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a943fn | A UFC fighter was recently revealed to have trace amounts of a steroid in his system. Authorities in the UFC and USADA said that they’re from the last time he got busted and a redditor attempted to debunk this theory, could someone have trace amounts of Turinabol 18 months after use? | [deleted] | askscience | {
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"The half life of turinabol is 18 hours. Thus, every 18 hours that the substance is in your body, roughly half is eliminated or metabolized in some way. Overall, this means approximately 730 half lives have occurred since the initial test. There is no test that could detect such a small amount of any substance. This is literally like trying to find a few specific molecules within the body, out of trillions of molecules.\n\nTldr: no",
"The OP has missed important information. The fighter (Jon Jones) did not test positive for turinibol, but instead for its metabolites. The metabolites do *not* have this short half life, and the USADA is saying that metabolites were likely absorbed into fat cells and released later when the fat was burned. \n\nThis is a really interesting and timely question, and I'd like to hear from an expert how likely this is to have really happened. The MMA fans are mostly very pessimistic about the chances, and feel that the drug testing agency, the California commission, and the promoter are all Lin collusion.",
"Would there be a location in the body that could envelope turinabol that would render it inactive that could than release it months later. Say it got caught in a fat cell and that fat cell got \"used\" 18 months later releasing the substance?"
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} | A UFC fighter was recently revealed to have trace amounts of a steroid in his system. Authorities in the UFC and USADA said that they’re from the last time he got busted and a redditor attempted to debunk this theory, could someone have trace amounts of Turinabol 18 months after use?
[deleted] | [
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|
ysx7o | Does the brain do any post-processing on our vision, like anti-aliasing? | I know about the "blind spot," and how our brains fill in the visual gap, but is there anything else that goes on in the vision centre? I mean, 3D rendering technologies utilise a number of tools in order to perfect an image: anti-aliasing, anisotropic filtering, occlusion correction, etc. Do our eyes use similar techniques, or is it not really necessary in the real world.
Thanks for any info. :) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5yl1z7",
"c5ylbmj",
"c5ykumn"
],
"text": [
"When you focus on something, you're eyes are constantly moving (called a [saccade](_URL_0_) ) not standing still. Your brain \"processes\" this into a still image.\n\nEdit: There's also quite a bit of work being done on the processing of visual info from a neural circuitry perspective. You might be interested in the work of [Florian Engert](_URL_1_) , a Harvard professor who also has the best faculty picture I've ever seen.",
"Why do you compare image-rendering techniques with eye? That does not make any sense. Better compassion is comparing eye to a camera and brain to image processing of camera.\n\n Because we have 2 eyes on fixed points our brain combines images thus making us see depth of objects and how far away are they ( for example basketball would be nearly impossible without it )\n\nAnother important function of brain is recognition of faces and facial expressions, ranking immediate threats ( like flying objects towards you )\n\nMaybe the most relevant fact that interests you is brain \"invents\" additional colour ( [Magenta|pink] (_URL_2_) ). The reason for it to better describe situation when eye detects colours from opposite sides of light spectrum\n\nAlso not every living thing perceive light the same way. Some organisms have additional detectors for additional electro-magnetic waves that aren't part of our light spectrum. Also some organisms have [four](_URL_3_) cones unlike ordinary humans who have 3. Colour blindness can also occur if people have less then usual number of cones therefore they process that information differently then normal people\n\nLanguage has an effect on how we perceive colours. If we have a specific name for some colour we will easily perceive it and distinguish it from other colours. ( watching BBC documentary \"Do you see what I see?\" could explain more, I haven't personally seen it )",
"I don't know if this counts, but the image on our retina is upside down, and our brain rights it."
],
"score": [
7,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccade",
"http://www.hms.harvard.edu/dms/neuroscience/fac/engert.php",
"http://www.biotele.com/magenta.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachromacy"
]
} | Does the brain do any post-processing on our vision, like anti-aliasing?
I know about the "blind spot," and how our brains fill in the visual gap, but is there anything else that goes on in the vision centre? I mean, 3D rendering technologies utilise a number of tools in order to perfect an image: anti-aliasing, anisotropic filtering, occlusion correction, etc. Do our eyes use similar techniques, or is it not really necessary in the real world. Thanks for any info. :) | [
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imw1n | When a new animal is discovered, what tests are done to see if it's edible (if any?) | Or I guess a better question is, what do we attempt to learn from new species (be they plants, animals, etc.) when they're first discovered? Is their edibility one of those things?
If so, how is that tested? | askscience | {
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"This is not something that the scientists who describe new species typically care about. These scientists, systematists and taxonomists, however do learn a lot from indigenous peoples about undescribed species. Most vertebrates are edible and in remote places protein is a rare and valuable resource worth troubling for. So anything large and proteinacious is fair game. To hunt an animal requires knowledge of its existence and extensive understanding of its biology. When scientists go looking for new species it is often because they heard about it from some local people and those people are already eating the creature. So the fact that these things are edible is often not news and generally more of a problem for conservation than a solution to our problems. \n\nIf an animal is discovered without previous knowledge of it palatability, the scientists describing it generally are not interested in this. If there are obvious signs of chemical, structural, behavioral, or other defenses, then the people describing it may be interested as these may be useful in diagnosing the new species. After description, folks interested in predator/prey interactions (ecologists generally) may be very interested in this however. But not from the human perspective, but from the perspective of other species. A notable and rather infamous example of this is by one of my heros, Dr. Richard Wassersug, who performed an experiment in the tropics with tadpoles many years ago- before regulations became what they are today. [He got a bunch of students to eat different tadpoles and rate their palatability.](_URL_0_) This earned him an ignoble prize. Anyways, I digress.",
"I don't believe there is an international standard as to the fitness of a substance or animal for edibility, research possibilities, etc. Generally, when a new substance is discovered, the very idea of using it comes from watching another human group consuming or utilizing it in some way. For instance, many of the tropical plants that have been utilized for synthetic drugs (from the pharmaceutical to the psychedelic) were first witnessed by settlers or anthropologists making contact with a group of humans. \n\nOf course, research trips are organized for testing purposes of exotic vegetation--in these cases, funding prerogatives dictate the types of testing for use that are attempted.\n\nAs for animals, most any mammal is edible, we aren't all that different from a shrew or anteater on the physiological functions of the body. But we really don't incorporate exotic animals into diet often (unless it fits the first clause in this response.) If you look at the livestock utilized for western consumption, it hasn't changed much over the last few centuries, i.e. swine, cattle, buffalo, poultry.",
"There is an accepted protocol to test if an unknown plant is edible and the general outline can be found [here.](_URL_1_) You could presume that the same method could be used whether that plant is new to science or simply new to you.\n\nAs far as animals go, a fair rule of thumb would be to ask whether the related species are edible. For the most part I don't think that any new species would be that different (as far as toxicity and digestibility goes) than any of their related species. The muscle tissue of pretty much any animal is edible whereas the more exotic the organ (glands, liver, even skin) are a lot more questionable given their source.\n\nI'd recommend cooking whatever you discover before eating it regardless.",
"What we know about a new species probably depends on how it is discovered. In my own field (entomology), most new species are found in museum collections, and we rarely know anything about them beyond what dried specimens and collection labels can tell us. On the other hand, a new fungus discovered by someone searching for useful natural compounds would be looked at pretty carefully to look for traits like antibiotic activity. Most newly discovered species are insects and other invertebrates, and would fall in the first category.",
"Well if we discover a new animal chances usually are that it is harder to find (I am guessing, could be wrong) and we would not want people eating rare species, would we?",
"Feed it to your dog. I'm sure that this was historically done. \n\nWell, if it's vegetation, that's different. In that case, a pet pig (or bear) would probably help."
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} | When a new animal is discovered, what tests are done to see if it's edible (if any?)
Or I guess a better question is, what do we attempt to learn from new species (be they plants, animals, etc.) when they're first discovered? Is their edibility one of those things? If so, how is that tested? | [
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|
62s39v | How do I derive a form of the Navier-Stokes Law which realistically reflects the vorticity surrounding complexly spinose Odontopleurid trilobites in conditions of incompressible steady flow? | The recurring emergence of extreme spinosity in certain Trilobite lineages in the Paleozoic has been interpreted as adaptive specialisation to a planktonic lifestyle. However, Stokes Law merely demonstrates that a sphere of a given diameter may show suspension behavior in conditions of incompressible steady flow, for a given vorticity of ω = Ñ ₓ u.
But spinescence directly affects vorticity in a chaotic fashion, and the resolution of Stokes law only covers the trivial scenario where y = -½ur² [1-3/2 (R/Ö r²+z²) + ½ (R/Ör²+z²)³]· … such a simplistic approximation won’t do….*
I’m supposed to believe that the behavior of [this guy](_URL_0_) in freefall in the water column is the same as that of a sphere or equal volume … try that with a small pebble vs a dandelion seed and see where that gets you… This is the same approach taken by theoretical physicists who approximate the geometry of a cow by postulating it is spherical. Which is entirely inappropriate to my problem (not to mention rude to the cows, which are noble creatures of great chastity and virtue who deserve better).
How do I solve Stokes law in such a manner as to take into account the actual shape of presumably planktonic complexly spinose trilobites such as Radiaspis radiata in a realistic fashion, “spherical cows” be-damned? Otherwise I’ll be stuck trying to figure out what to feed the spiny buggers if Stokes Law cannot account for their floating around with the rest of the plankton.
It's a thorny problem. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dfouus3",
"dfou6jg",
"dfpskek"
],
"text": [
"Well, you are on point with your observation that the approximation is too simplistic. One way to tackle your problem without approximating your odontopleurida as spherical is to describe their volume using [spherical harmonics](_URL_2_). By using this, you can treat them as spatially extended, non-spherical dust particles in a viscous fluid, but still maintain well-behaved properties like linear independence, orthogonality or symmetries for parity or rotations. Since spherical harmonics [share a deep connection](_URL_0_) with representation theory, you can find representations ℋ^(l) so that there exists a trace-free tensor of rank l, further simplifying your problem, as this is completely isomorphic (and even diffeomorphic) to the strong/explicit diophantine inequality of Interuniversal-Teichmüller-theory (as discussed [here](_URL_1_) in corollary 2.3). And this may sound familliar to you, as this was extensively applied to describe spinose Lichida trilobites in strong shear stress divergence and deviatoric momentum flow (though only Devonian, not Tremadocian, but a generalization for this is active field of research).\n\nI hope that helps.",
"Try checking out [this paper](_URL_3_) and skimming through it's many citations. This sounds like a really interesting problem. Is this really how biological oceanographers parameterize all of their planktonic transport models? I'm happy to help you work through some of the Fluid Mechanics and mathematics if you have questions.\n\nLove seeing hard questions like this on the subreddit!",
"A realistic way to do it is mesh up the bugger and run it in CFX or Fluent or something. With the geometry of that thing, the non-linearity challenge in getting an approximately exact (heh...) solution is ridiculous.\n\nMy hunch for the spinosity is that surface tension on the surface allows for them to float and eat plankton much more easily. If that's the case, vorticity doesn't have much to do with it since it isn't really lift that is holding it up, but surface tension (and maybe some associated bouyancy if they aren't totally solid).\n\nVorticity will be shed off of all of its appendages, but unless it can spin its spines, no Magnus forces will be present for lift. (I'm assuming the spines aren't airfoils/hydrofoils and are more like cylinders.)\n\nIf I'm misunderstanding something or missing something entirely, please correct me. This problem is very unique.\n\nEDIT: Also, if its a Stokes flow, the Reynolds numbers are much less than 1, meaning it's a very diffusive flow. Approximating one of those things in freefall in a single phase fluid as a sphere isn't bad. The boundary layers and interactions between the spines are so muddled that lumping all of their affects into a blob likely isn't a bad approximation. An analogy is trying to find out if a hummingbird wing has unsteady affects or turbulence - the scale of it muddles the answer and decoupling the effects of each is non-trivial. Better off doing a reduced order model or brute forcing it on a computer."
],
"score": [
26,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.jsjgeology.net/Spiny-trilobites_files/image002.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_harmonics#Connection_with_representation_theory",
"http://www.kurims.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~motizuki/Inter-universal%20Teichmuller%20Theory%20IV.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_harmonics",
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231911381_Stokes_Flow_Past_a_Particle_of_Arbitrary_Shape_A_Numerical_Method_of_Solution"
]
} | How do I derive a form of the Navier-Stokes Law which realistically reflects the vorticity surrounding complexly spinose Odontopleurid trilobites in conditions of incompressible steady flow?
The recurring emergence of extreme spinosity in certain Trilobite lineages in the Paleozoic has been interpreted as adaptive specialisation to a planktonic lifestyle. However, Stokes Law merely demonstrates that a sphere of a given diameter may show suspension behavior in conditions of incompressible steady flow, for a given vorticity of ω = Ñ ₓ u. But spinescence directly affects vorticity in a chaotic fashion, and the resolution of Stokes law only covers the trivial scenario where y = -½ur² [1-3/2 (R/Ö r²+z²) + ½ (R/Ör²+z²)³]· … such a simplistic approximation won’t do….* I’m supposed to believe that the behavior of [this guy](_URL_0_) in freefall in the water column is the same as that of a sphere or equal volume … try that with a small pebble vs a dandelion seed and see where that gets you… This is the same approach taken by theoretical physicists who approximate the geometry of a cow by postulating it is spherical. Which is entirely inappropriate to my problem (not to mention rude to the cows, which are noble creatures of great chastity and virtue who deserve better). How do I solve Stokes law in such a manner as to take into account the actual shape of presumably planktonic complexly spinose trilobites such as Radiaspis radiata in a realistic fashion, “spherical cows” be-damned? Otherwise I’ll be stuck trying to figure out what to feed the spiny buggers if Stokes Law cannot account for their floating around with the rest of the plankton. It's a thorny problem. | [
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|
2nb6wh | Why are suntans attractive to humans if they are an indication of skin damage? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cmcbf9f",
"cmc8tg4",
"cmc6pvr"
],
"text": [
"Suntans aren't attractive in every culture. When I walk out of my dorm-room on a sunny day in Chongqing China, I see a majority of (especially female) students using an umbrella. Why? Because in their culture, \"As long as a girl has the white skin, she is beautiful.\"",
"The 'attractive to humans' is overly broad. There are a number, a majority, in fact, of humans now living where this is not the case. You are referring to Western white people, Americans especially.\n\nI was reading a review of a [book](_URL_0_) in the New York Times and the tan look was traced back to what would have then have been called a madcap wealthy couple, Sara and Gerald Murphy.\n\n\" Hermes Mallea explains that the New Yorkers Sara and Gerald Murphy had much to do with the rise of beach culture on our continent’s palm-fringed southern coastlines.\n\nAt the turn of the last century, vacationers kept fairly covered up by the seaside, wanting to maintain a lily-white complexion. But in the 1920s the Murphys started fomenting the “suntan revolution.” They “revolutionized leisure by enjoying summer sun bathing on the Riviera, purposely seeking the sun instead of trying to escape the heat,” he writes.\"",
"Because it's fashionable.\n\nHave a look at [this](_URL_1_) and [this](_URL_1_) on Wikipedia for the history.\n\nThe short of it is that not too long ago a tan meant that you worked the fields, while no tan meant you didn't and could stay out of the sun. A tan now means you have the time to devote to tanning."
],
"score": [
11,
8,
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/23/fashion/three-new-books-on-luxurious-cold-weather-escapes.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skin_color#Social_status.2C_colorism_and_racism"
]
} | Why are suntans attractive to humans if they are an indication of skin damage?
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35qgpc | If I lift one side of cabinet, and the opposite side remains on the ground acting as a fulcrum, have I lifted exactly half of the weight? | I have a bet with my father, but realized I do not know the answer to this simple question.
| askscience | {
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"text": [
"The answer is Yes, if CG is at the center of the cabinet, then at the moment the cabinet moves from the ground, you are lifting halve of the weight. As you lift higher, you lift less, until CG is above pivot/the corner on the ground. Then you lift zero..\nIt's not a moment problem nor torque.. It's forces.. \n\nHow would the cabinet know if the floor or your dad is lifting the other corner.. Two are sharing the weight, each with half.. Floor or hand does not make a difference..",
"FRancOzmann has the answer. But in your father's defense, you only lift half the weight for an instant. For every degree you lift the cabinet, the weight you are lifting decreases. It's going to be more difficult for two people to lift a cabinet together than for one person to lift one side. The two people lifting are supporting a sustained load, and our muscles only have so much endurance. The one person lifting one side only lifts half the weight for an instant, and the more he tilts the cabinet the less weight he is supporting.",
"Yes, you are lifting exactly half the weight of the cabinet provided that the center of mass of the cabinet is in the middle of the cabinet. You can think of it this way - if you are just barely rotating the cabinet about the stationary side, then the torque from gravity is going to be equal and opposite to the torque you are providing by lifting. If the center of mass of the cabinet is halfway between the two sides then you are applying a force twice as far away from the rotation axis (the stationary side) as gravity and thus to do equal torques you must be applying half the force.",
"Yes and no.\n\nIf you put a scale at each end of the cabinet, each will show exactly half of the cabinet's weight. \nThe farther you lift, the more weight is shifted to the low side, until you lift it 90 degrees, then all of the weight will be on the low end. You can try this with an actual scale.\n\nNow that all ignores the fact that a real cabinet has a center of gravity in the center of the cabinet, not the center of the bottom. Imagine a very tall cabinet. The CG will be very high. You can tip the cabinet over by just getting that CG to go past the corner of the cabinet that is sitting on the ground.",
"It depends what you mean by 'lifted'.\n\nIf the cabinet is still horizontal to the ground and you are just barely holding up one side, then you are holding up half of its weight (assuming the cabinet's center of gravity isn't biased towards one side or the other).\n\nHowever, the farther you lift, the more the cabinet tips, and the larger the proportion of the weight that goes onto the remaining side on the floor. At some point, when the cabinet's center of gravity is exactly above the side touching the floor, you are holding up no weight at all. Theoretically you could let go and balance the cabinet precisely there, although in real life there are chaotic effects that tend to push it off balance.",
"You start off lifting exactly 50%, but then that drops at a rate based on the angle from 90 - 0 degrees... which works even when two people lift and carry, if you can get your side higher than your partner, then they have to lift more of the weight :)"
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} | If I lift one side of cabinet, and the opposite side remains on the ground acting as a fulcrum, have I lifted exactly half of the weight?
I have a bet with my father, but realized I do not know the answer to this simple question. | [
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|
2lb98j | Are there polynomial equations that are equal to basic trig functions? | Are there polynomial functions that are equal to basic trig functions (i.e: y=cos(x), y=sin(x))? If so what are they and how are they calculated? Also are there any limits on them (i.e only works when a < x < b)? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"It's possible to express these functions as Taylor series, which are sums of polynomial terms of increasing power, getting more and more accurate.\n\n(working in radians here)\n\nFor the sine function, it's sin(x)~=x-x^3 /6 + x^5 /120 - x^7 /5040... Each term is an odd power, divided by the factorial of the power, alternating positive and negative.\n\nFor cosine it's even powers instead of odd: cos(x)~=1-x^2 /2 +x^4 /24 ...\n\nWith a few terms, these are pretty accurate over the normal range that they are calculated for (0 to 360 degrees or x=0 to 2pi). However, with a finite number of terms they are never completely accurate. The smaller x is, the more accurate the series approximation is.\n\nYou can also fit a range of these functions to a polynomial of arbitrary order, which is what calculators use to calculate values efficiently (more efficient than Taylor series).",
"No, the Taylor series is the closest thing, as others have pointed out.\n\nTo see that no polynomial (i.e. with a finite number of terms) can equal sine or cosine for all x, simply observe that both trig functions are always between -1 and 1, and that all (non-constant) polynomials are unbounded (any polynomial is dominated by its leading term x^(n), and as x goes to infinity, the polynomial must go to either positive or negative infinity).\n\nTo show that no finite polynomial can be exactly equal to sine or cosine on a restricted interval a < x < b (with a < b) is a little more subtle, but here's the basic idea: \n\n* Taylor series are unique^*. \n\n* Sine and cosine both have a Taylor series on any interval (a,b), and both series have infinitely many non-zero terms. \n\n* If sine was equal to a polynomial (finitely many terms), then this would be a *different* Taylor series for sine (a polynomial can be viewed as an infinite series with only finitely many non-zero terms), contradicting the first fact. Same with cosine.\n\n^\\*: ^It's ^maybe ^worth ^noting ^that ^there ^can ^be ^different ^polynomial ^*approximations* ^to ^a ^function ^on ^an ^interval ^\\(i.e. ^distinct ^polynomials ^that ^are ^(*close*) ^to ^the ^original ^function\\), ^but ^no ^two ^distinct ^polynomials ^\\(infinite ^or ^otherwise\\) ^can ^be ^*equal* ^to ^the ^function.",
"The answer is no. No polynomial is equal to sin(x), for instance. However, the [Taylor series](_URL_0_) of the sine function \n\nP(x) = x - x^(3)/6 + x^(5)/120 + ...\n\ncan be thought of as kind of an \"infinite polynomial\", and it is exactly equal sin(x). If we take the first however many terms of this \"infinite polynomial\", we obtain a polynomial which approximates sin(x) for values \"close enough\" to 0. The more terms we take, the better the approximation is for terms close enough to 0, and the farther away from 0 the approximation works.\n\nLots of functions have Taylor series, and you learn how to construct them in a typical first year calculus class.",
"As many others have pointed out, an infinite Taylor Series is equal to the functions of sine and cosine.\n\nHowever, it may be interesting to note that any polynomial (in fact any function at all) can also uniquely be represented by an infinite series of sine or cosine terms with varying periods, also called a [Fourier Series](_URL_1_).",
"Finally my Linear Algebra 2 class will pay off!\n\nMany of you offer that the Taylor Series representation is the closest approximation to a trig function when in fact there is one that is EVEN closer!\nWARNING VERY ADVANCED MATH AHEAD!\n\nHere's our goal: We are going to find a polynomial approximation to the sine function by using Inner Products. The Theorems used are long and require some background knowledge, if you are interested PM me.\n\nHere we go: Let *v* in *C*[-π,π] be the function defined by *v(x)*= sin x. Let *U* denote the subspace of *C*[-π,π] consisting of the polynomials with real coefficients and degree at most 5. Our problem can now be reformulated as follows: find *u* in *U* such that ||*v-u*|| is as small as possible. \n\nTo compute the solution to our approximation problem, first apply the Gram-Schmidt procedure to the basis (1 ,*x,x^2 ,x^3 ,x^4 ,x^5*) of *U*, producing an orthonormal basis (*e1,e2,e3,e4,e5,e6*) of *U*. \n\nThen, again using the inner product given: < *f,g* > = the integral from -π to π of *f(x)g(x)dx*, compute *Puv* by using:\n*Puv*= < *v,e1* > *e1*+...+ < *v,en* > *en*.\n\nDoing this computation shows that *Puv* is the function:\n0.987862*x*-0.155271*x^3*+0.00564312*x^5*\n\nGraph that and set your calculator to the interval [-π,π] and it should be almost EXACT!\n\nThis is only an approximation on a certain interval ([-π,π]). But the thing that makes this MORE accurate than a Taylor Series expansion is that this way uses an incredibly accurate computation called Inner Products. \n\nPM me any questions on this I am an undergrad student and I have a very good understanding of Linear Algebra.\n\nEdit: the Taylor Series expansion x-x3 /6 + x5 /120. Graph that on [-π,π] and you will notice the the Taylor Series isn't so accurate. For example look at x=3 our approximation estimates sin 3 with an error of 0.001 but the Taylor Series has an error of 0.4. So the Taylor Series expansion is hundreds of times larger than our error estimation!",
"The other commenters have said anything I could say already, but I thought I'd add in this link for visualization purposes: \n\n_URL_2_\n\nThat will make Wolfram|Alpha graph the Taylor series approximation of sin(x) to a certain degree, and also plot sin(x) for comparison. To make the Taylor approximation more accurate, just increase the \"3\" in the equation. It will calculate the first \"3\" (Or whatever you make it) terms of the Taylor series for sin(x). You'll see it gets extremely accurate for small x, and its range of accuracy increases as the number of terms do. By the time you add 14 terms, you can't even tell the difference anymore in the graph.",
"It's an infinite polynomial. But there is a transform that converts it to an imaginary exponential form.\n\ncos(x) = (1/2)[exp(ix) + exp(-ix)]\n\nsin(x) = (1/2i)[exp(ix) - exp(-ix)]\n\nFrom a basic math point of view, cosine and sine have an infinite number of roots. Therefore, whatever polynomial represents these trig functions will also have an infinite number roots. And that's why we have the Taylor series.",
"No, trigonometric functions are examples of transcendental functions, which not only can not be written as polynomials, but are also not solutions to polynomial equations. \n\nThe closest thing to what you ask for is a Taylor series, which is a kind of infinite polynomial. We have\n\nsin(x) = x - x^3 / 3! + x^5 / 5! - x^7 / 7! + x^9 / 9! - ... \n\ncos(x) = 1 - x^2 /2! + x^4 / 4! - x^6 / 6! + x^8 / 8! - ... \n\n(here n! as usual is the product of the first n natural numbers)\n\nGenerally when you have a series representation, there are some limits on what x can be, but for these two x can be anything. You can derive these formulas yourself using\n\ne^x = 1 + x + x^2 / 2! + x^3 / 3! + x^4 / 4! + ...\n\nand the fact that e^ix = cos(x) + i sin(x).\n\nJust substitute ix for x in the formula for e^x, and group the resulting real and imaginary terms on the right hand side together. The real part will be the series expansion of cos(x), the imaginary part will be the that of sin(x).\n\nYou can see from these series expansions that there can be no polynomial expression for cos(x) and sin(x). If there were, that polynomial would have to equal the series expansion, which is impossible.\n\nNot just the basic trig functions, but all the rest, such as tan(x), cot(x), their inverses, and even their hyperbolic versions are all transcendental. This is one reason why we give them special names.",
"No!\n Polynomials have the important property that they have at most as many roots as its degree. Sin(x) has infinity roots, so it cannot be a polynomial. Another thing is that if it were a polynomial, you could differentiate it up to degree n times and get the zero function! The second property is better for seeing that it cannot be agree with a polynomial even in any interval (a,b)",
"A neat trick that's related to this sort of thing, but it only works for sine I believe.\n\nAssuming you're working in radians, sinx ~= x gets more and more accurate as x gets smaller. This actually is surprisingly accurate, for example:\n\nsin(0.3) = 0.2955\n\nsin(0.1) = 0.0998\n\nsin(0.05) = 0.04997\n\nsin(0.01) = 0.0099998\n\nAnd it gets more and more accurate from there. As a rule of thumb, unless you're doing something really precise, you can estimate sin x = x for x's smaller than about .3ish. (Assuming you're in radians)\n\nP.S. Your physics profs are more likely to be cool with this sort of thing than your math profs.",
"Everyone here is trying to show that there is some silly construction that is a polynomial approximation for the Sin or Cos functions but as many of us in the thread are aware there isn't one.\n\nSo lets do the important step and prove one doesn't exist! Now before anyone gets on me for being inexact this is a \"hand wavey\" proof just to get the idea out there.\n\nSo what do we know about the end behavior of polynomials? Eventually no matter how many terms they have to go off to Infinity of negative Infinity. But now what about the end behavior of the Sin and Cos functions? They continue to oscillate off into Infinity. Now I think from this we can all see a problem with construction of a polynomial we will never be able to get the same end behavior.\n\nSide Note: The Taylor series expansion on the other hand isn't a polynomial because of the Infinite sum which allows it to get around my \"proof\" and it does equal the function if you where to evaluate it infinity. Which if you can... I have some stuff I need computed.",
"You know how you can factor the polynomials by their zeros like how you can write p(x)=x^(2)-3x+2=(x-1)(x-2)? well the sin function has infinite zeros so if you had a polynomial if you were to factor it you would end up with infinite factors, Euler just assumed he could, basically he factorized the zeros of the function sin(x)/x ending up with an infinite product, he used this to calculate the sum of 1/n^(2)=pi^(2)/6 it was 100 years after he calculated this value that it was shown he could actually do this by Weirestras you can read more about it here _URL_3_ on the section Eulers approach.",
"Nope, thats the definition of a transcendental function. A function that cant be expressed as a finite degree polynomial.\n\nThe best you can do is approximate using taylor aeries.\n\nLook up taylor series if you have calculus under your belt. If not, learn calculus then come back to this question.",
"Applying calculus principles, you can use infinite series that equal the trigonometric functions. You can use a finite sum of these series to approximate values of the trig functions. I haven't used these in a few years, but a practicing mathematician or engineer would know the series formulae.",
"I'm surprised no one mentioned parametric methods to represent functions, and rational forms. While more powerful than polynomials, they let you represent (not just approximate) transcendental functions using just finite algebraic expressions. see _URL_4_ for instance.",
"Forget all the dribble about Taylor series. Taylor series are local properties: they make sense in an asymptotically small neighborhood of a point. I don't think that's what you are after.\n\nFunctions like cosine and sine have a much more powerful property: they are [analytic](_URL_5_), meaning that they are the limit of a power series. Intuitively speaking, they are a kind of \"infinite-degree polynomials\". Thanks to that property, you can do a bunch of algebra and calculus with them (almost) as easily as if they were polynomials.\n\nSo trig functions are almost as \"regular\" or \"well-behaved\" as polynomials, with the exception that they don't have a null finite-n-th derivative."
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_series",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=graph+sum+from+n+%3D+1+to+3+of+%28-1%29^%28n+%2B+1%29+*+x^%282n+-+1%29+%2F+%282n+-+1%29!+and+sin%28x%29+for+-10+%3C+x+%3C+10",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel_problem",
"http://www.cs.mtu.edu/~shene/COURSES/cs3621/NOTES/curves/rational.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_series#Analytic_functions"
]
} | Are there polynomial equations that are equal to basic trig functions?
Are there polynomial functions that are equal to basic trig functions (i.e: y=cos(x), y=sin(x))? If so what are they and how are they calculated? Also are there any limits on them (i.e only works when a < x < b)? | [
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|
jt0ka | Engineers of AskScience! What would you say is the most powerful machine that mankind has ever created? | Of course powerful is probably a relative term, but perhaps this could spark some interesting debate? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"In terms of sheer physical power it was [Tsar Bomba](_URL_0_). I can't find the figures off hand but its been estimated that in the tiny fraction of a second as it detonated its power output was around 1% that of the *sun*.\n\n**Edit:** If you want something that *doesn't* destroy itself in the process try the [Z-machine](_URL_1_)",
"The electrical grids are arguably single machines. Not only are the generators all interconnected, they have to be synchronized.\n\nThe European sychronized grid has about ~700GW of capacity and the Eastern Interconnect in North America is close. A nuclear bomb might have higher peak power output, but I think in terms of average power, the grids have them all beat. There was only one Tsar Bomba, but those generators put out 100 times the energy every year, all turning in sync.",
"Depending on how you define machine; Hydrogen bombs.",
"While it was running, the first stage of the Saturn V rocket (moon rocket) produced 10 GW. This is half as much as the worlds largest power plant (three gorges dam). Three gorges and another damn in Brazil are the only machines that work with more power. No other machine comes close.",
"Power in terms of sheer energy? Then I guess it would be some kind of a bomb.\nPower in terms of the amount of change it has brought about? My answer would be the invention of a transistor.",
"_URL_2_\n\n\nNot anything compared to a nuke, but big and impressive indeed\n\n\n\"The excavator is up to 220 m (721 ft) long and approximately 96 m (315 ft) high.\""
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsar_Bomba",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z_machine",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagger_288"
]
} | Engineers of AskScience! What would you say is the most powerful machine that mankind has ever created?
Of course powerful is probably a relative term, but perhaps this could spark some interesting debate? | [
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|
2dfrsk | The killdeer bird uses a "broken wing act" to distract predators from its nest. When it does this, does it understand WHY this works? Or is this simply an instinctive behavior? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cjp87a0",
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],
"text": [
"Cognitive ethologist Carolyn Ristau has done studies on similar behavior in another bird species, piping plovers. The short answer is that these birds are not necessarily aware of their behavior, but evidence is suggestive that they may be; at the very least, awareness cannot be ruled out. A summary of her work is here: \n_URL_0_",
"I know that corvids in particular are able to recognize and predict behaviours of other animals by predicting what they themselves would do in a situation, but I'm not sure if the killdeer bird is that intelligent. Given that other birds are, I don't think it's out of the question, though.",
"Birds are especially problematic when it comes to cognition. Their brains are radically different from ours. \n\nIn the 'they probably know what is going on' line of evidence, multiple birds species have exhibited [Theory of Mind](_URL_1_). So, it appears it is at least somewhat feasible for the birds to be evaluating things from the predator's point of view.\n\nHowever, the behavior is so stereotyped that it probably doesn't represent a truly comprehensive understanding of what they are doing. Generally, this type of behavior that does not need to be taught or learned through experience is thought to be largely unconscious and devoid of any notion of 'why'.\n\nIt is perhaps a bit of a stretch but my best guess is that it is a little like yelling when you get mad. You may indeed know what caused you to be mad (or in the killdeer's case know that the predator is getting close to their nest) but why that situation causes you to raise your voice is not something that is thought about deeply. I bet if you asked most people why they yell they would say something like 'well that's what I do when I get mad', and have very little 'why' in the explanation.",
"For those like me who had no idea what this bird was or looked like: _URL_2_\n\nI am in NC and supposedly right in the middle of their range. I've never seen a bird act as described, though. Where are people finding these?\n\nedit: Thanks for the tips on where to find them! The fact that they are \"shore birds\" and yet something that have a range throughout the entire US was surprising me, yeah. It makes sense that the broken wing thing is seasonal, that must be why I haven't seen it. We typically have too many snakes for many ground birds directly around where I am, I feel like. So maybe that's why I've not seen them.",
"I have no knowledge of a killdeer but I have seen this behavior in a New Zealand [Pukeko](_URL_3_) trying to lead me away from its swampy nest. I was a kid and knew what its game was but I was fascinated by the birds broken wing mimicry. It lead me around a half circle back to the trail I started on then took off. \n\nI felt some kind of intelligence, a deliberate manipulation, but of course how could it \"learn\" such an elaborate deception? \n\nIs this rouse a trait of birds that we think of as being on the more intelligent end of the scale?",
"I don't know the answer to the question, but I just wanted to say how cool I think Killdeer are. There are a lot of them where I live (Washington). It's actually really easy to find their nest by paying attention to where they get super worked up around. If you're walking through a field and a killdeer cuts you off, you can be certain you are close. Then you just pay attention to the perimeter it's making around you, and go in the opposite direction of where it's leading you.. I've found a couple of nests this way, and also spotted the young once they've hatched. They are really cute.. The parents call is also different depending on whether they are just talking to each other, trying to get your attention, or telling the young to hunker down because you're near.",
"Birds that hide food in the presence of other birds, will often go back and rehide it after the other bird is gone. So we know they are aware of other animals consciousness. \n\nAlso, crows will drop nuts in the street so that cars will run over them and crack them open -- it seems unlikely this behavior could evolved in such a short time.",
"I once owned a house with some acreage in Idaho, and a pair of killdeers would nest every year on a gravel driveway spur near the garage. When I kneeled by the nest (with eggs) both birds would do the 'broken wing act' while making a 'trilling' sound, but then would stop this act after around 5-10 minutes if I didn't respond. One of the birds would then come very close to me and basically shriek. It seems this pair would modify their 'act' if it failed to get me to leave the nest.",
"Okay so, i know there have been a few replies with reference to scientific work, but i don't know that they are actually relevant to the question. \n\nI think the first answer has to be, what makes you think the awareness you feel, about a certain action you perform, is not instinctual?\n\nI know that is problematic, because when you use *instinctual* in this context, i assume you are using it almost solely as a direct antilogy to *aware* - but it really is important to understand that this is not a distinction made with any success in science.\n \n(at least to my knowledge, and ive read quite a lot about the subject, but i would love if someone contradicted me on this and presented evidence) \n\nSo while both *instinctual* and *awareness* might have technical definitions in fields like behavioral biology, psychology, etc. they don't have this technical *distinction* from each other, that they seem to have in common non-scientific context.\n\nEvery time awareness or consciousness is studied objectively in biology (and not subjectively, like Descartes or other philosophical writings in philosophy or looking at it from the \"inside out\"), we seem to use such broad approximations to the thing, with so little connection to the common sense notion of consciousness that it's hard [problem] to see the resemblance between the two.\n\n\nHumans have a very large cortex. If we want to define awareness as all the stuff that goes on there and the stuff that goes on primarily in the limbic system as something else - that's one definition, but i don't know that it does anything to hit on the idea of *awareness* that is often talked about in non-scientific contexts. \n\nI'm not even sure i know what it means \"inside out\". I regularly perform actions to fool other people, so much is clear from the sciences. I employ surreptitous social strategies and maneuvers to try to get laid or get in better standing with someone, or even just to show someone i love them. But most of them i am clearly not aware of, at least not in the sense that i want to say i \"understand\" them.",
"How are you aware of something? Information and data, information equals senses and data equals past experiences, right? These in turn make you act accordingly. No different from animals.\n\nWhat i mean is, someone acts threatening. You raise your hands mostly and attain a more curved posture. All in all a posture that makes you harder to reach softspots and the head. This bird acts accordingly when the scenario attains the demanded criterias for such a behavior, a stimuli.\n\nSuma sumarum. Did you know you put your hands up and arms etc to protect a certain area of the body, or did you just do it?\n\nOn personal experience. There is a singular difference btw humans and the rest of the animal kingdom. We have culture. The rest is the same. Just a bigger government in your head.",
"I used to work at a golf course where these little birds lived on our driving range. I would go pick the range (golf cart with an attachment on the front) and the killdeer would fly circles around me, I'm assuming when I got close to their nests. It was really interesting and it would always be at least a few. Interesting birds, these."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www08.homepage.villanova.edu/michael.brown/Psych%208175/Ristau1991.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_intelligence#Theory_of_mind",
"http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/killdeer/id",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pukeko"
]
} | The killdeer bird uses a "broken wing act" to distract predators from its nest. When it does this, does it understand WHY this works? Or is this simply an instinctive behavior?
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||
moj3l | Where is the "best" place to turn the volume up? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c32k6eq",
"c32kmhu",
"c32mc9o",
"c32kf1a"
],
"text": [
"While still in the digital realm, there should be no difference between your iTunes volume control and your computer's volume control. When crossing the digital/analog barrier, you want to make sure that the analog source is as strong as possible to improve the signal/noise ratio of the signal. Thus, you should turn your computer volume all the way up and reduce your speaker volume to taste.\n\nAnalog signals are susceptible to various forms of degradation. As a thought experiment, imagine if you turned the volume from your computer down until it was barely perceptible at normal listening volumes from your speakers. Then turn your speakers up to compensate. You would not just be increasing the volume of the signal, you would be increasing the volume of any noise introduced as well.\n\nThis is directly related to the concept of the [noise floor](_URL_0_).\n\nEdit: practically speaking, by the way, it is very unlikely to make a perceptible difference one way or another for the casual listener.",
"Speaking of VLC, for such a robust program, why does it go to 400% volume? I imagine the explanation sounds a lot like Christopher Guest's character's explanation in This is Spinal Tap.",
"Usually the last element (amplifier / active speakers) is used to offer this kind of control. I usually set the others to around 90% (to prevent clipping; not always the case, though).\n\nAlso, make sure you don't chain equalizers or effects (e.g. have a non-flat setting for the equalizer in Winamp, an equalizer in your soundcard driver and a hardware equalizer built into your amp, reverb effects and other stuff like that).\n\nThe whole point is to let the best device do the work (whether it's amplification / attenuation, eq or fx) it was made for; that would be the amp / active speakers in most cases.",
"Correct me if I am wrong. Typical applications such as iTune do not have direct hardware access to your soundcard, and the volume adjustment is essentially 0.0-1.0x multiplier to your system volume. Only your OS can directly access the amplifier from your soundcard. \n\nMost speakers use cheap components and produce more distortion at high volumes. Unless you have a high end speaker, it's better to adjust the volume in your OS volume slider."
],
"score": [
43,
4,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_floor"
]
} | Where is the "best" place to turn the volume up?
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||
30qvwz | Meta Post - Changes to AskScience | ####Hello subscribers of /r/AskScience!
& nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp;It has been a long time since there has been a meta post from the mods, and I wanted to give an update. The previous top mod /u/TheWalruss has just stepped down, leaving me as the top moderator. I want this subreddit to succeed, and it has always been the moderators as a team that ran things behind the scenes. Because of this the subreddit will continue running as it has.
& nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp;TheWalruss' life has taken a turn for the better, and he is dedicating his time to life outside of reddit. If you have any questions for either myself or /u/TheWalruss, feel free to speak your mind here. We will both be watching this thread to answer your questions that you have for us.
& nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp;My goals for this subreddit are to keep quality as high as possible, as well as getting the community involved. Our users and panel members are what make /r/AskScience great. However, we still need your help to keep the subreddit running. If you see something that you think would help, a post or comment that breaks the rules or an addition that could be added to the [FAQ](_URL_0_) page to help [let us know!](_URL_3_)
& nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp;Remember, our moderators and panelists volunteer a lot of their spare time to /r/AskScience, so please be patient! Our panelists are real-life scientists who strive to answer your questions. This is often a thankless job, so please keep that in mind when replying to them and be courteous.
---
####Current changes to the subreddit
---
& nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp;We have updated the wiki to help make it more user friendly. We have included a [Quick Start Guide](_URL_1_) for our new users as well as making the [index page](_URL_2_) more navigation friendly.
Let us know what you think! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cpv0h6r",
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"text": [
"We have a lot of panelists who do a lot of different things. Besides a little piece of flair next to their names, I have no idea what any panelist does (including myself). Is it worth having a panelist AMA every now and then regarding their research? Is that something that panelists care about doing? Is this something that non-panelist people care about?",
"**EDIT:** I was mistaken about what a \"panel\" is. I was thinking of the AMA style posts, like [this one](_URL_0_). Replace the word \"panel\" below with \"Askscience AMA\" or whatever.\n\nI'm a professor at a major research university. In principle, I would be interested in participating in a panel or something of the sort. \n\nHowever, as a pre-tenure, junior professor I am under immense pressure and scrutiny. I have a lot on my plate and limited time. At this point in my career, I have to be selfish and only spend time on things that serve to improve my tenure case. I also have to be careful about my reputation and image in my department. I have no idea what my chair would think of me representing our department in a public forum like this and I don't intend to ask.\n\nI imagine there are a lot of other academics in the same boat.\n\nThere must be a way around this.\n\nFor example, if /r/askscience could find a way to reach out to departments or colleges, then interested departments could ask professors to volunteer. The department would see it as a public outreach and perhaps a way to attract new graduate student applicants. Junior professors like me would be more comfortable participating in a panel if it was sanctioned by the department.\n\nEDIT to add: Anything that would help legitimatize participation in a panel to my department and university would help.",
"Questions no,\n\nComments yes.... i hope that's ok.\n\nAs a Science (Physics) teacher, askscience is a regular plenary activity in my lessons. We, the kids and i, love scrolling through the list for an interesting question, discussing what the answer might be, and then clicking on the comments for vindication or re-education.\n\nAs you can imagine, they particularly enjoy when it turns out my hypothesis is a common misconception!\n\nThank you for the sub, and the work you do to keep it educational but fun.",
"> life outside of reddit\n\nWhat's this thing you speak of??",
"I'd just like to use this post to thank the mods and everyone who does share their time with us. Your kindness in sharing your knowledge really does add to my day by helping me understand the universe more, even just by a tiny bit. \n\nCheers.",
"I have it on good authority that /u/thewalruss has recently inherited the rights and fortunes of the Rockefeller family. Shortly thereafter, he moved to a mysterious tropical island in the pacific taking with him a cohort of engineers, scientists and artists. One artist was purportedly drawing what looked to be an [alien squid,](_URL_2_) but that's just a rumor. Wouldn't be a strange coincidence if thewalruss looked like [this?](_URL_2_)",
"One comment about science education that stuck with me is that we don't teach kids science, we teach kids scientific facts.\n\nThat is, a student comes out of physics, chemistry, biology with a laundry list of correct statements but not with a critical and problem-solving outlook and curiosity that underlies the practice of science. If you have a background in math then you know the wide difference between the depths of a problem you can explore and the formulaic experience many people have, leaving them with a distaste for the subject.\n\nI'd like to see more material on \"how this effect was tested\", \"how this experiment was designed\", \"how would you control for X?\", \"can you find the flaw in this deduction?\" I think it would bring readers closer to the activity of scientific inquiry.",
"Has a default sub subscribers, or rather non-unsubscribers?",
"In the spirit of looking to the future of the subreddit, can I point out that the sidebar calendar is out of date by nearly two months :P\n\nIn seriousness, all the best to /u/TheWalruss, and may it continue to be a success with you as top mod /u/MockDeath",
"I was thinking, wait a second, I know this guy. I didn't know you were a mod here. Congratz.",
"Sometimes a question gets asked verbatim again or as a very very similar form. I am a little unclear on whether reddit threads should be \"timeless\" or whether there is a element of a thread being tied to a time (ie people are discussing this now). I have left links to previous threads when I clearly remember that a copy exists. Are those kinds of threads supposed to be fused and whether there is norm to point people in using the search features more thoroughly?",
"Well this subreddit is one of my favorites. So thank you all for working to make it so.",
"... So what is /u/TheWalruss spending his time on now?"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/faq",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/quickstart",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskScience/wiki/index",
"http://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2verix/askscience_ama_series_im_monica_montano_associate/",
"http://vignette2.wikia.nocookie.net/watchmen/images/8/8c/Hira.png/revision/latest?cb=20090731095106",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6e/Ozymandiascomics.jpg"
]
} | Meta Post - Changes to AskScience
####Hello subscribers of /r/AskScience! & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp;It has been a long time since there has been a meta post from the mods, and I wanted to give an update. The previous top mod /u/TheWalruss has just stepped down, leaving me as the top moderator. I want this subreddit to succeed, and it has always been the moderators as a team that ran things behind the scenes. Because of this the subreddit will continue running as it has. & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp;TheWalruss' life has taken a turn for the better, and he is dedicating his time to life outside of reddit. If you have any questions for either myself or /u/TheWalruss, feel free to speak your mind here. We will both be watching this thread to answer your questions that you have for us. & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp;My goals for this subreddit are to keep quality as high as possible, as well as getting the community involved. Our users and panel members are what make /r/AskScience great. However, we still need your help to keep the subreddit running. If you see something that you think would help, a post or comment that breaks the rules or an addition that could be added to the [FAQ](_URL_0_) page to help [let us know!](_URL_3_) & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp;Remember, our moderators and panelists volunteer a lot of their spare time to /r/AskScience, so please be patient! Our panelists are real-life scientists who strive to answer your questions. This is often a thankless job, so please keep that in mind when replying to them and be courteous. --- ####Current changes to the subreddit --- & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp; & nbsp;We have updated the wiki to help make it more user friendly. We have included a [Quick Start Guide](_URL_1_) for our new users as well as making the [index page](_URL_2_) more navigation friendly. Let us know what you think! | [
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|
16tza5 | Somebody found ice growing out of a rail. How does something like this happen? | _URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7zcfcm",
"c7zeuh7",
"c7zjy5a",
"c7zjfl2",
"c7zl7hm",
"c7zpopf"
],
"text": [
"Basic answer is that the volume of water expands when turning to ice, and it finds the path of least resistance, which is out of that drain hole (that vertical rail would be full of water, answer for that below). Think of it as a sort of extrusion formed icicle.\n\nThis drain hole is at the top, which is incorrect, a drain hole at the top allows the vertical pipe to fill with water (condensation form or otherwise), which then produces this extrusion effect. Drain holes should always be at the lowest point, if at all. If there were no drain holes, there is a chance that the internal condensation of the internal humidity (shop environment is fairly warm, with all that welding and flame cutting) and the eventual freezing of that liquid water would cause the weld seams to burst. Usually this isn't that much of a problem for small volumes, and it causes rust bleed over your nice rail or fence, but larger outdoor sections in temperate climates that dance around zero degrees C can have some trouble.\n\nI work in a draft office for a structural steel company and do occasional site surveys, I have seem some questionable metal...",
"Here's a relevant page from Dr. James R. Carter, Illinois State University\n\n_URL_1_ and _URL_0_",
"[A link to the original submission where OP found the picture.](_URL_2_)",
"Its awfully odd that it has no rough spots on it. Would it not have to melt some in order for it to grow? Would that melting and refreezing cause bumps?",
"You can get a similar effect with [ice cubes](_URL_3_). Spikes are rather unusual, but if you've got an ice tray and have ever noticed that the top surface isn't perfectly flat, you've observed the basic mechanism of this phenomenon firsthand. The surfaces of the cube freeze first, and the expanding ice forces the water from the center through the weakest point, the upper surface of the cube.",
"I'd say the rail is full of water, as it freezes it expands, pushing itself out as it does so. You get loopy random shapes when something like that happens."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/6WAHq.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://my.ilstu.edu/~jrcarter/ice/extrude/",
"http://my.ilstu.edu/~jrcarter/ice/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/mildlyinteresting/comments/16tu2x/i_found_ice_growing_out_of_a_rail/",
"http://www.physics.utoronto.ca/~smorris/edl/icespikes/icespikes.html"
]
} | Somebody found ice growing out of a rail. How does something like this happen?
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4x2k1t | Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology | Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_).
Ask away! | askscience | {
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"How long does it take the brain to develop new methods of coping with stress after opiate use? How about after alcoholism?",
"What is metabolism. How can I have twice the calories as someone with the same physical activity and I don't gain weight. In the form of energy. Where does the food I intake get used/burned/transferred.",
"Neuroscience: Where / how are the memories that we make stored and retrieved?",
"If the heart is a muscle, and it can be strengthened like a muscle through activities and working out, does it ever need repairs, like other muscles in the body? And if so, how can it do this if it's always having to constantly relax and contract?",
"**Biology** (*Geoengineering*)\n\nA few years ago, an American businessman dumped around 100 tonnes of iron sulphate into the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of Canada. The iron dump spawned an artificial plankton bloom as large as 10,000 square kilometres. The intention is for the plankton to absorb carbon dioxide and then sink to the ocean bed – a geoengineering technique known as ocean fertilisation that he hopes will net lucrative carbon credits.\n\nThat was the idea, **did it work as intended?** Did anybody measure the outcome at all, not just in CO2 absorption, but also the impact of the plankton bloom on environment and ecosystem.",
"This is for all fields. Can you please tell what are the most important things to know in your field to gain the best overall understanding. Like for example if you learn classical and quantum mechanics you are well equipped to understand most of the things that are going on right now in physics.",
"Is it true that intelligent people are more prone to depression,bipolar disorder,anxiety etc. And so as creative,artistic like people?",
"Why haven't we created a device that astronauts can use to convert the CO2 that's released from their bodies to O2 that's essential recycled. I know that it takes a lot of energy to break the pi bonds but wouldn't it be cool?",
"How far off are we from understanding the neuroscience of intelligence, and when we do can we create technologies to augment or replicate this talent.",
"How viable is the head transplant that's been in the news? While the connecting nerve seems plausible(albeit many have say impossible), how can they reconnect the blood vessel fast enough so the patient doesn't bleeds out?",
"What does neuroscience and psychology tell us about narcissistic or sociopathic individuals? What traits do their brains display when scanned that could affect their behavior?",
"What are the mechanisms of the psychoactive drug LSD on the molecular level?",
"Had this in mind for some time: if you mix the same amount of blood from x amount of people into a clean container, would you still be able to identify all the different DNA's? Hopefully it's clear what i'm asking.\n\nEdit: Thank you for the answers.",
"Can a person with a split brain play pictionary with themselves?",
"What happens physiologically when a person gets a stress headache?",
"Neuroscience: I know that, for a long time, neurons were thought of as being unable to grow beyond the formative years of childhood (correct me if I'm wrong). I recently read Dr. Elizabeth Gould's work on rhesus monkeys where she demonstrated that neurons are, in fact, like other body cells in that they can develop in response to different stimuli. Has this been shown to be true in humans too?",
"After eating asparagus, would your blood be smelly the way your urine is? I'm wondering if the chemical that makes the urine smelly is also present in the blood or other body fluids.",
"Medicine/Biology\n\nWhat are the clear advantages and disadvantages of Embryonic Stem Cells and Adult Stem Cells in regards to stem cell research? Any articles or books would be helpful :)",
"My question is regarding quantum biology, I'm currently reading a book called 'Life on the Edge' it is a very interesting read and I am currently studying a science at university however with quantum biology I feel since is a new field it could be open to a lot of pseudoscience. In your expert opinion, is this an exciting new field or one that will fizzle out? If it is an exciting new field, what study's are currently being done etc. Thanks!",
"Wow this came at the right time, since I had really weird showerthoughts just a minute ago.\n\nWhat (hormone I guess) causes the \"bad feeling\" after, for example you're waiting for your crush to answer your text and it starts taking forever so you start become really worried and atleast I start to feel really sick and powerless. I'm really curious because that kind feeling is way worse than being sick/vomiting but feels a lot like those.",
"Where are we in regards to understanding and treating brain injuries? It seems specialists know very little and can only hypothesize what happens and also have very few or no tools to help patients suffering from it. Are there any effective treatments in the works? Stem cells could supposedly help but they seem to be quite far away commercially speaking and the efficacy has not been determined yet from what I understand.",
"Can anyone explain the different types of blood antigens for Transfusion science? The ABO groups and Rh factor are fairly self explanatory but I know there are other antigens involved, but not to what extent they really matter in transfusion. Some good resources on learning more about transfusion and transplantation compatibility would be appreciated also.",
"Why can I taste the strong taste of lead in ice from silicon ice trays, but (most) other people can't seem to? Drinks are almost always tainted/ruined, and I've tried with many different people's silicon ice trays, not just my own.",
"What's the next set of steps in future/up and coming treatments for malignant brain tumours (glioblastomas etc)? Are we ever going to be able to pinpoint an exact therapy that won't mean trial and error for the patient?",
"Is there an inherent problem with making an over the counter pain relief medication that doesn't take 30-45 minutes before giving relief? \n\nIs it just not possible to make an ibuprofen inhaler that would work in seconds?",
"This might be a dumb question but If we ever discover why we as humans are self aware, in theory could we teach other living things to be self aware? Or are we already doing this?",
"Why was diabetes insipidus named what it was? It has nothing to do with diabetes mellitus. Symptoms may be similar, but that's no reason to include the term diabetes into the title, right?",
"Chemistry: What is the \"empty space\" between protons and electrons in atoms? Is it the same \"empty space\" between planets and things in space? (This sorta leans to physics too I guess)",
"How do animals that live in groups (like lions or wolves) avoid inbreeding? Can they \"smell\" that they are related to another individual?",
"Why are some immunizations, such as polio, once in a lifetime but others, such as tetanus, require a renewal?",
"What causes our body hair to stop growing at a certain length, while head hairs can grow longer?",
"Do animals ever get a lack of sleep and lose certain functions because of it like we do?",
"Neuroscience, Physics: Is there any prove that there are correlations between consciousness and quantum mechanics ?",
"If I want to learn about genetics, where should i start and what should i know?",
"What is the biggest topic in the Neuroscience field currently?"
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} | Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_). Ask away! | [
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|
n9b64 | Questions about evolution... | Me and my girlfriend are getting into arguments about the nature of evolution (not whether it is true or not). How far does the science community think humans have progressed since say 0 AD? Have our anatomies changed? I'm sure they have a bit but a lot of this is due to medicine and nutrition. My theory is we have not changed much, but she thinks there would be substantial difference.
What does the science community have to say about this? Please post sources!
And what about our brains? Sure we learn more, because we have discovered more. But is there really that much of a difference?
edit: thanks for the posts and sources! some seem a bit misguided, but thank you none the less AskScience! | askscience | {
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],
"text": [
"I would suspect that the majority of evolutionary changes over a short time span would be to fast-adapting systems, such as the genes responsible for immune functions, or diet.\n\n[This article](_URL_0_) goes into some depth about recent evolutionary changes in humans.",
"[Lactose tolerance emerged as a trait between ~2100-20,000 years ago.](_URL_1_)",
"Regarding brain size:\n\n[Microcephalin, a Gene Regulating Brain Size, Continues to Evolve Adaptively in Humans](_URL_2_)"
],
"score": [
5,
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://discovermagazine.com/2009/mar/09-they-dont-make-homo-sapiens-like-they-used-to",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/104/10/3736.full",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/309/5741/1717.full"
]
} | Questions about evolution...
Me and my girlfriend are getting into arguments about the nature of evolution (not whether it is true or not). How far does the science community think humans have progressed since say 0 AD? Have our anatomies changed? I'm sure they have a bit but a lot of this is due to medicine and nutrition. My theory is we have not changed much, but she thinks there would be substantial difference. What does the science community have to say about this? Please post sources! And what about our brains? Sure we learn more, because we have discovered more. But is there really that much of a difference? edit: thanks for the posts and sources! some seem a bit misguided, but thank you none the less AskScience! | [
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31vozw | Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science | Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_0_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_2_).
