating arterial blood pressure; redistributing blood flow for specific function such as heat loss) o sympathetic neurons innervate most arterioles release norepinephrine to bind to alphaadrenergic receptors vasoconstriction (vasodilation via reducing presence of hormone) *** betaadrenergic receptors in heart, alphaadrenergic in arterioles allows for antagonists to block actions of norepinephrine in certain places reflex serves wholebody needs (ex: regulating arterial blood pressure; redistribute o parasympathetic neurons do not have important innervations in arterioles o noncholinergic, nonadrenergic, autonomic neurons release neither ach or norepinephrine release vasodilator substances particularly nitric oxide; contributes to control of gi system blood vessels innervate arterioles in penis/clitoris to mediate erection (sildenafil (viagra) and tadalafil (cialis) work by enhancing nitric oxide pathway to facilitate vasodilation) o hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine can bind to alphaadrenergic receptors on arteriolar smooth muscle and cause vasoconstriction can also bind to beta 2adrenergic receptors and relax muscle (less common than alpha in most vascular beds no effect; arterioles in skeletal muscle are important exception) angiotensin ii: constricts most arterioles vasopressin: released by posterior pituitary in response to decreased blood pressure + atrial natriuretic peptide: vasodilator by regulating na balance and blood volume; overall physiological importance unknown endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle o can be acted on by substances/mechanical stimuli to secrete several paracrine agents that diffuse to the adjacent vascular smooth muscle to induce relaxation/constriction o nitric oxide: important paracrine vasodilator (aka edrf) released continuously in significant amounts by endothelial cells in arterioles (maintains basal level vasodilation) \n responds quickly to large number of chemical mediators involved in reflex/local control o prostacyclin (prostaglandin i [pg2 ]): 2icosanoid, vasodilator; is not secreted until needed o endothelin1 (et1): vasoconstrictor released by endothelial cells in response to mechanical/chemical stimuli can function as a hormone if high enough concentrations in blood are reached for widespread arteriolar vasoconstriction arteriolar control in specific organs o figure 12.39 – factors that determine arteriolar radius o table 12.7 – importance of local and reflex controls in specific organs 12.10 – capillaries approximately 5% of blood is moving through capillaries at any time, allowing exchange of nutrients, metabolic end products, and cell secretions o some exchange also occurs in venules permeate every tissue in body except cornea; cells are no more than a few cells away from the nearest capillary o allows for highly efficient diffusion/exchange has essential role in tissue function leads to questions about angiogenesis (capillary growth and development) and what stimulates it in injury/healing/cancer o known that vascular endothelial cells initiate new capillary networks through stimulation by angiogenic factors (cancer cells also secrete these) angiostatin: naturallyoccurring peptide involved in inhibition of blood vessel growth can be used to reduce size of tumors in mice anatomy of capillary network o thinwalled tube of endothelial cells only one layer thick o no surrounding smooth muscle or elastic tissue o in some organs, they have a second set of cells that surround basement membrane to affect diffusion ability of substances (i.e. in brain) o intercellular clefts: waterfilled spaces in between flat cells of endothelial wall o fusedvesicle channels: form when endocytotic and exocytotic vesicles fuse o vasodilation/vasoconstriction of other vessels (arterioles) affects blood flow through capillaries blood sometimes enters through metarterioles that connect arterioles to venules moves though precapillary sphincter into capillary (can close off capillary completely if needed; open when tissue is active) diffusion across the capillary wall: exchanges of nutrients and metabolic end products o blood flow is slow to maximize exchange time o substance movement between interstitial fluid and plasma relies on diffusion, vesicle transport, and bulk flow (sometimes mediated transport too) in all capillaries (except brain), diffusion is only important means of net nutrient/oxygen/waste movement \n o lipidsoluble substances (oxygen and co ) easi2y diffuse while ions/polar molecules need to pass through waterfilled channels in endothelium waterfilled channels allows rate of ion/polar molecule movement to be high (not as high as lipid rates) intercellular clefts and fused vesicles only small amounts of protein can diffuse (usually need vesicular transport) o “leakiness” of capillaries differs between organs due to waterfilled channels one extreme: tight capillaries (brain) with no intercellular clefts, only tight junctions need carriermediated transport through bloodbrain barrier other extreme: large intercellular clefts (liver) that allow even proteins to move easily o transcapillary diffusion gradients occur as a result of cellular utilization of substance (established by local metabolic rate: increased metabolism leads to increased need for glucose/oxygen and increased production of co ) 2 glucose: continuously transported from interstitial to cells by carrier mediated transport mechanisms oxygen: moves in same direction as glucose (into cells) by diffusion carbon dioxide: continuously produced by cells and diffuses from cells to interstitial fluid (ultimately diffusing into capillary) active hyperemia and increased cellular utilization of materials both lead to increasing diffusion gradients increasing rate of diffusion bulk flow across the capillary wall: distribution of extracellular fluid o bulk flow of proteinfree plasma to distribute the extracellular fluid volume (plasma and interstitial fluid) o capillary walls are highly permeable to water and all plasma solutes except proteins proteinfree plasma moves by bulk flow when hydrostatic pressure difference exists (capillary blood pressure vs. interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure) filtration capillary blood pressure is usually higher hydrostatic pressure difference exists to filter proteinfree plasma out of capillaries into interstitial fluid (protein stays in capillaries) o osmotic flow of water brings solutes with it to penetrate membranes (to balance nonpenetrating solute concentrations); high to low concentration o effects of solutes crystalloids: lowmw solutes present in large quantities in plasma; can easily penetrate capillary pores ( concentrations in plasma/interstitial fluid are the same); includes na , cl, and k + colloids: plasma proteins that cannot move though capillary pores and have low concentrations in interstitial fluid water concentration is slightly lower in plasma than interstitium, creating osmotic gradient from interstitium to capillary o starling forces: four factors that determine net filtration pressure nfp=p +π cp −if if c \n capillary hydrostatic pressure, osmotic force due to interstitial fluid protein concentration, interstitial hydrostatic pressure, osmotic force due to plasma protein concentration (respectively) + = favors movement out of capillary; – = favors movement into capillary *** usually can ignore p ifvirtually 0 mmhg) if net outward pressure exceeds inward pressure, bulk filtration of fluid will occur (leaving proteins behind in capillaries as fluid leaves) can be applied to pulmonary circulation (starling forces favor filtration slightly more in lungs than other tissues) o regional differences in capillary pressure capillary hydrostatic pressures vary in different regions of the body and are strongly influenced by laying down/standing/sitting capillary hydrostatic pressures are also subject to physiological regulation mostly by changes in resistance of arterioles in that region dilating arterioles = increased capillary hydrostatic pressure (less pressure is lost in overcoming resistance between arteries and capillaries) favors movement of fluid out of capillary/increased filtration edema: abnormal accumulation of fluid in interstitial spaces (due to imbalance in starling’s forces) o can be caused by heart failure (increased venous pressure reduces blood flow out of capillaries excess filtration and accumulation of interstitial fluid) o can occur in systemic or pulmonary tissues o injury ( release of histamines/etc.) can cause dilated arterioles increase in capillary pressure and filtration increased size of intercellular clefts/ability of plasma proteins to escape from bloodstream increase in protein osmotic force in interstitial fluid can increase filtration/edema o can be caused by abnormal decrease in protein plasma concentration (water does not need to remain in capillaries to balance concentration leaves capillary) caused by liver disease (decreased protein production) or kidney disease (protein loss in urine) or kwashiorkor (protein malnutrition) 12.11 – veins capillaries venules veins last set of tubes that blood flows through on way back to heart o pressure difference between peripheral veins (1015 mmhg) and right atrium (close to 0 mmhg) drives venous return in systemic circulation adequate pressure due to low resistance to flow from veins (large diameters) major functions: act as lowresistance conduits for blood flow from tissues to heart and reflexively alter diameters in response to changes in blood volume to maintain venous return pressure \n o peripheral veins in arms/legs contain oneway valves that ensure blood moves towards heart o rate of venous return = major determinant of enddiastolic ventricular volume ( sv) determinants of venous pressure o volume of fluid in tube o compliance of walls o veins can accommodate large volumes of blood with relatively small increase in internal pressure 60% of total blood volume is in systemic veins, but pressure is only 10 mmhg (compared to 15% of blood in systemic arteries at 100 mmhg) o walls contain smooth muscle innervated with sympathetic neurons (norepinephrine release muscle contraction, increase pressure) drives more blood into right side of heart can also respond to hormonal/paracrine vasodilators and vasoconstrictors o skeletal muscle pump: increases local venous pressure of veins running through muscles during contraction; forces more blood to heart o respiratory pump: diaphragm descends during inhalation increase in abdominal pressure increase in intraabdominal vein pressure; also results in decrease in pressure in intrathoracic veins/right atrium; bigger pressure difference forces more blood to heart any changes in venous return almost immediately causes equivalent changes in cardiac output through frankstarling mechanisms ( they are the same except for transient differences) skip 12.12 12.13 – baroreceptor reflexes arterial baroreceptors o respond to changes in pressure o found where left and right common carotid arteries divide into two smaller arteries that supply the head with blood (carotid sinus) and in the arch of the aorta (aortic arch baroreceptor) afferent neurons travel from these points to the brainstem and provide input to the neurons of cardiovascular control centers o at a particular steady pressure (ex: 100 mmhg), there is a certain rate of action potential discharge from neurons, which increases/decreases with increased/decreased pressure medullary cardiovascular center o located in the medulla oblongata o receive input from the various baroreceptors throughout the body uses it to determine the action potential frequency sent back to the vagus (parasympathetic) neurons in the heart/sympathetic neurons in the heart/arterioles/veins \n increased rate of discharge = decreased sympathetic activity and increased parasympathetic activity angiotensin ii and vasopressin are also altered (decreased pressure = increased secretion = arteriole constriction) arterial baroreceptor reflex operation o ex) decreased arterial pressure (due to hemorrhage) = decreased rate of firing leads to increased heart rate (due to increased sympathetic activity and decreased parasympathetic activity) increased ventricular contractility arteriolar constriction increased venous constriction net result: increased cardiac output, increased total peripheral resistance, and bp returns to normal o functions primarily as a shortterm regulator of arterial bp will adapt to prolonged change in bp (new set point) other baroreceptors contribute to a feedforward component of arterial pressure control 12.14 – blood volume and longterm regulation of arterial pressure baroreceptors cannot set longterm arterial pressure as they will adapt to any prolonged change blood volume controls longterm regulation blood volume influences venous pressure/return, enddiastolic/stroke volumes, and cardiac output o all related, thus increased blood volume increases arterial pressure (and increased arterial pressure decreases blood volume) negative feedback loops blood volume can only stabilize longterm arterial pressure if blood volume itself is stabilized o urinary and circulatory systems both interact to help maintain this 12.15 – other cardiovascular reflexes and responses causes of increased blood pressure: o decreased arterial oxygen concentration o increased arterial carbon dioxide concentration o decreased blood flow to brain o pain originating in the skin (from viscera/joints decrease in bp) other physiological states (eating, sexual activity, sleeping) affect bp mood influences bp (lower when happy) changes triggered by higher brain centers to medullary cardiovascular center cushing’s phenomenon: increased intracranial pressure causes a dramatic increase in mean arterial pressure o cranium cannot expand to accumulate pressure pressure is directed inwards on brain, which decreases blood flow to all parts of brain accumulation of waste/not enough oxygen o fluid must be removed to fix \n 12.16 – hemorrhage and other causes of hypertension hypotension: low blood pressure, regardless of cause o consequences: reduced blood flow to brain/muscles hemorrhage: type of hypotension caused by significant deceased blood volume o immediate response: arterial baroreceptor reflex cannot restore all the way back to normal: directly affected factors (stroke volume, cardiac output, arterial pressure) remain below normal; values not directly affected (affected only by reflex; heart rate, total peripheral resistance) are higher than normal increased peripheral resistance vasoconstriction (less blood flow) why skin can become pale/cold o interstitial fluid will move into capillaries due to decreased hydrostatic pressure autotransfusion; can restore blood volume to normal in 1224 hours after moderate hemorrhage o both responses can restore up to 30% blood volume lost blood volume must actually be restored by increased fluid ingestion/minimized water loss (initiated by increased thirst/reduction in water and salt lost in urine) mediated by hormones rbc must be recreated to replenish blood severe sweating, burns, diarrhea, and vomiting can also cause hypotension o depletes body of water and essential ions cardiac contractility can cause hypotension (ex: during a heart attack) strong emotion can cause hypotension (and sometimes fainting) vasovagal syncope o higher brain centers inhibit sympathetic activity to circulatory system/enhance parasympathetic activity ( decreased blood flow to brain & arterial pressure) shock: any situation in which a decrease in blood flow to the organs and tissues damages them o hypovolemic shock: caused by decrease in blood volume secondary to hemorrhage or loss of fluid other than blood o lowresistance shock: due to a decrease in total peripheral resistance secondary to excessive release of vasodilators (allergy/infection) o cardiogenic shock: due to extreme decrease in cardiac output from any variety of factors (ex: during heart attack) o deterioration of the heart leads to decreased cardiac output more shock; which can become irreversible skip 12.1712.18 12.19 – hypertension hypertension: chronically increased systemic arterial pressure (above 140/90 mmhg) o 26% of adults worldwide affected; 34% u.s. citizens affected \n o left ventricle is chronically pumping against an increased arterial pressure develops muscle mass: left ventricular hypertrophy initially helps maintain heart function; leads to diminished contractile function and heart failure over time o can lead to atherosclerosis, heart attacks, kidney damage, stroke (blockage/rupture of a cerebral blood vessel, causing brain damage) risk of heart disease/stroke doubles with every 20 mmhg increase in systolic pressure and every 10 mmhg increase in diastolic pressure primary hypertension: hypertension of uncertain cause; more common o suspected genetic/environmental factors changes in lifestyle can reduce factors (weight loss, reduced salt intake, cessation of smoking/heavy drinking, clean eating, exercise) o genes associated with angiotensinaldosterone system and regulation of endothelial cell function/arteriolar smooth muscle contraction suspected o most significant factor: increase in total peripheral resistance caused by reduced arteriolar radius secondary hypertension: identified causes o renal hypertension: due to kidney damage increased renin release leads to excessive concentrations of angiotensin ii (vasoconstrictor) and low urine production treat with lowsodium diet and diuretics o endocrine disorders (syndromes involving hypersecretion of cortisol, aldosterone, thyroid hormone) can cause it o medications (oral contraceptives, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs) can cause it o sleep apnea linked to it table 12.11 – drugs used to treat hypertension by decreasing cardiac output and/or total peripheral resistance 12.20 – heart failure collection of signs and symptoms that occur when the heart does not pump an adequate cardiac output o may be pumping against a chronically increased arterial pressure (hypertension) or structural damage to the myocardium due to decreased coronary blood flow and etc. can group patients into two categories o diastolic dysfunction: reduced compliance of the ventricle (abnormal stiffness) results in reduced ability to fill adequately at normal diastolic filling pressures leads to reduced enddiastolic volume = reduced sv contractility is still normal causes: systemic hypertension hypertrophy o systolic dysfunction: results from myocardial damage (ex: from heart attack); decrease in cardiac contractility (lower sv at any given enddiastolic volume) presents as decrease blood ejection; enddiastolic volume increases \n triggers arterial baroreceptor reflexes, which are elicited more than usual because afferent baroreceptors become less sensitive o less discharge = brain thinks pressure decrease has occurred tries to compensate (increased hr, total peripheral resistance, concentrations of hormonal vasoconstrictors) eventually leads to increased fluid retention and massive expansion of extracellular fluid o when fluid retention increases, problems arise ventricles with systolic dysfunction will become very distended with blood worsens situation edema will eventually occur, swelling of the legs and feet failure of left ventricle with fluid will lead to pulmonary edema (fluid in lungs), which impairs normal gas exchange o left ventricle fails to pump blood to the same extent as the right ventricle increased blood volume in pulmonary vessels faster rate of filtration than lymphatics can deal with o worse at night due to laying down while sleeping treatment of heart failure: o correct precipitating cause (ex: hypertension) with drugs o cardiac transplant 12.21 – hypertrophic cardiomyopathy condition that frequently leads to heart failure one of the most common inherited cardiac diseases (1 in 500 people) characterized by increased thickness of heart muscle, especially interventricular septum and wall of left ventricle o interferes with cardiac output to meet metabolic requirements o angina pectoris: chest pain experienced by reduction of blood flow to heart disruption of orderly array of myocytes and conducting cells in walls o can lead to dangerous/fatal arrhythmias usually symptomless until too late causes unknown; possible genetic factors identified (involving myosin, troponin, and tropomyosin) treatment: drugs to prevent arrhythmia, surgical repair of septum and valve, heart transplant 12.22 – coronary artery disease and heart attacks coronary artery disease: changes in one or more of the coronary arteries causes insufficient blood flow (ischemia) to the heart o many patients with coronary artery disease experience recurrent transient episodes of inadequate coronary blood flow/angina before ultimately suffering a heart attack myocardial infarction: death of portion of heart affected by myocardial damage \n o symptoms: prolonged chest pain (often radiating from left arm), nausea, vomiting, sweating, weakness, shortness of breath o diagnosis made by ecg and detection of specific cardiac muscle proteins in plasma o ventricular fibrillation: abnormality in impulse conduction triggered by damaged myocardial cells; cause of sudden death during myocardial infarction cardiopulmonary resuscitation (cpr) can sometimes save individuals (series of chest compressions and mouthtomouth) defibrillation: electrical current passed through heart in effort to correct abnormal electrical activity heart attacks are experienced by about 1.1 million americans (over 40% die from it) causes o atherosclerosis: major cause; thickening of portion of arterial vessel wall closest to lumen with plaques made of many smooth muscle cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, deposits of cholesterol/fatty substances, and dense layers of connective tissue matrix reduces coronary blood flow can result in coronary thrombosis: blood clot; total occlusion, generally triggers heart attack likely caused by initially damage/inflammation that becomes excessive, cigarette smoking, excess cholesterol, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and stress prevention o exercise (can red",
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32832df50f0d9177acf8c553ba1f7dd6 | mis180 mis180 mis180 | mis180 | studysoup.com | 2021.25 | [
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"text": "exam 2 in-class test “to-know” - chapter 4 - 6 information: https://studysoup.com/guide/2676927/sdsu-mis-180- midterm-spring-2018-sandy-baudoux - appendix c: https://studysoup.com/guide/2676927/sdsu-mis-180-midterm- spring-2018-sandy-baudoux - access basics: https://studysoup.com/guide/2676927/sdsu-mis-180-midterm- spring-2018-sandy-baudoux - business intelligence - ethics and security - infrastructure/cloud - concatenation: the linking of different fields into a chain or series to be able to do something with the data - toys-r-us and claire’s have been “amazon-ed” and closed their doors - will focus more on security than ethics on the test - companies look more at innovation and creativity • we look for people rathe",
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ac9a72dedc9a8f7953a6fab461274979 | in exercises 924, plot the given point in a rectangular coordinate system. (2, 0) | in exercises 924, plot the given point in a rectangular coordinate system. (2, 0) | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": "nutrition 2000: exam 3 study guide part i: write the correct word that corresponds with the given definition. 1. decreased bone mass due to aging, genetic background, and a poor diet. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ 2. a condition resulting from protein deficiency, characterized by edema, mild to moderate weight loss, maintenance of some muscle and subcutaneous fat, growth impairment, a fatty liver, and onsets quickly. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ 3. water that is inside the cell. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ 4. the hardening of the cornea and drying of the surface of the eye, which can result in blindness. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ 5. a condition caused by a vitamin d deficiency; characterized by bowed legs, enlarged head, joints, and ribcage, and a deformed pelvis.\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ 6. a condition resulting from protein deficiency, characterized by severe weight loss, wasting of muscle and fat, severe growth impairment, and develops gradually. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ 7. the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ 8. when the skin turns a yelloworange color, particularly on the hands and the soles of the feet. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ 9. anemia that eventually leads to death. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ 10. the softening of bones in adults due to a vitamin d deficiency. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ 11. water that is outside of the cell. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ part ii: true/false: write true or false on the following statements. if the statement is false, write the correct answer or statement in the space provided. 12. proteins regulate and maintain body functions and provides the essential form of nitrogen. \n 13. the proteins in our bodies are made up of twenty different amino acids; eleven are essential, nine are nonessential. 14. the fat soluble vitamins are b and c. 15. vitamin d deficiency is the leading cause of blindness worldwide. 16. vitamin d helps to regulate blood calcium levels and bone metabolism. 17. water makes up 3060% of the body’s weight. 18. ions control the movement of water between the intracellular and extracellular compartments. 19. iron is the most abundant mineral in the body. 20. zinc deficiency was first discovered in the 1960’s in the middle east. 21. humans absorb 60% of the sodium they consume. 22. chloride is a major negative ion in the extracellular fluid. \n 23. vitamin e acts as a fatsoluble antioxidant. part iii: short answer. answer the question entirely. 24. what are the general functions of proteins? 25. in ages 5065, what is a low protein diet associated with? 26. in ages 66+, what is a low protein diet associated with? 27. what are the building blocks of proteins and what is their chemical structure? 28. is protein shape necessary for function? 29. how is a protein’s primary structure determined? 30. what does mrna do? 31. what is the amino acid structure? what makes an amino acid its own? 32. how are amino acids connected? \n 33. how can a protein be denatured? 34. what acid in the stomach denatures the proteins during digestion? 35. what enzyme breaks down the peptide bonds? where is it released and how does it work? 36. what hormone regulates the enzyme from question 35? how is it released? 37. what does the hormone cck do? 38. what is celiac disease? what is its prevalence in the us? 39. how are amino acids absorbed? 40. how are amino acids used in the liver? 41. what are the functions of proteins in the body? \n 42. what do amino acids leave behind in the body and how is it excreted? 43. what is the rda for protein? 44. what are the top five contributors of protein in a western diet? 45. what are the alternatives to a high protein diet? 46. what are the two proteinenergy deficiencies discussed in class? what are the symptoms? 47. what are vitamins? do they produce energy? 48. what are the fat soluble vitamins? 49. what are the water soluble vitamins? \n 50. what are the functions of vitamins? 51. what are the function of vitamin a? 52. what are the functions of vitamin d? 53. what are the functions of vitamin e? \n 54. what are the functions of vitamin k? 55. what are the functions of vitamin c? 56. what are the b vitamins that we discussed in class? briefly describe their function. 57. what controls fluid movement? \n 58. what are the functions of water? 59. describe what happens at the percentages of water loss. 60. what is aldosterone? 61. what does over consumption of water lead to? 62. what does bioavailability depend on? 63. what are the two mineral binders discussed in class? 64. what are the major minerals? 65. what are the functions of calcium? \n 66. how can you maintain bone density? 67. what are the functions of sodium? 68. what are the functions of chloride? 69. what are the functions of potassium? 70. what are the trace minerals? 71. what are the two types of iron? 72. what can iron deficiency cause? 73. how can excess iron hurt the body? \n 74. what are the functions of zinc? 75. how is zinc absorbed? 76. what are the functions of selenium? 77. what are the functions of iodide? 78. what can iodide deficiency cause? 79. what are the functions of copper? 80. how is copper absorbed? 81. what is wilson’s disease? \n part i: write the correct word that corresponds with the given definition. 1. osteoporosis 2. kwashiorkor 3. intracellular fluid 4. xerophtalmia 5. rickets 6. marasmus 7. osmosis 8. hypercarotenemia 9. pernicious anemia 10. osteomalacia 11. extracellular fluid part ii: true/false: write true or false on the following statements. if the statement is false, write the correct answer or statement in the space provided. 12. true 13. false; nine are essential and eleven are nonessential. 14. false; the fat soluble vitamins are a, d, e, and k. 15. false; vitamin a deficiency is the leading cause of blindness worldwide. 16. true 17. false; water makes up 5070% of the body’s weight. 18. true 19. false; calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. 20. true 21. false; we absorb 100% of the sodium we consume. 22. true 23. true \n part iii: short answer. answer the question entirely. 24. regulates and maintains body functions and provides essential form of nitrogen (in the form of amino acids) 25. decreased mortality rates 26. increased mortality rates 27. amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. amino acids contain nitrogen bonded to a carbon 28. yes; primary structure lead to the protein higher order structure. this causes the protein to get into a specific shape. this shape is necessary for the protein to function properly 29. the protein's primary structure is determined by the dna. dna is kept in the cell's nucleus. 30. the information of the protein's primary structure gets transcribed into messenger rna (mrna). mrna leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosome (rough er) where the protein gets translated (made). 31. one central carbon surrounded by an acid group, an amino group, some sort of side group, and hydrogen. the side group for each amino acid is different, making each amino acid unique. 32. amino acids are connected together by a peptide bond. 33. by heat, strong acids, bases, and heavy metals. 34. hydrochloric acid (hcl) 35. pepsin (enzyme) breaks the peptide bond of proteins resulting in protein fragments. pepsin is released in the stomach by cells in the stomach and is activated by the acidic environment. 36. gastrin regulates the release of pepsin. it's released in response to thinking about food and chewing and digesting food. 37. cck causes pancreas to release proteolytic enzymes that cleave proteins 38. incomplete gluten breakdown in small intestines leaving small peptides and amino acids. results in an inflammatory response to peptides and amino acids. prevalence in the us: 1 in 133 39. amino acids are taken up by the capillaries and taken to the liver by the portal vein. \n 40. used as building blocks for liver proteins, broken down for energy, can be released into the blood, and can be converted into nonessential amino acids, glucose, or fat. 41. producing vital body structures body is in a constant state of turnover. producing proteins and disassembling proteins. what happens in protein inadequacy producing proteins slows down muscles, blood proteins, and vital organs decrease in size. brain resists breakdown o maintaining fluid balance blood proteins attract fluids. if protein are inadequate, the fluid shifts into the tissues called edema. o contributing to acidbase balance act as buffers maintain ph within a narrow range keeps blood in an alkaline state. o forming hormones and enzymes hormones allow us to communicate between cells. enzymes catalyze reactions in the cells. transport and signaling receptors o transport brings nutrients into the cells. signaling receptors are used for communication in the cell o contributing to the immune function antibody production if there is protein deficiency, there is a decrease in immune function. o providing energy is need for prolonged exercise and calorie restriction however, cells use primarily fats and cho more efficient way to get energy. it wastes calories to metabolize amino acids for energy. o forming glucose amino acids can converted into glucose when blood sugar is low. during starvation: muscle wasting and edema results from protein breakdown. glucogenic amino acids are the only ones that can be used for glucose. use both nonessential and essential amino acids o contributes to satiety proteins provide the highest feeling of satisfaction after eating. may contribute to calorie control during weight loss \n 42. the breakdown of amino acids leave behind ammonia. ammonia is turned into urea in the liver and then excreted by the kidneys during urination. 43. 0.8 grams per kilogram per body weight. 44. beef, poultry, milk, white bread, and cheese. 45. vegetarian or a vegan diet. 46. 47. essential organic substances needed in small amounts in the diet for normal function, growth, and maintenance of the body. yield no energy. 48. a,d,e,k 49. b,c 50. to facilitate energy yielding chemical reactions and function as coenzymes. 51. promotes vision, prevents drying of the skin and eyes, maintains epithelial cells, promote immune function, and promotes growth. \n 52. helps regulate blood calcium levels and bone metabolism. it works with the parathyroid hormone, helps to regulate calcium and phosphorus absorption from the intestine, regulates the deposition of calcium in the bone and regulates the excretion of calcium from the kidney. 53. acts as a fatsoluble antioxidant to help protect the components of cells. 54. vital for blood clotting, and also activates proteins present in bone, muscle, and kidneys to give calcium binding ability to the organs. 55. formation of collagen which strengthens tissues, formation of other compounds (carnitine, serotonin, norepinephrine) and acts as an antioxidant. 56. what are the b vitamins that we discussed in class? briefly describe their function. folate: functions as a single carbon supplier or donor, and adds a coenzyme to help for dna and metabolize various amino acids and their derivatives. vitamin b6: needed for the activity of many enzymes, important in amino acid metabolism, necessary for the synthesis of neurotransmitters, important for hemoglobin synthesis, and is necessary for the conversion of tryptophan to niacin. vitamin b12: required to convert folate into its active form and maintains the myelin sheaths that insulate neurons. thiamin (b1): helps release energy from carbs. riboflavin (b2) and niacin (b3): both aid in energy metabolism and are coenzymes. 57. ions control the movement of water in between the intracellular and extracellular compartments. 58. solvent for chemical reaction in water, helps regulate temperature, helps remove waste products, cushions and lubricates. \n 59. 12%: thirst mechanism occurs 4%: muscle lose strength and endurance 1012%: heat tolerance is decreased. 20%: a coma and perhaps death. 60. released from the adrenal glands when blood volume decreases and communicates with kidneys to conserve water and salt. 61. dilutes the sodium levels causing nausea, confusion, vomiting, headaches, muscle weakness, and convulsions. 62. the soil it’s grown in and our ability to absorb it. 63. oxalates: found in spinach; binds calcium phytates: found in grains; binds calcium, iron, zinc, others. 64. calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, and magnesium. 65. regulates transport of ions across the cell membrane, helps maintain blood pressure, essential for muscle contractions, essential for secretion of hormones, enzymes, neurotransmitters, etc., & is essential for blood clotting 66. get an adequate amount of calcium and vitamin d in your diet, exercising and estrogen. 67. fluid balance between compartments, nerve impulse conduction and absorption of glucose. 68. a major negative ion for extracellular fluid and is used in producing stomach acid. 69. important in fluid balance and nerve transmission. 70. iron, zinc, selenium, iodine, copper, chromium, fluoride, etc. 71. heme and nonheme iron 72. anemia 73. impaired physical and mental activity, fatigue, loss of appetite, decreased learning ability, attention span. 74. growth, wound healing, sexual maturity, taste perception \n 75. absorption depends on body needs. phytic acid binds to zinc and limits availability. high calcium intake decreases zinc absorption. zinc competes with iron and copper for absorption. 76. indirect antioxidant, works with vitamin e to help protect cell membranes from oxidizing agents. binds to enzymes to protect against oxidation. may have anticancer properties. 77. used in the production thyroid hormone 78. cells of the thyroid enlarge in attempt to trap more iodine. called goiter. people are sluggish and gain weight. during pregnancy, deficiency can cause extreme and irreversible mental and physical retardation of developing baby. 79. involved in the metabolism of iron by functioning in the formation of hemoglobin and transport iron. also involved in the formation of connective tissue. is a cofactor for antioxidant enzymes. 80. absorption is highly variable. higher intakes associated with lower absorption efficiency. phytates, fiber, excess zinc and iron supplements interfere with absorption. 81. a genetic disorder that results in accumulation of copper in the tissues. characterized by damage to the liver, nervous system, and other organs.",
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e0d3349f34bc25ab584a8303da81f29d | 4756. evaluating definite integrals evaluate the following definite integrals. l 10 10>13 dy 2y2 - 25 | 4756. evaluating definite integrals evaluate the | ch 7.4 - 54 | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": " chapter 12 notes: social psychology week april 3 april 10 a. social psychology: the study of how people influence other people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions. 12.1 how does group membership affect people? humans have an overriding motivation to fit with the group. interpersonal attachments motive have evolved for adaptive purposes. a. social brain hypothesis (dunbar) large prefrontal cortexes because of the high dynamic and complex social groups. i. people favor their own groups a. formation ofingroup (belong groups) anutgroups o not belong groups) b security from predators and assistance in hunting and gathering food. c. better mating opportunities i. two conditions appear to be critical for group formation: a. reciprocity: “if you scratch my back, i'll scratch yours” i. reciprocity means that if person a helps (or harms) person b, then person b will help (or harm) person a. b. transitivity “people generally share their friend’s opinions of other people” b. outgroup homogeneity effect: the tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members. c. social identity the the idea that in groups consist of individuals who perceive themselves to be members of the same social category and experience pride through their group membership. d. ingroup favoritism the tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup.people are more willing to do favors for ingroup members or to forgive their mistakes or errors. the power of group membership is so strong that people exhibit ingroup favoritism even if the groups are determarbitrary processes. a. minimal group paradigm: the basis of group membership occurred even when the participants were told that the basis of group membership was arbitrary. \n b. women show a much greater automatic ingroup bias toward other women than men do toward other women. e. various brain regions (including the fusiform face area, the nucleus accumbens, the insula, and the amygdala) are differentially active when we consider ingroup versus outgroup members. f. the medial prefrontal cortex is less active when people are members of outgroups. ii. groups influence individual behavior a. social facilitation: the presence of others enhances performance. occurs in other animals i. zajonc’s model: animals are predisposed to become aroused by the presence of others of their own species. arousal leads animals to emit a dominant response. this model predicts that social facilitation can either enhance or impair performance. the change depends on whether the response that is required in a situation is the individual’s dominant response. i.e. crowds do not distract professional players while they will distract amatuer players due to pressure. b. deindividuation: reduced attention to personal standards when part of a group i. stanford prison study: this experiment demonstrate what people are willing to do when put in a situation with defined social roles. c. group decision making: riskyshift effect :groups often make riskier decision than individuals do. i.group polarization : the process by which initial attitudes of groups become more extreme over time. ii.groupthink: the tendency of groups to make bad decisions when the group is under pressure, facing external threats, and is biased d. social loafing: the tendency to work less hard in a group than when alone. occurs when people’s efforts are pooled so that individuals do not feel personally responsible for the group’s output. iii. people conform to others a. conformity: altering one’s beliefs/behaviors to match those of other people \n b. influence: i. normative influence occurs when people go along with the crowd to fit in with the group and to avoid looking foolish ii.nformational influence occurs when people assume that the behavior of the crowd represents the correct way to respond. autokinetic effect: power of conformity in social judgement. c. social norms: expected standards of conduct influence behavior d. the asch and sherif studies. i. groups enforce conformity, and those who fail to go along can be rejected. ii people tend to conform to social norms, even when those norms are obviously wrong. iii.) when do people reject social norms? group size too small lack of unanimity (any dissent from majority opinion can diminish the influence of social norms. anxiety of social exclusion (actually appeared as a signal in the amygdala iv. people are often compliant a. compliance: the tendency to do things requested by others: i. footinthedoor effect: once people commit to a course of action, they behave in ways consistent with that commitment. ii. door in the face people are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request. iii. lowballing strategy once a person has committed to an option, then deciding to do so by spending a bit more money does not seem like such a big decision. v. people are obedient to authority \n a. milgram’s famous study demonstrated the tendency to follow the directions of authority. (experimentee was a teacher administering shocks to conduct a test) some situations produced less obedience i. nearly twothirds completely obeyed all the experimenter’s directives. 12.2 when do people harm or help others? vi. many factors can influence aggression a. aggression: any behavior that involves the intention to harm another. another factor that influences aggression is heat. b. biological factors: i. genetic research has identified the role of the maoa gene in aggression: a. maoa is not a “violence gene.” b. associated with amygdala and neurotransmitters(serotonin) c. maoa gene controls the amount of mao, an enzyme that regulates the activity of a number of neurotransmitters, including serotonin and norepinephrine. ii. the hormone testosterone also appears to have a modest correlation with aggression. however a particular form of the gene appears to make individuals susceptible to environmental risk factors associated with antisocial behaviors. iii ) the prefrontal cortex is important for controlling emotional and behavioral reactions. c. social and cultural factors. i. culture of honor: men are primed to protect their reputations through physical aggression. vii. many factors can influence helping behavior a. prosocial: actions that tend to benefit others, such as doing favors or helping by providing benefits to others, prosocial behaviors promote positive interpersonal relationships. b. altruistic behavior: providing help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so: natural selection occurs at the genetic level rather than at the individual level. \n inclusive fitness (hamilton’s): the adaptive benefits of transmitting genes rather than focusing on individual survival. people are altruistic toward those with whom they share genes, also known as kin selection. i. kin selection ii. reciprocal helping: robert rivers: one animal helps another because the other may return the favor in the future. viii. some situations lead to bystander apathy a. bystander intervention effect: failure to offer help to someone in need if other bystanders are around. i. diffusion of responsibility : bystanders expect other bystanders to help. thus the greater the number of people who witness someone in need of help, the less likely it is that any of them will step forward. ii. social blunders: people feel less constrained from seeking help as the need for help becomes clearer. iii. wish to be anonymous people are less likely to help when they are anonymous and can remain so. iv. how much harm do they risk to themselves by helping? v. kitty genovese 38 witnesses and still none of them could do anything to stop the murder. ix. cooperation can reduce outgroup bias a. sherif's robbers cave experiment: among strangers, competition and isolation created enemies among enemies, cooperation created friends. b. shared superordinate goals — goals that require people to cooperate — reduce hostility between groups. c. jigsaw classroom i. children in jigsaw classrooms grow to like each other more and develop higher selfesteem than do children in traditional classrooms. dependent on one another to achieve a task as a group. each person is specialized in one thing. \n 12.3 how do attitudes guide behavior? a. attitudes are evaluations of: i. objects. ii. events. iii. ideas. and are shaped by social context and play an important role in how we evaluate and interact with people. x. people form attitudes through experience and socialization a. negative attitudes develop more rapidly than positive attitudes. in general, bad is always a stronger motivating force than good. b. mere exposure effe ct greater exposure leads to familiarity and therefore more positive attitudes. ex: when people are presented with normal photographs of themselves and the same images reversed, they tend to prefer the reversed version because the reversed versions correspond to what people see when they look in the mirror. xi. behaviors are consistent with strong attitudes in general, the stronger and more personally relevant the attitude, the more likely it is to predict behavior. the strong and personally relevant nature of the attitude will lead the person to act the same across situations related to that attitude. the more specific the attitude, the more predictive it is. attitude accessibility: the ease or difficulty that a person has in retrieving an attitude from memory. a. ease of attitude accessibility predicts behavior resistant to change. xii. attitudes can be explicit or implicit a. explicit attitudes: because we know we hold them, we can report them to other people. b. implicit attitudes: at an unconscious level, they influence feelings and behavior. these influence feelings and behaviors because people can access these implicit attitudes from memory quickly with little conscious effort or control. \n in a way, implicit attitudes function like implicit memories. xiii. discrepancies lead to dissonance a. cognitive dissonance: dissonance is a lack of agreement, occurs when there is a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior. i. an uncomfortable mental state ii. due to contradiction between two attitudes or between behavior and attitude iii. insufficient justificatioone way to get people to change their attitudes is to change their behaviors first, using as few incentives as possible. iv. postdecisional dissonance: dissonance can arise when a person holds positive attitudes about different options but has to choose one of the options. for example, a person might have trouble deciding which of many excellent colleges to attend. post decisional dissonance then motivates to focus on one school’s the chosen school’s positive aspects and the other school’s negative aspects. v. justifying effort:when people put themselves through pain, embarrassment, or discomfort to join a group, they experience a great deal of dissonance. after all, they would typically not choose to be in pain, embarrassed, or uncomfortable. people dissolve dissonance by inflating the importance of the group and their commitment to it. “they have sacrificed so much to join a group, people believe the group must be extraordinarily important. xiv. attitudes can be changed through persuasion a. persuasion is active and conscious effort to change attitude through transmission of message. persuasion is most likely to occur when people pay attention to a message, understand it, and find it convincing. most importantly, the message must be memorable. strong arguments that appeal to emotions are the most persuasive. advertisers also use the mere exposure effect, repeating the message over and over in the hope that multiple exposures will lead to increased persuasiveness. b. according to the elaboration likelihood model, persuasive communication changes attitudes through a: i. central routewhen people are motivated to process information and are able to take that information. people are paying attention to the arguments, considering all the information, and using rational cognitive processes. leads to strong attitudes that last over time. \n ii. peripheral route: minimal attention to information leads to impulsivity. when people are either not motivated to process information or are unable to process it. this route leads to moreimpulsive action, as when a person decides to purchase a product because of endorsement \n 12.4 how do people think about others? xv. physical appearance affects first impressions first thing to notice is typically the face of a person during an initial interaction a. nonverbal behavior, otherwise referred to asbody language , ithe facial expressions, gestures, mannerisms, and movements by which one communicates with others: thin slices of behaviorpeople can make accurate judgements based on only a few seconds of observation. thin slices of behavior are powerful cues for impression formation. i. accurate judgments can be based on brief observations. ii. facial expressions and body movements influence impressions. xvi. people make attributions about others a. attributions: people’s explanations for why events or actions occur they are explanations for events or actions, including other people’s behaviors. people are motivated to draw inferences in part by a basic need for both order and predictability. b. personal attributions: xplanations of people’s behavior that refer to their internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts these explanations refer to things within people, such as abilities, mood, or efforts. for example, you might assume that a firefighter saved the kitten because he is brave. c. situational attributions explanations of people’s behavior that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or other people’s actions fritz heider and harold kelley has described people as intuitive scientists who try to draw inferences about others and make attributions about events. but unlike objective scientists, people tend to be systematically biased when they process social information. when explaining other people’s behavior, people tend to overemphasize the importance of personality traits and underestimate the expectancy that people’s actions correspond with their belief and personalities. these explanations refer to outside events, such as luck, accident or the actions of other people. d. in explaining behavior, undamental attribution error is the tendency to: i. overemphasize personality. \n ii. underestimate situation. e. actor/observer discrepancy: i. in interpreting our own behavior, we focus on situation. ii. in interpreting others’ behavior, we focus on personality. example: people tend to attribute their own lateness to external factors such as traffic. while they tend to attribute other’s lateness to personal characteristics such as laziness or lack of organization. xvii. stereotypes are based on automatic categorization a. stereotypes: mental shortcuts for rapid processing of social information b. as a result of directed attention and memory biases, people may see illusory correlations. stereotypes guide attention toward information that confirms the stereotypes and away from disconfirming evidence. *moreover when people encounter someone who does not fit a stereotype, they put that person in a special category rather than alter the stereotype. this latter process is known as subtyping. xviii. stereotypes can lead to prejudice a. prejudice : negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype b. discrimination: inappropriate, unjustified treatment of people based on prejudice c. ingroup/outgroup bias is the tendency to: i. positively evaluate groups we belong to. ii. negatively evaluate groups different from ours d. modern racism: subtle forms of prejudice that coexist with the rejection of racist beliefs . modern racists tend to believe that discrimination is no longer a serious problems and that minority groups are demanding too much societal change as in too many changes to traditional values. ex: people may condemn racist attitudes toward latinos but be unwilling to help a latino in need. \n xix. prejudice can be reduced a. inhibiting stereotypes. i. in everyday life, inhibiting stereotyped thinking is difficult and requires selfcontrol. b. perspective taking and perspective giving: i . perspective taking involves people actively contemplating the psychological experiences of other people. such contemplation can reduce racial bias and help to smooth potentially awkward interracial interactions. taking another group’s perspective appears to reduce negative or positive stereotypes. ii. perspective giving, in which people share their experiences of being targets of discrimination. \n 12.5 what determines the quality of relationships? a. relationships are connections with friends and with romantic partners. xx. situational and personal factors influence interpersonal attraction and friendships a. relationships are promoted by: i. proximity and familiarity. a. the more people come into contact, the more likely they are to become friends. the more often people come into contact with each other because they are physically nearby, they more likely they are to become friends. ii similarity or “birds of a feather” matching principle and personal characteristics a. people tend especially to like those who have admirable personality characteristics and who are physically attractive. iv. physical attractiveness. a. how people rate attractiveness is generally consistent across all cultures. b. “what is beautiful is good” stereotype; the belief that attractive people are superior in most ways some standards of beauty, such as preferences for particular body types, appear to change over time and across cultures. nevertheless, how people rate attractiveness is generally consistent across all cultures xxi. love is an important component of romantic relationships a. passionate love: intense longing and sexual desire i. generally happens early in relationships b. companionate love: strong commitment to caring for and supporting partner i. evolves in relationships \n c. love in relationships may be related to early attachment styles from childhood days. (how their parents treated them and their attachment behavior) people whose parents treated them inconsistently—sometimes warm and sometimes not—have ambivalent attachments. these people are best described as clingy. they worry that people do not really love them and are bound to leave them. about 11 percent of adults report having this attachment style. xxii. staying in love can require work if people do not develop companionate forms of satisfaction in their romantic relationships—such as friendship, social support, and intimacy—the loss of passion leads to dissatisfaction and often to the eventual dissolution of the relationship a. dealing with conflict: i. being overly critical ii. holding the partner in contempt (i.e., having disdain, lacking respect) iii. being defensive iv. mentally withdrawing from the relationship, arguing by only seeing things from one side of the relationship. b. happy couples also differ from unhappy couples in attributional style. attribution style: how one partner explains the other’s behavior. i. they overlook bad behavior or respond constructively, a process called accommodation. also, optimistic people typically have a happier relationship than those who are not. c. can psychology rekindle a romance? the following will help: i. show interest in your partner. ii. be affectionate. iii. show you care. iv. spend quality time together. v. maintain loyalty and fidelity. vi. learn how to handle conflict. 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7d3d5cb1efbcf20d083c8bd2ed72f1ff | find the values of il, i2, and i3 for the circuit in figure p18.51. | find the values of il, i2, and i3 for the circuit in | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": "business and government relations study guide ii: chapters 1013 & questions chapter 10: regulation: law, economics, and politics introduction ● regulation takes place through a public process that is relatively open and allows participation by interested parties ● regulatory decisions and rulemaking proceedings are extremely important to many firms, industries, and interest groups set of interventions ● controlling prices ● setting floor prices ● ensuring equal opportunity ● regularizing employment practices ● specifying qualifications ● providing for solvency ● controlling the number of market participants ● limiting ownership ● requiring premarketing approval ● ensuring product safety ● mandating product characteristics and technology ● establishing service territories ● establishing performance standards ● controlling toxic emissions and other pollutants ● specifying industry boundaries ● allocating public resources ● establishing technical standards ● controlling unfair international trade practices ● providing information ● rationing common pool resources ● protecting consumers ● controlling risks periods of regulatory reform ● four major periods of regulatory change ○ populist era (late 1800s) ○ progressive era and the new deal ○ social regulation (began in the 1960s) ○ economic deregulation (began in the 1970s) the constitutional basis for regulation ● the u.s. constitution not only provides the authority for regulation \n ○ it also limits its application ● many legal principles of regulation in the united states have come from court decisions that draw on the common law ● the fifth and fourteenth amendments place limits on regulation principal federal regulatory agencies and commissions delegation, rulemaking, due process, and discretion ● article i, section 1 of the constitution grants congress the sole power to enact laws ● congress enacted the administrative procedure act (apa) of 1946 to: ○ provide for public notice and comment prior to agency action ■ agencies adopt their own rulemaking procedures in a manner consistent with the apa ● the apa grants parties right to sue for judicial review of an agency action ○ a basis for that review is failure to follow the procedures required for an action ■ under the framework of procedural due process ● the apa requires: ○ agency actions not be “arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with law” ● the courts review regulatory actions for whether they are arbitrary or capricious \n influences on regulatory agencies \n market imperfections •natural monopoly •externalities •public goods •asymmetric information government imperfections ● market imperfections warrant government regulation ○ only a necessary condition for regulation to improve economic efficiency capture theory ● predicts that regulation initially will be found where there are market imperfections and over time will evolve to serve the interests of the regulated industry rentseeking theory ● regulation not established to address market imperfections ○ instead, it is established to benefit politically effective interests fairness ● regulation used to accomplish fairness goals ● can involve policies such as: ○ lifeline rates for telephone service for lowincome people ○ the provision of aid such as food stamps costofservice theory ● regulation in a number of industries has centered on costofservice pricing ● this costofservice regulatory system has been blamed for inducing high costs and slowing the introduction of new technology. chapter 11: financial markets and their regulation introduction \n ● the capital markets are an essential component of a capitalist economic system that allow individuals to ○ save their money in a broad array of financial instruments ○ transform those savings into funding for businesses, homebuying, and retirement the formal and informal banking systems ● depository institutions such as banks accept deposits and make loans ○ these institutions are required to maintain a fractional reserve requirement ■ allows the formal banking system to lend a multiple of the deposits held repurchase agreement “shadow banking” system ● operates outside the purview of regulators ○ provides much of the financing for banks, securities traders, and mortgage lenders ● securitization involves pooling contractual debt obligations and issuing new securities backed by those obligations ○ a component of the shadow banking system \n collateralized debt obligations credit default swap \n the federal reserve system ● established in 1913 ● serves as the central bank of the united states ● has broad responsibilities for managing the money supply ● has regulatory authority over national banks and state banks that participate in the federal reserve system securities regulation ● the first new deal legislation enacted was the securities act of 1933 ○ regulated the issuance of new securities ● in 1934, congress enacted the securities exchange act to: ○ extend regulation to stock exchanges and the trading of alreadyissued securities ● glasssteagall act of 1933 ○ forced banks to separate their commercial banking and investment banking businesses ○ later repealed by the grammleachbliley act of 1999 credit card regulation ● credit card (card accountability responsibility and disclosure) act of 2009 ○ increases the regulation of credit card issuers \n ● regulations intended to eliminate abuses can have effects on markets mortgage lending and subprime mortgages ● mortgage lending had been dominated by banks and savings and loans associations ● lenders held some of the mortgages they originated and sold the rest to: ○ governmentsponsored enterprises ○ federal national mortgage association (fannie mae) ○ federal home loan mortgage corporation (freddie mac) ● the federal housing administration (fha) provided financing for qualified borrowers ○ government policy supported expanding home ownership through government support of fannie mae, freddie mac, and the fha financial crisis inquiry commission ● principal conclusions of the majority: ○ it was avoidable ○ widespread failures in financial regulation and supervision ○ dramatic failures of corporate governance and risk management at many systemically important financial institutions ○ excessive borrowing, risky investments, and lack of transparency ○ inconsistent response of an ill prepared government ○ collapsing mortgagelending standards and the mortgage securitization pipeline ○ overthecounter derivatives contributed significantly ○ failures of the credit rating agencies were essential cogs in the wheel of financial destruction ● 10 essential causes identified by the dissenters: ○ credit bubble ○ housing bubble ○ nontraditional mortgages ○ credit ratings and securitization ○ financial institutions concentrated correlated risks ○ leverage and liquidity risk ○ risk of contagion ○ common shock (the fall in housing prices) ○ financial shock and panic ○ financial crisis causes economic crisis \n tarp, bailouts, and the stimulus ● the bush administration and congress created the troubled asset relief program (tarp) ○ administered by the department of the treasury ○ authorized with funding up to $700 billion to be used to shore up banks and stimulate the provision of credit to borrowers the doddfrank wall street reform and consumer protection act ● doddfrank act ○ provided for new regulations ○ strengthened enforcement ○ required new rule making by regulators ○ created a new regulatory agency the consumer financial protection bureau ○ restricted the pricing of credit card borrowings ○ increased the exposure of credit rating agencies to lawsuits ○ restricted securities trading by banks ○ required derivatives trades to go through clearinghouses ○ imposed new capital requirements on banks ○ did not address the roles of fannie mae and freddie mac financial stability oversight council ● established by the doddfrank act ● composed of the heads of 10 regulatory agencies with responsibility for: ○ monitoring the economy ○ responding to emergencies that threaten the stability of the financial system too big to fail ● the act: ○ authorized the government to seize and break up a firm whose collapse could result in substantial harm to the economy ○ required financial companies to develop “living wills” for closing down and provided for the orderly liquidation of failed companies \n the volcker rule ● included in the doddfrank act after heated debate ○ subsequently subject to extensive rulemaking activity to refine the restrictions ● allowed banks to trade on behalf of clients and to hedge their own risks derivatives and swaps ● to reduce risks and increase regulatory scrutiny: ○ the act gave the commodities and futures trading commission (cftc) regulatory authority over swaps and major swap market participants such as marketmakers securitization and excessive risks ● issuers of assetbacked securities were required to retain: ○ at least 5 percent of the risk unless the assets meet certain loan standards consumer protection ● complaints from consumers and consumer advocacy groups about financial products centered on: ○ abusive mortgages ○ high interest rates charged by payday lenders ○ financing practices of automobile dealers and student loan companies ● the doddfrank act created a consumer financial protection bureau (cfpb) ○ has authority over: ■ banks with assets over $10 billion ■ mortgage lenders ■ student loan companies ■ payday lenders compensation ● the doddfrank act directed the sec to address the compensation issue ● the sec: ○ promulgated “say on pay” rules requiring a nonbinding shareholder vote on executive compensation at least every 3 years ○ proposed rules requiring banks and financial services firms to: ■ report bonuses paid to individual employees ■ block bonuses that posed the risk of “material financial loss” for the firm \n credit ranging agencies ● provide information to investors about risks associated with securities ● government regulators have delegated to designated nationally recognized statistical rating organizations (nrsro) the assessment of risks associated with securities. global capital requirements regulation basel iii ● basel committee on banking supervision an organization of 27 nations that sets capital requirements for banks ○ requirements must be approved by the g20 nations ■ enacted into law by each nation chapter 12: environmental management and sustainability introduction ● public, government, and businesses recognize the importance of environmental protection and sustainability ● benefits include: ○ improved human health ○ a more vibrant natural environment ○ the preservation of ecosystems ○ a more sustainable relationship with the natural environment the environment and sustainability ● goals and action ● global climate change ● policy ● tradeoffs socially efficient control of externalities ● the control of externalities has taken the form of commandandcontrol regulation ● incentive approaches take into account the benefits and costs of attaining environmental objectives ○ achieves those objectives by aligning the social and private costs of pollution and its abatement \n the coase theorum ● pertains to market imperfections, including externalities and public goods ● focuses on the standard of social efficiency ● provide s a conceptual foundation for both regulation and the liability system \n transaction costs and the limits of the coase theorem ● the coase theorem implies that: ○ when bargaining between the parties to an externality is possible, social efficiency can be achieved capandtrade systems ● caps the total allowed emissions of a particular pollutant, issues permits (entitlements) for that amount, and allows the permits to be traded ○ also called tradable permits systems global climate change and emissions trading systems ● kyoto protocol ● emissions trading in the european union ● the regional greenhouse gas initiative (rggi) ● emissions trading within bp plc (british petroleum) kyoto protocol ● accomplishments under the kyoto protocol a subject of disagreement ○ developed countries have reduced their domestic emissions ■ research shows that this is due to increased imports displacing local production emissions trading in the european union ● the european union took the lead on multination emission ○ traded with the european trading system (ets) commencing in 2005 ● ets is a capandtrade system that covers 12,000 facilities in 15 eu member states ○ the eu goal was an 8 percent reduction by 2012 from a 1990 base emissions trading within bp plc (british petroleum) ● to address the global climate change issue: ○ in 1998 bp plc committed by 2010 to reduce its emissions of greenhouse gases (ghgs) by 10 percent from 1990 levels ● to achieve its goal, bp worked with environmental defense to develop an internal ghgs trading system for the company the regional greenhouse gas initiative ● formed in 2005 by 10 northeastern u.s. states \n ○ to operate a capandtrade system for reducing greenhouse gases emissions ○ auctioned 86 percent of the allowances generating $790 million through 2010 ● supported by companies that benefited from the funds generated by the auctions ○ other companies argued that it drove up costs and drove jobs away the environmental protection agency (epa) ● an independent agency located in the executive branch ● headed by an administrator appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate ● responsible for administering the major environmental acts enforcement ● the epa enforcement process requires: ○ filing of a notice of a complaint and