Ask away!
| askscience | {
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"So we all assume life can only exist on planets. Is there any reasonable theoretical possibility that life could exist in a \"floating\" mass of liquid or gas? Say the mass was more or less a consistent distance to a sun.",
"My understanding of black holes are that they are essentially singularities with infinite density, but in order to achieve infinite density, you need to either have infinite mass or zero volume (D = M/V). Since a collapsing star has a finite amount of mass, it seems the only way a black hole could be formed is if the mass is compressed into a zero volume. So my question is...how is it possible that black holes can be varying sizes? Wouldn't all black holes be the exact same size regardless of how much mass it has and therefore the exact same gravitational effect (zero volume size)?",
"How much hotter would the earth be and how would it change the climate if snow were black instead of white?",
"How can hydrogen have a non-zero reduction potential? Reduction potential is given in Volts relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. However, I have also seen that 2H+/H2 has a reduction potential of -0.42V. The non-zero value for hydrogen is given in the context of the respiration chain of hydrogen oxidising bacteria, so is this simply a matter of some combination of the reduction potential of hydrogen and oxygen? Although 1/2 02/H20 = +0.82V so I can't see how a combination of the two stated reduction potentials (0 & 0.82) would come out to -0.42.",
"In geophysics gravity anomalies within the earth are mapped by measuring changes in gravitational acceleration. If we had very accurate clocks would it be possible to map gravity anomalies by analyzing the difference between two clocks, where one clock is moved along the surface of the earth in the area of interest while the another remains at a fixed location?",
"Using \"C. HOPKINS CaFe, mighty good (Mg) but you need your own salt (NaCl)\" as the mnemonic for the elements necessary for life. Mars has pretty much all, but I've not read much about the availability of nitrogen there. Mars doesn't seem to have an atmosphere rich in nitrogen, or in other nitrogen compounds (ammonia, nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, etc.).\n\nNitrogen is essential for protein formation. Does Mars have enough nitrogen to sustain a colony, let alone a biosphere? How would we extract it for a colony, or if we decided we wanted to terraform it? Or would we have to find nitrogen-rich planetesimals to seed Mars?",
"I want to calculate the minimum amount of work (in joules) it would take to compress a 30 m sphere of osmium into a volume of 4.68e-19 m.\n\nI have no idea how to pursue this. Any help would be appreciated!\n\n(For the curious, that is the Schwarzschild radius for that amount of mass)",
"Could their ever be tidal-wave sized waves in Lake Superior?",
"Two random questions I've been meaning to ask.\n\n1. Regarding dark matter. It is due to the rotation of galaxies that we were able to see dark matter. Why then, doesn't dark matter affect the rotation of planets in our solar system? Is the concentration just too low to be detected? Have we seen differences from general relativity predictions that can be explained by dark matter in our solar system?\n\n2. I've read about space stations that could potentially provide gravity by rotating to imitate earth's gravity. Now when you jump in this space station, you are accelerated downward. My question is where does this energy come from? Does the station slow down in its rotation, meaning you'll need to occasionally speed up the station to compensate for work it does dragging objects to the inside of it?",
"Do the constellations/stars etc. appear the same on other planets in our solar system? How far away would we need to go for the stars to \"change position\"?",
"I asked this question once before and didn't get any great answers but does anyone know any mathematical relations or even just a physics-based explanation related to the frequency of rotation of an object and the actual audible that that rotation produces.\n\nTo be clear I'm talking about something like the rotating blade of a fan or propeller producing a whirring noise. Or like when you take a chain and swing it around above your head with some frequency to produce a noise of a different frequency. Increasing rotation frequency definitely causes the audible frequency to increase as well but by what mechanism?",
"What are the leading opinions as to whether or not the universe is deterministic? Can the universe be labeled deterministic even if it is chaotic, i.e. deterministic but hopelessly complex? Does the uncertainty of quantum mechanics translate to a macro scale, or would sufficient data collection enable us to project the universe on an infinite timeline?\n\nLastly, what non-deterministic elements exist in the universe besides quantum uncertainty and life itself?",
"If we landed on hospitable alien planet and tried to eat say a apple looking fruit with no genetic match to our own, besides the alien bacteria that lets just say we boiled out, it is still carbon based but with no maching dna structures to our own could it be considered sustanible nutrition does dna play a roll at all in how we are able to ingest food",
"If the multiverse theory is true (as depicted by movies and TV shows like Sliders), then shouldn't I be frequently visited by people from alternate universes where people who have discovered how to travel between universes decide they want to visit me here in my universe?\n\nIt seems to me that the lack of such visitors would indicate that either such travel is entirely impossible, or the multiverse theory is wrong.",
"Assuming they are not perturbed by another force (passing stars, supernovas, etc.), do binary stars eventually collapse into each other? If so, what conditions would cause this?",
"With a small background in physics (read: I took a couple of physics courses in college while completing a different major), I've wondered about the various constants. To keep things simple, I'll just stick with *G*, the gravitational constant in Newton's law of universal gravitation, and with *c*, the speed of light in a vacuum. Is there any particular reason these constants are... what they are?\n\nFor example, *G* is 6.674E−11. *Why* is it 6.674E-11? I know we figured it out experimentally, which is fine and dandy, but is there some underlying reason for that specific number? Let's say that *G* is instead 7.49E-16, or, according to some rough number crunching, roughly what *G* would need to be for a planet with the mass of Jupiter to have Earth-normal gravity ( 9.81 m/s^2 ). What's fundamentally different between a universe where that's true versus ours? How much does *G* impact the laws of physics?\n\nI realize that Newtonian mechanics is a bit outdated (I'm not even positive it's used in general relativity), so what about *c*? It equals 299,792,458 m/s, but *why*? As a constant, it makes sense using *c* all over the place, but it's always bugged me that the actual value of *c* seems... arbitrary. What would be different if *c* equaled **exactly** 3E8 m/s? What if it equaled **exactly** 2.5E7 m/s? Does it even matter?",
"Here's a question I posted a few months ago when organochlorates were reported from the martian surface. I got neither answers nor comments; perhaps today might be more productive:\n\n**Context:** It seems chlorine may have been the major volatile species in Martian magmas, as inferred from martian meteorites (ref: _URL_0_). And now that we find the first martian organics, they turn out to be rife with organochlorates (_URL_1_), with chlorobenzene leading the pack. Seems the more we look at Mars, the more important chlorine becomes in the story.\n\n**Question:** What are the implications of a chlorine-rich Mars for the chemistry of surface waters back in the olden days where Mars was wet, whether intermittently or usually? Could some chlorine-rich phase have existed in liquid form and large amounts, or was the water really, really chlorinated? Should'nt we be seeing way more chlorinated halides than we are so far? Any other insights?",
"Watching Cosmos the other day had me wondering about the time dilation around a black hole. As objects get closer to the black hole, the object's time reference slows down until eventually stopping completely at the E.H.. If time is stopped for everything inside the E.H., how can black holes move through space? They shouldn't have the time to move at all. Can someone clear this up for me?",
"I hope this question fulfills the criteria of the post: What is the minimum temperature at which a human could spend their entire lifetime without complications (hypothermia, heatstroke, etc). What I'm looking for is the \"Goldilocks zone\" of human comfort. For the purpose of this question, assume minimal wind (if any) sun exposure equal to that of the northern hemisphere in spring.",
"Is there a link between virtual particles and the accelerating expansion of the universe? It just seems as if all the particles popping into and out of existence might be \"pushing\" the universe apart...and the larger it is, the more virtual particles, so the expansion accelerates.",
"Why do we point our interest in discovering foreign life towards planets with water? If life were to begin and evolve elsewhere, wouldn't it be more likely that they utilize something else as the basis of their make up?",
"Happened to see [this](_URL_2_) at /r/space earlier today - Mind blown. \nToward the end of the picture, there's this frame annotating about a galaxy 8 times as large as our Milky Way Galaxy. \"It is so large that it should not have existed according to our current physics theories\".\nWhat are the current physics theories running against its existence? Are there more information/illustrations like the original picture or any other related materials I can dig? I'm not formally trained beyond college-level physics required for an engineering degree, but all these astronomical stuff look so interesting to me.",
"My submission from this morning either hasn't yet or won't get approved so maybe here is a good spot:\n\n\"Sorry if this has been asked, I'm having a hard time searching for it, not sure if there's a name for the phenomenon or what.\nQuestion is pretty much in the title; is there a reason the planets steadily increase and then decrease in size in our solar system as you go outwards from the sun? Would that be the anticipated pattern in any other single star system as well?\n\nThanks!\"",
"My understanding is that our detectable universe is only 13.8 billion years old. Is it possible that there was another Big Bang elsewhere in the vast expanse of the infinite space that we cannot detect or has this been overruled? What would happen if two Big Bang universes ever merged? Would it be like two galaxy's colliding?",
"Don't know if this fit in here, it might fit in under physics i guess.\n\nThey make new elements by smashing two existing elements together on a very small scale, right? \n\nHow about making gold, what elements would I have to smash together, and how fast on an atomic level (or what the small scale is called), and how fast on an I-got-a-kilo-of-these-two-things level (in order to make most of it into gold of course)",
"When you cool stuff very much it becomes superfluid, meaning it has no viscosity. Then if you create a circular pipe (torus i guess?), and make the fluid start moving around in it, it would never slow down, correct? So my question is: can this be done using ferrofluid (magnetic fluid), to make it an ever more powerful magnet?\n\nTL;DR Is superfluid ferrofluid moving around in a torus able to become an infinitely powerful magnet?",
"I've never understood how time slows down for objects approaching and event horizon. For an observer, it appears that the object is slowing until it eventually stops. If this is the case, shouldn't there be a bunch of \"frozen in time\" objects that are close to the even horizon but haven't crossed? It seems to me that the area near an event horizon should be littered with things about to cross the plane.",
"I remember reading that at the centre of every Galaxy is a suoermassive black hole. Does that mean that given enough time the black hole in the centre of a Galaxy could slowly suck the whole Galaxy in? Are we slowly being sucked in? Or is the orbit perfectly stable? To add on to that would all the black holes slowly merge together?",
"If black holes contain a singularity and the big bang began with a singularity, couldn't an embolism accomplish a link and account for the rapid inflation and continued expansion? Is there anything that can be construed as a \"white hole\" [assuming the above stays open]. I'm reminded of cellular exocytosis with a membrane pinching off around the ejected material. Am I stupid?",
"I recently took a physics class and learned that friction is not determined by the area of an object. If this is the case does this mean that race cars such as dragsters or formula one could use a tire the width of a bicycle tire? Why do most performance cars have wider tires?",
"In mapping or remote sensing functions, there are many instruments that use the electomagnetic force, can gravity be used in a similar way? If so, what kind of resolution can be achieved in relation to our traditional mapping technologies (LiDAR, RADAR, etc.)?",
"If you had a uniform pole that extended from the ground on which you stand to outer sapce (zero g) how how would weight be accounted for? as gravity becomes weaker how does that effect the weight back on the ground?",
"Hope I'm not too late\n\nIs it possible and/or plausible for a planetary system to be set up in a way to give us the quirks of the universe we see in the Song of Ice & Fire/Game of Thrones?",
"If the speed of light was 300m/s instead of 300,000, what would change? \nAdditionally, Would we have more 'black holes' since light couldn't escape most planets? And if so, why aren't black holes just planets?",
"Many of us have seen the hexagonal cloud formations on Saturn. What is the likely cause of this? Why does it form such nearly perfect straight lines?",
"Is there any proof that a 4th dimension exists? If it does, is it possible that the universe itself is the 4th dimension?",
"If we found a perfectly reflective planet, like one made of mirrors or something, could we watch earths history in real time?",
"How does a black hole ever grow, if subjectively, nothing ever appears to cross its event horizon?",
"Is dark matter always grouped around \"normal\" matter or is it also witnessed clumped in voids?",
"Why is it that general relativity and quantum physics don't work together?",
"Are there more known causes of black holes, other than \"collapsing\" stars?",
"What strides have we made in finding a magnetic monopole?"
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} | Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_0_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_2_). Ask away! | [
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4w1bo4 | Why does delta x * delta p > = h/4pi? | This is the math behind Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle but what is the logic behind the right side of the equation? Why does delta x * delta p have to be greater than or equal to h/4pi? | askscience | {
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"Physical observables in quantum mechanics are represented by Hermitian operators (you can loosely think of them as matrices, but they may be infinite-dimensional). And as you may know from math class, multiplication of matrices is not commutative. That means that for two matrices A and B, it is not always true that A\\*B = B\\*A, where the asterisk represents standard matrix multiplication.\n\nWe can define something called the *commutator* of two matrices by:\n\n[A,B] = A\\*B - B\\*A.\n\nClearly if the two matrices commute, then the commutator is zero. If the two matrices don't commute, then the commutator is not zero.\n\nIf we have two observables, like position and its conjugate momentum, which **don't** commute, then they obey an uncertainty relation.\n\nIt [can be shown](_URL_0_) that for two general Hermitian operators A and B:\n\n < (ΔA)^(2) > < (ΔB)^(2) > > = < i[A,B] > ^(2)/4, where angle brackets denote the expectation value, and ΔA is defined to be A - < A > .\n\nFor position and momentum, [x,p*_x_*] = ih/(2pi), so we see that we get the desired result.\n\nSo you asked \"why\" this is true, and ultimately it's because operators don't commute, which means that certain physical observables are incompatible. This means that they can't simultaneously be known. For example, a particle localized in space will have a highly delocalized wavefunction in momentum-space.",
"Rather than go into the more formal mathematical explanation that /u/RobusEtCeleritas went into, I'm going to give a less rigorous but perhaps more intuitive explanation.\n\nFirst, we note that position and momentum are [Fourier conjugate](_URL_1_); we can transform from position space to momentum space using a Fourier transform. Technically, the conjugate of x is 2πp/h, which in other contexts would just be called ξ (xi). It turns out, there is an uncertainty relation between *any* Fourier conjugate variables:\n\n ΔxΔξ≥1/2\n\nSo, what is the intuition for this?\n\nFourier transforms tell us, given some distribution (function) in x-space, what the *frequency* distribution in ξ-space is. So, if our function is a pure sine wave with a well defined frequency in x-space, you would get a sharp peak (a Dirac δ-function) in ξ-space. You would know *precisely* where in ξ-space it was. But what if we want to know it's position in x-space? Where is the wave \"located\"? It's spread out over all of x-space, so we can't say anything about where it is!\n\nAnd, if instead the distribution in x-space were very well localized (a Dirac δ-function), so that we knew very well the position in x-space, the distribution in ξ-space would again be spread out and we couldn't say it was \"located\" anywhere.\n\nGoing back to position (x) and momentum (p), if you look at the wavefunction for a particle in x-space, creating a localized distribution requires many different momenta, increasing you uncertainty in p-space, and the reverse is true as well.\n\nAnd you can get the uncertainty relation by taking the one above and replacing ξ with 2πp/h and then moving the 2π/h to the other side (because they are constants with no variance).",
"It might help to think of it in terms of something less confusing: acoustics. You can record sound as a function of air pressure over time. But that's not always the most useful form. It's also nice to look at different pitches. Luckily, there's a way to get that. There's something known as a [Fourier transform](_URL_2_) that lets you look at a function as a sum of sine waves. If you take the Fourier transform of the air pressure vs time graph, you get an intensity vs pitch graph.\n\nBut what if you want to know both the time and pitch of a note? For example, maybe you want to detect a 1 Hz note played over the course of a millisecond. This is impossible. A 1 Hz note takes a full second for one cycle. It can't be played over the course of a millisecond. You might think that a second is the minimum, but that's not right either. A perfect 1 Hz note is a sine wave. It must be played for all eternity. If you only play one second's worth, it can be better expressed as a sum of nearby frequencies.\n\nWith quantum physics, particles can be thought of as waves. But they're not quite the same as sound waves. For example, the speed is not independent of frequency. It's proportional to frequency divided by mass. It's analogous to the momentum from Newtonian physics, so we call it momentum. So you end up with the position and momentum having to have more than a certain uncertainty. It's not that you don't know where it is and how fast it's going. It's that it's a wave that's spread out over a distance, and it's a sum of multiple sine waves so it's not just one frequency.\n\nAs to why it's that particular constant, that's just because of the constants involved in the formula for how waves move."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reed.edu/physics/courses/P342.S10/Physics342/page1/files/Lecture.20.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform"
]
} | Why does delta x * delta p > = h/4pi?
This is the math behind Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle but what is the logic behind the right side of the equation? Why does delta x * delta p have to be greater than or equal to h/4pi? | [
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|
kbbrp | What does the top of a lightning bolt look like? | Since the lightning bolt isn't actually attached to anything and the top of it is hidden in the clouds, I was wondering what the upper edge/boundary of a lightning bolt is shaped like. Is it just a mass of electricity? Does it fade into nothingness near the top? I can't quite picture how the source would appear. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2iwr5h",
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"c2izae4",
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],
"text": [
"If the bolt is directed from the cloud to ground, it will fade into nothing. I'll try to explain why with a simplistic description of lightning. The lightning bolt is essentially an arc that propagates from cloud to cloud, cloud to ground or ground to cloud. Let's assume cloud to ground. You have a build-up of negative charge (electrons) in the cloud and a potential difference between the cloud and the ground. Because of the potential difference, bound electrons in air particles that come near the cloud can get stripped off and accelerated toward the ground. If the potential difference is large enough (ionization potential of air), by the time the electron interacts with another atom, it will knock off another electron. Then both will accelerate.\n\nSo essentially there's an avalanche of electrons that starts at the cloud and propagates towards the ground. Near the cloud there are fewer electrons in the avalanche so there is less to see.\n\nNow, in reality, we actually don't know yet the details of lightning formation and how the charge builds up. This is still an area of research.",
"Saw somewhere a while back that the top of the bolt goes out towards space they even had vids from the space station showing lightning rising above the clouds don't know if it's true but it was entertaining as hell. Wish I could find it but not feeling to well today going to be a short day for me.",
"This is easily found through a google search or within Wikipedia.\n\nThere are photos of lightning from the space station.\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_0_",
"The top of a lightning bolt creates a thing called a Sprite if I remember correctly. they are pretty cool to watch. [Here we go](_URL_5_) Also, google Lightning sprite and check images :)"
],
"score": [
20,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.google.com/search?q=photos+of+lightning+from+space&hl=en&client=safari&rls=en&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=Gh9sTte2LYnt0gHq4ozxDg&ved=0CCMQsAQ&biw=1126&bih=911",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper-atmospheric_lightning",
"http://chamorrobible.org/images/photos/gpw-20061026d-original-NASA-ISS006-E-48196-space-Aurora-Australis-lightning-Earth-20030423.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Upperatmoslight1.jpg/400px-Upperatmoslight1.jpg",
"http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/aces/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_\\(lightning\\)"
]
} | What does the top of a lightning bolt look like?
Since the lightning bolt isn't actually attached to anything and the top of it is hidden in the clouds, I was wondering what the upper edge/boundary of a lightning bolt is shaped like. Is it just a mass of electricity? Does it fade into nothingness near the top? I can't quite picture how the source would appear. | [
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bty7e6 | Why did physicians historically administer vaccines into patients buttocks as opposed to the Arms/thighs? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Are you sure you mean vaccines and not antibiotics? Many vaccines are delivered to the arm/thigh, including mmr and smallpox.\n\nMore fat/muscle to hold the shot. Penicillin is administered to the buttocks, and it's a large injection. Add in the fact that it's often fresh from the cooler so it feels like peanut butter. All together this means that you can't give someone a full dose in the arm, especially if they're skinny or a child/baby.",
"There's a maximum injection volume depending on the intramuscular injection site, i.e. Deltoid 0.5-2 mL vs. Dorsogluteal 4 mL. This [article](_URL_0_) touches on the rationale/history a bit.",
"It’s easy to locate the area on the buttock where it’s safe to inject without hitting any nerves or blood vessels. The upper arm where injections are often given is more acceptable to patients but risks damage to a branch of the axillary nerve.",
"Not humans, but cows - in one of his Vet books James Herriot details a long running argument he had with his practice principal about whether to inject TB vaccine into the shoulder or rump, and they argued a lot about the pros and cons of being injured (kicked vs horned), but they agreed that either was a viable target.\n\nAs other folk have said, depends how much you want to get in. I get my flu and pneumonia jabs in the arm, but I get anti-tet in my (regretably comfortable) bum.",
"CT scans show that many so called IM injections are into subcutaneous fat. Many people injecting stay so far from the sciatic nerve that the injection doesn’t reach the gluteus maximus. It then causes a focal area of fat necrosis which calcifies.",
"One gives injections in different sites, depending on what is being given, and how (i.e. intramuscular vs. subcutaneous). I would always look up how a drug should be injected and where before I gave any injections.",
"PhD Vaccinologist here.\n\nI think some of these answers are coming from a place of low information/folk wisdom. So let me clear up some of the misconceptions and draw on the clinical research literature....\n\nIt was always the goal for a vaccine to induce the maximum amount of protective immunity (B and T memory cells that live a long time and can protect you for a long time). \n\nThe story of vaccines is a lot like the rest of medicine...we did what we thought worked until we realized there was a better way. Originally, vaccines were given intradermally and subcutaneously, because it's based in what we knew about smallpox. Milk maids who had pustules on their hands were much less likely to get smallpox, and so it was believed they were getting the much less-lethal \"cow pox\" from the cows they worked with, and that this was protecting them from future infections with the real thing. \n\nSo Edward Jenner, the guy who invented vaccination, had this brilliant idea to take the pustules from the hands of these milk maids, and scrape some of it off and then poke it into the skin of some local children to see if it protected them as well. For the most part, **it did!**\n\nSmallpox is the result of infection with the \"*Variola major*\" (or minor) virus, so when Jenner cultured a virus from the milk maid's pustules, he thought he had cow pox and called it \"*Variola vaccinae*\" from the latin for \"Smallpox of the cow.\" \n\nUnbeknownst to Jenner, as we've learned since, vaccinia and cow pox are two completely different viruses, but the name stuck and the story sounds good anyway, lol. That happens a lot in the history of medicine, it's kind of like a cosmic joke! But that's where the word \"vaccination\" comes from, from using this \"vaccinia\" virus. \n\nIn fact, Jenner got the whole idea because he had a very similar thing done to him when he was a kid, taking small pox pustules from an infected *human* and poking the pus into his skin, called \"variolation,\" with the hope that the young and strong child would survive and therefore be protected. It worked for Jenner, it didn't work so well for a lot of other kids. This process called \"variolation\" then lent its name to the subsequent \"vaccination.\" \n\n(Further reading/Sources: [1](_URL_25_) [2](_URL_25_) [3](_URL_25_) [4](_URL_25_) [5](_URL_25_) [6](_URL_25_))\n\nSo that's why, originally, vaccines were given intradermally or subcutaneously (under the skin, either over or under the subcutaenous membrane). But, as it turns out, this method carries with it a ton of risks. Since the skin doesn't have very good drainage, a lot of the stuff from the vaccine sticks around in that one spot and can not always be very clean. \n\nIn fact, this is one of the dirty secrets of vaccinology. Vaccines are made up of two main components: antigen, and adjuvant. Antigen is the killed or picked apart pieces of the pathogen (virus, bacteria, fungus, etc) that you want the body to make antibodies against. Adjuvant, on the other hand, is something that will encourage immune cells to get all hot and bothered and make more of themselves. Typically, adjuvant is a molecule that the body doesn't like very much, that both causes some cell death and some activity, like if you got some dirt in the wound. Older adjuvants include alum (a form of aluminum) and oily mixes, things that are not compatible with life at a molecular level, and also bind to receptors on immune cells to make them reproduce and become \"activated.\" As it turns out \"rub some dirt in it\" isn't such a bad idea if you want to encourage immunity. It is a bad idea, though, if you want to prevent bacterial infections and scarring at the site of injection/injury. \n\nNowadays, adjuvants are more advanced forms of these things. Pharma companies make proprietary mixes of aluminum salts and little pieces of bacteria or glycolipids or oil molecules or whatever that are specially designed to bind to these receptors the most tightly, while also causing as few side effects as possible. As a field, we've come a long way in 100+ years. \n\n(Sources: [1](_URL_25_) [2](_URL_25_) [3](_URL_25_) [4](_URL_25_))\n\nInjecting vaccines under the skin, though, causes a big frustrating itchy immune response, and people tend to scratch it and it can even lead to bacterial abcesses and pus drainage. As you can imagine, this leads to scarring. \n\nIt also, as it turns out, is not a very good way to get a robust immune response! Since most of the cells in the skin are dendritic cells and not T or B cells, they won't generate the long-lasting immune memory or antibody responses that are the hallmark of T/B cell-heavy immune activity. \n\n(Sources: [1](_URL_25_) [2](_URL_25_) [3](_URL_25_))\n\nInstead, these DCs just sound the alarm and bring some of those T and B cells to the site of injection. They do this with lots of cytokines/chemokines (alarm proteins that go into the blood and tell other immune cells \"GET THE EFF OVER HERE,\" but these signals aren't specific to the T/Bs. They also call in mast cells, neutrophils, NK cells, etc. all of which cause lots of cell death and inflammation. hence itchiness, redness, pus, and so on.\n\nSo that wasn't a great idea, and eventually research pointed towards deeper injections in the muscles. And a lot of people looked to the buttocks as a great place to get a guaranteed injection into the musculature! And it has lots of blood vessels and other stuff, right? Well, only partially right.\n\nAs it turns out, the fat pads of the butt represent a huge problem. Injections into the butt have a tendency towards getting stuck in these fat layers and not draining. This lack of drainage can, again, lead to abscesses, cell death, and lots and lots of pain. At an area of the body you sit on all day! Imagine that! [See the research and recommendations in this other comment I posted here](_URL_25_).\n\nSo more recent studies have confirmed and pushed towards a universal idea of injecting vaccines into the muscles of the thigh or the upper arm. In this way, we can get the \"antigens\" (stuff we want the body to make antibodies against) to the lymph nodes as fast as possible, via the strong blood flow present in the muscles. The muscles also drain to the lymph/blood extremely efficiently, and are the places least likely to develop abscesses. As it turns out, concentrating the vaccine material in one place is actually one of the WORST things you can do. \n\n(Sources: [1](_URL_25_) [2](_URL_25_) [3](_URL_25_) [4](_URL_25_) [5](_URL_25_) [6](_URL_25_))\n\nAnd this also makes sense in our current understanding of immunity, because you want there to be immunity against the virus/bacteria **EVERYWHERE!** not just at the site of injection. So it helps to also get that vaccine antigen into systemic circulation and ultimately into a lymph node/spleen as quickly and efficiently as possible.\n\nThe next best thing, by the way, is to get that antigen to the site where you expect virus to be. A good example of this would be the attenuated flu vaccine (fluMist) which is sprayed into the nasal passages. In this way, the attenuated (meaning just really crappy at staying alive, via mutations and growth methods) virus is seen by all the immune cells that live in the nose/airways, and so these cells are the best equipped to develop future responses against the virus. But unfortunately, this approach cannot have the same amount of adjuvants as an intramuscular injection, it just wouldn't be safe. And also unfortunately, this is part of why FluMist has overall been less effective. As it turns out, in many cases, dead virus + adjuvant > live attenuated virus alone. It's counterintuitive to a lot of immunologists, but the proof is in the pudding. (randomized double-blind clinical trials). \n\n(Sources: [1](_URL_25_) [2](_URL_25_) [3](_URL_25_) [4](_URL_25_) [5](_URL_25_))\n\nOverall, though, injecting directly into the musculature is the best way to distribute the antigen/adjuvant to the cells that need to see it the quickest, and with the least side effects. We've learned our lesson and that's why it's always in the arms/thighs now. There *are* specific exceptions, for very specific reasons (how it was tested originally, substances that are bad for the muscles, etc). But mostly it's all I.M.\n\n**TL;DR**--medicine is an evolving science, no matter what anyone tells you. Skin-no good cuz bacteria and it puts the nasty parts of vaccines in one place for too long, Butt-no good cuz too much fat, Arm/Thighs-great ratio of fat to muscle and lots of blood flow."
],
"score": [
136,
57,
17,
8,
3,
3,
2
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.oncologynurseadvisor.com/home/hot-topics/chemotherapy/large-volume-im-injections-%E2%80%A8a-review-of-best-practices/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3342363/",
"http://www.jimmunol.org/content/183/11/6883",
"https://old.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/bty7e6/why_did_physicians_historically_administer/epdjkg3/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9169899",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1200696/",
"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-13331-1",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4494348/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenner",
"http://www.immunize.org/askexperts/administering-vaccines.asp",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2530717",
"http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2018/02/cdc-vaccine-panel-brings-back-flumist-2018-19-season",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22031182",
"https://www.statnews.com/2018/09/03/flumist-vaccine-recommendations/",
"https://www.niaid.nih.gov/research/vaccine-adjuvants-types",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7294/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1118997/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4915566/",
"https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20183376718",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3173582/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowpox",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8145710",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/671665",
"https://www.niaid.nih.gov/research/what-vaccine-adjuvant",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27718182"
]
} | Why did physicians historically administer vaccines into patients buttocks as opposed to the Arms/thighs?
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||
164lyz | Vortex-ring-fractal structure of the hydrogen atom? | I recently stumbled upon some papers by a Czech scientist named Pavel Osmera making what seemed to me a rather bold proposal about the fundamental structure of matter. It appears to be legitimate, and the visual representations are very compelling, but the physics are way over my head. Has anyone heard of this man/model? Can the overqualified brains of reddit help me assess this?
* [Vortex-ring-fractal Structure of Hydrogen Atom](_URL_1_) from the Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2009 Vol I
WCECS 2009, October 20-22, 2009, San Francisco, USA
* [Vortex-ring Modeling of Complex Systems and Mendeleev’s Table](_URL_0_) from the Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2007
WCECS 2007, October 24-26, 2007, San Francisco, USA | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7sos6h",
"c7soeiq",
"c7strz0"
],
"text": [
"This looks like a lot of nonsense dressed up in the language of quantum mechanics.\n\nObservations:\n\n1. Osmera is a computer scientist/engineer, not a physicist.\n2. His cited sources are either popular science books, introductory undergraduate sources, or his own conference papers.\n3. As far as I can tell, no one other than Osmera has published anything on this model.\n4. None of this work appears to have been published in a peer-reviewed journal.experimental/observational utility is to be gained by introducing them.\n\nI can't find an online version of one of his conference papers, which happens to be the critical one for most of the original equations he presents. In any case, it looks like what he's done is come up with some \"cool\" sounding terms, put in appropriate quantization and quantum numbers by hand, and then declare that his model successfully \"predicts\" the behavior of Hydrogen atoms.",
"A paper claiming to rewrite fundamental physics, published in the proceedings of a computer science conference? That's a huge red flag.",
"Am I the only one to have reached the last page?\n\n > The vortex model (see Fig.7) of the electron was inspired by\nvortex structure in **the PET-bottle experiment** with one hole\nconnector (**$3 souvenir toy, Portland**, Oregon 2004) [7], our\nconnector with 2 or 3 holes [7], [8] and levitating magnet\n**“levitron” (physical toy)**. The “ring theory” is supported by\nexperiments in [9] and [11] too. Now we realize that the\nphenomena of chemical interaction and, ultimately, of life\nitself are to be understood in terms of electromagnetism,\nwhich can be explain by vortex-ring-fractal structure in\ndifferent state of self-organization inside gravum.\n\nSerious fail OP :P"
],
"score": [
14,
10,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.iaeng.org/publication/WCECS2007/WCECS2007_pp152-157.pdf",
"http://www.iaeng.org/publication/WCECS2009/WCECS2009_pp89-94.pdf"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Vortex-ring-fractal structure of the hydrogen atom?
I recently stumbled upon some papers by a Czech scientist named Pavel Osmera making what seemed to me a rather bold proposal about the fundamental structure of matter. It appears to be legitimate, and the visual representations are very compelling, but the physics are way over my head. Has anyone heard of this man/model? Can the overqualified brains of reddit help me assess this? * [Vortex-ring-fractal Structure of Hydrogen Atom](_URL_1_) from the Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2009 Vol I WCECS 2009, October 20-22, 2009, San Francisco, USA * [Vortex-ring Modeling of Complex Systems and Mendeleev’s Table](_URL_0_) from the Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2007 WCECS 2007, October 24-26, 2007, San Francisco, USA | [
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|
144gwq | If you could create continuous pain in the human body, without actually causing damage, would the person eventually accept that pain level as normal and stop hurting? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c79t5tx",
"c79ssbc",
"c79ufma",
"c79tr1o",
"c79wsdr",
"c79z29p",
"c7a1b21"
],
"text": [
"Alas no, and it negatively impacts the mind. _URL_0_ - people often end up chronically stressed, depressed, anxious, have lower self-esteem, become neurotic (based on the MMPI) have a much lower quality of life. It also negatively affects their cognition, increasing forgetfulness, decreasing attentiveness, and slowing down the speed of their cognition.",
"No, my dear Bellatrix, and we don't even need to speculate, because there is such a disease. Its called [Trigeminal Neuralgia](_URL_1_). The sufferers experience searing, excruciating pain either paroxysmally or continuously from the time it starts until they die. There are few effective medical or surgical treatments.",
"After an episode of Shingles, the damaged nerve cells sometimes remain in a hyperexcited state. The resulting \"nerve noise\" is felt as pain even though it is not the result of physical injury so it fits your criteria perfectly. PHN can last months, years or it might never go away.\n\n_URL_2_",
"I remember reading an article about coma patients who also suffered from severe pain, and that they had to be medicated or the stress related to the pain would eventually kill them.\n\nDo any actual scientists have links for me?",
"I remember during a particular opioid pharmacology lecture that chronic pain can actually sensitize itself as well. Overstimulated pain receptors tend to upregulate, not downregulate. \n\nWhat's curious about this phenomenon to me is that it runs directly contrary to how the body typically responds to overstimulation",
"Can someone answer the converse of this?? Is this possible with pleasure, sexual or otherwise. From my limited knowledge pleasure is simply a myriad of chemicals; do we simply build up a tolerance? or could this be somewhat the opposite of Chronic pain, having positive effects on mental state? or otherwise??",
"NO. See fibromyalgia and chronic pain syndrome. Pain is not a reliable indicator of tissue damage."
],
"score": [
321,
122,
28,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_pain",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigeminal_neuralgia",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postherpetic_neuralgia"
]
} | If you could create continuous pain in the human body, without actually causing damage, would the person eventually accept that pain level as normal and stop hurting?
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1tyf0w | My dad has a masters in chemistry and he says this ingredient in an energy drink (selenium amino acid chelate) does not exist. Can any of you verify? | Here is a link to the name of the ingredient on the nutrition facts _URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cecwlm8",
"cecyutw",
"cecrjbq",
"cecz08r",
"ceczift",
"ced8f61",
"ced4s5s",
"cecrooi",
"ceddx5o"
],
"text": [
"I think your father is practically correct. None of the amino acids I know of are large enough to bind Se(2+) with two separate anionic binding sites.\n\nSelenium aspartate for instance is not a chelate, because selenium binds two separate aspartate molecules. Selenomethionine is simply a selenium containing, naturally occurring, amino acid. \n\nHowever, we could in theory construct an amino acid with a huge acidic side chain that could chelate selenium. Any compound containing an amino group and a carboxylic acid can be called a amino acid, however theoretical it is. \n\nAs mentioned before, the use of the term \"selenium amino acid chelate\" to describe covalently bound selenoamino acids or non-chelated\n ionic bond compounds is indeed incorrect, which is probably what your father meant. \n\nSource: my chemical PhD was in Dutch, so you might have to forgive me for a couple of spelling errors.",
"Ingredient naming is a curious thing and naming will follow whatever marketing finds to do the best while staying within the letter of the law to the point of changing ingredients. Ex: Hydrolyzed yeast... Yes this is accurate but it is used as an ingredient for the monosodium glutamate so a product can be labeled all natural and not have \"evil\" MSG on the package. \n\nRealize this isn't directly related but considered it relevant.",
"It does exist, and can be taken as a dietary supplement. A chelate is a compound of a metal, usually, complexed with a ligand. In the case of the labeled ingredient, they have given a very vague description of what exactly is in the drink. Basically they are saying that selenium in a given oxidation state is complexed with amino acid Ligands. The are either cysteine or methionine amino acids and the complex formed is an antioxidant and has other biological functions. Here are two links to selenium amino acid chelates;\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_",
"This is actually a very good question - and everyone has contributed good points to this. I think one point that has been missed is that the 20 alpha amino acids that you learn at school are not all the amino acids that exist - not even all the alpha amino acids that exist. They are the a.a.s that we need to consume to synthesise proteins. Any organic molecule with both an amine and a caboxyllic acid group is an amino acid. Therefore it is likely that this is a large molecule that is capable of chelating (see edta or acetyl salicylic acid). Sorry for no links on mobile.",
"It can exist. Any amino acid could coordinate to the selenium via the amine and carboxylate, thus producing a chelate.\n\nI don't know why people are implying you need an acidic sidechain. The nitrogen has a lone pair, and the complex doesn't need to be neutral, since you can make up a salt of the chelate.",
"Product developer of non-alcoholic drinks here (including energy drinks).\nTo supplement some information:\nI have made an energy drink recently which had to contain selenium. For this we used a 1% sodiumselenite powder which was available at one of our suppliers. Appearantly this is pretty standard (in the EU) to use when wanting to add selenium to such a formulation. \nJust wanted to point that out.",
"I think this is less a chemistry question and more labeling. Many manufacturers structure ingredient statements to be misleading to prevent reverse engineering. In other words, if it's in the product it *must* be on the label. If it's not, it *may* be on the label anyways. I would bet it's put on there for that reason....",
"Chelation is the process of attaching a metal to an anion(negative charge) with more than 2 areas where the metal has bonded. \nSo in this case, selenium(metal cation) is attached to an amino acid( 1 of 20) in two or more different areas.\nThat whole thing is called a chelate. I didn't really look at anything chemically wrong with it, but if you want to then go nuts.",
"Wouldn't this chelate just act like a simple salt and dissociate in solution?\n\nMy current job is working in an analytical testing lab that assays dietary supplements/nutraceuticals and whenever we test for these chelates we find that their bonds are not strong enough to withstand simple ionic dissociation. Admittedly I'm a few years out of my chemistry/biochem courses, but this is how we always explain to our customers..."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://m.imgur.com/hAEMPbt"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenocysteine",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenomethionine"
]
} | My dad has a masters in chemistry and he says this ingredient in an energy drink (selenium amino acid chelate) does not exist. Can any of you verify?
Here is a link to the name of the ingredient on the nutrition facts _URL_0_ | [
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bflw44 | Is it possible for a single, random atom to split on its own, at any time? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"eleqqiw",
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],
"text": [
"Yes, this happens all the time in some radioactive elements. It's called alpha decay: the atom splits into two, and one part is a helium nucleus, also called an alpha particle. \n\nFor example, a radium atom splits into one radon atom and one alpha particle. \n\nIf you observed a single radium 226 atom for 1600 years, it would have 50% chance of splitting in this fashion.",
"Since all top-level comments begin with \"Yes\", I follow up: \n\nDoes that mean that there is a non-zero chance for that to happen to *ALL* atoms in the universe *at the same time*? Like ... could everything just suddenly disintegrate without any apparent reason?",
"If it is an atom of a suitable type: Yes. The splitting process must release energy, otherwise it is not possible spontaneously.\n\nThe nucleus of an uranium atom can split spontaneously, the nucleus of an oxygen atom you'll find in nature cannot. It is a rare process - if you watch 10^20 uranium atoms (natural uranium) you'll get about one spontaneous split (fission) every hour.\n\nAlpha decay has some similarities to fission (you start with one nucleus and get two afterwards), but it is usually considered a separate process.\n\nNuclear weapons use a different process, induced fission - a splitting heavy atom typically releases a few neutrons, these neutrons can split other atoms of a suitable type, leading to a chain reaction and many fission processes in a very short time.",
"lots of replies saying that yes, atoms can split spontaneously. I just wanted to add an example of how this affects us: radon is found naturally in the ground at varying levels across the world. radon decays into polonium + an alpha particle (2 protons & 2 neutrons, so basically it's a helium atom). if that radon atom happens to be in a person's lungs when it decays, the alpha particle can cause DNA damage to lung cells. if the lung cell happens to make a specific type of mistake as it's trying to repair its DNA (an oncogenic mutation), it can lead to cancer.\n\nradon decay--that is, 'a single, random atom splitting on its own'--is common enough that it's one of the major causes of lung cancer in the world. in Canada (which is where I'm from), radon is thought to be the cause of \\~15% of all lung cancers.\n\nas an aside, the number of cancers that radon causes could be a lot lower if people stopped smoking, because people who smoke are \\~7 times more likely to get cancer from radon than people who don't smoke, even if they're exposed to the exact same amount of radon.",
"In fact it is technically possible for a ferrari to suddenly materialize in your living room. Thing is, the odds of that happening are so astronomically....no wait, that doesn't cover it. So GOOGOLPLEXically small that it's safe to assume that it won't ever happen.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nAtoms splitting by themselves at random, by comparison, is incredibly common."
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} | {
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} | {
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} | Is it possible for a single, random atom to split on its own, at any time?
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||
124q4i | If high powered rifle shots disintegrate if shot into water, how do forensic ballistics scientists harvest test shots? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6s7cx9",
"c6s6fiw",
"c6s60mr",
"c6s5t5s"
],
"text": [
"There are no standards and no true accreditation for \"forensic sciences.\"",
"The only time I've tried this personally (copper-jacketed .308 fired from a Remington 788 rifle into jugs of water), the slug stayed intact, rifling and all.\n\nThat anecdote aside, [there are several methodologies employed in the recovery of an intact slug.](_URL_0_) Click through the \"Next Page\" at the bottom for all the pages on the subject.",
"Test shots are also generally used to see the marking the firing pin makes on the casing",
"They break apart. Most are fragments that are large enough to recover."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nij.gov/training/firearms-training/module07/fir_m07_t13_01.htm"
]
} | If high powered rifle shots disintegrate if shot into water, how do forensic ballistics scientists harvest test shots?
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1zcida | Do permanent magnets have a half-life or otherwise “decay” over time? | It seems like there must be some energetic cost to constantly exerting a force on the surroundings. As particles & objects resist that force, it must exert some backward torque or whatever on the aligned atoms of the magnet. Over time, is the magnet depolarizing?
Also, my understanding is that permanent magnets are relatively orderly objects, in terms of their internal structure. Entropy being what it is, wouldn't it be energetically favorable for magnets to revert to a more disordered state?
If there is a half-life, what is the time scale?
Is it possible to depolarize a permanent magnet more rapidly by exposing it to a (much) more powerful magnetic field with a different alignment?
On the other hand, it seems like it would be energetically unpleasant to be the “first” atom out of alignment with a magnet's field. Does this keep magnets from losing polarity, e.g. are permanent magnets self-reinforcing / “self-repairing?” | askscience | {
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"text": [
"You seem to hold the misconception that the existence of magnetic fields requires an output of energy, however that is completely false. The best analogy is gravity. Any object has its own gravitational field by virtue of its having mass, which requires no continued expenditure of energy. The way the energy of the system can change is by changing the potential energy when say a piece of iron is moved closer or further away from the magnet. However, this change requires an external input of energy and the total energy is always conserved (i.e. the energy required to move the piece of iron by say 1 meter is exactly equal to the potential energy gained by the system).\n\nNow for the question of a decay in the magnetization, yes, this is possible. Magnetization is caused at a microscopic level by an orderly alignment of the magnetic moments of electrons. Because this configuration is energetically favorable at short length scales (due to a quantum mechanical effect called the exchange interaction), domains form in which electrons have the same alignment. When the majority of these domains point in the same direction, the material will behave as a magnet. However, at a certain temperature, the so-called Curie temperature, thermal fluctuations begin to compete with the stability imparted by this alignment, and materials lose the ability to spontaneously exhibit magnetization. Moreover, the lowest energy configuration is for the domains to point in different directions such that overall the material will exhibit no magnetization. Because of this, if sufficient energy is provided (e.g. by a mechanical impact), the domains may realign leading to a loss of magnetization.\n\n*Edited to clarify the energetics of magnetization.\n\n*Edit2 Thank you for the gold!",
"1) Yes, a magnet may depolarize over time for a number of reasons.\n\n2) Yes, because of entropy most materials are not magnetized. In other words, random jiggling from heat will prevent magnetic moments from aligning orderly. Only a few materials have magnetism strong enough to overcome heat jiggles at room temperature.\n\n3) The half-life depends on lots of factors. It's a loooong time usually.\n\n4) Yes, you can sort of depolarize a magnet by oscillating a magnetic field down to zero. +50000 oe, -50000 oe, +40000 oe, -40000 oe, etc. However, this doesn't break down the ferromagnetic order. It just makes it so about half of the domains are polarized in the + direction and half are polarized in the - direction. The best way to depolarize a magnet is to heat it up so random heat jiggles disrupt the magnetic ordering.\n\n5) Yes, a permanent magnet can be self-reinforcing/self-repairing, although it depends. One interesting thing is that because angular momentum is always conserved, a magnet may start barely spinning itself in order to self-reinforce/self-repair the spins of its electrons.\n\n- A magnet scientist",
"Magnets do \"decay\" but very slowly, and due to environmental interaction. As long as they are not exposed to high enough temperatures, or a strong enough blow to cause randomization immediately, it will slowly form micro-domains as it is exposed to changes in temperature, alternating fields, and slight jarring over time. \n\nEssentially a magnet, if it were possible to isolate it from all interaction and fields, would stay uniform for billions of years. \nIf we look at meteorites, we can see temp fluctuations, external field exposure, and jarring has lead to the formation of magnetic micro domains, with some sections polarized one way, and other bits another. Even Earth's weak field is capable of forming micro domains in a uniform structure over time.",
"Magnetism at the quantum level doesn't wear out or have a half life. Magnetic materials on the other hand can lose magnetism due to exposure to heat or even strong impacts. There is no half life though, if you're looking for some kind of 'Yes in X time it loses Y magnetism' answer.\n\nEDIT: spelling.",
"Permanent magnets are usually sintered together (although there are a few other processes which can be used as well). The sintering process exposes a fine powder to a great deal of heat but not quite enough to totally melt, exciting individual grains and giving them the freedom to align their charges. Afterward the magnets are quickly cooled down, locking the molecules into the polarized arrangement they settled into in their more fluid form.\n\nIt is as you say, energetically unpleasant to be the first atom out of order, made worse by the fact that it takes a great deal of energy to overcome the crystalline structure of the magnet itself. You have to dump a lot of heat in (reaching whats called the Curie temperature) before any significant number of ions can even move. If you put enough energy in though, you can disrupt the alignment and the field will start to cancel itself out. There's not really a half-life outside of extreme conditions.",
"_URL_0_ is the concept you are looking for. This is important when you talk about things like \"I need to use a magnet to read bits off of a hard drive platter, but I also need to use magnets to write bits onto a hard driver platter... how much should I be using in either case?\".",
"The domains are frozen in place. The trick is, they're NOT fighting to turn each other into a disordered state. Just like putting two bar magnets near each other, they align with each other.\n\nWhen FORCED against a stronger magnet of opposite orientation, the domains are stressed. They do eventually weaken, it varies a lot with the type of magnet, temp, and flux strength. \n\nYes it's possible to depolarize a magnet with a strong enough reverse field. This is sometimes one of the limiting factors in how much torque a permanent magnet motor can put out.\n\nMagnets are made by starting with an unmagnetized material and passing it through a HUGE DC magnetizing coil. The magnetic field grabs all the domains and forces them into a new alignment. Normally domains aren't free to reorient themselves, that's why it's a magnet and not just like soft iron that conducts a magnetic field from a magnet but doesn't stay magnetized when the field is removed. But if you apply a strong enough external field, it will FORCE the normally immobile domains to align and they won't just fall back into their disoriented state.\n\nYou may have noticed \"quack\" perpetual-motion machines that run off the \"power\" of magnets. But a magnet is very much like a spring, and getting energy out of the magnet itself makes no more sense than suggesting a compressed spring could push out indefinitely without being recompressed. More to the point the total energy STORED in a magnet when it's made is not that great.",
"A major misconception people take away from intro chem/ physics is that everything will go towards maximum entropy. A more important concept in scenarios of the type mentioned by OP is free energy. In a nutshell, a system typically minimizes its free energy, which is equivalent to simultaneously making its energy as low as possible while making its entropy as high as possible. \n\nWith a permanent magnet at room temperature, the increase in energy associated with randomizing all the domains is much too high compared to the increase in entropy that would be gained, which is one way of thinking about why this doesn't happen spontaneously.\n\nedit: grammar",
"Permanent magnets are based on the unbalanced electron orbitals in the crystals forming the magnet. The electrons have magnetic moment from quantum spin. Magnetically susceptible metals can be made into a magnet by placing them in strong magnetic fields. Wrapping wire around a pin and running DC through the wire will make the pin into a magnet. The magnetic force has to overcome the hysterisis limit to magnetize the object. On a microscopic basis atoms are aligned into groups of crystals oriented along the magnetic field. Not all atoms align. It doesn't take a large proportion to align to make an object magnetic. Energy is added to the object to magnetize it because the random domain orientation is at lower entropy. The magnet doesn't revert to being a non-magnet at lower net energy because the magnetic flux lines have to cross defects to complete the domains reorientation. Those flux lines can be caught on crystal defects - sort of like hair gets caught on bramble.\n\nThat formulation is very much the classical viewpoint, well,. except for the hair metaphor. \n\nA magnet exerting a force does not use up anything in the magnet. Objects that are drawn near lose potential. When they are drawn away that potential energy is returned to the system. However the older type based on magnetized metals do lose magnetic force over time. This can be retained by leaving a bar over the poles of the magnet to link the magnetic fields. The effect of the bar is to force magnetic field lines to follow a constrained path. This reduces the affect the magnet has on the environment and subsequently reduces the demagnetizing randomness that interacting with the environment has on the magnet. The magnetic field is a summation of all the small crystal domains. As smaller crystal domains grow, through heat or simply by being affected by other magnetic fields, the overall magnetic field weakens. \n\nMagnets do not weaken because they exert force. Some magnets just aren't very stable in the form they're in. They weaken because the domains re-randomize.",
"TL;DR The existence of magnetic monopoles in the presence of a magnet otherwise unchanged would negate its magnetic properties.\n\nIf you considering a magnet as being like a battery, you can imagine a positive and a negative end. Imagine now a series of batteries, though you may see on each battery +-0.75V, when connected in series (say two batteries), at the junction of the two (the midpoint) you will observe 0V. Magnets behave in the same way, when subdivided they exhibit N and S, though infinitely divisible (material properties unchanging). So, to neutralize a single magnetic point would require the combination with an equal but opposing magnetic monopole.\n\nEdit: Magnetic monopoles are so far theoretical, but some recent research has suggested their physical possibility"
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} | Do permanent magnets have a half-life or otherwise “decay” over time?
It seems like there must be some energetic cost to constantly exerting a force on the surroundings. As particles & objects resist that force, it must exert some backward torque or whatever on the aligned atoms of the magnet. Over time, is the magnet depolarizing? Also, my understanding is that permanent magnets are relatively orderly objects, in terms of their internal structure. Entropy being what it is, wouldn't it be energetically favorable for magnets to revert to a more disordered state? If there is a half-life, what is the time scale? Is it possible to depolarize a permanent magnet more rapidly by exposing it to a (much) more powerful magnetic field with a different alignment? On the other hand, it seems like it would be energetically unpleasant to be the “first” atom out of alignment with a magnet's field. Does this keep magnets from losing polarity, e.g. are permanent magnets self-reinforcing / “self-repairing?” | [
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|
qowgg | When they say "An 80% chance of rain" on the local radio, what does this mean? | Does it mean "there is an 80% chance that it will rain on *you*", or does it mean "there is an 80% chance that it will rain *somewhere* in your area"? The former would seem to be a more useful statistic.
Or perhaps it means something else entirely?
*edit*: People seem not to be answering the question :-/ eg. Truck43's top-voted answer says:
> Its a bit more accurate to say that 80% of the time similar atmospheric conditions, temperature, wind, humidity, clouds, etc.. have been observed in the past, it has rained.
This could apply equally to either of the interpretations I'm trying to distinguish between. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"c3zaksv",
"c3zcdmg",
"c3zf1ok"
],
"text": [
"[This](_URL_0_) may help. Generally, it means that out of the last x times these conditions happened, there was rain y% of those times, or out of x simulations, there was rain in y% of them.",
"Some good answers here, but, its not really there there is an 80% chance of rain today. Its a bit more accurate to say that 80% of the time similar atmospheric conditions, temperature, wind, humidity, clouds, etc.. have been observed in the past, it has rained. That is projected as an 80% chance of rain.",
"My Meteo prof told us that it meant there was an 80% chance that any measurable precipitation of any sort would fall somewhere in the forecast area.",
"An 80% chance of rain means that for the series of simulation models run using the present status as input, 80% of them resulted in rain for the period being forecast. \n\nBasically: \"We punched the stuff into the computer 100 times and it rained 80 of those times.\"",
"If a meteorologist says there's an 80% chance of rain today for a specific area (probability of precipitation or PoP), they are taking into account two factors:\n\n* Probability of precipitation based on the atmospheric conditions (e.g. precipitable water, winds, temperatures)\n* Area that will be affected by precipitation\n\nThis means that the 80% PoP means that precipitation is likely to occur over approximately 80% of points in the area forecasted for (e.g. your city, your county, your radio station's listening area/tv station's viewing area)"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.srh.noaa.gov/ffc/?n=pop"
]
} | When they say "An 80% chance of rain" on the local radio, what does this mean?
Does it mean "there is an 80% chance that it will rain on *you*", or does it mean "there is an 80% chance that it will rain *somewhere* in your area"? The former would seem to be a more useful statistic. Or perhaps it means something else entirely? *edit*: People seem not to be answering the question :-/ eg. Truck43's top-voted answer says: > Its a bit more accurate to say that 80% of the time similar atmospheric conditions, temperature, wind, humidity, clouds, etc.. have been observed in the past, it has rained. This could apply equally to either of the interpretations I'm trying to distinguish between. | [
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x951j | [AskScience AMA Series]: I AMA late-stage Ph.D. student in management, with research interests spanning intelligence and personality testing in selection, interviewing, newcomer socialization and early turnover, and job attitudes. AMA | My opinions may be somewhat personally biased (like my beliefs about nature/nurture in intelligence), but I am familiar with the literature and will try to present both viewpoints where appropriate. Consider my field the intersection of psychology and business, describing/explaining/predicting/controlling cognitions attitudes and behaviors at work.
I have taught classes in human resource management and organizational behavior, but am equally well-versed in more macro topics of business strategy and organization theory (i.e. "Why do organizations exist in the first place?")
Please don't ask me personal questions along the lines of: "Can you tell me how to nail this job interview?", or "Why is my boss such a moron?"
Alrighty then | askscience | {
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"What do you think about personality questionaires, Meyer-Briggs for instance?\n\nAny opinion on the Peter principle or Parkinson's laws?",
"Hi! Thanks for doing this. I find this field very fascinating and I'd love to ask some questions specifically from my perspective, and it's a perspective (Programming) to which I think many redditors can relate.\n\nI'm a software development manager in the advertising field. So I manage teams that build enterprise platforms, content management systems, and recently stretching into the mobile space.\n\nI also manage cross-functional, internationally distributed teams, so cultural differences like the power differential are very important to me.\n\nI'm very passionate about effectively managing technical teams within a creative organization, but beyond my personal studies and mentors, I have very little academic exposure to any of it (in fact, I have a 7th grade education.)\n\nThat's where I'm coming from :). So for my multi-part question, I'd like to get the academic perspective on a lot of these things.\n\n1) Hiring: I noticed you opposed the \"conversation\" style of interview and prefer an objective scoring system. With the resources I hire, an objective programming test is always given, but mainly I hire for technical positions based on personality. It's critical that my resources gel with the rest of the team. Some of my best hiring decisions have been made within 5 minutes of the handshake. It's something I've had difficulty quantifying objectively. Is there any literature on this subject, and do you have any other thoughts you can share beyond your answer to the previous commenter?\n\n2) Smart-kid syndrome: I've found a lot of recent graduates feel like they need to be paid in gold-plated ferarris for the honor of having them show up and browse reddit for 6 hours a day. Joking aside, I've literally heard the phrase \"Maybe I'd work harder if I was paid a little more...\" from a a very entitled kid that was about to hit a 2 out of 5 on his performance review. Furthermore, when non technical managers are hiring these technical resources, the sense of entitlement is confused with confidence, which only makes the situation worse. I've had limited success in this area and had to show the door to more than I would have liked, which I take as a failure on my part. Is there a way of motivating these people, or any literature you can recommend? \n\n3) Over-ambition/promotion: A while back I had a boss that had been over-promoted and was underqualified. I've noticed that some people's responses to feeling insecure about their position is to go on the offensive wherever they can. In other words, they start attacking other people within the organization to attempt to cover their own flaws. Being the \"squeaky wheel\" to their bosses, so to speak. (Personally, I love it when I hire people that are better than me at something, it means I'm doing my job as a manager well, but many people are threatened by this.) I've also seen this destructive behavior rewarded. Is there a name for this phenomenon within an organization, and is there a way to solve it constructively?\n\n4) I've noticed a huge difference in companies that reward employees with things like movie gift cards and time off, vs companies that reward employees with parties and working-hours activities. Other companies in my field are starting to do 4 day/10 hour work weeks. What are your thoughts on increasing employee satisfaction/performance by reducing the amount of time they see each other vs. investing business hours into non-producing \"team building\" activities, and is there any literature you can recommend on the subject?\n\n5) Cultural differences and offshoring: As a software manager, I've coordinated teams working all over the globe on the same projects. There are huge huge HUGE differences in the type of communication you have to give, and the results you get, and I always give a transparent \"Culture 101\" meeting to all my resources. For example if I have US based, Romanian and Indian resources working together, the first few days are really spent just talking about the intrinsic differences in their cultures so they can work more effectively together (which itself is uncomfortable for some people to discuss.) I was also recently in a meeting with the CIO of a certain North American auto manufacturer that seemed to be under the impression he could save money by simply moving all the development to India, but I had to explain to him that while he could possibly save some dollars, he wouldn't necessarily be getting the same value/product. I've also had to work with managers that were simply politically opposed to offshoring, or did not trust any resource working where they couldn't be directly observed. I'd love to know your thoughts on this topic, and specifically any objective or academic measurements that have been made on remote working/offshoring and remote teams/work.\n\n6) Organization marketing, or \"culture\" vs. \"process\": I've noticed that business culture, as a whole, is subject to the same marketing influences as consumer culture. The same way that consumers think more megapixels in a camera means it takes a better picture, businesses take the latest \"management style\" and create numerous parodies of them. The google 20% time is something you mentioned that I've seen parodied many times. It ultimately gets sacked when the wrong person starts looking at PAT, resource allocation, etc. My joke is that these get implemented when an executive reads an article on a plane and tells some director to implement an employee satisfaction program, without true cultural buy-in on the program. Is there a name for this or do you have any thoughts on it?\n\n7) Growth: I see companies that struggle very badly when trying to transition from ~40 employees to 200+. This is the transition where the founder(s) no longer have the time to directly manage or work on individual projects. So while they may be super effective at doing their original job and managing resources directly, they are not nearly as effective at managing, training, or hiring effective managers. Do you have any experience or thoughts on this phenomenon?\n\n8) Academic preparedness for the workforce: A common complaint is that academic/university life does not prepare students for the real workforce. I've mentioned this above, and spoken to some professors about it (all of whom are eager to shrink the gap) but it seems to be a cultural difference. What are your thoughts on this?\n\n9) CEO's: I have a personal belief (and have observed anecdotally) that CEO's need to be at least 5-10% crazy in order to be successful. Basically they need to be doing things that don't make sense to other people in order to find a market niche, and have enough drive to push when other people are saying no. I'd love to hear your thoughts on this or your take on what is necessary to be successful in this leadership role.\n\nLast question: I am actually so passionate about this topic that I am going to take a year or two off and travel the globe to speak to both businesses that work internationally, and with researchers such as yourself. I haven't made many global contacts yet, but being that you're in one of my target fields, how would you recommend I get in touch with and discuss these topics with both businesses and academics such as yourself around the world?\n\nBonus question: My basic philosophies as a manager are \"Make everyone you meet successful,\" and \"Only hire someone that can do your job better than you and has the ambition to change the world.\" I would like to know what you think about my approach here.\n\nThanks again for doing this AMA! It made my day to see this kind of thing in AskScience, and it really is a pleasure to be able to ask you these questions. I'm really happy there are researchers such as yourself putting so much time and effort into studying this field. Sorry if I got a little enthusiastic with my questions :).",
"What's the latest and greatest literature on how IQ correlates with career success and progression through the upper levels of management? Are there other factors that correlate more (socioeconomic status, prior achievement, tenacity)? What are the things that filter down to HR on how to assess these things - or are they not?",
"I'm pretty interested in I/O psychology but as an undergraduate im still conflicted as to what I'd like to study in grad school. Any readings you can recommend to me to get an in-depth description of your field?",
"Interesting! I have a few questions...\n\n* What knowledge has your field seen applied to the workforce that has resulted in validated increases in productivity? \n\n* How are the results of your field generally implemented and/or adopted by work environments? \n\n* What do you see as the most grossly unproductive business behavior that could be corrected by knowledge your field has gained?\n\n* Does your field apply equally to the private sector and government?\n\n* Lastly, do you feel personality testing is meaningful and useful in hiring employees or assignment specific jobs to people who are shown to be of one personality type, etc.? Is there any literature that has validated this approach? I'm skeptical!",
"Do you support or oppose the practice of asking job candidates for their social network site passwords?"
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} | [AskScience AMA Series]: I AMA late-stage Ph.D. student in management, with research interests spanning intelligence and personality testing in selection, interviewing, newcomer socialization and early turnover, and job attitudes. AMA
My opinions may be somewhat personally biased (like my beliefs about nature/nurture in intelligence), but I am familiar with the literature and will try to present both viewpoints where appropriate. Consider my field the intersection of psychology and business, describing/explaining/predicting/controlling cognitions attitudes and behaviors at work. I have taught classes in human resource management and organizational behavior, but am equally well-versed in more macro topics of business strategy and organization theory (i.e. "Why do organizations exist in the first place?") Please don't ask me personal questions along the lines of: "Can you tell me how to nail this job interview?", or "Why is my boss such a moron?" Alrighty then | [
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q4cxd | Is bone damaged or strengthened by repeated blunt impacts? | Example: If I whacked my elbow/forearm up against a solid object once a day for 20 years, would the underlying bone become stronger to compensate for the impacts or would it be left in a weaker more fragile state?
This is mentioned in martial arts movies frequently. Masters have trained punching trees/iron in order to develop "Iron Fists", which supposedly would be more deadly. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"laminar bone readjusts its structure in such as way as to be strongest along the direction of the force most often applied. This is why weight bearing exercise is important for long bones to calcify and strengthen longitudinally.\n\nI dont know if hitting your elbow off a wall every day is enough to cause this restructuring, and you would have to consider the soft tissue changes also - which could vary from a thickening and strengthening , to chronic inflammation, calcification or rupture if you over exerted and injured yourself.",
"I don't think once a day is enough. \n\nBut yes, bone density seems to increase from exercise-induced impacts. Resistance exercises also help. \n\n1. _URL_0_\n2. _URL_2_\n3. _URL_1_",
"I am not a medical professional, I have studied Uechi-Ryu Karate (for around 7 years) and Hun Gar Kung-fu (for around 4 years now). This idea is known as Wolff's law in medical circles after the German surgeon who proposed it (Julius Wolff) and it is often touted as an explanation for how certain martial artists can perform some of the feats they do. Such as concrete and board breaking. Look up any kind of Uechi Ryu conditioning to see some examples of applications of this. Here i'll do it for you... [Uechi Ryu bone conditioning](_URL_3_) \nThe idea is to not only increase the density of your bones but to alter the way the tendons and ligaments move around them. This is why people who practice this type of conditioning for a long time develop very gnarled hands. This type of conditioning is not to be taken lightly as the pain must be suffered daily and the technique must be exact for results to ever be seen. For the punching style of conditioning the ligaments that wrap over your knuckles that allow you to extend your fingers will begin to move aside (actually between the knuckles) when you curl your fingers into a fist.\n\nMany schools develop some sort of \"body hardening\" but the reality is that it takes years to see results. I began body hardening when I started training in Uechi (around 7 years ago) and I am just now beginning to see results. My sparring partners often develop bruises after sparring with me (even when I am performing light blocks) and some refuse to even spar with me. I feel no pain and sometimes no impact when performing these blocks and furthermore develop no bruises. \n\nTLDR: no if you do it once a day you'll at best accomplish nothing, at worst fracture your arm, bleed, or develop bursitis. Light repetitions for long periods of time increasing in strength over months for years on end will yield results",
"Osteoblasts (Bone growth cells, if you will) are stimulated by small electric currents. Bone happens to be a piezoelectric material, meaning when deformed it creates a small electrical charge (which then stimulates the osteoclasts). Thus repetitive loading/unloading of bones does strengthen them by way of increasing bone density (% Hydroxyapatite).\n\nThe above method works well to strengthen bone without injury. However it is possible for bones to appear bigger and thus stronger after injury. The short term visual changes are primarily due to swelling. More serious injuries (aka fractures) cause small bone 'scars' or calluses to form. The 'scar' is made of trabecular bone which is replaced over the course of several years by compact bone. The trebecular callus is weaker than compact bone, and in order to maintain structural integrity it extrudes out from the bone in a somewhat hemi-spherical fashion. Once it is completely replaced with the compact bone the callus should be much smaller, but still not quite in line with the rest of the bone. Because of this years of repetitive fractures can manifest themselves as a larger/stronger bone.\n\nAs a disclaimer to anyone interested in attempting to do either of the above, and a rebuttal to the comment posted earlier stating that 'bone strengthening' training is most effective when started as a child I will share this information with you: I started training at 6 years old. My shins are pitted and bumpy. My left foot is shorter than my right and gives me chronic pain from when I broke the growth plate. My right knuckles are significantly larger than my left and ache when its cold. I now suffer from overall desensitization and oftentimes cut or hurt myself without knowing. My elbows 'lock' into place due to reduced cartilage, and are very painful to unload meaning I can't bench or do pushups. I suffer from overall desensitization and frequently cut or hurt myself without knowing. Please, please, please do not ever subject a child to any time of training where the goal is body modification instead of learning. I'm only 20 years old.\n\nSource: Biomedical engineering student and NR-EMTB with 14 years+ martial arts experience. For more info on bone healing process you can check out _URL_4_\nTL;DR Yes its possible, no don't do it."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.jbiomech.com/article/S0021-9290%2807%2900079-6/abstract",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1359/jbmr.1997.12.2.255/full",
"http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282%2806%2900784-8/abstract",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=12fGkBJ2HVs",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_healing"
]
} | Is bone damaged or strengthened by repeated blunt impacts?