a hearing before an administrative law judge standards setting and engineering control ● epa regulation has largely been command and control ○ uniform rules or standards are ordered and then enforced ● the epa sets emissions standards and air quality standards ● epa has increasingly used incentive approaches: ○ credits and offsets superfund ● administered by the epa ○ for the cleanup of existing toxic waste disposal sites ● epa attempts to identify the source of the dumping and force it to clean the site the nature of environmental politics ● environmental issues are complex because of: ○ scientific uncertainty about the consequences of pollution ○ incomplete information about the costs and benefits of environmental protection ○ disagreements about alternative approaches, such as liability versus regulation, to protection ○ differing perspectives about the protection of entitlements judicial politics ● politics of environmental protection often moves into judicial arenas ● environmental groups have succeeded in inserting citizen provisions in environmental statutes \n advocacy science ● much remains unknown about environmental hazards and their control ○ this scientific uncertainty is a source of contention in environmental politics ○ it provides an opportunity to use advocacy science as a component of a private politics strategy distributive politics ● environmental politics is motivated by: ○ distributive consequences of environmental policy ○ costs of environmental protection ○ benefits from the reduction in pollution and hazards private and public politics ● many environmental ngos active in public politics at the federal, state, and local levels ● environmental groups testify regularly in legislative and regulatory hearings ○ some demonstrate to attract media coverage to their side of the issue nimby and private politics ● nimby “not in mybackyard” ○ focuses on local environmental concerns, particularly as they involve possible risks to persons or property ○ directed toward: refuse disposal & toxic waste sites, chemical & oil plants, other facilities that may emit toxins ● energized by information provided by the federal government’s toxics release inventory (tri) ● the tri is a result of the “righttoknow” amendment to a 1985 superfund reauthorization bill voluntary collective environmental programs ● iso 14001 ● responsible care program ● criticisms of voluntary programs ○ called “greenwash” by environmental groups ○ allege that these programs sound good to the public ○ fail to live up to their promises chapter 13: the investor’s perspective: renewable energy introduction \n ● managing effectively in the nonmarket environment is essential for firms when: ○ a company is at a major strategic crossroad ○ there are market or nonmarket challenges ● strategy implementation is essential on an ongoing basis at an operational level to: ○ achieve performance goals ○ address challenges ○ seize opportunities investment decisions ● in making their decisions, investors assess: ○ opportunities and risks associated with firms ○ quality of their management ● the assessment of managerial quality depends on: ○ a firm’s leadership and market strategy ○ a firm's nonmarket strategy ○ the ability of management to anticipate and deal effectively with the emergence and development of nonmarket issues the environment of wind and solar power ● longterm opportunities for wind and solar power were enormous ○ supply costs were falling ○ demand for renewable power was expected to continue to grow ○ demand growth had been led by europe as a result of generous subsidies ■ as the subsidies were reduced, growth slowed ○ at the same time demand grew in china and the united states ■ more countries began to support wind and solar power ○ demand was expected to grow substantially in china and developing nations ● growth hinged on government support and the cost of other energy sources markets and government involvement ● retail electricity prices varied greatly across the states ○ both solar and wind power were quite variable ■ solar power output depended on the weather ■ wind power was most attractive in locations where the wind blows hard and steadily ○ solar/wind power faced nonmarket opposition because of: ■ the cost of subsidization ■ environmental nimby market signal ● market for solar panels in europe and the united states slowed to a crawl in 2010 \n ○ market in china grew at a rapid pace economic rationale for subsidization ● economic rationales for the subsidization of renewable power: ○ based on positive externalities ■ subsidization provides environmental improvements by displacing carbonbased power generated from coal or natural gas ■ subsidization provides security benefits to the extent that it reduced the dependence on imported fuels ○ intended to achieve cost efficiencies and increased output ■ subsidies could enable producers to realize economies of scale that would reduce costs and allow output to expand political rationale for subsidization ● positive externalities for the environment and security benefitted constituents ● subsidization generated pork: ○ recipients of the subsidies and their suppliers earned rents from the economic activity stimulated by the subsidization the costs of subsidization ● direct costs of subsidies are the corresponding government budget expenditures and liabilities ○ examples grants and loan guaranties solyndra inc ● in 2008 solyndra and solar power, inc., a leading installer of solar panels, agreed to a supply arrangement for $325 million of solar panels over the 2008–2012 period ● market risks: prices and costs ● non market risks *solar power opportunities and risks—market and nonmarket factors \n practice questions ch. 1013 true/false 1. when there are market imperfections, government intervention can improve its efficiency. true/ false 2. congress mandates that regulatory agencies provide for public notice and comment prior to agency action. true/ false 3. interested parties such as firms are prohibited from participating in formal and informal rule making proceedings. true/ false 4. regulation in the us takes place through a private process that is closed and lowprofile. true/ false 5. with the disintegration of the mortgage market, lenders do not bear the risk of failure of borrowers to repay loans. true/false 6. securitization involves pooling contractual debt obligations and issuing new securities backed by those obligations. true/false 7. securitization can reduce idiosyncratic risks but cannot reduce systematic risks. true/false 8. commandandcontrol regulation imposes uniform controls and standards on dissimilar sources of pollution. true/false 9. the coase theorem implies that a negative externality can be resolved when property rights are assigned to the pollutees, not the polluters. true/false 10. the coase theorem implies that when bargaining between two parties to an externality is possible, social efficiency can be achieved. true/false 11. voluntary environmental information disclosure by firms provides an accurate representation of their environmental performance. true/false 12. renewable energy (non hydroelectric) production has been dependent on subsidies because it is not cost competitive. true/false \n 13. the u.s. government provided subsidization on both the demand and supply sides of the market for renewable power. true/false 14. the nimby movement can hamper the development of renewable energy. true/false multiple choice 1. globedot is a leading manufacturer of information display systems based in california. it seeks uniform federal regulation to impose a carbon emission tax on all manufacturing firms. this is an example of \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_. a. natural monopoly b. rentseeking theory c. adverse selection d. moral hazard 2. which of the following regulatory approach has been blamed for inducing inefficiency across companies? a. deregulation b. costofservice regulation c. information disclosure requirement d. monopoly restrictions 3. in constructing cdos, the mortgage loans are sliced into tranches with the cash flowing first to the \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_. \n a. most safe tranche (lowest interest rate) b. most risky tranche (highest interest rate) c. noninvestment grade tranche 4. which of the following did not contribute to the financial crisis of 20072008? a. subprime lending b. high leverage ratio for banks c. credit default swaps d. regulation of derivatives 5. the regulatory responses to the financial crisis include all of the following except a. penalizing customers who defaulted on interest payments b. increasing the regulation of credit card issuers c. .reducing speculative investments by banks d. .regulating credit rating agencies 6. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ have become an effective means of achieving environmental goals at the least cost to society. a. commandandcontrol regulations b. incentivebased regulations c. costofservice regulations d. voluntary approaches 7. why were the loan guarantee and cash option awarded to renewable power producers jeopardized? a. .state public utility regulatory agencies were barred by law from determining renewable energy prices. b. the huge federal budget deficit required measures to reduce expenditure. c. state public utility regulatory agencies gave a negligible premium for renewable power. d. the price of natural gas rose considerably. short answers •what are alternative theories to explain where regulation is or is not imposed? \n •under what circumstances does the market fail to function properly and government intervention is justified? •explain commandandcontrol vs. incentivebased approach to environmental regulation. •explain the basics of emissions trading scheme. •explain two nonmarket factors that encourage investment in renewable energy. •explain two nonmarket factors that discourage investment in renewable energy. answer key true/false 1. t 2. t \n 3. f 4. f 5. t 6. t 7. t 8. t 9. f 10. t 11. f 12. t 13. t 14. t multiple choice 1. b 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. b",
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76f0d7b7ad6f36e8faaf9a29737d876b | apoker player is dealt three spades and two hearts. he discards the two hearts and draws two more cards. what is the probability that he draws two more spades? | apoker player is dealt three spades and two hearts. he | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " northcentral university assignment cover sheet student: this form must be completely filled in follow these procedures: if requested by your instructor, please include an assignment cover sheet. this will become the first page of your assignment. in addition, your assignment header should include your last name, first initial, course code, dash, and assignment number. this should be left justified, with the page number right justified. for example: save a copy of your assignments: you may need to resubmit an assignment at your instructor’s request. make sure you save your files in accessible location. academic integrity: all work submitted in each course must be your own original work. this includes all assignments, exams, term papers, and other projects required by your instructor. knowingly submitting another person’s work as your own, without properly citing the source of the work, is considered plagiarism. this will result in an unsatisfactory grade for the work submitted or for the entire course. it may also result in academic dismissal from the university. btm71038 john halstead, phd research design assignment 7 faculty use only <faculty comments here> <faculty name> \n 2 introduction quantitative and qualitative methods both have a role in conducting research. each method utilizes a different approach to how data is collected and subsequently analyzed. conducting a research study is complex and exceptionally difficult even for seasoned and experienced researchers. new researchers experience a variety of issues while conducting initial research projects. the issues include items such as (a) errors, (b) flaws, (c) omissions, and (d) conceptual gaps (leong & austin, 2006). the purpose of this week’s assignment is to utilize the information learned from the previous weeks and to develop hypothetical study that will show both a quantitative and qualitative design. the hypothetical study will be based on the topic of identifying the number of individuals taking a taxi based upon ingesting too many alcoholic beverages in a selected one block location. more specifically, the hypothetical research project will incorporate a selected area identified that is primarily made up of restaurants and bars. by understanding how many people at any given time will need a cab based upon too drinks will help a taxi company schedule an appropriate number of taxis over each threehour period. … research method criteria choosing an appropriate research method, quantitative or qualitative is one of the first steps that must be taken to ensure a successful study. by understanding both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, the best possible method can be selected to provide a desired output. this is otherwise known as, the goal state. the goal state is based upon findings from prior research. the researcher must identify the desired end state that he/she wants to accomplish and subsequently must choose the method that best fits the type of data to be collected. a researcher must walkthrough the process of a study and identify each step of the research prior to \n 3 conducting the study. this walkthrough is termed the pilot study. by working through each of the steps and developing a mental model, a researcher can test a hypothesis prior to completing a full study. it can also help to avoid any major mistakes when the main study is conducted. the value of a pilot study is valuable to any researcher, but is generally not publicized (doody, 2015). qualitative market research is primarily used at times that a more in depth understanding of consumer behavior and motivation is required, while quantitative studies are focused on specific numerical facts that answers the ‘what’ questions (barnham, 2015). additional strengths of a quantitative study involve a carefully planned research project that incorporates detailed data collection yielding numerical data (quick & hall, 2015). the strengths of a qualitative study are primarily related to the amount of description that can be acquired by the question and answers as well as the observation. the data that is being collected is descriptive in nature rather than purely a numerical quality (cozby, 2012). qualitative studies are ideal for generating new theories or hypotheses, achieving a deep understanding of the issue or issues at hand, and (c) for developing detailed stories to describe the root cause(s) of a phenomenon (trochim & donnelly, 2008). researchers generally have a primary objective and a secondary subgoal when conducting a study. one area a researcher must take into consideration is to ensure informed consents are provided by the subjects (leong & austin, 2006). by identifying the goal and subgoal up front, a researcher will be able to choose an appropriate method. design considerations according to leong and austin, (2006) a researcher must consider the following prior to \n 4 selecting the design: “(a) the specific purpose that the design should accomplish, (b) the criteria for deciding whether the design has a high probability of accomplishing that purpose, and (c) knowledge of the logic of the design so that the design can be modified to optimally accomplish the goal and avoid problems”. as a research design is considered, there are four specific steps that should be followed to develop a research project. the first step involves developing a hypothesis that is based upon a given theory. a researcher must create a specific hypothesis that will likely occur if a given set of conditions are met. the example could be something as simple as people in a bar setting are more likely to drink to excess than in a restaurant setting. the data could be used to determine the number of taxis needed in a particular area based upon the number of bars and/or restaurants in that area. after developing a hypothesis, the second step is to choose the operations that represent the constructs represented in the hypothesis. to succeed at testing a hypothesis, a researcher must select an appropriate method to test said hypothesis. an example of this is could be testing a social experiment to monitor 50 individuals in each type of setting in the same time period. the third step would involve utilizing a covariation of operations. if during the study the results were evaluated by breaking the individuals down per age group. the study could look at determining if the crowd is of a certain age and then identify whether the individuals choose a taxi, walking, bicycling, riding with a friend, or driving. based upon a particular type of crowd the bars and restaurants attract, a taxi service could begin to estimate taxis needed based upon the type of crowd and events promoted to a given crowd in that area. the fourth step is to determine if the results actually do measure the intended output. it \n 5 can be tested by reverse engineering the process. by utilizing the results of the study and employing the calculated number of taxis, the customers should not have to wait for a taxi upon exiting a bar or restaurant in a given area. while each of the four steps for the overall generic research design are defined, the next steps will be to develop a quantitative and qualitative study. quantitative in order to develop a quantitative study out of this design, 50 individuals are scored as they leave the bars and restaurants within a one block area. the study will take place in 3 hour segments. the data collected with be numerical in nature and allow a researcher to depict the scale of intoxication of the individuals choosing to take taxis over other modes of transportation. the level of intoxication can be rated on a scale of 05. zero will identify as not intoxicated at all and a five represents a level of falling down intoxicated. the individuals will then be questioned and identified by number within specified age ranges; under 21, 2125, 2630, 3040, and 41 and above. in addition, gender and proximity to housing can be graded by distance. one other criteria to measure would involve the number of people within each party. each factor acquired will go towards developing the characteristics of the individuals and their mode of transportation. in addition, the information will utilize a scales and numerical factors to calculate the number of taxis needed per three hour periods on given days of the week. qualitative the qualitative study would reflect descriptions of the individuals as well as the type of establishment as well as the events taking place throughout the block being studied. the descriptors of individuals could be broken down into the level of intoxication based upon 05 as well as a visual status of individuals that may lie about their level of intoxication. in addition, \n 6 notes will be taken to detail the type of event taking place in the area, to understand the type of individual the event will attract. this can help a taxi company to understand if the type of individual utilizing a taxi service is younger, older, or if age is not a factor. another determination that could be made if the use of taxi service is event driven, such as a live band or tournament. the determination could also be influenced by the average wait time of cab service. extensive notes about the environment, time of day, and events driving cab usage will need to be identified. each item will be discussed in a descriptive matter to be able to develop an overall profile of the type of individual(s) that would be taking taxis based upon the events planned in the area. conclusion as a researcher works through the process of a dissertation, a well thought out study must be developed. stepping through the four steps of designing a study, included the broad scope of what is included within the design of a study. as the mock qualitative and quantitative studies were developed within this paper, it is very clear to see that this process is a long and intense process. even something as simplistic as identifying the number of individuals that drank excessively that would need taxi services, became extraordinarily complex. each time one detail was identified, there were six more that cropped up needing to be addressed. the examples were dependent on so many additional variables that the study became convoluted. such variables such as the causes behind why people took a taxi over driving may be for a variety of reasons, not just drinking too much. to ensure individuals did not have to wait for a taxi could also be dependent upon how far the taxis had to go, the supply of drivers, etc. this variable could also affect those individuals taking a cab from this area. \n 7 overall, the development of the basic design and more specifically a qualitative and quantitative design, will need extensive up front planning. without developing a solid research design, a study will end up skewed, inaccurate, and invalid. if a researcher skimps on research design, illfated consequences will be faced down the line. \n 8 references barnham, c. (2015). quantitative and qualitative research. international journal of market research, 57(6), 837854. doi:10.2501/ijmr2015070 cozby, p. c. (2012). methods in behavioral research. (3rd ed.). boston, ma mcgraw hill higher education doody, c. m. (2015). conducting a pilot study: case study of a novice researcher. british journal of nursing, 24(21), 10741078 5p. doi:10.12968/bjon.2015.24.21.1074 leong, f. & austin, j. (2006). the psychology research handbook: a guide for graduate students and research assistants. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications ltd. doi: 10.4135/9781412976626 trochim, w., & donnelly, j. (2008). the research methods knowledge base. mason, oh cengage quick, j., & hall, s. (2015). part three: the quantitative approach. journal of perioperative practice, 25(10), 192196 6p ",
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9c8fac1d431590ba9d66640d56bcf219 | show how each of the following strong electrolytes breaks up into its component ions upon dissolving in water by drawing molecular-level pictures. a. nabr f. feso4 b. mgcl2 g. kmno4 c. al(no3)3 h. hclo4 d. (nh4)2so4 i. nh4c2h3o2 (ammonium acetate) e. naoh | show how each of the following strong electrolytes breaks | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": " tuesday 4/5/16 why did the united states enter the war? 1. financial commitment to the allies a. war was economic boom for us b. our money was going towards britain and france 2. shared principles of democracy a. opposition to german militarism b. not everyone was probritish 3. german attacks on american neutrality a. sinking of the lusitania because germans didn’t want america and britain to trade (?) b. “unrestricted submarine warfare” beings early 1917, america declares war with germany in april 1917 america at war: what was its contribution to victory? ● america didn’t determine the strategy ● the donkeys ( 1961) ● german 210mm guns artillery was the big killer of soldiers in the war of 19141918 ● war of attrition us didn’t have any tactics ● us needed, “men, men and more men” ● germans end the war agreeing to an armistice (armistice day, 11/11) problems of peacemaking wilson at versailles why did the us enter the war? 1. financial commitment to the allies 2. shared principles of democracy 3. german attacks on american neutrality and... 4. how could we influence the postwar peace, if we were not actively involved in fighting the war? ● “peace without victory,” wilson, january 1917 (before we enter the war) ● “fourteen points” speech, wilson, january 1918 ○ end to secret treaties, establish league of nations \n wilson’s new world order ● spread democracy because democracies did not engage in wars of conquest ● an end to trade barriers would reduce tensions that led to war ● a “league of nations” rather than arms and alliances would be the key to international order there were two problems: one was the europeans the reality of versailles ● britain would not accept freedom of the seas ● “open diplomacy” was conducted behind closed doors ● peace without victory became the “war guilt clause” for germany ○ made the germans resentful and determined to “get even” when the opportunity presented itself in the future ● selfdetermination for some; but other border realignments just created new problems the other problem was the us opposition to the treaty *** in textbook ● november 1918 elections gave control of congress to the republicans ○ president wilson did not involve republicans in the peace negotiations, even though he needed a republicandominated senate to approve any treaty (art ii, sec 2 of the constitution) ● irreconcilables did not want anything to do with a league of nations ● reservationists not necessarily against a league of nations but wanted restrictions on its authority over the united states ● opposition to article 10 did it commit nations to using force to maintain the peace and guarantee territorial integrity? the twenties events of 19181919 ● influenza killed 500,000 americans (more american soldiers died of this than at the hands of the germans) ● “red scare” generated by bolshevik (communist) revolution in russia and bombing campaign in us *** in textbook ● 1919 more strikes than in any other year of american history ● chicago white sox threw the world series! ● manufacturing inexpensive consumer goods (electric mixer, the vacuum, refrigerator, washing machine) ● age of consumption ● instant gratification, fulfillment with consumption \n a consumer culture ● a society in which the majority of people seek fulfillment and defines identity through acts of consumption ● new values like, “instant gratification” rather than selfdenial, restraint, saving for the future, and so on (the supposed values of the older generation) ● “problems” resolved through consumption the automobile: backbone of industry ● 1900 → 300 firms produced 4,000 cars ● 1922 → ford produced 2 million cars ● 1927 → one car for every 5.3 people in the us; in france one for every 44 people; in germany one for every 196 model t cost went down automobiles encouraged consumption i.e. general motors cadillac → different styles of cars came out every year so your car could complement your personality promote dissatisfaction so people buy new cars ● clyde barrow (bonnie and clyde) “i always prefer to steal a ford.” car industry set up credit for consumers (so people can get a loan) ● mass entertainment! ● 1929 40% houses had radios ● film industry! increasingly homogenized america… people dressing the same way, buying the same products, watching the same movies, but this creates tension in society because of this new culture culture clash *** in textbook ● the triumph of nativism (immigration restriction) ● “national origins” or immigration act of 1924 ● instituted a permanent quota system, with total immigration capped at 164,000 based on percentages (2 percent) of ethnic origins shown in 1890 census ● example: italy’s quota was 3,845, great britain’s was 65,361 \n thursday 4/7/16 culture clash ● the triumph of nativism (immigration restriction) ● the second ku klux klan ○ earlier kkk was in south, this one is in the midwest (oh, in, tx, ok, or) ○ 100% americanism no more immigrants! ● the scopes trial ○ can’t teach evolution too secular ○ similar to plessy vs. ferguson separate but equal politics of the 1920s resurgent republicanism warren harding (1920) ● “i can handle my enemies; it’s my damn friends i have to worry about!” ● ^^^ corruption during harding administration ● trickledown theory of economics calvin coolidge (1924) ● coolidge joke: “did you hear that former president coolidge was found dead?” “really! how could they tell?” herbert hoover (1928) ● hoover is “certainly a wonder and i wish we could make him president of the united states. there would not be a better one.” fdr the great depression (under the hoover administration) ● “great engineer” ● said he would donate presidential salary to charity why depression? ***in textbook ● the stock market crash, 1929? ○ shares decreased by about 40% ● depressed agricultural prices and farm closures ● lack of diversity in economy ● overproduction of consumer goods “... all of the policies of the new deal failed to end the great depression; it ended when the united states began rearming in 1941...” n economic history of the us so… in order to end a depression, go to war \n ● depressions happen about every 2530 years ● but this great depression is the only one that doesn’t go away immediately and becomes a worldwide depression some figures: ● national income: ○ $87.4 billion in 1929 ○ $41.7 billion in 1932 ● by 1932, 2025% national unemployment with higher statewide numbers: ○ 50% in cleveland ○ 80% in toledo ● bank closures to 1933 wiped out $7 billion in savings ● hoover believed the great depression was only temporary ○ government never did anything to help the depression and it would go away ○ hoover believes he should do the same as it got worse, he looked bad ○ democrats were trying to embarrass hoover ○ hoovervilles, hoover flags, “hard times are still hoovering over us” election of 1928 almost all the states election of 1932 only took 6 states fdr ● had the draft of a speech against high tariffs, another supporting it, and told his speech writers to mesh the two together ● new deal ● willingness to try new things ● confident grin ● attempted assassination of fdr, but wounding others ● fireside addresses road to recovery? ● bank holiday ○ emergency banking act, 9 march 1933 this bill was passed unanimously by the house (seven “no” votes in the senatenread by any member ● the hundred days 15 major pieces of legislation national recovery administration ● governmentsanctioned cartels ● industrial compacts and codes to set wages, hours, and working conditions ● part of the national industrial recovery act (nira) \n civilian conservation corps ● a workrelief program ● 3 million young men employed; paid $30 a month (had to send $25 home) ● national forests; flood control; beautification projects public works administration ● first of the major “makework” programs of the new deal ● allotted $3.3 billion for public works (idea is to put money into people’s pockets quickly) jmu was built using pwa project money! problems ● conservatives thought that new deal programs were corrupting “american ideals” fdr was going too far! ● radicals saw the great depression as proof that capitalism was dead fdr was not doing enough to recognize that reality! ● and economic indicators did not indicate that much recovery was taking place floyd olson of minnesota and the farmlabor party upton sinclair ● democratic candidate for governor of california in 1934 ● epic end poverty in california program; seize idle lands and factories and turn them over to workers’ and farmers’ cooperatives huey long of louisiana ● “share our wealth society” (1934) ● fdr: long was “one of the two most dangerous men in the country.” ● dictatorship the “second” new deal ● social security act (1935) ● wpa work progress administration ○ $11 billion works program (included the exslave interviews) ○ nation’s single largest employer ● wagner act, or national labor relations act (1935) \n ",
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417d8638a60ad4b361e5359eccef92eb | shannon and chris sell magazines to raise money for their school. for each subscription chris sells, shannon sells two. which function table matches this situation? a chris shannon 6 4 3 1 4 2 b chris shannon 6 12 3 6 4 8 c chris shannon 6 8 3 5 4 6 d chris shannon 6 12 3 9 4 10 | shannon and chris sell magazines to raise money for their | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.04 | [