Example: If I whacked my elbow/forearm up against a solid object once a day for 20 years, would the underlying bone become stronger to compensate for the impacts or would it be left in a weaker more fragile state? This is mentioned in martial arts movies frequently. Masters have trained punching trees/iron in order to develop "Iron Fists", which supposedly would be more deadly. | [
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|
y1yd3 | My friend said "It takes 7 years to digest a maraschino cherry" and this was the stupidest thing I heard all week- but I need SCIENCE! to help me | Nothing would convince my friend that this is not true short of a complete explanation as to why it's impossible or actual research. Explaining stomach pH, gut bacteria, functions of the digestive tract, etc. I am bothered by this, probably more than I should be. I need your help so that I can start sleeping at night again. Thanks. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5rllmr",
"c5rlvjn",
"c5rl0ou"
],
"text": [
"Nothing will convince your friend if \"stomach pH, gut bacteria, functions of the digestive tract\" don't. But for you, so you can sleep at night, I went and looked this all up on the Intarwebz. \n\nBasically, you make a maraschino cherry by taking a normal cherry and preserving it in brine, which is salt water, and which in this case also includes sulfur dioxide (see below).\n\nOther things that we eat that are preserved in salt water brine include sauerkraut, fermented-type dill pickles, and the famous salt beef of the Royal Navy. Notice that cabbage, pickles, and beef do not suddenly become indigestible after having been pickled in salt water brine.\n\nThe sulfur dioxide has a bleaching effect on the cherries. Sulfur dioxide is a common food additive; it is used as a preservative on things like dried apricots. Dried apricots do not suddenly become indigestible after having been treated with sulfur dioxide.\n\nAfter the cherries have been preserved and bleached, they are soaked in red food coloring. Other things that we eat that have red food coloring would be Gatorade, Twizzlers, and birthday cupcakes. Gatorade, Twizzlers, and birthday cupcakes do not suddenly become indigestible because they have red food coloring in them.\n\nThus, I fail to see where your friend's paranoia is anchored, other than that someone retailed to him an Internet factoid and he refuses to give it up.\n\nYou, though, are a sensible person and I am sure will see the logic here, and will now be able to sleep at night.\n\n\n\n\nReferences. \n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\nAlso, to help you sleep even better at night, [\"Quality Control Operator Dies After Falling Into Cherry Processing Brine Tank\"](_URL_3_)\n\nI love the Internet.",
"There's nothing in the cherries that would make them take any longer to digest than a regular cherry. \n\nWhile this is childish, and I wouldn't recommend it, you could simply eat a whole lot of cherries and when your body excretes the remains, that would be proof that they digested. I suppose this is the more experimental route, but it would be convincing if that's all you ate. You could theoretically make a bet with him to make up for the copious cherry-eating.",
"Explain to your friend that you can swallow a coin (far less digestible than a cherry) and it will pass in a day or two."
],
"score": [
8,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.seattleweekly.com/2007-08-01/food/just-what-you-needed-homemade-maraschino-cherries/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maraschino_cherry",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7426352",
"http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/face/stateface/mi/05mi066.html"
]
} | My friend said "It takes 7 years to digest a maraschino cherry" and this was the stupidest thing I heard all week- but I need SCIENCE! to help me
Nothing would convince my friend that this is not true short of a complete explanation as to why it's impossible or actual research. Explaining stomach pH, gut bacteria, functions of the digestive tract, etc. I am bothered by this, probably more than I should be. I need your help so that I can start sleeping at night again. Thanks. | [
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|
rfoos | Is there any area of science that a committed amateur with a few hundreds worth of equipment might make a worthwhile contribution? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Over the years many amateur astronomers have discovered things which have remained unnoticed by \"professionals\".",
"Mathematics. You need a pencil and a piece of paper.",
"In Computer Science, you can make discoveries/advancements for the cost of a used laptop/desktop and several years of study.\n\nI might suggest the specific fields of computer vision or artificial intelligence.\n\nSource: Undergraduate in Computer Science",
"Astronomy. you can get a decent telescope (preferably with a camera) for a reasonable amount of money. Interesting discoveries are made by amateurs all the time because the sky is HUGE and one can only look at small patches at a time.",
"Satellite archeology using Google Earth was pioneered by amateurs.",
"If you are into conservation or ecology and can get relatively good at identifying specific species/genera/families etc. then providing biological records to your local record centre is always a good contribution. You may even discover a rare species that hasn't been seen for hundreds of years or even a new one. Only down side is you have to accept that it will take years to get good at it and if you do discover a rare/new species you will be under much scrutiny and it will take a lot for people to accept your record."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is there any area of science that a committed amateur with a few hundreds worth of equipment might make a worthwhile contribution?
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||
7b240g | What would happen to the LHC if there was an earthquake in Geneva? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dpeqwst",
"dpev8b4",
"dpexk5p",
"dpfkwt2"
],
"text": [
"Theoretically, I guess that the particle accelleration tube would be thrown out of alignment at the very least, which would require recalibrating the whole system. At the worst, part of the underground tunnels would collapse, doing extensive damage to the LHC.\n\nIt's worth noting that the LHC was built where it is in part because the area is geologically very stable. That, and Switzerland is extremely suitable from a political standpoint.",
"There are small earthquakes once in a while, and they don't matter. A relevant earthquake while the LHC is running might lead to a measurable deviation of the beam position, then the beam gets dumped. A very large earthquake would mechanically damage the accelerator and detectors, then the damaged components have to be repaired. Nothing special.",
"Geneva doesn't get large earthquakes, so I doubt it would be a problem.\n\nI was working at a particle accelerator in Japan during a 7.4 earthquake last year. The quake was a fair way away, but we could all feel the shaking which went on for about a minute.\n\nAs for the beam there - no problems, it was steady as a rock.\n\nOn the other hand CERN's beams stop working if you look at them funny, so as the other commenter said the beam would probably dump and that would be it.",
"Just to add to what others have said in terms of what it would mean to anyone not at the LHC, the energy in the beam at the LHC is about equivalent to the kinetic energy of a mosquito, so it would potentially create a real big problem for those running experiments there, and of course there are all kinds of high-powered magnets and such within the facility that could face dramatic consequences, but outside of those tunnels the effect would be nothing. In case you had visions of some dramatic event, a teraelectronvolt (TeV) is a lot of energy to share amongst a very few numbers of particles, but an absurdly tiny amount to share amongst any macroscopic every day object. For comparison, 10 million TeV is equivalent to a single calorie. So I used more energy typing this message."
],
"score": [
33,
13,
5,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What would happen to the LHC if there was an earthquake in Geneva?
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6dnedv | Are there non continuous macroscopic physical quantities? | Temperature, speed, pressure, energy... are all continuous in any situation, to the best of my knowledge. Even square waves are in practice continuous. Do non continuous macroscopic physical quantities exist? Why or why not? | askscience | {
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"Yes. Look at [this](_URL_0_) diagram of typical superconductor during phase transition.\n\nSuperconductivity is quantum effect but it can be seen on macroscopic scale because piece of superconductor can be of arbitrary size given that you can cool it down below critical temperature.",
"Yes. Ie. all material properties are discontinuous at the edge between two materials. (Ie. diffraction and reflection at the border between air and water is due to a discontinuity of the speed of light in those materials). Also, every phase transition has discontinuous properties related to it, ie. if you melt ice there's a jump in density between the molten and liquid state. \n\nNow, ofc. these discontinuities might seem fuzzy if you look at them on a microscopic level, but one needs to remember that the respective properties are only well-defined on a macroscopic scale, so within a macroscopic description these discontinuities are real.",
"Supersonic shockwaves are discontinuous for pressure, temperature, velocity, density, and a bunch of other derived properties.\n\nShear layers are velocity discontinuities present in fluid flows where on one side the flow is going in one direction and on the other side it's going a different direction. \n\nSorry for the shortness and lack of a detailed expansion, on mobile. If you're interested, then reply and I can come back with more!",
"The Hall conductivity of two-dimensional metals is exactly quantized. This is when you take a conducting material that is effectively two-dimensional, place it in a magnetic field normal to the material, and then put a voltage potential different across it. You find that the conductivity actually runs perpendicular to the voltage, and at low enough temperatures, the conductivity (current divided by voltage) is given by\n\nν e^(2)/h\n\nwhere e is the electron charge, h is Planck's constant, and ν is an integer. Then as you increase the magnetic field, the integer decreases in steps.\n\nThis is describing the integer quantum hall effect, but if you get clean enough samples, ν will actually take fractional values which are always rational numbers (the \"fractional quantum hall effect). The quantization is so accurate that I believe it is used to define certain units, but I'm not sure (I think they're changing things right now).",
"Yes, in classical wave mechanics, discrete quantities appear all the time as eigenvalues. For example, the frequency of a vibrating string of length L stretched between two end points is discrete.\n\nf_n= n pi v/L.\n\nwhere n is an integer and v is the velocity of the wave\n\nThis can, however, be made continuous if you allow the L to change continuously."
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} | Are there non continuous macroscopic physical quantities?
Temperature, speed, pressure, energy... are all continuous in any situation, to the best of my knowledge. Even square waves are in practice continuous. Do non continuous macroscopic physical quantities exist? Why or why not? | [
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|
2ddnzz | Does Detox Tea actually do anything or is it bullshit? | I enjoy tea and try all different kinds. I purchased one called Detox. It tastes good but is the "detox of liver and kidneys" part just pseudoScience and Homeopath BS? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cjoo9ok",
"cjony5n",
"cjonn14",
"cjp2wo9"
],
"text": [
"A good rule of thumb is that if a product says that it removes toxins without telling what toxins are being removed from where, than the product is probably BS.\n\nI'm sure there are some exceptions, but I can't think of any.",
"I think it would depend on what herbs/roots/leaves comprise the tea mixture. There are many biologically active compounds in nature known to alter physiology and I'm sure some compounds would potentially affect the liver and kidneys considering there roles in the body. But most likely it's BS.",
"It's a bunch of junk. Tea can be good for you, but anything advertising \"extra benefits\" are just blowing hot air.",
"Aside from tea, here is a commonly available supplement which has detoxifying effects supported by sound toxicological science. \n\nWhen the body recognizes a given toxin within the body, it has various ways of metabolizing and excreting the toxin. One of the most important ways is known as glucuronidation. It involves hitching large or poorly-water-soluble molecules to a \"chaperone\" known as glucuronic acid which IS water soluble, thus helping to pull the toxin out of the body. \n\nHowever, gut bacteria can throw a wrench in this process. Some of them have an enzyme called B-glucuronidase which destroys this helpful linkage between a toxin and glucuronic acid, and sends the toxin back to the liver (enterohepatic circulation). \n\nCalcium D-glucarate, the supplement, is metabolized to a chemical (D-glucaro-1,4-lactone) that inhibits the B-glucuronidase enzyme and allows toxins to continue \"holding hands with their chaperone\" and leave the body. \n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12197785"
]
} | Does Detox Tea actually do anything or is it bullshit?
I enjoy tea and try all different kinds. I purchased one called Detox. It tastes good but is the "detox of liver and kidneys" part just pseudoScience and Homeopath BS? | [
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|
129eeg | How much power do appliances or chargers use when not on? | Let's say you have a computer charger plugged into the wall, but no computer attached. Would this be drawing current or not? Would it cost any money? What if something is plugged in such as a T.V, but its not on. It that draining "power?" | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6tgb2o",
"c6t999n",
"c6tfasr"
],
"text": [
"Consumption of devices while idle can vary wildly. Just measure it using a meter that costs about 20 USD. You would be surprised. For example, one fan I had was using 10 W while turned off (presumably to power the remote control sensor using crappy electronics)!",
"Yes, a battery charger has a transformer in it, and a transformer will continue to draw current when it's not charging a battery. \n\nIt's called no load losses. _URL_0_",
"I just checked my computer charger. It draws 16.5 mA without the computer, and 720 mA with the computer."
],
"score": [
3,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.copper.org/environment/sustainable-energy/transformers/education/trans_losses.html"
]
} | How much power do appliances or chargers use when not on?
Let's say you have a computer charger plugged into the wall, but no computer attached. Would this be drawing current or not? Would it cost any money? What if something is plugged in such as a T.V, but its not on. It that draining "power?" | [
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6lcwvu | When we say "the electromagnetic interaction is mediated by photons", what's actually happening in terms of the wave function/Schroedinger's equation? | askscience | {
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"The statement that the photon is the mediating particle of the electromagnetic force means that the electromagnetic field which causes that force can be decomposed into objects called photons.\n\nThis is not something easy to see in quantum mechanics--one needs to use quantum field theory to treat photons mathematically. This is because the wavefunction is a function of the positions of a predefined set of objects being treated in a problem. In such a context, the reaction between two objects can only involve those objects themselves--because there is no way to directly compare the wavefunction of two systems with a different number of particles.\n\nThe mediation of the electromagnetic force by photons requires creating and destroying photons--an electron emits a photon and another electron absorbs it. Quantum field theory is a framework that allows that allows particles to be created and destroyed, and so describes the mediation process. This works because as a field theory, QFT describes the state of a set of fields defined over space-time, rather than as a function of a discrete number of points.\n\nHowever, the notion of mediation is a bit, shall we say, loose. The coulomb force is an effect that arises because of \"virtual photons\"-- as someone else said, these are not real particles because their properties are dependent on how the calculation is done (for those seeking deeper, read about electromagnetic gauge) and by their nature are not experimentally observable--so they are a way of a mathematical book-keeping. Pinning down in a very precise way what mediation means requires some non physical philosophy of QFT. But what's definitely true is this: There is an electromagnetic field that causes the force between electrons. Because there is a field, there is a particle associated with that field. If there were no electromagnetic force, there would be no photons--and vise versa; the two are inextricable.\n\nThe term \"mediates\" is used because the calculations involve photons that communicate the necessary information between elections.\n\nFeynman wrote a really great and accessible book called QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter, that gives the reader a surprisingly accurate qualitative description of what is going on in quantum electrodynamics without introducing the (extensive) math required to actually carry out calculations in QFT. I recommend it to anyone with an interest in quantum field theory- be them a hobbyist, a dedicated student of physics, or even a researcher who might like to think about how to communicate core concepts to laymen of QFT.",
"What happens is that you expand the S-matrix in powers of the coupling constant. The S-matrix elements are matrix elements of the time-ordered exponential of the interaction Lagrangian, which for QED contains terms like Ψ^(T)A^(μ)γ*_μ_*Ψ, where Ψ represents a fermion field and A represents the photon field.\n\nThe various terms in this power series look like a bunch of intermediate particles being created and destroyed, linking the same initial and final states. These intermediate particles are called \"virtual particles\", and they only *seem* to exist because of how you've chosen to do your calculation. They do not literally exist.\n\nIf you look at Feynman diagrams like the ones shown [here](_URL_0_), these represent the lowest-order terms in that series expansion for the case of electron-electron scattering. You can see that there is a virtual photon in both of them.",
"Those kinds of processes are not described using Schrödinger's equation or any other wave equation. The way photons appear in computations is only as a name for terms in a perturbation series for scattering processes.",
"If you are interested in an answer in terms of quantum mechanics:\nTo describe particle interactions we use Quantum Field Theory. It is a theory which brings together field theory and quantum mechanics. One uses something called second quantization to also quantize the fields(f.i. the wave function of the photon) in stead of only quantizing the usual observables like x, p, etc.. It is a many particle system in which we can create and destroy particles, as has been mentioned already.\n\nNow usually in QFT's (within the Standard Model) we are only interested in asymptotic states. That is; we want to conduct an experiment with some particles going in and some particles coming out. This can be efficiently calculated perturbutively using something called the S matrix. The fundamental interpretational issue here is that this is defined in terms of the asymptotic states only. Basically we're putting the interaction in a black box, and calculate then what could possibly come out. This method works really well for usual particle physics since these perturbative methods can be applied.\n\nReturning to your question about what happens quantum mechanically: This is not well understood. The whole framework had been built around asymptotic states. If you know what a Hilbert space is (which you probably should if you know quantum mechanics); we only have a well-defined Hilbert space for the asymptotic states. The Hilbert space within the actual interaction is not well known, so describing what's actually going on is way harder. The Feynmann diagrams in that sense are only a tool which works because we can perturbatively calculate this interaction within the Hilbert space of asymptotic states.\n\nThis is also the struggle of Canonical Quantum Gravity. Since gravity cannot be perturbatively analyzed we cannot use these diagrams, so we need to find out exactly what happens during this interaction: we need to find a Hilbert space for the full Hamiltonian. This is way more difficult then just using perturbation theory."
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} | When we say "the electromagnetic interaction is mediated by photons", what's actually happening in terms of the wave function/Schroedinger's equation?
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||
40sdxm | Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science | Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_).
Ask away!
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cywyq96",
"cywonjo",
"cywvir5",
"cyx3ba1",
"cywtb3r",
"cyx6mxo"
],
"text": [
"How scientifically significant is the fact that water is most dense at 4^o Celsius? In other words, the fact that there can be liquid water below the ice. \nIt seems to me that this property of water played a huge role in developing life on Earth. \nAre there any other materials that have such anomaly?",
"What are some of the present theories on the Great Attractor? What do we think is the cause of all the mass? How do we take anomalies like this into account when calculating for dark matter/energy? Are there other regions identified in other parts of the universe that also function as great attractors?",
"Since nobody responded to my thread ( _URL_0_ ) i will try it here...\n\nHow do we know that the Universe is expanding now faster than in its past?\n\nIf I understand it right, we use a special kind of Supernovae (collapsing white dwarfs with constant supernova brightness) and measure the shift of the light spectrum. If the part of the universe with the observed supernova moves faster away, the spectrum is shifted more towards red. So far easy to understand.\n\nBut as the light is on its way to us for millions or billions of years, this seems to be old information. A supernova 5 billion light years away informs us about its speed - 5 billion years ago. Isn't it logical, that galaxies which were fast in the past (and therefore are pushed to red) have a large distance to us? For me that sounds as if the observable effects were the same when the expansion actually slowed down...",
"Lets say nothing is random; in other words, everything has to have a reason, purely from a chemical/physical or whatever point of view. \n\nIf everything is causal, then the only thing that matters is the creation of the matter and the way matter interacts ( i'll react to them as information, and how information interacts). \n\nSince this universe has proven to be consistent in its laws of physics, the way the information interacts hasn't changed. \n\nIsn't the way the universe 'goes' on already predetermined, if the way matter interacts is a constant/given, nothing to be done about? \n\nThe universe has only 1 option as to how it developed, which is the way it did, and way it does and way it will do. \n\nI see the universe sort of similar to a program running on a certain code. You give it input, the input is processed, and you get the output. \n\nThis is all from the premise that nothing is random.\n\nThis brings me to the second point, how can anything be random anyway? Like im talking about theorethically random, literally no reason. People claim some things of quantum mechanics to be random, but i haven't read anything that proves it to be actually random. I've come across articles which claim such a statement, but i've never had the proof in front of me, but i dont view these things from a mathemathical and physicist point of view in the traditional sense. I first use logic, and from a logical standpoint, to have an action without it being a reaction to something is a logical paradox.\n\nThe only way I can justify believing randomness exists, is the fact that anything exists at all. Something i cant grasp either.\n\nAnyway, to phrase my question - **Isn't there 1 way the universe could've 'ran', and isnt there just a singular outcome as to how the universe will continue?** \n\nTo extrapolate if the answer is yes; does that mean there's moral agency by human beings, if they are merely people than run on the code that predetermined how they behave? \n\nI could extrapolate a few point from there, but you get the gist.",
"If the Oh-My-God Particle was created in the Big Bang, from its perspective, how old is the universe?",
"Does the anthropic principle (weak or strong) provide any explanatory power that is useful for scientific discovery?"
],
"score": [
7,
5,
3,
2,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=flair%3A%27meta%27&restrict_sr=on&sort=new&t=all",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/index#wiki_answering_askscience",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3exo6p/askscience_panel_of_scientists_xiii/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/40njih/how_do_we_know_that_the_universe_is_expanding_now/"
]
} | Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_). Ask away! | [
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|
5ddeam | At what speed would I have to drive for the added drag of having my windows open offset the energy cost of the A/C? | [deleted] | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"da3ukk0",
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"da3rqi1",
"da3s6yl"
],
"text": [
"[This study](_URL_0_) did the test with a 2009 Toyota Corolla and 2009 Ford Explorer.\n\nThe corolla used less fuel with windows down compared to AC on for speeds less than about 80 mph. At speeds above 80 mph, you were better off with windows closed and running the AC.\n\nThe explorer used less fuel with windows down compared to AC on for all speeds measured.",
"The best source I've ever been able to track down on this question is [this powerpoint presentation](_URL_3_) that was made by the Society of Automotive Engineers and GM. It isn't exactly publication quality (note the affect/effect mistake right in the title), but they actually tested various speeds and temperatures on 2 real vehicles, an SUV and a car.\n\nThe counterintuitive result is that AC is **always worse** than rolling down your windows, no matter the speed. This is summarized in the two figures at the end of the presentation, which show measurements on a racetrack at speeds of 50, 80, and 110 kph (31, 50, and 68 mph). This was true for both the SUV and the sedan. In fact, for the SUV, the penalty for using AC was higher at highway speeds.\n\nThere are plenty of people on the internet making the intuitive argument you made - that at low speeds windows win but at high speeds AC wins. I used to believe that too. What is wrong with the argument? Here we have to make some guesses because the report only gives the measurements. For a car we would expect drag to increase roughly with the square of velocity, but roughly is key here. The change in drag for moving from closed to open windows will be sensitive to any deviations from that, and the measurement suggests it creates something like a flat increase in drag over the range of speeds tested. Also, keep in mind engine efficiency isn't linear either - it tends to [peak at moderate speeds and decrease at highway speeds](_URL_3_). Adding the strain of powering the AC to an engine moving at highway speeds can push the engine into an even less efficient regime, amplifying the cost. That seems to be the case for the SUV.\n\nIt would be great to find a better source with a clearer explanation of methods in it. And the numbers might be different for hybrid or electric vehicles. But for now, this is the best source I am aware of. And the SAE is a professional organization that produces many of the standards used in the automotive industry, so we can be reasonably sure they know how to set up these tests.\n\n**edit:** u/ron_leflore flagged [this study](_URL_3_), also by the SAE. I can't get access to the data, but according to the abstract they found the same result as the other study for a 2009 Ford Explorer (AC is worse at all speeds tested). But they also found that a 2009 Toyota Corolla had an inversion point at 75 mph. So for some cars there apparently is a region where AC wins, though only at very high speeds.\n\n**edit 2:** Just to flesh out the argument above a bit, we expect AC to require a constant amount of power from the engine per unit time. So if we look at the energy needed per mile, the faster we go the less time a mile takes. Therefore we naively expect the AC to cost fewer gallons of gasoline per mile the faster we go. But the data shows either a flat offset or an increasing offset with speed, so our assumptions must be wrong. The decrease in engine efficiency might explain that, but it is a really counterintuitive result. On the flip side, we expect the drag force to scale with velocity squared. The extra work needed per mile (force times distance) should also go up with the square of velocity the faster we go. But instead the data show something like a constant offset in gallons per mile for both vehicles. So again, our assumptions are off. This result doesn't surprise me as much though, because fluid dynamics is often messy in real world applications.",
"Too many factors unknown here like how aerodynamic the car is, how fast the car is moving, the temperature and humidity of the ambient air temperature, how much you have the windows open and most importantly the efficiency of the engine in the way of fuel economy.",
"It really does depend on quite a few factors, but considering air drag is usually modeled as relative to the velocity squared, any changes to the drag coefficient would rapidly become noticeable, while the A/C's energy \"leech\" would be constant."
],
"score": [
239,
59,
5,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://papers.sae.org/2013-01-0551/",
"http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/oee/images/ecoenergy/driving/avoid_high_speed.jpg",
"http://papers.sae.org/2013-01-0551/",
"http://www.sae.org/events/aars/presentations/2004-hill.pdf"
]
} | At what speed would I have to drive for the added drag of having my windows open offset the energy cost of the A/C?
[deleted] | [
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2cy8tl | Can biological activity be predicted from a drug's chemical structure? | I was reading on wikipedia that some countries ban drugs based on structural similarity to existing illegal substances. Is it really possible to definitively predict that two drugs will have similar effects due to their structure? Is there a general way that one can predict a drug's activity based on structural data alone? | askscience | {
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"In general predicting a molecules biological activity based on structure alone is nearly impossible. Being able to predict which molecule will interact with a given protein in a particular fashion yielding a certain change in function may some day be possible with huge advances in computational chemistry but for now this is way beyond the current state of the art. \n\nOnce a drug target is known, however, we can to some extent determine how small changes to a drug will effect its potency, especially in cases where a crystal structure of a protein is known. In general drug discovery is a process in which a target is identified, often times with a large dose of dumb luck, followed by methodical minor structural changes.\n\nTo answer your question, its generally ok to assume that some small changes will not drastically affect the activity of a known drug. This is due to \"isosteres\" which are functional groups which generally behave in the same manner inside the body. For instance, an OH group (alcohol) and a NH2 (primary amine) share similar electronic and steric (size/shape) properties so swapping one for the other probably won't drastically affect the nature of the drug. Other changes might include exchanging a methyl for an ethyl group or a hydrogen with a fluorine. \n\nThese small changes can not only affect how the drug binds to its target but also how they are processed in the body. A C-H bond might be readily oxidized by a cytochrome P450 enzyme in the liver thus rendering the drug ineffective whereas swapping in a C-F bond prevents this and allows the drug to go on to the rest of the body to interact with something else.",
"> Is it really possible to definitively predict that two drugs will have similar effects due to their structure? Is there a general way that one can predict a drug's activity based on structural data alone?\n\nNo. A few case studies to think about:\n\nTake [cisplatin and transplatin](_URL_4_) for example. Would you be able to guess which one is [effective against testicular cancer](_URL_1_)? One has the chlorines on one side. The other has them on opposite sides.\n\nTake [thalidomide](_URL_0_) for example. The molecules are just mirror images of each other. One of these causes severe birth defects. [Which one is it](_URL_3_)?\n\nTake [ritonavir](_URL_2_) for example. This drug is ineffective if it crystallizes into a less soluble form. (Could you guess how it will crystallize?)\n\nDrug interactions are extremely complicated. Little tweaks here and there can dramatically alter the activity of a drug. In the last example, even *no* structural tweaks can lead to hidden problems.\n\nOn occasion you can make informed predictions, but frequently this is accompanied by a *lot* of additional information that allows you to infer what the important molecular interactions are, and under what context those interactions happen.\n\nThere is no substitute for doing very careful experiments if you want to characterize the biological activity of a drug.",
"Biology is extremely varied, so sometimes you can predict activity, sometimes you can't.\n\n_URL_7_\n\nYou can predict common toxic groups.\n\n_URL_8_\n\nYou can map the shape of proteins and predict how molecules will fit into them.\n\n_URL_5_\n\nSimilar shaped molecules tend to have similar activities.\n\n_URL_6_\n\nMorphine is a precursor to a lot of similarly shaped drugs with similar activity.\n\nYou can make a pretty good guess what a drug will do with it's shape. But there's a ton of things like metabolism and absorption that can mess it up, slight shape differences can mean a lot."
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thalidomide-racemate2DCSD.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisplatin",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritonavir",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalidomide",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cisplatin_and_transplatin.gif",
"www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20337591",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine#Precursor_to_other_opioids",
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ci990039r?journalCode=jcics1",
"http://www.eurekaselect.com/79620/article"
]
} | Can biological activity be predicted from a drug's chemical structure?
I was reading on wikipedia that some countries ban drugs based on structural similarity to existing illegal substances. Is it really possible to definitively predict that two drugs will have similar effects due to their structure? Is there a general way that one can predict a drug's activity based on structural data alone? | [
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|
4m0w0v | AskScience AMA Series: I'm /u/themeaningofhaste and I'm helping to build a galactic-scale gravitational wave detector. Ask Me Anything! | Hi everyone!
I'm a pre-postdoctoral researcher working as a member of the North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves ([NANOGrav](_URL_1_)) collaboration, whose goal is to detect low-frequency gravitational waves. Earlier this year, [LIGO announced the detection of gravitational waves](_URL_0_) but they were looking at gravitational waves from two stellar mass black holes merging. NANOGrav is attempting to look for gravitational waves primarily coming from supermassive black holes at the centers of merging galaxies. Just like there are many different kinds of electromagnetic telescopes (optical, radio, X-ray, etc.) to observe different kinds of phenomena in the Universe, astronomers are looking to build a number of different gravitational wave observatories across different frequencies for the same reason and NANOGrav is helping to fill the low-frequency window.
My work has involved understanding all of the processes that limit the precise and accurate timing of pulsars, the clocks we use to measure the stretching and compressing of spacetime caused by gravitational waves. Pulsars aren't perfect clocks, pulses become distorted in the interstellar medium, telescopes can't make perfect measurements, and then somewhere under all of that exist the gravitational wave signatures in our data. NANOGrav uses the two current largest radio telescopes in the world, the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico and the Green Bank Telescope in West Virginia, to make really precise measurements of over 50 of the highest-precision pulsars known distributed throughout the galaxy.
Besides that, in my spare time I help to organize AMAs for a group called AskScience on a website called reddit :) I'll be around to start answering questions around 12 PM ET (16 UTC). Ask me anything!
EDIT: I need to take a break for bit but will be back to answer everyone's awesome questions! | askscience | {
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"> pre-postdoctoral researcher\n\nDoes that mean PhD student? Never heard that term before.",
"> I'm a pre-postdoctoral researcher \n\nWhat the hell is a pre-postdoctoral researcher? =)\n\n\nKnowing nothing about gravitational waves... how many merging galaxies are you expecting to detect compared to how many merging nearby black holes for LIGO?\n\nWhat kind of precision/accuracy limiting processes are you talking about, how precise do things need to be, and what are the engineering challenges for these detectors?",
"Given that your events are lower frequency than those LIGO picks up, I would expect them to be longer-lasting than LIGO events - what sort of timescales do the signals you're looking for extend over?\n\nDo you observe multiple pulsars at once, or do you have to switch between different targets - if so, how often? If you do look at single targets, does that mean you can \"miss\" GW events that effect other targets?\n\nDoes this search require a large allocation of radio telescope time, or can you make do with fairly short observing windows?",
"The LIGO breakthrough created a marvelous surge of public interest in gravitational waves and related physics.\n\nOverall, how do you think the mass media reporting of recent scientific events has been handled? Has any information reported been oversimplified or misleading in your opinion?",
"Electromagnetic waves can be obscured by dust clouds. Can anything obscure or distort gravitational waves? Do different frequencies of gravitational waves travel differently through matter?",
"There is strong evidence that people speculate and hope that certain questions are asked ^^[citation ^^needed] . What questions would you like me to ask you?\n\nIn all seriousness, where are the shortcomings coming from? are there any improvements that can be made on the telescope arrays and other instruments?",
"What is the source of the gravitational waves that the NANOGrav collaboration is trying to look at? I saw a mention of supermassive black holes, but I believe that in order for them to radiate gravitational waves there must be a change in their quadrupole moment. So what is happening to these black holes that kicks off such waves? Finally, is there any chance you guys can hope to detect primordial gravitational waves directly, or are those just too faint (and too low in frequency) to have any chance of being felt? Thanks!",
"How do you separate the signal from noise? The same thing boggles my mind with ground-based gravitational wave detection. You must have a tiny signal, massive noise, plus unknown noise sources. Like, what do we know about pulsars? Could there be something about the pulsar that modifies the signal? Or could gravitational waves behave differently than expected?",
"ELI5 - how will your work provide a better understanding of our universe?",
"This might be fundamental, but I never found an answer to this question when the original press releases came out about the two arm gravity ripple detector results. They measure the time it takes for a laser to travel down the length of an arm and back again, taking longer or shorter time due to gravity waves rippling the physical distance light needs to transverse. But wouldn't light ripple with the rest of spacetime? If so, does it ripple in a predictable repeatable way? If it doesn't ripple, why not? \n\nBonus question: now that we've found gravity waves, are there any likely experiments to find gravitons in the near future?",
"What are the other types of events in this frequency range that could plausibly trigger a detection? Is this type of detection heavily template-based, or is it more agnostic to the type of signal?",
"First off, thanks for your AMA and time in answering these questions. This is off topic from your gravitational wave research, but recently I've discovered there are people who still believe the Earth is flat, dismissing any Newtonian notions of gravity and other \"evils\" of science. I wish I were making this up just for a laugh, but they exist and have you ever encountered anyone like I've described.\n\nFor example, when you say you're researching gravitational waves and someone calls BS on gravity, how would you respond?",
"If you could build a large radio telescope on the far side of the moon, shielded from earth's radio interference, would that help in this experiment or not?",
"Hey /u/themeaningofhaste! I'm actually a second year undergraduate at WVU working with professors in pulsar discovery and timing for use with NANOGrav. I have several questions, though they may not be what you would like me to ask. \n\nFirst and foremost, what would you like us (the undergraduate-underlings) to actually be doing right now? Sadly we don't get much data for our pulsars that we have now and can't get good solutions for the ones we have, but would you say we need to pick up the pace and start discovering more pulsars, as well as getting good solutions for what we have? Possibly this is sounding like a stupid question, but I'm just worried we haven't been doing well with our progress and feel like we are hindering those \"higher-up on the ladder\". \n\nWhere do you think undergraduates should be on our understanding of the project as a whole? I just finished reading a couple papers on the IPTA and NANOGrav (literally about an hour ago) and I feel like my understanding is way behind where it needs to be. To be clear, we understand what the goal of the project is, but the specifics allude most of us undergrads. \n\nAre there any undergraduate classes you'd recommend specifically for students in pulsar astronomy?\n\nFinally, are you going to the IPTA conference in Stellenbosch in a couple weeks? You don't need to answer this for obvious reasons, but it's just cool finding a NANOGrav scientist's AMA on here, and wanted to know if I'd happen to see you down there! \n\nThanks so much for reading this! \n\nEdit: One final question. This is very basic, something I should already know, but don't. Are pulsars and magnetars essentially galactic siblings? IE, are they both possible outcomes of a supernova, and two equal branches on the solar family tree? What is the relationship between pulsars and magnetars?",
"Excuse my ignorance on on anything related to space + time. So I understand that gravity waves were detected on earth, is there disruption to account for from the merging black holes? If so, how do you account for this? Considering the insane amount of gravitational forces between earth and the merge. Or are grav waves unaffected? If grav waves were to be observed elsewhere in the solar system, what would the differences be? In free/open space? on Mars? on Jupiter (theoretical)? Astroid belt? Out of the solar system? Out of the galaxy?\n\n\nCheers",
"How do you have to design your power supplies, atomic clocks or frequency standards to be \"gravitational-wave proof\" themselves, or isolated from any long-term effects that they may not have been designed for? \n\n(A few years ago I read about an experiment that showed the fine structure constant varying every 6 months...and the effect was root-caused to fluctuations in the power supply driving the atomic clock. Apparently the electric power grid has more load in the summer and the line frequency changes ever so slightly.)",
"Hi, am excited to have you here. The LIGO find from january was extraordinary in that the detector was just turned on for two days (allegedly) and yet found a mid-range BH merger. There are some who argue that this is good evidence for mid-range primordial BH making good dark matter canidates. \n\nYou have an opinion on that? \n\nAlso when do you expect to be able to get useful (eg publishable) results from your detector network?",
"Do gravitational waves act similarly to how regular waves, in that there is a possibility for nodes, interference, so on and so forth? If so, wouldn't these possibly pose a problem when trying to find gravitational waves, as you could get some cancellation/amplification (constructive/destructive interference)?\n\nAlso, because now I piqued my own curiosity, could gravitational wave nodes exist in theory? And if they did, would they be like Lagrange points?",
"Would there be any advantage to a space based (microgravity) detection system over a ground based one? Also were it practically feasible would there be an advantage in terms of resolution (or otherwise) to build additional detectors at great distances from one another such as on the moon or more ambitiously Mars?",
"How is the gravitational waves spectrum(the electromagnetic, for example has many divisions like visible light, X-rays, ...)?\n\nWhich waves are easier to detect and is the frequency linked to how much energy they carry?\n\nDo you believe the LIGO's measurement is just the beginning of much more scientific research?",
"Hi there! Thanks for taking time out of your day to answer questions for us!\n\nWhat is the importance of gravitational waves, besides giving the theory of gravity another strong pillar of support? How do you envision utilizing the measurements?",
"Since the guys from LIGO received massive attention from the media after announcing the detection of gravitational waves, does it bother you that your european colleagues working on similarly promising projects like LISA Pathfinder went largely unnoticed?",
"Is the Oort cloud a problem for you?\n\nDoes the random mass of comets and objects in the Oort cloud, introduce a random noise into your measurements, or even dampen the gravitational waves?",
"Are there any plans to build multiple similar-scale gravitational wave detectors separated by a large distance, in order to definitively prove the speed of gravity?",
"What's your favorite lecture series on the field of work you do? (Assuming a viewer with comprehensive high school level science and maths)",
"At what frequencies are you studying the pulsars? Also, is there a reason you aren't using interferometers to better spatially locate the pulsars?",
"Once we are able detect gravitational waves, what kind of information will that allow us to know?",
"Has the data received from the LIGO detector contributed to your project and in what ways?",
"Do you have any experience with the optics used in the gravitational wave detectors?",
"What margin of error are we talking here?",
"Hi, since you are working on the electromagnetic channel, do you have to deal with seismic noise at all? For LIGO, that is a major limitation to sensitivity at low frequencies. \n\nA bunch of other questions:\n\nHow do you distinguish between gravitational waves and other sources of distortion, like interstellar dust for instance. How well do we know the internal dynamics of neutron stars to be able to glean gravitational wave information? Do we know how the time period of pulsars varies with time(are there random variations)? \n\nFinal question: What kind of sensitivity are you aiming at? Also would you expect your experiment to be sensitive to the stochastic bakcground?\n\nThanks a lot for doing this",
"Late to the party, Hi :)\n\nSo as I understand, gravitational waves are produced when (for example) two binary stars move around each other and hence their gravitational fields kind of coalesce and voila you have an oscillation so you have a wave. This sounds very similar to the idea of electromagnetic waves. As there is a limit to the speed of light from electromagnetic waves, is there such a limit for gravitational waves? And is the particle that transmits it, the graviton, even comparable to the photon?\n\nThanks :)",
"Don't know if this is within the scope of this AMA, but I have a question that has been nagging me for a while so here goes.\n\nA photon travels at light speed, right, so how does that affect the passage of time experienced from the point of view of the photon?\nIn other words does time stand still 'within' the photon while it travels. Could you then describe a photon, not as point traveling through space, but instead as an instantaneous line drawn through an ageing universe?",
"Question about LIGO for you.\n\nHow were the scientists able to pinpoint which two black holes merged? With optical and radio telescopes, they are getting pointed in a specific direction and focused. Is there a gravitational wave detector equivalent to pointing and focusing? LIGO was just one detector...to get information about the direction of gravitation waves...wouldn't you need a large array of them?",
"I'm a member of the LIGO Scientific Collaboration. Do you guys get pissed off when we refer to the whole \"direct vs indirect\" detection argument? Personally I try to avoid calling the difference between these techniques \"direct\" or \"indirect\", but I also hear stories of people from the pulsar timing array community getting angry with my colleagues for saying such things.",
"Oh fuck that is sweet. What sort of events do you expect to find in the nano-hertz range? Would the cosmic gravitational wave background, or any early cosmological stuff be found there?\n\nAlso, how did you get where you are today? I'm a physics/astronomy undergrad and I'm hoping to get into the field. Is the job market decent? Any advice?",
"So if the gravitational waves warp space time, how do you detect them when the detector is a part of that? I mean if you used a ruler it wouldn't work because the spaces in between the numbers would change size so it'd always read the same number. How are you planning on overcoming that?",
"It's so difficult to detect gravitational waves (it seems we need 2 super massive black holes orbiting each other), do you think it will be possible to observe gravitational waves generated by other, less massive stuff? I am asking this because if the answer is negative, then it seems gravitational waves wouldn't be useful.",
"Would something like neutrinos be a good candidate for this type of work? Since, as I understand it, they does not interact with matter, wouldn't that eliminate many of the variables introduced by using EM waves? Is there a reason they are not used? Do they even react to gravitational waves?",
"The original LIGO detection was of an event that released ~3 solar masses of energy. What sort of energy release would be expected if two SMBH's were to merge, and are there any predicted bounds on how frequently such an event may occur?",
"Would their be any advantages or disadvantages to placing such a detector in low earth orbit as opposed to on or under the ground? Obviously cost would be higher, but wouldn't their be less interference from plate tectonics?",
"As someone who is not good with science. Could you (or someone else) explain to me the use of detecting gravitational waves and what exactly they can do for us technologically wise?",
"Does nanohertz imply you are looking for repetative events that take a billion seconds to cycle? Thats about 31 years. How does one accurately gain any information from such a slow event?",
"Can you say with total certainty that it's impossible to communicate with gravitational waves? \n\nI read somewhere that laser based supercooled atoms could detect gravitational waves. Is this true?",
"Headline states you are building a detector that is on the scale of a galaxy\n\nWhere are you going to get all of the minerals to do this",
"What sort of things do you expect to see/not expect to see? What would be unlikely but may still be seen and change physics as we understand it?",
"How many things in the solar system do you have to take into account? Something like gravity from other planets influencing the orbit of Earth?",
"Is it possible to detect a Doppler effect of gravitational waves in moving masses?",
"Okay, that's pretty neat, but what's the meaning of haste?",
"Have you had the chance to visit NRAO?"
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} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/458vhd/gravitational_wave_megathread/",
"http://nanograv.org"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | AskScience AMA Series: I'm /u/themeaningofhaste and I'm helping to build a galactic-scale gravitational wave detector. Ask Me Anything!
Hi everyone! I'm a pre-postdoctoral researcher working as a member of the North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves ([NANOGrav](_URL_1_)) collaboration, whose goal is to detect low-frequency gravitational waves. Earlier this year, [LIGO announced the detection of gravitational waves](_URL_0_) but they were looking at gravitational waves from two stellar mass black holes merging. NANOGrav is attempting to look for gravitational waves primarily coming from supermassive black holes at the centers of merging galaxies. Just like there are many different kinds of electromagnetic telescopes (optical, radio, X-ray, etc.) to observe different kinds of phenomena in the Universe, astronomers are looking to build a number of different gravitational wave observatories across different frequencies for the same reason and NANOGrav is helping to fill the low-frequency window. My work has involved understanding all of the processes that limit the precise and accurate timing of pulsars, the clocks we use to measure the stretching and compressing of spacetime caused by gravitational waves. Pulsars aren't perfect clocks, pulses become distorted in the interstellar medium, telescopes can't make perfect measurements, and then somewhere under all of that exist the gravitational wave signatures in our data. NANOGrav uses the two current largest radio telescopes in the world, the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico and the Green Bank Telescope in West Virginia, to make really precise measurements of over 50 of the highest-precision pulsars known distributed throughout the galaxy. Besides that, in my spare time I help to organize AMAs for a group called AskScience on a website called reddit :) I'll be around to start answering questions around 12 PM ET (16 UTC). Ask me anything! EDIT: I need to take a break for bit but will be back to answer everyone's awesome questions! | [
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1bqtdi | Separating Creationism/New Earth Science From Conventional Scientific Theory | Alright, I'm going to try to explain this as clearly and comprehensively as I can, but I apologize in advance if this comes off a little rambly.
I am in a World Mythology class in college and we have been going over creation stories and flood tales from around the world and throughout history. Interwoven with this is the occasional scientific theory correlating to the mythological stories. We talked about the Big Bang and we've touched on evolution and all of that. However, today we went over a few things that troubled me because our professor presented them as being science. I would like to compile an argument against these things and why it was incorrect to teach us them in this manner, and I'm looking for your help in doing so.
The issues arose when we were discussing the flood myths. Here are the things that I had problems with. Keep in mind, we were told these are all scientific facts:
There was an actual historical flood of some sort between 2,000 - 4,000 BCE.
Before this flood, the air was much denser and contained much more oxygen.
Before this flood, humans lived to be over 900 years old.
Before this flood, it did not rain. At all. Ever.
Before this flood, a watery mist rose from the ground.
Most importantly, and the reason I had an issue with all of the above, is that we were told that this is the scientific view. Please help me in constructing an argument about why this is incorrect and what the proper scientific views are regarding the biblical flood and surrounding myths. I don't want come off as "just trying to prove the teacher wrong" or what have you, because I am actually upset at what we were taught, which is why I'm asking for assistance.
Thanks! | askscience | {
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"Your professor is full of shit and it's unfortunate that a college is giving him or her a megaphone with which to spread misinformation.\n\n > There was an actual historical flood of some sort between 2,000 - 4,000 BCE.\n\nFloods happen every single year, of course, on basically every river system and on any hurricane-prone coast, but there was certainly no global flood (there's just not enough water-- it's patently impossible) in the past 6000 years. \n\n > Before this flood, the air was much denser and contained much more oxygen.\n\nOxygen levels were different many many millions of years ago, but are pretty much constant over the timescale of human civilization. Even with higher O2 levels, though, the air density would not change significantly, since the current atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and oxygen, which have about the same molecular weight (14 atomic mass units for nitrogen and 16 for oxygen).\n\n > Before this flood, humans lived to be over 900 years old.\n\nThere's no evidence for any human (or even primate for that matter) living to be 900. There's just none.\n\n > Before this flood, it did not rain. At all. Ever. \n\nIt has always rained, ever since there was a significant amount of water on Earth. That's simply a result of water transitioning into the vapor phase, and then condensing and precipitating when the air rises and cools. I'm not sure where your prof is getting this idea, but it's absolutely preposterous.\n\n > Before this flood, a watery mist rose from the ground.\n\nI don't even what is this. I mean, if you have a wet ground, water will evaporate off it, of course, that happens every time it rains, but I'm not sure why your prof thinks a flood would change the basic way that physics works.\n\n\nHonestly, Wikipedia is in general a very reliable resource for basic scientific knowledge, and it usually has good citations to scientific sources, which you can use.",
"> There was an actual historical flood of some sort between 2,000 - 4,000 BCE.\n\nWell, I'm sure there were a great many floods in that time frame. It's not exactly a rare occurrence. However, given the lack of satellite feeds and twitter broadcasts it would likely be hard for people in a particularly hard struck area to know the difference between a local or global catastrophe. \n\n > Before this flood, the air was much denser and contained much more oxygen.\n\nThere was significantly more oxygen at points in Earth's past. It peaked at about 280 million years ago. So I guess you could say this was 'technically' correct. I don't study paleoclimatology, so I don't know how much it could have changed in the last 6,000 years alone, but I'd imagine a *relatively* minor extent compared to the whole.\n\n > Before this flood, humans lived to be over 900 years old.\n\nThere's no evidence humans have ever lived a substantially longer life span than we currently live. I don't even know how you'd frame an argument against it that is more in depth than \"why do you think that?\" Saying it is the scientific viewpoint doesn't make it so, he's blowing smoke.\n\n\n > Before this flood, it did not rain. At all. Ever.\n\nThere is water erosion seen in rocks far older than 4,000 BCE. Evidence suggests the grand canyon has been carved out over 17 million years, for instance. It's not as though the water that forms the river crawled up out of the ocean and climbed into the mountains for fun.\n\n > Before this flood, a watery mist rose from the ground.\n\nA watery mist still rises from the ground sometimes, so I don't see what's so interesting about that.",
"There are flood events during that period, but they are highly localised, and I'm not aware of any in that period that are more significant than those we see in the present day.\n\nThe rest is all nonsense.",
"Thanks everyone, this is the email I sent out to my class based on your suggestions:\n > \n > Hi, \n > \n > I'm sending this to everyone in the class because it was something I wanted to bring up during class but wanted to make sure I could present my views in a clear and thought out manner. In our notes last class, we were given the following statements as information about the scientific theories involving flood myths (paraphrasing slightly):\n > \n > - There was an actual global flood event sometime between 2,000 - 4,000 BCE\n > - Before this flood, the oxygen in the atmosphere was much denser\n > - Before this flood, it never rained\n > - Before this flood, humans lived to be over 900 years old\n > \n > I was dumbfounded that this was being presented as scientific. I would like to clarify that I have no issues with anyone who chooses to believe any of this or anything similar. If any of the myths we have discussed are apart of your culture/belief system I respect that and I have no qualms with you nor do I wish to try to change your views. What I did have an issue with was that we were told that the above beliefs are scientific in origin. I don't know where Dr. [removed] found this information and I am sure that there was no malicious intent behind teaching us this; I just wish to correct what we were told involving scientific theories involving flood myths. \n > \n > - Floods happen all of the time in all parts of the world and are a common geological phenomena. However, there is absolutely no evidence to suggest a GLOBAL flood had ever occurred in Earth's history, nor of it even being possible. The estimated amount of water needed to flood the entire world is around 4.5 billion cubic kilometeres. The oceans today contain about 1.3 billion cubic kilometers of water. If a global flood had happened, all of that extra water would have to be somewhere - it cannot have simply vanished. If it were underground, we would know about it because it would be absolutely vast in quantity. It would completely change the planet's ecosystem not matter where it was located. That much water cannot have evaporated into the atmosphere. The water content of the atmosphere be so high that it would create an extremely dense unbreathable fog throughout the entire planet. (_URL_2_) \n > - The oxygen levels of the atmosphere have changed over time, so this statement is not completely false. However, the time-frame we are given (4,000-6,000 years) is not nearly a long enough period of time for there to have been a significant change in the oxygen levels of the atmosphere. Currently, Earth's atmosphere consists of approximately 20.95% oxygen. The highest oxygen levels found in the geological record of the Earth occurred in the Carboniferous period 300 million years ago at around 35%. (_URL_0_)\n > - The whole \"never raining\" thing is a most baffling statement, and it is difficult to even source evidence against this statement because I have never heard of such an outlandish claim. Rain is the result of water evaporating, collecting in the air, and becoming heavy enough to fall back down to the ground. So long as water exists on Earth, it will rain. There is no global geological phenomena that could prevent rain from happening, not even a world-wide flood. I suggest simply doing research on the water cycle and what rain is. \n > - There is absolutely no evidence of humans living to be any older than they live today at any point is history, nor are there any atmospheric conditions, theoretical or otherwise, that could potentially increase human lifespans. The atmosphere has stayed about the same for the entirety of human existence, and we have evolved to make the best possible of it. For the vast majority of human history, the average lifespan has been about 40 - 50 years old. (_URL_1_)\n > \n > Thank you for your time, and I hope I am not pushing anyone's buttons the wrong way in presenting this information to you. I was simply troubled by what we were taught last class and I felt it necessary to refute the misinformation. If anyone wishes to discuss this further, I hope Dr. [removed] would not mind allowing us to do so in class.\n > \n > -[removed]",
"While a lot of cultures have some kind of flood myth, the evidence they present comes from very different time periods. This isn't really science, so the best source I can offer is a book analyzing the Hebrew bible. \n\nBandstra, Barry L. (2009). Reading the Old Testament : an introduction to the Hebrew Bible\n\nBack in the Carboniferous period, the atmosphere was about 35% oxygen, but that was about 350 million years ago and it doesn't really have anything to do with a flood. \n\nPaleolithic humans are currently though to have lived to their mid 50s, at most. \n\n_URL_3_\n\nIt obviously has rained for as long as water has existed on Earth.",
"> There was an actual historical flood of some sort between 2,000 - 4,000 BCE.\n\nThere are floods every year. So naturally, I'd expect there to be thousands in that timespan.\n\nHowever, there is no geological evidence of a *global* flood at any time period in Earth's history. Moreover, a flood on that scale is actually impossible. The weight of the additional water necessary to sink all landmass would be much greater than that of all of the oceans.\n\n > Before this flood, humans lived to be over 900 years old.\n\nThere is no reason to believe this is true whatsoever. 4000 years ago, [Sumer](_URL_4_) was established. Had anyone there lived to such absurd lengths of time, it probably would have been noted. Moreover, there's no physiological or genetic reason for this to even be possible, let alone that it actually happened.\n\n > Before this flood, it did not rain. At all. Ever.\n\nRain has occurred for billions of years on Earth. Rain only requires that water become saturated in the air, and the presence of oceans essentially ensures this will happen somewhere. \n\nThe simple way to show these ideas are not supp",
"Sorry if I'm late on this reply! Your email to the class looks good. To respond further to a few of your professor's points:\n\n-[Fossilized raindrops](_URL_6_) have been identified in the geologic record as far back as 2.7 billion years ago. The paper I link to also uses these raindrop impressions to estimate that the atmospheric pressure 2.7 billion years couldn't have been much more than twice that of today.\n\n-We have a fairly good idea of the [oxygen level of the atmosphere](_URL_5_) in broad strokes over geologic time, and what we see is that before ~2-2.5 billion years ago there was very little oxygen, whereas since then oxygen levels have been rising in the atmosphere. If there were more recent fluctuations, we'd see them in [ice cores](_URL_7_), which trap bubbles of air and have allowed paleoclimatologists to reconstruct the CO2 record over the past few hundred thousand years."
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} | Separating Creationism/New Earth Science From Conventional Scientific Theory
Alright, I'm going to try to explain this as clearly and comprehensively as I can, but I apologize in advance if this comes off a little rambly. I am in a World Mythology class in college and we have been going over creation stories and flood tales from around the world and throughout history. Interwoven with this is the occasional scientific theory correlating to the mythological stories. We talked about the Big Bang and we've touched on evolution and all of that. However, today we went over a few things that troubled me because our professor presented them as being science. I would like to compile an argument against these things and why it was incorrect to teach us them in this manner, and I'm looking for your help in doing so. The issues arose when we were discussing the flood myths. Here are the things that I had problems with. Keep in mind, we were told these are all scientific facts: There was an actual historical flood of some sort between 2,000 - 4,000 BCE. Before this flood, the air was much denser and contained much more oxygen. Before this flood, humans lived to be over 900 years old. Before this flood, it did not rain. At all. Ever. Before this flood, a watery mist rose from the ground. Most importantly, and the reason I had an issue with all of the above, is that we were told that this is the scientific view. Please help me in constructing an argument about why this is incorrect and what the proper scientific views are regarding the biblical flood and surrounding myths. I don't want come off as "just trying to prove the teacher wrong" or what have you, because I am actually upset at what we were taught, which is why I'm asking for assistance. Thanks! | [
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|
m1ez6 | Do you know of any good studies in the field of music theory? | I have heard many theories on the scientific basis of [tonality](_URL_0_), but whenever I discuss it I have to admit that I cannot cite a single, solid, peer-reviewed study which offers any conclusive evidence for any argument. The (few) studies I have come across have had big holes in either their execution or relevance. I am sure some reliable studies exist, which ones would you recommend?
**Edit** I guess the key thing I'm looking for are *experiments*. Articles where someone has put a theory to the test in a rigorous and logical way.
**Edit 2** Thanks to everyone who recommended experimental results to check out. To everyone who instead offered their own unsubstantiated theories, I'm sure you meant well, but next time you comment on a thread please read the question more closely. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2xbya3",
"c2xa9si",
"c2xbe3o",
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"text": [
"Read the original \"On the Sensation of Tone\" by Herman Helmholz around the turn of the 19 - 20th centuries - the first deep analysis of the subject. I got my copy about 40 years ago from Dover books NY. Yes - modes lining up. I plowed through the deeply thick text till a certain vintage graph showing these modes lining up, then a trapdoor opened on the top of my head, beams radiated out and in, and I could read no more, to this day. _URL_0_",
"Are you talking about scientific studies on why tonality is a so prolific in western music? or why tonal music can be deemed pleasurable/satisfying by such large groups of the worlds population? or...?",
"Maybe you should re-submit this in r/musictheory. I was looking forward to much more enthusiastic response.",
"We have a little subreddit dedicated to this stuff. Welcome: [_URL_2_](_URL_2_).",
"The only studies I've read that propose scientific bases for tonality come from before the second world war, and are generally ex post facto pseudo science that attempt to derive diatonic scales and functional harmony from the overtone series, with varying degrees of success. (This is an exercise we inherit from the Greeks.) Since tonality functions fairly well in modern equal temperament it is very hard to take these arguments seriously.\n\nyou have been referred a few times here to work done in music cognition, and some of this work is quite exciting. I would like to suggest some work done on the more philosophical side of this issue. The problem as we view it from this side of the aisle lies in extracting cultural biases from any study of music. The basic argument here would be that you cannot do a scientific study of tonality because the reception of tonal music is overcoded by non-tonal factors (be they form, rhythm, instrumentation, narrative, etc.). I think the most intelligent book that tries to tackle this issue (after a fashion) is Adorno's _Quasi una fantasia_. Adorno is very difficult to read correctly without some experience in continental philosophy, so I would also recommend Rose Subotnik's _Developing Variaitons_."
],
"score": [
3,
3,
3,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonality"
]
} | {
"url": [
"www.journalofguitaracoustics.com",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/musiccognition/",
"www.reddit.com/r/musiccognition/"
]
} | Do you know of any good studies in the field of music theory?
I have heard many theories on the scientific basis of [tonality](_URL_0_), but whenever I discuss it I have to admit that I cannot cite a single, solid, peer-reviewed study which offers any conclusive evidence for any argument. The (few) studies I have come across have had big holes in either their execution or relevance. I am sure some reliable studies exist, which ones would you recommend? **Edit** I guess the key thing I'm looking for are *experiments*. Articles where someone has put a theory to the test in a rigorous and logical way. **Edit 2** Thanks to everyone who recommended experimental results to check out. To everyone who instead offered their own unsubstantiated theories, I'm sure you meant well, but next time you comment on a thread please read the question more closely. | [
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3sk47h | My good friend is a moon landing conspiracy theorist. What is the most compelling evidence we have of successfully landing on the moon? | I got into a bitter argument with my friend the other day, because he asserted that he believes the moon landings of the Apollo missions were staged, and filmed/manipulated in the form of a movie set/scene. His primary arguments were that the intense radiation of the Van Allen belts would not permit life to make a journey as far into space as the moon, and that NASA is a huckster organization that served no purpose other than to take the tax money of common American people and give it to 'manipulative politicians and scientists'.
I have told him that I believe his arguments are seemingly out there, and that there is not a significant number of professionals in the scientific community that support his notion. However, he stubbornly refuses to accept my thoughts.
So I ask of you, Reddit, as someone who considers himself a laymen in the subject of space travel and its history, what is our most compelling piece of evidence for landing on the moon? Thank you. | askscience | {
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"Disclaimer: arguing with facts against a denialist is a losing proposition, as they are operating outside of the rules of scientific enquiry. They start from a preset conclusion and keep moving the goalposts of any falsiable test you can devise. This can be seen as a subset of \"don't feed the trolls\".\n\nShould you choose to risk it anyways, my personnal favorite is all that lunar material Apollo brough back. The material has been studied by many, and still is. Some of it is quite weird by terrestrial standards:\n\nMost of the ages obtained from lunar material are in the 4.1 to 4.4 Ga range. Rocks (not crystals) of this age are almost unheard of on Earth, and come from strongly metamorphosed material, including metasediments, which are strikingly different from the lunar material. I can't stress this enough: we can count the sites with material of that age range on Earth on the fingers of one hand. It is very distinctive stuff. IT LOOKS NOTHING WHATSOEVER LIKE THE LUNAR ROCKS, WHICH ARE UNMETAMORPHOSED. Show me an unaltered, unmetamorphosed, undeformed (except for shock - meteor's gonna meteor), pristine 4.4 Ga gabbro and I *know* we're not on the same planet as Kansas anymore... (quoth the sceptic: \"*Those rocks all look the same to me! Those geologists must be in on the conspiracy*\")\n\nSome of the geochemistry is unique to the Moon and differs from that of Terrestrial rocks, In particular, the equilibration of the pyroxene and plagioclase with a magma enriched in potassium and rare earths (the so-called-KREEP) is typically lunar and doesn't jibe with terrestrial rocks. (Quoth the skeptic: \"*Speak English, not gibberish! Who are you calling a Creep? That's those geologists again hiding behind mumbo-jumbo, but they know!*\")\n\nyou can look up on lunar geology here:\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nEDIT: about those who are of the opinion that this is not a valid /r/askscience post. I checked with the mods a few months back. The answer I got was that while posts on the topic of debunking can be a major headache to moderate and are susceptible to specific problems, there is nothing against such posts in the rules of the sub should one be \"*in the mood to dispel some myth or poor idea*\". I believe this is one myth worth dispelling. So far, I believe the discussion has been on topic and has raised a number of valid and verifiable factual arguments around which one could address the concerns of OP.",
"The two most compelling arguments I've found:\n\n* We built multiple Saturn V rockets. The Saturn V is an absolutely massive rocket, far larger than would be needed for an ICBM. It had the capacity to put the Skylab space station into orbit in one piece. Skylab (77mT) was more than three times the mass of other all-one-piece space stations like the Salyut (18mT) and Tiangong (10-22mT) series. The other large space stations, Mir and the ISS, had to be assembled in orbit after multiple launches.\n\nSo the question is then: if we weren't going to the Moon with these monstrously-huge rockets, what *were* we doing with them? Launching more space stations? We'd be able to see those. There's no other plausible use for the Saturn V than taking people to the Moon.\n\n* This isn't a scientific answer, but a political one. If the moon landing had been faked, the Soviets would have immediately cried foul. They tracked our launch, and they tracked our radio signals from Mission Control to capsule and back. It would have been obvious to them if the signals were coming from a soundstage and not the Moon. Exposing the US as a bunch of liars would have been an incredible PR coup for them - it falls perfectly in line with their \"Westerners are well-meaning but misguided, led by liars and swindlers\" propaganda.\n\nNote that some conspiracy theorists do claim that the Soviets called the landings fake. This is false. The morning after the first landing, Pravda had a small article congratulating the astronauts but noting that they faced further challenges ahead on the lunar surface and at takeoff. Pravda, the propaganda arm of the Soviet government, would have been the key mouthpiece for calling it out as fake.\n\nSo, to assume the Moon Landing was faked requires that not only was every single person at NASA part of a conspiracy, but that the Soviet and American governments were actually colluding. In other words, if the Moon Landing was fake, then the Cold War was fake. Some conspiracy theorists may be able to stomach stretching that far, but many won't.",
"I once easily \"converted\" a couple of doubters by simply stating that the USSR would have been following that program, including the flight of the spacecraft itself, like a vulture - if anything had been off about it, they would not have hesitated to blow the whistle, so to speak, and embarrass the USA.\n\nIt's not exactly the most scientific of arguments but, hey, it worked :)",
"[Here are some pictures of the Apollo landing sites] (_URL_2_) taken by the lunar reconnaissance orbiter camera over the past few years. These images are hosted at Arizona State University, not NASA.\n\nBut, as /u/Gargatua13013 says, even photographs are unlikely to convince your friend, because \"arguing with facts against a denialist is a losing proposition, as they are operating outside of the rules of scientific enquiry\"\n\nI have personally met 4 of the 12 Americans who walked on the Moon. They are all patriots (several of them heroes of the Korean war) and at least one of them has been known to punch people who insult his integrity. Maybe we should introduce your friend to him.",
"We (the US) left some kind of mirror system up there so that you can hit it with a laser and it will bounce bag and can be read by sensors on earth.\n\nIf that's not proof enough I don't know what is. But you can't convince someone who's as whacky as this, so who cares, it's a losing battle.",
"That's the wrong way to approach this. You cannot logic someone out of a position they never logiced themselves into.\n\nAsk him instead why he believes in the Van Allen belt argument. If he believes what scientists say about the VA belt, why doesn't he believe what they say about the moon landing?",
"To do that you'd need to provide incontrovertible truth that humans landed on the moon in 1969. Looking at the landing sites, lunar rocks, the laser reflector only prove humans/robots eventually went to the moon - not necessarily in 1969. I think this video: _URL_3_ provides the clearest proof that humans did land on the moon IN 1969.",
"First of all, ask him if there is any kind of information that could convince him. If the answer is no, or he already knows the TRUTH it's really pointless to go on. Once past that though, [this guy] (_URL_4_) has a good relatively simple explanation why we literally didn't have the technology to fake it.\nBeyond that, brute determination in explaining every little \"well what about. . . ?\" may be the only option.",
"With all the caveats repeated telling you that idiots do not readily give up being idiots...\n\nWE WERE IN A COLD WAR. \n\nThe technology did not exist to fake a manned craft landing on and returning from the lunar surface such that not even the Soviets would catch on.\n\nAnd be very sure, catching us would have been a MAJOR world wide public relations coup for them.",
"We left lunar reflectors on the moon in specified locations. These are grids of mirror corners. A corner with all mirrors (3 planes of mirrors at 90 degree angles) will return light in a parallel path to the incoming path. If you take a high powered laser and shine it at the right spot on the moon, the reflection is orders of magnitude more dense than if you shine the laser anywhere else on the moon. Now, it still is not all that dense, but this is considered something that would not be achievable unless there were retroflectors placed on the moon during Apollo missions. \n \n_URL_5_",
"It may be helpful to take him seriously and ask him how the faking could have been done. In some cases, the technology required to produce such convincing fake \"evidence\" would be far more complex and advanced than the technology we actually developed to go to the moon. On other words, it would have been easier to go to the moon than to fake going to the moon.",
"There is a good [Mitchell and Webb sketch](_URL_6_) where they draw up a plan to fake the moon landing. They realise that the biggest hurdle to faking a moon landing was building and launching the moon rocket, so they decide to go for real. \n\nAlso, 1969 was in the middle of the Cold War. Why would the Soviet Union believe the US without proof? They saw it go up, no complaints.",
"One of the most compelling arguments is that the USSR will have been tracking the Apollo radio broadcasts very thoroughly and would have used any reason to call the US' bullshit.",
"The issue with conspiracy theorists is that they place the burden of proof squarely on the advocate of the accepted point of view. In a rational, scientific discussion, you state your theory or hypothesis and provide evidence to back it up that goes beyond a \"gut feeling\". Something like the fact that the moon landings happened isn't easily provable here on Earth, but to say that you believe it \"without obvious proof\" is hypocritical on his part - how can *he* believe the alternative so strongly without any proof either?\n\nAs an aside, trust and peer review are the cornerstones of scientific progress. If we don't have that, scientific progress literally will cease. Everyone involved with the scientific process has to make the decision to believe the experiments and results performed by others in the community to a certain degree - it comes with the territory. To claim a theory without any supporting evidence is unscientific. To claim a theory based solely on hearsay and the words of others is dangerous and irresponsible. As far as evidence toward the moon landings - So much progress in space exploration has been made as a credit to the space race. There have been numerous space expeditions since. Is he doubting those too? Where did that technology come from? Why is space exploration at all feasible, but the moon landing isn't?",
"I like this video a lot: _URL_7_\n\nInstead of proving that we went to the moon, this video explains why we couldn't have faked it with 60's technology."
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} | My good friend is a moon landing conspiracy theorist. What is the most compelling evidence we have of successfully landing on the moon?
I got into a bitter argument with my friend the other day, because he asserted that he believes the moon landings of the Apollo missions were staged, and filmed/manipulated in the form of a movie set/scene. His primary arguments were that the intense radiation of the Van Allen belts would not permit life to make a journey as far into space as the moon, and that NASA is a huckster organization that served no purpose other than to take the tax money of common American people and give it to 'manipulative politicians and scientists'. I have told him that I believe his arguments are seemingly out there, and that there is not a significant number of professionals in the scientific community that support his notion. However, he stubbornly refuses to accept my thoughts. So I ask of you, Reddit, as someone who considers himself a laymen in the subject of space travel and its history, what is our most compelling piece of evidence for landing on the moon? Thank you. | [
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|
2n31aa | Does i^i have a fixed, real value? | Given that you can use the identity e^ix = cos(x) + isin(x) to prove that i^i is real (by letting x=pi/2 and raising both sides to the power of i) that would suggest that i^i = e^-pi/2, however since there are multiple values of x which could work just as well (5pi/2, for instance) and these would give different values, does i^i have a set real value or can it vary or is it just not as simple as I think it is? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cma4ejk",
"cma4i1y",
"cma4h1t"
],
"text": [
"Since we use the natural logarithm to calculate this exponential, and the natural logarithm is a multi-valued function, you should expect multiple solutions. i^i represents all of these values, so in a sense it's a set (e^(2pi k - pi/2) for all k in Z), but more correct is to think of these points as lying on a twisted surface that revolves about the origin infinite times in both directions. Think of an infinitely tall helical parking building - these solutions represent the same parking space on each floor.\n\nEdit: Coming to think of it, the parking space analogy breaks down because the solutions are in different places from level to level, although always on the real line. The point is that each solution is on it's own level.",
"What you're seeing is called a [multi-valued function](_URL_0_), and they come up a lot in complex functions. What we typically do is pick the interval we want to work in a stick with it. Since we usually work in [-pi, pi], i^i is usually a little bit more than a fifth. In different regions, it can have different values, but it's kind of like asking \"Is the square root of 4 really 2?\" The answer is \"Yes, unless you have a reason to use -2.\"",
"You're off to a good start.\n\nBecause pi/2 added to any multiple of 2pi (pi/2, 5pi/2, 9pi/2) will work, we can write it as pi/2 + 2pi*n, with n = 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.\n\nSo for n=0:\n\ne^(i*pi/2) = cos(pi/2) + isin(pi/2)\n\ne^(i*pi/2) = i\n\ne^\\(i*pi/2)^i = i^i (put both sides to the power of i)\n\ne^(i*i*pi/2) = i^i (a^b^c = a^(b*c))\n\ne^(-pi/2) = i^i (i*i = -1)\n\ni^i = .2078 for n = 0\n\nThese could be called the \"principal value\" of i^i, because it is in some ways the \"default\", but there are certainly other values. \n\nBut for n = 1, on the other hand:\n\ne^(i*5pi/2) = cos(5pi/2) + isin(5pi/2)\n\ne^(i*5pi/2) = i \n\ne^\\(i*5pi/2)^i = i^i\n\ne^(i*i*5pi/2) = i^i\n\ne^(-5pi/2)^i = i^i\n\ni^i = 0.000388 for n = 1\n\nYou'll get a different number for n=2 and n = 3 too. The value of i^i is different for each number n you choose. All these values are real numbers, but are not fixed. \n\nMuch like sqrt(4) is both 2 and -2, i^i takes on multiple values, although unlike the square root function, the values of i^i have different magnitudes, and not just different signs. \n\nHope this helped."
],
"score": [
33,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivalued_function"
]
} | Does i^i have a fixed, real value?
Given that you can use the identity e^ix = cos(x) + isin(x) to prove that i^i is real (by letting x=pi/2 and raising both sides to the power of i) that would suggest that i^i = e^-pi/2, however since there are multiple values of x which could work just as well (5pi/2, for instance) and these would give different values, does i^i have a set real value or can it vary or is it just not as simple as I think it is? | [
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|
1axwqz | AskScience Panel of Scientists VIII | **Calling all scientists!**
The previous thread got old and unwieldy, but is available [here](_URL_1_). If you are already on the panel - no worries - you'll stay! This thread is for **new** panelist recruitment!
We know that our last round of panelists took a long time to process. That's unacceptable, and we know that. But those are processed, and I promise that we'll do better in the future.
**Please make a comment to this thread to join our panel of scientists. (click the reply button) **
The panel is an informal group of Redditors who are professional scientists (or plan on becoming one, with at least a **graduate-level familiarity** with the field of their choice).
You may want to join the panel if you:
* Are a research scientist, or are studying for at least an MSc. or equivalent degree in the sciences.
* Are able to write about your field at a layman's level as well as at a level comfortable to your colleagues and peers (depending on who's asking the question)
You're still reading? Excellent! Please reply to this thread with the following:
* Choose **one** general field from the side-bar. If you have multiple specialties, you still have to choose one.
* State your specific field (neuropathology, quantum chemistry, etc.)
* List your particular area of research (carbon nanotube dielectric properties, myelin sheath degradation in Parkinsons patients, etc.)
* Give us a synopsis of your education: have you been a post-doctoral research scientist for three decades, or are you a first-year PhD student?
* Link us to one or two comments you've made in /r/AskScience, which *you* feel are indicative of your scholarship. If you haven't commented yet, then please wait to apply. We'd prefer it if the comments have a reference, so we can more easily check if it's B.S. without specific domain knowledge.
We're not going to do background checks - we're just asking for Reddit's best behavior here. The information you provide will be used to compile a list of our panel members and what subject areas they'll be "responsible" for.
The reason I'm asking for comments to this post is that I'll get a little orange envelope from each of you, which will help me keep track of the whole thing. These official threads are also here for book-keeping: the other moderators and I can check what your claimed credentials are, and can take action if it becomes clear you're bullshitting us.
**Here's an example application:**
* Username: foretopsail
* General field: Anthropology
* Specific field: Maritime Archaeology
* Particular areas of research include historical archaeology, archaeometry, ship construction, material culture. Education: MA in archaeology, researcher for several years.
* Good comments: [1](_URL_0_) [2](_URL_4_) [3](_URL_3_) [4](_URL_2_).
*Addendum:* Please don't give us too much of your personal details. We don't need it, we don't even want it; please be careful and maintain your reddit/internet privacy. Thanks!
**Bonus points!** Here's a good chance to discover people that share your interests! And if you're interested in something, you probably have questions about it, so you can get started with that in /r/AskScience. Membership in the panel will also give you access to the panel subreddit, where the scientists can discuss among themselves, voice concerns to the moderators, and where the moderators can talk specifically to the panel as a whole. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"General Field: Neuroscience\n\nSpecific Field: Neurobiology\n\nAreas of research: Drug addiction, synaptic plasticity.\n\nEducation: 3 years into PhD program, passed all qualifying exams.\n\nExample comment: [1](_URL_0_), [2](_URL_1_)",
"* Username: topodan\n* General field: Earth and Planetary Science\n* Specific field: Geophysics (Mantle Geodynamics)\n* Particular areas of research include mantle convection, mantle plume-ridge interaction, marine geophysics, oceanography, physical laboratory methods, programming, parallel software architecture, numerical modelling\n\n* Current PhD candidate at the University of Hawaii at Manoa in Geology and Geophysics, BS Engineering physics, MS Geophysics, researching mantle convection beneath iceland.\n\nExample comments: [1](_URL_3_); [2](_URL_2_)",
"Username: gypaetus\n\nGeneral field: Biology\n\nSpecific field: Ornithology\n\nParticular areas of research include behavior and ecology of scavengers and conservation\n\nEducation: Currently pursuing a masters.\n\nExample comments: [1](_URL_5_) [2](_URL_4_)",
"General Field: Biology\n\nSpecific Field: Host manipulation by microbes, particularly bacteria\n\nParticular areas: Effector proteins employed by pathogens to defeat host defenses, plant immunology, bacterial genetics\n\nEducation: Recent Ph.D. in Microbiology\n\nComments: [1](_URL_7_), [2](_URL_6_)\n\nI tend not to comment because by the time I see most threads the discussion has ended. I am trying to get more involved in public outreach and would relish an opportunity to practice writing at that level. I am currently a postdoctoral researcher in plant pathology.",
"Hi!\nI'm sorry if this slightly deviates, but would you mind changing my flair to: \n\nEpidemiology | Applied Statistics\n\nThe general epi is more applicable, has been for a while. Thanks!",
"General Field: Physics\n\nSpecific Field: Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics\n\nArea of research: Laser cooling and trapping of a diatomic molecule\n\nEducation: In my 3rd year of PhD program, finished my masters exam last fall\n\nExample comment [1](_URL_8_) [2](_URL_9_)",
"General Field: Chemistry\n\nSpecific Field: Physical Chemistry\n\nArea of Research: Quantum dots for energy applications \n\n\nI am currently in the middle of my PhD in the field mentioned above.\n\nExamples of posts: [1](_URL_10_) [2](_URL_11_)",
"Username: SonOfOnett\n\nGeneral Field: Physics\n\nSpecific Field: Condensed Matter Experiment\n\nParticular Areas: Nanomagnetism, Spin Transport\n\nEducation: 2.5 years into PhD\n\nExample posts: [1](_URL_16_)\n[2](_URL_12_)\n[3](_URL_15_)\n[4](_URL_14_)\n[5](_URL_13_)",
"General Field: Chemistry\nSpecific Field: Materials Science\nArea of Research: Biomineralization, microscopy, composite materials\n\nCurrently finishing a PhD in Materials Science. \n\nexample comments:\n\n_URL_18_\n\n_URL_17_",
"General field: Mathematics\n\nSpecific field: Analysis\n\nParticular areas of research: Geometric measure theory & harmonic analysis.\n\nEducation: BS Mathematics, BS Physics, currently a 1st year PhD student in mathematics.\n\nComments: [1](_URL_19_) [2](_URL_20_) [3](_URL_21_)",
"General Field: Earth and Planetary Science\n\nSpecific Field: Planetary Surfaces\n\nAreas of research: Mars permafrost geomorphology\n\nEducation: Completed PhD 3 months ago; looking for postdoc\n\nExamples:\n_URL_22_\"\n_URL_23_",
"General field: Engineering -Materials Science and Engineering\n\nSpecific field: Ceramic Engineering\n\nAreas of Research: \n\n-[Thermochemical generation of renewable Fuels using concentrated solar](_URL_30_)\n\n-[Spark Plasma Sintering of ultra high temperature ceramics](_URL_25_)\n\n-[Ceramic-graphene nanocomposites](_URL_24_)\n\n-[High temperature oxidation of aerospace materials](_URL_26_)\n\n-[Joining of High temperature ceramics](_URL_29_)\n\nEducation: BS Ceramic Engineering, MS and PhD Materials Science and Engineering\n\nGood comments:\n[1](_URL_28_)\n[2](_URL_27_)\n[3](_URL_31_)\n\nFun Fact: Yes I am Dr. Luke Sky Walker",
"Username: skleats\n\nGeneral field: Biology\n\nSpecific areas: Immunogenetics and animal science\n\nAreas of research include: amphibian immune response and development/regeneration, leukocyte function, impacts of selection in domestic poultry; BS in animal science, PhD in genetics, assistant prof of biology\n\nComments: [1](_URL_33_), [2](_URL_32_), [3-5](_URL_34_)",
"General Field: Biology\n\nSpecific Field: Plant Molecular Biology\n\nAreas of Research: Developmental genetics, patterning of the Shoot Apical Meristem, Auxin biology.\n\nEdu: 3rd year PhD student, passed quals.\n\n[Comment](_URL_35_)",
"Username: nanopoop\n\nGeneral Field: Engineering\n\nSpecific Field: Chemical Engineering\n\nParticular areas of research: Protein phase behavior\n\nEducation: 2nd year of PhD program in Chemical Engineering \n\nComments: \n_URL_37_\n\n_URL_36_",
"General Field: Engineering\n\nSpecific Field: Computer Engineering\n\nEducation: B.S. Computer Engineering and Computer Science; 5+ years of professional work\n\nParticular areas of research: Low Level engineering, High Performance Computing, GPU parallelization, Genetic Algorithms.\n\nGood comments: I don't have any because rarely anyone ever asks any questions relative to my field, but I would love to become more active in the community. Here is my github, which has a few cool projects I have done ([link](_URL_38_)).",
"Username: maples_buick\n\nGeneral field: Biology\n\nSpecific field: Molecular Biology and Genetics\n\nArea of Research: Effect of DNA damage induced of post-translational modification on protein activity and transcription.\n\nEducation: Post-doc in Neuroscience, PhD in Human and Molecular Genetics, MS in Plant Biochemistry, researcher for several years.\n\nGood comments: [1](_URL_40_), [2](_URL_39_)",
"Username: steveysaurus\n\nGeneral field: Biology\n\nSpecific field: Reproductive biology; endocrinology & physiology\n\nEducation: PhD student\n\nParticular areas of current research include developmental and physiological changes in marine teleosts due to physical/chemical environmental changes.\n\nOther interests: immunology, stem cell biology, ecology, and teaching. \n\nComments regarding science: [A](_URL_42_) [B](_URL_41_)",
"Username: Vietoris\n\nGeneral field: Mathematics\n\nSpecific Field: Geometric Topology\n\nAreas of research: geometric structures on surfaces, hyperbolic geometry, group actions.\n\nEducation: Post-doc and PhD in Mathematics, now assistant professor for two years.\n\nComments : [1](_URL_44_) , [2](_URL_43_)",
"General field: Engineering\n\nSpecific field: Computational methods in nuclear engineering\n\nParticular areas of research: uncertainty quantification of large scale systems, model order reduction, numerical methods for PDEs, inverse problems\n\nEducation: B.S. in applied math, PhD student in nuclear engineering, second-year\n\nGood comments: (I seem to have lost some of my ones from AskScience, so I'll include one from AskMath as well and I have even more from my old account) [1](_URL_45_) [2](_URL_46_)",
"Username: HD209458b\n\nGeneral Field: Astronomy | Planetary Science\n\nSpecific Field: Exoplanets\n\nParticular areas of research includes observing transiting exoplanets to measure their atmospheric composition and structure. I work on both ground- and space-based data, but my speciality is observing with and analyzing the data from ground-based telescopes.\n\nEducation: 4 years into PhD\n\nComment: [1](_URL_48_) [2] (_URL_49_) [3] (_URL_47_)\n\nEdit: added more comments",
"Username: shubonid\n\nGeneral field: Neuroscience\n\nSpecific field: Circadian Rhythms\n\nParticular areas of research include evolution of diurnality, neuroplasticity, and light pollution. \n\nEducation: PhD in Behavioral Neuroscience, researcher for eight years.\n\nGood comments: [1](_URL_51_), [2] (_URL_52_), [3] (_URL_50_), and [4] (_URL_53_)",
"General Field: Medicine\n\nSpecific Field: none yet\n\nArea of research: Pediatric surgery and trauma surgery. \n\nEducation: 3rd year in an M.D. program. Passed the hell out of the USMLE Step 1.\n\nExample comment: [1](_URL_55_) (it's a 3-parter), [2](_URL_54_)",
"Is there any way it would be possible to get a planetary interiors or mantle dynamics sub-classification on my flair? i.e. [Geophysics | Planetary Interiors]. It is a wholly different science than say, geophysicists doing seismology.",
"General Field: Mathematics\n\nSpecific Field: Algebra and Topology\n\nAreas of research: Group Theory and 4 Manifolds\n\nEducation: 1st year PhD student.\n\nExample comments:\n\n_URL_57_\n\n_URL_56_\n\n_URL_58_",
"* Username: meshugg\n* General field: Molecular biology\n* Specific field: Membrane dynamics\n* Particular areas of research include zebrafish development, microdomain dynamics, proteomics\n* Education: 1st year of PhD\n* Example comment(s): [1](_URL_60_), [2](_URL_59_)\n\nI've always been a lurker on this subreddit, never commented much; just because I don't see many questions pertaining to molecular biology. I hope to contribute as much as possible though; I'm passionate about the public understanding of science, and it's always a pleasure to explain a seemingly intricate process in layman terms.",
"Username: aggieastronaut\n\nGeneral field: Earth and Planetary Sciences\n\nSpecific field: Planetary Atmospheres\n\nAreas of research: Martian nighttime optical depth, dust devils and clouds on Mars, spacecraft operations for Curiosity, image processing and photometry\n\nEducation: Graduating with my master's in atmospheric science in August, likely pursuing PhD in Earth & Space Science starting this fall or going into a researching position at a private research institution\n\nComments: [1](_URL_65_), [2](_URL_66_), [3](_URL_61_), [4](_URL_62_), [5](_URL_63_), [6](_URL_64_). I can also dig up answers from the Curiosity AMAs if desired.",
"* **Username:** heresacorrection\n* **General field:** Biology\n* **Specific field:** Biochemistry, Evolution, Genomics\n* Particular areas of research include genomics, biochemistry, molecular biology/genetics, evolution, microbiology, metagenomics\n* **Education:** BA in biology and biochemistry, MA in progress in bioinformatics. Researcher for four years.\n* **Model organism:** I do most of my research in nematodes (*C. elegans* and *C. remanei*) my current project is analyzing the microbiome of the nematode gastrointestinal tract.\n\n* **Good comments in r/askscience:** [1](_URL_69_) [2](_URL_67_)\n\n* **Other places:** [3](_URL_68_)",
"Username: verticalfuzz\n\nEDITED to better meet formatting requirements:\n\nGeneral field: Engineering\n\nSpecific field: Chemical Engineering\n\nSpecific field: Biomedical Engineering\n\nSpecific field: Engineering (robotics)\n\n\nEducation: BS in Chemical Engineering with additional major in Biomedical Engineering from Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, where I was also president of the [robotics club](_URL_71_). \n\nI'm starting a doctoral program for chemical and biomolecular engineering at Georgia Tech in one month!\n\nParticular areas of research (hopefully): Metabolic engineering, bioprocess development \n\n\nExample comments: _URL_70_",
"Username: rusoved\n\nGeneral field: linguistics\n\nSpecific field: Slavic linguistics | Phonology\n\nParticular areas of research include the history of Slavic, experimental approaches to Russian phonology (and phonology more generally), historical phonology, and functional/typological approaches to syntax.\n\nEducation: BA in Slavic and general linguistics (summa cum laude), 2-1/2 years work in a phonology lab as an undergraduate, beginning an MA/PhD in Slavic linguistics this fall.\n\nGood comments: [1](_URL_72_), [2](_URL_77_), [3](_URL_76_)\\*, [4](_URL_74_)\\*, [5](_URL_75_)\\*, [6](_URL_73_)\\*\n\n\\*edited",
"General field: Biological Anthropology\n\nSpecific field: Forensic Anthropology\n\nParticular areas of research: General forensic anthro, completed a thesis on maceration entitled *THE EFFECTS OF MACERATION ON JUVENILE PORCINE BONE*\n\nEducation: MS in Forensic Anthropology, 2011. Earning the degree involved passing comprehensive exams including practical and written portions as well as the completion of original research and a thesis. I am not currently employed in my field of study.\n\nGood comments: [1](_URL_79_), [2](_URL_80_), [3](_URL_78_),",
"* Username: __Pers\n* General field: Physics\n* Specific field: Plasma Physics\n* Particular areas of research: high energy density physics, kinetic plasma physics, laser-plasma interaction, inertial confinement fusion, ultra-intense laser-matter interaction, plasma astrophysics, high-performance scientific supercomputing\n* Education: Ph.D. in physics; 15 years as a research scientist\n* Good comments (mostly general physics discussion, as there is very little plasma physics discussed on the site): [1](_URL_81_)\n[2](_URL_82_) [3](_URL_84_) [4](_URL_83_)\n[5](_URL_85_)",
"1. Username: Atomoton\n2. General field: Biology\n3. Specific field: Biochemistry and Biophysics\n4. Particular areas of research include aging, molecular biology and genetics, CREB3 and stress hormone signalling.\n5. Education: _URL_88_. Molecular Biology and Genetics, PhD student: Biochemistry and Biophysics\n6. Good comments: [1. Short and sweet ](_URL_87_) [2. Another ](_URL_86_) [3. A third ](_URL_90_) [4. Probably the best example, and the most recent. This is from /r/genetics however](_URL_89_)",
"Username: Fuckwhatdoiputhere\n\nGeneral field: biology\n\nSpecific field: neuroscience\n\nParticular areas of research include neuronal and oligodendrite cell cycles, repair, death, and compensation. \n\nGood comments [1](_URL_93_) [2](_URL_91_) [3](_URL_94_) and [4](_URL_92_).\n\nEducation: Msc Biology, PhD Neurobiology.\n\nSide note: I realize only one of these posts is really substantive in my field so should you decide to deny me the neuroscience tag, I won't be overly upset. \n\nEdited for formatting.",
"**Username**: StringOfLights\n\n**General field**: Biology (seems like most paleo threads go here)\n\n**Specific field**: Vertebrate Paleontology\n\n**Areas of research**: Fossil and modern crocodylians, quantitative techniques such as species distribution modeling and geometric morphometrics, and vertebrate evolution/taxonomy. \n\n**Education**: Completed MS in geoscience, current PhD student in anatomical science.\n\n**Good comments**: [link](_URL_98_) [link](_URL_99_) [link](_URL_100_)\n\n**Comments outside /r/askscience**: [AskReddit](_URL_96_), [Biology](_URL_95_), [MapPorn](_URL_97_)\n\nedited to add more comments from /r/askscience",
"Username: sagard\n\nGeneral field: Tissue Engineering\n\nSpecific Field: Onco-reconstruction\n\nAreas of research: Craniofacial reconstruction, stem cell therapies, bone biology\n\nEducation: BSc in Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, 2 years of a research fellowship, currently in a MD program, done a whole lot of research in this area and written a fair number of papers.\n\nGood comments: [1] (_URL_103_), [2] (_URL_102_), [3] (_URL_101_)",
"- Username: jeampz\n- General field: Engineering\n- Specific field: Material Science (tomography)\n- Particular areas of research include tomographic reconstruction, in-situ serial section (3D SEM tomography), quantification, image based modelling including computational fluid dynamics\n- Current PhD candidate at the University of Manchester, MPhys (in physics) from University of Manchester\n- Example comment: [1](_URL_106_), [2](_URL_104_), [3](_URL_105_)\n\nEdit: example comment link",
"Fields|Responses\n:----|:----|:----\n`Username:` | [`subroutines`](/user/subroutines)\n`General Field:` | `Neuroscience`\n`Particular areas:` | `molecular neurobiology, synaptic potentiation, physiology of neural networks, learning and memory`\n`Comments:` | [`1`](_URL_107_) [`2`](_URL_108_) [`3`](_URL_109_)\n`Program:` | `Current PhD student at the University of California San Diego Department of Neuroscience.`\n`Degrees` | `BS Molecular Bio` `•` `BA Psychology`\n | ^`minor:` ^`beer` ^`drinking`",
"Username: lets_be_practical \n\nGeneral field: Earth and Planetary Sciences\n\nSpecific field(s): Isotope Geochemistry | Paleoclimatology | Glaciology\n\nParticular areas of research include stable/radiogenic isotope geochemistry, geochronology, paleoclimatology, glaciochemistry, glaciology, climate dynamics. \n\nEducation: Current 1st Ph.D. student; also with a B.S. in Geology and an M.S. in Environmental Isotope Geochemistry.\n\nExample comments: [1](_URL_112_), [2](_URL_113_), [3](_URL_114_), [4](_URL_110_), [5](_URL_111_)",
"* Username: eabrek\n\n* General field: Computing\n\n* Specific field: microprocessor research\n\n* Particular areas of research: single thread performance, hardware/software interaction\n\n* Education: MS in Electrical and Computer Engineering, and in Computer Science. More than ten years in industry, with published papers (ISCA and MICRO) and patents.\n\n* Good comments:\n[1](_URL_116_)\n[2](_URL_118_)\n[3](_URL_115_)\n[4](_URL_117_)",
"* Username: nimbuscile\n\n* General field: Earth & Planetary Sciences\n\n* Specific field: Climate\n\n* Particular areas of research include the radiative effect of atmospheric aerosols and the fluid dynamics of atmospheric circulations.\n\n* I am a third-year PhD student in Atmosphere, Oceans & Climate.\n\n* Comments: [1](_URL_121_) [2](_URL_119_) [3](_URL_119_) [4](_URL_120_)",
"General Field: Engineering\n\nSpecific Field: Embedded Systems | Software Engineering | Robotics\n\nParticular areas of expertise:\n\n- Microcontroller interfacing\n- Learning systems and artificial intelligence\n- Sensory algorithms\n- Control systems\n\nEducation: B.S. in Computer Engineering from Clemson University. In progress with M.S. in Robotics and Embedded Systems.\n\nComments [1](_URL_124_),[2](_URL_122_),[3](_URL_123_).",
"General field: Physics/Astronomy\n\nSpecific Field: Pulsar Astrophysics\n\nAreas of research: Discovery of new pulsars, computer simulations of the pulsar population, artificial neural networks\n\nEducation: Undergraduate degree in Physics with Astrophysics, PhD in Pulsar Astronomy\n\nExample comments: [1](_URL_127_), [2](_URL_125_), [3](_URL_126_), [4](_URL_128_)\n\n\n\nEDIT: Added another comment",
"Username: increasing-entropy\n\nGeneral field: Chemistry\n\nSpecific field: Theoretical physical chemistry\n\nParticular areas of research include atomistic dynamics, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, phase transitions, water physics, fuel cell development \n\nEducation and experience: BS/MA/PhD in physical chemistry, postdoc for several years\n\nGood comments: [1](_URL_132_) [2](_URL_130_) [3](_URL_131_) [4](_URL_129_)",
"Howdy!\n\nUsername: tay95\n\nGeneral Field: Chemistry,Astronomy\n\nSpecific Field: Spectroscopy,Astrochemistry\n\nParticular areas of interest: prebiotic astrochemistry, laboratory \nastrophysics, microwave spectroscopy, terahertz spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy\n\nEducation: M.S. in Physical Chemistry; T-minus a few years to PhD in Chemistry\n\nGood comments: [1](_URL_135_), [2](_URL_134_), [3]( _URL_133_), [4](_URL_136_)\n\nCheers!",
"Username: flickerfusion\n\nGeneral field: Neuroscience\n\nSpecific field: Motor Systems\n\nArea of research: Plasticity in motor learning\n\nEducation: 3rd year Ph.D. student\n\nComments: [1](_URL_137_), [2](_URL_138_)\n\nNote - username and comments are new because I created this separate account for answering science questions on reddit",
"* General Field: Engineering\n* Specific Field: Environmental Engineering\n* Areas of Research: Water Chemistry, Groundwater Hydrology, Drinking Water/Wastewater Treatment, Analytical Chemistry\n* Education: PhD Civil Engineering, BS Chemical Engineering, Researcher in Groundwater Contaminant Fate/Transport for 2 years\n* Comments: [1](_URL_141_), [2](_URL_139_), [3](_URL_140_)",
"* Username: MissBelly\n* General field: Medicine\n* Specific field: Cardiology\n* Particular areas of research include echocardiography, electrocardiography, cardiac perfusion\n* Education: MD anticipated in May2014, current MS4 with focus on cardiovascular medicine\n* Good comments: [1](_URL_143_) [2](_URL_142_) [3](_URL_144_)",
"Username: marcus_aurelius2\n\nGeneral field: Medicine\n\nSpecific field: Pharmacy\n\nParticular areas of interest: pharmacology, pharmaceutics, pharmacy informatics\n\nEducation: Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), licensed in OH and NY\n\nArea of research: Renal dosing clinical decision support\n\nExample Comments: [1](_URL_146_) (2 comments); [2](_URL_145_)",
"* username: Dmw_md\n* General field: Medicine\n* Specific field: Family Medicine\n* Particular areas of research include cystic fibrosis gene therapy and Vibrio fischeri bio luminosity. \n* Education: BS in microbiology and MD\n* Good comments: [1](_URL_147_) [2](_URL_148_)[3](_URL_149_)[4](_URL_150_)",
"Username: Oritt\n\nGeneral field: Biology\n\nSpecific field: Molecular Microbiology\n\nResearch: Molecular Microbiology, bacterial pathogenesis, transcriptional activation of virulence factors, signal transduction\n\nEducation: Ph.D. in Microbiology\n\nAssistant professor of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Biology\n\nGood Comments: [1](_URL_151_) [2](_URL_152_) [3](_URL_153_)",
"Can I get my flair changed to reflect updated info?\n\nusername: gestapoparrot\n\ngen field: Medicine\n\nSpecific: Emergency, Critical Care\n\nresearch: Sepsis, Cardiac Care, health delivery systems, EC imaging\n\nEducation: BS Biology, MS Physiology, MD\n\nComments:\n_URL_155_\n\n_URL_156_\n\n_URL_154_",
"Usename: demonhawk\n\nGeneral Field: Neuroscience\n\nSpecific Field: Behavioural Neuroscience\n\nParticular area of research includes animal models of depression and anxiety, effects of environment, gender differences.\n\nEducation: MSc Biology, 4th year PhD Behavioural Neuoscience \n\nComments: [1](_URL_157_), [2](_URL_158_)",
"Username: haplo_and_dogs\n\nGeneral field: Engineering\n\nSpecific field: Controls/Electrical Engineering\n\nAreas of research: Servo Controls, DC motors, embedded computing\n\nEducation: Bs ME Ms EE, 5 years in industry\n\nGood comments: \n[1](_URL_161_)\n[2](_URL_159_)\n[3](_URL_160_)",
"Username: Agisman\n\nGeneral Field: Physics\n\nSpecific Field: Solid-State Physics\n\nAreas of research: Optoelectronics, defects/interfaces, organic/inorganic hybrids, thin film processing\n\nEducation: PhD in Electrical Engineering, several years industry research\n\nExample comments: [1](_URL_163_), [2](_URL_162_)",
"General Field: Engineering\n\nSpecific Field: Astrodynamics\n\nAreas of research: trajectory optimization, aerospace vehicle guidance\n\nEducation: MS Aerospace engineering expected May 2013, working in industry since 2002\n\nExample comment: [1](_URL_166_) [2](_URL_165_) [3](_URL_164_)",
"General Field: Neuroscience\n\nSpecific Field: Computational Neurobiology\n\nAreas of research: molecular mechanisms of inhibitory synaptic plasticity\n\nEducation: BSc Neuroscience, Bsc Mathematics, MSc Cell & Systems Biology (Neuroscience) \n\nExample comment: [1](_URL_167_), [2](_URL_168_)",
"General field: Psychology\n\nSpecific field: Cognitive psychology\n\nAreas of research: Sensory substitution, synaesthesia\n\nEducation: Nearly finished PhD, BSc in Cognitive Neuroscience\n\n[Example comment](_URL_169_) (Will comment more in future!)",
"general field: Physics\n\nspecific field: astrophysics \n\nareas of research: supernovae, nuclear astrophysics, stellar evolution\n\neducation: PhD and professor at university for 1 year so far.\n\nExample comment: [1](_URL_170_)",
"General Field: Psychology\n\nSpecific Field: Neuropsychology\n\nParticular areas of research include; placebo effects, consciousness\n\nEducation: Currently pursuing an MSc, researcher for 3 years, published.\n\nexample comments: [1](_URL_172_), [2](_URL_171_)",
"Username: achmorrison\nGeneral field: Physics\nSpecific field: Musical Acoustics\nParticular areas of research include percussion instruments and stringed instrument physics\nGood comments: /u/therationalpi will vouch for me"
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"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/vki0d/given_feeding_someone_a_sugar_pill_and_telling/c55dund?context=3",
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]
} | AskScience Panel of Scientists VIII
**Calling all scientists!** The previous thread got old and unwieldy, but is available [here](_URL_1_). If you are already on the panel - no worries - you'll stay! This thread is for **new** panelist recruitment! We know that our last round of panelists took a long time to process. That's unacceptable, and we know that. But those are processed, and I promise that we'll do better in the future. **Please make a comment to this thread to join our panel of scientists. (click the reply button) ** The panel is an informal group of Redditors who are professional scientists (or plan on becoming one, with at least a **graduate-level familiarity** with the field of their choice). You may want to join the panel if you: * Are a research scientist, or are studying for at least an MSc. or equivalent degree in the sciences. * Are able to write about your field at a layman's level as well as at a level comfortable to your colleagues and peers (depending on who's asking the question) You're still reading? Excellent! Please reply to this thread with the following: * Choose **one** general field from the side-bar. If you have multiple specialties, you still have to choose one. * State your specific field (neuropathology, quantum chemistry, etc.) * List your particular area of research (carbon nanotube dielectric properties, myelin sheath degradation in Parkinsons patients, etc.) * Give us a synopsis of your education: have you been a post-doctoral research scientist for three decades, or are you a first-year PhD student? * Link us to one or two comments you've made in /r/AskScience, which *you* feel are indicative of your scholarship. If you haven't commented yet, then please wait to apply. We'd prefer it if the comments have a reference, so we can more easily check if it's B.S. without specific domain knowledge. We're not going to do background checks - we're just asking for Reddit's best behavior here. The information you provide will be used to compile a list of our panel members and what subject areas they'll be "responsible" for. The reason I'm asking for comments to this post is that I'll get a little orange envelope from each of you, which will help me keep track of the whole thing. These official threads are also here for book-keeping: the other moderators and I can check what your claimed credentials are, and can take action if it becomes clear you're bullshitting us. **Here's an example application:** * Username: foretopsail * General field: Anthropology * Specific field: Maritime Archaeology * Particular areas of research include historical archaeology, archaeometry, ship construction, material culture. Education: MA in archaeology, researcher for several years. * Good comments: [1](_URL_0_) [2](_URL_4_) [3](_URL_3_) [4](_URL_2_). *Addendum:* Please don't give us too much of your personal details. We don't need it, we don't even want it; please be careful and maintain your reddit/internet privacy. Thanks! **Bonus points!** Here's a good chance to discover people that share your interests! And if you're interested in something, you probably have questions about it, so you can get started with that in /r/AskScience. Membership in the panel will also give you access to the panel subreddit, where the scientists can discuss among themselves, voice concerns to the moderators, and where the moderators can talk specifically to the panel as a whole. | [
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|
9ugrgs | What happens to all the stuff from large experiments? | What do they do with all the materials from large experiments. For example, if a university builds a Tokamak reactor and then it runs out of funding or its usefulness has ended? Are there special scrappers that disassemble and recycle all the sensors and pipes and fittings? Something like the LHC must have over a million sensors and thousands of miles of wire. I would like to think that a good percentage of those materials are re-used. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e94gzwy",
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"e954uhs"
],
"text": [
"Things are reused as much as they can be, but eventually they get decommissioned, and some of them become \"art\". If you go to these kinds of facilities, you'll often see old magnets, cavities, or other beamline elements lying around in aesthetically pleasing ways.\n\nDepending on the item, and where it was used, it may have to be treated as radioactive waste due to activation from exposure to beam, or some kind of radiation.\n\nIf that's the case, there's usually a place on-site where activated items are stored for a while until they cool down enough to be scrapped, or turned into art, or whatever else.",
"A good example for re-use of a large-scale experiment is the [SESAME](_URL_0_) facility, which re-used parts of the decommissioned [BESSY-I](_URL_1_).\n\nSESAME is interesting for political reasons too, it is an accelerator facility opened last year in Jordan, and its member states include Iran, Israel, Palestine, and Turkey. Even though this lab manages to get officials from all of these countries to work together, there was almost no news coverage when it became operational.",
"Many components are just commercial devices. Computers, standard cables, common lab tools and so on. They can be used elsewhere (or thrown away because no one wants computers from 20 years ago).\n\nSometimes specialized equipment can be used elsewhere. BESSY- > SESAME has been mentioned, [Muon g-2](_URL_4_) is another example: They shipped a giant magnet to a different place for a follow-up experiment with more muons. Some magnets from [HERA](_URL_3_) are used in [ALPS](_URL_4_), most are still in the tunnel.\n\nIf things get radioactive they are typically just stored on site until the activity decayed enough to discard the material.",
"Here's a good example of the SSC, which was going to be the largest particle accelerator in the world. Construction started in 1991 and lasted for a few years , but then funding got cut.\n\nSome people went through the facility 20 years later and this is what they saw:\n_URL_5_"
],
"score": [
14,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchrotron-Light_for_Experimental_Science_and_Applications_in_the_Middle_East",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BESSY",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon_g-2",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HERA_(particle_accelerator)",
"https://alps.desy.de/",
"http://www.physicscentral.com/buzz/blog/index.cfm?postid=6659555448783718990"
]
} | What happens to all the stuff from large experiments?
What do they do with all the materials from large experiments. For example, if a university builds a Tokamak reactor and then it runs out of funding or its usefulness has ended? Are there special scrappers that disassemble and recycle all the sensors and pipes and fittings? Something like the LHC must have over a million sensors and thousands of miles of wire. I would like to think that a good percentage of those materials are re-used. | [
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2uv08k | How can I prove gravitational time dilation? | Hello. I want to understand and be able to prove gravitational time dilation. And frankly many of the answers I have gotten from several forums just aren't good enough. Is there a way to explain it with field equations? Is there a way to explain it to me, so I can be able to explain it to people that aren't physics nerds like me? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"coc00pv",
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"text": [
"The way I would do it would be calculating the proper time along a strictly time-like curve in the Schwarzschild spacetime. Or in infinitesimal form :\ndtau/dt = Sqrt(1 - rs/r) \n\nwhere tau is the proper time between two given events and t is the coordinate time between those events for an observer a distance r from the massive object. This means that any time interval is measured differently by an observer some distance r from the massive body. The further away the observer is from the massive body the less his time measure diverges from the proper time. And conversely the closer he gets the more his observed time interval grows. The fact that rs depends on the mass of the body and Newton's constant G gives this kind of explanation great power, as it will apply approximately for any massive body that's approximately spherically symmetric.\n\nAs for an explanation: if gravity can be seen as the curvature of spacetime then in a powerful gravitational field the distance we would ascribe between points A and B is longer than what we would anticipate in normal flat 3D space. Essentially replacing a \"straight line\" between A and B with a curve. But this argument isn't restricted to length, the equivalence implied in the notion of spacetime means we can apply the same argument to claim that time intervals are also stretched by gravity.",
"Basically this is shown by the differing frequencies of light subjected to a gravity field (hole). Since the speed of light is unchanging the different frequencies observed must be due to a difference in the local speed of time.\n\nThere have been several experiments conducted on Earth but the precision required makes it difficult. You have to work with a few parts per trillion.\n\nCheck out \"The Harvard Tower Experiments\" on the web for some insight as to how they solved the problem.",
"Just to be clear, it sounds like what you want really is how to derive the prediction of gravitational time dilation from general relativity. For that, /user/Wigners_Friend did a decent job. But that doesn't constitute a proof that it exists. What does is experimental observation, and for that you can either look at Mossbauer effect experiments or simply the GPS system."
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} | How can I prove gravitational time dilation?
Hello. I want to understand and be able to prove gravitational time dilation. And frankly many of the answers I have gotten from several forums just aren't good enough. Is there a way to explain it with field equations? Is there a way to explain it to me, so I can be able to explain it to people that aren't physics nerds like me? | [
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lvz16 | Are there any properties of life that are considered "givens" when postulating about extraterrestrial life? | Some aspects of life as we know it, such as photosynthesis, are so prevalent on earth that it seems safe to assume they would be observed in life elsewhere. Are there any other givens such as this? And what about partial similarities? I've heard that specific microbes have arsenic instead of adenine in their DNA... | askscience | {
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"On Earth, there are about 8 properties of life that something must meet before it's classified as a living thing:\n\n* Reproduces\n* Adapts to environment/respond to stimuli\n* Made of cells\n* Homeostasis\n* Grow/develop\n* Evolve\n* Contain some kind of coding material (DNA/RNA)\n* Respiration/metabolism\n\nThis significantly helps identify living things from a terrestrial point of view. Sure, if you poke a block of Jello it'll \"react\", but it fails the other tests. This categorization scheme works relatively well for all purposes except when looking at viruses (which is often a grey area).\n\nIf you want to expand this to extraterrestrial life, many of those properties should still hold true. Evolution, growth, reproduction, and metabolism shouldn't change--without these, no life can occur. Homeostasis (maintaining a dynamic yet internal environment) is also likely due to molecular thermodynamics, but is optional given a static surrounding environment. The fundamental units of life wouldn't be cells, however, while the odds of DNA/RNA developing elsewhere would be minute. Adaptation/reacting to the environment would most likely be a secondary effect of evolution.\n\nBear in mind, one can also get philosophical and question the meaning of life, and the principles I listed above are always subject to change.",
"I can't answer your question, but I wanted to correct one of the statements in it.\n\n > I've heard that specific microbes have arsenic instead of adenine in their DNA...\n\nI assume you are referring to [this](_URL_0_) study published in Science this summer: \"A bacterium that can grow by using arsenic instead of phosphorus\". Although the study *was* published in an excellent peer-reviewed journal, others have called their scientific rigor, methodology and conclusions into question.\n\nSee [here](_URL_3_), [here](_URL_6_), [here](_URL_2_), [here](_URL_1_), [here](_URL_4_), [here](_URL_8_), [here](_URL_5_), and [here](_URL_7_).\n\nBasically, while they're not claiming the paper's conclusions are *false*, replication and independent verification would be required before a finding of this magnitude will be accepted.",
"For obvious reasons, there's not much data to go by here. Much of earth life's own origins are at least moderately obscured, so in many cases we don't even have the one data point. \n\nIn my experience, it seems like the large lack of information (and extraordinary difficulty of finding more) lead to exo-biology being an extremely under-represented field in astronomy. A few outliers aside, it seems the majority of 'scholarly' thought on this subject occurs when we all go out drinking.\n\nEDIT/ADDED: More to your point, I would personally argue that earth life-like conditions might be regarded as a rough lower bound, and nothing more. In other words, if you find there are 100 planets in the galaxy which ought to support life-as-we-know-it, then it would be reasonable to believe that there are *at least* that many planets which could support any kind of life at all. Any other conclusions would be unscientific, in my mind. You can certainly imagine possible alternative circumstances, but it's hardly scientific to count or discount them without cause.",
"One \"given\" is that extraterrestrial life would almost surely be carbon or silicon based due to their four valence electrons and the associated chemical properties. \n\n\"The two most important characteristics of carbon as a basis for the chemistry of life, are that it has four valence bonds and that the energy required to make or break a bond is just at an appropriate level for building molecules which are not only stable, but also reactive. The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of arbitrarily long and complex molecules.\nThere are not many other elements which appear to be even promising candidates for supporting life-like metabolism, but the most frequently suggested alternative is silicon.[3] This is in the same group in the Periodic Table of elements and therefore also has four valence bonds. It also bonds to itself, but generally in the form of crystal lattices rather than long chains. Its compounds are generally highly stable and do not support the ability readily to re-combine in different permutations in a manner that would plausibly support life-like processes.\"\n\n_URL_9_",
"This is a pretty decent TED talk: _URL_10_",
"Presumably life will look somewhat unusual compared to nonliving matter. For instance, if we finally get a telescope in orbit capable of getting spectra off of terrestrial planets, and find a whole bunch with no atmosphere or inert atmospheres, and a few with unique or unstable atmospheres, then that's some evidence of...if not life, a good place to look for it. The same if we found asteroids covered with something other than the standard crater-and-rubble, or anything else not obviously dead, nonliving matter. Of course, caution must be used. Pulsars were thought for a short time to be some kind of beacon, until their true nature was discovered.",
"You can pretty much bet that any extraterrestrial life came into existence through the action of the same Darwinian forces that apply here on Earth. (Inheritability, descent with modification, natural selection etc)",
"There are certain \"givens\" of life, but I wouldn't count photosynthesis among them. What you would need to look for is reproduction, energy utilization, ability to maintain homeostasis, etc. These are unfortunately nearly impossible to look for on a planetary level. So far the single most important element of life (at least on our planet) is the presence of water. Even the most bizarre organisms on earth require water to act as a solvent and mediator for cellular components. It might be possible for some other solvent to take water's place but that life would look radically different than anything we are familiar with.",
"With one data point, it is very difficult to speculate w.r.t trends. It was thought for a long time that CHON (Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen) structure & liquid water were absolute necessities. However, recent discovery of extremophile bacteria on earth seem to indicate that vastly different forms of life are possible. I direct you to [this](_URL_11_) TED talk laying out some recent thought on the issue.",
"In a more macroscopic scale, if we are looking at an Earth-like planet, then things that have evolved several times in evolutionary history are probably givens. For example, eyes have evolved [50-100 times in Earth's history](_URL_12_). Wings have also evolved several times."
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"url": [
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"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v468/n7326/full/468867a.html",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/332/6034/1149.6.short",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_life",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/christophe_adami_finding_life_we_can_t_imagine.html",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/christophe_adami_finding_life_we_can_t_imagine.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye"
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} | Are there any properties of life that are considered "givens" when postulating about extraterrestrial life?
Some aspects of life as we know it, such as photosynthesis, are so prevalent on earth that it seems safe to assume they would be observed in life elsewhere. Are there any other givens such as this? And what about partial similarities? I've heard that specific microbes have arsenic instead of adenine in their DNA... | [
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|
ngcux | Has there been any research on sense of time? | I know sometimes hours feel like minutes (thanks reddit) and other times things seem to take for ever.
Concentration seems like an obvious factor and I'm sure psychological effects must play a part.
Also, I wonder if smaller or bigger animals have a different sense of time.
Has there been any research of a sense of time? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c38w30c",
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],
"text": [
"Michio Kaku hosted a show on BBC Four about Time and one of the topics were about perception of time. Here is a link to it: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"There are various proposed mechanisms for time perception, but we basically have a very limited understanding of how it works. \n\nWe've noticed [women tend to underestimate time compared to men](_URL_4_), and older people also tend to underestimate time compared to younger people. The mechanisms are unclear but believed to be related to differences in metabolic rates between men and women (and young vs. old). \n\nTraditional models are based on an internal-clock where pulses from an internal time base are counted and then compared with stored representations of the target time interval. Our understanding of the physiological mechanisms for this are limited.\n\nOne brain region getting a lot of attention is the anterior insular cortex (AIC), which is responsible for representations of the sentient self. Imaging studies show it's also highly involved in some way with the perception of time. One predominant model is that this region integrates our global sense of self and indexes sequences of \"snapshots\" across time. It's like a storage buffer that lets us compare current snapshots with those from the past or anticipated future events (like when you are making a decisions and judge the risks/benefits, [source](_URL_4_)). \n\nDuring an exciting, highly salient moment this memory buffer in the AIC would \"fill up\" quickly because we have finite cognitive resources. With this buffer full, time would appear to slow down and even \"stand still\" while the brain tries to process all of the information and catch up. This can explain the well-known phenomenon of \"time slowing down\" during an intensely emotional period, like an accident or skydiving. If little is going on, the snapshots are less important so time passes at the standard rate. If we get bored though, we focus on our introspective self, and our awareness seems to outpace the real world. This makes time feel like it's passing painfully slowly. \n\nHowever, doesn't \"time fly when you're having fun?\" There are conflicting explanations for why this might be the case, but one involves emotions. Negative emotions (fear) causes time perception to slow down compared with positive emotions (having fun) (you can read more [here](_URL_4_#ref-8) and [here](_URL_4_)).",
"In a more accessible format, there is a great episode of radiolab on this very subject. It's a great science themed podcast to check out. :)\n[I think this is the one.](_URL_5_)",
"Can't speak for official research, but Feynman has some interesting observations in his books."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjlpamhrId8",
"http://www.springerlink.com/content/ex426p0569668110/",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661307002549",
"http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1525/1933.full",
"http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1525/1933.full#ref-8",
"http://www.radiolab.org/2010/sep/20/"
]
} | Has there been any research on sense of time?
I know sometimes hours feel like minutes (thanks reddit) and other times things seem to take for ever. Concentration seems like an obvious factor and I'm sure psychological effects must play a part. Also, I wonder if smaller or bigger animals have a different sense of time. Has there been any research of a sense of time? | [
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11g837 | Humans have huge brains. It's that the only thing we have going for us? | I am always fascinated by the feats some animals can do, their amazing senses and evolution and adaptations. So... Besides our brains, do humans have any other kick-ass things that other animals would be jealous of? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"We sweat! This gives us very impressive endurance compared to most of the animal kingdom.",
"opposable thumbs, though some other animals have this as well.",
"Bipedal motion and the ability to sweat makes us the best long distance runners.\n\nRelevant: _URL_0_",
"We actually have one sense that is good enough to compete with almost any other animal - our sense of touch! Our fingertips can sense differences as small as one tenth of a millimeter. \n\nWe may not have anything on the star-nosed mole though...",
"This is not mine, I copied it to notes from another post. I'm sorry to the guy that wrote this, it is an amazing read and I will search high and low to add your name here. \n\n\n**Aspects of language:** mainly in how complex we can make it, and our ability to change it so quickly. Animals also communicate in very complex ways and we are still discovering new modes of communication. Some species display tendencies of recursiveness, syntax, regional dialects and other aspect of language that one might consider \"human\". This is a highly debated area. I tend to think that animals can have very complex modes of communication, ones that certainly meet their needs, however humans are still able to take advantage of our cognitive abilities - which enable us to form even more complex modes of communication.\n\n**Aspects of cognition**: We know that animals are capable of cognitive reasoning, problem solving, they teach and learn, they feel many if not all the emotions we feel especially mammals, they are capable of deception, lying, cheating etc. They have a concept of the \"self\" and \"others\". \n\nHowever, humans do stand apart in some key areas of cognition. Some researchers surmise that cooperative breeding enhances the performance of social cognitive domains and it also motivates the individual to share mental states with others. [Cooperative breeding](_URL_4_) is a social system where mothers require help from others to raise their offspring - all human cultures exhibit this trait and this developed because we are bipedal and have [trouble giving birth](_URL_4_). Combined, cooperative breeding and the motivation to share mental states leads to [shared intentionality](_URL_4_), which is the ability and desire to work collaboratively with others towards a shared goal, as well as understanding that others are aware of your intentions. Cooperative breeding in primates to date is observed only in callatrichids and humans, both of which exhibit shared intentionality. What sets apart humans from other cooperative breeders with shared intentionality is our ancestral ape-level cognitive system. The unique combination of social cognitive skills, ape-level cognitive skills and shared intentionality led to the development of our species-specific traits, including language and enhanced cultural transmission. Our ape-level cognitive skills stem from freed grasping hands, our tool use and ability to solve complex problems.\n\nIn theory, extant apes have all the necessary cognitive preconditions (i.e. simple understanding of others mental states) approximating humans but they lack the motivational components of cooperative breeding, and thus lack shared intentionality. However, groups of chimpanzees hunting involve the delegation of tasks (i.e herders, ambushers) where all participants must assess the others hunting position and effectiveness in order to successfully carry out a shared goal. What is contested is whether they understand that together they are dedicated to the shared goal, a key component of shared intentionality.\n\n**Aspects of Culture** [Animals posses culture](_URL_4_) in much the same way we do. There are countless examples and I would be happy to provide them but this post is already long enough. Human culture is only different in one way - we build upon previous experience. Known as the ratchet effect we can take someone else's idea and change it slightly to build on it, the previous idea is never lost. Our knowledge is continuously building upon its self. Animals have a harder time accomplishing this, if a novel idea is presented it takes a long time for it to take hold. \n\n**Fire and Cooking**\n\nI think fire and learning to cook food definitely changed the way our brains work - only fire and cooking predate humans. Physical fire and cooking evidence dates back 400,000-700,000 years. Things like fire pits and charred remains. Morphological evidence dates back 1.2 million years with Homo erectus being the first hominid to show morphological changes due to a change in diet - the teeth change, the length of the intestine changes etc. If the hominin body underwent such drastic changes as a result of cooking food, then why not the brain as well?\n\nFun fact - there is a chimpanzee named Kanzi, who learned without training how to [build a fire and cook food](_URL_4_). So it is not necessarily that our closest cousins can't do something we think is uniquely human - they lack the motivation to do so. Natural selection only acts on existing traits or behaviours. \n\nRemember that this area of science is moving forward really fast, we are discovering more and more each day. Its hotly contested part of science - sometimes for personal reasons. My favourite quote that revolves around this topic is this: \"“Everybody is a genius. But, if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it’ll spend its whole life believing that it is stupid.” – Albert Einstein\". We need to make sure we are testing animal's intelligence in their own right - not based off of our own preconceptions or misconceptions.\n\n**References**\n\nBurkart, J.M., Hrdy, S.B., and van Schaik, C.P. 2009. Cooperative breeding and human cognitive. Evolutionary Anthropology. 18:175-176.\nTomasello, M., Carpenter, M. Call, J., Behne, T., and Moll, H. 2005.\n\n Understanding and sharing intentions: the origins of cultural cognition. Behavioural and Brain Sciences. 28: 675-735.\nTomasello, M., and Carpenter, M. 2007. Shared intentionality. Developmental Science. 10: 121-125.\n\nHrdy, S.B. 2009. Mothers and Others: The evolutionary origins of mutual understanding. Cambridge, University Press.\n\nHuman Adaptation to the Control of Fire by RICHARD WRANGHAM AND RACHEL CARMODY.Evolutionary Anthropology 19:187–199 (2010) \n\nTL;DR Animals and Humans are more akin then we previously thought, what defines us and led to our unique cognitive abilities stems from our evolutionary past and a combination of factors - shared intentionality, cooperative breeding, ape-like cognitive abilities - that work in together within our species. Where as in other animals they may not have the exact combination of these factors.",
"Throwing. Accurately, far and quite hard. In fact it appears that the [size-weight illusion](_URL_5_) exists to allow us to choose rocks that we can throw the furthest. ([source](_URL_6_))",
"Having huge brains has several more specific advantages that just extra processing power, language probably being the most salient. We also have opposable thumbs and locking knees, which allow additional manual dexterity and the ability to stand and walk upright for extended periods of time.",
"We have developed very large differences due to our love of sex! The males have large penises for our size and the females have permanently enlarged breasts and preferentially store fat in rounded attractive buttocks, rather than in their belly like men do.\n\n\"When compared to other primates, including large primates such as the gorilla, the human penis is largest, both in absolute terms and in relative size to the rest of the body.\"\n\n_URL_8_\n\n\"The sex appeal of rounded female buttocks and plump breasts is both universal and unique to the human primate\"\n\n_URL_7_"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_hunting",
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2080050/Now-thats-chim-PAN-zee-Meet-monkey-fry-burgers.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_culture",
"http://www.eva.mpg.de/psycho/pdf/Publications_2007_PDF/Shared_intentionality_07.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative_breeding",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Size-weight_illusion",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6H-51XFXWG-1&_user=1111158&_coverDate=01%2F11%2F2011&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000051676&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=1111158&md5=de199b626ea59b7b94d00e9aa1055039&searchtype=a",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2010/may/14/breast-size-evolution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_penis_size"
]
} | Humans have huge brains. It's that the only thing we have going for us?
I am always fascinated by the feats some animals can do, their amazing senses and evolution and adaptations. So... Besides our brains, do humans have any other kick-ass things that other animals would be jealous of? | [
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|
4gcyih | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Alexis Kaushansky, a Principal Investigator at the Center for Infectious Disease Research in Seattle, WA. I research malaria and the interactions between host and pathogens. I’m excited to talk to you about it. AMA! | Hello Reddit!
My name is Alexis Kaushansky and I serve as a principal investigator at the Center for Infectious Disease Research. My research studies the interactions between humans and pathogens, with a particular focus on malaria. The malaria parasite and other infectious diseases that burden the world cannot survive independently. To cause sickness and travel through the population, they must appropriate resources from the people they infect. Our work aims to identify what pathogens need from their host and use this knowledge to prevent and ultimately eliminate malaria.
When malaria parasites are transmitted from mosquito to human, they are first deposited into the skin, then quickly travel to the liver. In the liver, each parasite replicates tens of thousands of times within the confines of a single hepatocyte, a cell in the liver. During this stage of infection, the parasite causes no clinical symptoms, yet elimination of the parasite in the liver prevents disease and transmission and can even elicit sterile immunity from subsequent infection. Our work focuses on the basic question of how the malaria parasite is able to modify its human liver environment in order to counteract host defenses and ensure for its own survival.
At CIDResearch, we breed thousands of research grade mosquitoes each week in order to power our bench research projects. Our work critically depends on malaria parasite infection in mosquitoes and production of sporozoites for lab experiments. We maintain state-of-the-art insectaries that breed and house Anopheles mosquitoes.
Here are a few of our recent publications:
[EDIT] Host-based Prophylaxis Successfully Targets Liver Stage Malaria Parasites. _URL_2_
Malaria parasites target the hepatocyte receptor EphA2 for successful host infection. _URL_1_
To mark April 25 World Malaria Day, I’m taking questions on the research underway to better understand and combat this ancient disease. **I will be back at 12 pm ET to answer your questions**, looking forward to it!