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"text": " northcentral university assignment cover sheet student: this form must be completely filled in follow these procedures: if requested by your instructor, please include an assignment cover sheet. this will become the first page of your assignment. in addition, your assignment header should include your last name, first initial, course code, dash, and assignment number. this should be left justified, with the page number right justified. for example: save a copy of your assignments: you may need to resubmit an assignment at your instructor’s request. make sure you save your files in accessible location. academic integrity: all work submitted in each course must be your own original work. this includes all assignments, exams, term papers, and other projects required by your instructor. knowingly submitting another person’s work as your own, without properly citing the source of the work, is considered plagiarism. this will result in an unsatisfactory grade for the work submitted or for the entire course. it may also result in academic dismissal from the university. btm71038 john halstead, phd research design assignment 8 faculty use only <faculty comments here> <faculty name> \n 2 introduction developing a methodology and design for a dissertation research topic based on the research problem, and purpose of a topic previously developed. after developing the methodology and design, a justification is provided for the use of the methodology and design and a discussion of why the alternative is less desirable. in addition, the strengths and weaknesses of the proposed design will be provided. the topic that will be discussed herein is online business development. by understanding the various types of online businesses that become successful is a process that will take significant research and analysis. everyday thousands of people begin an online business and many fail in the early stages. the small business association states that 60% of small businesses fail within the first year (frazer, 2015). the first step of this process includes identifying the types of businesses that are the most successful and subsequently analyze and comprehend the factors that make them successful. after determining which businesses are successful and further understanding the steps to make them successful, new business owners can be provided with a leg up in the online business world. in order to make an assessment of the types of businesses that are successful, an initial assessment through an online question and answer forum will be conducted. upon vetting the various companies and their owners, the next step is to conduct facetoface interviews to further analyze best practices. the strategic area of focus is based upon american businessmen or women opening up a business in the asiapacific region. this region of the world is chosen based upon personal preference to also open a business in this area of the world. the following pages will include: (a) statement of the problem, (b) purpose statement, (c) research questions, (d) methodology selection, (e) advantages and disadvantages/errors and analyses, (f) validity, \n 3 and (g) strengths, challenges, and ethical considerations. problem statement the problem to be addressed in this proposed study is based upon failing online businesses and finding ways for new online business owners to become profitable. over 60% of small businesses have failed to achieve a profitable position and subsequently shut down (simmons, wiklund, & levie, 2014). this problem affects millions of individuals each year and can potentially be influenced by first understanding which type online business to begin. by helping individuals to understand the type of businesses that are successful, programs can be developed to help these individuals by developing a startup program. online businesses are growing in a significant manner each and every day, and many people will not take the time to understand what works and what does not work prior to jumping in head first. worldwide, there are about 300 million people trying to start about 150 million businesses. of the 150 million, only approximately 50 million businesses make it to launch (mason, 2016). to begin to identify whether a business has a high probability of becoming successful, one must look to other online business owners and the types of business strategies previously utilized. understanding current online business owners’ perceptions and experiences, the most successful niche(s) can be identified. this type of work is applicable to the applied dba by researching existing data in the online business environment and applying it to the future of the online business environment. purpose statement the purpose of this research is to discover the best possible online business types to achieve success. groups of individuals in a variety of online business ventures will be studied to determine the most successful solutions to forming an online business. this process will save \n 4 time and energy for those that wish to move into the world of entrepreneurship. in this study, successful online businesses will be defined as those bringing in a net income of over $10,000 per month. with a solid understanding of the best types of businesses to begin online, an individual will be able to make an educated decision on the type of business to move into. using a quantitative methodology for this study will allow a researcher to identify the spectrum of success by identifying profitability levels. the study will also identify the number of online business started, as well as the number of individuals and the gender of the individuals starting them. by identifying each set of data collected in the research questions listed in the following section, an idea of the characteristics makes up a successful online business. research questions asking the right questions that are effective in providing an answer to the problem the research is trying to solve, requires careful consideration. questions are normally developed by utilizing one of three methods. the three methods are: logic, practicality, and accident (locke, spirduso, & silverman, 2007). by utilizing logic and practicality, questions can be developed to answer a problem by developing a hypothesis in the beginning stages of the project. as the research study continues, questions will begin to arise by pure accident, allowing other avenues to be discovered. in the given project, identifying the most successful online businesses will require significant research. the following questions target current successful online business owners: (a) what makes your online business successful? (b) how does gender affect business startup and success? (c) which web tools are most effective in supporting online businesses? conducting a research experiment in its natural environment has limitations. \n 5 the following will describe the hypothesis for each question: question 1: what makes your online business successful? hypothesis: ten of the sixteen items listed below need to be met to identify as successful. the following are noted as making an online business a success (a) capital, (b) strong record keeping and financial control, (c) industrial experience, (d) managerial experience, (e) planning, (f) professional advice, (g) educational level, (h) personnel, (i) economic circumstances, (j) age of business, (k) election of appropriate time to provide products or services, (l) age of entrepreneur, (m) partners, (n) parents, (o) minorities, and (p) marketing question 2: how does gender affect business startup and success? hypothesis: males are more successful in business than females. overall most females are less likely to succeed in business as there are a smaller number of females starting up businesses. females that startup businesses are more likely to startup businesses with a partner involved (kodama & odaki, 2011). question 3: which web tools are most effective in supporting online businesses? hypothesis: social media will be noted as the most effective online marketing tools. five main platforms for social media that are extremely effective marketing tools. the tools include facebook, youtube, google+, linkedln and twitter. each of these tools can also be utilized to track competitor effectiveness (aichner & jacob, 2015). methodology selection determining which type of study and methodology that will be utilized is vital to the research being conducted. first, a researcher must understand how to choose an appropriate research project and how to write in a scholarly way. many new students to the research field \n 6 are unsure of not only how to write in a scholarly manner, but must learn quickly how write as well and choose the appropriate type of study, qualitative or quantitative. understanding the details and the processes that develop a proper study is necessary to ensure research is conducted appropriately (caffarella & barnett, 2000). quantitative methodology could potentially be utilized within the realm of descriptive research to identify a variable. in this study the variable could entail determining the level of success by dollar figure earned per month. the interviewees could be asked a question of how much their business earns per month, and those that have the highest totals would rank as the most successful. as a researcher conducts a quantitative study, the following should be clearly identified in the analysis (a) the statistical tests which were utilized in the study, (b) why the tests were chosen, and (c) the results of the study (coughlan, cronin, & ryan, 2007). alternatively, qualitative studies consist of collecting a large amount of data, organizing and analyzing that data to create a succinct statement to provide a prediction or insight into the purpose that is being studied (lecompte, 2000). the primary element to the qualitative methodology involves descriptive research (“key elements,” 2010). upon review, the qualitative methodology is the best format for the selected research problem. by utilizing a strategy that incorporates the human element, a thorough analysis can be conducted on successful online businesses. other strengths of a qualitative study involve the level of detail that can be acquired. the weaknesses involve the acquisition of too much data that a researcher could get bogged down in the amount of data collected. in addition, the data collected could potentially be skewed by researcher bias due to nature of the questions being asked. while the weaknesses for qualitative studies may cause extensive conflicts, a quantitative study would not \n 7 provide enough data to truly understand what makes a company successful. the research will require the ability to ask a variety of in depth questions that provides more description. by understanding current online business owners’ perceptions and experience, the most successful niche(s) can be identified. now that the type of study that is the most appropriate and the types of data that will need to be collected, the next step is to create a record of the collected data for further interpretation (gibbs, 2007). surveys will be the collection method of choice and will be discussed further in the upcoming sections. collection methods there are several different methods that will be utilized in this study to collect data for analysis. the three types that will be utilized are surveys, field notes, observation, and interviews. each method provides a unique way to collect data to interpret and develop a well rounded study. each type of data collected will provide a portion of data which will more fully develop the bigger picture. surveys can be utilized in (quasi) experimental data collection. the population and sample size for this study will need to be between 2550 online businesses covering a variety of online business types. trying to survey the entire population of all online businesses would not be feasible and quite expensive. conducting simple random sampling and focusing on a small sample size of the overall population will provide an equal opportunity for business selection. if the overall number of businesses in the asiapacific locale was 250500 businesses, a 10% ratio random selection could provide a fairly average response (trochim & donnelly, 2008). the small sample size is appropriate for this type of study due to the amount of information will need to be collected. the specific selection will include american based businesses operating in the \n 8 asiapacific region. by allocating limiting factors and vetting the selected interviewees, the data will become reliable and valid specifically for the identified factors. when collecting data, a survey must be valid and reliable. the location utilized to locate potential individuals for the survey is on the website quora. quora is a contemporary, webbased forum where users can post questions and acquire answers from other users. in addition, others can vote up or down the answer based upon the accuracy or quality of answer (ovadia, 2011). this method of data collection will allow researchers to acquire a base for source identification. surveys conducted through quora may provide a base of individuals to choose from, the data collected may be less reliable than surveys administered facetoface. the advantage of using surveys allows researchers to target specific information required. the facetoface survey offers the ability to not only receive the answer to the question, but additional information that is naturally acquired through conversation. the disadvantages of utilizing surveys include (a) potential false information and answers, (b) gathering information that exaggerated or understated, (c) asks irrelevant questions, and (d) attracts only those who are willing to answer the survey (cozby, 2012). another relatable study to discuss utilized quantitative design involved online business courses. the study reviewed involved three online quantitative business courses that were taught over a period of 8 years. the study took place at the location of athabasca university, and the data collected was done so by observation and experience (lam & khare, 2010). the study analyzed only three online businesses over the 8year period, and allowed the researchers to gather in depth data on a small sample size. by utilizing a small sample size, the researcher could collect an extensive amount of data. to collect the same amount of data on a much larger \n 9 sample size would have required a much larger number of individuals to collect the data. field notes and observations other data collection methods to utilize in this study are field notes and observations. both types of data collection involve field research. field research is the overall label that defines a particular type of collection method that includes direct observation of naturally occurring events. field research is different from survey research. field research records the actions are being conducted and recorded at that time rather than a survey taken after the event’s occurrence (jane & liz, 2002). field notes are described as those that are written down in the field as the event takes place. in this study, fieldwork and observation can be used in the in the form of attending an online business conference. the conference type of forum could provide a solid foundation for successful online business. by learning from each entrepreneur as to what worked well versus those actions that did not work would be valuable information to analyze. the field notes collected at the conferences could provide a way to compare and contrast viable business strategies. the advantages of using field notes would allow for a log of questions asked to current online business owners. the disadvantages would be that only a certain number of online business owners would be able to attend the conference and the information collected may be biased as others in the room challenge the answers given (cozby, 2012). interviewing interviewing is another data collection method to be used in this research study to answer the above research questions by speaking directly with selected online business owners. the preferred method for interviews would be facetoface. while electronic interviews may provide a well thought out answer that is written down, the value of facetoface interviews is priceless. \n 10 an interviewer can not only hear the answers to the questions, but also interpret body language and ask followup questions (cozby, 2012). for this study, participants would be interviewed individually. a followup study could incorporate a group interview. this followup could be utilized to analyze the differences between the business types and address the challenges by comparing and contrasting the answers given. advantages and disadvantages/errors and analyses identifying appropriate questions for the study can be both advantageous and disadvantageous. the data collected could potentially be skewed by the pure nature of the experiment. data collected and potential factors that could be influenced by the analyses based upon the number of years a business has been active. the data could also be skewed by the ages of the individuals at the helm of the business. older individuals may be less likely to utilize social media and electronic means to conduct business, but may be successful due to the length of time and the experience they have been in business. identifying the reasoning behind a company’s success will be useful information to acquire. appropriate background data on each of the companies and the key managers will need to be collected to ensure the data is reviewed for accuracy. according to fink (2003), statistical analyses provide descriptions, relationships, comparisons, and predictions. another potential issue is to ensure an appropriate target is selected and it represents the entire population. a study was conducted to detect alcoholism amongst the delhi high court’s attorneys. the study showed that 5% of the targeted market were alcoholics. the issue was then attempting to apply this across the board for all lawyers, which was certainly was not the case. a study as detailed above can only be applied to the particular sector located within the study. \n 11 attempting to apply the same criteria to the lawyer population in a small town with limited stress would most likely be significantly lower (banerjee & chaudhury, 2010). for the study of online business, the target market may not apply across the board. successful online trading business may not all be successful for the same reason. to develop an understanding, a more in depth analysis must be conducted to ensure the data collected is analyzed for validity in the asia pacific region. validity validity is a concept that needs to be reviewed to ensure that is in place for each study. the three different types of validity that each study needs to be evaluated for are construct validity, internal validity, and external validity. it is important to ensure that the study being conducted is valid for each of the three types will help to determine the appropriateness of the study. each area will be discussed in the sections below. construct validity construct validity involves a specific sample size and the accuracy of the involved variables. as the defined variables are reviewed and measured within the study, inferences are developed. construct validity essentially reviews how closely the data inferences are to the reality of the concept (braun & kuljanin, 2015). with the study at hand, the data collected involves the number of businesses making over $10,000 per month. a sample inference based upon the 10% of the population, could show that the type of business with the highest success rate of 50% are in electronics sales. if applied across the board, this would imply that 50% of all asiapacific companies’ electronic companies would be successful if this were the case. internal validity \n 12 internal validity is a bit different than construct validity due the nature of cause and effect. if the current study changed but one factor in the study based upon the current conclusions, a researcher would be able to predict cause and effect relationships (cozby, 2012). an example of this could be determining that an online company could make $2,500 in sales on average by completing $500 in marketing each month. if marketing efforts were increased to $1,000 each month, the logical step would be to say that the company would double its sales. external validity external validity focuses on whether the findings of a study can be analyzed and allocate them in other settings (cozby, 2012). external validity serves to provide a sense of truth to a given conclusion in a variety of circumstances. stereotyping could be a way to define external validity. an example of this type of validity could be something like the following: if the conclusion is that it will take 2 years for a tech online business to become successful in the u.s., a tech online business will take 2 years to become successful in france. threats to validity the types of validity discussed above are in place to ensure the highest level of accuracy within a study. when a study is conducted, a researcher must identify the threats to internal and external validity. the threats begin to infiltrate procedures, treatments, or experiences of participating individuals (creswell, 2013). by identifying the potential threats, mitigating processes can be put into place. threats to validity could include something as simple as a researcher injecting a bias into the facetoface interview simply by asking questions that push an interviewee to answer a question in a certain manner. strengths, challenges, and ethical considerations \n 13 the strengths associated with this qualitative study would start with providing access to a significant number of individuals currently owning online businesses. the online environment will certainly allow for ease of access to the type of individuals that will be interviewed. while conducting the study in the online environment with online business owners is considered a strength, the challenge associated with finding the successful online business owners may be more difficult. huberman and miles (2002) discussed campbell and stanley’s attack on the “oneshot case study”. an ethical issue that evolved from this study was the thought that one observation, from one group, only one time, does not allow for other alternative outcomes. if only one possible outcome is analyzed, the data can be skewed. reporting that observed data of only one test as true across the board in every similar situation will certainly lead to an ethical dilemma. a strategy will need to be formulated to account for the other possible results and outcomes. during this study, the questions will be asked from a variety of business owners allowing for open ended discussion. another ethical issue to consider within this study will be how business owners will be found, interviewed, and protection of interviewees and information provided. if individuals are not responsive, a fee may be required to acquire the interviewees. by providing a fee, this may attract an unintended and unethical audience. another potential solution would be to locate forums that allow individuals to respond to the masses, such as quora. by utilizing a database such as quora, an ethical issue of whether or not the individual is actually a business owner or someone more or less pretending to be a business owner could develop. time will need to be taken to validate the accuracy of the person’s claims. by asking what the name of the associated \n 14 business, further research can be conducted to validate the individual’s statements. the research can then be furthered by locating the business and the individual’s association with that business by validating the relationship between the individual and the company. upon validation, the information provided will then need protection. the interviewee would need to sign a release of information as well as confidentiality agreement that specifies which portions of information would be authorized for release. in addition, names and addresses of would be withheld and how the information would be stored and disposed. conclusion this week’s final assignment was focused on selecting a research method for a previously developed study. the topic of discussion for this hypothetical study is proposal online business development. by understanding the various types of online businesses that become successful is a process that will take significant research and analysis. everyday thousands of people undertake starting an online business and many fail in the early stages. the first step of this process included identifying the types of businesses that are the most successful and subsequently analyze and comprehend the factors that make them successful. by choosing a study method that involves collecting an extensive amount of data. the qualitative study provides a vehicle to ask questions that allow for more fluent and descriptive data collection. while the qualitative method allows for the a more thorough picture of the problem, the method may also hinder the study by acquiring too much data. the strategic area of focus for this assignment was based upon american businessmen or women opening up businesses in the asiapacific region. this region of the world is chosen based upon personal preference to also open a business in this area of the world. the above pages included a discussion of each of the \n 15 noted points: (a) statement of the problem, (b) purpose statement, (c) research questions, (d) methodology selection, (e) advantages and disadvantages/errors and analyses, (f) validity, and (g) strengths, challenges, and ethical considerations. \n 16 references aichner, t., & jacob, f. (2015). measuring the degree of corporate social media use. international journal of market research, 57(2), 257275. doi:10.2501/ijmr2015018 banerjee, a., & chaudhury, s. (2010). statistics without tears: populations and samples. industrial psychiatry journal, 19(1), 60–65. doi.org/10.4103/09726748.77642 braun, m. t., & kuljanin, g. (2015). big data and the challenge of construct validity. industrial & organizational psychology, 8(4), 521527. doi:10.1017/iop.2015.77 caffarella, r. s., & barnett, b. g. (2000). teaching doctoral students to become scholarly writers: the importance of giving and receiving critiques. studies in higher education, 25(1), 3952. doi:10.1080/030750700116000 coughlan, m., cronin, p., & ryan, f. (2007). stepbystep guide to critiquing research. par 1: quantitative research.http://keiranhenderson.com/articulate/critiquing\\_research/ data/downloads/ critiquing\\_quantitative\\_research\\_bjn.pdf cozby, p. c. (2012). methods in behavioral research. boston, ma mcgraw hill higher education fink, a. (2003). what statistics do for surveys. (2003). in a. fink (ed.), how to manage, analyze and interpret survey data. doi:10.4135/9781412984454 frazer, l. (2015). failure to launch. cpa journal, 85(5), 3436 huberman, m. & miles, m. (2002). understanding and validity in qualitative research. the qualitative researcher's companion. doi: 10.4135/9781412986274.n2 key elements of a research proposal quantitative design. (2010). retrieved from http://www. bcps.org/offices/lis/researchcourse/develop\\_quantitative.html kodama, n., & odaki, k. (2011). gender difference in the probability of success in starting business turns negligible when controlling for the managerial experience. applied economics letters, 18(13), 12371241. doi:10.1080/13504851.2010.532097 kristandy, s. j., & aldianto, l. (2015). factors that influence student's decision in startingup service franchise business in bandung. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 169(the 6th indonesia international conference on innovation, entrepreneurship, and small business (iicies 2014), 318328. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.316 lam, h., & khare, a. (2010). effective practices for online delivery of quantitative business courses. international journal on elearning, 9(2), 229250 \n 17 lecompte, m.d. (2000). analyzing qualitative data. theory into practice, 39 (3), 146154 locke, l.f., spirduso, w.w. & silverman, s.j. (2007). developing the thesis or dissertation proposal: some common problems. retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/upmdata/ 14135\\_chapter3.pdf mason, m. (2016). worldwide business startups. retrieved from http://www.moyak.com/ papers/businessstartupsentrepreneurs.html ovadia, s. (2011). quora.com: another place for users to ask questions. behavioral & social sciences librarian, 30(3), 176. doi:10.1080/01639269.2011.591279 simmons, s., wiklund, j., & levie, j. (2014). stigma and business failure: implications for entrepreneurs' career choices. small business economics, 42(3), 485505. doi:10.1007/s1118701395193 trochim, w., & donnelly, j. (2008). the research methods knowledge base. 3rd. ed. mason, oh cengage \n northcentral university assignment cover sheet student: this form must be completely filled in follow these procedures: if requested by your instructor, please include an assignment cover sheet. this will become the first page of your assignment. in addition, your assignment header should include your last name, first initial, course code, dash, and assignment number. this should be left justified, with the page number right justified. for example: save a copy of your assignments: you may need to resubmit an assignment at your instructor’s request. make sure you save your files in accessible location. academic integrity: all work submitted in each course must be your own original work. this includes all assignments, exams, term papers, and other projects required by your instructor. knowingly submitting another person’s work as your own, without properly citing the source of the work, is considered plagiarism. this will result in an unsatisfactory grade for the work submitted or for the entire course. it may also result in academic dismissal from the university. btm71038 john halstead, phd research design assignment 8 faculty use only <faculty comments here> <faculty name> \n 2 introduction developing a methodology and design for a dissertation research topic based on the research problem, and purpose of a topic previously developed. after developing the methodology and design, a justification is provided for the use of the methodology and design and a discussion of why the alternative is less desirable. in addition, the strengths and weaknesses of the proposed design will be provided. the topic that will be discussed herein is online business development. by understanding the various types of online businesses that become successful is a process that will take significant research and analysis. everyday thousands of people begin an online business and many fail in the early stages. the small business association states that 60% of small businesses fail within the first year (frazer, 2015). the first step of this process includes identifying the types of businesses that are the most successful and subsequently analyze and comprehend the factors that make them successful. after determining which businesses are successful and further understanding the steps to make them successful, new business owners can be provided with a leg up in the online business world. in order to make an assessment of the types of businesses that are successful, an initial assessment through an online question and answer forum will be conducted. upon vetting the various companies and their owners, the next step is to conduct facetoface interviews to further analyze best practices. the strategic area of focus is based upon american businessmen or women opening up a business in the asiapacific region. this region of the world is chosen based upon personal preference to also open a business in this area of the world. the following pages will include: (a) statement of the problem, (b) purpose statement, (c) research questions, (d) methodology selection, (e) advantages and disadvantages/errors and analyses, (f) validity, \n 3 and (g) strengths, challenges, and ethical considerations. problem statement the problem to be addressed in this proposed study is based upon failing online businesses and finding ways for new online business owners to become profitable. over 60% of small businesses have failed to achieve a profitable position and subsequently shut down (simmons, wiklund, & levie, 2014). this problem affects millions of individuals each year and can potentially be influenced by first understanding which type online business to begin. by helping individuals to understand the type of businesses that are successful, programs can be developed to help these individuals by developing a startup program. online businesses are growing in a significant manner each and every day, and many people will not take the time to understand what works and what does not work prior to jumping in head first. worldwide, there are about 300 million people trying to start about 150 million businesses. of the 150 million, only approximately 50 million businesses make it to launch (mason, 2016). to begin to identify whether a business has a high probability of becoming successful, one must look to other online business owners and the types of business strategies previously utilized. understanding current online business owners’ perceptions and experiences, the most successful niche(s) can be identified. this type of work is applicable to the applied dba by researching existing data in the online business environment and applying it to the future of the online business environment. purpose statement the purpose of this research is to discover the best possible online business types to achieve success. groups of individuals in a variety of online business ventures will be studied to determine the most successful solutions to forming an online business. this process will save \n 4 time and energy for those that wish to move into the world of entrepreneurship. in this study, successful online businesses will be defined as those bringing in a net income of over $10,000 per month. with a solid understanding of the best types of businesses to begin online, an individual will be able to make an educated decision on the type of business to move into. using a quantitative methodology for this study will allow a researcher to identify the spectrum of success by identifying profitability levels. the study will also identify the number of online business started, as well as the number of individuals and the gender of the individuals starting them. by identifying each set of data collected in the research questions listed in the following section, an idea of the characteristics makes up a successful online business. research questions asking the right questions that are effective in providing an answer to the problem the research is trying to solve, requires careful consideration. questions are normally developed by utilizing one of three methods. the three methods are: logic, practicality, and accident (locke, spirduso, & silverman, 2007). by utilizing logic and practicality, questions can be developed to answer a problem by developing a hypothesis in the beginning stages of the project. as the research study continues, questions will begin to arise by pure accident, allowing other avenues to be discovered. in the given project, identifying the most successful online businesses will require significant research. the following questions target current successful online business owners: (a) what makes your online business successful? (b) how does gender affect business startup and success? (c) which web tools are most effective in supporting online businesses? conducting a research experiment in its natural environment has limitations. \n 5 the following will describe the hypothesis for each question: question 1: what makes your online business successful? hypothesis: ten of the sixteen items listed below need to be met to identify as successful. the following are noted as making an online business a success (a) capital, (b) strong record keeping and financial control, (c) industrial experience, (d) managerial experience, (e) planning, (f) professional advice, (g) educational level, (h) personnel, (i) economic circumstances, (j) age of business, (k) election of appropriate time to provide products or services, (l) age of entrepreneur, (m) partners, (n) parents, (o) minorities, and (p) marketing question 2: how does gender affect business startup and success? hypothesis: males are more successful in business than females. overall most females are less likely to succeed in business as there are a smaller number of females starting up businesses. females that startup businesses are more likely to startup businesses with a partner involved (kodama & odaki, 2011). question 3: which web tools are most effective in supporting online businesses? hypothesis: social media will be noted as the most effective online marketing tools. five main platforms for social media that are extremely effective marketing tools. the tools include facebook, youtube, google+, linkedln and twitter. each of these tools can also be utilized to track competitor effectiveness (aichner & jacob, 2015). methodology selection determining which type of study and methodology that will be utilized is vital to the research being conducted. first, a researcher must understand how to choose an appropriate research project and how to write in a scholarly way. many new students to the research field \n 6 are unsure of not only how to write in a scholarly manner, but must learn quickly how write as well and choose the appropriate type of study, qualitative or quantitative. understanding the details and the processes that develop a proper study is necessary to ensure research is conducted appropriately (caffarella & barnett, 2000). quantitative methodology could potentially be utilized within the realm of descriptive research to identify a variable. in this study the variable could entail determining the level of success by dollar figure earned per month. the interviewees could be asked a question of how much their business earns per month, and those that have the highest totals would rank as the most successful. as a researcher conducts a quantitative study, the following should be clearly identified in the analysis (a) the statistical tests which were utilized in the study, (b) why the tests were chosen, and (c) the results of the study (coughlan, cronin, & ryan, 2007). alternatively, qualitative studies consist of collecting a large amount of data, organizing and analyzing that data to create a succinct statement to provide a prediction or insight into the purpose that is being studied (lecompte, 2000). the primary element to the qualitative methodology involves descriptive research (“key elements,” 2010). upon review, the qualitative methodology is the best format for the selected research problem. by utilizing a strategy that incorporates the human element, a thorough analysis can be conducted on successful online businesses. other strengths of a qualitative study involve the level of detail that can be acquired. the weaknesses involve the acquisition of too much data that a researcher could get bogged down in the amount of data collected. in addition, the data collected could potentially be skewed by researcher bias due to nature of the questions being asked. while the weaknesses for qualitative