VERIFICATION: _URL_0_
[EDIT] Thanks so much for all of the thoughtful questions -- the time really flew by! It was great to spend a little bit of world malaria day with you. I'll try to answer a few more questions throughout the day, so please keep them coming! If you are interested in learning a bit more about the Center for Infectious Disease Research and the diseases we work on, please visit our website at _URL_3_. - Alexis
| askscience | {
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"Does eradication/extinction of Anopheles mosquito (IF we could do that) has potential to cause negative effects on the ecosystem?",
"I grew up in south east Asia and had malaria when I was a kid. What's the deal with donating blood? I've heard several conflicting answers.",
"I participated in a malaria vaccine research trial last year and made it to the bitter end of the trial before getting malaria the day before we were discharged from the hotel. I was the only one left because everyone else had been sick and treated and discharged days before. Why did my body last so long when everyone else showed symptoms 10 days after being bitten? Was it really trying to use the vaccine or was it something about my body that delayed it?",
"Sickle-cell anemia is well known as a side effect to an anti-malaria adaptation. Heterozygotes get the benefit, homozygotes suffer. Are there any other anti-malarial adaptations following this pattern that are less well-known?",
"Quinine used to be the go-to treatment for malaria. How did quinine counteract the infection, and why is it considered obsolete today?",
"What is the best way to prevent getting malaria when traveling abroad?",
"Hi! My mother was the first case of anti-malarial resistant malaria reported to the WHO in West Africa (Burkina Faso) in (I think) 1984. She had it for a year but got better after coming home to the States and getting treatment here. Are there any long-term effects a person could have from having malaria once in their life? How big of a problem is resistance to anti-malarials these days? Thanks so much!",
"Have you ever played the Pandemic or Pandemic: Legacy boardgames?\n\nMore seriously - could you guide us through a \"typical day\" and could you tell us about a stand-out moment you remember from your career? Anything from \"Oh wow\" discovery to proudest moment?",
"Hi! What are your thoughts on the future of RTS,S/AS01, or malaria vaccines in general? Given their high rate of mutation, is developing malaria vaccines still a viable strategy to halting the disease, or should we be focusing more on treatments and mosquito prevention?",
"Grew up in Western Africa (Nigeria) to be specific. Malaria is so common that, even as children, we could identify the symptoms. I never considered the fatality of the illness until I moved to Canada for school. My question is: what's more important/efficient when treating a malaria patient? Is it combatting the symptoms (headache, fever, high body temperature, dehydration) or killing off the parasite?",
"So, I know a lot of people are working toward killing or sterilizing mosquitos as a way to prevent mosquito-borne illnesses. Do you think this is an effective method to prevent the spread of malaria and other diseases that they carry, or would developing a vaccine be more effective? I'm guessing a combination of the two would work well, but it sure is nice to imagine a world without mosquitos. If they did become \"wiped out,\" is it possible another insect would become responsible for spreading these diseases (\"take over their niche if you will\")?",
"How many strains and or species of Plasmodium do you include in you studies? Do focus on most prevalent strains?",
"Are they* tapping your knowledge in vector born diseases for the Zika outbreak right now? \n\nCan you talk a little bit about how vector born diseases transmission occurs and how to protect yourself. \n\n*Can't spell.",
"Goodmorning, I am a Italian med student...here malaria was a big issue in the past century... And teachers have different opinions about the diagnosis. What are your guide lines?",
"How common is natural immunity to malaria and what is the mechanism that produces the natural immunity? Does this present a possible avenue for a vaccine in the future?",
"What are your thoughts on the use of a gene drive to control mosquito populations?",
"I would REALLY like to know why the Dickens can we not make the mosquitoes resistant to the malaria parasite by splicing in the genes from other species of mosquito which are resistant. The great thing is that it would actually give them a competitive advantage as they would be healthier and therefore the malaria carrying mosquitoes would eventually die out. (I have wondered about this for years.) \n\nI know ecological balance is a tricky thing, and messing with genetics is controversial, but this is not a dumb assed move and if any case called for exemption from generally good rules this is it.",
"Hello! Im a student from a local high school and was at the CIDC for a tour of your labs and some hands on stuff.\n\nI would just like to thank you for the work you do and the tours you offer for high school students locally. I would like to ask this question as a senior in high school: what can high schoolers and college students that want to get into the field do/study? Thanks!",
"Artemisinin has been vastly effective recently - anecdotally I can't recall taking an antimalarial in the last 10 years that was not an Artemisinin combination.\n But recently there have been reports of artemisinin-resistant malaria in SE Asia. What strategies are being taken to combat this and are there any new drugs in the pipeline that might prove as effective?",
"Do you have hopes for the newish process of releasing sterilized mosquitoes? If not what process do you have hope to see developed?\n\nBesides from some groups in Africa and their decedents do any other human populations show a partial immunity to malaria?",
"Why in Seattle and not SEAsia?\n\nWhat is your take on maintaining disease surveillance for malaria resistance?",
"Why is Lyme disease (from ticks) generally not considered a problem in the infectious disease community?",
"At what point in human history did the malaria we see today become evident?",
"Hi. \nThanks for taking the time to do this AMA. \n\nThere was recently a paper (Lauron et al 2015) that discussed AMA1 and RON2 as potential vaccine candidates. The proteins produced by the genes are involved in the process of erythrocyte invasion. Are you familiar with these genes and if so, how does the whole process of erythrocyte invasion work? The literature for this process is a little clunky. Sorry if this question is too specific. I am a grad student researcher of Avian Malaria and that's why I'm citing this particular paper. Thanks again.",
"Hi and thanks for doing this AMA; with the recent [publication](_URL_1_) that atovaquone resistance is unable to be vertically transmitted what do you see being implemented to stem atovaquone resistance given the [propensity](_URL_0_) for de novo resistance?",
"Why is a pregnant woman more likely to contract malaria, and does a mother contracting malaria during pregnancy allow the infant to develop a natural resistance against it?",
"How do drugs such as tetracycline used to treat plasmodium? Is there any US based research/trials on using artemisinin as treatment?",
"What makes malaria so effective at what it does? And why does the body have problems dealing with it?",
"What's your take on the effect of the DDT ban as it relates to malaria prevention?",
"Skip to the end. How do we eradicate mosquito and malaria?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Alexis Kaushansky, a Principal Investigator at the Center for Infectious Disease Research in Seattle, WA. I research malaria and the interactions between host and pathogens. I’m excited to talk to you about it. AMA!
Hello Reddit! My name is Alexis Kaushansky and I serve as a principal investigator at the Center for Infectious Disease Research. My research studies the interactions between humans and pathogens, with a particular focus on malaria. The malaria parasite and other infectious diseases that burden the world cannot survive independently. To cause sickness and travel through the population, they must appropriate resources from the people they infect. Our work aims to identify what pathogens need from their host and use this knowledge to prevent and ultimately eliminate malaria. When malaria parasites are transmitted from mosquito to human, they are first deposited into the skin, then quickly travel to the liver. In the liver, each parasite replicates tens of thousands of times within the confines of a single hepatocyte, a cell in the liver. During this stage of infection, the parasite causes no clinical symptoms, yet elimination of the parasite in the liver prevents disease and transmission and can even elicit sterile immunity from subsequent infection. Our work focuses on the basic question of how the malaria parasite is able to modify its human liver environment in order to counteract host defenses and ensure for its own survival. At CIDResearch, we breed thousands of research grade mosquitoes each week in order to power our bench research projects. Our work critically depends on malaria parasite infection in mosquitoes and production of sporozoites for lab experiments. We maintain state-of-the-art insectaries that breed and house Anopheles mosquitoes. Here are a few of our recent publications: [EDIT] Host-based Prophylaxis Successfully Targets Liver Stage Malaria Parasites. _URL_2_ Malaria parasites target the hepatocyte receptor EphA2 for successful host infection. _URL_1_ To mark April 25 World Malaria Day, I’m taking questions on the research underway to better understand and combat this ancient disease. **I will be back at 12 pm ET to answer your questions**, looking forward to it! VERIFICATION: _URL_0_ [EDIT] Thanks so much for all of the thoughtful questions -- the time really flew by! It was great to spend a little bit of world malaria day with you. I'll try to answer a few more questions throughout the day, so please keep them coming! If you are interested in learning a bit more about the Center for Infectious Disease Research and the diseases we work on, please visit our website at _URL_3_. - Alexis | [
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15f8um | If teleportation will be available for human transportation, will the individual that "arrives" at a certain location be the same but not the original that "departed" from another location? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Honestly, I think that in the future teleportation will be an antiquated idea. Why would you need to teleport anywhere when you can communicate/see/do/interact with anything over the internet in virtual environments?",
"That's one way to do it. Probably the only theoretically possible way we have right now. But I'm hoping for another way that actually transports your matter intact.",
"My argument is more philosophical than technical. In my oppinion there are two ways to \"teleport\". The first is to read all the atoms in a body, send that information to the other end and recreate that body. Even with perfect quantum replication it is still just a copy, and destroying the original is still murder. Any variation of this still ends up killing/destroying the original body.\n\nThe other way to teleport is to have two devices which hold two volumes of space. One with a person the other without. Then that hypothetical device would have to switch those two volumes of space, or transport that volume similar to a warp-drive somehow. That way whoever is inside doesn't move anywhere and nothing happens to him/her, with only the space in which he/she resides being transported.",
"Considering that all current proposals involve assembling/reassembling the body from its constituent atoms, it would likely be easier to simply assemble a copy of the original person at the destination point, as that eliminates the need to transport every single atom over the distance teleported. Therefore, the reassembled person would be \"the same\" in that its structure mimics the original as closely as possible (minus a negligible amount of difference in isotopic abundance and whatever structural limitations there are on the technology).\n\nFor every purpose I can think of calling this human \"not the original\" is a pointless question- even if there are two of you and the second was assembled second, the two of you would BOTH be the person you consider yourself to be; the second has just as much right to be/act as you as you do.\n\nThis second method would introduce problems (which have been explored in sci-fi shows such as the Outer Limits and Doctor Who ([this](_URL_0_) episode)) in that in some cases it would be undesirable to have clones of a person, as they compete for resources/employment. However, remembering that the two are IDENTICAL, the clone has just as much rights as the \"original\".",
"I believe you would be the same, since the composition of your atoms is all the same. if you would at it like that you could ask yourself, Am I the same person every morning I wake up. You can't know since your memories will tell you you.",
"The Star Trek transporter destroys the original before it reconstitutes the copy. Why does no one in the Star Trek universe (aside from Bones) have a problem with this?"
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rebel_Flesh"
]
} | If teleportation will be available for human transportation, will the individual that "arrives" at a certain location be the same but not the original that "departed" from another location?
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pueps | Glass (Window Kind); Supercooled Liquid or just Amorphous Solid? (Repost from AskReddit due to lacking answers) | My science, (Physics), teacher keeps spouting off that glass is a supercooled liquid and that it flows over time. Now I heard in a podcast, (The RT Podcast to be exact, from Burnie), that this is just an urban myth. Recently I have been doing rather a lot of research into this to try and better inform myself and some of my friends I have found a few pretty good supports for the Amorphous solid idea, (Linked at the end), but I need a lot of good solid evidence to back up either way. Links are preferred but if you give enough information I'll just do the good thing and take it at face value (Lol JK). I understand about that the states of matter are more complicated than just the three we are taught and that glasses are solids with the molecular structure mixed up a bit more. If any of this is wrong please correct me as I am really eager to actually get this subject right. Also if you could explain any information as if you were talking to a 15-17 y/old as I am not a Nobel Prize winning Einstein... Lol.
TL;DR need to know if glass is a supercooled liquid or just an amorphous solid, links preferable
_URL_2_
_URL_0_
_URL_3_
_URL_1_
I know that most of these are quite old, the oldest like 1995 I think. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3sdr1u",
"c3sbsh4",
"c3sfhcu"
],
"text": [
"Hiya. I'm an expert in glasses!\n\nSo, glass isn't really a supercooled liquid. It is an amorphous solid. But your teacher is partially right. \n\nGlass is made by the melting of a solid. For conventional glass, that solid is sand, but it can be many other things depending on what you choose to make the 'glass' out of. Glass is, as it turns out, a generic term for any amorphous solid. As you cool the liquid you've created by melting down, for materials that readily form glasses you are able to cool below the melting point without crystallizing. As you continue to decrease the temperature the liquid is less and less mobile because the temperature is getting lower and lower. Eventually it reaches a point at which it is no longer able to relax on the time scale of the cooling that you're using and instead of behaving like a liquid it begins to behave like a solid. This is the glass transition temperature. Below the glass transition temperature, the material is out of equilibrium. Exactly what temperature this is at what cooling rate is a material dependent property.\n\nBelow the glass transition temperature, the material behaves like a solid on 'short' timescales. If you hit it with a hammer, it breaks. If you pour it into a container it does not take the shape of the container. On short time scales. On long timescales, glasses CAN flow. I'm not personally aware of any experiments measuring the flow of SiO2 glass (the conventional glass in a window) but the [pitch drop experiment](_URL_0_) is pretty famous. The old saw about cathedral windows being thicker at the bottom because of flow is incorrect by the way. If you do some very shady looking extrapolations of high temperature data to room temperature (shady because extrapolating over hundreds of orders of magnitude in time is a bad idea) it would take something like hundreds of lifetimes of the universe to see any appreciable flow in an SiO2 glass at room temperature.\n\nTo go further: Solid and liquid are definitions based on the properties of a material. When most people think of solids what they're really thinking of are crystals, in the sense of how you learn about them in 7th grade science class \"The states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.\" On short timescales, SiO2 glass is a solid. The definition of a solid is something that is rigid and resists changes in shape. On long timescales, you could very reasonably argue that SiO2 glass is a liquid because on long time scales it flows without ever undergoing melting. The issue is the definition of \"long.\" In this case, the definition of long is so long that it seems mostly like a semantic argument. The argument is less clear for things like the pitch drop experiment.",
"In the most general sense, every material under load flows over time, because bonds at any finite temperature have a finite chance of breaking. This phenomenon is called creep, and one interesting example is the tendency for lead pipes to sag over time due to gravity. (Creep is exponentially dependent on homologous temperature, or temperature normalized to melting temperature. Lead has a relatively low melting temperature compared to most metals, so creep effects are more apparent.)\n\nThat being said, you would not call lead a liquid (even an amorphous lead-containing compound). And glass is far, far less susceptible to creep than lead. See the peer-reviewed paper by Zanotto, E.D. (May). \"Do cathedral glasses flow?\". American Journal of Physics 66: 392. Ask your physics teacher for peer-reviewed evidence of substantial window glass flow over time; assuming room temperature, that evidence is absent.\n\nTo a 15-17-year-old, I would emphasize that the solid-liquid dichotomy is not binary but a continuum. Warm rubber, for example, exhibits properties of both. Glass, however, is far on the side of solid classification. Another sensible point to make is that amorphous-crystalline distinction is an independent continuum and implies nothing about stiffness or viscosity. There are liquid crystals and amorphous solids. Glass is an amorphous solid.",
"I've worked in glass and ceramics for over a decade, and have formulated, melted, and tested various glass formulations from E and S type fiberglasses, to wool fiberglass, lead crystal, float/flat glass, container glass, and more.\n\nThe old wive's tale your physics teacher is describing comes from observations people have made regarding window glass in old buildings being thicker on the bottom, so it must flow slowly over time. In reality, there is a manufacturing root cause for this phenomena. \n\nWindow glass is a Soda-Lime glass formulation that was originally produced in mass quantities using a cascading 'water fall' technique. This flat glass cooled as it ran vertically and was cut to size. Due to gravity, the bottom was slightly thicker because it had more time to cool. The viscosity of molten glass around forming temperatures can quickly go from low viscosity fluid to high viscosity in a few degrees.\n\nWhen workers put the windows in, common practice was to put the thicker end on the bottom simply because it made the framing work easier. Sometimes they screwed up, and you can find true flat glass that was put in thicker side up. \n\nModern soda-lime window glass is made using a float method. The production line is one large horizontal process. Glass is melted and then floated on a tin bath. Literally a pool of molten tin metal. The heating profile is lowered so that the glass is more like thick syrup to taffy, and moved down the line into annealing ovens by mechanical force. Along the way, the mechanical rollers on the edges can be moved outward to make a thinner panel or inward to thicken the panel. As it proceeds down the line, it anneals and finally passes the temperature stage at which is becomes a true amorphous solid. \n\nAt normal ambient temperatures, glass as you put it (specifically soda-lime glass commonly found in windows, containers, and appliances) is truly a solid, but it's an amorphous solid which has its own unique properties.\n\nIf you would like to know more, I recommend sites like:\n\n_URL_2_\n_URL_2_"
],
"score": [
35,
7,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Glass_versus_supercooled_liquid",
"http://dwb.unl.edu/teacher/nsf/c01/c01links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/florin.html",
"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/Glass/glass.html",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fact-fiction-glass-liquid"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_drop_experiment",
"http://www.americanglassresearch.com/",
"http://www.glassonline.com/site/"
]
} | Glass (Window Kind); Supercooled Liquid or just Amorphous Solid? (Repost from AskReddit due to lacking answers)
My science, (Physics), teacher keeps spouting off that glass is a supercooled liquid and that it flows over time. Now I heard in a podcast, (The RT Podcast to be exact, from Burnie), that this is just an urban myth. Recently I have been doing rather a lot of research into this to try and better inform myself and some of my friends I have found a few pretty good supports for the Amorphous solid idea, (Linked at the end), but I need a lot of good solid evidence to back up either way. Links are preferred but if you give enough information I'll just do the good thing and take it at face value (Lol JK). I understand about that the states of matter are more complicated than just the three we are taught and that glasses are solids with the molecular structure mixed up a bit more. If any of this is wrong please correct me as I am really eager to actually get this subject right. Also if you could explain any information as if you were talking to a 15-17 y/old as I am not a Nobel Prize winning Einstein... Lol. TL;DR need to know if glass is a supercooled liquid or just an amorphous solid, links preferable _URL_2_ _URL_0_ _URL_3_ _URL_1_ I know that most of these are quite old, the oldest like 1995 I think. | [
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|
25a81y | I just finished reading Stephen Hawking's 1988 book, A Brief History of Time. What has changed since then? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"chf7m7y",
"chfaeny",
"chfcfi6",
"chfi3yg"
],
"text": [
"In the nineties it was discovered that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, ruling out a few of the cosmological scenarios, like the closed universe, that he discussed.",
"I also remember that he predicted that we would have theory of everything by now. We don't, and I reckon most physicists don't believe we're anywhere close to having a 'confirmed' theory of everything.\n\nString theory is a very promising contender, but the energies needed to test predictions are ridiculous.",
"Hawking thought that a black hole could be characterized by just 3 numbers, its mass, its spin and its charge and all other characteristics such as the identity of the particles falling into it was destroyed by the black hole. We know this is incorrect, Hawking admitted it finally a couple of years ago.",
"I seem to remember Hawking discusses solar neutrinos in the book, and mentions that we only detect about 1/3 of the number of neutrinos that we expect. This was known as the [solar neutrino problem](_URL_0_). \n\nThe reason for this is that we expected all of the neutrinos coming from the Sun to be electron neutrinos. Our early detectors were only able to detect this one type of neutrino. \n\nIn actuality, there are three flavours of neutrino, and it has been shown that neutrinos can change flavours if they have a small mass. At the Earth's distance from the Sun, the flavours become pretty evenly mixed, so that there is approximately one neutrino of each type. That is why we only detect 1/3 of the expected number of electron neutrinos."
],
"score": [
223,
70,
33,
27
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_neutrino_problem"
]
} | I just finished reading Stephen Hawking's 1988 book, A Brief History of Time. What has changed since then?
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||
16lh2e | Why did the world "like" become so prevalent in our modern, casual English language? | Although it's more popular among pubescents who might not be confident in their speaking, when and how did the word permeate so deep into our conversations?
"I was like..."
"But like, it's like, I don't know!" | askscience | {
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"text": [
"\"Winston tastes good like a cigarette should\" was the slogan for Winston from the mid 50s thru the 60s. That campaign was largely responsible for 'like' replacing 'as' in the vernacular. \n\nIn the early 80s (possibly sooner), like and other wonderful phrases such as 'duh' became popular among teens in the San Fernando valley (southern California).\n\nWords such as like, um, you know, uh and other fillers actually form an important part of speech as conversation managers. They indicate you are pausing, perhaps to think of a word, rather than done talking. Of course, using them excessively in speech can be distracting, and probably should be avoided.\n\nThese type of words exist in all languages.",
"My sister actually did her university dissertation based on the usage and growth of the word \"like\" in the modern english language. I'll ask her this evening and try and get it uploaded into dropbox or something for you to read if you like? I didn't really pay attention to it at the time so I'll have to ask her more.",
"Possibly because [it's actually a very useful and grammatically correct particle or \"space filler\"](_URL_0_):\n\n > As much as it might annoy you personally, there's not a lot of sense in saying a word is \"misused\". It's a basic tenet of linguistics that the a language is defined by its speakers. So when the meaning of a word changes (as they often do) there's no real basis for claiming the novel meaning is inherently less correct than the established one.\n\n > Sometimes people argue that a new form of a word or phrase is incorrect because it's somehow incoherent (e.g. \"I could care less\"), but the path of like's recent transformation is logical enough. First it became a particle—what you describe as a \"space-filler\", though that's not strictly accurate because it has function if not a semantic one—denoting uncertainty or ambiguity in the statement being made (\"It was like twice as big\"). That's not too far at all from the established adjectival and adverbial uses meaning \"similar but not the same as\". From there it's another short, but perfectly logical, leap to combining the particle with the verb \"to be\" to describe an ambiguous quotation, i.e. a paraphrase (\"He was like 'I'm not doing that'\"), or a hyperbolic reporting of an action (\"He was like ready to kill her\"). People use both paraphrasing and hyperbole extensively when telling anecdotes, but there was no established, concise way of marking either, so it's not surprising it caught on.\n\n > Calling the new uses of \"like\" incorrect is really nonsense from a linguistic point of view and has everything to do with the social group in which it originated (American teenagers) being stereotypically caricatured as inarticulate. People don't object to middle class British people using \"sort of\" to serve exactly same function as a particle. Or the very similar, well established use of \"like\" at the end of a sentence in several northern English and Scottish dialects. They probably did object when people started using \"like\" in place of \"such as\" when giving examples, but now it's so ubiquitous nobody cares much. The same thing will happen with this form of like. Almost every native English speaker under thirty \"misuses\" it now; in thirty years hardly anyone will remember it wasn't always standard.",
"Worth a read if you're interested in the linguistic properties associated with it:\n\n_URL_1_",
"I took a linguistics class at Temple University with Dr. Muffy Siegel who wrote an article called \"Like: The Discourse Particle and Semantics,” Journal of Semantics 19.1\" which was published in 2002. She explained a lot of it in class but I honestly don't remember much and don't want to mislead you on it. The article gained a lot of attention both in the Academic World as well as the mainstream media. Do a quick google scholar search and you should be able to find it. \n\nEdit: _URL_2_ Here is a link to the abstract (I don't have access to the full article.)"
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskSocialScience/comments/13kusm/what_are_the_origins_of_the_misuse_of_the_word/c74wc4i",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Like#As_a_discourse_particle.2C_filler.2C_hedge.2C_or_speech_disfluency",
"http://jos.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/1/35.short"
]
} | Why did the world "like" become so prevalent in our modern, casual English language?
Although it's more popular among pubescents who might not be confident in their speaking, when and how did the word permeate so deep into our conversations? "I was like..." "But like, it's like, I don't know!" | [
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|
9wq15z | What does it mean to "burn out a motor," exactly? | I have an ice cream maker and the manual has several warnings about not letting it run for too long. In particular, I'm not supposed to let the ice cream freeze to the point where it stops the mixing blade from moving since this will cause damage to the motor.
So today I've done that, and there's strong burnt smell coming off of it now. Very distinct. It still seems to work, but I'm wondering how much damage I've done. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e9mjp5l",
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],
"text": [
"Means it heated up to the point the insulation on the wires melts and burns. Continue and the wires will short out and it’s ruined. It may also have got so hot that the case around the motor brushes is melting.",
"Quite literally what it says. If you stall a motor, instead of electricity being converted to rotational motion, it’s converted mostly to heat. When the rotor heats up enough the insulation and enamel on the wires can begin to burn. Typically this results in a short circuit, but it doesn’t always. That probably what happened to your ice cream maker. It got hot enough to burn something, but no bare metal came into contact. It’s not incredibly safe to keep using it, because if the wires do contact at some point from vibration, the short circuit can heat up and start a fire.",
"Unplug it and let it cool off completely. I'd let it sit overnight. Then tomorrow turn it on and see if it still runs. If so, let it run for a few minutes. If it runs okay and you don't smell smoke and it doesn't get hot and sparks don't shoot out of it then it's probably okay. Keep a close eye on it when you use it and don't leave it plugged in when not in use.",
"A little more detail:\n\nA stall (can't turn) is the most taxing operating condition for a motor. A stalled motor has the minimum resistance- in the range of ohms or milliohms. It basically acts like a short circuit, and all of the heat goes directly into the motor windings. That's what causes the insulation to degrade. Usually it doesn't melt/burn right away, but it does becomes less effective at elevated temperatures and it will eventually break down completely.\n \nOn top of that, most motors have a fan on the shaft, so when they stop turning they also stop cooling themselves. The danger of broken insulation is that shorts develop in the motor windings. In a universal motor like most appliances have, this causes a decrease in efficiency. In other motors it can be catastrophic (induction motors will usually ignite). In all cases it will make the motor unusable fairly quickly. \n\nI would say the odds are your insulation has darkened from the heat but not broken through. Motor insulation is intended to fail very gradually. You've probably decreased the motors lifetime very significantly, but unless it smells like it's burning every time its run then it's okay for now. If it generates more smell when its turned on, then you should probably replace it- if it stalls again it'll probably start to smolder."
],
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"url": []
} | What does it mean to "burn out a motor," exactly?
I have an ice cream maker and the manual has several warnings about not letting it run for too long. In particular, I'm not supposed to let the ice cream freeze to the point where it stops the mixing blade from moving since this will cause damage to the motor. So today I've done that, and there's strong burnt smell coming off of it now. Very distinct. It still seems to work, but I'm wondering how much damage I've done. | [
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1r1xxj | Are we 100 % sure that the matter is made of atoms , the atoms made of protons, electrons and neutrons ect... ? | I mean seriously , how did we even deduce such things ? How did it ever come to somebody's mind ? And how could we calculate the number of electrons of each element ?
And most of all , how could we calculate each of these particles' mass if they are so small ? | askscience | {
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"First of all, inventing a way to describe how stuff works in terms of atoms, gravity, spacetime, or other such models requires the same kind of creativity as inventing a way to depict your senses using [geometric shapes](_URL_12_) or [colored points](_URL_5_), if not more. To quote Voltaire, \"There is far more imagination in the head of [Archimedes](_URL_4_) than in that of [Homer](_URL_6_).\" The difference is, artists use their intuitive inspiration to fuel their works, whereas scientists have to define [their theories](_URL_11_) in concrete enough terms that they can be understood and tested by others.\n\nYou bring up the example of atomic theory. Democritus somehow had the inspiration of matter being made up of atoms 2400 years ago, but at the time his idea remained just an interesting concept. [John Dalton's theory](_URL_0_) in 1800 was more than just a neat idea: he took the time to deduce what consequences would follow from the initial idea, such as different types of atoms having particular weights, and used his theory to [explain his observations](_URL_7_).\n\nThe thing is, 100% certainty is impossible. Alternative theories can always account for the observed evidence if you twist them enough. The geocentric model of the solar system was bolstered by adding more and more [epicycles](_URL_13_) to fit the planets' observed orbits, and even though the heliocentric model is much simpler, the geocentric one isn't actually ruled out.\n\nA rule of thumb to decide between two models is [Occam's razor](_URL_8_), which basically says that you should prefer the simpler theory as long as it explains the same data. Before Einstein came up with his theory of relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation seemed like a good enough model for how mass moves through space. The [precession of Mercury's orbit](_URL_1_) could be dismissed as observational error, or a result of some unknown celestial body influencing it, or other explanations. When relativity's predictions not only matched Mercury's observed orbit more precisely, but also [explained other phenomena](_URL_2_), Occam's razor would suggest adopting relativity over Newtonian gravitation.\n\nAs for how scientists gather data to test their theories and invent new ones: it's hard. Measuring [tiny](_URL_14_), or [huge](_URL_16_), or [distant](_URL_3_), or other extreme things requires technological breakthroughs, which rely on the same sort of insight as artistic or scientific breakthroughs. There are [theories](_URL_15_) about how people come up with new ideas, and attempts to [program computers](_URL_9_) with some of our abilities, but we're nowhere near understanding or reproducing it yet. One technique is to predict the side-effects something will have and look for those instead. Black holes, for instance, can't be observed directly, but [the way they bend starlight](_URL_10_) can be predicted, and telescopes check if the actual sky matches the predictions.",
"Atomic theory is one of the most well established and experimentally validated theories in science. Are we 100% sure of anything in science? No, but in this case, we're very confident we have the essential theory correct. \n\nLike the rest of science, it came about through application of the scientific method: proposing hypotheses, testing said hypotheses, and refining one's models as needed.\n\nAs astonishing as it may seem, while atoms are indeed small, [we've even been able to trap and study individual atoms in isolation](_URL_17_).",
"I think the easiest way is to learn the history of the discoveries. The greeks believed that elements could be divided into smaller and smaller pieces until an \"atom\" remained, but they didnt even know about electrons or the periodic table.\n\nTry looking at the [Thomson Model](_URL_18_) to get a feel for some of the intermediate stages of discovery.\n\nYou can calculate the mass of charged particles by firing them through a magnetic field and working out the force the magnetic field applied from the radius of the curve they make.",
"It is the best model we have -right now- to describe our observations of matter. \n\nIn the world of Science, we are never sure. There is no \"sure\" in Science. We only have best guesses, which are replaced by better guesses over time, often as a result of observations which can't be explained by our current model. \n\nAlways remember, \"the map is not the territory\". Our equations and models are simply our best descriptors of reality. They are a functional tool. They are not the roadmarkers of reality itself.",
"CERN is 99.999999999% percent sure that they have found the Higgs Boson, and that absolutely pales in comparison to how certain we are about protons, electrons and neutrons. Scientists will probably always tell you (correctly) that they can never be 100% certain about anything, but the infinitesimal percentage that isn't accounted for shouldn't really matter to anyone, especially those of us who aren't physicists.",
"Yes we are 100% certain.\n\nWe are not 100% certain what makes up protons, neutrons, and electrons, and even less certain of what makes up what we think makes them up... but we are not wrong that things we call protons neutrons and electrons exist and act approximately as we've modeled them.\n\nThere is too much evidence and consistency in the model we have. The model cannot be proven 'wrong' at this point. It can be proven to be a constrained version of a more general model. We could discover them doing something we didn't notice before if we put them under extreme conditions we havn't observed them under before. But that will only result in a deeper understanding of them, not a different one. Any new rules we learn will have the old rules as emergent approximations when put under the more common conditions we're used to. \n\nThe common analogy is Newtonian Physics. Newton wasn't wrong. It's just when you things get extremely massive and/or fast, or are massless, the equations no longer accurately describes their behavior. But if you use the more general equations Einstein and others have developed since, the equations reduce back to the Newtonian approximations when used on everything from large molecules to stars going slower than 1% lightspeed.\n\n**TL;DR** We are certain, because they have been observed behaving as we believe them to behave too consistently and too much. Anything at this point will not disprove what we know, but simply shrink the error bars on what we do not.",
"From Albert Einstein and Leopold Infeld, in their co-written book “The Evolution of Physics.” \n\n“In our endeavor to understand reality we are somewhat like a man trying to understand the mechanism of a closed watch. He sees the face and the moving hands, even hears the ticking, but he has no way of opening the case. If he is ingenious he may form some picture of a mechanism which could be responsible for all the things he observes, but he may never be quite sure his picture is the only one which could explain his observations.”\n\n“He will never be able to compare his picture with the real mechanism and he cannot even imagine the possibility or meaning of such a comparison. But he certainly believes that, as his knowledge increases, his picture of reality will become simpler and simpler and will explain a wider and wider range of sensuous impressions.”",
"There is no such thing as “100% sure”. All we know is that until now all our observations agreed on that, and not a single observation disagreed, and hence it is ***useful*** (in predicting the world), which is exactly all that matters. And we did a shitload of observation (usually as a result of experiments).\n\nSo while this is a valid layman question, it’s an invalid type of question if you really think about it. A very common one though, which we all asked at least once in our lives.\n\nHence there will be no answer that will make you happy. You have to change your question. :)"
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"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalton%27s_atomic_theory#Atomic_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity#Perihelion_precession_of_Mercury",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity#Deflection_of_light_by_the_Sun",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsar",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointillism",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliad",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_multiple_proportions",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_razor",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_machine_learning_algorithms",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lensing",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nude_Descending_a_Staircase,_No._2",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicycle",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insight#Theories",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercluster",
"http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ol/abstract.cfm?uri=ol-35-13-2164",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plum_pudding_model"
]
} | Are we 100 % sure that the matter is made of atoms , the atoms made of protons, electrons and neutrons ect... ?
I mean seriously , how did we even deduce such things ? How did it ever come to somebody's mind ? And how could we calculate the number of electrons of each element ? And most of all , how could we calculate each of these particles' mass if they are so small ? | [
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|
5ruu8g | Has a particle physics result that reached 3-sigma subsequently not reached 5-sigma and been abandoned? | Famously, the higgs boson result was confirmed when the chances that the higgs finding was not real was no more than 1 in a very large number (5-sigma). Recent news articles on CP violation have reached 3-sigma. Has there been a promising result that got to 3 or 4 sigma, only to never get to 5-sigma significance? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ddadh6u",
"ddadma7",
"ddaef6p"
],
"text": [
"Yes, for example the diphoton bump at 750 gev at CERN. It reached statistical significance of 3.5 sigma, but nee data showed it was just a fluctuation. If it was not a statistical fluctuation it would have needed physics outside the standard model to explain it , so there was considerable interest in it last year until it sank down in significance\n\n_URL_0_",
"Yes. Many of them. There are hundreds of analyses done - various 3 sigma excesses are expected.\n\nThe most prominent one in the last years was the [750 GeV bump](_URL_5_) - more than three sigma local significance by two independent experiments at the same place. Triggered about 500 theory papers. Went away with more data.\n\n[3.5 sigma for delta A_CP](_URL_5_) was a hot topic in flavor physics in 2011 and 2012 - CP violation in the charm sector was unexpected. Went away with more data.\n\nRandom other excesses:\n\n[3.7 sigma for excited quarks](_URL_5_)\n\n[3.0 sigma for Z+jets](_URL_5_)\n\n[3.3 sigma for stop](_URL_5_) - no update yet, will probably die at Moriond in March.\n\n... and so on.\n\nThere were hints of signals with even higher significances that turned out to be no new physics. The OPERA neutrino speed measurement is the most prominent result here: 6 sigma significance of superluminal neutrinos. But then it turned out to be a loose cable.\n\n > Recent news articles on CP violation have reached 3-sigma.\n\nCP violation where? The existence of CP violation has been confirmed decades ago, recent experiments just added more places where it has been found.",
"There are multiple examples. You can roughly expect 3-sigma fluctuations 0.3% of the time. So if you run 1000 experiments, you can expect to get erroneous 3-sigma results in 3 of them on average.\n\nOf all the analyses of all the datasets of all the particle physics experiments that have been run, you're bound to find examples.\n\nAs you take more data and accumulate more statistics, maybe you start to see that the significance of your \"thing\" decrease. Or maybe it doesn't go away. Eventually you either reach 5-sigma (the standard for discovery in HEP), or you don't, and all you can do is assume that your experiment was one of the unlucky 3 in 1000 where your result was just due to random chance."
],
"score": [
53,
44,
17
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/750_GeV_diphoton_excess?wprov=sfla1",
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1503.03290v3.pdf",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1112.0938",
"http://indico.cern.ch/event/432527/contributions/2207037/attachments/1320513/1980135/ichep_atlas_stop.pdf",
"https://cds.cern.ch/record/2204915/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/750_GeV_diphoton_excess"
]
} | Has a particle physics result that reached 3-sigma subsequently not reached 5-sigma and been abandoned?
Famously, the higgs boson result was confirmed when the chances that the higgs finding was not real was no more than 1 in a very large number (5-sigma). Recent news articles on CP violation have reached 3-sigma. Has there been a promising result that got to 3 or 4 sigma, only to never get to 5-sigma significance? | [
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|
o88rn | [x-post from r/WTF] found 300m from a Russian oil rig site. it consumes anything and everything that comes in contact with it... wtf is it?? | _URL_0_
pic above | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3f6s5j",
"c3f6b6g",
"c3f6xgb",
"c3f6f20"
],
"text": [
"after a bit of research and asking around, all that we're seeing here is something called a frac-out, which is the drilling mud used, mainly, in shales. This mud is used for lubrication when drilling and can also be used in the fracking process itself. To clean it up on the surface, you need to get the shale particles, called Bentonite, out of the suspension using anionic polymers. This leaves you with a sludge that has little water content.\n\nThis is usually not a good thing, and can signal that you don't know the area as well as you would like (fractures that you didn't map). It can be cleaned up fairly easily on the surface, but it's extremely difficult to determine the amount of mud that has been lost within the fracture matrix below. \n\nedit 1: [one contingency plan](_URL_0_) PDF warning!",
"You'll have to define \"consume\" a little better. Does it kill everything? Melt it? Does it give off heat?",
"First of all, if something can walk across it, but when it stands still it sinks, that means (unless it was incredibly 'lucky' to walk across and die just before a non living material experienced a state change) one of two things. Either:\n\nA) The substance is alive or\nB) It is a [shear thickening non Newtonian fluid](_URL_3_)\n\nSo that narrows things down.\n\nPossibly some kind of [polyethylene glycol](_URL_3_)? PEG is used on drilling rigs, and specifically [Russian rigs drilling in unstable grounds](_URL_3_). It's used in filler mud to increase the time of drill hole stability.\n\nBut without examination, that's just a best guess.",
"[Original thread](_URL_4_)\n\n[OP's comment on the mouse dying](_URL_4_c3f5svo)"
],
"score": [
311,
138,
57,
29
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/a/LHrIB"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.energy.ca.gov/sitingcases/smud/documents/applicants_files/Data_Response_Set-1Q/APPENDIX_C_FRAC_OUT_PLAN3.PDF",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Newtonian_fluid",
"http://www.epmag.com/archives/features/3677.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_glycol",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/WTF/comments/o85wa/found_300m_from_a_russian_oil_rig_site_it/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/WTF/comments/o85wa/found_300m_from_a_russian_oil_rig_site_it/c3f5svo"
]
} | [x-post from r/WTF] found 300m from a Russian oil rig site. it consumes anything and everything that comes in contact with it... wtf is it??
_URL_0_ pic above | [
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42av75 | What's going on with technetium? | Technetium, with 43 protons/electrons, is the first element in the periodic table with *no* stable isotopes. But it's surrounded by perfectly normal elements, the next smallest completely unstable element is promethium, which is a lanthanide, and radioactive elements don't start coming with any frequency until polonium, which has nearly twice as many protons/electrons as technetium. What gives? | askscience | {
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"This is actually a physics question. There a multiple things happening here. First, there are an odd number of protons. Protons/neutrons like to pair up. This is the pairing energy term in the [semi-empirical mass formula](_URL_0_). Now that does not explain everything. \n\nPart of the answer lies in the idea that it lies far from the [nuclear magic numbers](_URL_1_). Magic numbers impart additional binding that helps hold nuclei together. Now there is one more piece. Technetium is special in that it lies next to two elements that are unusually very stable (Mo and Ru). Because if this, nuclei of Tc will decay to the most stable configurations. This means they will beta decay to either Ru or Mo. \n\nIt is important to remember what stable means. In many cases it means the isotope will not decay for a very long time. Many \"stable\" isotopes actually decay.",
"Not an expert, but I was curious so I did some research into it.\n\nLooks like one factor leading to Technicium to being radioactive is the fact that it has an odd number of protons, which leads to more radioactive isotopes since nuclei can't \"pair up\"^[\\[1\\]](_URL_3_) .\n\nHowever, that doesn't answer the question of why other near-by odd elements aren't radioactive. The best answer I could find is from a post on Physics StackExchange^[\\[2\\]](_URL_4_) . To quote:\n\n > Because the theoretical stable line slopes towards the right in figure 14.49, only one of the two odd-even isotopes next to technetium-98 should be unstable, and the same for the ones next to promethium-146. However, the energy liberated in the decay of these odd-even nuclei is only a few hundred keV in each case, far below the level for which the von Weizsäcker formula is anywhere meaningful. For technetium and promethium, neither neighboring isotope is stable. This is a qualitative failure of the von Weizsäcker model. But it is rare; it happens only for these two out of the lowest 82 elements.\n\n > So these models fail to explain why no isotopes of Tc are stable, even though they generally work pretty well. This just shows how hard the problem is.\n\n[Here's a cool graphic](_URL_4_) from the answer's source that shows stability as atomic number increases.\n\n\n\n\n[1] _URL_3_\n\n[2] _URL_4_",
"[Here is an answer from when this question was asked previously. ](_URL_5_)",
"The unfortunate reality is that you will find no simple, \"just-so\" story about why Technetium in particular has no stable isotopes. To compute the stability of Technetium, for example, from first principles (that is without assuming any semi-empirical model) would require solving for the allowed states of a quantum system with 43 protons + 43 electrons + ~50 Neutrons = ~136 particles interacting via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces (gravity is probably negligible here) crammed into a size of about 10^(-15)m for the nucleus and 10^(-9)m for the whole atom. \n\nThis is a VERY hard problem to try and get some qualitative understanding out of for several reasons:\n\n 1. It is highly non-classical. This is why the semi-empirical mass formula and the liquid drop model sometimes fail. \n\n 2. It includes the strong force. Electromagnetism and the weak force can generally be analysed using the techniques of [perturbative quantum field theory](_URL_7_), but the larger coupling constant of the strong force makes this basically impossible for the strong force. So we're left with a much smaller set of usable tools for analysis.\n\n 3. It sits in the uncomfortable range where there are too many particles to solve the problem exactly, but there are too few to apply a thermodynamic approach. Most exact methods in quantum mechanics are tractable for 2, sometimes 3 and 4 particles (this is why, for example, every student studies the hydrogen and helium systems). For 5 - ~10 particles there may be some kind of approximation which keeps the problem tractable. Technetium has over 100 particles though (and they are potentially unstable), which puts it well beyond this tractable regime. But, on the other hand, physicists have a lot of tools to deal with thermodynamic systems containing anywhere from millions to Avogadro's number of particles and up. Technetium (and all heavy elements) falls in the sort of 'dead-zone' where we do not have as many useful tools.\n\nOne thing that's interesting to consider are the decay channels which happen to make light nuclei unstable. [This chart](_URL_6_) was already posted and shows that for light nuclei (including the ones that do have a stable isotope) the most common decay path is beta decay, either beta- with the emission of an electron, or beta+ with the emission of a positron. Typically, there are some stable isotopes and then isotopes with more neutrons and unstable due to beta- decay, while isotopes with fewer neutrons are unstable due to beta+ decay.\n\nWith that pattern in mind, consider just the section of the chart near Technetium. As already mentioned, nuclei with odd numbers of protons tend to be less stable. The elements with odd numbers of protons around Technetium, Niobium and Rhodium, have just 1 stable isotope. So, we can ask, what happened to the isotopes of Technetium that we might think are stable, based on what's around it, and these are the already mentioned Technetium-97 and Technetium-99?\n\nThe 'problem' with Technetium-97 is somewhat unique: it is stable (apparently) against both beta+ and beta- decay, but not against electron capture. Electron capture occurs when a proton absorbs one of the inner-shell electrons of the atom, transforming itself into a neutron. Electron capture does happen with these lighter nuclei, but usually in situations where BOTH electron capture AND beta+ decay are allowed. Unusually, the energy difference between Technetium-97 and Molybdenum-97 is not large enough to allow a transition via beta+ decay, but just by coincidence it happens to be that 43 protons + 54 neutrons has higher energy than 42 protons + 55 neutrons and so the decay can occur. That 42+55 has lower energy is totally not obvious (for example, neither combination has any magic numbers) and just depends on the details of whether the change in electromagnetic potential energy or the mass difference between proton and neutron happens to be larger.",
"Nucleons fill shells just like electrons, two nucleons per subshell. Magic numbers are the nuclear analog to noble gas configuration for atoms. Full shells are more stable than half filed shells. Technetium has an odd number of protons and is surrounded by many stable, even numbered nuclides. This causes technetium to beta decay into its more stable neighbors. Technetium is also not close to any nuclear magic numbers.",
"Here's an interesting way to look at the problem:\n\nThe vast majority of proton+neutron combinations, even in small nuclei, are unstable. A nucleus of one proton and five neutrons will immediately decay. When we say an element is stable, we're really just saying there's at least one isotope of it that's stable -- that given X protons, there is at least one value for Y neutrons that holds it together. Sometimes more than one: for Carbon (6 protons), 6p+6n holds together just as well as 6p+7n. \n\n[Here](_URL_8_) is a map of all the possible isotopes. The maroon squares signify a stable combination of protons and neutrons. There's somewhat of a pattern, but details look pretty random.\n\nSee that column at Z = 43, that has two reds and an orange, but no maroons? That's technetium. Sure, part of the reason is it's because of an odd number of protons and all that, but it seems like 43 just drew a bad hand in this game.",
"This has already been pretty well answered but I'll chime in anyway with some hand waving talk about forces and shells.\n\nProtons repel by the EM force, 1/r^2 over nuclear length scales is large. Neutrons attract over much smaller length scales, by the strong force. Protons and neutrons form (energetically favorable) pairs, and a proton and neutron pair is more tightly bound than two pairs, or a pair and leftovers. You're basically making spherical shells, since the protons tend to stay as far away from each other as possible.\n\nFill a shell and a leftover proton is especially likely to be kicked out. A single p-n pair with or without extra neutrons doesn't have enough strong force stickiness to overcome the p-p repulsion and stick to an energetically smooth surface. However, with p-n-n-p wanting to be in a straight line, the n-n does have enough strong force stickiness to overcome the p-p repulsion at the ends.",
"I wonder if there is some other measure of stability that is also low for nearby elements. For example, if you shoot a neutron or whatever at a nucleus, there is some probability that it will cause that nucleus to go crazy somehow. A really stable nucleus will presumably have a higher probability of withstanding a collision with a neutron."
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"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_number_\\(physics\\)",
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/a/40990",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technetium#Isotopes",
"http://www.dommelen.net/quantum2/style_a/img3381.gif",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1nd02l/why_is_technetium_radioactive/",
"http://www.dommelen.net/quantum2/style_a/img3381.gif",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_field_theory#Theories",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg"
]
} | What's going on with technetium?
Technetium, with 43 protons/electrons, is the first element in the periodic table with *no* stable isotopes. But it's surrounded by perfectly normal elements, the next smallest completely unstable element is promethium, which is a lanthanide, and radioactive elements don't start coming with any frequency until polonium, which has nearly twice as many protons/electrons as technetium. What gives? | [
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1013kk | How do helicopters and VTOL craft in general not get caught in their own "bad" air when in hover mode? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"They can and do. It's called a [Vortex Ring State](_URL_0_), a condition in which the aircraft gets caught in its own downwash, causing it to fall despite applying full power (also known as \"settling with power\"). It can be very dangerous, and the pilots of rotor craft go through extensive training to avoid it, and are taught how to fly out of it in the event it occurs.\n\nEDIT: See Old-Ben-Kenobi's response. This does not happen in a hover state, but rather during a rapid descent.",
"In a low hover ground effect is going to dominate the airflow so the air from your own vortex isn't much of an issue. When you get out of ground effect into a high hover more power will be required and we will get some of our own vortex but not enough to cause any issues.\n\nAs someone mentioned there is such a thing as vortex ring state which is incredibly dangerous, this doesn't happen in a hover though, it happens with a high descent rate and low forward airspeed and causes you to descend incredibly rapidly. This is aggravated by the fact that pulling in more power (which will seem like the natural choice to control descent) actually makes the situation worse.",
"Just to add some information\n\nOur search for the VRS boundary started with a thorough review of analytical and wind tunnel research and slow-speed, high-rate-of-descent flight testing. We soon discovered that the body of known actual flight-test data for VRS in other rotorcraft was very small. There were only two other rotorcraft flight research projects known to us at the time we began our initial flight testing, one by NASA Langley in 1964 and one more recently by the ONERA organization in France with a Dauphin helicopter. There was a larger amount of theoretical data available, however, from the private and academic sectors of flight-test research. The principal work we reviewed was from a paper published in 1965 by Kyuichiro Washizu and Akira Azuma of the University of Tokyo. [1]\n\nVRS is an aerodynamic condition in which the tangential airspeed at the rotor is small (associated with low forward airspeed) and the airspeed perpendicular to the rotor is high (associated with powered rate of descent). VRS typically becomes a concern below 40 knots forward airspeed at high rates of descent. To reach this condition, power must be applied during the steep descent. Some might think that during VRS the rotor stalls, but that is not the case. VRS is a reingestion state, not a stalled state. Rotor lift creates a down flow of air, called induced velocity (Vi), and the up flow created by the nearly vertical rate of descent is called vertical velocity (Vv). When the induced velocity equals the vertical velocity, VRS may occur, causing a reduction in rotor lift or increased sink rate. VRS can occur as a rotorcraft settles down through its own vortex field at slow forward airspeeds.\n\nThis condition is not peculiar to the tiltrotor; in fact, every rotary winged aircraft is susceptible to it. A helicopter pilot flying a single rotor system exits VRS by lowering his collective (reducing power with his left hand) and pushing forward the cyclic (tilting his rotor disk forward to accelerate) with his right hand. A tiltrotor pilot has another, more-effective, option: he can move the nacelles into clean air\n\n_URL_1_\n\nLast I saw in a Popular Science, the aeronautics companies were working on ways to alert the pilot when the conditions are heading towards this state but I haven't seen anything since",
"Can somebody clarify this question a little bit? I don't really know anything about how helicopters fly, and I don't know what is meant by \"bad\" air.",
"V-22 ospreys, the planes that can transfer from helicopter to plane, had some problems with this in the earlier days of their conception. It killed two test pilots. Yes, sometimes this is a problem."
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"url": []
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortex_ring_state",
"http://www.military.com/NewContent/0,13190,NI_Myth_0904,00.html"
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} | How do helicopters and VTOL craft in general not get caught in their own "bad" air when in hover mode?
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2rr3ip | If I ate 10,000 calories in one go, would my body be able to digest it all? Or would some of those calories 'pass through' due to my digestive system being overwhelmed? | I get that if I ate an extra 1,000 calories a day, my body would be able to handle those calories and they'd be turned into energy/fat etc. But what if I went crazy and ate 10,000 in one go. Would it affect me in the same way as if I'd eaten 1,000 extra calories each day for 10 days? | askscience | {
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"Current microbiologist, future dietitian here:\n\nYes, some of those calories would \"pass through\" and not be able to be digested. Unless your body is used to utilizing a massive amount of calories, it's not going to waste energy having and maintaining receptors in your gut that almost never get used. For instance, you only make so much bile at a time, which is necessary to absorb fats. If your gut gets overwhelmed with more fat than you can possibly absorb, it's going to pass through the region where fat is absorbed...which is a relatively short region, and get turned into massive amounts of gas later on down the line. This gas is the result of microbes in your gut inexpertly fermenting fats, which is a nutrient they are not used to utilizing, so they break it down inefficiently, making gases as their own \"poop\". You may absorb some of the other products these microbes create as a result of this breaking down, but it won't be as calorie-rich as if you were able to absorb the fats as fat.\n\nIf you consistently eat high calorie foods, or a particular type of nutrient, your gut and its microbiome will change in response to that level of intake, and you would absorb those calories more efficiently.\n\nTL;DR? The second one.",
"It all depends on what you are eating. Different substances are absorbed at different rates so it is more about the source of the calories. Sugar is easily broken down and absorbed so eating 10000 calories from sugar might be more completely absorbed than 10000 calories from something harder to break down like fiber. \nIn this case however I don't think it's as much about absorbing the nutrients as it is retaining them. If we have too much of anything and our body is not able to convert in into adipose for storage as quickly as we take it in then we will expelled the unused portion. So theoretically you would be able to store the excess nutrients from 1000 calories a day more easily thus having a larger overall impact on your weight. That is the really simple answer though and there are a ton of other variables that can play a factor in that such as your overall health and metabolism as well as the composition of the meals you are eating.",
"I'm just going to leave this paragraph here from H.M. Sinclair (Laboratory of Human Nutrition, University of Oxford) in his \"The Diet of Canadian Indians and Eskimos\" from 1952 symposium proceedings; emphasis mine.\n\n > The Eskimo is apparently able to digest and absorb very large amounts of protein and fat at a single meal. In times of plenty, 4 kg of meat daily is a common amount and much is taken at a single meal : they do not usually take food in the morning. Consumption of larger amounts such as 15 kg has been observed on occasion, and Ross (1835) considered that an Eskimo ' perhaps eats twenty pounds \nof flesh and oil daily', **which I suppose is possibly 46,000 Cal.** Parry (1824) thought he would test the capacity of an adolescent Eskimo ; the food was weighed and, apart from fluids, he ate in 20 h 8-1/2 lb. meat and 1-3/4 lb. bread **(about 15,700 Cal.)** and ' did not consider the quantity extraordinary '. But this is trivial compared with the feats of the Siberian Yakuti who eat 25-30 lb. meat daily, and there is no record approaching the 35 lb. of beef and 18 lb. of butter (providing about 112,000 Cal. and occupying a volume of the order of 5-1/2 gal.) alleged to have been eaten in less than 3 h by each of two Yakuti (Simpson, 1847.) \n\nOne wonders if the Yakuti had very deep pockets and somehow spoofed Simpson by stuffing them full of beef and butter when not being observed.",
"The human body is marvelously capable of extracting nutrients from food, which is probably not surprising when you look back at our hunter-gatherer ancestors and the unreliability of their food supply. This works against us now that we have such readily available high caloric processed food causing us all to get fat.\n\nSo a single 10k calorie meal should be processed and digested without much difficulty as the digestive system has processes in place to handle large meals (assuming the 10k worth of food you chose to eat could all fit in your stomach, or the meal was eaten over a few hours, and the chosen food did not contain irritants). \n\nHowever, prolonged repeated high calorie intake (usually fat) has been shown to modify human digestive physiology by [paradoxically promoting increased energy intake and the development of obesity.](_URL_0_)",
"If you are only considering energy expenditure, maximum daily energy expenditure in humans is between 4 and 5 times BMR (basal metabolic rate) based off of research looking at Tour de France cyclists. The biomass accumulation question is a little harder to answer, but it also relates to BMR and is regulated by hormones, internal gut morphology, existing body composition that can signal for increased deposition of fat, glycogen stores, etc.\n\nExamples of the extremes of energy assimilation in a natural system (i.e. not force feeding, no artificial manipulation of hormone levels) are shorebirds during migration. During migration several species have energy assimilation rates more than 7 times their BMR which translates in an ability to increase lean body mass by ~10-15% a day to recover from and fuel up for long migratory flights. Can you imagine if a 180 lb person could pack on 18+ lbs of mass...in a day?",
"The military reckon on a minimum of about 4500 kcal/day for normal winter ops as a \"neutral diet\". Himalayan mountaineers need rather more at around 7000 kcal/day for the duration of an expedition and they tend to lose weight (this may be an issue with altitude sickness or the shear difficulty of preparation/consumption at altitude). The body seems to be able to cope with both.",
"Pretty sure I read in Sir Ranulph Fiennes book about Captain Scott, that polar explorer were/are able to take in a maximum 7,500 calories per day, based on typical level of fitness etc. And that whilst on their expedition Scott's team were likely burning about 10,000/day due to the physical activity (pulling a sledge on foot to the South Pole). This meant that regardless of availability of food they were going to deteriorate physically as they lose weight, burn fat and then lose muscle mass, simply because their bodies couldn't store energy quickly enough to keep up.",
"This article shows that during the tour de france the major type of energy source is carbs. During such huge efforts, the riders are expending up to 5000 kcal a day (in addition to basal metabolism). Unfortunately we are not really designed for recouping that energy so quickly, but the best way to do it is with simple carbohydrates like sucrose, fructose, or glucose containing items. \n\n_URL_1_",
"I wonder if there have been studies that looked at people with bulimia or binge eating disorder. It is difficult to get all of food you eat out before you start digesting it, if you binge on a lot of food (like bulimics do). Even so the large amounts of calories ingested in binges (by people with binge eating disorder more acutely) vs. people who just overeat all the time, would reveal whether they are absorbed differently.",
"The amount of food that is absorbed by your digestive system, depends on what it is. Refined sugar is largely ingested, because it is unaccompanied by fibre. Fibre greatly influences how much food passes through you. The more fibre, generally the fewer calories absorbed. Soda, which is liquid sugar, is obesity's genesis.",
"I'm really disappointed in how vague and generic that answers are on here. I was hoping someone would go into detail about how 10,000 calories worth of chyme gets absorbed when the part of the small intestine that does the most absorption, the jejunum, is pretty short, only 2.5m long. The duodenum is where the enzymes get put in for the breakdown and the ileum mainly absorbs vitamin B12 and bile acids and some leftover nutrients. But I'm not getting how 10,000 calories worth of it will almost all get somehow efficiently taken in, especially considering the surface area of the particles & how relatively fast things move through. The colon is mainly just water absorption and the bacteria there turn some of what's left into short-chain fatty acids. I haven't seen anyone post good enough proof that you can really absorb 10,000 calories in one go (which I assumed meant in one eating session). But people are posting about how athletes eat 12,000 in one *day*. \n\nCan someone actually go into some science-ish detail about the exact way food, including the time length and how much gets processed and absorbed in each section in ONE MEAL of 10,000 calories? \n\nI don't know myself & I was really glad this was asked here but I was hoping for more than just basic answers. \n\nraging_asshole below posted good examples of just how much 10,000 calories is. I just don't believe an average human (without a big stomach) can really process a 10,000 calorie meal completely.",
"If you recall the Olympic swimmer [Michael Phelps](_URL_3_) ate [12,000](_URL_2_) calories a day while in training. The point is that your body's use of the calories you eat is variable depending on how many calories you force it to burn. \n\nIf you train like an Olympian you will probably use much more of the 10,000 calories than you would if you were on the couch watching the Olympics. \n\nThat being said, eating all 10,000 calories at once is not the same as eating that much a day. If your stomach doesn't explode or your body doesn't shut down from glucose overdose, you'll probably pass most of it",
"Pancreatic Physiologist and MD with decades of experience here. Although bile plays a subsidiary role in digestion its primary role is in absorption of fat. Protein and carbohydrate absorption do not require bile. Certainly a portion of your 10,000 calorie day would be one of those two substrates as well as fat. The pancreas is profoundly the primary source of digestion of nutrients. Although one can theorize reaching a point in which you overwhelm the capability of the pancreas to digest a meal, in clinical experience, in the absence of diseases like diabetes and pancreatic exocrine dysfunction, this phenomenon is not seen. Exocrine function is the process by which pancreatic digestive enzymes process nutrients in the gut to make them available for absorption. And sadly we see examples every day in which individuals consume massive amounts of calories and absorb every one of them. Reference our global obesity epidemic. You might also be startled and dismayed to discover that one can easily consume several thousand calories in one meal at an average restaurant. A rich pastry for dessert can approach 1000 calories.\nRegarding the microbiome, it is noteworthy that after exposure to gastric acid the contents of the small bowel, where essentially all absorption takes place, is sterile. The contribution of gut flora to small intestinal absorption is insignificant. \nParenthetically, when large doses of nutrients are delivered intravenously it is possible to overwhelm the body's capabilities for absorption, primarily of glucose.\nIf we carry your query to say 50,000 calories the question I would pose is how can you consume that and not finally start to vomit?",
"One hurdle to consider is that the muscles of your intestine responsible for peristalsis can slow or stop completely, giving the intestine more time to absorb its contents, and the biome there more time to engage in digestion or denaturing of contents."
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"url": [
"http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/86/3/531.full",
"http://www.bicycling.com/tour-de-france-archives/2011-tour-de-france/eating-tour-de-france",
"http://www.michaelphelps.net/michael-phelps-diet/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Phelps"
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} | If I ate 10,000 calories in one go, would my body be able to digest it all? Or would some of those calories 'pass through' due to my digestive system being overwhelmed?
I get that if I ate an extra 1,000 calories a day, my body would be able to handle those calories and they'd be turned into energy/fat etc. But what if I went crazy and ate 10,000 in one go. Would it affect me in the same way as if I'd eaten 1,000 extra calories each day for 10 days? | [
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19yzh1 | Why can't you build an ideal filter? | Just to try it, in the past I have taken the FFT of a signal, nulled out the undesirable frequency components, and then took the inverse FFT. However, this process seems to introduce new noise in the time domain signal that wasn't there before. I know you can't build an ideal filter, but I'm wondering why. Is it because I have ignored the phase components of the Fourier transform and only affected the magnitude? I also heard something about this technique being a circular convolution, but I don't know exactly what that means or if it is relevant. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8sm85k",
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"c8sohhw"
],
"text": [
"The frequencies of the FFT are not \"the frequencies in the signal\" in an absolute sense - they are just one set of frequencies that can be combined to recreate the original (out of many other possible combinations).\n\nTo use a direct analogy, filtering a sound by zeroing specific frequency bins is like doctoring a photo by manipulating the colors of individual pixels - it may work sometimes, but more often it won't.\n\nJust as we have the algorithms of a program like photoshop to do effective image manipulation and enhancement there are audio filter algorithms that effectively modify a sound with minimal distortion. Filter design is a complex subject, and an FFT domain filter needs to be designed just as carefully as its time domain counterpart.",
"Because of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle (in general wave sense, not the quantum sense). delta f * delta t > 1\n\nYou are trying to sharply distinguish two adjacent frequencies (one below and one above the cutoff). In this case you have a very small delta f = 1/T, where T is the time-length of the signal.\n\nIn doing so you are adding an artifact with delta t ~ 1/delta f = T.\nSo, this artifact seems to extend across the entire time domain signal.",
"A mathematical answer: A filter transfer function is a complex function. There is a theorem in complex analysis which says that if an analytic complex function is constant over a domain then it has to be constant everywhere. So a band-pass filter with a perfectly flat top and perfectly sharp cutoff aint possible because the function will be constant, not just in the pass band."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why can't you build an ideal filter?
Just to try it, in the past I have taken the FFT of a signal, nulled out the undesirable frequency components, and then took the inverse FFT. However, this process seems to introduce new noise in the time domain signal that wasn't there before. I know you can't build an ideal filter, but I'm wondering why. Is it because I have ignored the phase components of the Fourier transform and only affected the magnitude? I also heard something about this technique being a circular convolution, but I don't know exactly what that means or if it is relevant. | [
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|
9zgrem | Can anyone help me settle a chemistry debate with my wife? | My daughter sometimes wets the bed in the middle of the night, but our neighbors kept complaining about doing laundry at night, so now we have to wait until morning.
My wife is insistent that we not use bleach because urine has ammonia and everyone knows mixing bleach and ammonia is bad.
I think we should use bleach because overnight pee? Sanitize that!
The thing is, I don't actually know much about the ammonia/bleach reaction aside from don't do it, and I can't imagine that the amount of ammonia is enough to make some kind of reaction in a washing machine.
So, dear Reddit scientists, who is right? Is it actually dangerous to wash pee sheets with bleach? Would there be enough bacterial growth overnight to warrant sanitizing? Who worries too much? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ea9djor",
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"text": [
"When you mix bleach and ammonia they react to form chloramines which are highly toxic\n\nBleach is used in laundry primarily because it whitens stains. Bleaching damages the fabric and shortens its life. \n\nYour daughter's urine is sterile, and contains almost no ammonia (assuming she doesn't have a serious kidney problem.)\n\nYou can safely bleach the sheets, but there is absolutely no need to do so.",
"Urine only contains about 1% ammonia. It's also pretty soluble in water so a water pre-wash would take it out. It's so low that nobody worries about bleaching fabric nappies. Did she use reusable or disposable ones and, if the former, did she bleach them?\n\nIn the other hand, urine isn't faeces so bleaching isn't really necessary anyway.\n\nIn short, I think you're **both** over-reacting!",
"While I'm not qualified to weigh in on the chemistry side of things, I do have a vast experience of doing laundry of varying degrees of grossness. \nYou don't need to bleach your daughter's sheets in order for them to be really clean. The main grossness factor in urine is the smell, which is easily rinsed out. Just wash on a hot cycle with regular detergent. You can add white vinegar to the load as well (in your washer's bleach slot, conveniently), and that will help, as well as keeping your washer in good condition. Alternatively, if you have a utility sink, I'd suggest putting the sheets in to soak rather than leaving them in the washer til morning.",
"The issue with using bleach is unless the sheets are white you run the risk of ruining them. Color safe bleach doesn't disinfect so using it would not eliminate your concern.\n\nSo try this idea instead.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nTreat Stains\n\nAmmonia makes certain types of stains disappear with minimal effort on your part.\n\nMake an all-purpose stain remover by combining equal parts water, ammonia and liquid dish detergent or your regular laundry detergent in a spray bottle. Spritz this on food spills, ink stains, barely-there grass stains and other marks at least 30 minutes before rinsing the solution out and laundering.\n\nFor a gentler version that doesn't need to be rinsed out, combine 1/2 ounce of ammonia with 1 ounce of detergent and 2 cups of water. This contains less soap, so it is less effective, but perfect for minor discolorations.\n\nTackle blood, grass and urine stains by combining equal parts ammonia and water. Apply the solution to the mark with a soft cloth or sponge and wait about 30 minutes before laundering per usual.",
"Humans get rid of Nitrogen in their body mainly through producing ureum, not ammonia. Ureum is less soluble in water than ammonia (which most fish make to get rid of their nitrogen), but easier to make than uric acid (which most birds make to get the nitrogen out of their system). I don't know the exact chemistry of the reaction between bleach and ureum, but the ureum molecule first needs to be cleaved in order to make ammonia."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.hunker.com/13422713/how-to-use-ammonia-in-the-laundry"
]
} | Can anyone help me settle a chemistry debate with my wife?
My daughter sometimes wets the bed in the middle of the night, but our neighbors kept complaining about doing laundry at night, so now we have to wait until morning. My wife is insistent that we not use bleach because urine has ammonia and everyone knows mixing bleach and ammonia is bad. I think we should use bleach because overnight pee? Sanitize that! The thing is, I don't actually know much about the ammonia/bleach reaction aside from don't do it, and I can't imagine that the amount of ammonia is enough to make some kind of reaction in a washing machine. So, dear Reddit scientists, who is right? Is it actually dangerous to wash pee sheets with bleach? Would there be enough bacterial growth overnight to warrant sanitizing? Who worries too much? | [
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|
nczcg | AskScience AMA Series: Speech Processing | Ever wondered why your word processor *still* has trouble transcribing your speech? Why you can't just walk up to an ATM and ask it for money? Why it is so difficult to remove background noise in a mobile phone conversation? **We are electronic engineers / scientists performing research into a variety of aspects of speech processing. Ask us anything!**
----------
UncertainHeisenberg, pretz and snoopy892 work in the same lab, which specialises in processing telephone-quality single-channel speech.
**UncertainHeisenberg**
I am a third year PhD student researching multiple aspects of speech/speaker recognition and speech enhancement, with a focus on improving robustness to environmental noise. My primary field has recently switched from speech processing to the application of machine learning techniques to seismology (speech and seismic signals have a bit in common).
**pretz**
I am a final year PhD student in a speech/speaker recognition lab. I have done some work in feature extraction, speech enhancement, and a lot of speech/speaker recognition scripts that implement various techniques. My primary interest is in robust feature extraction (extracting features that are robust to environmental noise) and missing feature techniques.
**snoopy892**
I am a final year PhD student working on speech enhancement - primarily processing in the modulation domain. I also research and develop objective intelligibility measures for objectively evaluating speech processed using speech enhancement algorithms.
---------
**tel**
I'm working to create effective audio fingerprints of words while studying how semantically important information is encoded in audio. This has applications for voice searching of uncommon terms and hopefully will help to support research on auditory saliency at the level of words, including things like vocal pitch and accent invariance—traits of human hearing far more so than computerized systems can manage.
---------- | askscience | {
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"text": [
"How come Speech Software doesn't seem to need training anymore? (At least on Siri or Android, I know the built in stuff with Windows does)\n\nAlso, what is the easiest and cheapest way to implement speech recognition in software?\n\nDo you do any other kind of recovering signal from noise (Image Processing, etc.) ?\n\nWhat inspired you to start learning about this stuff?\n\nWhat's your favorite part about what you do?\n\nWhat's your worst blunder in testing or creating your algorithms?\n\nHow do you normally find new ways to improve on these impossibly cool algorithms?\n\nThanks for answering any (or hopefully all) of my questions!",
"(Lexical Semantics PhD student here)\n\nIs each of your work at the audio signal - > phoneme level? Do you do any work operating at the word level and language models?",
"Is there a reliable way to filter sounds that are at the same frequency as a human voice?",
"What are you're thoughts on [the satanic message in Stairway to Heaven?](_URL_0_)\n\nI know its pretty stupid conspiracy and I don't think Led Zepplin is Satanist or any of that bull crap, however I find it pretty amazing that this \"message\" is so surprisingly clear. What are a linguist's thoughts/view on this seemingly coincidental occurrance?\n\nEdit: Also as a sophomore physics major I love your username OP.",
"By when do you think perfect speech processing as well as perfect speech generation will be possible? Are there any specific hurdles to which there is no evident solution at this time?",
"In your opinion, what're the best audio visualization tools around?",
"I would like to have a program to classify a variety of farm animal noises. I envision a system where I feed the program training data with audio clips labeled as various types of vocalizations plus chewing, walking, drinking, etc. that the pigs make in their pens, and then the program \"learns\" to recognize these sounds (e.g. certain parts of the FFT signatures, hopefully something much simpler than speech recognition), and then it can monitor an audio stream and label these events/the time they occurred. \n \nI'd expect that some of these capabilities are part of the first phases of speech recognition algorithms you are experts in dealing with. It seems most of those capabilities are part of [this Matlab package](_URL_1_), but I haven't dove into that project yet and I'm wondering if you have any ideas about what is the state of the art on the user friendly end of the scale.",
"What do you think is the current time-frame on speech-to-text implementations for word documents? Is it even possible? By that I mean, you talk into a microphone and the computer types up what you say in an open word document.\n\nWhat are the difficulties in making things like the internet completely voice controlled? How about normal computer functions (going through folders and selecting documents)?",
"Would you be able to use the media from the last century (e.g., radio, movies, tv) and their corresponding transcripts as a means of training systems? Or are there too many legal barriers?\n\nHave you heard of genetic algorithms being used to better translate speech?\n\nHow much of your work is influenced by research in the auditory pathway of humans or other animals?",
"Software cannot transcribe speech in an unknown language, of course; people can't do that either! But we *are* able to recognize that a human language is being spoken (or skillfully imitated) even when it's one we do not know. How far along is AI at doing the same?",
"How much do different accents throw off your methods?\n\nAlso is it true that Google 411 was a devious ploy by them to build a massive database of human speech samples?",
"Is there a significant increase in the amount of background noise around multiples of 60Hz?\n\nI ask because this is a \"magic number\" for AC power frequency in the States.",
"What does seismology have to do with speech processing?"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9mMJvzZq4hA",
"http://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mathworks.com%2Fmatlabcentral%2Ffileexchange%2F19236-some-basic-audio-features%2Fcontent%2FDocumentation.html&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNGylAjxjXxXIzD0d0MPEiIY29a-YQ"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: Speech Processing
Ever wondered why your word processor *still* has trouble transcribing your speech? Why you can't just walk up to an ATM and ask it for money? Why it is so difficult to remove background noise in a mobile phone conversation? **We are electronic engineers / scientists performing research into a variety of aspects of speech processing. Ask us anything!** ---------- UncertainHeisenberg, pretz and snoopy892 work in the same lab, which specialises in processing telephone-quality single-channel speech. **UncertainHeisenberg** I am a third year PhD student researching multiple aspects of speech/speaker recognition and speech enhancement, with a focus on improving robustness to environmental noise. My primary field has recently switched from speech processing to the application of machine learning techniques to seismology (speech and seismic signals have a bit in common). **pretz** I am a final year PhD student in a speech/speaker recognition lab. I have done some work in feature extraction, speech enhancement, and a lot of speech/speaker recognition scripts that implement various techniques. My primary interest is in robust feature extraction (extracting features that are robust to environmental noise) and missing feature techniques. **snoopy892** I am a final year PhD student working on speech enhancement - primarily processing in the modulation domain. I also research and develop objective intelligibility measures for objectively evaluating speech processed using speech enhancement algorithms. --------- **tel** I'm working to create effective audio fingerprints of words while studying how semantically important information is encoded in audio. This has applications for voice searching of uncommon terms and hopefully will help to support research on auditory saliency at the level of words, including things like vocal pitch and accent invariance—traits of human hearing far more so than computerized systems can manage. ---------- | [
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lrlin | are human senses processed continuously or as a rapid series of inputs? | using vision as an example, do we see things picture by picture by picture, like a tv displays video? or is it a smooth continuum of information?
| askscience | {
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"That is not easy question to answer because there are many stages to 'processing'. \n\nI will talk specifically about vision as what I have experience in but it should hold true for all physical senses. \n\nIf I have understood what you are asking, the answer is; at a cellular level visual -processing- is not continuous. \n\nThe brain is comprised of neurones, each neuron has only two stated, excited and resting. So even given a continuous input to a neuron, it will build its membrane potential until it reaches its activation threshold at which point it will 'fire' and return to its resting potential. \n\nSo I think its fair to say that processing of senses is discrete rather than continuous. \n\nI can elaborate further if you need :)",
"At some level, it boils down to can neurons fire action potentials continuously, and the answer is no. There is always some degree of discretization of information that will limit how \"continuously\" you can perceive something. So I think the answer to your question would depend on at what \"level\" you are examining the system in question.",
"Wonderful question.\n\n[Here](_URL_0_) are a couple of pages of a book discussing this matter in relation to hearing. It is already very short and well written, so I shan't do it the injustice of trying to summarise it further. Check it out!",
"There are good reasons for thinking that perception isn't the continuous plenum it appears to be but is rather blocky and gappy.\n\nTake a look at some experiments with eye trackers where stuff being shown is being changed but the person who's eyes are being tracked experiences a stable picture.\n\nIt may well be that top down processes are involved in perception, effectively high level processes \"think of a question\" and \"ask others for an answer\" - imagine something high up asking \"is it a chair\" and then systems lower down trying to answer the question.\n\nIt's almost certainly a mistake to think of vision as \"Pictures\" going to the \"central viewer\" better to think in terms of \"conclusions being drawn about what is out there in the visual field\".\n\nIf perception works this way a bit, (effectively like polling) then it's not continuous.\n\n**edit** part of the reason for the \"visualness\" of vision (unlike smell for example) is that the brain is constantly comparing distances between things in the visual field - and this is mostly what gives vision it's \"spacey waceyness\"\n \nif you had sonar like a bat (sorry Nagel) it would be spacey like vision for the same reason that your brain would be tracking and judging distances between multiple objects in the sonic field. People hooked up to glasses with cameras projecting tactile sensations on a skin field, start to report visual like experiences, as the brain begins to interpret the skin sensations spatially.",
"It would depend on the sense, in your example of vision, the eye focuses incoming light into the back of your eyebulb, which means vision is streamed as a series of lightwave detections.\n\nWhile some other sensations take time to propagate to the brain and back, like stubbing your toe. Milliseconds, maybe, but still time none the less.\n\n---\n_URL_1_\n\nEdit: it should be noted I suppose that there technically is a delay in the eye too, Not sure the exact number, but yes, everything that you're seeing right now in real time is actually time delayed somewhere in the milli(nano?)second range.",
"I have always been curious about this too, however, I have always come to the conclusion that it is impossible for us to get a continuous stream of information. Somehow it just doesn't seem possible if you **really** think about it. It is a very convincing illusion.",
"If the eye actually \"refreshes\", what would a comparable fps rate be to that of the eye?"
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"url": [
"http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xdIvItuvXLsC&pg=PA170&lpg=PA170&dq=multiple+looks+hearing&source=bl&ots=S59vxc6NMb&sig=O2b___CuIQo4GK-PBAfvaXO8aVI&hl=en&ei=N4OqTuK9NYL88QO9t5i2Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=multiple%20looks%20hearing&f=false",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye"
]
} | are human senses processed continuously or as a rapid series of inputs?
using vision as an example, do we see things picture by picture by picture, like a tv displays video? or is it a smooth continuum of information? | [
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|
6g5e8q | What do physicists do in Antartica? | I understand that there is a scientific community down in Antartica. But to my underdtanding, the majority of the science that goes down down there is biology. I assume that every field has its place, as it does everywhere. But what tyoe of experimetation and research goes on for the physics community down in Antartica? And how large of a community? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dinokn7",
"dinqkho",
"diobvgd"
],
"text": [
"There are a number of telescopes at the South Pole, the biggest being the South Pole Telescope, and others such as BICEP2 (or are they up to 3 now?), which was in the news a few years ago for a big discovery that turned to be dust. There is also Ice Cube, which is a neutrino detector that takes up a cubic kilometer of ice underneath the South Pole. In addition to being away from light polution, it's useful to be able to always point your telescope at the same spot of the sky simply by point up, and you can't do that on the North Pole. \n\nOn the Antarctic coast, a number of balloon-borne cosmology telescopes are launched, which are sort of a happy medium between ground-based and space-based telescopes. One of these, EBEX, was [stolen from the back of a truck in Texas](_URL_0_) but luckily was found before launch.",
"Depending on how loosely you want to define physics, there are also physicists (physical oceanographers and glaciologists) who study the fluid dynamics and thermodynamics of [sea water](_URL_3_), [sea ice](_URL_3_), and [glaciers](_URL_3_) both in and around Antarctica. Most of these scientists have undergraduate backgrounds in physics / math / engineering and go on to more specialized oceanography or geoscience graduate programs.",
"Physicists in Antarctica discovered the existence of a hole in the ozone layer in the 80's (after satellite measurements of ozone concentration were initially assumed to be false) and subsequently described the mechanism by which this could happen. \n\n\nPoint being there's plenty of important physical and chemical atmospheric reactions that can be studied from (in some cases only from) Antarctica. \n\n\nThere is also the physics of how ice moves over and interacts with the Antarctic bedrock, and the dynamics of sea-ice interfaces at important areas of deep-water formation."
],
"score": [
39,
7,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://klotza.blogspot.com/2016/04/strange-moments-in-science-theft-of.html",
"http://pal.lternet.edu/research/components-labs/physical-oceanography",
"http://aspect.antarctica.gov.au/",
"http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/"
]
} | What do physicists do in Antartica?
I understand that there is a scientific community down in Antartica. But to my underdtanding, the majority of the science that goes down down there is biology. I assume that every field has its place, as it does everywhere. But what tyoe of experimetation and research goes on for the physics community down in Antartica? And how large of a community? | [
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|
vwae5 | Is it true that glass "runs"? | I have heard that glass is a very slow-moving liquid that can actually "run" over time. Is there any truth to this? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c589dnv",
"c588701",
"c588hxe"
],
"text": [
"Hiya. I'm an expert in glasses!\n\nSo, glass isn't really a supercooled liquid. It is an amorphous solid.\n\nGlass is made by the melting of a solid. For conventional glass, that solid is sand, but it can be many other things depending on what you choose to make the 'glass' out of. Glass is, as it turns out, a generic term for any amorphous solid. As you cool the liquid you've created by melting down, for materials that readily form glasses you are able to cool below the melting point without crystallizing. As you continue to decrease the temperature the liquid is less and less mobile because the temperature is getting lower and lower. Eventually it reaches a point at which it is no longer able to relax on the time scale of the cooling that you're using and instead of behaving like a liquid it begins to behave like a solid. This is the glass transition temperature. Below the glass transition temperature, the material is out of equilibrium. Exactly what temperature this is at what cooling rate is a material dependent property.\n\nBelow the glass transition temperature, the material behaves like a solid on 'short' timescales. If you hit it with a hammer, it breaks. If you pour it into a container it does not take the shape of the container. On short time scales. On long timescales, glasses CAN flow. I'm not personally aware of any experiments measuring the flow of SiO2 glass (the conventional glass in a window) but the [pitch drop experiment](_URL_0_) is pretty famous. The old saw about cathedral windows being thicker at the bottom because of flow is incorrect by the way. If you do some very shady looking extrapolations of high temperature data to room temperature (shady because extrapolating over hundreds of orders of magnitude in time is a bad idea) it would take something like hundreds of lifetimes of the universe to see any appreciable flow in an SiO2 glass at room temperature.\n\nTo go further: Solid and liquid are definitions based on the properties of a material. When most people think of solids what they're really thinking of are crystals, in the sense of how you learn about them in 7th grade science class \"The states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.\" On short timescales, SiO2 glass is a solid. The definition of a solid is something that is rigid and resists changes in shape. On long timescales, you could very reasonably argue that SiO2 glass is a liquid because on long time scales it flows without ever undergoing melting. The issue is the definition of \"long.\" In this case, the definition of long is so long that it seems mostly like a semantic argument. The argument is less clear for things like the pitch drop experiment.",
"Glass is not a liquid. It's a non-crystalline solid.",
"[Pitch](_URL_1_) is a slow moving liquid like you're talking about."
],
"score": [
40,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_drop_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_drop_experiment"
]
} | Is it true that glass "runs"?
I have heard that glass is a very slow-moving liquid that can actually "run" over time. Is there any truth to this? | [
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5m68zo | AskScience AMA Series: I am Seth Shostak, senior astronomer at the SETI institute. Ask Me Anything! | I'm [Seth Shostak](_URL_1_users/seth-shostak), Senior Astronomer at the [SETI Institute](_URL_1_), and I've bet anyone a cup of coffee that we'll find convincing proof that the aliens are out there within two decades.
I'm involved in the modern search for intelligent life in the cosmos. I have degrees in physics and astronomy, and has written four books and enough articles to impress my mom. I am also the host of the weekly radio program, ["Big Picture Science."](_URL_0_)
Here is a recent article I wrote for NBC MACH [Are Humans the Real Ancient Aliens?](_URL_3_). Ask me anything!
-----
Seth will be around from 12-2 PM ET (16-18 UT) to answer your questions.
| askscience | {
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"Let's say SETI discovers Alien life of any kind. Is your organization obligated to share this information with the US Government or Military first? Do they get to decide when/ how much the public gets to know or does SETI get to share what they find with the world directly?",
"What is the most compelling evidence or evidence of evidence you have found so far that makes you believe in the existence of life out there?",
"Hi Seth, Thank you for taking the time to do this AMA. \n\n* What is the largest technical challenge that the SETI program is faced with (computing resource availability, or signal detection techniques, etc)? \n* Would you be able to give us an idea of the funding SETI receives from governmental sources? \n* A more personal question: How often do your family and friends give you a hard time about finding ET?\n\nOn a personal note, SETI's mission captured my imagination from the moment that my AP physics teacher discussed it in class (I believe it was around the time that SETI@home was released). More recently, my previous lab group had 12 pretty hefty desktops that were chugging away during non-business hours. \n\nShameless (and unaffiliated) plug for [SETI@home](_URL_0_).",
"OK, just at test to see if anyone can hear me!",
"Hi Seth,\n\nIf we one day find proof of intelligent alien life, what impact do you see this having on human society? Do you believe this will bring us together as a global community, or exacerbate our current problems and tear us apart?",
"Over a decade ago, I contributed to SETI my little bit by running 'SETI at home' on my home computer. Considering how much more powerful CPUs and GPUs are today, how important of a roll does SETI at home play in processing information for SETI?",
"Finding out we are alone. \n\nOr \n\nFinding out we aren't alone. \n\nDo either ideas scare you?",
"Thanks for doing this, Seth.\n\nWhat do you think the chances are that we've already received an artificial signal of ET origin but have failed to identify it? What are some of the challenges that might complicate this?",
"Do you think the government is hiding anything about extraterrestrial intelligence? What is your theory of Roswell? What is the most curious thing you have found that you think will lead to the big break? \n\nBlink once if you're not allowed to reply.",
"Hi Seth, thanks for taking the time out for this AMA. \n\n\nWhat makes you so sure that we will find evidence for life within the next two decades? Is it just that we are getting more powerful instruments up and running (the massive RT in China, the JWST, etc)? Or is there some anomaly SETI is investigating that could be alien life? \n\n\nAlso, do you think the life we find will be microbial or more complex intelligent life?",
"Since radio signals decay exponentially and anything we send is barely picked up in alpha centauri SETI's best hope is to detect a directional radio signal intentionally sent to communicate with humanity. \nBut this raises the question that they already know were here.Either that or they sent the same signal to every star in the Milky Way. \nBut since they don't know when/if we developed means to listen to radio messages they will have to retransmit the message over and over. So we get to the fermi paradox, why isn't our Solar system bombarded with such repeating signals? \n\nAre we the first civilization to emerge? \n\nWhile i would be more then happy to be wrong i think you will owe a lot of coffees in two decades.",
"Hi Seth thanks for doing this.\n\nWhat is your opinion on the Star KIC 8462852? I know you released a statement awhile ago on the SETI website talking about it, but has there been any recent developments lately? What information if any have you received from the Allen Telescope Array? How do your other colleagues feel about it? What is the consensus from the scientific community?\n\nThanks.",
"How did you get to where you are now career-wise?",
"Obviously we should listen. But is contacting aliens a good idea?",
"Do you think extraterrestrial life will all be carbon based ?",
"What are the best indicators for determining life is out there with the technology we have right now? And as a follow up , what technology advances would help our search even more?\n\nThanks for coming to answer questions!",
"Seth, I visited your office over the summer with a group of NASA interns. You mentioned your podcast Big Picture Science while we were there. I decided to check it out, and it's great! I listened to it during my entire drive back to Arizona (13 hours). So thanks for helping to make that!\n\nAnyway, on a completely unrelated note: How do you think alien life will be first discovered? Through radio signals (I realize you might be biased here) or by detecting bio-signatures of life in the atmospheres of alien planets?",
"Have there been any moments where you thought we picked up a genuine alien signal, only to find out it wasn't real?",
"Hello Mr Shostak,\n\nWhat do you predict will the technology used to detect the first convincing proof of alien life? Is it in use today with SETI?",
"regarding the Fermi Paradox, what do you believe is \"the great filter\" ?",
"If SETI had an infinite budget and all human resources immediately at hand, what are the most extreme examples of what you think could be done in the search for aliens? (or would we be able to start sending people in all directions for visits at that point?)",
"Hi Seth, \nIs there a protocol for what happens in the months and years after a new intelligent civilization is found and confirmed? How do you see those months and years unfolding?\n\nThanks for this opportunity!",
"When we inevitably find intelligent life out in the cosmos is there a message you are going to send?",
"If we're pinged, what will be your personal reaction? Where will you go, and what will you do?",
"Hey Seth, I've been listening to big picture scirnce since it was called Are we Alone. I'm a big fan of the skeptic check episodes. One thing I've noticed being a recent college graduate is that many of my peers lack the skills to determine what is fact and what is fake (just look at all of the fake news). What is the best way that I can help those around me sort through the mess without being a jerk? Speaking more broadly, how can put education system do a better job at teaching these skills?",
"Hi Seth,\n\nSome believe we may never meet an extraterrestrial lifeform due to the tech level needed vs the probability of an extinction event. What are your thoughts on this?\n\nAlso, if you were an ice cream what flavor would you be? Why?",
"Hi Seth,\n\nDo people work at SETI who lack the faith that you have regarding aliens? \n\nThanks",
"I understand that carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus are essential to life and these happen to be among the most abundant elements in the universe. It is my belief that due to this, life is an inevitable consequence of the stage in the universe we are in (the Stelliferous era). I ask not why you believe there is life out there but on the timescale you predict to find it? A couple of decades is a very short period. Do you base this estimate on advances in technology? The scale of the search? Our greater understanding? This topic greatly interests me as I study astrobiology in my spare time, thank you very much for doing this AMA!!",
"Hello Seth!\n\nDo you have any theories on what causes FRB's? I read recently that we've detected them coming from a continual source, as opposed to singular events like a super nova like some theorized. Is it possible to be a by-product of alien civilization? Is it likely?",
"Hi Mr. Seth. I'm the current Chief Scholastic Officer at our university astronomy club. I want to ask you about the SETI@home program. I've been preaching to my friends to use the BOINC software for a long time now. My question is:\n\n• How effective is the use of thousands perhaps millions of connected computers instead of supercomputers to crunch the data from your radio telescopes? What are the disadvantages if there are any?\n\nMany thanks.",
"Hey Seth,\n\nConsider Ellie Arroway, and Contact; a product of Carl Sagan's genius. Has any of his work, or anyone else's work influenced you to be where you are today? \n\nLove the podcasts by the way, keep 'em comin'!",
"When we do find intelligent life, how do you think they will look like? \n\nI imagine them like the organisms at the beginning of Invasion of the Body Snatchers.",
"Thanks for taking the time to do this AMA!\n\nAs an RF worker I always wondered about how you could detect anything from an alien civilization with RF gear. It seems just the free space loss even with highly directional antennas your signal level is so low that it would be impossible to pick up.\n\nHere is a rough calculation I've done (sorry for any errors it's been a bit since I've done a path loss calc 'by hand')\n\n_URL_1_\n\nIs -218 dbm a signal level you could pick up and sort out with a computer? Since the aliens are not likely to be pointing an Arecibo and a million watts at us this would probably even be much lower.\n\nBasically, is it even possible to pick up a signal? (Also sub question if we keep the hydrogen band quiet wouldn't other civilizations for the same reasons?)\n\nThanks!",
"The recent reports of radio signal bursts from a galaxy three billion light years away makes me wonder if a signal that old could have an intelligent origin? \n\nIf the universe is 14 billion years old, and you take away three billion, an intelligent civilization would have gotten up to speed very quickly to make that signal, right? \n\n And given the perils life faces in the universe, wouldn't the sender in all likelihood be extinct three billion years later? \n\nAssuming this isn't an astronomical anomaly.",
"Hi, I'm a freshman in college majoring in astronomy. One day, I'd like to maybe work at SETI. Can you talk about the process you went thorough to get a job there and maybe a little bit about what your day looks like. Thanks.",
"I'm sure there will be life forms on other planets, however what makes you so sure they will be advanced/more advanced than us to be able to communicate back a signal?",
"My understanding of how frequently to expect intelligent alien life is keyed to the Drake equation. Over the past 20 years we have learned a great deal about some of the earlier terms in the equation through observation of extrasolar planets.\n\nWhat estimations do you hold for the Drake equation terms that pertain to intelligent life? What fraction of life bearing planets do you believe will develop intelligent life? How long would you expect alien technological civilizations to survive for on average?\n\nOr, the important one, how many intelligent civilizations would you predict reside in the milky way right now, or simply within our local neighbourhood?",
"Hi Mr. Shostak! \n\nI'm in love with the idea of humanity discovering extra terrestrial life but lack the aforementioned physics/astronomy degree, government funding and general pocket change to build a fancy satellite to search the heavens. So, my question is a two parter:\n\nFirstly, how could a twenty something like myself actively get involved in the great search for life in outer space in my spare time? \n\nSecondly, any idea what I should do with an international studies degree from Baylor University when I graduate in the winter? (Not really alien related, you just seem like a man with answers)",
"There have always been discussions on what a signal transmitted from an ET source would look like. In a hope to combat pop-sci, could you discuss the types of signals we are looking for.\n\nAlso, I would take that bet in a heartbeat. For discussion sake, given a weeks worth of signals, how far away could SETI be and still reliably determine if a 1 watt source is transmitting or not?",
"Hello Mr. Shostak, thank you for taking the time to answer some of our questions. \nI am curious, what is your take on Margot Brouwer work on gravity and the dark matter implications? To someone like me it sounds amazing, but i wanted to know the thoughts of someone in field.",
"Hey Seth! Thanks for doing this AMA. I wanted to know if there are systems with a higher probability of harboring life than others. If so, how do you determine this? Do you do it based on the existence of carbon-based compounds, or on what?",
"Hi Seth! Speaking hypothetically, if there is a Von Neumann probe in our solar system patiently observing Humanity and waiting for us to reach a certain milestone or accomplishment before making contact, what do you think that milestone would be?",
"Hi Seth, I have a question there's a SETI research lab where I live in Panama, is there any need for volunteers or any type of help? thank you very much!",
"Hiya Seth,\nWhat are your thoughts on [Tabby's star](_URL_2_)?",
"Thank you for doing this!\n\nI was wondering about the development of the search parameters you use. I understand that the program searches for the wavelengths most commonly or exclusively used by communication devices, but it seems to me that if intelligent life were to develop in a novel way elsewhere it's not much more of a stretch to think that their technology might show a large dofference as well. How likely is it that we as a collective might be looking for the wrong stimulus?\n\nThank you!",
"Hi Seth, thanks for doing an AMA!\n\nConfirmation bias can be a real risk in any scientific endeavour. Can you describe what methods you use to guard against misattributing a signal? I can imagine that you and your colleagues get quite a few red herrings in your observations that end up being terrestrial in origin, or some form of natural stellar phenomenon.\n\nIn short, since you know what you're trying to find, how do you avoid finding it all of the time?",
"How do you decide the types of \"universal symbols\" that will be used on attempted communications such as the Voyager golden records and Arecibo message? Are there other ideas in the works?\n\nI also want to ask if scientists view any of the factors in the Drake Equation as out of date, but I don't want to take up your time – the first question has priority.",
"Hi Seth. \nI've been very interested in becoming an astronomer and have been thinking about it for some time. \nWhat are some pros and cons of looking for a job/being in the field?",
"How do we even know for sure if we aren't being bombarded right now and can't even recognize the transmissions as intelligent in origin?",
"Before asking questions , check if it is already answered on the [SETI FAQ page](_URL_4_) or here on the [Post detection protocol](_URL_3_).",
"Mr Shostack, thank you for doing this AMA: \n\nIn the event that a signal from an intelligent species were received and proven to be such, from a relatively close location, what would be the protocol on whether we should answer it or not?\n\nI mean we wouldn't just ping off an answer, right? Hardly a wise choice. \n\nWhich leads me to my second question: Is there even a protocol in place regarding this?\n\nYours",
"Do you think that, on a planetary scale, we should follow the UN protocols or should there be some contingency for defensive capabilities outside of their purview? (I am concerned about over-reactions to the perceived threat of an alien interaction.)",
"Are all of SETIs researchers working on interpreting radio frequencies from space or are there other researcher aims as well? If so, what other types of reseRch does SETI conduct?",
"Hi Seth! What do you personally think caused the Wow! Signal? Do you find any of the SETI@home candidates interesting? Keep looking we're all rooting for you!",
"Is there another viable method to detect ETI besides radio astronomy?",
"What are your thoughts on the black knight satellite?",
"What are your thoughts on the Rare Earth hypothesis?",
"Considering that we are presently trying to develop instantaneous long distance communication using quantum entanglement, and the fact that governments and organizations tend to seek privacy, don't you think the possibility of detecting a extraterrestrial intelligence by listening to radio waves to be almost non existent? If we develop the technology in say the next 100 years, then we should expect that any emerging intelligence will have done similarly and only have transmitted for a few hundred years before switching to better technology. Even if they didn't it would be quite likely that they would encrypt their communication to make it undetectable from the background?",
"How do you not feel discouraged about searching for advanced alien life? It seems to me nothing can really be done once we do find out. It's like: ok now we know but it's a 1000 light years away. Why not invest in technology that would allow us to actually perform long term space voyaging (or something else)? Is this your main source of income or do you have something else.",
"Hi! What is your take on \"the Great Filter\", the Fermi Paradox, and other related conjectures? Is it possible that sustained knowledge creation (by ET's or ourselves) entails a high probability of self destruction? \n\nI've always felt that the technology to destroy is intrinsically linked to energy production, and that such technology always comes before something to counterbalance it. An example would be our nuclear proliferation. Thoughts on any of this?",
"How powerful would an alien broadcast need to be for us to detect it in a nearby system? For instance, if there were an alien civilization as advanced as ours, and they only sent out Radio waves for television and FM/AM radio, would we be able to detect that? Or would the alien civilization need to deliberately try to be detected.",
"1. How has the recent trend among philosophers and physicists towards believing we are living in a computer program simulation affected SETI research? If the belief became widespread, do you believe it would affect SETI funding? \n\n2. This simulation idea does seem to explain Fermi's Paradox. What is the prevalent view of SETI researchers towards Fermi's Paradox?\n\nThanks and happy hunting.",
"I'm probably too late for this to get noticed but.....\n\nCan you tell us anything about your DSP workflow? This is basically a detection problem. Are you using \"classic\" fft-centric techniques or \"modern\" ARMA methods? How big are your data windows? Do you see a need for specific improvements in a particular algorithm? What are your processing bottlenecks? Thanks!!",
"What do you make of the strange observations made of KIC 8462852 last year? Mostly likely answer to me is that the star is either extremely unstable or possibly inside of some gas/dust cloud, but, you know, DYSON SPHERES WOULD BE REALLY COOL TOO.",
"what is your favorite mind blowing fact about the cosmos? When I was younger and heard the pale blue dot from carl sagan I almost cried. I have been drawn to the stars ever since and love to learn from people like yourself.",
"what type of life are you expecting to find in the next two decades? is the focus on intercepting their communication to find space faring species, or are we looking for potential planets then checking it for things like alien bugs and plants?",
"Seth, some of the brightest minds on the topic (hawking, sagan, tyson, etc) are in agreement that contact with an alien race would end VERY poorly for us.\n\nDoes this concern you?\nDo you feel that you are putting us all at risk?",
"What exactly do scientists mean by aliens. The term seems very ambiguous, and my understanding of alien probably drastically differs from yours. So In the scientific realm, what do you guys think of when someone mentions aliens.",
"If all of the ETs had the exact same technology and setup for detection that we have, what is the farthest they could be and still detect life on Earth? Intelligent life?",
"I know you are lying about the seriousness of the UFO-phenomenon. \n\nJust to let you know: thanks to people like you my trust in the scientific community has faded.",
"What is the likelihood that aliens would be using the frequencies we are scanning for? What has been the hardest part of your career? Most exciting?",
"What do you think about the theory of Panspermia?\n\nDo you think Humans arrived or evolved on Earth this way? \n\nThank you",
"What qualifications would I require to get a job with SETI? Currently employed as a signal analysist for multiple governments.",
"Are there ways to speed up the process of making first contact, or is it essentially a waiting game?",
"What do you think of China's FAST (Five-hundred-metre Aperture Spherical Telescope).?",
"What are your feelings on the \"Fermi Paradox\"?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: I am Seth Shostak, senior astronomer at the SETI institute. Ask Me Anything!
I'm [Seth Shostak](_URL_1_users/seth-shostak), Senior Astronomer at the [SETI Institute](_URL_1_), and I've bet anyone a cup of coffee that we'll find convincing proof that the aliens are out there within two decades. I'm involved in the modern search for intelligent life in the cosmos. I have degrees in physics and astronomy, and has written four books and enough articles to impress my mom. I am also the host of the weekly radio program, ["Big Picture Science."](_URL_0_) Here is a recent article I wrote for NBC MACH [Are Humans the Real Ancient Aliens?](_URL_3_). Ask me anything! ----- Seth will be around from 12-2 PM ET (16-18 UT) to answer your questions. | [
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|
1f4fxm | Was looking up at the starless suburban sky last night and realized I don't get how light pollution works. Can anyone explain? | I've searched around a bit online now and have found some explanations of what it is, but not really how it works. If anyone can explain in further detail I'd greatly appreciate it. Some things I'm wondering are:
Is it a permanent effect created by the lights, or would it instantly go away if they were all turned off?
Is something from the lights blocking my view of the stars, or is the brightness created just out-shining the stars?
I live in a suburb about 30 minutes outside of Chicago, is it light pollution from my local area or the big city that's preventing me from seeing the stars? How far would I have to go to get a proper view of the Milky Way?
Thanks for any input. | askscience | {
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"> Is it a permanent effect created by the lights, or would it instantly go away if they were all turned off?\n\nIt would instantly go away. About a decade ago I lived just south of downtown Chicago when there was a massive city-wide power outage one summer night. The stars were pretty amazing at the time, easily the equivalent of driving ~150 miles to the west.\n\n > Is something from the lights blocking my view of the stars, or is the brightness created just out-shining the stars?\n\nThe brightness created is simply out-shining the stars. Much of the light from most streetlights is cast upwards, and gets scattered by moisture and pollution in the air, resulting in the prominent yellow glow seen in the skies of most cities. It's also a terrible waste of electricity.\n\nA few cities do have light-pollution ordinances that require street lights to be shielded from shining upwards. The view of the sky is considerably improved, but even light reflected from the ground will still provide some light pollution. You'll never really get truly dark-adapted when outside in a major urban area, as the street glow is just that bright.\n\n > I live in a suburb about 30 minutes outside of Chicago, is it light pollution from my local area or the big city that's preventing me from seeing the stars? \n\nBoth. If your suburb decided to turn off all its lights, the sky would certainly improve, but Chicago itself would still put a major damper on things. The general rule of thumb is that however large a city is, you want to be at least 3 times further away, and ideally more than that. \n\n > How far would I have to go to get a proper view of the Milky Way?\n\nWhen I lived in Chicago, I found that going far west, out past Rockford into rural northwestern Illinois, provided fairly decent skies. \n\nThis will also depend a lot on local weather conditions, though - if it's very humid, you still may not get a good view of the Milky Way, even if you're in a light-unpolluted area. All that water vapor acts to scatter light...which can just as easily scatter starlight.\n\nIf you still have more questions about this topic, the [International Dark Sky Association](_URL_0_) has lots of answers.",
"Light from lights shines on gunk in the air, making the gunk visible, unsharpening the contrast between dim stars and the blackness of the background night sky, and overwhelming the brightness of objects less bright than the illuminated gunk.",
"In astronomy sensitivity isn't really a problem. You can see incredibly dim stars even with your bare eyes. Scientific photodetectors can see single photons. The problem is contrast. We need to see what we want to see and not see what we don't want to see. \n\nContrast can be roughly defined as the intensity of the object divided by the intensity of the background (intensity from all that other stuff). Stars have a given intensity, so if the background increases then the contrast decreases and you can't see things. \n\nThere isn't anything physically blocking the light from the stars. If all the lights went away then you could see the stars just fine. Well, assuming there aren't clouds in the way. Think about it this way - the stars are still there during the day, but you can't see them because the sun pumps out loads of background light and out-shining the other stars.\n\nHere's a great map of artificial light pollution: \n_URL_1_\n\nTo get a good view of the Milky Way, it looks like western Nebraska is the best place to go. The rule of thumb is 100 miles from a city over a million people in any direction. The actual distance depends on the scattering ability of the atmosphere, which depends on the humidity, dust, and elevation."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.darksky.org/",
"http://www.blue-marble.de/nightlights/2012"
]
} | Was looking up at the starless suburban sky last night and realized I don't get how light pollution works. Can anyone explain?
I've searched around a bit online now and have found some explanations of what it is, but not really how it works. If anyone can explain in further detail I'd greatly appreciate it. Some things I'm wondering are: Is it a permanent effect created by the lights, or would it instantly go away if they were all turned off? Is something from the lights blocking my view of the stars, or is the brightness created just out-shining the stars? I live in a suburb about 30 minutes outside of Chicago, is it light pollution from my local area or the big city that's preventing me from seeing the stars? How far would I have to go to get a proper view of the Milky Way? Thanks for any input. | [
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pkw5p | AskScience AMA Series- IAMA neuroscientist working on the genetic and cellular basis of eating disorders-related behavior | Hello all! I'm a third-year postdoctoral fellow working in a translational neuroscience lab studying the physiological bases of eating disorders. I have also worked on the blood-brain barrier for my thesis work and can speak to the way that compounds get into your brain, some general brain function questions and cross-talk between the peripheral system and the brain. AMA!
Edit: i have barely moved for 4 hours, thanks for the questions everybody!! i'll keep checking back the rest of the weekend so continue to ask if you so desire. please know that i can't speak to your specific eating issues or treatment and if you exhibit behavior that concerns you, please find a reputable mental health professional with which to discuss your issues. good luck and good health. | askscience | {
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"Simple question. If this is a disorder that can be traced down to genetics, why does it seem to be almost exclusive to white westerners?",
"So I'm not a scientist at all, but I'm a recovering anorexic. I really appreciate the work you're doing (even though I'm not sure I would understand it as a layperson). My dad is a recovering addict, and the way the brain is re-wired and changed when a harmful behavior becomes a pleasurable activity is fascinating. Keep us updated with your work, please!",
"I've been a bulimic for about 8 years now. I have always wondered if there's a connection between a neurological basis for addictive behavior and eating disorders.\n\nEdit: Also, can you explain the relationship between studying the BBB and eating disorders? And finally, could you elaborate more on your research? Are you working on a molecular level, imaging...?",
"Student aspiring Psychologist here. I have heard of some Psychiatrists prescribing SSRI's in order to combat some of the symptoms of eating disorders such as anxiety in anorexia. From your perspective as a behavioral neuroscientist, does this worry you? Or is this something that actually works?",
"I had a friend who had a \"unclassified eating disorder\". Which according to her was because the symptoms didn't match the known eating disorders. Can you please shed some light on this and explain how eating disorders can differentiate so much so that it is in some cases not possible to give a specific diagnose?",
"What is your opinion of Marijuana and would you consider it helpful for people who are anorexic.",
"what do you think of the weight loss product Sensa?",
"I am a recovering anorexic. I have been this way since I was 13, after the first time I was raped. After that, I developed this very poor body image.I grew up in North Philadelphia,and in my teenage years I took full advantage of the city. I had a bad heroin problem and experimented with many others. My homelife wasn't the best...we were poor and both my parents worked multiple jobs so they were never really around. I was diciplined when I went against their rules...either with my father's leather belt or my mothers biggest wooden spoon. My best friend in elementary schoool lived a few houses down from us, and one day she saw my mother chasing me down the street with the spoon, and told everyone at school. It was traumatizing and we were no longer friends after that. But I was not abused...I wouldn't say. When I was 17 I was in Rehab for heroin and my mother had a very long conversation with me. She apologized for being a little rough and distant throughout my childhood, and told me about her father. She was abused badly growing up by him, and developed a bad eating disorder because of it. I never really believed in the genetic \"predisposition\" for eating disorders or addiction, but after she told me I was never able to stop thinking about it. I am 22 now, and have finally met a man who makes me feel beautiful. I never really had any self esteem until I met my fiance. I am finally able to eat heathy meals without feeling disgusting afterwads. He helps me to get over my past, an, and everyday I make better progress toward living a healthy lifestyle. I am sorry this post was so long. Maybe some of this helps you. Thanks for all your hard work!",
"My girlfriend is just a few days short of 1 year 1 month of not making herself throw-up after she eats. We've been dating since she stopped, but started dating a few days after she did stop. She told me about it about a week into dating, which was pretty awesome of her to do so since she had been doing it for a while and hadn't even told her family. I haven't done a ton of research on it myself because I really have no idea what it entails/etc. She has times where she tells me she feels like she would feel much better if she just went and made herself throw up if she is feeling kinda crappy. She hasn't done it and I'm super proud of her for that, but my question is does it ever get to a point where she won't get urges to do it or will it be like that forever? This may be getting out of your field, but can other things form because of this, such as PCOS or something? There was a post earlier this week about PCOS and she doesn't have all the symptoms and stuff, but there are some that she has (ie gradual hair growth on her chin/lip, hairier everything in general). She also has infrequent periods and such. She usually runs daily and eats pretty healthy-lots of vege's/whole grains/all that stuff. She also weighs about 160 lbs and is still very conscientious about her weight. She has 3 sisters and they seem to have a more slender/developed body composition than she does but as far as we know, haven't suffered from anorexia like she did. Like I said, no idea if this is in your line of work, but I thought I'd ask.",
"Thanks for doing this AMA! Do you have anything to say to someone who would possibly like to get a PhD in Neuroscience? I'm currently getting a BS in Chemical Engineering with an emphasis in Biochemical Engineering. \n\nWhat do you plan on doing after getting your postdoctorate? What COULD you do with this? Other than being a professor of course. \n\nI've always had a hard time understanding what the blood-brain barrier is and how it works. Any chance you could try to Explain Like I'm 5?",
"I have a close relative who has had anorexia for 14 years and is in treatment for the 5th time. Each time they relapse it gets worse.\n* Do you believe Dialectic Behavioral Therapy can make a difference for people suffering from this insidious disorder?\n* Do you think it is a mental illness?\n* Do you think there will ever be a cure?\n* What do you think of the use of Loxapine for people suffering with anorexia?",
"Curious if your studies have touched on body dysmorphic disorder and its relation to eating disorders and genetics?",
"I'm going to try to make a long story short enough to read, while still providing the necessary details to preface my questions with. \n\nThe year I turned 13 I became addicted to painkillers. A few years later at 15 I started to starve myself and just kicked the pill habit (which wasn't that severe yet,) like it was nothing. I didn't need them anymore. I was diagnosed with AN a few months later and was very sick for a long time. I was hospitalized, my parents were terrified, I lost so much weight I was unrecognizable and I lost most of my friends due to isolation, but NOTHING could make me stop. Nothing was worth losing my \"control\" for, or never feeling that weird sort of high I got from starving ever again. As much as my AN made me feel like shit, it also made me euphoric, and nothing could make me give that up. Until I met my current boyfriend and started using opiates again two years ago, at 17. Slowly since then I have been recovering from AN (while simultaneously spiraling back into drug addiction.) I was able to start eating again. Just a little at first, then in more normal amounts, and recently I have even been able to cut down on some of my disordered habits (such as picking my food apart, eating extremely slowly, chewing forever etc.) I have gained some weight and right now I am just 5 pounds shy of reaching the lowest weight in the healthy weight range for girls my height and age. Psychologically I have been less successful (still totally terrified of gaining weight,) but I don't absolutely hate my body anymore. I am able to recognize that I am quite thin and there are even days that I like my body. \nThe problem is, of course, that I started to recover from AN right as I relapsed into opiate addiction. And this time is ten times worse than it was when I was younger. I do so much more, the withdrawals are so much worse. There has never been a time in the last 6 years of my life that I wasn't either an anorectic or a junkie, and as one problem gets worse the other seems to get better. I have many questions about this and I'm hoping someone can help. \n\n-Is this a common occurrence? It feels like I need one or the other. I want to get clean but I am terrified that I will start starving myself again if I do and honestly, I'd rather be a fucking junkie. Nothing is worth putting my body and mind through the hell that is AN again. Do you think relapse into AN is something I should be concerned about if I try to detox? \n\n-Is it possible/likely that I have another underlying mental illness/disorder that makes me predisposed to both addiction and eating disorders? If that's true, or if it's something genetic, why don't both occur at the same time for me? Could it just be a coincidence? Something I'm subconsciously deciding? This has been tearing me apart for a long time. If I relapse into AN there is a good chance I will die as I came very close last time, and even if I don't it's still a fucking miserable way to live. Opiate addiction is too. I am vaguely aware that I am using my fear of relapse into AN to justify continuing my drug use. Anyway, this has become me just rambling on so I am going to stop, but I would really appreciate if someone could give me their input on this.",
"You mentioned a strong hereditary component to AN above. I'm hoping you can talk more about that. How has the hereditary component been measured? (For instance, is it just correlation between family members, or are there any studies analogous to separated twin studies to rule out the fact that family members likely have similar environments/values?)\n\nAre there specific alleles associated with AN, or is the research not at that level yet? If there are specific alleles, what other traits do these alleles seem to affect?\n\nI'm especially curious about the rise of AN-- did AN exist two hundred years ago, unrecognized? Do you think that AN took the form of a different mental illness in the past?\n\nFinally, and excuse the disconnect between this and my previous questions, but what exactly are you working on? You refer to \"we\" a lot-- it sounds as if you're employed by a company researching many different things. Are you part of a team specializing on one particular disorder? Do you run around helping several different teams? How does it work? Which specific disorder(s) are you currently investigating, and how are you investigating them?",
"Are eating disorders contagious? And before you laugh please understand that I know there's isn't a germ or a virus I can catch that will give me an eating disorder. But my girl friend has some eating issues. When she was younger she would binge and hide her eating habits. Her weight has fluctuated severely over the years. She'll gain 20 and drop 30 and vice versa. I on the other hand at 6'2\" never broke 195 lbs and generally wasn't a big eater. I've always hated sweets, loved salty snacks, but generally never was a big eater...always left food on the plate. Since dating her I've gained 20 to 25 lbs and I now eat massive amounts of food. Her and I will binge together, but where she doesn't eat the rest of the day because she has experience with this, I find myself continually eating. Is there any research or documentation on people giving other people eating disorders in the way I'm describing???",
"I was hoping that maybe you could verify this. I'm 16 years old and whenever i am presented with any new food, i start to panic like i would sooner run out of a room screaming instead of put it near my mouth. I probably sound like a wuss saying that, but i've been drivin to tears before trying to taste a new food (it was bacon), not to mention the whole rapid breathing, sweating deal. I mostly just eat peanut butter sandwiches and chewy bars. I eat in my talanted art teachers classroom during lunch because the smells and sight of most foods, and the.. i guess mannerless way the food is handled and consumed sickens and panicks me. Why is this, though? Why is it so hard for me? I think i heard it is called selective eating disorder. Is that it? How would i go about fixing this?",
"I have a disorder where I do not like to try new foods. There is extreme anxiety if I am presented with something that I have never eaten before and this has limited me to a very small number of things that I can eat. It also seems to manifest in what seems like a weird way for me. When my stomach tells me I am hungry, I don't actually feel a desire to eat. I have, in the past, gone for a day or two without eating because I don't feel the need to, though I do feel 'hungry' (its hard to explain how these two feelings are different for me). I guess my question would be what is the physical root of this disconnect between stomach and desire to eat? Is it just a psychological side effect of me not liking many foods, or something more physical/chemical?",
"Very informative post, thanks for that. I do agree with your hypothesis that OCD and anorexia manifest through similar brain activity, at least this is how it feels. I have had various OCD type behaviors my whole life. Between age 9 and 13 I had an obsession with being afraid I'd puke (I wouldn't eat anything with more than 2g of sugar, take long car rides, would wash my hands til they bled so get rid of flu germs), this mostly went away as I got older, but I was still obsessed with planning, and developed anorexia when I was 18, which was going strong for 2 years but has mostly waned now, although other OCD behaviors are manifesting. I really look forward to more research on this subject, and am thankful that scientists such as yourself are looking into this area.",
"Thanks for providing us this AMA. I'm a binge eater I believe. Just so you know, I don't know if this was relevant but I was misdiagnosed as a kid with hydrocephalus because of my enlarged ventricles. I don't know if there's a connection there at all with my overeating. \n\nAnyways I can pretty much eat as much as I want. I gained about 50 pounds in a month, no joke. I did not feel sick once unless I drank a lot of iced water with the meal. Why do I not feel sick? Or why didn't I..as I have reduced my calories from 10k to 1.5k. I still don't feel full but I've lost around 30 pounds in a couple months. My thyroid has checked out everytime I checked it, btw.",
"Looking at the neural mechanisms of eating, ghrelin is an amino-peptide hormone which stimulates eating when the stomach is empty. If we were to inhibit this hormone systematically and carefully, could a drug be invented to aid weight loss for people who have massive hunger pangs and constant eating?\n\nAlternatively, can CCK be synthesised in a lab and used in drugs to promote satiety after a normal sized meal but for someone who eats a lot of food?\n\nI understand that CCK cannot pass through the blood brain barrier, however there are certain areas of the hypothalamus that are not protected by the barrier?\n\nObviously, if these did work, people would have to force themselves to eat food or they would starve/keep to a diet plan. \n\nWhat do you think ?",
"This will probably get buried, but I'll try all the same!\nI was a codeine addict for about a year, in that time food obviously took a second to habit.\nI've been clean for awhile now, something that hasn't either reset itself or is broken, is I never feel hungry any more. I get stomach cramps and a gnawing feeling when I don't eat for an extended period of time but that's it. I feel no urge to eat, and could happily go without food for days. I now force myself to eat every 4-6 hrs, without joy. \nAny idea as to why this could be?\n\nTLDR: ex-opiate addict, don't feel hunger any more.",
"You're doing some great work--I know more than my fair share of people suffering from AN, so first off thank you =)\n\nBut I have a hard time accepting that there is a genetic cause to AN. Certainly in Western(ized) countries there is enormous social and psychological pressure to be thin, along with the idea of a woman being able to have absolute control over her looks. \n\nHow can you tell the difference between a hard genetic cause and social dynamics within the family (ex: a daughter wanting to be like her very thin mother)?",
"I had a brain tumor that was pressing on my hypothalamus for years. I gained weight steadily despite watching what I ate and working out 3-5 days a week. After getting the tumor removed, I have noticed a marked decrease in my appetite, altough I am still eating roughly as much as before. Nevertheless, I have lost 50 pounds and 6 inches off my waist in the past two months while recovering in bed. Do you think it is a reasonable hypothesis that I was suffering from hypothalamic obesity before the tumor was removed?",
"What are your thoughts on exercise bulimia/compulsive exercise? Is it officially classed as an eating disorder?\n\nI fall into that category in that I exercise excessively on a daily basis to burn off each day's calories. I get incredibly stressed - to the point of tears - if I can't complete a workout on any given day. I think there may also be an addictive element from the endorphin release. So I'm just interested to know if and how this would fit in with other eating disorders and your general research.",
"I don't know if you've ever seen the advertising campaign of Arby's, but basically it's a fast food company that excessively promotes itself as \"good mood food\" on everywhere and decorates its containers with things like \"Crispy outside, juicy inside, happy all over.\" \n\nDo you think it's likely that this weak, but repetitive stimuli could lead to associate learning(or the kind of learning that could ultimately cause people to associate food with happiness, contributing to current problems by targeting those who might be likely to already see food as comforting)?",
"Serious eating disorders are present in three generations of my family.\n\nSomehow I was spared although I have a sibling and a child who are affected.\n\nThe \"societal pressure to be thin\" doesn't seem to explain the cases in my family, although it is clear that certain personality factors may be connected.\n\nWhat is the state of current knowledge on the genetic basis of eating disorders? Are there any particular genes or epigenetic factors that have been definitely connected with eating disorders?",
"My brother was anaeorexic for about two/three years. I honestly thought he would die, it was that bad. But something just clicked and he was back to normal, for 1.5 years now its like hes never had it. is he healthy? I'm worried it will come back. What happens next, do most of these patients \"recover\" or is it a matter of time before his feelings of being worthless come back? I never talk to him about it either,",
"I'm not sure how to word this question exactly. \nIs it possible for someone exhibiting anorexic syndromes to actually not have an ED but rather Münchhausen('s)? And if it is possible, assuming the behaviour lasts for any significant amount of time, surely s/he would qualify as an eating disordered individual. \nAlso, how might a professional pick out Münchhausen cases from the lot? \n\nI regret that though I know enough about EDs, I am rather ignorant about Münchhausen Disease.",
"How much of what we do is nature and how much is nurture? \n\nThis question is something I've been thinking about since reading about that Siberian Fox experiment. The foxes were selected based on their behavior only, but offspring are all behaving in a very similar way. Humans are more complex for sure but we're still based on very similar hardware.",
"Can you enlighten me on what we know about anorexias besides AN? I won't go into detail about myself, but I'm curious if there's a description for a tendency (possibly linked with depression) to habitually forget meals and/or consciously skip them due to lack of hunger or motivation to eat, rather than body image concerns or OCD behaviors.",
"So... My obsessive control of what I eat, when I eat it and how it affects my body and workouts is a disease? Holy shit.\n\nEdit; is this related to perfectionism and self esteem issues?\n\nAlso, what does a brain do when it runs out of glucose?\n\nBloodsugar > muscle storage > ??? > fat.",
"Interesting subject!\n\nSo what do you do experimentally? SNP correlations? Microarrays? Any idea whether its genotype vs. expression? \n\nI don't know much about the BBB. Is there diversity among humans in what can cross it? I.E. do different people have different protein channels or whatnot?",
"Is there anything parents can do to help kids if they fear their kids may be genetically susceptible? (my sister who is borderline anorectic is getting a child, one cousin is anorectic, other family members are overweight...).",
"Does this include overeating? If so, what are your thoughts on the newer drugs in research trials designed to work on the \"neurological reward circuitry\"?",
"Where does the medical community make the distinction between AN and austere caloric restrictions for weight loss?\n\nThanks for doing this, it's fascinating!",
"I have nothing to ask, but you rock, and I'd like to buy you a beer. Science rocks.",
"when you're wiping your butt do you ever think; \"damn it! i'm a frigging neuroscientist.\"?"
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"url": []
} | AskScience AMA Series- IAMA neuroscientist working on the genetic and cellular basis of eating disorders-related behavior
Hello all! I'm a third-year postdoctoral fellow working in a translational neuroscience lab studying the physiological bases of eating disorders. I have also worked on the blood-brain barrier for my thesis work and can speak to the way that compounds get into your brain, some general brain function questions and cross-talk between the peripheral system and the brain. AMA! Edit: i have barely moved for 4 hours, thanks for the questions everybody!! i'll keep checking back the rest of the weekend so continue to ask if you so desire. please know that i can't speak to your specific eating issues or treatment and if you exhibit behavior that concerns you, please find a reputable mental health professional with which to discuss your issues. good luck and good health. | [
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|
q03be | Is the force required to unscrew a jar directly proportional to the energy used in screwing it shut? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"c3tnkzy",
"c3tmnbc",
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"text": [
"My answer would be no because there might be a vacuum in the jar which would increase the force required to remove the lid",
"It's probably less, not sure about porportional. When you tighten the lid, you're operating against sliding friction until you decide the jar is 'tight enough'. But when you open the lid, you've got to overcome static friction to begin moving the lid. Meaning you'll always have to apply more torque to open a jar than to close it to a certain place. Depending on the jar or lid material and contents, one could probably predict the difference, I would assume, given enough data.",
"strictly, yes, but another confounding factor people havent mentioned yet, though is a simple idea, is that if the contents are adhesive and volatile, and subsequebtly dry in the threads (like a bit of extra jam on the lip), then it would definitely not be equal.",
"Differences in temperature between the times of sealing and opening could make a big difference, due to lid contraction/expansion.",
"The force is less. When tightening a threaded fastener (jar/lid), you need to overcome the friction of screwing and the axial force that resists the screwing. When the factory cranks on a lid, they are actually deforming material in the jar/lid and this stores energy like a spring. \n\nWhen unscrewing, you need to overcome the friction force, but the energy stored in the compression of material will assist you in breaking this friction force and in unscrewing. \n\nSource: Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design 8th ed. Chapter 8-9."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is the force required to unscrew a jar directly proportional to the energy used in screwing it shut?
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||
pkps6 | What happened to speed of light discussion? Was there a mistake or do we still not know? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3q4w6q",
"c3q6ph7",
"c3q4v7n",
"c3q7gz7"
],
"text": [
"There's broad agreement among scientists is that there's some error in the measurements. Just the other day I was chatting with a scientist on the ATLAS experiment at the LHC who concurred, and said the consensus in Geneva is the same. It hasn't got much going for it: it doesn't fit in with what we know about physics, both from theory and from other experiments, and it doesn't really have any other experiments corroborating its results. The thing is that it's an extremely tricky measurement to make, coming down to measuring a time distance over about 60 nanoseconds. With such a huge and complex experiment, there are all sorts of places you could lose that tiny fraction of a second.",
"I can try to throw in a bit that hasn't been mentioned so far: at Fermilab they are getting ready to do the same measurement, which means upgrading a lot of timing equipment. OPERA was not the most ideal way to measure neutrino speed, because they measure time from when neutrinos were created and when they arrive in Italy. The main problem is that it's difficult to precisely know when they're created at the LHC. At Fermilab, they have both a near and far detector, so it'll work a bit different: neutrinos will be created at Fermilab, they'll run through a near detector and the clock will start, then they'll move a far distance, and then be measured at the far detector. Which is a much more direct way to do precise timing measurements. I believe that the neutrino group based in Fermilab has done measurements like this before, but they turned out as expected. In any case, setting up precise timing/distance equipment is a bit of a pain in the ass and the neutrino research group is already pretty busy building a new far detector.",
"There was never *that* much hope of any mistake being exposed within a few days. Although the initial hype has died down, now we're waiting for another team/lab to duplicate the experiment and see if they get the same results. It's also still possible that someone will discover a flaw in the original experiment, but that seems increasingly unlikely.\n\nThe scientific consensus is still that it's probably some very subtle mistake, but we can't make any conclusions without more data.",
"Michio Kaku offers his thoughts on the subject [here](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
48,
14,
10,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fyWbNNnn7-Y"
]
} | What happened to speed of light discussion? Was there a mistake or do we still not know?
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||
876hnp | What is happening during a Mandelbrot zoom? | I recently found out that watching Mandelbrot zoom's on YouTube is a ton of fun.
_URL_0_
I don't know a lot about math. I understand the function and I understand the concept, but what the heck is going on with this video? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dwaxez2",
"dwavjia",
"dwauhpn"
],
"text": [
"Super simple answer: it's zooming in (a lot)\n\nMore useful answer: The mandelbrot set is a fractal, the specific one in your linked video is the one [on this wikipedia page](_URL_0_). There's various rules you can use to make all sorts of patterns, often based off the form `f(z)=z^n +c`. You then use the formula repeatedly on itself at a given point to \"pick\" the colour that belongs there.\n\nFor example, the rule for the mandelbrot set is f(z)=z^(2)+c, where z=0 to start and c is the point you're checking. If it diverges, it gets coloured (in some shade of green). If it converges (not always to 0), it gets coloured in black.\n\nSo if we try a few real values we get:\n\nc|-0.1|0.1|0.4|0.6|\n:--|--:|--:|--:|--:|\nf0|0|0|0|0|\nf1|-0.1|0.1|0.4|0.6|\nf2|-0.09|0.11|0.56|0.96|\nf3|-0.0919|0.1121|0.7136|1.5216|\nf4|-0.09155|0.112566|0.909225|2.915267|\nf5|-0.09162|0.112671|1.22669|9.098779|\nf6|-0.09161|0.112695|1.904768|83.38778|\nf7|-0.09161|0.1127|4.028143|6954.122|\nf8|-0.09161|0.112701|16.62593|48359815|\nf9|-0.09161|0.112702|276.8217|2.34E+15|\nf10|-0.09161|0.112702|76630.64|5.47E+30|\n\nAs you can see, -0.1 and +0.1 are converging, while 0.4 and 0.6 are diverging. Some things are pretty obvious so see if they diverge or not because they're *very* fast. Somethings are not easy to check, and even if you put them into excel you won't be able to tell accurately. (This is in part because excel has a limit to the number of digits it calculates with.)\n\nThen the 2D image these sets are drawn off is because they use complex numbers instead of reals.",
"Non-sequitor, but over the last few years I've been learning German and it's been a crazy journey of realizations that many of the physicists and mathematicians I knew really have bizarre-ass names in German.\n\nThe last name Mandelbrot means \"Almond Bread\". His name is Benoit Almondbread. That's weird.",
"A follow up question: How do the colouring schemes work? When I've played around with Mandelbrot programs that often seems to be the trickiest thing, to get it to look good and not break down into noise especially around 'minibrots'."