studies may cause extensive conflicts, a quantitative study would not \n 7 provide enough data to truly understand what makes a company successful. the research will require the ability to ask a variety of in depth questions that provides more description. by understanding current online business owners’ perceptions and experience, the most successful niche(s) can be identified. now that the type of study that is the most appropriate and the types of data that will need to be collected, the next step is to create a record of the collected data for further interpretation (gibbs, 2007). surveys will be the collection method of choice and will be discussed further in the upcoming sections. collection methods there are several different methods that will be utilized in this study to collect data for analysis. the three types that will be utilized are surveys, field notes, observation, and interviews. each method provides a unique way to collect data to interpret and develop a well rounded study. each type of data collected will provide a portion of data which will more fully develop the bigger picture. surveys can be utilized in (quasi) experimental data collection. the population and sample size for this study will need to be between 2550 online businesses covering a variety of online business types. trying to survey the entire population of all online businesses would not be feasible and quite expensive. conducting simple random sampling and focusing on a small sample size of the overall population will provide an equal opportunity for business selection. if the overall number of businesses in the asiapacific locale was 250500 businesses, a 10% ratio random selection could provide a fairly average response (trochim & donnelly, 2008). the small sample size is appropriate for this type of study due to the amount of information will need to be collected. the specific selection will include american based businesses operating in the \n 8 asiapacific region. by allocating limiting factors and vetting the selected interviewees, the data will become reliable and valid specifically for the identified factors. when collecting data, a survey must be valid and reliable. the location utilized to locate potential individuals for the survey is on the website quora. quora is a contemporary, webbased forum where users can post questions and acquire answers from other users. in addition, others can vote up or down the answer based upon the accuracy or quality of answer (ovadia, 2011). this method of data collection will allow researchers to acquire a base for source identification. surveys conducted through quora may provide a base of individuals to choose from, the data collected may be less reliable than surveys administered facetoface. the advantage of using surveys allows researchers to target specific information required. the facetoface survey offers the ability to not only receive the answer to the question, but additional information that is naturally acquired through conversation. the disadvantages of utilizing surveys include (a) potential false information and answers, (b) gathering information that exaggerated or understated, (c) asks irrelevant questions, and (d) attracts only those who are willing to answer the survey (cozby, 2012). another relatable study to discuss utilized quantitative design involved online business courses. the study reviewed involved three online quantitative business courses that were taught over a period of 8 years. the study took place at the location of athabasca university, and the data collected was done so by observation and experience (lam & khare, 2010). the study analyzed only three online businesses over the 8year period, and allowed the researchers to gather in depth data on a small sample size. by utilizing a small sample size, the researcher could collect an extensive amount of data. to collect the same amount of data on a much larger \n 9 sample size would have required a much larger number of individuals to collect the data. field notes and observations other data collection methods to utilize in this study are field notes and observations. both types of data collection involve field research. field research is the overall label that defines a particular type of collection method that includes direct observation of naturally occurring events. field research is different from survey research. field research records the actions are being conducted and recorded at that time rather than a survey taken after the event’s occurrence (jane & liz, 2002). field notes are described as those that are written down in the field as the event takes place. in this study, fieldwork and observation can be used in the in the form of attending an online business conference. the conference type of forum could provide a solid foundation for successful online business. by learning from each entrepreneur as to what worked well versus those actions that did not work would be valuable information to analyze. the field notes collected at the conferences could provide a way to compare and contrast viable business strategies. the advantages of using field notes would allow for a log of questions asked to current online business owners. the disadvantages would be that only a certain number of online business owners would be able to attend the conference and the information collected may be biased as others in the room challenge the answers given (cozby, 2012). interviewing interviewing is another data collection method to be used in this research study to answer the above research questions by speaking directly with selected online business owners. the preferred method for interviews would be facetoface. while electronic interviews may provide a well thought out answer that is written down, the value of facetoface interviews is priceless. \n 10 an interviewer can not only hear the answers to the questions, but also interpret body language and ask followup questions (cozby, 2012). for this study, participants would be interviewed individually. a followup study could incorporate a group interview. this followup could be utilized to analyze the differences between the business types and address the challenges by comparing and contrasting the answers given. advantages and disadvantages/errors and analyses identifying appropriate questions for the study can be both advantageous and disadvantageous. the data collected could potentially be skewed by the pure nature of the experiment. data collected and potential factors that could be influenced by the analyses based upon the number of years a business has been active. the data could also be skewed by the ages of the individuals at the helm of the business. older individuals may be less likely to utilize social media and electronic means to conduct business, but may be successful due to the length of time and the experience they have been in business. identifying the reasoning behind a company’s success will be useful information to acquire. appropriate background data on each of the companies and the key managers will need to be collected to ensure the data is reviewed for accuracy. according to fink (2003), statistical analyses provide descriptions, relationships, comparisons, and predictions. another potential issue is to ensure an appropriate target is selected and it represents the entire population. a study was conducted to detect alcoholism amongst the delhi high court’s attorneys. the study showed that 5% of the targeted market were alcoholics. the issue was then attempting to apply this across the board for all lawyers, which was certainly was not the case. a study as detailed above can only be applied to the particular sector located within the study. \n 11 attempting to apply the same criteria to the lawyer population in a small town with limited stress would most likely be significantly lower (banerjee & chaudhury, 2010). for the study of online business, the target market may not apply across the board. successful online trading business may not all be successful for the same reason. to develop an understanding, a more in depth analysis must be conducted to ensure the data collected is analyzed for validity in the asia pacific region. validity validity is a concept that needs to be reviewed to ensure that is in place for each study. the three different types of validity that each study needs?",
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c42a9a0d2a0b5711f95abead357d958d | determine whether each statement is true or false. if two lines do not have exactly one point of intersection, then they must be parallel. | determine whether each statement is true or | ch 9 - 77 | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " exam 3 study guide chapter 5: membrane structure and function components of the plasma membrane: phospholipid bilayer. protein components. cholesterol (animal plasma membrane). o related steroids are found in the plasma membrane of plants. o cholesterol helps modify the fluidity of the membrane over a range of temperatures. phospholipid bilayer amphipathic molecule, meaning it is both hydrophobic (waterfearing) and hydrophobic (waterloving). o thus the bilayer that is formed when in water. o hydrophobic polar heads associate with the polar molecules found on the outside and inside of the cell. o hydrophobic nonpolar tails associate with hydrophobic nonpolar molecules. integral proteins: embedded in the plasma membrane. hydrophobic core that associate with nonpolar core of the membrane. hydrophilic ends of integral proteins protrude from both surfaces of the bilayer, interacting with polar h20 molecules. integral proteins can be held in place by attachments to protein fibers of the cytoskeleton (inside) and givers of the extracellular matrix (outside). o only animals of extracellular matrix – containing various protein fibers and large, complex carbohydrates. the extracellular matrix lends external support to the plasma membrane – assisting in cell communication. peripheral proteins: occur only on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. one membrane is different from another by types of proteins integrated into the membrane. cell membranes are highly similar in the types of molecules they contain, making them interchangeable and allow them to fuse together properly. fluidmosaic model membranes are flexible structures consisting of a variety of molecules, including phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins. o fluidmosaic model is used to describe the interactions between these components. cells are flexible because the phospholipid bilayer is fluid. \n o at body temperature – the phospholipid bilayer has a consistency of olive oil. the greater the concentration of unsaturated fatty acids residues, the more fluid the bilayer. cholesterol molecules prevent the plasma membrane from becoming too fluid at higher temperatures or too solid at lower temperatures. o at high temp: cholesterol stiffens the membrane – making it less fluid. o at low temp: cholesterol helps prevent membrane from freezing by not allowing contact between certain phospholipid tails. the presence of many proteins in the plasma membrane are what makes it mosaic. o protein position can change over time – unless anchored to another structure (cytoskeleton or extracellular matrix). a membrane is asymmetrical – not identical sides. glycoproteins and glycolipids phospholipids and proteins that have attached carbohydrate (sugar) chains called glycoproteins and glycolipids. o carbohydrate chains are diverse (branched/unbranched, sequence and number of sugars) because of the carbohydrate diversity, each cells has its own “fingerprint.” thus, glycoproteins and glycolipids play an important role in cellular identification. o when transplanted tissues are rejected it is because the immune system is able to detect that the foreign tissues cells do not have the appropriate carbohydrate chains. o in humans carbohydrate chains are the basis for the a, b and o blood types. in animals the carbohydrate chain is a glycocalyx – protects cell, cellcell adhesion, reception of signaling molecules and celltocell recognition. protein functions channel proteins: involved in passing molecules through the membrane. carrier proteins: involved in passing molecules through the membrane. when substance is received, carrier proteins change their shape so the substance can move across the membrane. cell recognition proteins: glycoproteins that help the cell recognize when it is being invaded by pathogens, so the immune response can occur. receptor protein: a shape that allow only a specific molecule to bind to it. when a molecule binds the protein changes shapes and thereby bring about cellular response. enzymatic protein: carry out metabolic reactions. junction protein: forming junctions between animal cells signaling molecules that pass through gap junctions allow the cilia of cells that line the respiratory tract to beat in unison. \n permeability of the plasma membrane the plasma membranes general job is to regulate what foes in and out of the cell. selectively permeable allowing only certain substances into the cell while keeping others out. molecules that can freely cross the membrane generally require no energy to do so. o hydrophobic substances can cross the membrane with no energy cost because their hydrophobic nature is similar to that of the phospholipid center of the membrane. o polar molecules are chemically incompatible with the center of the membrane and so require energy to drive their transport. in general, small, noncharged molecules, such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, glycerol, and alcohol, can freely cross the membrane. passage of molecules into and out of the cell diffusion: high to low concentration (lipidsoluble molecules, gases). facilitated: high to low concentration (some sugars, amino acids). channels or carrier and concentration gradient. active: low to high concentration (sugars, amino acids, ions). carrier plus energy. bulk transport: toward outside or inside (macromolecules). vesicle utilization. concentration gradient: molecules that move from an area where their concentration is high to low. oxygen concentration is higher outside of cell, lower inside of cell. o thus, the oxygen moves across the membrane into the cell. carbon dioxide concentration is higher inside of cell, lower outside of cell. o thus, carbon dioxide flows from the inside of the cell to the outside of the cell. aquaporins: allow h2o to cross membrane and allow cells to equalize water pressure differences between their interior and exterior environments. ions and polar molecules (such as glucose and amino acids) can cross a membrane. \n often assisted by carrier proteins, which recognize shape of ion/molecule and must combine with ion/molecule before changing its shape and transporting the molecule/ion across the membrane. bulk transport is a way that large particles can enter or exit a cell. exocytosis: fusion of vesicle with the plasma membrane moves a particle to the outside of the membrane. endocytosis: vesicle formation moves a particle to inside the plasma membrane. o vesicle formation is reserved for movement of macromolecules or even something larger, such as a virus. passive transport across a membrane diffusion: movement of water from a high to lower concentration until equilibration is achieved and the molecule are distributed. solution: contain both a solute (solid) and solvent (liquid). solute and solvent must be equally distributed for equilibrium to be reached. once reached there is no net movement. the plasma membrane allow only a few types of molecules to enter/exit the cell by diffusion. influences on rate of diffusion temperature pressure electrical currents molecule size osmosis: the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from high to low concentration. osmotic pressure: the pressure that develops in a system due to osmosis. isotonic solution: the solute concentration and water concentration both inside and outside the cell are equal. hypotonic solution: causes cells to swell, or even burst, due to the intake of water. when a plant is places in a hypotonic solution: the cytoplasm expands, because the large central vacuole gains water and the plasma membrane pushes against the rigid cell wall. plant cells do not burst because no cell wall gives way. organisms that live in freshwater have contractive vacuoles that help them avoid taking in too much water. o freshwater fish have kidneys that excrete a large volume of dilute urine. \n hypertonic solution: cause the cell to shrink or shrivel, due to water loss. when a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall as the large central vacuole loses water. facilitated transport: explains how molecules such as glucose and amino acids are rapidly transported across the plasma membrane. h2o molecules move through channel protein. glucose and amino acids move through by way of carrier proteins. facilitated transport requires no energy because movement is with concertation gradient. active transport: requires energy because movement is against concentration gradient. energy usually in the form of atp. carrier proteins and atp needed to move molecules against their concertation gradient. o the atp is needed in order for the molecule to combine with carrier. sodiumpotassium pump: moves sodium ions (na+) to the outside of the cell and potassium ions (k+) to the inside of the cell, through the same carrier protein. animal cells 3 na+ (sodium) ions are carried outward for every 2 potassium (k+) ions carried inward. active transport bulk transport: membrane vesicles formed around macromolecules require an expenditure of cellular energy. active transport exocytosis: intracellular vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane as secretion occurs. golgi body produces vesicle. the membrane of the vesicle becomes part of the plasma membrane because both are nonpolar – as substances exit the cell. proteins released from vesicle may adhere to the cell surface or become incorporated into an extracellular matrix. endocytosis: cells take in substances by moving vesicles around the material. plasma membrane invaginates to envelope the substance, and then membrane pinches off to form an intracellular vesicle. occurs in 3 different ways: o phagocytosis: transports large substances into the cell. o pinocytosis: transports liquid or very small particles into cell. \n o receptormediated endocytosis: form of pinocytosis that uses a receptor protein to recognize compatible molecules and take them into the cell. modification of cell surfaces cell surfaces in animals: extracellular matrix: meshwork of proteins and polysaccharides in close association with the cell that produced them. the extracellular matrix and cytoskeleton play a role in cell signaling, and influence the shape and cell activity. proteoglycan: polysaccharides that attach to a protein in the extracellular matrix. resists compression of extracellular matrix, and assist in cell signaling when they regulate passage of molecules. junctions between cells: adhesion junctions: mechanically attach adjacent cells. o most common between skin cells. tight junctions: connect plasma membrane between adjacent cells together. o tissues that serve as barriers are held together by tight junctions. gap junctions: allow cell’s to communicate – formed by two identical plasma membrane channels joining. o lend strength and allow small molecules to pass through. plant cell walls – in addition to the plasma membrane, plant cells are surrounded by a porous cell wall. primary cell wall: all plant cells have, containing cellulose fibrils, microfibrils are held together by noncellulose substances. secondary cell wall: forms inside the primary cell wall. o greater cellulose fibrils (quantity). o common in woody plants. plasmodesmata: connects cytoplasm in living cells of a plant. chapter 6: metabolism: energy and enzymes cells and the flow of energy energy: the ability to do work or bring about a change. \n forms of energy: kinetic energy: energy of motion. potential energy: stored energy. o food is a form of potential energy called chemical energy, because it is composed of organic molecules. o when a moose walks it turns chemical energy into a type of kinetic energy called mechanical energy. laws of thermodynamics: explain why energy flows through an ecosystem and through cells. first law: the law of conservation of energy – energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another. o when leaf cells photosynthesize, solar energy is used to form carbohydrate molecules from carbon dioxide gas and water. carbohydrates have bonds that store energy, making them energyrich molecules. carbon dioxide and water are energypoor molecules. o plants capture only a small portion of solar energy, much of it is lost as heat (which is also a form of energy). energy exchange produces heat. second law: applies to living systems – energy cannot be change from one form to another without a loss of useable energy. o when heat dissipates into the environment it is no longer usable – not available to do work. o no process requiring a conversion of energy is ever 100% efficient. cells are capable of about 40% efficiency, the rest is lost as heat. cells and entropy entropy: the relative amount of disorganization. every energy transformation makes the universe less organized, or structured, and more disordered, or chaotic. the second law of thermodynamics that each cellular process makes less energy available to do useful work in the future. metabolic reactions and energy transformations metabolism: sum of all chemical reactions that occur in a cell. includes both spontaneous and energy requiring reactions. reactants: substances that participate in that reaction. \n products: form as a result of reaction. a reaction will occur spontaneously if it increases the entropy if the universe. o spontaneous reactions occur without an input of energy. free energy: amount of energy left to do work after a chemical reaction has occurred. change in free energy = subtracting free energy of the reactants from that of the products. a negative result means that the products have less free energy than the reactants, and the reaction will occur spontaneously. exergonic reaction: spontaneous and release energy. endergonic reaction: require an input of energy to occur. protein and carbohydrate synthesis are endergonic. must be coupled with exergonic reaction. atp is an energy carrier between exergonic and endergonic reactions. atp energy for cells atp (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy currency of cells. the more active an organism – the greater demand for atp. atp is regenerate by adp (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate. o the cycle is powered by the breakdown of glucose and other biomolecules during cellular respiration. o about 40% of the free energy stored in chemical bonds of a glucose molecule is transformed to atp; the rest is lost as heat. o atp breakdown can be coupled to endergonic reactions – minimizing energy loss. structure of atp atp is a nucleotide composed of a nitrogen containing base adenine and the 5carbon sugar ribose (together called adenosine) and 3 phosphate groups (phosphate groups repel each other, creating instability and potential energy). atp is high energy because its phosphate groups can easily be removed. couple reactions through coupled reactions, atp drives forward the energetically unfavorable processes that must occur. a cell has two main ways to couple atp hydrolysis to an energy requiring reaction: atp is used to energize a reactant or atp is used to change the shape of a reactant. \n o both are achieved by transferring a phosphate group to the reaction. usually the energyreleasing reaction (exergonic) is the hydrolysis of atp – because atp’s phosphate groups release more energy than the amount consumed by the energy requiring reaction. atp breakdown is couple to the energyrequiring reaction (endergonic). function of atp in cells chemical work: atp supplies the energy needed to synthesize macromolecules (anabolism) that makes up the cell, and therefore the organism. transport work: atp supplies the energy needed to pump substances across the plasma membrane. mechanical work: atp supplies the energy needed to permit muscles to contract, cilia and flagella to beat, and chromosomes to move. metabolic pathways and enzymes enzyme: protein molecule that speeds a chemical reaction without itself being affected by the reaction. allow reactions to occur under mild conditions. regulate metabolism, by eliminating side reactions. ribozymes: made of rna (instead of proteins), can serve as biological catalyst. ribozymes are involved in rna synthesis and the synthesis of proteins at ribosomes. metabolic pathway: a series of linked reactions. begin with a particular reactant and end with a final product. each step in a metabolic pathway is a chemical reaction catalyzed by an enzyme. substrates: reactants in a chemical reaction. in a metabolic pathway the substrates for the first reaction are converted into products, and those products then serve as the substrate for the next enzymecatalyzed reaction. o different pathways can interact because of common molecule. o metabolic pathways are useful for capturing/releasing small increments of molecular energy. o enzymes in metabolic pathways allow cells to regulate and respond to changing environments. enzymesubstrate complex active site: part of enzyme that reacts with substrate. \n induced fit model: enzyme undergoes slight shape change to achieve optimum fit of the substrate. the change in shape of the active site facilitates the reaction that now occurs. the products are then released, and the active site returns to its original shape ready to bind to another substrate molecule. because enzymes bind with their substrates, they are sometimes names for their substrates and usually end in –ase. degradation: the substrate is broken down to smaller products. synthesis: the substrates are combined to produce a larger product. certain enzymes carry out degradation or synthesis. energy of activation: energy must be added to cause molecules to react. keeps molecules from spontaneously degrading within a cell. reducing the energy of activation increases the rate at which the reaction may occur. o the presence of any enzyme does just that – which is why enzymes are considered biological catalyst for chemical reactions. the energy of activation will be higher when an enzyme is not present. factors that affect enzyme speed increasing enzyme and substrate increase reaction time. ph, temp. or an inhibitor that can change the shape of an enzyme, called denaturation. o causes decrease in reaction rate and doesn’t allow substrate to sufficiently fit in enzyme. cofactors: molecules that help speed the rate of reaction, because they help bind the substrate to the active site, or participate in the reaction at the active site. substrate concentration enzyme activity increases as substrate activity increases. o as more substrates fill active sites, more products result per unit of time. optimal ph each enzyme has an optimal ph where reaction rate is the highest. a change in ph can cause an enzyme to denature, and under extreme ph conditions an enzyme can lose its shape and become inactive. temperature \n as temperature increases, enzyme activity increases. enzyme cofactors and coenzymes cofactor: ion or molecule (inorganic ions and organic proteins). sometimes needed at active site for proper enzymatic function. coenzymes: nonprotein organic molecule. vitamins are components of coenzymes. enzyme inhibition: when a molecule (the inhibitor) binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity. can be useful/beneficial by means of conserving raw materials and energy. noncompetitive inhibition: the inhibitor binds to the enzyme at a location other than the active site. this site is called an allosteric site. when an inhibitor is at the allosteric site, the active site of an enzyme changes shape, which in turn changes its function. competitive inhibition: an inhibitor and the substrate compete for the active site of an enzyme. product forms only when substrate, not inhibitor – is at the active site. oxidationreduction reactions and metabolism oxidation: loss of electrons reduction: gain of electrons because both go handinhand, the entire reaction is called redox reaction. apply to covalent reactions in cells. when there is a loss of a hydrogen atom, there is an electron loss. when there is a gain of a hydrogen atom, there is an electron gain. in photosynthesis: carbon dioxide is reduced and water is oxidized. in mitochondria and cellular respiration: mitochondria oxidize carbohydrates and use the energy to build atp molecules. in cellular respiration glucose has lost hydrogen atoms (oxidized) and oxygen gains (reduction). chapter 7: photosynthesis photosynthetic organisms photosynthesis: converts solar energy into the chemical energy of a carbohydrate. \n photosynthetic organisms (plants, algae, cyanobacteria) are called autotrophs, because they produce food. photosynthetic organisms harness the energy from the sun and provide gases and nutrients for heterotrophs. o heterotrophs generate chemical energy and produce carbon dioxide and water. producers (autotrophs) feed themselves and consumers (heterotrophs). both producers and consumers use organic molecules produced by photosynthesis as a source of building blocks for growth and repair, and as a source of chemical energy for cellular work. photosynthesis produce o2 as a byproduct. o oxygen is required for cellular respiration. o oxygen forms an ozone in the atmosphere that shields ultraviolet radiation and makes terrestrial life possible. fossil fuels: the energy within oil and coal was originally captured from the sun by plants and algae. fermentation of plants produces ethanol. photosynthesis in flowering plants mesophyll: tissue, in which cells are specialized for photosynthesis. raw materials for photosynthesis: h2o and carbon dioxide. the root of a plant absorb water, water then travels to vascular tissue up the stem to a leaf – entering into leaf veins. carbon dioxide in the air enters a leaf through small openings called stomata. after entering a leaf, co2 and h2o diffuse into chloroplasts (inside the mesophyll), the organelles that carry on photosynthesis. o chloroplasts provide tremendous surface area for photosynthesis to occur. stroma: a double membrane surrounds a chloroplast, and its semifluid interior is called stroma. the stroma contains an enzymerich solution, where co2 is first attached to an organic compound and then reduced to a carbohydrate. o carbohydrate in glucose form is a source of chemical energy for most organisms. a different membrane inside the stroma forms flattened sacs called thylakoids. o when thylakoids are stacked they form a grana. o inner compartments of individual thylakoid is called thylakoid space. o thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll (green) and other pigments that are capable of absorbing the solar energy that drives photosynthesis. \n the process of photosynthesis 6co2 + 12h2o + solar energy c6h12o6 + 6h2o + 6o2 reactants: carbon dioxide and water products: carbohydrate, water and oxygen photosynthesis involves oxidation – reduction (redox) and the movement of electrons from one molecule to another. solar energy is used to generate the atp needed to reduce carbon dioxide to a carbohydrate. the role of nadp+/nadph nadp+ is the coenzyme of redox, active during photosynthesis. when nadp+ is reduced, it had accepted two electrons and one hydrogen atom, and when nadph is oxidized, it gives up its electrons. nadp+ + 2e + h+ nadph during photosynthesis when h2o splits, oxygen is released and the hydrogen atoms are taken up by nadp+. later, nadph reduces carbon dioxide to a carbohydrate. two sets of reactions the process of photosynthesis can be divided into two stages: 1. the light reactions: take place on thylakoids (day). 2. calvin cycle reactions: take place in the stroma (day and night). the light reactions: solar energy (sun) is converted to chemical energy (atp, nadph). the green pigment chlorophyll, present in thylakoid membranes, is responsible for absorbing the solar energy that drives photosynthesis. solar energy energizes electrons, which move down the electron transport chain. as electrons move down the electron transport chain, energy is released and captured to produce atp molecules. energized electrons are also taken up by nadp+, which is reduced and becomes nadph. calvin cycle reactions: atp, nadph carbohydrate the enzymes needed to speed the reduction of carbon dioxide during both day and night are located in the semifluid substance of the chloroplast stroma. carbon dioxide is taken up and converted (reduced) to a carbohydrate that can later be converted to glucose. the atp and nadph formed during light reactions are used to reduce carbon dioxide. \n o once atp and nadph are used, adp + p and nadp+ return back to light reaction to be utilized again. plants convert solar energy short wavelength: gamma rays longest wavelength: radio waves higherenergy wavelengths are screened out by the ozone layer in the atmosphere before they reach the earth’s surface. lowerenergy wavelengths are screens out by water vapor and carbon dioxide. visible light is the most prevalent – organisms have evolved using these. pigment and photosynthesis pigment molecules absorb wavelengths of light. o not all wavelengths, they reflect or transmit some. the pigments in chloroplast (chlorophyll) that are capable of absorbing various portions of visible light is called their absorption spectrum. green light is transmitted and reflected by chlorophyll, which is why plants appear green. photosynthetic organisms differ in the type of chlorophyll they contain. o chlorophyll a (green) o chlorophyll b (green) o both absorb violet, blue and red. carotenoids: pigments of plants and algae that is often yellow or orange in color (fall colors). spectrophotometer: measures the amount of light that passes through the sample, and from this it is possible to calculate how much was absorbed. electrons flow in the light reactions light reactions utilize two systems (in this order): photosystem ii photosystem i photosystem ii: electrons flow a noncyclic pathway that begins with photosystem ii. solar energy strikes the pigment complex (molecules of either chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b or carotenoids). solar energy is passed from one pigment to the other until it is concentrated in a particular pair of chlorophyll a molecules, called reaction center. \n electrons in the reaction center become energized, leave the reaction center and move to nearby electron acceptor molecules. electrons are replaced where they had left. o electrons are removed from water, which splits, releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. o the oxygen released typically gets used in mitochondria to make atp. o the hydrogen ions stay in the thylakoid space and contribute to the formation of a hydrogen ion gradient. an electron acceptor molecule sends energized electrons, received from the reaction center, down an electron transport chain. o electron transport chain: a series of carriers that pass electrons from one to another. as electrons are passed from one carrier to the next, energy is captured and stored in the form of hydrogen ion gradient. o atp that is produced here will be used by the calvin cycle (stroma) to reduce co2 to a carbohydrate. photosystem i: solar energy is absorbed by pigment complex. energized electrons leave the reaction center and are captured by electron acceptors. o lowenergy electrons from the etc replace those lost in psi. the electron acceptor molecule pass their electrons to nadp+ molecules. o nadp+ accepts 2 e and 1 h to become reduced and form nadph. o nadph is then used in the calvin cycle, along with atp to reduce co2 to a carbohydrate. end of photosystem ii, and i atp and nadph are not made in equal amounts during the light reactions. more atp is required during the calvin cycle. extra atp comes from cyclic pathway in photosystem i, an electron can be rerouted back to an earlier point in the etc – yielding more atp. as electrons are traveling down the electron transport chain, h+ is being pumped from the stroma into the thylakoid space. when h+ flow back out of the space into the stroma through an atp synthase complex, atp is produce from adp + p. this method of atp synthesis is called chemiosmosis, because atp production is tied to the establishment of h+ gradient. plants fix carbon dioxide the calvin cycle: will use atp and nadph for carbon dioxide fixation. \n light independent reaction, inside stroma. 