],
"score": [
17,
9,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aHkQjdh14cc"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandelbrot_set"
]
} | What is happening during a Mandelbrot zoom?
I recently found out that watching Mandelbrot zoom's on YouTube is a ton of fun. _URL_0_ I don't know a lot about math. I understand the function and I understand the concept, but what the heck is going on with this video? | [
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1mbd4g | Does a piezo element ever run out of charge? | We all learned in school that electrons aren't actually "used up" in circuits, but rather moved around, doing work.
Some of the more curious and mischievous among us have certainly also taken apart a lighter at some point, removing it's piezo element and shocking people, radiators and any other object that would accept the stinging kiss of electricity.
It's exactly this process I can't seem to fully understand, because I just can't find anything that resembles a closed circuit in this scenario. All I can see is the element "spitting out" electrons at the object without any charge returning.
Does that mean the crystal will eventually contain too little charge to create sufficient voltage when compressed and stop working? Or is there some way it replenishes its charge and continues functioning indefinitely? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cc7l4fj",
"cc7kytm",
"cc7m7hu",
"cc7orkc"
],
"text": [
"As /u/I_Cant_Logoff stated, the piezo element is able to create a charge differential in itself. That is, certain parts have more electrons in them. This causes the element to have energy stored up, which discharges through the air. Any electrons that fly through the air end up back in the piezo element. \n\nWhat type of lighters are you referring to? The only ones I've seen have a wheel grinding against flint to spark.",
"Your surroundings are filled with excess charges. Any loss of charge would be replenished extremely quickly.",
"Pressing the button causes a spring-loaded hammer to hit the piezoelectric crystal, producing a sufficiently high voltage electric current that flows across a small spark gap, thus heating and igniting the gas. No electrons are gained or lost, they are just pushed around.",
"When the spark jumps in the lighter they are jumping back though the competed circuit to the crystal. When it relaxes the charges are distributed like they normally are."
],
"score": [
14,
12,
7,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Does a piezo element ever run out of charge?
We all learned in school that electrons aren't actually "used up" in circuits, but rather moved around, doing work. Some of the more curious and mischievous among us have certainly also taken apart a lighter at some point, removing it's piezo element and shocking people, radiators and any other object that would accept the stinging kiss of electricity. It's exactly this process I can't seem to fully understand, because I just can't find anything that resembles a closed circuit in this scenario. All I can see is the element "spitting out" electrons at the object without any charge returning. Does that mean the crystal will eventually contain too little charge to create sufficient voltage when compressed and stop working? Or is there some way it replenishes its charge and continues functioning indefinitely? | [
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90q7i7 | What is the role of reactive power in transmission networks? | I've studied electrical engineering for some years, but honestly I'm still struggling with understanding complex AC concepts, especially reactive power. What's its role in transmission networks since reactive power can't do real work? Why is it important for large alternators on the grid? | askscience | {
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"Reactive power is the flow of energy contained in the electric and magnetic fields of capacitors and inductors during AC operation.\n\nFor example, the magnetic field around an inductor gets filled up with magnetic field energy as current passes through it, thus part of the energy and power going through the system gets stored in that field, but when the current alternates through this inductor, that energy in the magnetic field moves back towards the source. Thus, effective power is the amount of power that actually gets to your load, while reactive power is the power required to maintain the fields of the transmission lines passive components (capacitors and inductors) and the fields in the transmission line itself.\n\nNow, although the current associated with reactive power does no work at the load, it still must be supplied by the generator, thus reactive power is important to define when designing a circuit so the right power source can be used, or the right capacitive bank can be used to store that reflected energy and resupply it to the inductors. A higher reactive power means more power must be supplied by the generator to dissipate the same power at the load, something power companies do not like :).\n\nTl;dr: Some of the input energy to a circuit is stored in the electric and magnetic fields, and then returned to the source during the next current cycle. This means not all of your power gets dissipated in the load, which we call effective power, thus we call the power that returns to the source \"reactive power\".\n\nReactive power is the imaginary component. Effective power is the real component. \n\nEdit: So many great explanations in this thread! Edited various parts to include other peoples superior additions. Thank you u/helios210!",
"I think seeing reactive power for what it is may help you. There are several ways of thinking about it, but here’s how I like to. \n\nAC current alternates. The electrons are shaking back and forth rather than traveling down the pipe. The voltage is doing the same - reversing in polarity over and over. The sinusoidal voltage and current graphs you’re used to are visualizing that. \n\nNow, when things are at unity, it means there’s no reactive power. This happens when the voltage polarity flipping, and the electrons shaking, are timed together perfectly. When the voltage is fully positive, the electrons are moving one direction full speed. And when it’s fully negative, the other direction. When the voltage is in between, the electrons are in process of turning around. \n\nBUT! When it’s not at unity, it means the timing isn’t lined up! The movement of the electrons is lagging behind of voltage changes. When the voltage is fully positive, the electrons might still be changing directions, and not at full speed in one direction just yet. \n\nWhen that happens, this means power is lost, because power is voltage x current, and when those sinusoidal graphs aren’t lined up the multiplication of the two isn’t as big as it could be. \n\nLet’s use an example to demonstrate. If AC power is going through a lightbulb, and the voltage flipping and electron shaking is timed together perfectly, the bulb will be brighter than if they’re not timed perfectly. We use reactive or “imaginary” power to describe the power that we could be getting, but we’re not getting due to bad timing. \n\nAll of this is tricky to describe in mathematics. The imaginary i is used to separate the power that were actually realizing (effective power), and the part that we could be getting, but we’re not, due to bad timing of V and I (imaginary power). \n\nSometimes we can use the mis-timing of voltage and current to our advantage. I’m not too educated in how/when/why though which might be the crux of your question. \n\nAlso, you may ask, what causes the timing between V and I to be off? Inductive/capacitive loads cause it. They will charge and discharge with different timing than the voltage. Motors, generators, all contribute to the timing in complex ways. Resistive loads don’t.",
"Reactive power is the natural result of the reactive component of impedance. Reactance being the opposition to a change in current flow. Think about it this way, if you walk in a circle and an above ground pool you push the water along with you. If you change directions after the water started moving it opposes that change in direction. Reactive power is the power you apply to the water before it changes direction. Some of your energy has been stored in the water as momentum. You have to dissipate the stored energy before moving current in a new direction.\n\nReactive power, measured in VAR is the third leg of the power triangle. This is the Pythagorean relationship between Apparent(VA), Real(W), and Reactive power. VA^2=W^2 + VAR^2. The reactive leg is adjacent to the phase angle. As soon as the load is capacitive or inductive there is a phase angle between the change in current flow and the change in voltage polarity. As soon as there is a phase angle then there is a moment in the oscillation where current is going one direction and voltage is applying pressure in the opposite direction. The power not available in those moments are RMSed and expressed in VAR as reactive power.",
"The role of reactive power in the transmission system is for voltage control. We are required to maintain 5% nominal voltage assuming no contingency has happened. Our main tools are reactors (shunt inductors), shunt capacitor banks, and generators. There are others but these are the most common. For example, at night when the load is low the voltage will increase. A transmission operator must remove cap banks from service which removes VARS and lowers voltage. If the voltage isn't low enough or continues to increase I will then place reactors in service which absorb VARS and lowers voltage even more. I can also change the VAR output of generators if need be. System conditions really dictate voltage control such as load, surge impedence loading, ferranti voltage rise. Basically you can say VARS travel downhill or from high to low voltage but they also don't travel far in the system. It's one of the parameters a transmission operator will fiddle with while on shift.",
"0onimusha2 already gave a good explanation. However you might wonder why there's reactive power at all on the network. \nYou don't want reactive power on your grid, but some devices must create reactive power in order to run (e. g. induction motors). \nYou can compensate inductive reactive power using a capacity, or vice versa. \nhowever you'll never compensate to a power factor of 1, because that will create a resonant circuit, which will lead to a hugely increased voltage or current. so most devices will compendate to around 0.92",
"Everyone has good and thorough answers to this question but I think everyone would benefit from a basic description of what \"reactive power\" actually is.\n\nReactive power is power that flows in the circuit that is NOT consumed by the load. Different loads have different load profiles, and the utility wants to minimize the amount flowing in the circuit since it's essentially lost transmission capacity.",
"An analogy used in training for power factor is \" the beer factor\" . The glass represents the Volts*Amps, with the beer equal to the true power delivered to the load ( Watts) and the foam equal to the VARs. A power factor of 1 is no foam, a power factor of .5 could be simplified to a glass half filled with beer and half filled with foam. What do you want- more beer or more foam? Mathematically, With power in Watts = Volts * Amps, given that it is a linear load with no distortion on the two sign waves, the highest number for V*A is where the sine waves line up exactly. Any reactance shifts the current sine wave, the two do not line up, so you do not get the maximum power possible. For example, the peak value of the voltage will not multiply against the peak value of the current. The power company has to deliver the whole glass, so charges you a power factor penalty for PFs below a defined threshold, sometimes .95.",
"I’d like to answer a question I didn’t see answered and describe how capacitors and inductors work in doing so.\n\nSo a capacitor can only increase the voltage across it by passing current. Likewise, an inductor can’t only increase its current by first having a positive voltage drop across it.\n\nYou know in either of these situation they are absorbing power into their respective fields because both current and voltage are present and multiply to a positive power value.\n\nHere’s the thing. For inductors, current can not increase unless voltage does so first. Likewise, a capacitor can not increase voltage unless it first has current draw. In your classes you should have seen differential equations I = C dV/dt and V = L dI/dt to describe this relationship.\n\nWhat happens do to this is that current and voltage don’t rise at the same time. Because of this the power equation P=V x I will never be as high as if they were in sync in the time domain.\n\nTo elicit this, a purely inductive load will have a voltage with a 90 degree phase shift ahead of its current. That means when one is at its max value, the other will equal zero and the power dissipated in our inductive load is also zero. Max power would be when each is degrees about there peak which is a value of sqrt(2)/2 for each or an overall peak power at half what it should be... this last paragraph is a handful, I’m going to tldr this mother in a sec.\n\nLuckily, since capacitors and inductors do opposite things we can use them to balance each other out and “tune” a circuit to not waste power by displacing he voltage and current in the time domain. This is also called keeping them “in phase” since the offset is a phase shift.\n\nTLDR; Reactive loads cause a phase shift between current and voltage. Supplying current with zero voltage at the load would supply no real power and is the extreme condition. Ideally you want current and voltage perfectly in phase for optimum efficiency and we can compensate circuits in order to do just that.",
"Other people here have done a good job of explaining what reactive power is, so I want to take a crack at answering what role reactive power has in transmission.\n\nBasically in transmission reactive power is wasted load. When a large inductor (e.g. series of electrical motors) offsets the current and voltage sign waves, it decreases the peak power because P(t) = V(t)*I(t), so if the peaks aren't aligned, the max will be lower. This means that more current must be transmitted through the lines in order to get the same amount of usable power out. If more current is transmitted, that means more resistance losses in our grid ( Ploss = I^2 R). \n\nThe only productive use of reactive power that I am familiar with is to counter act other reactive power. Basically, If you have a large bank of conductors causing a known reactive phase shift, you can connect it to a calibrated capacitor which will shift the phase back in the other direction, thereby counteracting the need for additional current to be supplied."
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} | What is the role of reactive power in transmission networks?
I've studied electrical engineering for some years, but honestly I'm still struggling with understanding complex AC concepts, especially reactive power. What's its role in transmission networks since reactive power can't do real work? Why is it important for large alternators on the grid? | [
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|
wp16w | Why is it "painful" to witness awkwardness? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5f79gy",
"c5f6w80",
"c5f772o",
"c5f7w50",
"c5f7jt6",
"c5f6v02"
],
"text": [
"As others have pointed out, this is a facet of empathy, specifically a phenomenon known as \"empathic embarrassment,\" [\\(Miller, 1987\\)](_URL_0_). Perhaps unsurprisingly, people who are themselves easily embarrassed tend to be the people who are more easily embarrassed for other people. \n\nNow, the big question is this--why do we feel empathic embarrassment? What function could it possibly serve? Some evidence suggests that it's a learning mechanism. When we see somebody behave awkwardly, that gives us a cogent example of what **not** to do. For example, [Norton et al. \\(2003\\)](_URL_1_), showed that watching people behave inconsistently can actually change our attitudes about the subject. \n\nSo no doubt vicarious empathy can feel physically off-putting, like when I'm trying to watch an incompetent contestant on *Chopped* justify their lousy performance, I can barely watch the screen. But from the above articles, it seems like there could be something advantageous about being embarrassed for other people--you're less likely to make their errors. \n\n(edited to fix author name in first citation)",
"Probably [mirror neurons](_URL_2_) firing up and making you imagine being in the same situation\n\n\"Some researchers also speculate that mirror systems may simulate observed actions [...]\"",
"Everyone please remember to cite your claims. This thread got off to a really bad start, so remember to keep it scientific.",
"Related question: do people who enjoy comedy based on this type of situation (Fawlty Towers, Anything with Ricky Gervais or Sascha Baron Cohen) enjoy this uncomfortable feeling, or do they not experience it the same way?",
"Don't people with Aspergers tend to have less empathy toward others? \n\nIf so, would that them typically less likely to feel \"pain\" in situations where others are embarrassing themselves?\n\nCould that also explain why sites/shows/videos which feature people embarrassing themselves are so popular with nerds or people on the Spectrum?",
"Empathy.\n\nedit: \n\n > using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we showed that the anterior cingulate cortex and the left anterior insula, two cortical structures typically involved in vicarious feelings of others' pain, are also strongly implicated in experiencing the ‘social pain’ for others' flaws and pratfalls. This holds true even for situations that engage protagonists not aware of their current predicament. Importantly, the activity in the anterior cingulate cortex and the left anterior insula positively correlated with individual differences in trait empathy. The present findings establish the empathic process as a fundamental prerequisite for vicarious embarrassment experiences, thus connecting affect and cognition to interpersonal processes.\n\nThat'd be the mechanism, from [here](_URL_3_)"
],
"score": [
1153,
223,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/53/6/1061/",
"http://www.people.hbs.edu/mnorton/Norton_Monin_Cooper_Hogg_2003.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0018675"
]
} | Why is it "painful" to witness awkwardness?
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mb2n7 | AskScience AMA Series- IAMA Microbiologist | I'm currently a lab manager of a marine microbiology laboratory where I'm also finishing my MS degree. I've worked in various labs for the last 11 years since graduating with my BS in biology. Ask anything you like, I'll answer as best as I can.
**Edit:** Thank you everyone for your questions and comments! This got a lot more attention than I thought it would. Feel free to continue to ask questions, I'll answer anything you care to ask, though I'm not going to get to them right away. I've got a presentation in the morning and I need to run through the slides again so I don't stammer. Thank you mods for the request, this was really fun! :) | askscience | {
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"Why is making mutants, cloning and streaking not as exciting as it sounds? \n\nWhy is the estimated doubling time of bacteria a lie? They do not have watches...and double up whenever they feel like it. \n\nWhy does PCR never work when it is supposed to and work when you think it wont? \n\nWhy do people always plunder my bench? \n\nWhy does electroporation work on every other goddam strain but the one I am working with? \n\nWhy do spores live in the most unlikely and sterile of places ready to sneak out and cause contamination when you least expect it?\n\nWhy does warm agar smell make me hungry? \n\nAnd the best one, why does my PI look at me like I have landed from Mars when I suggest a protocol.... then recommends I read a paper that uses the same protocol? \n\n( The above are all rhetorical ) :-D\n\n\nTL;DR I am also a bughugger, and enjoying reading your replies.",
"Where do you see yourself going after the MS? I've just started a PhD program myself, and I feel like I'm sort of on a \"professorship or bust\" game plan. I'm mostly ok with this, as that's pretty much the only thing I've ever wanted to be, but those jobs are damn hard to get. You really have to be among the best in your field.\n\nWith an MS, you don't quite have the options you do with a PhD. My impression has always been that it's really hard to be an academic biologist with only the MS because there's really not much else in academia that provides the job security of a tenured faculty position, which of course requires the PhD.\n\nSo what are your plans going forward? Move on to PhD? Try to carve out a niche in academia somewhere for yourself? Government work?\n\nThanks for taking the time to answer!",
"microbio major here, anything I should know for when I graduate? Things to avoid doing? Ways to give myself a leg up on the competition? How's the pay?",
"Are you germophobic? \n\nI was never a germophobe until I took microbio as a class. We had an experiment where we swabbed pretty much anything you could think of, and then see what grew. Pretty much, bacteria was everywhere. Kind of turned me into a germophobe after that experiment. \n\nAlso, if you're not, how do you shrug off that idea that there's bacteria everywhere?",
"I'm currently only an undergrad in microbiology - so forgive any naivete in my questions!\n\nWhen it comes to the blanket field of microbiology, where is the cutting edge research taking place in this major? As for marine microbiology, what is, in your opinion, the area that needs to be explored, studied, and discovered the most?\n\nAlso, recognizing that you mostly work in a laboratory, I still would love to ask to see if you have any insight on this: are there any kinds of field work that a microbiologist does or is it strictly laboratory work? If so, what?\n\nEager to hear from you! Thanks!",
"Well, I'm always interested how people delved into their respective careers. How did you come to choose microbiology? Are you planning on conducting mostly research? Do you ever plan to teach? \n\nWhat is the best (or most remarkable) experience you have had working in the lab? Worst?\n\nWhat has shocked you in your line of work? Is there something that affects the world's oceans or creatures/organisms that you believe a great majority of the population should be aware of?",
"Most marine microbiologists I've come into contact with feel very strongly about the merits of metagenomics across the spectrum of niches and not just within marine studies itself (I think the study was pioneered originally by Rohwer, F. who is solely marine microbiology?). \n\nNot a specific question, but what's your opinion of metagenomics?",
"In your line of work, do you often come across archaea?",
"Hello. I'm a undergrad who is working on Sodalis Glossinidius, a bacterium found in the gut of tsetse fly. I just love biology/microbiology and being in the lab. Was there a moment or a time where you know that this is going to be your career? What inspired you to become a microbiologist?\n\nThanks for the AMA. I had a lot of fun reading your replies.",
"I'm a current undergrad, planning on graduating in may 2013 in Microbio and Math from UW Madison. My general plan was also to do the whole \"various labs\" thing until I can find something I'm really into. Eventually though, the plan is to end up at the CDC, WHO, or NIH. (I was also thinking about the Peace Corps right after graduation.) Any tips? :)",
"Let us say a person took a burger, and ate said burger entirely. On that burger there were some Echoli bacteria (those are the guys that cause food poisoning most the time, right?).\n\nOn average, how many Echoli bacteria would have to be on that burger to cause a case of food poisoning? \n\nA hundred? A hundred thousand? Two?",
"Have you ever inspected bottled water plants/bottled water? I'm currently researching this topic and was informed that microbiologists are the people who look at this type of stuff. If so, what did you do/what did you find, and either way, what is your opinion on bottled water?\n\nOh and thanks for doing this! It's awesome :)",
"So, microbiology, is it worth specifically majoring in? How long does it take to build up an intuition about each unit, like when does it stop feeling like learning new concepts and start feeling like mastering them? I just finished first year and now I'm like, wow, I have some choices to make.",
"What made you want to become a microbiologist? I'm in dental hygiene school (a far way off, I know) but micro was my absolute favorite course and I would like to pursue a BS in it after I get one for Dental Hygiene. Any advice? Tips?",
"Hey, I am going to graduate with my B.S in Microbiology from ASU and I am just really scared of the job market right now. Know any interesting places around the country that have potential job openings/opportunities? Thanks.",
"Are there such things as beneficial protozoa in the human body? I know we have symbiotic relationships with many bacteria in the gut and was wondering if there are protozoa that are helpful or at least benign.",
"How much do you know about genetics? I have a genetics question that no one seems to be able to answer and not knowing really bothers me!",
"Undergraduate in Microbiology and Animal Science here....\n\nDid you ever reach a point where you were unsure about your degree and your future ?",
"To post a real question about your work, what are you working on? What is your MS research focused on?",
"What's the worst mistake you've ever made as a microbiologist? Was it also the most costly?",
"How does your work benefit the layman's day to day life?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series- IAMA Microbiologist
I'm currently a lab manager of a marine microbiology laboratory where I'm also finishing my MS degree. I've worked in various labs for the last 11 years since graduating with my BS in biology. Ask anything you like, I'll answer as best as I can. **Edit:** Thank you everyone for your questions and comments! This got a lot more attention than I thought it would. Feel free to continue to ask questions, I'll answer anything you care to ask, though I'm not going to get to them right away. I've got a presentation in the morning and I need to run through the slides again so I don't stammer. Thank you mods for the request, this was really fun! :) | [
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|
1jow9o | In what ways do erogenous zones differ from the rest of the body? Why does stimulating genitalia result in arousal and a sexual response, when for example stimulating a fingertip does not? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbgyq72",
"cbgvlje",
"cbguvzb",
"cbgx6sk"
],
"text": [
"The skin over the genital areas (erogenous zones) is innervated by the sacral spinal nerves (S2,3,4). See a [dermatome map](_URL_0_). These nerves synapse in the spinal cord and provoke autonomic (both parasympathetic=erection and sympathetic=ejaculation) reflexes. The sensory nerves continue up the spinal cord to the cerebral cortex where they are perceived as pleasurable. \nSource: M.D.",
"I take issue with the basic premise. Fingertip stimulation can most certainly result in arousal and sexual response, and genital stimulation need not.",
"An extra add on question, can other body parts become erogenous zones? Like someone's feet or calves becoming really sensitive, if they are responsive to those fetishes or something?",
"I think this is what you're looking for: _URL_1_"
],
"score": [
263,
57,
22,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.backpain-guide.com/Chapter_Fig_folders/Ch06_Path_Folder/Ch06_Images/06-4%20Radiculopathy.jpg",
"http://www.amazon.com/Human-Sexual-Response-William-Masters/dp/0923891218/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1375652477&sr=8-2&keywords=human+sexual+response"
]
} | In what ways do erogenous zones differ from the rest of the body? Why does stimulating genitalia result in arousal and a sexual response, when for example stimulating a fingertip does not?
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||
nq726 | What if we're wrong about black holes? | More accurately, what if we're wrong about black holes being the final stage of a star. What if there's a stage beyond black hole, but no star has reached it yet due to the young age of the universe. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3b2fhk",
"c3b2p9z",
"c3b2z4v",
"c3b2evq"
],
"text": [
"Well, in a sense there is a stage after black holes (we think). The \"final\" stage of such a star is total \"evaporation\" through hawking radiation. Which, unless I am mistaken, will manifest in the form of a large amount of extremely low-energy particles followed right at the end by a very small burst of high-energy particles. This will occur over an unimaginably long time scale.\n\nIf you're asking if there is another \"sort\" of massive object that a black hole can turn in to, then there is not. We know because hawking radiation occurs too slowly for any of the resulting energy to do anything meaningful.",
"only stars with a high enough mass are supposed to turn into black holes. The bigger stars (the ones turning into black holes) actually die the fastest. There are some very LOW mass stars that have lifetimes longer than the age of the universe. So we have yet to see what happens to them at the end of their life. The bigger stars only last a couple hundred million years which is relatively fast when it comes to the lifetimes of stars\n\nStars could turn into neutron stars or white dwarfs at the end of their lives, not just black holes.",
"would it be possible for it to evaporate enough that at some point it wouldn't have enough mass to remain a black hole and somehow phase back into observable existence? Or is it an all or nothing phenomenon?",
"It's unlikely, when a black hole runs out of matter to absorb it begins to evaporate."
],
"score": [
20,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What if we're wrong about black holes?
More accurately, what if we're wrong about black holes being the final stage of a star. What if there's a stage beyond black hole, but no star has reached it yet due to the young age of the universe. | [
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|
liq9u | What formulas would you use to prove or disprove the feasibility of the commercial where the airplane lands in the bed of the pickup truck? | I thought this question would have been asked by now, but searching through reddit’s search feature as well as with Google didn’t find anything. Basically I want to know what process would be used to prove or disprove that a pickup truck could help land an airplane if the front landing wheel broke. For those that never saw the commercial, you can see it here:
_URL_0_
I do have some relevant physics/match education - two semesters of physics in college and completed through multi-variable calculus. My thoughts on it are that the main issue would be the bed of the truck having to support the front of the plane. Even in the commercial, you can see that they faked the truck semi-stopping/skidding a second when the plane first touches.
In reality though, I believe that the force down on the bed truck would basically break it, and even if the initial force didn’t destroy the truck, that the weight of the plane would be too much for the truck to continue hauling it.
This all of course assumes that the plane and the trucks speed are synced so that the plane didn’t slip off the end of the bed or ram through the cabin of the truck.
Looking forward to hearing your thoughts!
EDIT: Really appreciate all the answers, I am learning a lot and googling things as they are brought up! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2t0s5u",
"c2t1xa2",
"c2t27zz",
"c2t09jy",
"c2t125x"
],
"text": [
"Simple factor of safety calculation.\n\nFor a 737-100 (the \"baby\" of the 737 range) the maximum vertical nose gear ground load during landing deceleration is 21,500 lb. [Source 1](_URL_0_), skip to page 12.\n\nFor a Nissan Titan (the truck being advertized) the maximum payload in the highest rated configuration is 2,153 lb. [Source 2](_URL_1_), open up the \"capacities\" tab. \n\nThe factor of safety is design load / applied load, or 2153/21500, equaling almost exactly 0.1. Any system with a FOS less than one will fail.\n\nPrognosis: *instant catastrophic failure of the truck's structural elements*. This analysis neglects dynamic effects during touchdown, which will only increase the loading on the truck.",
"Assuming this is a 737, the quoted minimum landing speed I found is 135 knots or roughly 155 mph. Nissan Titan top speed is 115 mph (governed).",
"No formulas here, but I thought you might be interested to know that this actually happened in real life.\n\nThis happened on December 19, 1983 at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport in Alaska. With extremely reduced visibility, the tower controllers cleared a Japan Airlines 747 to land at the same time they cleared a runway maintenance pickup truck to do a runway friction check. The difference in speed was apparently the main issue in the accident: the truck was doing 30-35 mph and the 747 was doing well over 120. The 747 suffered minor damage, but the truck had a massive double dent in the bed as well as other major damage from the wheel strike. The driver was critically injured and lost both legs as the front gear hit the truck's cab.\n\nI have not found an NTSB accident report, but there is a reference to it in section 1.1.17.1 of this later accident report archived here: _URL_2_\n\nMy dad was an Airport Safety Officer at the time and helped secure the scene after the accident. I know that it was on the front page of the Anchorage Daily News on the next day, but I haven't been able to find that archived edition yet.",
"You wanna know how much of the plane's weight is supported by the front tires.\n\n Wf = wd * W\n\nwhere:\n\nWf : Weight supported by front wheel\n\nwd : Weight distribution (front part)\n\nW : Total weight of the plane\n\nThen we figure out the max load carrying capacity and whatever the equivalent of \"RMS\" value of \"load carrying capacity\" for the truck is. Both of these have to be more than Wf as calculated above.",
"Nevermind the physical limitations of the truck even supporting the nose of the plane... think of those 4 tiny disk brakes slamming on trying to slow the whole thing down!\n\nSomeone run the numbers on a human being actually pushing a brake pedal through the floor for me."
],
"score": [
17,
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5,
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2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZFKBTagD00k"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.boeing.com/commercial/airports/acaps/737sec7.pdf",
"http://www.nissanusa.com/titan/specifications-king-cab.html",
"http://www.airdisaster.com/reports/ntsb/AAR84-10.pdf"
]
} | What formulas would you use to prove or disprove the feasibility of the commercial where the airplane lands in the bed of the pickup truck?
I thought this question would have been asked by now, but searching through reddit’s search feature as well as with Google didn’t find anything. Basically I want to know what process would be used to prove or disprove that a pickup truck could help land an airplane if the front landing wheel broke. For those that never saw the commercial, you can see it here: _URL_0_ I do have some relevant physics/match education - two semesters of physics in college and completed through multi-variable calculus. My thoughts on it are that the main issue would be the bed of the truck having to support the front of the plane. Even in the commercial, you can see that they faked the truck semi-stopping/skidding a second when the plane first touches. In reality though, I believe that the force down on the bed truck would basically break it, and even if the initial force didn’t destroy the truck, that the weight of the plane would be too much for the truck to continue hauling it. This all of course assumes that the plane and the trucks speed are synced so that the plane didn’t slip off the end of the bed or ram through the cabin of the truck. Looking forward to hearing your thoughts! EDIT: Really appreciate all the answers, I am learning a lot and googling things as they are brought up! | [
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20fe57 | Does the clock arms (seconds, minutes, hours) ever split the clock face in three equal areas? | This is a hypothetical clock where the arms move around the middle axis with constant speed, so no tick tocks. If you extend the lines of the clock arms, do they perfectly split the clock face in three thirds at any point during the 12 hours? | askscience | {
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"No. Consider a clock that rotates counterclockwise at exactly the rate the hour hand moves, so that the hour hand always points up. Now the minute hand goes at a rate of 1/60min - 1/12hr = 11/720min and the second had at a rate of 1/1min - 1/12hr = 719/720min. Any perfect split will happen when the second hand has gone around a multiple of 1/3 times, say n/3 for some integer n. At that time, the minute hand will have gone around 11/719\\*n/3 times. We need this to also be a multiple of 1/3, so 11n/719 must be an integer. Since 11 and 719 are coprime (11 is prime and doesn't divide 719; in fact, 719 is prime), this only happens when n is a multiple of 719. When n=3, the second hand has gone around 719 times, which takes 720 sec = 12 hr, a complete cycle. So we only need to consider n=1 or n=2. For n=1, the second hand has gone 719/3 = 239+2/3, so the second hand is pointing 2/3 of the way around the circle (i.e. 8 o'clock, but the 8 will have moved). The minute hand has gone 11/719 * 719/3 = 11/3 = 3+2/3, so the minute hand is also pointing at 2/3, so this is not the split you want. Similarly, when n=2, both hands point at 1/3. So there is no such perfect split.",
"There are no solutions to your question, on a normal clock anyway.\n\nTo solve this, what we can do is get equations for where the second, hour, and minute hands are at some time *t* in the future.\n\nWe'll say that when t = 0, all the hands are pointing at the same place, and that t is in seconds.\n\nThen:\n\n H_s(t) = 6t modulo 360\n H_m(t) = 1/10 t modulo 360\n H_h(t) = 1/120 t modulo 360\n\nThe modulo 360 comes in because the equations are referring to the offset in degrees from the starting position of \"up\" = noontime. We can see that with these equations, when t = 0, they're all at the same location, and when t = 60*60*12 = 43200, they are again all 0. This means we only need to consider values of t which lie in the interval [0, 43200]. What this corresponds to in the real world is that we are only going to consider times between 12 noon and 12 midnight on a single day. Because any solutions outside that range will have a corresponding solution in that range, because of the properties of modulo.\n\nWhat does your question convert to, in terms of these equations?\n\nSuppose some time **T** is such that we divide the clock face into equal sized parts. Because they are all centered, this means that each part is splitting the circle into a sector with angle 120 degrees.\n\nWhich means we have one of the following sets of equalities holding true:\n\n H_s(T) - H_m(T) = 120 modulo 360\n H_m(T) - H_h(T) = 120 modulo 360\n H_h(T) - H_s(T) = 120 modulo 360\n\nOR\n\n H_s(T) - H_m(T) = -120 modulo 360\n H_m(T) - H_h(T) = -120 modulo 360\n H_h(T) - H_s(T) = -120 modulo 360\n\nWe only have 2 sets of equations because when arranging 3 things in a circle, there are only 2 distinct orderings.\n\nIf we look at the middle equation in the set, the left hand side reduces to:\n\n 1/10 T - 1/120 T = 11/120 T = 120 modulo 360.\n\nThere aren't that many possible values of **T** such that the equation holds, and **T** is in the range [0, 43200]. Hence, you can just check them all by hand, or write a computer program to find all the possible values of **T** which work for this equation, and then check to see if the other two hold as well. (Repeat for -120 == 240 modulo 360).",
"I might not be able to find the eventual solution, but I think a promising idea would be to consider the minute hand as stationary. Then, in a 12-hour period, the hour hand would turn counter-clockwise and complete 11 revolutions; and in the same period, the second hand would turn clockwise and complete 59\\*12 = 708 revolutions.\n\nUpdate: One way, I guess, is to find all the (708\\*2 = 1416) points when the second hand reaches 1/3 and 2/3 of a revolution, and figure out where the hour hand is at those times, to see if it's at the opposite 2/3 or 1/3 point. It seems unlikely to me, when I put it this way. I'm guessing it'll come close 11\\*2 = 22 times in each 12-hour period, but it probably won't be mathematically exact.\n\nUpdate (2): I realized - silly me - the faster method is to find the 22 times the hour hand hits the required positions, and check the second hand. And as others have already said, the answer is no.\n\nBut by my reckoning, the closest approach seems to be at ~~5:05:45~~.\n\nUpdate (3): I was wrong about the closest approach, it actually seems to be around 9:05:26."
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} | Does the clock arms (seconds, minutes, hours) ever split the clock face in three equal areas?
This is a hypothetical clock where the arms move around the middle axis with constant speed, so no tick tocks. If you extend the lines of the clock arms, do they perfectly split the clock face in three thirds at any point during the 12 hours? | [
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|
ks6tz | Are the colors consequences of physics or biology/neurology? | Is the wavelength "blue" blue as a consequence of the natural laws of the universe, or is it blue because that is how our eyes have evolved to see it?
Is it possible an alien species could perceive the same wavelength we call "blue" as the color we call "red"? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2mrhpk",
"c2mrgtf",
"c2mshzi",
"c2mww01"
],
"text": [
"Biology. Our perception of colors depends very strongly the response of the cones in our eyes to different frequencies. [We have three different cones with three different response curves.](_URL_1_)\n\nPhysics says that all 500nm photons are identical, but biology determines how their interaction with our eye is perceived.\n\nRead more [here](_URL_0_).",
"\"Colour\" is a matter of perception, which is subjective. Wavelengths are the real, physical properties of photons.",
"Related question: can we prove that all humans perceive colors the same way?",
"Both would probably be the best answer. It is important to remember that all science is an attempt to explain and understand the natural world so both the physics and biology matter here. The biological aspect is the most restrictive as the ability to distinguish between the wavelengths and create differentiate colour is entirely reliant on the efficiency of the eye/nervous system*. However the way light operates when it enters your eye is more in the realm of physics (or biophysics if you want- and so of course is the electrohpysical reaction of the neurons to the light that send the information back to the brain!)\n\nAlso I personally don't think the \"perception\" matters so much. I think I see what you're getting at i.e. there's a possibility when one person see red they see what another person sees as blue. This should be negated by the fact that you are interpreting the wavelengths of light visible to you, so while you may 'perceive' it differently you would be able to be conversant about any difference in colour because you would observe the colours in roughly the same way. (I'm sorry I know this paragraph probably makes little sense but I'm having a hard time getting this across. If I manage to think of a better way to put forward my thinking I'll post it later).\n\nNow would an alien species percieve and indeed interact with light differently?...Well that's a very interesting question and one which I'm not even going to pretend to be able to answer :)\n\n*This wikipedia page isn't too bad _URL_2_ and the graph at the top is pretty good although would be much better if it had some units to go with those pretty little numbers."
],
"score": [
13,
7,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cone-fundamentals-with-srgb-spectrum.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell"
]
} | Are the colors consequences of physics or biology/neurology?
Is the wavelength "blue" blue as a consequence of the natural laws of the universe, or is it blue because that is how our eyes have evolved to see it? Is it possible an alien species could perceive the same wavelength we call "blue" as the color we call "red"? | [
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2whrov | Do animals procrastinate? | Now that I think about it, would it be possible to know that an animal knows they "should" be doing something but puts it off? idek. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"I might be wrong but it seems one could setup an experiment for this. Teach an animal (like a dog) to complete a task (like pulling a bedsheet off a bed). Reward it immediately. Once you accomplish that, leave the room while the dog is busy with the task. When he comes for his reward, or to see where you are, bring him back to the bed demonstrating that you are just now finding out he accomplished the task. Reward him for it. Iterate that out so that you leave for work in the morning, and if the sheet is on the floor when you get home, you bring him there and reward him. Then setup a camera and see if the dog does it in the morning or when he hears your car pulling into the garage.",
"Probably. This study on pigeons suggests that pigeons would be prefer immediate reward even when the cost to get it becomes higher. \n\nMazur, J. E. (1996), PROCRASTINATION BY PIGEONS: PREFERENCE FOR LARGER, MORE DELAYED WORK REQUIREMENTS. Jrnl Exper Analysis Behavior, 65: 159–171. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1996.65-159",
"If an animal has nothing to do the most sensible thing for it to do is conserve energy by doing nothing. Hence why cats are lazy fuckers 80% of the time and lightning acrobatic death machines the other 20%. Hunting animals don't go for challenging targets, they go for the easiest, lamest prey they can find.\n\nIt makes more sense to me to think of human procrastination as falling back into our \"animal\" desire to do nothing but conserve energy/seek the easiest and most immediate source of gratification.\n\n It's the more abstracted you get away from the immediate pressures of surviving (ie studying now so you can pass a test in a month so you can get a piece of paper in 2 years that might get you a job) the harder the brain has conceptualising the immediate benefit and the more procrastination becomes an issue.",
"I don't think they have the ability to procrastinate. The lion doesn't have a schedule book that says, must kill deer tomorrow. When the lion is hungry, it goes and kills a deer. Procrastination requires a task that you put off instead of doing it now. I dint think children can procrastinate either until they are assigned tasks."
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} | Do animals procrastinate?
Now that I think about it, would it be possible to know that an animal knows they "should" be doing something but puts it off? idek. | [
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|
37snfp | Question: Did airline prices surge when flights resumed after 9/11? | There was an uproar when Uber surged prices during the Sydney terrorist attack. Since both systems are based on demand, I wonder if prices surged once flights resumed after 9/11 when traveller were finally able to get home. (Ignoring travellers who had flights rebooked for free) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"crplp60",
"crpmhln",
"crpvxtq"
],
"text": [
"No, because people were terrified to fly. Airlines were consistently way underbooked, and prices plummeted as airlines tried to convince a terrified public that it was still relatively safe to fly in a commercial aircraft.",
"Even if people weren't terrified of getting back in the air, which they were, the slightest hint that the airlines were trying to take advantage of the situation would have been disastrous to an already suffering industry.",
"Quite the opposite! \n\nTickets were cheap! Planes we're sometimes empty. The national guard stationed soldiers at airports with assault rifles. Everyone was afraid.\n\nFlights were dirt cheap. I flew all the time. Demand was so low the government had to bail out a few airlines."
],
"score": [
26,
10,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Question: Did airline prices surge when flights resumed after 9/11?
There was an uproar when Uber surged prices during the Sydney terrorist attack. Since both systems are based on demand, I wonder if prices surged once flights resumed after 9/11 when traveller were finally able to get home. (Ignoring travellers who had flights rebooked for free) | [
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1rpid6 | How do you know something is a "measurement" or "observation" in Quantum Mechanics? | As far as I understand, a particle only has a definite position when it is observed. How does it "know" it was observed? By its interaction with surrounding particles, of course.
My confusion lies here: If none of the particles around it have definite positions either, how does *any particle in the universe* "know" for sure that it was observed? Is this probabilistic in some way, too? If so, is there an easy way to dumb it down? | askscience | {
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"This excellent question is at the root of *many* other questions that show up on /r/askscience.\n\nThere are aspects of this question that nobody really understands yet. However, we understand a lot more than popular science and even some physicists will lead you to believe. This will be a somewhat long post but possibly worth your time to read.\n\nBefore I say anything else, I want to say that your statement\n\n > How does it \"know\" it was observed? By its interaction with surrounding particles, of course.\n\nis absolutely essential. I hope to explain why below.\n\n**Structure of physical theory**\n\nAny theory of physics has two parts.\n\n* (1) The first part is a representation of the natural system under consideration. For example, if you are making a theory of balls rolling down hills you represent each ball with three numbers (x,y,z) indicating the ball's position in space. You may also have (Vx, Vy, Vz) representing its velocity in all three directions.\n\n* (2) The second part is some way of predicting how this representation changes as time goes by [1]. For the case of rolling balls this could just be [Newton's laws of motion](_URL_0_).\n\nIn classical physics these two parts were all we needed to go happily about our scientific lives. However, there's actually a crucially important third part:\n\n* (3) We have to have a prescription for how the representation put forth in part (1) relates to our personal/human/cognitive observations of the natural system. In other words, \"what does a group of numbers (x,y,z) have to do with my observation of the system?\"\n\nIn the case of rolling balls this is pretty simple. I might use Newton's laws to compute that my ball should be at position\n\n(1 meter, 0.5 meters, 0 meters) at time=1.3 minutes\n\nand we all just *know* that this means that we should see a ball at the specified location and time. This works just fine and indeed in classical mechanics the link between part (1) and (3) is usually pretty straightforward. Note that we never mentioned anything about what we meant by \"see a ball\", because in classical physics we implicitly assume that it doesn't matter. In quantum mechanics it does matter and I'll now try to explain why.\n\n**Quantum mechanics**\n\nThe first two parts of quantum mechanics are \n\n* (1) We represent the natural world with a [wave function](_URL_1_) (or [state vector](_URL_2_)).\n\n* (2) The wave function evolves according to [Schrodinger's equation](_URL_3_) (or [Heisenberg's equation](_URL_4_)).\n\nThese two together are just as good as (x,y,z) coordinates and Newton's laws. The place where everyone gets confused is in what the wave function means in terms of what we observe in experiments. To answer this question you hear people say things like \"when you make a measurement the wave function collapses into a definite position, chosen at random, and that's what you see.\" The crucial thing to understand is that this statement modifies part (1). It says that Schrodinger's equation determines the evolution until some vaguely defined \"observation\" happens, at which time Schrodinger's equation stops being correct, the state collapses probabilistically, and then Schrodinger's equation goes back into effect. This breaks the theory's self-consistency. Suppose I make a measurement and say that the atom's state collapsed. Now suppose that me and my experiment are in a box, which is actually the experiment of some greater alien. For the theory to be true for the alien, there can't be any state collapse until *he* does the observation. Thus we see that state collapse as stated above can't work.\n\nThe issue is that as stated above, state collapse modifies part (1) of the theory, whereas we *should* have been looking for a part (3) type statement. It turns out that if we *leave part (1) alone* and make an extra statement like this:\n\n* (3) When a human's brain collects information about a physical system that information will be randomly distributed according to the square of the wave function, and that system will henceforth appear to have collapsed in accordance with the result of the human's information.\n\nthen we have a self-consistent theory. I emphasize that it is both falsifiable and self-consistent and therefore must be admissible as a theory of Nature. That said, its not very satisfying. because of this bizarrely anthropocentric rule (3) which seems much more weird than the sort of obvious equivalent rule (3) in classical physics [2].\n\n**Decoherence**\n\nAmazingly we can *almost* get the quantum rule (3) to be as *obvious* as the classical one. The trick is to really consider what happens when we make \"measurements\". In fact whenever you measure something you are connecting that thing to many extra physical elements. If I measure the position of an atom with a CCD camera, I am coupling the wave function of the atom to an enormous number of electrons etc. in the camera's inner workings. Certainly I do not know the wave functions of all those electrons. **This is the crux of the entire story**: It turns out that if you actually compute what happens to the wave function of the atom in the case that it couples to a bunch of extra stuff whose wave functions you *don't know*, then from your perspective the wave function of the atom becomes a classical probability distribution. I emphasize that this comes about *entirely from Schrodinger's equation and nothing else*. From the perspective in which the wave functions of the electrons are known, the atom's wave function *does not collapse*. Therefore, collapse can be understood as an apparent phenomenon, predicted by pure quantum mechanics, that shows up with only part of the information in a system's wave function is available. This is always the applicable case for humans because our measurement apparatuses contain many uncontrollable degrees of freedom.\n\nWhen the wave function appears to have collapsed for one observer, it may not appear that way for another one who has more information.\n\nThis is really interesting because it gets us really really close to being able to explain rule (3) via rule (1). We know that when only some information of a system is available, that information appears probabilistic. What we haven't explained is why humans see only one of those possible results. Nobody knows the answer to that.\n\n**Answer to the original question**\n\nSo, how does a particle \"know\" when it has definite position? It doesn't. It never does. Definite position is just an apparent property of things that comes up when we don't have complete information about the system.\n\n**Conclusion**\n\nWe have a self-consistent theory of quantum mechanics using wave functions and Schrodinger's equation. Part of the theory is the statement that when humans have access to the prabability distributions furnished by partial access to a complete system wave function, they perceive one particular value, for some reason that we don't know.\n\n[1] For the physicists out there I'd say more generally equations of motion are constraints on how the representation at one point in space-time is related to the representation at other points in space-time.\n\n[2] However I challenge anyone to state a truly self-consistent theory of physics without such a rule.\n\nEDIT: For down voters: If you could express what you think is unscientific, wrong or irrelevant about this post I'd appreciate it.\n\nEDIT: Formatting",
"Since my other post was so long:\n\n > If none of the particles around it have definite positions either, how does any particle in the universe \"know\" for sure that it was observed?\n\nThey don't. Particles don't do anything special when they're observed. We can propose a self-consistent theory of quantum mechanics in which the wave functions don't actually collapse and take on a definite position. The *appearance* of definite position only happens for in cases where only subsets of the system's information is available, which happens to be the case relevant when humans are involved. From the perspective of someone with fuller information about the system, the collapse that *you* see may not happen.\n\nThe falsifiability of this theory (described more fully in my other post) is definitely open for discussion. I'd love to have that discussion with anyone else who's interested.",
"DanielSank's description is very good, so you probably want to read it over carefully. \n\nEssentially, \"measurement\" and \"observation\" are poor words for describing what happens. An experiment with observed particle is *fundamentally* different from an experiment with an unobserved particle because the observer is made out of a huge number of particles.\n\nIf you have a train barreling down the track in one experiment, and in another you build a huge wall in the middle of the track, it's silly to ask how the train \"knows\" to derail itself when you build a wall there. *You built a huge wall on the track*! That's how it 'knows' to derail itself."
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_function",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_state",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heisenberg_picture"
]
} | How do you know something is a "measurement" or "observation" in Quantum Mechanics?
As far as I understand, a particle only has a definite position when it is observed. How does it "know" it was observed? By its interaction with surrounding particles, of course. My confusion lies here: If none of the particles around it have definite positions either, how does *any particle in the universe* "know" for sure that it was observed? Is this probabilistic in some way, too? If so, is there an easy way to dumb it down? | [
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615n9f | Is antigravity a thing? | I know this might be a stupid question, but I'm actually kind of curious. You know how there's antimatter that is a counterpart to matter, I'm wondering if anyone knows how that sort of thing behaves. Also is there any evidence to suggest other "anti-other-important-things-in-the-universe" like antigravity, or antimagnetism, or anything similar to that. | askscience | {
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"A few years ago some idiot named Alejandro Gallardo Enríquez wrote a dissertation thesis to graduate as a mechanical engineer where he proposed the existence of anti-gravity. As most engineers, the people in the department of engineering in his university didn't understand physics, so for some reason they took his word and scheduled a conference in the largest auditorium they could for him to show his theory. \n\nWhen members of the department of physics saw the signs claiming the revolutionary discovery of repulsive gravity they got curious, and very quickly dismantled his work (he actually tried to prove anti-gravity using 1st year physics). Alejandro was duly denied his degree and is still working to prove antigravity. He thinks that governments are shutting him down, because the implications of antigravity would be too powerful. Sadly, gravity only works one way.\n\nIn case you're curious, [here's his dissertation thesis (in spanish)](_URL_0_)",
"No. Antimatter has opposite charge to its matter partners. Its mass is identical (and positive).\n\nAnti-magnetism doesn't even make sense as a phrase. What would be \"anti-\" in anti magnetism? Magnets can be both attract and repel one another.",
"Antigravity has serious problems when you incorporate it into the theory of general relativity, since it would mean that spacetime could curve \"the other way\". If this could happen, it is easy to arrange spacetimes where backwards time travel is allowed (closed timelike curves is the technical term). This directly leads to a lot of issues with causality and conservation laws and so on that seem very problematic and that we don't know how to deal with, and because of this most people believe that there is some law that forbids antigravity from existing. \n\nAs an aside, warp drives in GR (i.e. the Alcubierre drive) relies on the existence of such anti-gravity, so they are also probably not allowed for the same reasons.",
"Anti-gravity also known as non gravitational field is an idea of creating a place or object that is free from the force of gravity.\nAnti-gravity is a recurring concept in science fiction, particularly in the context of spacecraft propulsion.\n\nIn Newton's law of universal gravitation, gravity was an external force transmitted by unknown means. In the 20th century, Newton's model was replaced by general relativity where gravity is not a force but the result of the geometry of spacetime. Under general relativity, anti-gravity is impossible except under contrived circumstances. Quantum physicists have postulated the existence of gravitons, a set of massless elementary particles that transmit the force, and the possibility of creating or destroying these is unclear."
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"url": [
"http://fisica.ugto.mx/~selimibn/wp-content/uploads/GRAVEDAD-REPULSIVA-GENERADA-A-TRAV%C3%89S-DE-LA-ENERG%C3%8DA-CIN%C3%89TICA-ROTACIONAL.pdf"
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} | Is antigravity a thing?
I know this might be a stupid question, but I'm actually kind of curious. You know how there's antimatter that is a counterpart to matter, I'm wondering if anyone knows how that sort of thing behaves. Also is there any evidence to suggest other "anti-other-important-things-in-the-universe" like antigravity, or antimagnetism, or anything similar to that. | [
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|
9ylt5s | If we can discharge excess voltage into the Earth whenever we need to, why can't we draw a steady supply of electricity from the Earth in a similar way? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ea2hmad",
"ea2hden",
"ea2ra84",
"ea2g8rf"
],
"text": [
"For the same reason that you can take a very hot (or very cold) object and put it in a large bath of water to bring it to room temperature, but that you can't take a room-temperature bath and use it to make something hot. You can, of course, draw a steady supply of charge from the Earth, it just costs energy to do so, just like it costs energy to pump heat outside of your refrigerator.",
"The earth is a infinite source of current, but in order to draw that current you need a potential difference which takes energy.\n\nImagine the earth as a huge reservoir at sea level, but you want to take the water to the top of a mountain so it can run down and run a turbine. That takes energy. \n\nElectricity is the same thing, but the mountain is a higher state of voltage.",
"We don't discharge voltage. We discharge current or just charge. The only reason this works is because we ground things in the first place. The earth isn't really some magical infinite source or sink of that any electricity will happily flow too/from, it's just a really, really big wire that we use in our circuit. \n\n\nWhen you short any part of the electrical grid to the ground, all you are doing is using the earth as a wire back to the source. The wye winding of either the transformer or generator is attached to some ground rods to make solid electrical contact with the earth. When you take a live wire and touch it to somethings ground, all that's happening is you are completing the loop back to the generator/transformer through the earth. \n\n\nSo what happens if we don't touch one end of the circuit to the ground? Potentially nothing. Take one end of a battery, pass it through a light bulb, and then attach it to some grounded metal. Does anything happen? Well, other than potentially a very short, high voltage, high current transient nothing happen (aka a static shock built up in the capacitor between the object and the earth, through processes like friction). You do this all the time when you get out of your car. The entire frame is attached to one end of the battery, and you complete a path to ground when you get out. Does the battery discharge through you? No. Either nothing happens or you get a small shock, due to static build up from the wheels. \n\n\nWhy do we ground things then? Well, because not grounding then would be extremely dangerous and problematic. Grounding provides a common reference voltage for all parts of a system, even kilometers apart, a way for unintentional faults to travel, a way to discharge potentially troublesome static charges, and a way to avoid potentials being built up between surfaces a human might touch. \n\n\nSo if the earth is basically just a really big wire, then the answer to why it can't provide electrical power becomes pretty clear. The only way to get a constant current out of it (or into it) is to apply some sort of chemical means (battery) or electromagnetic means (generator, transformer, antenna) to drive current in a circuit involving it.",
"In the Earth there are a lot of charges moving around going nuts, some are formed from essentially friction so you get more free electrons in one region for example. How big that net positive number of electrons or any free charge I don't know the magnitude of so I'll make a slightly different argument which I think holds.\n\nThe earth is massive, so any slight fluctuation / excess in electric charge (due to an excess of charged particles somewhere) is so smeared out across the entirety of the earth - enough that the Earth can forever be considered neutral (quasineutral) - that any charge we might have - say in a charged up jumper, a van de graff generator, static build up etc, has a massive charge density comparatively. The large charge density therefore wants to equalise with the relatively negligible charge density of the earth, so the excess charge gets dissipated into the earth - electrons will flow either to or from the earth depending on the sign of the charge. \nWe can't draw electricity from the Earth because then we would be drawing on a basically 0 charge density. To do so would probably require more energy than the amount stored as excess charge in the Earth. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nHope that made some sense!"
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
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} | If we can discharge excess voltage into the Earth whenever we need to, why can't we draw a steady supply of electricity from the Earth in a similar way?
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24i5sm | What exactly keeps our brains 'in place,' and not from smashing into the skull all the time? | askscience | {
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"There are a series of 3 membranes, known as the meninges. The outermost is a thick layer lining and attached to the skull, the dura mater. Directly against and attached to the brain is the pia mater. In between these two is the arachnoid mater, a very loose membrane attaching the other two.\n\nEdit: Thanks Greg. We should be friends.\n\nEdit: People keep asking about meningitis. Meningitis is a swelling of the meninges, often caused by infection. The stuff is *super deadly,* especially the bacterial form. It can kill in just a couple days. Imagine you wake up at your dorm, attend a few classes, then get a little headache so you turn in early. And never wake up again. Its usually transferred through saliva. Good thing there's a vaccine for it. Many universities demand vaccination prior to attendance, and even if they don't, it's recommended you do. Look into your school's health coverage if they don't, it might cover most of the cost of vaccination, as well as some other needs.",
"Actually they do \"smash\" into the skull all the time. \n\nWhilst meninges do surround the brain as correctly described, within the dura mater - the brain swims around freely attached \"in place\" only by the veins that connect it to the top (bridge veins to superior saggital sinus). \n\nWhen we are dehydrated after a long night of drinking (or with age), our brain shrinks and \"hangs on\" via these veins. Deceleration trauma (car crash etc) tears out the veins much easier then. This is why risk of subdural (under dura mater) haematoma (bleeding) is more common in the elderly, dehydrated and people with a hangover.",
"Mostly been answered, but I'd like to add a fun fact: Sometimes in car crashes or other sudden jerks, your brain gets cushioned but bounces back and hits your skull on the other side. ie, if you fall back really fast, you hit the back of your skull but your brain hits the front of your skull. This results in damage on the opposite side of your head - there's a term for this but I never paid much attention in class.",
"The answer is a combination of things, but generally the rigidity of your rhombencephalon and mesencehpalon as well as the corpus callosum. These regions, structurally, are very rigid and act as fixed hubs for the rest of the squishy brain. While the brain is attached to the arachnoid space, dura and all that, and those structures DO bounce against the inner surface of the skull a little bit, what prevents the brain from smashing against the surface all the time (and help it preserve internal shape and tone) is thicker, white mattery structures. It's held in place by these structures internally that control how much \"give\" the gray matter will be given. If I asked you to hold the brain of a healthy 50 year old and a 50 year old with a demyleinating disease, you'd know instantly because the MS patients brain is far too soft. Gray matter represents the heads of neurons, while white matter represents the fatty myelin of neurons (when you open the brain, grey matter is pink, white matter is white; in MRI, T1 gray matter is gray, white is white)\n\nPretend your brain is a giant floating vat of jello. Your corpus callosum is like a thin piece of steak in the center of the jello, your rhombencephalon (medulla oblangata, pons etc...) is a pineapple core attached to the bottom of the bowl which is also loosely attached to the corpus callosum (from the MANY brains i've physically held I would say this to be true). If you're shaking that jello around, it will likely remain stuck to the those regions than SEPARATE from those regions and bounce against the surface. However, let's say you get hit really hard and your jello DOES separate somewhat from the steak, or other steak-like structures. That's what happens in traumatic brain injury, football, boxing etc... What would happen is you may not only damage the jello hitting the bowl, but you can also damage the jello separating (or pulling hard enough to cause damage) from the internal rigid structures. This can sometimes present itself as diffuse axonal injury (DAI) and contributes to the mosaic of reasons why one should not be hit in the head. \n\nNeuroanatomy is really fascinating, if only to realize that our being, our souls, our faults, our desires, our quirks and our spirit is a loosely held together collection of blood and fat that conducts electricity...poorly.",
"Hi, pathology resident with an undergrad in physics here, I cut the brains out of people who die of trauma on a routine basis and look at them under the microscope on my desk here. Incidentally, I got into medicine because I was riding my bicycle home and woke up in the street having been hit by a car.\n\nYour brain smashes into your skull all the time. Just shake your head a little bit, you can feel it.\n\nMore importantly, why does your brain rattling around not kill you? Well, first, it's all about acceleration and force. Injury does not occur until the load exceeds a failure strength of something: a blood vessel, neurons, microtubules, the skull, etc. Even then, the first thing that usually gets disrupted is the delicate balance of electrical activity we call consciousness. And this alone kills a lot of people, like, say, a diver who gets hit in the head while underwater, or a driver who looses consciousness in a burning vehicle.\n\nVascular disruption is the most common traumatic killer. Even a massive skull injury doesn't kill the brain. What kills the brain is pressure buildup as arterial blood flows in under pressure, which changes the delicate balance of inflow of nutrients and outflow of toxins. The neurons finally die when they drop the potential gradient across the membrane and metabolically lack the reserve to restore it.\n\nDiffuse neuronal injury is less well understood. I can talk to our neuropathologist about it if there are questions.",
"The topic of the brain smashing around requires some thought. Is the brain more dense, or less dense, than the CSF (which is effectively the same density as water)?\n \nIf the brain is less dense, a front impact would push the brain rearward, and vice versa. Just like a helium balloon in a car when you touch the brakes. \n \nSecondly, the brain is surrounded by CSF, which is incompressible. Only the density differences will lead to movement of the brain, and these are substantially smaller than the weight. For example, consider a bottle of water that contains a globule of fat on the top. The bottle is completely full, no air. Shake the bottle around and try to move the globule of fat around. That's a reasonable way to think about the brain smashing around. \n \nObviously when the accelerations are substantial enough, the brain DOES move around and the brain's dura and meninges do restrict the movement. The dura is pretty tough, but the meninges are effectively useless as a physical barrier. \n \nSource: brain surgeon and researcher\n\nEdit: brain total density estimate 0.8 g/cm^3",
"I can't believe that no-one has raised the topic of coup and contrecoup injuries which ARE the result of your brain smashing into your skull. These are typically a result of professional sports, car accidents, fights, etc. and result in significant brain damage:\n\n_URL_0_"
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4tr8y2 | Is 'not not and not not not' the same as 'not'? | Dunno if /r/asklogic exists is frequented or is populated but I was wondering; there can be 'not' and there can be 'not not' but can there also be a third of 'not not and not not not' or is the third the same as the first or second? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d5jluya",
"d5jm5h5",
"d5kdome"
],
"text": [
"The \"NOT\" operator in logic simply inverts the truth-value of whatever it acts on. NOT(A) is true if and only if A is false. In classical logic, there's no problem with applying the NOT() operator repeatedly. So NOT(NOT(A)) is true if and only if NOT(A) is false, so NOT(NOT(A)) is true if and only if A is true. And so forth with repeated applications of NOT().\n\nIn classical logic, we can therefore say that NOT(NOT(A)) is equivalent to A. Whenever you see one of those in an expression, you can replace it by the other.\n\nHowever, there's a branch of logic called intuitionistic logic (or sometimes constructive logic) where the concept of \"truth\" is replaced by \"constructive provability\". That is, a statement is considered to be true if there exists a constructive proof of it (with a constructive proof roughly speaking meaning that you can't use proof-through-negation or reductio ad absurdum).\n\nIn the framework of intuitionistic logic, it is not automatically the case that NOT(NOT(A)) is equivalent to A. For many statements A, this equivalence turns out to still be provable, but this is not true in general.",
"The third would be the same as the first, logically speaking.\n\nThis is A \nThis is not A \nThis is not \"not A\" (therefore it is A, since there are only A and \"not A\") \nThis is not \"not not A\" is the same as not A (since we have determined \"not not A\" is the same as \"A\", anything that is not \"not not A\" is not A) \n\nLinguistically it is a nonsensical nightmare.",
"*NOT(NOT(X)) = X* while *NOT(NOT(NOT(X))) = NOT(X)*, so the problem reduces to *X AND NOT(X)*. Since *AND* is only true when both inputs are true, and one of *X* and *NOT(X)* will always be true and one false, the output will always be false.\n\nSo *NOT(NOT(X)) AND NOT(NOT(NOT(X))) = false*, which isn't equivalent to *NOT*."
],
"score": [
10,
9,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is 'not not and not not not' the same as 'not'?
Dunno if /r/asklogic exists is frequented or is populated but I was wondering; there can be 'not' and there can be 'not not' but can there also be a third of 'not not and not not not' or is the third the same as the first or second? | [
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|
1are8p | How fast are our brain commands? Not our reaction time but the actual command of your brain commanding your finger to move. | I want to lift my finger the time it takes for my brain to tell my finger to move how fast is that? Has the speed been defined and what does the speed compare to?