3 steps of calvin cycle: 1. carbon dioxide fixation 2. carbon dioxide reduction 3. regeneration of rubp step 1: carbon dioxide fixation a molecule of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is attached to rubp, a 5carbon molecule. the result is one 6carbon molecule, which splits into two 3carbon molecules (3pg). the enzyme that speeds this reaction is rubp carboxylase. step 2: carbon dioxide reduction each of the two 3pg (3carbon molecules) undergoes reduction to g3p. done by adding atp and nadph. g3p has more electrons, and now more chemically able to store energy and form larger organic molecules. step 3: regeneration of rubp it takes three turns of the calvin cycle to allow one g3p to exit. for every three turns, 5 molecules of g3p are used to reform 3 molecules of rubp. done by adding 3 atp molecules. the importance of the calvin cycle g3p can be converted into other molecules a plant needs: o glucose o starting point for various carbohydrates to be produced o fatty acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis other types of photosynthesis c3 plants: use the enzyme rubp carboxylase to fix co2 to rubp in mesophyll (photosynthetic) cells. stomata: h2o can leave and co2 can enter. o if the weather is hot and dry the stomata close (conserving water) and cause co2 decrease and o2 increase. \n o o2 will combine with rubp rather than co2, resulting in one molecule of 3pg and the eventual release of co2. this is called photorespiration. c4 plants: fix co2 to pep (a 3carbon molecule) using the enzyme pep carboxylase. the result = oxaloacetate (4carbon molecule). higher photosynthetic rate because they can avoid photorespiration. pep carboxylase does not combine with o2 – even when stomata are closed, co2 is delivered to the calvin cycle in the bundle sheeth cells. when the weather is moderate c3 plants have the advantage. when the weather is hot/dry c4 plants have the advantage. cam plant: fix co2 at night (open stomata), forming a 4carbon molecule that is released to the calvin cycle during the day. chapter 8: cellular respiration cellular respiration: process by which cells acquire energy by breaking down nutrient molecules produced by photosynthesizes. require oxygen and gives off co2 (opposite of photosynthesis). cellular respiration involves the complete breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water (h2o). c6h12o6 + 6o2 6co2 + 6h20 + energy cellular respiration breaks down glucose (high energy) to co2 and h20 (low energy), thus energy is released. o the energy that is released is used to make atp. the cell carries out cellular respiration in order to build atp molecules. energy within glucose is released slowly, so atp production can gradually occur. o 3638 atp molecules after complete breakdown. o 3940% of the energy that was available from glucose. nad+ and fad nad+: coenzyme of oxidationreduction. nad+ + 2e + h nadh the electrons received by nad+ are high energy electrons that are carried to the etc. only a small amount of nad+ needs to be present, because it can be used over and over. fad: coenzyme of oxidation – reduction. fad + 2e + 2h fadh2 \n phases of cellular respiration: 1. glycolysis (anaerobic) 2. the preparatory reaction (aerobic) 3. the citric acid cycle (aerobic) 4. the electron transport chain (aerobic) glycolysis takes place outside the mitochondria, in the cytoplasm and does not require the presence of oxygen. the other three phases occur inside mitochondria, where oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons. glycolysis: takes place in the cytoplasm, breakdown of 6carbon molecule glucose to two 3 carbon pyruvate molecules. two steps of glycolysis: 1. energy – investment: atp is used to “jumpstart” glycolysis. 2. energy – harvesting: 4 total atp made, producing two net overall. energyinvestment two atp are used to activate glucose by adding phosphate. glucose eventually split into two g3p molecules (3carbon). o each g3p phosphate group is acquired from one atp molecule. o from this point on – each g3p molecule undergoes the same series of reactions. energy – harvesting oxidation of g3p now occurs by the removal of electrons, accompanied by hydrogen ions. electrons are picked up by coenzyme nad+: per g3p molecule. when o2 is available, each nadh molecule carries two highenergy electrons to the etc and becomes nad+ again. a phosphate group is added to each 3carbon molecule. o used to synthesize 2 atp in later steps of glycolysis. o this is called substratelevel atp synthesis because an enzyme passes high energy phosphate to adp, and atp results. o coupled reaction o the adding of a phosphate yields: g3p bpg now: 2 molecules of 3pg (3carbons + p) oxidation occurs again, but by the removal of h2o. substratelevel atp synthesis occurs again per 3carbon molecule (p). o two molecules of pyruvate results (3carbon). o when o2 is available pyruvate enters mitochondria, where it is metabolized. \n subtracting the two atp that were used to get started, from the four produced overall, there is a net gain of two atp from glycolysis. glycolysis is a series of ten steps – each catalyzed by an enzyme. outside the mitochondria: fermentation fermentation: anaerobic process that produces a limited amount of atp in the absence of oxygen. in human/animal cells pyruvate is reduced by nadh to lactate. depending on their enzyme, bacteria vary as to whether they produce an organic acid (like lactate) or an alcohol and co2. when two (3carbon) molecules of pyruvate are not available to o2: animals and bacteria: (2) 3carbon lactate plants and yeast: (2) co2 molecules given off, (2) co2 alcohol fermentation is beneficial because the cell still needs energy when oxygen is absent. fermentation regenerates nad+ so it can be used again. 2 atp result from fermentation: 2.1% of the total breakdown of glucose inside the mitochondria mitochondrion has a double membrane with an intermembrane space (between the outer and inner membrane). cristae are folds of inner membrane that jut into the matrix, the inner most compartment, filled with gellike fluid. the prep reaction, citric acid cycle and etc are all located in the mitochondria. o oxygen must be present. o the enzymes that speed the prep reaction and citric acid cycle are in the matrix. the etc is located in the cristae. mitochondria is considered the powerhouse of the cell because most of the atp is produced here. the preparatory reaction: converts products from glycolysis into products that enter the citric acid cycle. one prep reaction occurs per pyruvate molecule (twice). 3carbon pyruvate is converted to a 2carbon acetyl group and co2 is given off. o this is oxidation reaction in which electrons are removed from pyruvate by nad+ and nadh is formed. o nadh carries highenergy electrons to the etc. \n o co2 diffuses into cells. 2carbon acetyl group is combined with a molecule known as coa. o coa carries each acetyl group to the citric acid cycle. the citric acid cycle: krebs cycle 2carbon acetyl group joins with 4carbon molecule, and 6carbon citrate results. oxidation occurs – nad+ is reduced to nadh and co2 is released. now, a 5carbon molecule ketoglutarate. again, nad+ is reduced to nadh and co2 is released. atp is produced – adp + p. now, a 4carbon molecule succinate. fad is reduced to fadh2. now, 4carbon molecule fumarate. nad+ is reduced to nadh. now, 4carbon molecule oxaloacetate. the cycle terns twice per glucose molecule. production of co2 6carbon atoms originally in glucose have now become co2. the prep reactions produces 2 and the citric acid cycle produces 4. electron transport chain located in cristae of mitochondria and the plasma membrane of aerobic prokaryotes, is a series of carriers that pass electrons from one to another. the high energy electrons that enter are carried by nadh and fadh2. when both nadh and fadh2 give up their highenergy electrons they become oxidized and return back to nad+ and fad. many of the redox carriers are cytochrome molecules. cytochrome is a protein, with a central atom of iron. as electrons travel down the etc, energy is captured and eventually used to form atp molecules. oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons from the etc: after receiving electrons, oxygen combines with hydrogen ions and water forms. cycling of carriers when nadh delivers electrons to etc – 3 atp when fadh2 delivers electrons to etc – 2 atp \n coenzymes are then recycled – reused. the etc pumps hydrogen ions the h+ ions flow down a gradient from the intermembrane space into the matrix, the enzyme atp synthase synthesizes atp from adp + p. chemiosmosis: atp production is tied to the establishment of an h+ gradient. atp then moved out of the mitochondria and is used to preform cellular work, during which it breaks down to adp + p. atp totals substratelevel atp synthesis: per glucose molecule there is a net gain of two atp from glycolysis (in cytoplasm). the citric acid cycle (matrix of mitochondria) accounts for two atp per glucose molecule. etc yields 3234 atp molecules. grand total: 3638 atp molecules. metabolic pool catabolism: break down molecules – must be balanced with constructive reactions (anabolism). this balance is essential to optimal cellular function. chapter 9: the cell cycle and cellular respiration cell cycle is a set of stages that takes place between the time a eukaryotic cell divides and the times the resulting daughter cells also divide. interphase: time when cell preforms its normal functions. most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase. g1 stage: cell grows in size and increases the number of organelles, and accumulates materials needed for dna synthesis. g0 stage: rested cells – continue normal functions but do not prepare for cell division. s stage: dna replication occurs – two identical dna double helix molecules. chromatid: one single double helix molecule. sister chromatids: two identical dna double helix molecules – remain attached until mitosis where they are separated. g2 stage: the cell synthesizes the proteins needed for cell division. \n apoptosis: programmed cell death. cell division increases and apoptosis decreases the number of somatic (body) cells. the eukaryotic chromosome: contains a single double helix molecule. dna wraps around a histone protein. euchromatin: loosely coiled, represents the active chromatin containing genes that are being transcribed. heterchromatin: highly compacted – inactive chromatin. chromosome numbers diploid (2n): total number of chromosomes found in all cells of an individual. haploid (n): one chromosome of each kind (half diploid number). chromosome duplication before nuclear division, dna replicates, duplicating the chromosomes in the parent cell. o occurs during s stage of interphase. each new chromosome has two identical chromatids (double helical molecules). o new identical chromatids are called sister chromatids. sister chromatids are restricted and attached to each other at a region called centrosome. protein complexes called kinetochores develop on each side. o kinetochores attach to spindle fibers in mitotic stage. division of the centrosome the centrosome divides before mitosis begins. in animal cells each centrosome contains a pair of barrel shaped organelles called centrioles. phases of mitosis: prophase: nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope fragments. spindle fibers begin to assemble as the two centrosomes migrate away from one another. premetaphase (late prophase): kinetochores appear on each side of centromere, and these attach sister chromatids to the kinetochore spindle fibers. metaphase: chromosome (each consisting of two sister chromatids) are at the metaphase plate (center of fully formed spindle). anaphase: daughter chromosomes (each consisting of one chromatid) are moving toward the poles of the spindle. \n telophase: daughter cells are forming as nuclear envelopes and nucleoli appear. chromosomes will become indistinct chromatin. cytokinesis: two cell formation animal cells: cleavage furrow plant cells: cell plate ",
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5e1bb348a1d0112b63bbb7e599e2f907 | solve the system of linear equations. | solve the system of linear equations. | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " unit 8: disorders and t reatments read chapters 13 and 14 . 1) be able to define harmful dysfunction. (399) . a behavior or an emotional state that is harmful to oneself or others, as judged by the community or culture in which it occurs . 2) what is a mental disorder? how does unusual behavior differ from a mental disorder? (399400) . any behavior or emotional state that causes an individual great suffering, is self destructive, seriously impairs the persons ability to work or get along with others, or makes a person unable to control the impulse to endanger others . . 3) what is the purpose of the dsm? what are some of the advantages of using the dsm? what are some of the problems with the dsm? (400402 and lecture) . the dsm implies that everyday problems are comparable to serious mental disorders . 4) be able to define and distinguish between categorical or dimensional models of mental disorders. which model does the dsm primarily rely on? (lecture) . 5) what is generalized anxiety disorder? (406) . a continuous state of anxiety marked by feelings of worry and dread, apprehension, difficulties in concentration, and signs of motor tension . 6) what is a phobia? how do phobias differ from fears? (407) . an exaggerated, unrealistic fear of a specific situation, activity, or object . 7) what is posttraumatic stress disorder (ptsd)? what are symptoms of ptsd (be able to list three)? (408) \n . a disorder in which a person who has experienced a traumatic or lifethreatening event has symptoms such as nightmares, flashbacks, insomnia, reliving of the trauma, and increased physiological arousal . 8) what is obsessivecompulsive disorder? how do obsessions differ from compulsions? what is the function of compulsions in this disorder? (409) . an anxiety disorder in which a person feels trapped in repetitive, persistent thoughts and repetitive (obsessions), ritualized behaviors (compulsions) . 9) what is major depression? how do symptoms differ from normal sadness? (410411 and lecture) . a disorder involving disturbances in emotion, behavior, cognition , and body function . 10) one local source of help for suicide prevention is gryphon place. if asked on the exam to provide the name of the local suicide prevention center in kalamazoo, be able to provide this name. note: the website for gryphon place is http://www.gryphon.org . 11) what is bipolar disorder? what is a manic episode? (411) . a mood disorder in which episodes of both depression and mania occur . 12) what is the vulnerabilitystress model of depression? be able to describe the four contributing factors of this model. (411413) . approaches that emphasize how individual vulnerabilities interact with external stresses or circumstances to produce specific mental disorders, such as depression . 13) what characterizes borderline personality disorder? how does it differ from bipolar disorder? (414 and lecture) . a disorder characterized by extreme negative emotionality and an inability to regulate emotions; it often results in intense but unstable relationships, impulsiveness, self mutilating behavior, feelings of emptiness, and a fear of abandonment by others . 14) what is antisocial personality disorder? (414415) . a personality disorder characterized by a lifelong pattern of irresponsible, antisocial behavior such as lawbreaking, violence, and other impulsive reckless acts \n . 15) what is dissociative identity disorder? what is the controversy regarding the existence of this disorder? be able to discuss the controversy in detail, including the arguments of the posttraumatic model and the sociocognitive model. (425427) . a controversial disorder marked by the apparent appearance within one person of two or more distinct personalities, each with its own name and traits; formerly known as multiple personality disorder . 16) what is schizophrenia? be able to list and describe the five core abnormalities associated with the disorder. (427429) . a psychotic disorder marked by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized and incoherent speech, inappropriate behavior, and cognitive impairments . 17) be able to list and describe the four main classes of drugs used for the treatment of mental disorders. (435437) . antipsychotic drugs (neuroleptics) – drugs used primarily in the treatment of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders; they are often used off label and inappropriately for other disorders such as dementia and impulsive aggressiveness . antidepressant drugs – drugs used primarily in the treatment of mood disorders, especially depression and anxiety . antianxiety drugs (tranquilizers) – drugs commonly prescribed for patients who complain of unhappiness, anxiety, or worry . lithium carbonate (type of salt) – the apparent success of a medication or treatment due to the patient’s expectations or hopes rather than to the drug or treatment itself . 18) what are the cautions about drug treatments that the book lists? (437440) . publication bias – the tendency for journals to publish positive findings but not negative or ambiguous ones many publishers have financial ties in the pharmaceutical industry placebo effect – the apparent success of a medication or treatment due to the patient’s expectations or hopes rather than to the drug or treatment itself high relapse and dropout rates – a person may only have shortterm success with antipsychotic or antidepressant drugs. anywhere from ½ to 1/3 of people stop taking \n medications due to the unpleasant side effects. those people are likely to relapse disregard for effective, possibly better nonmedical treatments – drugs are typically the more popular source of treatment. this is due to advertisements and rise of popularity by consumers unknown risks over time and drug interactions – the effects of taking antidepressants indefinitely are still unknown, especially for vulnerable groups such . 19) what is the main goal of psychodynamic therapy? (442) . all different forms of psychodynamic treatment share a goal of exploring the unconscious dynamics of personality, such as defenses and conflicts . 20) how does flooding differ from graduated exposure? (443) . flooding – in behavior therapy, a form of exposure treatment in which the client is taken directly into a feared situation until his or her panic subsides . graduated exposure – in behavior therapy, a method in which a person suffering from a phobia or panic attacks is gradually taken into the feared situation or exposed to a traumatic memory until the anxiety subsides . 21) what is systematic desensitization? be able to describe its relation to counterconditioning. (444) . in behavior therapy, a stepbystep process of desensitizing a client to a feared object or experience; it is based on the classicalconditioning procedure of counterconditioning . 22) what is cognitive therapy? how do mindfulness and acceptance based therapies differ from traditional cognitive therapies? (445447 and lecture) . a form of therapy designed to identify and change irrational, unproductive ways of thinking and, hence, to reduce negative emotions . 23) what is behavioral activation? (lecture) . 24) what is clientcentered therapy? (447) . a humanist approach, devised by carl rogers, which emphasizes the therapist’s empathy with the client and the use of unconditional positive regard . a humanist approach, devised by carl rogers, which emphasizes the therapist’s empathy with the client and the use of unconditional positive regard \n . 25) be able to describe the scientistpractitioner gap. what is meant by empirically supported treatments? (452453 and lecture) . 26) review the “when therapy helps” section in your textbook. what types of therapies have the most empirical support? (454455) . cognitive therapy’s greatest success has been in the treatment of mood disorders, especially depression . . 27) be able to list and describe the risks associated with psychotherapy. (458459) . the use of empirically unsupported, potentially dangerous techniques . inappropriate or coercive influences, which can create new problems for the client . prejudice or cultural ignorance on the part of the therapist . sexual intimacies or other unethical behavior on the part of the therapist . . 28) be able to list and explain the suggestions the book provides for being a smart consumer of psychological treatments. (461) ",
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17ee4e244a5bbdd7be5b637c2b2dd7bf | in the following e lectrical net work. determine the value of v that makes l2 = 0: e "" ,;j,., .. 6ohms -'nv"-1:-~ /3 m 3ohms vvolts | in the following e lectrical net work. determine the value | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": "1 define an operating system an operating system is a program/software that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. 2 computer types micro, mini, mainframe, super 3 describe the evolution and trends of the operating system 1940: first generation computer based on vacuum tube technology 1950: second generation focused on cost effectiveness 1960: third generation multiprogramming, program scheduling 1970 virtual memory developed to solve physical limitation 1980 multiprocessing 1990 demand for internet capability, and multimedia applications 2000 virtualization 4 distinguish an operating system from a computer system computer system is software (program). hardware (physical machine and electric components. operating system is part of computer system (software) and manages all hardware and software \n 5 computer object oriented design load only the critical elements into the main memory and call other objects as needed. kernel (operating system nucleus) o resides in memory at all times, performs essential tasks, and protected by hardware kernel reorganization o memory resident: process scheduling and memory allocation o modules: all other functions advantages o modification and customization without disrupting integrity of the remainder of the system o software development more productive 6 explain the operations of an operating system monitor its resources continuously. enforce the policies that determine who gets what, when and how much. allocate the resource when appropriate deallocate the resource when appropriate 7 list the different categories of operating systems five types/categories: batch, interactive, realtime, hybrid, embedded two distinguishing features = response time and how data enters into the system \n 8 identify the key operating system managers memory manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of memory. it checks the validity of each request for memory space and, if it’s a legal request, allocates the amount needed to execute the job. ram processor manager: a composite of two submanagers, the job scheduler and the process scheduler, which decides how to allocate the cpu. cpu device manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of devices. it monitors every device, channel, and control unit and chooses the most efficient way to allocate all of the system’s devices. keyboard, printer, disk drive file manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of files. program files, data files, compilers. network manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling access to and the use of networked resources. network comms, protocols 9 describe the early memory management allocation schemes singleuser contiguous, fixed partitions, dynamic partitions common requirements of old memory management techniques (disadvantages of the old schemes) entire program loaded into memory contiguous storage stays in memory until job completed each places severe restrictions on job size sufficient for first three generations of computers multiprogramming not supported in singleuser contiguous 10 describe the new memory management allocation schemes paged memory allocation o divides each incoming job into pages of equal size demand paging scheme o pages brought into memory only as needed segmented memory allocation scheme \n o each job divided into several segments (logical pieces), where the segments are different sizes segmented/demand paged memory o combination of segmentation and demand paging virtual memory o combination of ram and disk space that running processes can use. firstfit memory allocation first partition fitting the requirements o advantage: faster in making allocation o disadvantage: leads to memory waste bestfit memory allocation smallest partition fitting the requirements o advantage: makes the best use of memory space o disadvantage: slower in making allocation 11 explain the process management concept and concurrency of operating systems processor manager composite of two submanagers job scheduler: higherlevel scheduler o job scheduling responsibilities o job initiation based on certain criteria process scheduler: lowerlevel scheduler o process scheduling responsibilities o determines execution steps o process scheduling based on certain criteria hold (handled by job scheduler) ready (handled by process scheduler) waiting (handled by process scheduler) running (handled by process scheduler) finished (handled by job scheduler) six algorithm types firstcome, firstserved (fcfs) – nonpreemptive shortest job next (sjn) – nonpreemptive priority scheduling – nonpreemptive shortest remaining time (srt) – preemptive round robin (rr)– preemptive multiplelevel queues – more of a package, 1 queue per policy \n concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other multiple processes within os multiple threads within a process there is no need for ‘rules’ if there is no shared resources (e.g. data) or resource/data is constant (readonly), otherwise we need synchronization… lack of process synchronization consequences • deadlock: “deadly embrace” • system comes to standstill • resolved via external intervention • starvation • infinite postponement of job 12 identify the four basic functions of device management monitoring of status of each device enforcing policies to determine which process will get a device and for how long. allocating the device deallocating the device dedicated devices (e.g. printer) shared devices (e.g. hard disk) virtual devices a virtual device is a combination of dedicated and shared devices. it is actually a dedicated device which is transformed to a shared device. (e.g. printer converted to shareable device through a spooling program which reroutes all print requests to a disk.) sequential access disk dasd flash memory optical disk, magnetic disk, fixed and movable head \n ready – determined by process scheduling algorithms waiting – signal to continue processing running – l/0 request page fault divide each job into equal size pages brought into memory only as needed each job divided into different size, segment are different size combination combination of ram and disk space that running process can use it checks the validity of each request for memory space and, if it’s a legal request, allocates the amount needed to execute the job. which decides how to allocate the cpu. controlling access to and the use of networked resources. 13 explain the fundamentals of file management and the structure of the file management system in a computer system, the file manager keeps track of its files with directories that contain the filename, its physical location in secondary storage, and important information about each file. file storage tracking policy implementation file allocation if user access cleared file deallocation field – group of related byte record – group of related field file – group of related record (information used by specific program) file organization refers to the arrangement of records within the file \n sequential record organization easiest to implement because records are stored and retrieved serially, one after the other. direct record organization uses direct access files, which, of course, can be implemented only on direct access storage devices indexed sequential record organization combines the best of sequential and direct access.",
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386a6a56dcfae684d2213c16c004d5d6 | ?problem 4pe
relating ?h to quantities of reactants and products
how much heat is released when 4.50 g of methane gas is burned in a constant-pressure system? (use the information given in equation)
ch4(g) + 2o2(g)?co2(g) + 2h2o(l) ?h = –890 kj
hydrogen peroxide can decompose to water and oxygen by the reaction
2 h2o2(l) ?2 h2o(l) + o2(g) ?h = –196 kj
calculate the quantity of heat released when 5.00 g of h2o2(l) decomposes at constant pressure. | relating ?h to quantities of reactants and productshow | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.39 | [
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"text": "review guide for exam 1 explain how we define the exterior from the interior of the body the internal environment of the body is separated from the external environment by the epithelial barrier provided by the skin on the outside, and by the linings of the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and kidney tubules on the inside. be able to thoroughly describe the fluid compartments and their contents. all the water inside the cells is the intracellular fluid (icf) and contains many proteins and a relatively high concentration of potassium. the water outside the cells is extracellular fluid (ecf) and contains few proteins and more sodium. about 20% of the ecf comprises the water portion of the blood plasma. the largest portion of the ecf (80%) bathes most of the cells in the body and is called the interstitial fluid (isf). explain homeostasis and its importance the internal constancy is called homeostasis. maintenance of homeostasis is the overall mission of the physiological systems of the body. how is temperature and glucose controlled in the body negative feedback mechanisms explain the functional units of the body – especially the make up of organs and organ systems cells are the basic functional unit of the body. two or more cell types are grouped to form tissues with specific functions in physiological control. the tissues are also grouped by combining 2 or more tissue types to form organs. organs typically have specific jobs in physiological function and are often combined with other organs to form systems. how do amino acids differ from each other each amino acid contains a central alpha carbon covalently bonded to a carboxyl group, an amine group, a hydrogen, and a variable r group or functional group. they differ only at the rgroup and their different chemical characteristics arise solely from this part of the molecule. what are peptide bonds, polar and nonpolar and ionic bonds. peptide bonds are the covalent bond that holds the amino acids together. polar bonds occur when the electrons are shared unequally. nonpolar bonds occur when atoms share electrons equally. ionic bonds occur when cations and anions bond by electrical attraction. explain covalent bonds \n results when two atoms share electrons. a positively charged nucleus of one element is attracted to the negatively charged electron of the other. the orbitals merge, and the electrons are then equally attracted to and shared by the two nuclei. explain the difference between phospholipids, saturated fatty acids, eicosanoids, steroids and triglycerides? phospholipids: lipids where glycerol combines with two fatty acids one of which is an unsaturated fatty acid saturated fatty acids: contain carbons linked by single bonds. carbon atoms are bonded adjacently to each other leaving two open binding sites, which become occupied by hydrogen atoms. when all the bonding sites are filled with hydrogen molecules, the chain becomes “saturated”. eicosanoids: signaling molecules that exert complex control over many bodily systems, mainly in inflammation or immunity, and as messengers in the central nervous system. steroids: lipids characterized by a fourfused ring of carbon atoms. all steroids have three 6sided carbon rings and one 5sided carbon ring. they perform a number of functions ranging from growth to sexual development. triglycerides: the storage form of fats. they are formed from glycerol molecules containing three hydroxyl groups that combine with the carboxyl groups of the three fatty acids. what does amphipathic mean? what is the relevance of this word to phospholipids and the makeup of the cell membrane. a lipid molecule containing both polar and nonpolar regions is called amphipathic. this means the polar head region can dissolve in water, but the non polar tail regions cannot. amphipathic is both hydrophobic and hydrophilic. explain the difference between the lipids, carbohydrates, protens, nueleotides and polysaccharides lipds: important fats that perform three primary biological functions within the body – they serve as structural components of cell membranes, function as energy storehouses, and function as important signaling molecules. carbohydrates: composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. can be subdivided into three major groups of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. proteins: a molecule that consists of one or more chains of amino acid covalently bonded to each other like beads on a string. they are very important to survival and are used to build numerous working structures in the body including collagen, enzymes, antibodies, receptors, carriers for transportation, and can be used as an energy source. nucleotides: function in the transfer of energy within cells, signaling and form the \n genetic material of the cells. polysaccharides: the covalent bonding of several monosaccharides. examples are glycogen, starch, and cellulose. describe the function of the organelles. what is the difference between membranous versus nonmembranous organelles? organelles are a variety of biomolecules that carry out specific functions of the body. some membrane organelles are separated from the cytosol by one or more membranes and other nonmembranous organelles have no such boundary within the cytosol. describe the methods by which cells are joined together. what type of connection forms the tight junction? in many tissues special membrane proteins called cell adhesion molecules hold cells together. these binding sites are referred to as “junctions”. tight junctions are found in epithelial tissue specialized for molecular transport, integral membrane proteins called occludins fuse adjacent cells together to form a nearly impermeable barrier to the movement of substance between cells. desmosomes are plaque formed by glycoproteins in each cell, which provides strength to cell junctions. they provide strength to the cell junctions so they cannot be torn apart. a gap junction connects two adjacent cells by connexins which allows movement between cells and even passage of some chemical messengers. describe the structure of the ribosome. how does the ribosome work to produce proteins? make sure you know the name of each site on the ribosome. ribosomes are dense granules composed of rrna and proteins that function in protein synthesis. they work to produce proteins: aug codon attracts the trna with anticodon complimentary to aug, which codes for methanine. then the second trna molecule with the appropriate anticodon enters the ribosome at the asite, and a peptide bond is formed between the two amino acids. first amino acid is released and leaves the psite and the ribosome moves down the mrna 3 bases (1 codon). large subunit on top and small subunit on bottom. small ribosomal unit attracted to the cap area and slides into alignment with the initiation codon aug. the asite (acceptor) – trna enters with amino acids the psite (primary) – protein chain is built make sure you have a good understanding of protein synthesis while the dna is located in the nucleus, protein synthesis takes place in cytoplasm of the cell. a gene must be copied from a portion of one strand of the dna to rna for transport out of the cell to begin protein synthesis in the cytosol. 1.the genetic code is transcribed from dna onto a messenger rna. \n 2. the messenger rna moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. 3. the messenger rna code is translated by the ribosomes on the er to form the correct amino acid. know the following: anabolic: catabolic, reactants and products and substrates reactants: chemical substances entering the reaction products: different substances that are created after the reaction anabolic: smaller molecules form to create larger molecules catabolic: the breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones substrates: a reactant specific for enzymatic reactions make sure you understand oxidation, glycolysis and phosphorylation oxidation: when electrons have been removed from a molecule and also refer to the removal of hydrogen atoms from a molecule. oxidation reactions are broadly defined by the involvement of oxygen because oxygen tends to pull electrons from other molecules. glycolysis: when glycogen is broken down into its individual glucose molecules. phosphorylation: the addition of a phosphate group, the bond formed is called a phosphate bond. quite often this process serves to activate it and cause another molecule to act in a specific way in the cell. describe hydrolysis, condensation, reduction, dephosphorylation, activation energy barrier hydrolysis: breaking of bonds within the molecule and the addition of water to form new products. a water molecule splits into two parts – a hydroxyl group and a hydrogen. condensation: the reverse of hydrolysis, smaller molecules is joined together to form a larger one. desphosphorylation: the removal of a phosphate group. activation energy barrier: for reactants to become products and vice versa, molecules must have sufficient potential energy to surmount the activation energy barrier, and they must acquire some extra energy called activation energy. in this situation the molecules have overcome this barrier and entered into the transition state. what are trace metals? explain their importance an important group of cofactors such as iron, copper, magnesium, and zinc. they allow the enzyme to react with the substrate, without cofactors enzymes would lose their shape and activity. our primary source of these minerals is through our diet; our body needs these to provide the cofactors for certain enzyme activity. without these cofactors the enzyme loses its shape and its activity. make sure you understand how enzymes work and the factors affecting their action. \n enzymes orient the substrate molecules so new chemical bonds are more easily formed or more easily broken. in this way, enzymes reduce the activation energy required for the reaction to proceed. enzyme reaction will increase in direct proportion to the substrate concentration. higher affinity translates into higher rates of enzyme catalyzed reactions. enzymes become increasingly effective as temperature rises until a plateau is reached slightly above body temperature. if ph gets too acidic or basic, enzyme function can be compromised to the point where the cell cannot maintain homeostasis. describe allosteric regulation, covalent regulation, metabolic pathway regulation, the meaning of ratelimiting, catalytic rate allosteric regulation: by binding to the regulatory site, the modulator can alter the shape of the active site, thereby altering its catalytic rate by changing the affinity for the substrate. the reaction is reversible. covalent regulation: changes in an enzyme’s activity are brought about by the covalent bonding of a special chemical group on the special site on the enzyme. metabolic pathway regulation: the rate of the entire pathway can only proceed as fast as the rate of the slowest reaction within the pathway. the enzyme catalyzing the slowest reaction is called the ratelimiting enzyme. thus, if the activity of the slowest enzyme is increased, the rate of the whole pathway is increased. catalytic rate: the rate at which an enzyme catalyzes a reaction, which is primarily determined by how many product molecules, the enzyme can generate per unit time. what is atp – what is its importance? the human body converts forms of fats, proteins and carbs into a chemical form of atp. it is important for muscle cells to produce movement, moving ions across cell membranes, and transmitting nerve impulses. explain glycolysis, where it occurs in the cell, the krebs cycle and its significance, the significance of oxygen and what happens to the end product of glycolysis when oxygen is in low supply glycolysis takes place in the cytosol. glucose is transported into the cell via glucose transporters on the cell membrane. in the cytosol, it enters into glycolysis, which is a series of reactions ending with pyruvate or lactate. the krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix of the cell. it is important because it provides considerable quantities of nadh+h+ carrying energy to drive the electron transport chain located on the inner membrane of the mitochondria, subsequently to supply oxidative phosphorylation and the synthesis of atp. 1.glycolysis 2. linking step \n 3. one nad is reduced and one co2 is formed 4. another nad is reduced and co2 formed 5. one atp is formed 6. one fad is reduced 7. fad transports h+ to the inner membrane 8. one nad is reduced if oxygen supply is low it will turn into lactic acid/lactate instead of pyruvate and cause muscle fatigue. explain the electron transport chain and the name of the complexes (including their location) there are several enzymes inserted into the inner membrane forming a type of assembly line referred to as the electron transport chain. the process begins with nadh+h+ passing two electrons to nadh dehydrogenase. coenzyme q picks up a pair of electrons from nadh dehydrogenase and passes the electrons on to cytochrome b. cytochrome c picks up one electron at a time from cytochrome bc1 and transfers it to cytochrome oxidase. oxygen then combines with two h+ ions to produce water and four h+ ions are pumped from the matrix into the intermembrane space. oxygen is the final acceptor of the electrons and links with two h+ ions to form water. complex 1 = nadh dehydrogenase complex 2 = is inserted into the membrane and is not usually discussed because it has minor energetic consequence complex 3 = cytochrome bc1 complex 4 = cytochrome oxidase where is glycogen, potassium and sodium found? glycogen is found in muscle tissue for energy we need during physical activity also in the liver when we need to restore our blood glucose levels in the body. sodium is found in extracellular fluid and potassium is found in intracellular fluid. describe how molecules are passively transported across a membrane and how their direction is determined no energy is required and it can occur by simple diffusion or it can occur as facilitated transport using an integral membrane protein specifically designed to help a molecule move down its concentration gradient. the flow occurs from high concentration to low concentration. what is facilitated diffusion? what is a transporter? the process whereby a membrane protein binds and assists the movement of a molecule from one side of the membrane to the other. transporters simply allow the passage of molecules across the membrane at a much faster rate than would \n occur through normal diffusion, therefore bringing about equilibrium more rapidly. what are aquaporins? the sodiumpotassium pump? aquaporins are channels that water moves through. the na/k pump transports na+ and k+ ions in opposite directions across the cell membrane. for each cycle of the pump, three na+ ions are transported out of the cell, and two k+ ions are transported in. this pump is present in nearly every cell and is crucial to several physiological processes. make sure you are familiar with the transport processes for moving ions into and out of the cell. primary active transport: use atp, or some other chemical energy source to transport substance secondary active transport: powered by a concentration gradient, or an electrochemical gradient previously created. vascular transport: another way macromolecules enter cells. epithelial transport: cell membranes function to transport materials completely through the cell understand all the transport mechanisms. pumps: proteins actively transporting molecules across the membrane are referred to as pumps. pumps differ from carrier proteins because they use energy to move molecules in a preferred direction across the membrane. carrier proteins: whereas carrier proteins always transport molecules down the concentration gradient. transport proteins: designed to couple the movement of one substance to the movement of another. as one molecule moves passively down its electrochemical gradient it releases energy that drives the other molecule. exocytosis: when vesicles transport materials outside the cell. endocytosis: when vesicles transport materials into the cell. transcellular pathway: requires a clear transit path created by specialized transporters and channels in both the apical and basolateral membrane. transcytosis: a large molecule is taken into the cell by endocytosis and then it travels to the other side of the cell and fuses with the plasma membrane to release its contents outside of the cell by exocytosis. exam 1 knowledge checks \n 1. the smallest living units capable of carrying out their own basic life functions are called… o cells 2. the cell types blood, bone, fat, and lymph would be categorized into which of the following major cell classes? o connective tissue cells 3. organs of the body are defined as… o a combination of two or more tissues that make up a structure which performs a specific function. 4. extracellular fluid is composed of… o interstitial fluid and plasma 5. the fluid compartment with a high sodium and protein concentration is called… o plasma 6. homeostasis is a term which describes the process whereby the body… o maintains a constant internal environment 7. what tissue is specialized for separating fluids? o epithelial 8. what tissue is specialized for generating electrical signals? o nervous 9. what tissue is specialized to contract? o muscle 10. the fluid compartment with a high protein and potassium concentration is called… o intracellular fluid 11. which of the following statements concerning hydrogen bonds is false? o they are strong attractive forces between hydrogen atoms and negatively charged atoms. 12. the presence of \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ chemical groups makes carbohydrates \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_. o hydroxyl; polar 13. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ are molecules composed of a glycerol and three fatty acids. o triglycerides 14. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ are molecules that form the bilayer of cell membranes and micelles. o phospholipids 15. the amphipathic property of phospholipids can be described as a… o polar region that dissolves in water and a nonpolar region that repels water. 16. the most common elements found in biomolecules are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and… o oxygen 17. which of the following is not a base in rna? o thymine 18. which of the following descriptions of a polymer is false? o atp is a polymer of phosphates. \n 19. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ are molecules that are composed of one or more phosphate groups, a 5 carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base. o nucleotides 20. which of the following is not found in plasma membranes? o chromatin 21. continuous with the outer portion of the nuclear pore, what membrane bound structure functions in the synthesis of secretory proteins, integral membrane proteins, or proteins bound for other organelles? o rough endoplasmic reticulum 22. what organelle packages and directs proteins to their proper destination? o golgi apparatus 23. detoxifying enzymes may be localized in what organelle? o peroxisomes 24. what organelle synthesizes most of the atp used by cells? o mitochondria 25. which of the following characteristics concerning ribosomes is false? o can be located in the golgi apparatus 26. which of the following is not a function of the cytoskeleton? o cellular catabolism 27. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ are proteins that fuse adjacent cells together to form a nearly impermeable barrier. o occludins 28. \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ are proteins that form channels between cells, allowing ions and small molecules to diffuse directly from one cell to the other. o connexins 29. the process whereby a complementary mrna is produced from a dna template is called… o transcription 30. during translation, \\_\\_\\_\\_ is synthesized in the \\_\\_\\_\\_. o protein; cytoplasm 31. the initiator codon is composed of the sequence… o aug 32. the initiator codon, that originates translation, codes for the amino acid… o methionine 33. which of the following statements about the genetic code is true? o termination codons do not code for amino acids. 34. according to the law of complementary base pairing, which of the following would be expected in any strand of dna? o a + g = c + t 35. during transcription, o rna is synthesized from dna in the nucleus. 36. what is the portion of dna that codes for a particular protein? o gene 37. what causes dna to uncoil during transcription? \n o binding of rna polymerase to the promoter sequence. 38. in the chemical equation a + b c + d, the arrow indicated that the reaction is… o bidirectional 39. the sum of the thousands of chemical reactions that occur within the body is called… o metabolism 40. making or synthesizing a protein would be considered a \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ reaction and the type of reaction that carries this process out is a \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ reaction. o anabolic; condensation 41. which of the following is a correct description of an anabolic pathway? o glycogen is synthesized in the cytosol from glucose. 42. when phosphate is added to adp to form the energystoring molecule atp, this is known as \\_\\_\\_\\_ and, since water is also produced, this reaction is also considered a \\_\\_\\_\\_ reaction. o phosphorylation; condensation 43. chemical reactions that involve the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids that produce water as a byproduct are called \\_\\_\\_\\_ reactions. o condensation 44. chemical reactions that involve the breaking of a phosphate bond are called \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ reactions. o dephosphorylation 45. during what type of reaction are electrons removed from the reactant? o oxidation 46. molecules must have sufficient potential energy to overcome the \\_\\_\\_\\_ and, thereby, allow the reaction to proceed. o activation energy barrier 47. enzymes act as \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ to increase reaction rate. o catalysts 48. which of the following would not increase the rate of a chemical reaction? o increasing the activation energy barrier 49. enzymes are what class of molecule? o proteins 50. a substrate is the same as a o reactant 51. how do enzymes speed up chemical reactions? o by lowering the activation energy barrier 52. in the inducedfit model for enzyme activity, the substrate alters the \\_\\_\\_\\_ of the \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ site on the enzyme. o conformation; active 53. the rate at which an enzymecatalyzed reaction occurs can be increased by… o increasing enzyme concentration 54. some enzymes require trace metals to function as cofactors. what do the trace metals do? \n o trace metals must be present in the enzyme in order for the enzyme to bind substrate. 55. what are coenzymes? o organic molecules derived from vitamins that function in the transfer of a chemical group. 56. in allosteric regulation, the modulator molecule binds to the… o regulatory site of the enzyme by weak, reversible interactions 57. what is the most important energytransferring compound in cells? o adenosine triphosphate 58. in skeletal muscle, atp can be synthesized by transferring a phosphate group from creatinep to adp to form atp and creatine. in this example, atp was synthesized by what process? o substratelevel phosphorylation 59. where does glycolysis occur? o cytosol 60. which of the following does not occur in mitochondria? o conversion of pyruvate to lactate 61. the final product of glycolysis under aerobic conditions is pyruvate. what happens to pyruvate under aerobic conditions? o pyruvate enters the mitochondrial matrix where it is converted into acetyl coa. 62. where are the enzymes of glycolysis located within the cell? o cytosol 63. in terms of energy production, the krebs cycle is significant because it… o reduces the coenzymes nad and fad for oxidative phosphorylation. 64. in the presence of a limited oxygen supply, pyruvate is converted to what? o lactate 65. in the presence of oxygen, the process of glycolysis produces which of the following products? o 2 pyruvate 66. atp is synthesized by substratelevel phosphorylation during which of the following? o glycolysis and the krebs cycle only 67. what is the final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport? o oxygen 68. where is the electron transport chain? o inner mitochondrial membrane 69. chemiosmotic coupling refers to… o the harnessing of energy from the reactions of the electron transport chain to make atp. 70. hydrogen ions activate the enzyme atp synthase by moving from… o intermembrane space to mitochondrial matrix 71. each time an electron is passed between the molecules of the electron transport chain… \n o energy is released 72. what is the first component of the electron transport chain that accepts electrons from an fadh2 molecule? o coenzyme q 73. atp synthase is able to use the potential energy that originates from \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ to produce atp. o the hydrogen gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane 74. under anaerobic conditions, what is pyruvate converted to and where does this occur? o lactate in the cytosol 75. what is glycogenolysis? o the breakdown of glycogen to glucose 76. which of the following is found in greater concentration inside the cell than outside? o potassium 77. when molecules are passively transported across a membrane, the direction of their movement is dictated by the molecule’s tendency to move… o from higher to lower energy 78. of the gradients listed below, which is the most accurate description of the force that ultimately determines the movement of ions across the membrane? o electrochemical gradient 79. if a positively charged ion is more concentrated outside the cell, the electrical force required to balance the chemical gradient would be directed \\_\\_\\_\\_. thus, the equilibrium potential for this ion would be \\_\\_\\_\\_ charged. o outward; positively 80. which of the following would not increase the rate of simple diffusion across the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane? o greater number of protein carriers 81. if a molecule crosses a membrane and is quickly removed from the area by the blood stream or some biological pathway, what effect does this have on its rate of diffusion? o diffusion rate will increase 82. the osmotic pressure of a solution is an… o indirect measure of its solute concentration 83. which of the following transport mechanisms is passive? o movement of sodium through ion channels 84. in facilitated diffusion, a molecule is moved… o down its concentration gradient with the assistance of a protein carrier molecule, and no energy is required. 85. the flow of water across a membrane down its concentration gradient is called… o osmosis 86. which of the following transport mechanisms require energy? o both primary and secondary active transport 87. transporting a substance against its concentration gradient require… \n o a transporter that uses energy 88. in secondary active transport with sodium, which of the following is false? o the molecule being transported moves down its electrochemical gradient. 89. vesicles formed during phagocytosis or endocytosis often fuse with the membrane of which of the following organelles? o lysosome 90. endocytosis is a form of active transport (requiring energy) to move vesicles… o filled with particles and/or fluids into the cell 91. secretory vesicles are a part of what transport mechanism? o exocytosis 92. the electrochemical gradient is to diffusion as \\_\\_\\_\\_ is to active transport… o atp 93. which of the following descriptions would be an example of phagocytosis? o bacteria that is engulfed by a white blood cell 94. which of the following descriptions would be an example of pinocytosis? o a macrophage drinking its surrounding tissue fluid and nutrients. 95. what is the primary role for the na+/k+ pump? o the maintenance of na+ and k+ concentrations on either side of the membrane.",
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1af1172d5060a65508d50efa6d6682f9 | time to pay off debt. victor owes $20,000 on his credit card. the annual interest rate is 17%. a. approximately how many years will it take him to pay off this credit card if he makes a monthly payment of $300? b. approximately how many years will it take him to pay off this credit card if he makes a monthly payment of $400?
| time to pay off debt. victor owes $20,000 on his credit | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.10 | [
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"text": " week 4: day 10: vsepr (valence shell electron pair repulsion). electronic shape: ● linear (2 sites). ● trigonal planar (3 sites). ● tetrahedral (4 sites). molecular shape: ● linear (2 sites). ● trigonal planar (3 sites). ● tetrahedral (4 sites). ● bent. linear: ● 2 atom yxy ● 1 atom xy e shape and molecular shape are the same most of the time. e shape of trigonal planar: \n ● three atoms bonded to the central atom. ● molecular shape is also trigonal planar. two atoms bonded w/ trigonal planar shape: e shape tetrahedral: ● four atoms bonded to the central atom. ● molecular shape is also tetrahedral. 3 atoms bonded + 1 lone pair: \n bent molecule: 2 atoms bonded to a central atom with a tetrahedral e shape gives you a bent molecule. example 1: co c = 4 valence electrons. o2= 12 valence electrons. 4 + 12 = 16 4 because each line is worth 2 valence electrons) = 12 remaining valence electrons. \n the lewis structure that is labeled the “best lewis structure” is the best because each element contains 8 valence electrons each (an octet). it is satisfied. know: h needs 2 valence electrons to be satisfied. be needs 4 valence electrons to be satisfied. b needs 6 valence electrons to be satisfied. all 3 need less than 8 valence electrons to be satisfied. e shape: linear. molecular shape: linear. polarity: nonpolar. example 2: so s = 6 valence electrons. o2= 12 valence electrons. 6 + 12 = 18 4 ecause each line is worth 2 valence electrons) = 14 remaining valence electrons. \n e shape: trigonal planar. molecular shape: bent. polarity: polar. example 3: nh3 n = 5 valence electrons. h3= 3 valence electrons. 5 + 3 = 8 6 (because each line is worth 2 valence electrons ) = 2 remaining valence electrons. e shape: tetrahedral. molecular shape: trigonal. polarity: polar. \n example 4: nh41+ n = 5 valence electrons. h= 4 valence electrons. 5 + 4 = 9 1ake one out because it has a positive one charge) = 8 8because each line is worth 2 valence electrons) = 0 e shape: tetrahedral. molecular shape: tetrahedral. polarity: polar (charged species are polar). example 5: so 3^2 s = 6 valence electrons. o= 18 valence electrons. \n 6 + 18 = 24 + dd two on because it has a negative two char = 26 6because each line is worth 2 valence electr = 20 remaining valence electrons. e shape: tetrahedral. molecular shape: trigonal. polarity: polar (charged species are polar). day 11: * ionic = no tri’s or di’s. strong acids (put into h2o → 100% dissociate ((1 proton and 1 ion)) = h+): h2so4 hcl hbr hi hclo4 hno general rules for naming: 1. hx hydro\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ic acid. 2. “ate” forms “ic” acids. → so sulfate. → h sosulfuric acid. 3. “ite” forms “ous” acids. → h so sulfurous acid. \n ex: h3o4 ^3 = phosphoric acid (phosphate). hno2 ^1 = nitrous acid (nitrous acid). 1 carbon = meth 2 carbon = eth 3 carbon = prop 4 carbon = but 5 carbon = pent 6 carbon = hex 7 carbon = hept 8 carbon = oct 9 carbon = non 10 carbon = dex functional groups determine ending: 1ethanol: 1butanol: \n * know acetic acid structure, name, etc. c2h3^1 = acetate ion * ions are always polar * (chco 2 ^1) test example 1: draw lewis structure for the nitrate ion. no3 ^1 : how many valence electrons do you have? n = 5 valence electrons. o3 = 18 valence electrons. 5 + 18 = 23 + 1 (because it has a negative 1 charge) = 24 6 (because each line is worth 2 valence electrons) = 18 remaining valence electrons. put in all 18 remaining valence electrons. each element must be satisfied with 8 valence electrons each! before turning the 2 valence electrons into a shared electron, o is satisfied (8), but n is not (6)...in order to satisfy n, you turn the 2 valence electrons into a shared electron, which then satisfies both n and o. \n test example 2 : boron trichloride lewis structure has \\_\\_\\_ sites of e density, e shape, molecular shape, polar/nonpolar? 24 valence electrons! day 12: sodium phosphate → will 100% dissociate in water which means it’ll break apart into ions. 1+ 3 na 3p o4 → 3na(aq) + 1po (aq) whatever you start with (na 3) you will bring the 3 to the other side always!! * 1 mole = 6.022x10^23 * g = gas l = liquids aq = aqueous s = solids limiting reagents: a + 2b → c + d \n example 1: 18 na+ + 8 cl → how many nacl? 1 na+ + 1 cl → 1 nacl. 18 na+ x1 nacl = 18 nacl. 1 na+ 8 cl 1 nacl =8 nacl. 1 cl the answer is always the smallest one. example 2: 36 na ^1+ + 24 p4 ^3 → how many napo4 3 na + 1 p^3 → 1 na3po. 36 na ^1+ 1 napo = 12 napo4. 3 na ^1+ 24 po ^3 1 napo4 = 24 n3po . ^3 the answer is always the smallest one. how to make 45 iron(ii) phosphorus: how many iron(ii)? how many phosphates? 45 fe(po → \\_\\_ fe ^2+ + \\_\\_ 43 fe(po2→ 3 fe ^2+ + 2 p ^3 3 fe ^2+ + 2 p4^3 → 1 f(po 2 iro: 45 f3(po4 x3 fe ^2+= 135 fe ^2+. 13(po4 phos: 45 3po4) x po ^3= 90 po ^3 3(pof) 135 90 = 45 (po)2. ",
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fc1afde719823c594b99a740daf42c24 | an object attached to a spring exhibits simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of 4.0 cm. when the object is 2.0 cm from the equilibrium position, what percentage of its total mechanical energy is in the form of potential energy? (a) one-quarter, (b) one-third, (c) one-half, (d) two-thirds, (e) three-quarters | an object attached to a spring exhibits simple harmonic | studysoup | studysoup.com | 2021.17 | [
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"text": "1 define an operating system an operating system is a program/software that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. 2 computer types micro, mini, mainframe, super 3 describe the evolution and trends of the operating system 1940: first generation computer based on vacuum tube technology 1950: second generation focused on cost effectiveness 1960: third generation multiprogramming, program scheduling 1970 virtual memory developed to solve physical limitation 1980 multiprocessing 1990 demand for internet capability, and multimedia applications 2000 virtualization 4 distinguish an operating system from a computer system computer system is software (program). hardware (physical machine and electric components. operating system is part of computer system (software) and manages all hardware and software \n 5 computer object oriented design load only the critical elements into the main memory and call other objects as needed. kernel (operating system nucleus) o resides in memory at all times, performs essential tasks, and protected by hardware kernel reorganization o memory resident: process scheduling and memory allocation o modules: all other functions advantages o modification and customization without disrupting integrity of the remainder of the system o software development more productive 6 explain the operations of an operating system monitor its resources continuously. enforce the policies that determine who gets what, when and how much. allocate the resource when appropriate deallocate the resource when appropriate 7 list the different categories of operating systems five types/categories: batch, interactive, realtime, hybrid, embedded two distinguishing features = response time and how data enters into the system \n 8 identify the key operating system managers memory manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of memory. it checks the validity of each request for memory space and, if it’s a legal request, allocates the amount needed to execute the job. ram processor manager: a composite of two submanagers, the job scheduler and the process scheduler, which decides how to allocate the cpu. cpu device manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of devices. it monitors every device, channel, and control unit and chooses the most efficient way to allocate all of the system’s devices. keyboard, printer, disk drive file manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of files. program files, data files, compilers. network manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling access to and the use of networked resources. network comms, protocols 9 describe the early memory management allocation schemes singleuser contiguous, fixed partitions, dynamic partitions common requirements of old memory management techniques (disadvantages of the old schemes) entire program loaded into memory contiguous storage stays in memory until job completed each places severe restrictions on job size sufficient for first three generations of computers multiprogramming not supported in singleuser contiguous 10 describe the new memory management allocation schemes paged memory allocation o divides each incoming job into pages of equal size demand paging scheme o pages brought into memory only as needed segmented memory allocation scheme \n o each job divided into several segments (logical pieces), where the segments are different sizes segmented/demand paged memory o combination of segmentation and demand paging virtual memory o combination of ram and disk space that running processes can use. firstfit memory allocation first partition fitting the requirements o advantage: faster in making allocation o disadvantage: leads to memory waste bestfit memory allocation smallest partition fitting the requirements o advantage: makes the best use of memory space o disadvantage: slower in making allocation 11 explain the process management concept and concurrency of operating systems processor manager composite of two submanagers job scheduler: higherlevel scheduler o job scheduling responsibilities o job initiation based on certain criteria process scheduler: lowerlevel scheduler o process scheduling responsibilities o determines execution steps o process scheduling based on certain criteria hold (handled by job scheduler) ready (handled by process scheduler) waiting (handled by process scheduler) running (handled by process scheduler) finished (handled by job scheduler) six algorithm types firstcome, firstserved (fcfs) – nonpreemptive shortest job next (sjn) – nonpreemptive priority scheduling – nonpreemptive shortest remaining time (srt) – preemptive round robin (rr)– preemptive multiplelevel queues – more of a package, 1 queue per policy \n concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other multiple processes within os multiple threads within a process there is no need for ‘rules’ if there is no shared resources (e.g. data) or resource/data is constant (readonly), otherwise we need synchronization… lack of process synchronization consequences • deadlock: “deadly embrace” • system comes to standstill • resolved via external intervention • starvation • infinite postponement of job 12 identify the four basic functions of device management monitoring of status of each device enforcing policies to determine which process will get a device and for how long. allocating the device deallocating the device dedicated devices (e.g. printer) shared devices (e.g. hard disk) virtual devices a virtual device is a combination of dedicated and shared devices. it is actually a dedicated device which is transformed to a shared device. (e.g. printer converted to shareable device through a spooling program which reroutes all print requests to a disk.) sequential access disk dasd flash memory optical disk, magnetic disk, fixed and movable head \n ready – determined by process scheduling algorithms waiting – signal to continue processing running – l/0 request page fault divide each job into equal size pages brought into memory only as needed each job divided into different size, segment are different size combination combination of ram and disk space that running process can use it checks the validity of each request for memory space and, if it’s a legal request, allocates the amount needed to execute the job. which decides how to allocate the cpu. controlling access to and the use of networked resources. 13 explain the fundamentals of file management and the structure of the file management system in a computer system, the file manager keeps track of its files with directories that contain the filename, its physical location in secondary storage, and important information about each file. file storage tracking policy implementation file allocation if user access cleared file deallocation field – group of related byte record – group of related field file – group of related record (information used by specific program) file organization refers to the arrangement of records within the file \n sequential record organization easiest to implement because records are stored and retrieved serially, one after the other. direct record organization uses direct access files, which, of course, can be implemented only on direct access storage devices indexed sequential record organization combines the best of sequential and direct access.",
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477c11525c5a9e47077bc83b15433393 | Lösen von Gleichungen mithilfe der Polynomdivision.
Führe eine Polynomdivision durch.
a) (x^3 + 2x^2 - 17x + 6) : (x-3)
b) (2x^3 + 2x^2 - 21x + 12) : (x+4)
c) (2x^3 - 7x^2 - x +2) : (2x-1)
d) (x^4 + 2x^3 - 4x^2 - 9x - 2): (x+2)
bitte ausführlich mit den einzelnen Rechenschritten! | Einzelne Schritte von 4 Polynomdivisionen. Bsp.(x^3 + 2x^2 - 17x + 6) : (x-3) | mathelounge.de | 2021.21 | [
{
"text": "a) (x^3 + 2x^2 - 17x + 6) : (x-3)\n\n(x^3 + 2x^2 - 17x + 6) : (x - 3) = x^2 + 5x - 2 \n\nx^3 - 3x^2 \n\n——————————————————————— \n\n5x^2 - 17x + 6 \n\n5x^2 - 15x \n\n———————————————— \n\n- 2x + 6 \n\n- 2x + 6 \n\n————————— \n\n0\n\n \n\nb) (2x^3 + 2x^2 - 21x + 12) : (x+4)\n\n(2x^3 + 2x^2 - 21x + 12) : (x + 4) = 2x^2 - 6x + 3 \n\n2x^3 + 8x^2 \n\n————————————————————————— \n\n- 6x^2 - 21x + 12 \n\n- 6x^2 - 24x \n\n——————————————————— \n\n3x + 12 \n\n3x + 12 \n\n———————— \n\n0\n\n \n\nc) (2x^3 - 7x^2 - x +2) : (2x-1)\n\n(2x^3 - 7x^2 - x + 2) : (2x - 1) = x^2 - 3x - 2 \n\n2x^3 - x^2 \n\n——————————————————————— \n\n- 6x^2 - x + 2 \n\n- 6x^2 + 3x \n\n————————————————— \n\n- 4x + 2 \n\n- 4x + 2 \n\n————————— \n\n0\n\n \n\nd) (x^4 + 2x^3 - 4x^2 - 9x - 2): (x+2)\n\n(x^4 + 2x^3 - 4x^2 - 9x - 2) : (x + 2) = x^3 - 4x - 1 \n\nx^4 + 2x^3 \n\n—————————————————————————————— \n\n- 4x^2 - 9x - 2 \n\n- 4x^2 - 8x \n\n————————————————— \n\n- x - 2 \n\n- x - 2 \n\n———————— \n\n0\n\n",
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ddb631e3c0a3b2f7b7acd86f3b850ec5 | Hallo zusammen,
wie löse ich die Aufgabenstellung zur Matrix?
A = $$ \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 2 & 4 & 6 \\ 1&1&3 & 0\\2 & 5 & 0 & 3 \\ 1 & 3 & 0 & x + 5 \end{pmatrix} $$
Edit: Matrix lesbar gemacht
Gruss
| Untersuchen sie, für welche reelle Zahl x die Matrix A nicht invertierbar ist. | mathelounge.de | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": "\n \n\n \nmit dem Gauß-Algorithmus ergibt sich eine obere Dreiecksmatrix: \n\n⎡ 1 2 4 6 ⎤\n \n⎢ 1 1 3 0 ⎥\n \n⎢ 2 5 0 3 ⎥\n \n⎣ 1 3 0 x + 5 ⎦\n\n----------\n\n⎡ 1 2 4 6 ⎤\n\n⎢ 0 -1 -1 -6 ⎥ Z2 - Z1 \n\n⎢ 0 1 -8 -9 ⎥ Z3 - 2 * Z1\n\n⎣ 0 1 -4 x - 1 ⎦ Z4 - Z1 \n\n--------\n\n⎡ 1 2 4 6 ⎤\n\n⎢ 0 -1 -1 -6 ⎥\n\n⎢ 0 0 -9 -15 ⎥ Z3 + Z2\n\n⎣ 0 0 -5 x - 7 ⎦ Z4 + Z2\n\n-----------------\n\n⎡ **1** 2 4 6 ⎤\n\n⎢ **0** **-1** -1 -6 ⎥\n\n⎢ **0 0** **-9** -15 ⎥\n\n⎣ **0 0 0** **x + 4/3** ⌋ Z4 - 5/9 * Z3 \n\nDie Ausgangsmartrix ist **genau dann invertierbar, wenn** alle Elemente der **Hauptdiagonalen** der oberen Dreiecksmatrix ≠ 0 sind\n \n\n\nx + 4/3 ≠ 0 ⇔ **x ≠ - 4/3**\n\n*Gruß Wolfgang*\n\n",
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"text": "Entwickel die Matrix nach der 3 Spalte und verwende die Regel von Sarrus.\n\nDET([1, 2, 4, 6; 1, 1, 3, 0; 2, 5, 0, 3; 1, 3, 0, x + 5]) = 9·x + 12 = 0 --> x = - 4/3\n \n\n\n",
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8d2ef995a0ea01c972eed75dc67025fa | Hallo zusammen,
habe eine 18x18 Matrix und soll den betragsmäßig größten Eigenwert und den dazugehörigen Eigenvektor bestimmen.
Habe es schon mit MATLAB und MAPLE versucht komme da aber nicht ganz weiter :S
kann mir jemand weiterhelfen?
Es handelt sich um folgende Matrix:
0 3 1 4 2 8 2 5 6 2 6 7 6 6 9 4 7 4
1 0 2 6 3 3 5 3 2 3 3 5 1 3 3 2 4 4
2 3 0 3 3 9 1 2 4 2 2 4 3 7 3 4 2 9
2 4 4 0 5 3 4 5 7 3 2 3 5 3 2 3 5 8
1 1 6 1 0 6 2 5 7 1 1 1 7 3 4 4 5 2
4 3 2 4 3 0 1 3 3 8 3 2 5 2 5 5 3 3
4 1 2 2 1 0 0 2 1 1 2 1 2 3 5 2 2 5
1 2 2 4 1 3 2 0 1 2 3 1 3 4 1 3 5 5
3 2 6 1 1 2 2 2 0 6 4 4 3 1 3 3 4 2
2 0 2 1 4 5 2 4 3 0 1 3 4 0 1 3 4 4
2 3 1 3 0 1 1 3 2 1 0 4 5 4 0 4 1 3
1 3 2 2 1 1 0 5 2 3 3 0 4 5 3 2 1 4
1 2 3 2 6 3 2 1 1 4 2 3 0 4 3 1 3 1
0 0 4 2 3 5 3 1 1 3 3 1 2 0 3 2 3 1
0 0 4 2 0 3 1 1 2 1 1 5 2 2 0 1 0 7
3 1 1 0 3 2 1 2 3 3 2 1 2 2 5 0 1 4
0 3 3 0 1 1 4 1 3 2 0 1 1 2 1 3 0 3
1 4 0 2 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 5 2 3 0
Beste Grüße
| Eigenwert und Eigenvektor bei einer 18x18 Matrix berechnen | mathelounge.de | 2021.31 | [
{
"text": "diese Seite ist ganz gut für solche Monsterpakete. Man müsste schon echt aufpassen sich hier nirgends zu verrechnen. Und solchen Matrizen kann man ja getrost den Rechnern überlassen. Hauptsache, man versteht, wie es berechnet wird. Der Ansatz dafür ist ja $$ P\\_A(t)=\\det(A-t\\cdot E), $$ mit dem man das charakteristische Polynom erhält, dessen Linearfaktoren die Eigenwerte enthalten, die Nullstellen.\n\n<https://arndt-bruenner.de/mathe/scripts/eigenwert2.htm> \n\n\nUnd hier, wie man das auch mit kleineren Matrizen zunächst üben kann.\n\n<https://mathelounge.de/552659/geben-sie-das-charakteristische-polynom-der-matrix-an> \n\n\n",
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aa266cc7e2a76ed54e9647e4655e13e6 | Ich brauche Hilfe bei dieser Aufgabe, leider habe ich keine Ahnung wie ich das lösen muss.
Lösen Sie das folgende lineare Gleichungssystem Ax = b
$$ x\_1 + 2x\_3 = 7 \\ 4x\_1 + x\_2 + x\_3 = 0 \\ 3x\_1 + 2x\_2 - 7x\_3 = -31 $$
durch Multiplikation der inversen Matrix \( A{-1} \) mit der rechten Seite \( b: x = A^{-1} b \). Berechnen Sie dabei die inverse Matrix unter Verwendung von Unterdeterminanten.
| Löse das lineare Gleichungssysteme Ax=b durch Multiplikation der inversen Matrix | mathelounge.de | 2021.31 | [
{
"text": "Hi\n\ndu stellst ein LGS auf und Löst dieses nach Gauß Jordan\n\n 1 0 2 7 \n 4 1 1 0 \n 3 2 - 7 - 31 \n \n Mit der 1. Zeile werden alle anderen Zeilen in der 1. Spalte auf 0 gebracht. \nZur 2. Zeile wird das -4fache der 1. Zeile addiert: \n \n 1 0 2 7 \n 0 1 - 7 - 28 \n 3 2 - 7 - 31 \n \n Zur 3. Zeile wird das -3fache der 1. Zeile addiert:\n\n \n 1 0 2 7 \n 0 1 - 7 - 28 \n 0 2 - 13 - 52\n\n \nMit der 2. Zeile werden alle anderen Zeilen in der 2. Spalte auf 0 gebracht. \n Zur 3. Zeile wird das -2fache der 2. Zeile addiert:\n\n \n 1 0 2 7 \n 0 1 - 7 - 28 \n 0 0 1 4\n\n \n Mit der 3. Zeile werden alle anderen Zeilen in der 3. Spalte auf 0 gebracht. \n Zur 1. Zeile wird das -2fache der 3. Zeile addiert:\n\n \n 1 0 0 - 1 \n 0 1 - 7 - 28 \n 0 0 1 4\n\n \n Zur 2. Zeile wird das 7fache der 3. Zeile addiert:\n\n \n 1 0 0 - 1 \n 0 1 0 0 \n 0 0 1 4\n\n**Die Lösung ist:**\n\n**x\\_1=-1.00 \nx\\_2=0.00 \nx\\_3=4.00** \n\n\n**Die Inverse Matrix kannst du ähnlich berechnen, das geht dann mit der Adjungierten und der Unterdeterminante**\n\n**Die Inverse ist:**\n\n**-9 4 -2 \n31 -13 7 \n5 -2 1**\n\n**Die Inverse multipliziert mit der A Matrix ist die Einheitsmatrix:**\n\n**A*A^-1=E**\n\n",
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fa7464a055d596578da5eff0f189a178 | factorise: 5 + 3a - 14a2 | shaalaa.com | 2021.21 | [
{
"text": "5 + 3a - 14a2 5 + 10a - 7a - 14a2 = 5(1 + 2a) - 7a (1 + 2a) = (1 + 2a) (5 - 7a)",
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|
2f046ca311683f491c52d25c5c20f392 | simplify :`[ 8^3a xx 2^5 xx 2^(2a) ]/[ 4 xx 2^(11a) xx 2^(-2a) ]` | shaalaa.com | 2021.21 | [
{
"text": "`[ 8^3a xx 2^5 xx 2^(2a) ]/[ 4 xx 2^(11a) xx 2^(-2a) ]` = `[(2^3)^(3a) xx 2^5 xx 2^(2a) ]/[ 2^2 xx 2^(11a) xx 2^(-2a)]` =`[ 2^( 3 xx 3a ) xx 2^5 xx 2^(2a)]/[ 2^2 xx 2^(11a) xx 2^(-2a)]` = `[2^(9a) xx 2^5 xx 2^(2a)]/[ 2^2 xx 2^(11a) xx 2^(-2a)]` = `2^[9a + 5 + 2a - 2 - 11a + 2a]` = `2^[ 2a + 3 ]`",
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|
222218074124dbf01f02a1946217b2e2 | hi | hi | purepla.net | 2020.34 | [
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"text": "hi there 😂😂😂",
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8602fea10bc959485bdfcf93f41dc324 | add and . | question | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": " add and .",
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] |
dba77a8e5c63c295b0ce588680b911cd | 14 find the shortest distance between the lines
and
| question | careers360.com | 2020.34 | [
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"text": "417",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
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9851e83232bb064570bf58fee951ba1b | find:
(ii) | find: (ii) 2/ 3 x -5/ 9 | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": "given product: \n\n",
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f31fc86c7652f58146abc48538c8bb6b | q : 4 simplify.
(v) | question | careers360.com | 2020.45 | [
{
"text": "224",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
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] |
6ff1898be632656743e39fa12a65fef3 | the temporary hardness of a water sample is due to compound x. boiling this sample converts x to compound y. x and y, respectively, are:
option 1) and
option 2) and option 3) and option 4) and cao | question | careers360.com | 2020.50 | [
{
"text": "342",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
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] |
74da4f3f977757658970f6829061776d | the group number, number of valence electrons, and valency of an element with atomic number 15, respectively, are:
option 1)
and
option 2)
and
option 3)
and
option 4)
and
| question | careers360.com | 2021.04 | [
{
"text": "532",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
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] |
b5fb34afad73b5d23ab11d0a8d38f6bf | q2 in fig. 6.35, , and . find
| question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
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"text": "174",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
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] |
9b0c9696a2bbb093fb6048afa1431d86 | 1. solve
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
| question | careers360.com | 2020.16 | [
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"text": "55",
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e60f68f1e45a5c19e3229ce1cf0937e4 | 5. from the choices given below, choose the equation whose graph is given in fig. 4.7
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
| question | careers360.com | 2020.16 | [
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"text": "149",
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e27c72522746a57627f034e29c1137cc | 3. find:
| find : 2.7 divided by 100 | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
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"text": "as we know while dividing a decimal number by 100, the decimal point gets shifted to left by two digits.\n\nso\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n \n\n",
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538a8d3c30600380f2bfeb13fa1ea40d | q : 8 using , find
(iv) | question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
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"text": "137",
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"is_accepted": true
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8fd9fa05a688c10aca12f50e0e4af25a | 1. fill in these boxes:
= = | question | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": "1. fill in these boxes:\n\n \n\n = = ",
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042f9e25fb699de534b3aef18e05c8d3 |
5 1 4 7 3 9 8 5 7 2 6 3 1 5 8 6 3 8 5 2 2 4 3 4 9 6
how many even numbers are there in the sequence which are immediately preceded by an odd number & immediately followed by an even number?
option 1) 1option 2) 2option 3) 3option 4) 6option 5) 4
| question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
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"text": "81",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
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] |
65a071ec4b702d80eb5f19216e12df5a | find:
(a) 50% of 164 | question | careers360.com | 2020.29 | [
{
"text": "57",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
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] |
0d27e61ba6efa16ea222588ff0a08f2b | q : 2 find the product.
(iv) | question | careers360.com | 2020.16 | [
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"text": "64",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
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932110fac8a635a8ec056702d40bc468 | q : 2 find the product.
(iii) | question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
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"text": "63",
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a8177e6f546aa6fb9446f8df22c706d2 | q.3. express each of the following numbers using exponential notation:
(i) 512 (ii) 343 (iii) 729 (iv) 3125
| question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
{
"text": "701",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
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ee7cddab3b69e59bd620e7a231139926 | q : 7 using , find
(iv) | question | careers360.com | 2020.16 | [
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"text": "93",
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"is_accepted": true
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943e0700a93b06c5362c903cc1f670d5 | which is the larger fraction?
(i) or
(ii) or
(iii) or | which is the larger fraction? | careers360.com | 2019.47 | [
{
"text": "the fractions are shown below using greater than or less than sign \n\n (i) \n\n (ii) \n\n (iii) ",
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32c0b2f35a4a91a13c128a0da03d0b1d | 4. fill in the boxes :
(a)
(b)
(c) | question | careers360.com | 2020.16 | [
{
"text": "4. fill in the boxes :\n\n (a) \n\n (b) \n\n (c) ",
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03a556d2dd1c2ae85e98c31ab326d08b | q25 integrate the functions | question | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
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"text": "144",
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7ab67f7d7fce51b79df1bea22e096083 | career in fashion designing | career in fashion designing | careers360.com | 2021.17 | [
{
"text": "hi nisha,\n\nfashion design is a growing field, and it is finding new corners and platforms apart from the established ones in the trade. check below the growing scope and opportunities in the field of fashion. \n\nfashion designer: creating new products with regard to the latest trends prevailing in the market, the designers are key players in the fashion industry. if you are creative enough to think out of the box and hard-working to handle the pressure positively, then you will be suitably rewarded in terms of good earnings and incentives.\n\nfashion illustrator: this person is responsible for preparing primary sketches of what the fashion designer desires and explains. an illustrator is the running hand of mental creations and ideas of the designer.\n\nfashion stylist: the stylist maintains make-up, hairstyle, dress code, etc. in order to ensure the best look of the show. they take care of the style and beauty aspects of the fashion shows or promotional programmes.\n\nfashion coordinator: the coordinator takes care of marketing policies and their arrangements. s/he is not related with the designing task. the responsibilities of advertising products, organising fashion shows, etc. lie with the coordinator.\n\nfashion consultant: a consultant in the fashion industry should be aware of trends and transitions in the domain, and should have knowledge about fashion designing as well. consultants regularly offer ideas regarding the development of products. they are required to be active observers who are sensitive to the changing vogues.\n\nfashion merchandiser: a merchandiser has the primary responsibility of marketing. analysing past and latest trends and sales data are among the major key deliverables. they collects details from buyers, and coordinates with the designers/production team for development of products that meets the market requirements. having know-how of fashion trends, fabrics, textures, hues, etc. along with understanding of market demand and production procedures is required from a fashion merchandiser.\n\nsome of the other profiles include-\n\n* freelancers\n* entrepreneurs\n* design managers\n* pattern engineers\n* exhibition and visual display experts\n* forecasting and fashion trends forum organisers\n\nthe average annual salary for students of master’s programme is around rs.6 lakhs per annum whereas for the bachelor’s programme, the average annual salary is nearly rs. 4.5 lakhs per annum.\n\n",
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4dc66593ed1d27ea67860609a826b0d1 | 4. fill in the boxes :
(a)
(b)
(c) | fill in the boxes: | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
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"text": "(a) :- \n\n \n\n(b) :- \n\n \n\n(c) :- \n\n ",
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5c4cff474735bff4687025d875e75a3b | q 8 integrate the functions | question | careers360.com | 2020.16 | [
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ee917b2fe8d2e67c3dcd2189674682bd | 1. find:
| question | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
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"text": "160",
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"is_accepted": true
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a25c7d83ea9e00d4840c36be18469cb3 | q.1. fill in these boxes:
=
= = | question | careers360.com | 2020.45 | [
{
"text": "q.1. fill in these boxes:\n\n = \n\n = = ",
"name": "",
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a6f9d6880bd815891ef3d29836493148 | 3. find:
| question | careers360.com | 2020.16 | [
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"text": "158",
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"is_accepted": true
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f84b18c239399ebb77538784630679ed | 9. match the equivalent fractions and write two more for each.
(i) (a)
(ii) (b)
(iii) (c)
(iv) (d)
(v) (e) | question | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
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"text": "9. match the equivalent fractions and write two more for each.\n\n (i) (a) \n\n (ii) (b) \n\n (iii) (c) \n\n (iv) (d) \n\n (v) (e) ",
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74f34a42c1e3b6cf10f6299784a0830d | q : 1 multiply the binomials.
(ii) and | question | careers360.com | 2020.29 | [
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"text": "169",
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7b77aa11d64bb2ace315039f462d8024 | q : 1 multiply the binomials.
(iv) and | question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
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"text": "93",
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38ac2da160f21c856d9a2a0c81017721 | 1. solve:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(v) (vi) (vii) | solve: (i) 2 - 3 / 5 exercise 2.1 (1) | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": "as we know we have to make the denominator the same in order to add or subtract the fractions. so,\n\n \n\n (i)\n\n \n\n(ii) \n\n \n\n(iii) \n\n \n\n(iv) \n\n \n\n \n\n(v) \n\n \n\n(vi) \n\n \n\n(vii) \n\n ",
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] |
ec873a8bc7be705231b2f1d48dc809b8 | q : 4 simplify.
(viii) | question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
{
"text": "124",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
ae2655cb513d2f09545ca96b35d0c08a | 10.19 draw the structure of (i) (vapour) (ii) (solid). | question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
{
"text": "67",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
04f9b4122e15d3cdb66ee52e12d861bf | q.6. simplify:
| simplify:2^3 times 5 | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": "\n\ncan be simplified as\n\n ",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
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] |
294189468299ba8769ab6c5b9489c463 | 3. simplify :
(ii) | question | careers360.com | 2020.16 | [
{
"text": "95",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
cb4ad8ccd9fa0ba01bcdbfb798656d14 | 1. write the fraction representing the shaded portion.
| write the fraction representing the shaded portion. | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": "(i) \n\n(ii) \n\n(iii) \n\n(iv) \n\n(v) \n\n(vi) \n\n \n\n(vii) \n\n(viii) \n\n(ix) \n\n(x) ",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
2ca1a59781805b8814e3ac31ff6550a3 | q1. evaluate.
(i) | question | careers360.com | 2020.45 | [
{
"text": "121",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
8a7ff46997d2d05be6dccac87984b2a3 | q : 6 using identities, evaluate.
(iv) | question | careers360.com | 2020.45 | [
{
"text": "162",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
6ee14f2f80072608b0980c902022ef2b | any p | question | careers360.com | 2021.10 | [
{
"text": "317",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
6c9c5bbdce906ee2eca58dbf715716ff | 3. find:
(i) 1.3 × 10 (ii) 36.8 × 10 (iii) 153.7 × 10 (iv) 168.07 × 10
(v) 31.1 × 100 (vi) 156.1 × 100 (vii) 3.62 × 100 (viii) 43.07 × 100
(ix) 0.5 × 10 (x) 0.08 × 10 (xi) 0.9 × 100 (xii) 0.03 × 1000 | question | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": "701",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
4d58d5f303474d846b56b441cd6c94cd | q.2. find the number from each of the following expanded forms:
| question | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": "178",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
b88c9064f26b140555115e75640331a6 | q7. find x and y, if
(ii) and | question | careers360.com | 2020.45 | [
{
"text": "211",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
9a1dde441cdec130d7327ceb42f53d1b | 27. find | question | careers360.com | 2020.29 | [
{
"text": "176",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
65b583a93dc8911e20fb4df5795cae93 | q (2) prove that
| question | careers360.com | 2021.10 | [
{
"text": "261",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
e3c684180447fdd5c756cbee778b6d7e | the trajectory of a projectile near the surface of the earth is given as . if it were launched at an angle with speed then :
option 1)
and
option 2)
and
option 3)
and
option 4)
and
| question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
{
"text": "372",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
2068f5cbd276ebdec7ffd16e7effc66d | 4. fill in the missing fractions.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) | question | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": "106",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
ec3e972a8ca752c9be6c7aea5a3673d1 | 4. find:
| question | careers360.com | 2020.05 | [
{
"text": "136",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
560ae65c5adec990ab521717bd3d5fad | q : 4 simplify.
(iv) | question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
{
"text": "237",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |
3b980fc1a94de3ec5d6140dff41ee325 | q : 4 (a) subtract from | question | careers360.com | 2020.10 | [
{
"text": "78",
"name": "",
"is_accepted": true
}
] |