Edit: Is brain command speed set and cannot be improved? Also the other way around can it be slowed? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c904d5d",
"c902f9n",
"c901x14"
],
"text": [
"It depends on what your brain is wanting to control at the time; and what the stimulus is. The reflex arc would cause your finger to move slightly faster than just simply wanting to move your finger. It also depends on whether the axons of the nerves are myelinated or not, the diameter of the neuron, the distance from the spinal cord, your sodium & potassium levels, number of neuroglia, and other variables.",
"[Not all that fast.](_URL_0_) Different sources will put it at a different speed, but it depends on the nerve in question and is never faster than about 200mph. This isn't actually surprising, as nerve impulses depend on chemistry within (and between) the nerve cells.",
"Well, you kind of have to take into account the reason the finger is moving, many reflexes don't actually pass through the brain before a response is generated, which obviously helps speed things up."
],
"score": [
3,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2002/DavidParizh.shtml"
]
} | How fast are our brain commands? Not our reaction time but the actual command of your brain commanding your finger to move.
I want to lift my finger the time it takes for my brain to tell my finger to move how fast is that? Has the speed been defined and what does the speed compare to? Edit: Is brain command speed set and cannot be improved? Also the other way around can it be slowed? | [
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4ct5lp | In diagrams where massive objects bend spacetime, what is depicted on the hight axis? | Take for example this picture: _URL_1_
What is on the hight axis (z-axis) How should one interpret such a graph? Secondly, in animations like this: _URL_0_, spacetime seems to bend "The other way"? what implications does that have? | askscience | {
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"These kinds of visualizations are meant to give you a rough idea what's going on, but shouldn't be taken too literally. In general relativity, spacetime is modeled as a curved manifold. A manifold is a space, roughly like the sheet in your picture, but it need not (and really should not) be thought of as existing inside some larger, ambient space. It can be defined purely in terms of the set of points it is comprised of, and the distances between these points. This information alone is enough to define notions like curvature, and (with some work) to build up the entire theory of general relativity. \n\nNow, due to our cognitive limitations, it is difficult to visualize a curved manifold existing independently, so it is often useful to imagine it as living inside a larger space. For many purposes this is useful, but it can also be misleading. For example, take a piece of paper and bend it into a U-shape. It now appears to have curvature, but this is really an artifact of the way it is \"embedded\" in flat, three dimensional space. One says that it has \"extrinsic curvature\" due to this embedding, but \"intrinsically\" it has no curvature; it is flat. In general relativity, since we don't talk about embeddings, only the manifold itself, only the \"intrinsic curvature\" is important.\n\nA rubber sheet, like in your picture, does a little better - since the distance between points on the sheet can stretch, its \"intrinsic curvature\" can be made non-zero, and so one can really think of this as an example of a two-dimensional curved manifold. But the precise way in which it is embedded in three dimensions (and in particular the \"height axis\" you asked about) is basically irrelevant to its intrinsic curvature, and does not play a role in general relativity.",
"It doesn't really work if you try to extend that 2D picture into three directions. The thing to look at, rather than the height of the sheet or what's above it, is how close the grid lines are to each other, when viewed from above. The rubber sheet is a helpful analogy, but it's not an exact description. I posted some links [here](_URL_0_) about 3D visualizations.",
"Honestly, despite the fact that the first picture you linked is used all the time in layperson descriptions of general relativity, it's kind of meaningless and somewhat incorrect. But it's meant to communicate an idea: The sense in which matter \"bends\" spacetime is indeed very similar to the way that a bowling ball sitting on a rubber sheet bends the rubber sheet. The difference is that in this analogy, you have to imagine that the rubber sheet is our entire universe. There is no such thing as stepping outside it. The vertical axis is meaningless. It takes a leap of thought (and 19th century mathematical insight) to understand that you don't actually need a third dimension to understand what life would be like living on that \"bent\" rubber sheet universe.\n\n*One reason why the picture doesn't really work is that it doesn't capture the Lorentzian nature of relativity. The biggest advantage of emphasizing the geometric point of view is that the effect of gravity is reduced to the fact that objects simply move along geodesics (straight lines), but in that picture, the path of the moon, for example, looks nothing like a straight line!",
"With regards to your first question, while it's commonly used more as a visual aid (and so wouldn't really represent anything more than a bent elasticated sheet), you will get a very similar diagram by plotting the [gravitational potential](_URL_1_), with x and y (the two flat axes) being some arbitrarily chosen directions.\n\nYou might have encountered the old physics equation E = m\\*g\\*∆H ? Basically, it means that the the potential energy required to lift an object by ∆H (or the energy released by dropping it ∆H) is a function of the mass, local gravity field, and change in height. \n\nNow, the full equation is a little more involved, since g is actually a vector, not a scalar (so you have to pay attention to which way the gravity is pulling you, rather than just plugging in the local strength) and moreover, it varies with distance from the source of the gravity, but if you set up your equations correctly, you can calculate the potential energy for any mass in any field relative to some point where there is no gravitational field.\n\nThis is useful to us, because we know that energy is dimensionless, so we no longer have to worry so much about the local direction of gravity. However, sense the potential energy depends on the mass of the object, it's still not really that general... So to solve that, we can divide it by the mass (taking our earlier dummy equation, basically saying E/m = g∆H); we now have a general map of potential.\n\nGreat. What does that mean though?\n\nWell, the gravitational potential is the energy per unit of mass (e.g. J per kg), which means that for an object at a gravitational potential of -5 J/kg, you will need 5 J of energy to lift a 1kg object out of the potential well. \n\nThis is usually defined as a negative value, with infinitely deep space (far from any gravity field) being at zero, because it makes the maths a little easier, but there's no real reason (I believe, not my field) you couldn't arbitrarily define it as 0 on say the earth's surface.\n\nHope that helps!",
"It's supposed to represent (imprecisely), then strength of distortion of space time due to a massive object. The lower the value, the higher the distortion.\n\nIn the first picture it bends more as it gets closer to Earth. Gravity is also strongest there. \n\nIn the second clip it's showing how the spinning objects create waves that we recently detected. Space was being compressed and stretched, and that information was being sent through spacetime.",
"The z-axis is \"amount of space here\". There's more space near massive objects than further away. Think of it like the tardis, but rather than there being a door, there's a gradient as you approach the object. Distance being a frame relative thing,and entropy being governed by information exchange, you get the time warping effect from light travelling different apparent distances from different frames if reference looking at each other from areas in which distance is different due to warped space.",
"Nothing. The dimensions in which the diagram is illustrate (3 dimensions: length, width, and height) are there because that's how it's best displayed. The actual curvature is the only part of the diagram that means anything, but it has to be within some greater space in order to display it. \n\nYou could make similar one and two dimensional diagrams, but the become less convenient. For example, here's some diagrams in two dimensions and only one:\n\n_____/ © \\______\n\n\\- - - - --©-- - - - - \n\n^©=massive ^object\n\nThese don't demonstrate the theory as well though. \n\nIf you want an even more accurate idea of how space is manipulated, imagine you're in outer space and surrounded by evenly spaced marbles, floating perfectly still, in a 3D grid (layers of grids stacked up). These marbles represent massless points and gravity does not apply to them, they will not move through space during this scenario.\n\nThen (I hope you're a Dragon Ball Z fan), you painfully strain yourself and, in a burst of power, achieve a far greater mass (and yellow hair). The marbles would move toward your center and close in on you, with the nearer ones moving the most and the farther ones moving the least (just as a bell curve increases exponentially, causing much greater difference from 0 near the center). The marbles aren't moving in space, but rather the space around you is sort of condensing and \"pursing inward\", which carries the marbles with it because they represent positions in the bending space.\n\nThere's no way to draw that, but if you can successfully imagine it then you might earn a better understanding of how space bends in three dimensions. Now try to imagine a point with so much mass that the space at its center is fully compressed into a one-dimensional point, so that the inner most marbles from before were brought together until there was no distance between them. Would the marbles overlap? I can't answer that one, sorry.",
"Curvature is a technical mathematical concept which is best conceptualized by laymen in terms of a curved sheet of rubber. That's why it's called curvature actually, because it models (among other things) the way a rubber sheet curves. It also models the way spacetime changes under the influence of gravity! \n\nBesides being described by the same mathematics, there is no real relationship between those things.",
"don't take those \"fabric/lattice\" visualisations of spacetime too literally,they are analogies. for one, this depiction ironically depends on Newtonian gravity(things roll down from peaks and land in valleys, and a fabric like depiction of spacetime usually has at least one valley created by a mass)\n\nthere is no complete and correct way to depict a four dimensional **anything** to a human being.",
"Nothing. The z axis is entirely meaningless.\n\nSo why use it at all? Well, the point is that, in the visualization, the parallel lines are not parallel near the massive body. The squares are bigger and not exactly square. How would you show a grid with distorted squares without using at least one extra dimension?",
"Eliminating redundant perceptual dimensions to visualize extradimensional effects allows us to easily grasp a concept that defies our cognitive limitations. Plato's the cave and Einstein both used similar techniques to think about concepts that push the edge of wonder. The height access doesnt represent height, it represents an effect on space over over time. Gravity."
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"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_GhkWuIDzpc",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg/1260px-Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg.png"
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} | In diagrams where massive objects bend spacetime, what is depicted on the hight axis?
Take for example this picture: _URL_1_ What is on the hight axis (z-axis) How should one interpret such a graph? Secondly, in animations like this: _URL_0_, spacetime seems to bend "The other way"? what implications does that have? | [
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|
ceqzvt | AskScience AMA Series: I study the mutualistic relationship between alligators and wading birds in the Everglades. AMA! | Hi everyone!
My name is Wray Gabel, I'm a Masters student at the University of Florida advised by Dr. Peter Frederick.
A little about my research--my thesis explores the mutualistic relationship between nesting wading birds and the American Alligator. Basically, wading birds get protection from nest predators (like racoons) and alligators get food from discarded nestlings. I'm looking to 1) better understand what alligators might be getting out of the deal and 2) how this mutualism might be changing wading bird colony location preferences when alligators are not around. I conducted my field work for part 1) in the Everglades and used existing wading bird colony location data from North and South Carolina for part 2).
A little about me--I actually grew up wanting to become a paleontologist, which was really what ignited my passion for field work and biology, but ultimately I found currently existing animals to be more fun than rocks.
I got my undergrad degree in Biology from Skidmore College, and after graduating I worked with seabirds in Japan (Hokkaido University), wading birds/waterbirds in San Francisco (San Francisco Bay Bird Observatory), and seabirds in Maine (Audubon's Project Puffin).
I'm mainly interested in the conservation of coastal and wetland ecosystems and hope to do something with wading bird, waterbird, and/or seabird monitoring in my future career as a wildlife biologist. I also minored in Studio Art while at Skidmore and plan to create an illustrated version of my thesis, and I'll be attending an Art-Science residency this fall! I've always been passionate about bridging the (artificial) divide between the two disciplines.
In what little spare time I have I enjoy hiking, traveling, playing video games/board games/rpgs, listening to/collecting music, and doing crossword puzzles!
I am doing this as part of an AMA series with the [UF/IFAS Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation](_URL_0_). I'll be on at noon (ET, 16 UT), AMA! | askscience | {
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"Do alligators still eat the birds given the opportunity? If so, is that still mutualistic? Don't the birds just nest in alligator habitats because fewer climbing predators are present? Maybe alligators are just opportunists.\n\nOr is all that what mutualism is?",
"Are the fanboat tours through the Everglades detrimental to the alligators, or do they spur interest in habitat preservation?\n\nSince alligators and crocodiles overlap in range in the Everglades and in Southern Florida in general, are there any interactions between them? Are there fights, or awkward mating attempts?",
"Hi and thanks for joining us today!\n\nAre alligator botulism die-offs a things? If so are they correlated to algae blooms?",
"How quickly is the alligator population expanding in north and South Carolina? \n\nAnd (to settle a debate I have with a friend if you don’t mind) if crocodilians had gone extinct in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, do you think that we would colloquially refer to them as dinosaurs today?",
"Hi! Do alligators ever eat wading birds or their nestlings? It sounds like from what you are researching this isn't common, but I'm curious if it does happen.",
"Hi, thanks for doing this! On your point #1, you mention that you are trying to understand what alligators might be getting out of it. Just before it sounded like it was discarded food. Is it not entirely that symmetric of a deal or is there something else going on?",
"> I'm looking to 1) better understand what alligators might be getting out of the deal\n\nDo alligators actively seek out spots near wading birds? Or is this more a case of the birds nesting near alligators and the alligator doesn't really have much say in the matter?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: I study the mutualistic relationship between alligators and wading birds in the Everglades. AMA!
Hi everyone! My name is Wray Gabel, I'm a Masters student at the University of Florida advised by Dr. Peter Frederick. A little about my research--my thesis explores the mutualistic relationship between nesting wading birds and the American Alligator. Basically, wading birds get protection from nest predators (like racoons) and alligators get food from discarded nestlings. I'm looking to 1) better understand what alligators might be getting out of the deal and 2) how this mutualism might be changing wading bird colony location preferences when alligators are not around. I conducted my field work for part 1) in the Everglades and used existing wading bird colony location data from North and South Carolina for part 2). A little about me--I actually grew up wanting to become a paleontologist, which was really what ignited my passion for field work and biology, but ultimately I found currently existing animals to be more fun than rocks. I got my undergrad degree in Biology from Skidmore College, and after graduating I worked with seabirds in Japan (Hokkaido University), wading birds/waterbirds in San Francisco (San Francisco Bay Bird Observatory), and seabirds in Maine (Audubon's Project Puffin). I'm mainly interested in the conservation of coastal and wetland ecosystems and hope to do something with wading bird, waterbird, and/or seabird monitoring in my future career as a wildlife biologist. I also minored in Studio Art while at Skidmore and plan to create an illustrated version of my thesis, and I'll be attending an Art-Science residency this fall! I've always been passionate about bridging the (artificial) divide between the two disciplines. In what little spare time I have I enjoy hiking, traveling, playing video games/board games/rpgs, listening to/collecting music, and doing crossword puzzles! I am doing this as part of an AMA series with the [UF/IFAS Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation](_URL_0_). I'll be on at noon (ET, 16 UT), AMA! | [
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|
o8num | What are some simple but stunning science experiments or demonstrations that you know of? I am teaching Science in a developing country and really want to spark the students' interest. | **EDIT 2:** *WOW! Your responses have been amazing. While due to lack of available materials I will not be able to do all of the suggested activities, I will do as many as I can manage! The experiments or demonstrations I cannot do I am tucking into my pocket to save for when I am teaching in the states again.*
*I will not be able to keep you updated as I go along, as my island does not have Internet access. However, I am going to do the best I can to document and take pictures and videos of everything, so when I get back to the states I can upload everything to show you!*
*I am going to be in Majuro for the next week, so I will continue to check this thread in between trying to find some suggested materials. Thank you again, AskScience! You guys are phenomenal.*
Hello, /r/askscience! You might remember me from a few months back, when I worked with you to answer questions from 6th graders. I'm back, with another education-related request!
I am currently with a volunteer organization teaching in the Marshall Islands. I am in Majuro, the main island, for mid service, so I have the luxury of Internet for the next few days. However, out at my placement site it is a very different world.
There is no Internet access, phones, or even running water. There is solar powered electricity, but mainly that is only to power some lightbulbs at night. The classrooms consist of a chalkboard and some desks, with occasionally enough desks for students. While there are a lot of books, most of them are in English, not Marshallese.
I was sent here to teach English, but during the first two weeks I observed how they were teaching Science, and I was a little taken aback. The teachers pull vocabulary words from the chapters, write them on the board, and write their English definitions. The students copy and memorize, then rewrite them for the test. There was no comprehension! One of the vocabulary words was Organ, and the given definition was something like, "tissue that performs a specific function" though I know that wasn't the exact definition. I asked a student to give me an example of an organ. She said tissue. I told her the lungs are an organ, they help you breathe. I asked again for an example. She said specific. I have her another example, and asked again, and she said performs. I told her the brain was an organ, and I asked her what it does, and she said function.
So you see how there is no comprehension!
Well, I talked to the teachers and told them the necessity of doing hands-on activities. Long story short, they handed me the teachers manuals and I now teach Science. It has been a challenge, because there are no materials to do experiments or demonstrations with, but thanks to my mom talking to a lot of people I have a lot of materials to work with, including a totally awesome microscope! (I can't wait to show them what's in the stagnant water they play in. And I'm starting an after school microscope club so it keeps getting used after the life science unit is done.) There are still one or two things I would like to have, but I have learned to be flexible and make do.
I have written a year plan with activities and English integration for Life, Physical, and Earth and Environmental Science, leaning heavily on the McGraw Hill textbooks at the school. I am teaching grades 1 through 8, though they are far far behind students in American schools. I feel pretty confident that what I have come up with will be engaging and effective, but I turn to this community in the hope that you have some ideas for demonstrations or experiments that make an impression, and can be accomplished with limited supplies.
I want to do the best I can, because the sad fact of the matter is after this year they may never have a chance at a solid science education. There is no guarantee that the teachers will pick up where I left off. I want to give them some sort of a basic understanding of the way their world works. To give an example of some of their misconceptions, some adults on my island think America is up in the sky, because thats where the planes go. Even if I only make an impresson on a few students... Maybe I can inspire one of them to pursue a science-related career!
I am looking forward to your feedback, r/askscience. You've been awesome to me in the past. I would also be happy to answer any questions you have about the Marshall Islands and whatnot!
EDIT: Ask Science, you are amazing! I am going to try to respond to each of you the best I can. The volunteer who will be sharing a boat with me is sick, so I will be in Majuro for at least one more week, giving me some time to try to pick up some supplies! I am going to try my best to do as many of see as possible and film it! When I come back in June I will try to post some videos and pictures as a follow-up.
You guys are amazing. You're like, the coolest place on the Internet! | askscience | {
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"I've always liked seeing a [magnet fall slowly down an aluminum tube](_URL_0_). \n\nWonderfully counter-intuitive and opens up a lot of discussion about something that is hard to visualize.",
"Inertia: Pull a cloth from under a plate. Make sure the cloth doesn't have a hem.\n\nCentripetal force: fill a cup with water, attach string to the top rim, and swing it around your head. Demonstrate that the water stays in the cup.\n\nYou can teach tides and moon phases together, having students plant sticks at the tide lines and keeping a phase calendar.\n\nHave someone send you a prism and lens kit to teach light and optics. (It's easiest to teach lenses if you actually have some). Alternatively, there might be a few students with glasses.\n\nI'll ask my mom for more. She's a middle school science teacher. Good luck!\n\nYou can also try asking in r/nonprofit and r/globalhealth. I bet there are a bunch of Peace Corps-style people in those subreddits who did education work overseas.",
"put a wheel on an axel so that the ends of the axel are sticking out. tie a rope/string to one end of the axel. hold the axel parallel to the ground (so the wheel is vertical), give the wheel a spin, and let go. the axel will not only not fall, but will begin to rotate about the point it's tied at.\nvideo here: _URL_1_",
"Worth noting, you are perfectly positioned to catch the transit of Venus at June 5-6 (if you are around then) The next one isn't until 2117!",
"Extract iron from cereal!\n\nThey can learn about why iron is important for health and magnetism. And it is always fun to learn about what is actually in your food.\n\nJust take some cereal with iron in it, Total works very well, though I'm not sure what your counties equivalent is. Then blend it with water until it is a liquid. Finally pull a magnet along the side of the glass or dip it in and swirl around. it is very surprising to find out how much metal there is!",
"I would recommend starting with more exploratory ecological studies, and let discussion of those lead to experiments designed by the students (yes, even sixth grader can do this, if you push them to constantly ask \"why\"). \n\nStart by asking, are there more plants or animals on the island? What about small fish compared to large fish? Why is this? If possible, go out and explore this, counting #s of trees, insects, small animals, large animals, etc. Come up (by vote, perhaps) with a good way to categorize the organisms. Do the same thing in the water, if you can. \n\nThe students should find that there are more organisms occupying lower trophic levels (e.g. producers) than higher trophic levels (e.g. predators). Ask \"why?\" You don't even have to use the word hypothesis. Come up with lists of questions, preferably some that you could test. For example, what if you killed all the large predators, or barred them from an area? What about the opposite? Where do humans fit into this? \n\nThis can lead into interesting discussions about the proper way to harvest the environment, if you feel like taking it that far.\n\nOther questions could revolve around potential anomalies you see. If you're on a reef that is easily explored, you could wonder why certain species are avoided by others. I'm sure the students are aware that some organisms are poisonous or spiky. You could speculate on how that could occur. Then you could speculate on how things figured out how to eat them anyways (evolutionarily speaking, although you don't have to directly go there - if you lead a discussion well enough, it becomes an implied part of the conversation, without the potential fallout of the strange white dude telling them a god didn't create everything).",
"I remember in second grade (I think) our teacher dropped a match in a bottle, and then put a hard boiled egg on top. It ended up sucking the egg right through the mouth of the bottle. [Here](_URL_2_) is an example.",
"I distinctly recall [this](_URL_3_) blowing my mind as a kid in elementary school. We had a science teacher do it with an array of wine glasses.",
"I always thought it was cool to shine a laser pointer at a strand of hair and measure the diffraction pattern to figure out the width of the hair. Then to do the same things from different types of materials (and different types of hairs).",
"I'm not a science-anything but how about Non-Newtonian fluids? From what I read one can be made from just cornstarch and water. Maybe someone with a science background can explain it better and give a recipe (dunno if you can search for that stuff since there's no internet)\n\n_URL_4_ but on a smaller scale\n\n-edited for clarity-",
"I liked practical experiments where you need to work out the best way to optimise something.\n\n1. Water rockets: get a 1.25 litre bottle, a cork with a pipe in it and a pump. Fill the bottle 1/3 or 1/2 or 1/4 or 2/3 or 3/4 or whatever full of water, pump it till it launches, see who can get one highest.\n\n2. paper clip helicopters: see whose can stay up the longest.",
"[Oscillating Clock Reaction](_URL_5_)\n\nThe best one in my opinion.\n\nEdit: Updated to a better link.",
"[Here](_URL_6_) is a protocol for extracting DNA from fruit with some easy to find ingredients.",
"Digging up worms.Research and prepare some worm facts for this.Wander amongst your students as they dig and impart the knowledge.Explain how worms span the globe,lie at the bottom of our oceans and even sometimes travel by air (though only for a short while in the grip of a mother birds beak).This would be a truly inspirational and cheap lesson to teach. :)",
"OK just a couple more. I also taught a biology unit where the kids planted 1 flower seed in an egg carton filled with soil. We got egg cartons from the cafeteria and cut them up so that each child had their own little pot. We were able to talk about the germination process, photosynthesis, etc. When the seedings started to outgrow their containers, we planted the flowers in the school's courtyard to make a little flower garden. A good way to elaborate on what we did would be to plant different types of seeds, like flowers, veggies, fruits, annuals, perennials, trees...you name it! Planting a vegetable garden could also be a good way to generate food for the school/community.\n\nLearn from my mistakes: -Plant 25-50% more seeds than there are students in the class. Hold on to the extras to give to students who kill their seedlings -Start early enough in the year so that your seedlings have some time to prosper before cold/rainy weather hits -Don't let any kids under 4th grade water their plants. The students are well intended but not well coordinated.\n\nAnother fun one is mixing non-toxic acrylic paint and dish soap with water. Make several colors. Stick the end of a straw into the soap-paint and you will be able to blow colored bubbles. You can explain surface tension and, depending on the grade, a TON of cool scientific properties of molecules that bubbles can demonstrate (just Google bubble science for ideas). Pop them against a white piece of paper and you can make some pretty impressive art. I did this as an art experiment for kindergardeners. \n\nIf you can find and identify (important so you know what to feed it) a caterpillar, kidnap it and make a little home for it in a large clear box. Use your new prisoner to teach children about metamorphosis. Take them out on a safari to identify plants and find food for the caterpillar, or assign this as homework. Discuss why environmental degradation would make it hard for the caterpillar to find food or otherwise survive. I prefer that you name this caterpillar Harrison.\n\nFeel free to PM me for a couple more ideas.",
"A straight stick in a glass of water appears to bend.\nTwo objects of different weights fall at the same rate.\nBoiling water freezes faster than room temperature.\n\nWhat are the the other things kids do on the Marshall islands? See how you can incorporate the scientific method into them!",
"Faraday's law of induction: Drop a magnet through a tube wrapped in wire, and connect it to a light. Watch the light flicker on as the magnet passes through.",
"If you have access to Pyrex and vegetable oil (I've heard Wesson works best) they often have the same index of refraction so any Pyrex placed into the veggie oil will essentially disappear. We did it in my first waves and optics class and it was really badass.",
"One of the more impressive demos that I have done is make a cloud in a bottle. All you need is a plastic bottle, rubbing alcohol, and a bike pump. [Here](_URL_8_) is a video of the demo that our class made to post on the school website. The only hard part is finding a way to keep the pressure in the bottle while you pump. I used a stem for a tire, but a stopper would work just as well.\n\nAnother demo that I really like is a [natural selection demo](_URL_7_). I used M & M's, but beans also work well. Natural selection can be difficult to teach and I feel that this gives a nice visual representation.\n\nI have a lot of cheap demos that I could help you with, is there a specific material that you want to cover?",
"I'm a science teacher, too. I'm going to assume that you have only the most standard chemicals available to you, things you would find in your average lab.\n\nGet some Bromophenol Blue and an acid. Pretty much any acid would do as long as the pH is less than 3.\n\nPour the acid into one beaker and the bromophenol blue into another. Make sure you use enough bromophenol blue for the color difference to be quite noticeable. You can even dip a paper towel into the bromphenol to show them the blue color.\n\nAsk them what color you should get when you mix dark blue and clear liquids. Students will answer light blue most likely.\n\nWhen you mix them together, the solution will turn yellow. This opens up lots of avenues of discussion (hypotheses, chemical reactions, etc.)\n\nNow, if you have some potassium chlorate sitting around, you could do the gummi bear combustion.\n\nPut some potassium chlorate in a test tube and heat it over a bunsen burner. Use a ring stamp and clamp to hold it above the flame.\n\nOnce the potassium chlorate crystals have melted and begin bubbling, drop in a gummi bear. The reaction converts the sugar in the gummi bear into purple fire. You also get a lovely aroma of baked cookies (with a not so nice dash of smoke).",
"I'm not strongly scientific but two experiments from my childhood have come to mind reading through all of these replies. One is looking at a piece of the clear membrane covering onion layers through a microscope - it was really mind blowing at around 13 to see the cell formations of such an every day object and if I recall correctly we only really used the onion, a slide to place a sample of the skin on and the microscope. This website describes what we did quite well: _URL_9_ \n\nThe second I did when I was a bit younger, and I'm not positive you'd have the resources but basically getting a flower to absorb coloured liquid, I think we did this with originally white carnations and blue and red food colouring in the water and it worked really well. Was a very novel experiment and demonstrates the capillary action of a flower, see _URL_10_ for instructions and a great explanation of the science behind the experiment. Most importantly have fun! :)",
"Have you seen the TED Talk, Arvind Gupta: Turning trash into toys for learning.\n_URL_11_ \nIt has some great little examples of cheap hands on things you can make for very cheap. The simplest motor etc.",
"An experiment that blew my mind in primary school was to prove that air has weight.\n \nMake a simple counter balance scale (with two rulers and a nail for example) and attach an empty balloon at each end with a piece of string - let it balance nicely.\n \nNow inflate one of the balloons - the inflated balloon will weigh more and your scale will tip.",
"[XKCD](_URL_12_) has a wonderful thread full of these.",
"Dirt cheap with some preparation:\n\nTwo 1 1/2 liter plastic water bottles.\n\nOne filled with 25cc water, the other one almost full.\n\nYou have a box with a glass front and something to 'guide' the bottles (small wooden framework), open at the bottom.\n\nIf you can rig it: a small battery-operated electrical circuit that completes when the bottles hit the bottom and a light at either end of the box lights up..\n\nMake it so that both bottles start falling at the same time (some kind of trap that falls away at the same time for both bottles).\n\nThe students see the bottles. Ask which bottle will hit the bottom first. Going by how your students understand 'organ', most will probably go with intuition and say that the heaviest bottle will hit the bottom first.\n\nDrop bottles, both lights light up at the same time. \n\n_Amazement!_\n\nShould be very cheap to make, is a great demonstration.\n\n/If somebody already mentioned this, I'm sorry about that.",
"Earth science student (Geology) here. I would suggest something that is related to their everyday lives but I have no idea how the area is like so I can't think of anything. Well, here are a few simple things:\n\n1) A sealed container with a plant and some animal/bug. This should demonstrate the role of plants and how us animals are kicking.\n\n2) If you somehow got some strong acid... get some sugar and watch it turn into more or less pure carbon. This should demonstrate chemical reaction and how it can change things.\n\n3) Something doing with displacement of water. Perhaps you can tie this in how tsunamis form and more daily life stuff.\n\nHrmm, that is all I can really think of. Again, I am not sure what supplies you have. Good luck!",
"* [Wooden machines](_URL_20_)\n* [Hand crank generator made from cordless drill](_URL_18_)\n* [Lemon battery](_URL_14_)\n* Google \"science fair projects\"\n* My favorite: [Toys from Trash](_URL_17_)\n* Power a car with a simple mouse trap. Google \"mouse trap car\". [Here](_URL_16_) and [here](_URL_19_).\n* Make your own ferrofluid. Google it.\n* [_URL_15_](_URL_21_) has a lot of DIY projects.\n* When you apply current to a DC motor (run by a battery), the motor turns. When you turn a DC motor, it creates current at the terminals. Try using a cordless drill motor or hobby motor to generate electricity from wind. [Instructables generator from cordless drill](_URL_13_)",
"There is nothing better for demonstrating vibration, rotation, and standing waves than a strobe light. Pluck a guitar string (or similar) with the strobe set to that frequency plus 1 or 2 Hz, and you can see the string vibrate as if in slow motion, it's very cool. Spin a coin to see the same effect. Take a small fan and mark an X on one of the blades, then use the strobe light to make the X appear to stop, and use this to explain periods of rotation.",
"I used to live in Laos. What made the largest impact was a simple microscope, where students could bring in samples of rice paddy water, and we could proceed to look at all the protozoa mucking about in a drop on a slide.\n\nNot only did it help encourage compliance when it came to boiling water to drink, the kids loved being able to see what new thing they could find in 'their' water. The microscope was heavily used the entire year.",
"My favorite is the demonstration of how ions conduct electricity. \nThe setup is very simple and cheap. \nYou will need purified water, salt, copper wire, a lightbulb, and a battery.\nAttach the copper wire to the battery and place the ends in the water. Do the same for the light bulb. \nThe bulb will not light until you place salt into the water. \nIts pretty cool that by placing small rocks into water you can cause the light to turn on.",
"I've always liked [homopolar motors](_URL_22_) as a cheap/easy/surprising way to demonstrate the lorentz force (magnetic force acting on a current carrying wire)",
"corn starch with water. Makes a goopy material that's fun to play with, is very cheap, and shows non-Newtonian fluids",
"Many folks have some great suggestions about observational things that correlate with science, but imo the most important thing you can teach in a science class is the Scientific Method. If you have access to simple cooking ingredients and equipment there are many many basic biology experiments you can do.\n\nCellular respiration\n\n1) Materials: Baker's Yeast, Molasses, Boiled (sterile) water, clear sterilizable small glasses or bottles (plastic or glass, as long as you can boil them), balloons or condoms (depending upon cultural acceptance of condoms as classroom tools).\n\n2) Method: You need 15 bottles/glasses in all (12 US fluid ounce, clear, glass beer or soda bottles are best), and they should all be the same size. Immerse your bottles/glasses in a large pot of water and let boil for 20 minutes or so while covered. Let cool while keeping the pot covered, empty and cover each bottle or glass with a square of aluminum foil or saran wrap. Let bottles/glasses dry.\n\nBoil a separate volume of water, covered and large enough to fill all the bottles/glasses. Let the water cool. Use one bottle and fill it to the top. Decant 2 US fluid Ounces from it and discard that water. Add a packet of baker's yeast to the remaining 10 fl oz and mix by swirling.\n \nLabel 11 bottles 0-10, and label 3 as \"0 (-)\", \"5 (-)\", and \"10 (-)\". Add a corresponding amount of molasses to each bottle (10 oz to the bottles labled \"10\" and \"10 (-)\", 9 oz to the one bottle \"9\", etc. Add the boiled (now cool) water to all the bottles to fill to 10 oz (no water to the bottles labeled \"10\", and 10 oz water to the bottles labeled \"0\"). Last, add 1 FL oz of your yeast-water mixture to each of the 11 bottles labled with just a number. Be sure to keep actively swirling your yeast mix bottle between decanting to make sure that you don't get settling of your yeast. Do not add yeast to the bottles labled with \"X (-)\", only add a single fl oz of your boiled/cooled water to these bottles (in addition to the 10 fl oz of mollasses or water or mixture). \n\nAffix a balloon over the top of each bottle and secure it tightly with string under the lip of the rim. If you are using glasses, try condoms instead. You can make a \"ring\" at the top by taping a section of string around the outer perimeter of the glass and then have the condom rolled just down to the edge of it (to prevent the condom from slipping to the bottom of the outside of the glass). Mix each bottle by swirling - be sure each bottle is swirled as similarly as possible. The idea here is to make sure the yeast/water/molasses is as evenly mixed in each bottle as possible)\n\nLine all the bottles up in a row at the front of your classroom and watch them day after day. If you have a camera, take pictures of the row every day, and use a tailor's tape measure and record the circumference of each ballon every day. Make the whole class keep a lab notebook or collectively keep the notebook on your chalkboard. The experiment is done when the balloons stop expanding or when the first one pops, which ever comes first.\n\n3) Explain to the kids about fermentation, and cellular respiration. Ask them to make a hypothesis about what they expect the results to be. make them take bets on which bottle will make the balloon expand the fastest.\n\n4) Questions you should prepare to answer:\n-Why did the bottle with no mollasses not expand (or expand very little)?\n-Why did the bottle with all mollasses not expand (or expand very little)?\n-Which bottle produced the most gas to inflate the balloon, and what can inferred from this?\n-What was the purpose of the 3 bottles labeled \"X (-)\"?\n-How could this experiment be improved to produce more information?\n\n\nAnyway, I think you get the idea. Once you teach these kids the methond, and the concept of positive and negative controls, they will start getting ideas about how to test all kinds of thier own ideas about things.",
"Not sure if you'll see this, but I teach non-classroom science in NYC. I have access to museums and collections etc, so a lot of what I do might not apply (not to mention the different locations). My focus is anthropology, but I've done a smattering of K-6th science as well. \nI've upvoted all the posts saying \"get them to design their own experiments.\" Getting them to ask \"why\" is going to be your most useful thing you can teach them. But to add suggestions:\n\nFor younger ones, definitely do units on insects, they'd be fun to capture, kids can do biomes and document their eating and growth cycles. This can branch into work on food chains and ecology, and gets them thinking about ecological issues in their community. \n\nOptical illusions are great for teaching how the brain and eyes work together and can be as simple as making flipbooks or using tubes of paper to see a hole in your hand. Plus kids can make them themselves.\n\nIf you're teaching evolution, and have access to different kinds of beans (or just different kinds of small food) and some forks, knives and spoons, you can have students compete for resources and \"die off\" if they can't find enough food. Its a fun way of introducing natural selection. \n\nMost schools put anthropology in \"social studies\" units, but if you have the flexibility kinship for older kids can be a fun mind bender. Have them go home and write family trees, then introduce them to other kinds of kinship systems and have the figure out what would change if they were born somewhere else. Or make the class \"family tree\" and have them figure out who they're related to and who they can marry. It really gets kids thinking about how much is culturally relative.\n\nAlso, you said you have limited internet access but here's some websites that can give you ideas :\n\nNeuroscience for kids: _URL_25_\n\nNat Geo kids: _URL_23_\n\nZoom Science (love this one): _URL_24_\n\nHope this helps (if you ever see it).",
"I've mentioned this experiment on reddit before, but I'll go through it again. There are some extremely cheap experiments you can do to demonstrate some principles of chemistry. One fun one that uses quite a range is the reaction of chalk (yes, the kind you write on blackboards with--it's just CaCO3) with HCl. The reaction releases carbon dioxide, which you can trap in a balloon that obviously takes up lots of volume, despite the solution looking like it's still the same size.\n\nYou can also pick up a pH indicator fairly cheap, with which you can do a number of things, but specifically related to this experiment, if you bubble the contents of the balloon back through neutral water, it will acidify the solution because CO2 forced into water goes right back into creating carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is the conjugate acid of the carbonate ion released during the CaCO3 decomposition. This will turn a solution of, for example, methyl red from clear (at neutral pH) to pink/red (pH < 4.4).\n\nAlso worth noting is that the monobasic form of H2CO3 is HCO3(-), also known as bicarbonate. If the counterion in solution is sodium, then you have sodium bicarbonate, which is household baking soda.\n\nSo, this is a fun experiment using pretty basic stuff that demonstrates things related to the ideal gas law, what happens when a reaction releases gas, equilibria, the relationship between acids and bases, and the chemical use of things that go into household chemicals (and carbonated beverages). That's not to say you have to describe all of that, but it's nice because you can easily expand it from middle school to intro college level comprehension. Also, it bubbles a lot and involves a color change, both of which are nice visual aids for kids.",
"this is something that kids would love and everyone can participate in. Wheat farmers used to chew on grains to make \"farmers gum\". Chew on some grains, and after about 10-15 minutes it turns into something very similar to chewing gum. [This website explains it](_URL_26_). I did this when I was a kid and I remember thinking it was amazing, plus it got me thinking about what's actually inside a seed, and how we can get all sorts of wonderful products from mundane-looking plants. \n\nYou could work this into a biochemistry lesson. Talk about how seeds are storehouses of protein (gluten is the main protein in the wheat seed) and starch. You could explain how saliva has enzymes (amylase) that turn the starch into sugars - these dissolve in your mouth which is why the ground wheat transforms into a lump of mostly gluten after a while. Enzymes in action!\n\nYou could easily fill a whole lesson on the chemistry of breadmaking. How the starch is eaten up by the yeast which produce C02 (the air bubbles in bread): leavening agents! Meanwhile the stretchiness of gluten allows bread to rise and get fluffy, while still staying all stuck together. This is why you have to knead the dough if you want your bread to rise - \"agglutinate the gluten\". The farmers gum is a jumping off point for all kinds of chemistry and biology stuff\n\nSimple and cheap chemistry demo, plus everyone gets to chew gum the whole time (something kids normally aren't allowed to do at school, so it's fun!)",
"This one is really long-term, but if you have an entire academic year, it might be worth it. It blew my mind as a kid.\n\nWe went out to the playlot on the autumnal equinox, and at exactly noon, we painted a line to indicate where the shadow of the top of the flagpole fell. Throughout the next 6 months, our teacher would occasionally remind us to check the location of the shadow at noon. The line never matched up; the shadow was always too long. It got longer throughout the fall and then started getting shorter after new year's, until finally, on the vernal equinox, we went back to the playlot and at noon on the dot, the shadow lined up perfectly. My teacher then explained about the tilt of the earth's axis, the way it affects the weather and creates the seasons, and why after 6 months the shadow had returned to exactly the same spot, and then why it would now get shorter every day until the summer solstice.\n\nI had certainly never doubted that the earth was round, but to see reality line up so neatly with the model was really eye-opening.",
"Archimedes, was asked to resolve a problem for the King. The king had asked his blacksmith to make him a crown, and the King was to provide the Gold to melt so the Blacksmith could forge it.\nArchimedes suspected that the Blacksmith had taken some of the gold and replaced inside bits of the crown with other poorer metals (iron, copper, etc).\nArchimedes realised after being in the bathtube that the water level rose as he submerged himself in the tube. This is was a really precise way to measure the volume of irregular objects (say, a crown). Scales already existed by this time, so the intensive measurement known as Density = Mass/Volume was developed.\n(It's also said that Archimedes yelled Eureka! after he realised of his discovery).\n\nCarry different objects, regulars and irregulars (ie: cubes, and certain objects which would be easy to calculate their volume, and some irregular, also try to find the material density or specific weight), and make them guess/calculate the density, or wieght of said objects)\nYou could take metal, wood, plastic, etc.",
"Steve Spangler occasionally appears on the Ellen DeGeneres talk show to do fancy experiments. He's written several how-to books on creating cool experiments with every day materials. I tutored elementary age children for several years and they went crazy when I dropped a piece of dry ice into colored water, so these experiments could be life-changing.\n\nLink to videos of past experiments: _URL_27_\n\nBooks\n#1. *Fire, Bubbles and Exploding Toothpaste*, experiments include: \nFloating Bowling Balls,\nPop Bottle Music,\nBouncing Smoke Bubbles,\nWalking on Eggshells,\nBalancing Nails,\nFireproof Balloon,\nSkateboard Rocket Car\n\n\n#2. *Naked Eggs and Flying Potatoes*, experiments include:\nBubbling Lava Bottle,\nThe Incredible Can Crusher,\nNails for Breakfast,\nThe Folding Egg,\nQuicksand Goo,\nScreaming Balloon,\nBurning Money,\nTrash Can Smoke Rings,\nGlacier Gak,\nFlying Toilet Paper,\nand many, many more!",
"Take cuttings of plants and place them into a glass of water in the light. Vegetative stems (those making more leaves) will often form roots which you can plant and generate a whole new plant. If you take an inflorescence stem (one forming flowers) it won't grow. Vines often work best, but you can try it out on a variety of plants. \n\nDescribing the hormones that make this possible and all that may be a bit much, but you could talk about how cells in plants are indeterminate compared to animals. Talk about clonal propagation vs sexual? \n\nAnd they may have a flower to take home to their parents afterwards.",
"Mealworms!\n\nIf you can find them at a pet store, buy two dozen or so meal worms and put them in a tub full of oatmeal. At the top of the tub keep a damp paper towel for drinking/moisture in addition to a few slices of apples (this will also ensure that the meal worms will usually be at the top of the tub).\n\nIn a relatively small amount of time the meal worms will go from larval stage to their pupa stage, and then their adult stage in a week or so after that. It's a great way to teach children about the insect kingdom.",
"A simple one that I always used to do in class was to take one paper cup and light it on fire, then take an identical paper cup and fill it with water and try to light it on fire as well.\n\nDue to the specific heat of the water in the cup, the paper can't get hot enough to ignite when filled with water. Great intro to heat / thermodynamics for students.",
"[Cool chemistry experiment](_URL_28_), if you have the supplies.\n\n*Edit: I posted the first link from my phone, which didn't work for me when I got on my computer. This link should work, and might be a better video. Also, when my classmate did this (in a chemistry for elementary school teachers class) he used a bottle instead of a cup. It was super cool.",
"Get an empty soda can and fill it up with a few Tablespoons of water. Heat it on a hot plate or a stove to make steam, then quickly take it off the hot plat and invert it into an ice bath.\n\nThe can will implode.\n\nThis deals with phase changes, and pressure/volume/temperature relations.",
"_URL_29_\n\nIt's a text from a guy that teaches Kids binary. Its not so much about the topic itself but the way he teaches it. He constantly asks the children questions and really sparks their interests.\n\nIf they have any use at all for binary, maybe you should try this",
"If you can find different bits of metal (magnesium, tin, etc.) burn them and see how the flame turns different colors. Also, you can demonstrate that heat = energy = calories by burning different dry food substances and comparing how long each food burns.",
"Drano + alumin(i[for the Aussies])um foil; put a balloon over the mouth of the bottle and watch it fill up with hydrogen gas. Then you light it up and explode that shit. Bitches love exploding shit.",
"Here's a nifty trick that only requires milk, food coloring, and dish soap:\n\n_URL_30_\n\nThe dish soap breaks down the fat in the milk, causing the food coloring to swirl around. Simple and visually impressive.",
"Cymatics: The study of visible sound and vibration.\n\nAll you need is a speaker, an amplifier, a signal generator (computer) and some sand (pretty easy to find):\n\nWARNING: TURN DOWN YOUR VOLUME\n\n_URL_32_\n\n_URL_31_\n\n_URL_33_",
"show them a potato battery, that could be quite an inspiring experiment for kids in a developing country.\n\nit can be done with other fruit/veg too. you'll find loads of vids and articles on google.",
"You can teach them how a compass works. All you need is a needle, a magnet, a cork and some water. This is similar to how I did it in elementary. \n\n _URL_34_",
"This one doesn't get done often, but you should do reversible mixing in low reynolds numbers. I think stirring in glycerol should do the trick and there are plenty of youtube videos.",
"A lot of [these](_URL_35_) may be doable with materials close at hand. Anything involving corn starch is a fun time. If you can scrounge some film, pinhole cameras are great.",
"I love this [scale model solar system](_URL_36_) experiment. You need a few small items, a mile or so of straight flat ground, and some time to walk it.",
"You can always show them the [Stroop Effect](_URL_37_) (preferably in their native language, which shouldn't be too hard to set up).\n\nEdit: *shouldn't* be too hard...",
"if you are going for making a big impression you can do the Mentos into diet cola... it certainly will get them talking.",
"Big fan of putting a candle inside a container and sealing it; generates a significant vacuum due to reaction of the oxygen.",
"Hitting two large ball bearings togeather with paper between. Where they hit will be slightly burnt fromthe kinetic energy turning to heat",
"I was purely interested in chemistry after watching magnesium burn... pretty bright lights, humans are way too simple.",
"you should check out Household Hacker on youtube...he has some cool experiments that he shows how to do",
"Double slit experiment demonstrating wave particle duality!\n_URL_38_\n\nThat shit blows my mind every goddamn time.",
"Put pepper in water then put dish soap on finger put finger in water wow.",
"Double slit diffraction of light to demonstrate its a wave",
"My favorite was always sugar and sulfuric acid :)"
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"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBN_cYEgeMA",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=sy5NY-Dqdys#t=136s",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZdfcRiDs8I",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pMQzSZdjrz8",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f2XQ97XHjVw",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-RFb8T2ED5E&feature=related",
"http://sciencecafe.org/content/2008/12/22/extract-dna-from-fruit/",
"http://www.nylearns.org/module/content/pyb/resources/13965/view.ashx",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t1Hsn28skU4",
"http://teachertech.rice.edu/Participants/dawsonm/cells/microlab4.htm",
"http://www.stevespanglerscience.com/experiment/colorful-carnations",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/arvind_gupta_turning_trash_into_toys_for_learning.html",
"http://forums.xkcd.com/viewtopic.php?f=18&t=8000",
"http://www.instructables.com/id/Generator-Demonstration-from-Cordless-Drill/",
"http://www.hilaroad.com/camp/projects/lemon/lemon_battery.html",
"Instructables.com",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mousetrap_car",
"http://www.arvindguptatoys.com/toys.html",
"http://www.zetatalk.com/energy/tengy05n.htm",
"http://www.instructables.com/id/Mouse-Trap-car/",
"http://woodgears.ca/machines.html",
"http://www.instructables.com",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3aPQqNt15-o",
"http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/kids/activities/funscience/",
"http://pbskids.org/zoom/activities/sci/",
"http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chvision.html",
"http://www.informeddemocracy.com/bread/activitiesFrmSet.html",
"http://www.stevespanglerscience.com/who-is-steve-spangler/ellen-degeneres",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zRcG7ghjzRs&feature=related",
"http://www.garlikov.com/Soc_Meth.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hPFwDaR1g70",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xSjWt9zxeuw",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GtiSCBXbHAg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymatics",
"http://www.madsci.org/experiments/archive/860218908.Es.html",
"http://www.sciencebob.com/experiments/index.php",
"http://www.noao.edu/education/peppercorn/pcmain.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-slit_experiment"
]
} | What are some simple but stunning science experiments or demonstrations that you know of? I am teaching Science in a developing country and really want to spark the students' interest.
**EDIT 2:** *WOW! Your responses have been amazing. While due to lack of available materials I will not be able to do all of the suggested activities, I will do as many as I can manage! The experiments or demonstrations I cannot do I am tucking into my pocket to save for when I am teaching in the states again.* *I will not be able to keep you updated as I go along, as my island does not have Internet access. However, I am going to do the best I can to document and take pictures and videos of everything, so when I get back to the states I can upload everything to show you!* *I am going to be in Majuro for the next week, so I will continue to check this thread in between trying to find some suggested materials. Thank you again, AskScience! You guys are phenomenal.* Hello, /r/askscience! You might remember me from a few months back, when I worked with you to answer questions from 6th graders. I'm back, with another education-related request! I am currently with a volunteer organization teaching in the Marshall Islands. I am in Majuro, the main island, for mid service, so I have the luxury of Internet for the next few days. However, out at my placement site it is a very different world. There is no Internet access, phones, or even running water. There is solar powered electricity, but mainly that is only to power some lightbulbs at night. The classrooms consist of a chalkboard and some desks, with occasionally enough desks for students. While there are a lot of books, most of them are in English, not Marshallese. I was sent here to teach English, but during the first two weeks I observed how they were teaching Science, and I was a little taken aback. The teachers pull vocabulary words from the chapters, write them on the board, and write their English definitions. The students copy and memorize, then rewrite them for the test. There was no comprehension! One of the vocabulary words was Organ, and the given definition was something like, "tissue that performs a specific function" though I know that wasn't the exact definition. I asked a student to give me an example of an organ. She said tissue. I told her the lungs are an organ, they help you breathe. I asked again for an example. She said specific. I have her another example, and asked again, and she said performs. I told her the brain was an organ, and I asked her what it does, and she said function. So you see how there is no comprehension! Well, I talked to the teachers and told them the necessity of doing hands-on activities. Long story short, they handed me the teachers manuals and I now teach Science. It has been a challenge, because there are no materials to do experiments or demonstrations with, but thanks to my mom talking to a lot of people I have a lot of materials to work with, including a totally awesome microscope! (I can't wait to show them what's in the stagnant water they play in. And I'm starting an after school microscope club so it keeps getting used after the life science unit is done.) There are still one or two things I would like to have, but I have learned to be flexible and make do. I have written a year plan with activities and English integration for Life, Physical, and Earth and Environmental Science, leaning heavily on the McGraw Hill textbooks at the school. I am teaching grades 1 through 8, though they are far far behind students in American schools. I feel pretty confident that what I have come up with will be engaging and effective, but I turn to this community in the hope that you have some ideas for demonstrations or experiments that make an impression, and can be accomplished with limited supplies. I want to do the best I can, because the sad fact of the matter is after this year they may never have a chance at a solid science education. There is no guarantee that the teachers will pick up where I left off. I want to give them some sort of a basic understanding of the way their world works. To give an example of some of their misconceptions, some adults on my island think America is up in the sky, because thats where the planes go. Even if I only make an impresson on a few students... Maybe I can inspire one of them to pursue a science-related career! I am looking forward to your feedback, r/askscience. You've been awesome to me in the past. I would also be happy to answer any questions you have about the Marshall Islands and whatnot! EDIT: Ask Science, you are amazing! I am going to try to respond to each of you the best I can. The volunteer who will be sharing a boat with me is sick, so I will be in Majuro for at least one more week, giving me some time to try to pick up some supplies! I am going to try my best to do as many of see as possible and film it! When I come back in June I will try to post some videos and pictures as a follow-up. You guys are amazing. You're like, the coolest place on the Internet! | [
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luhpd | How is it possible for humans to thermoregulate when humidity is 100% and ambient temperature is greater than 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (e.g., jungle conditions)? | Conduction would favor increasing the body's temperature, and it seems as though sweating would not be effective in such circumstances. How is it that people don't all overheat and die when it gets hot in the jungle?
EDIT: Thanks for all the responses! | askscience | {
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"You can still have evaporation in 100% humidity. But the short answer is you just described the perfect conditions for heat stroke in less than a few hours. _URL_0_",
"Your question is flawed:\n*[The temperature in a rain forest rarely gets higher than 93 °F (34 °C) or drops below 68 °F (20 °C); average humidity is between 77 and 88%;](_URL_1_)*",
"Very interesting question! Heat stroke is clinically defined as > 40.5°C, so in a water-saturated environment where an ambient temp of greater than that will result in heat stroke. I'm not sure if there are any biochemical or physical processes that can get around this, but generally people living in these environments also have adaptive traits that make them more tolerant to heat. Also keep in mind that local microenvironments with more shade are cooler and less humid (e.g. caves).\n\nEdit: there may be a few environments in which both of your criteria are true (e.g. a mining shaft) but someone else posted below that jungles generally do not meet them.",
"There's some fairly famous underground [crystal caves](_URL_2_) in Mexico that have this problem:\n\n > The combination of 90 percent humidity and a temperature of 118 degrees Fahrenheit (48 degrees Celsius) inside the cave can kill an unprepared human in just 30 minutes.\n\nHere's how the researchers deal with it:\n\n > Exploring the Naica caves requires more than just industrial strength water pumps. Scientists entering the complex in 2008 and 2009 wore custom-made, 45-pound (25-kilograms) cooling suits that extend mission times from 15 minutes to an hour.\n\n > Each suit contains several ice-filled compartments as well as respirators connected to ice-filled backpacks, which send cool air to the wearer's lungs. Masks protect the eyes, which can scorch in the cave's heat.",
"Rainforest temps are on avg 80-90 degrees Fahrenheit with 50-90% humidity. I imagine that prolonged exposure to the environment you described would cause dangerous stress, but isn't typical.",
"This definitely isn't the entire solution, but one thing I'd like to add is about UCP's. Un-coupling proteins act to shunt some of your mitochondrial energy generation into pure heat production. Humans living in very hot areas of the world have a lot less UCP's than humans living in colder climates.\n\nSo the body of a jungle living person produces a lot less extra heat than a canadian's body.",
"Where I work, we cannot work once the temperature gets over 32° C *wet bulb*. This is meant to be the humidity/temp that your sweat no longer cools you.",
"I'd guess, your thinking of the Wet Bulb Temperature - when you are considering the humidity and its affect on thermoregulation.\n\nWhile in industry, generally we use WBGT or something similar (which takes into account humidity, air velocity, radiation (both solar and non), and of course ambient temperature - and then later adjust fr clothing worn, acclimatization...).\n\nYou are quite right in assuming that if the wet bulb temperature got up to around 35C+ the temperature differential would make sweating lose almost all its efficiency (the sweat would simply not evaporate much). However, that temperature simply DOES NOT happen at all on earth.\n\nA wet bulb above 30C is going to correspond to heat advisory warnings no matter the scale. Its rare for most places to even get to that point. Just about any regulatory body would recommend the stoppage of work at those temperatures except for acclimatized individuals in 15 min on / 45 min off rotations.\n\nThat's considerably less then the 100% relative humidity / 98.6F described.\n\nAgain, to preface - humidity and temperature are only two factors of the bodies ability to thermoregulate (wind, radiation, clothing, acclimatization, etc.)\n\nSurprisingly the coastal middle eastern areas are generally the worst off in regards to heat stroke (although they are generally more acclimatized). This is a bit outside my knowledge base, however I'd hypothesize it has more to do with being a hot desert region (hot, dry and exposed to direct solar radiation) as well as having the ability to become very humid from ocean based weather conditions.\n\nThe jungle, while still not pleasant gets very humid but not overly hot.\n\nEither way, the hottest wet bulb I have ever heard of was 32 or 33C. Significantly lower then the 'deadly' 35C or so. A psychrometric chart can loosely correspond that temperature to the more recognized dry bulb temperature. However 120F and 30% RH doesn't even break 90F (~89F) on the wet bulb scale. That is a disgusting temperature.",
"Moving air that has less than 100% humidity will be able to evaporate some water to cool your skin. \nIf the air actually has 100% humidity, there's always the chance that it will supersaturate..."
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} | How is it possible for humans to thermoregulate when humidity is 100% and ambient temperature is greater than 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (e.g., jungle conditions)?
Conduction would favor increasing the body's temperature, and it seems as though sweating would not be effective in such circumstances. How is it that people don't all overheat and die when it gets hot in the jungle? EDIT: Thanks for all the responses! | [
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|
26707j | I have been told that most of the stars we see have exploded, so why is it that the southern cross and others like it are still there after all this time? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"chod8hf",
"chobwbz",
"choc12f"
],
"text": [
"Stars live at least millions or billions of years depending on their size, and most stars we see are within a few thousand light-years, which means their light takes a few thousand years to get here. So most or all of the stars you can see with your naked eye are still burning strong.\n\nIt's when use large telescopes to look at extremely distant galaxies billions of light-years away that a significant number may have died. However most stars in the universe are red dwarfs which burn dimly for *trillions* of years, so those should all still be going.",
"Most off the stars we see have not exploded.",
"Even though light moves at an incredible speed, it still isn't instant. The light from the sun takes 8 minutes to reach Earth. Then there are stars thousands of light years away that take that long to reach us. Also, no most of the stars you see in the sky have in fact not exploded. Yes, some have but most still are there."
],
"score": [
10,
9,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | I have been told that most of the stars we see have exploded, so why is it that the southern cross and others like it are still there after all this time?
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o3dd2 | Is the old adage 'it's not the volts that hurt you, its the amps' true? | I've even asked an electrician about this, and he wasn't sure.
People claim that say... a car battery will hurt you more than 120 volt home circuit will, if you get shocked. Having been shocked by both I can say it appeared the car battery was MUCH stronger. This makes sense though, as most car batteries push 500+ amps at 12 volts. This is 6000 watts. A home electrical circuit is usually 20 amps at 120 volts, that's only 2400 watts. Is it really the total power that hurts you, and amps or volts is irrelevant? This makes sense but as I said, even an electrician I talked to seemed confused by this. I said a 20 amp circuit at 120 volts should 'hurt' or be as dangerous as a 10 amp 240 volt circuit, but most people I ask say the 20 amp circuit would be more dangerous. That doesn't seem to make sense. | askscience | {
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"yes, amps are what kill you. BUT... you need a high voltage for the current to overcome the resistance of your skin.\n\nyou can touch both terminals of a car battery and not get shocked because its only 12 volts.\n\nalso be aware that even current less than one amp is enough to kill you if it pass through your heart",
"It is current that hurts you.\n\nBut you have to remember that most power circuits are *voltage sources* with some sort of internal resistance. And your skin is a pretty good resistor (tens of thousands of ohms when it is intact).\n\nSo even though the car battery has a very low internal resistance (it can push more current if needbe), it's NOT going to be able to push much current through your skin.\n\nYour 120 volt outlet will send approximately 10x as many amps through you, since the voltage is higher\\*.\n\n\\* note that it is not a 1:1 relationship since the skin will begin to break down as voltage increases.",
"Ohm's law is the relationship between voltage, current and resistance. Voltage is potential difference. If everything in the world has electrical potential, a voltage is when the electrical potential of two things are different (for instance, the pins on a battery). When you have a voltage, electrons will move between the two points you are measuring the difference of. This is called current. Resistance is what is stopping the electrons from moving between these two points. Consider a 9v battery. By itself, the current between the two pins is almost negligible because air has a very high resistance. Put your tongue on it though, and you'll get an unpleasant shock.\n\nThe voltage of the battery has not changed when you licked it. Rather, the resistance between the pins has been lowered and that allowed a current to flow. That is how it is easy to understand how it is 'not the volts'.\n\nSimilarly, if you were to touch a live mains wire, you'd receive a dangerous electric shock because such a large amount of current was passing through you. If you were to touch it wearing thick rubber gloves though, although you'd still be touching a high voltage wire, the current would be much lower because of the resistance.",
"tl;dr - you forgot about resistance. Think of electricity like water in a pipe.\n\nVoltage is the pressure of the water trying to flow forward through the pipe.\nResistance is the size of the pipe. (Bigger the pipe the lower the resistance and vice versa)\nCurrent is the resulting amount of water actually making it through the pipe. \n\nIt's current that hurts you, deep tissue burns often cause serious infections because you then have dead tissue sitting within your body.\n\nYou will only get hurt by your 12V battery if you've done something to lower you resistance by getting sweaty or something.\n\nThe higher the voltage your dealing with, the more current will be able to pass through your skin.\n\nAlso important, the path electricity takes is what determines what kind of damage to expect. If you grab 120V with your left hand and grab 0V with your right hand, current will travel through your arms and across your chest doing damage to the heart.\n\nCurrent = Voltage / Resistance \n\nIAMA Electronics Engineering Technologist",
"Static shocks are very high voltage, often around 40,000 volts. However, their amperage is very low. That's why they are not harmful.",
"Wow, I have to go old school EE to answer this one. :)\n\nIts all about Ohm's Law... or what some people call Ohm's Law, but [let's not get into that debate](_URL_2_). If you want to play along at home, here's your [Ohm's Law Calculator](_URL_3_)!\n\nVoltage = Current * Resistance\n\nor\n\nCurrent = Voltage / Resistance\n\nRight so. Your skin normally provides between [100K and 200K ohms](_URL_1_) of resistance, depending on genetics, atmospheric conditions, humidity, etc. 100,000 is a good estimate for most people.\n\nNow then, flowing electricity that encounters resistance causes heat. That's where you get electrical burns. So yeah, volts hurt. They burn you, they make your muscles spasm all at once, which can throw you like a rag doll.\n\nSo a painful shock might be your car battery, but under most conditions...\n\n12 volts = 100,000 ohms * 0.00012 amps\n\n0.00012 is nothing. If you have dry skin and clothes, not wearing any metal, ear rings, dangling your PA over a car battery... you'll be OK. But it'll hurt like a bitch if you introduce jewelry, or exercise your right to be a dumbass!\n\nThe 'sweet spot' to kill someone is [0.1 to 0.2 amps across the heart](_URL_0_).\n\nSo let's look at you grabbing a live wire in your house:\n\n120 volts = 100,000 ohms * 0.0012 amps\n\nOK 0.0012 sucks. But it's not fatal.\n\nBut let's say that your hands are wet, or you're wearing conductive jewelery, or you're otherwise being a dumbass around your home electrical circuit. Wet hands with oily or broken skin [will drop your skin's ohms](_URL_4_) to right around 1K...\n\n120 volts = 1,000 ohms * 0.12 amps\n\nOh shit.\n\nThat's right, the home electrical circuit puts out exactly enough juice to put between 0.1 and 0.2 amps across your internal organs if you artifically lower your skin's resistance. Potentially putting your heart into fibrillation.\n\nSo there you go, the math of amps killing you, and the dissipation of volts into your resistant skin burning the crap out of you.",
"It's technically true, but it's EXTREMELY misleading. Electric current is directly proportional to voltage. A 20 amp circuit is capped at 20 ampere (if it gets higher the circuit burns/breaks). However, the resistance of your skin will mean that unless you touch something with extreme voltage, you will not get anywhere near that number through your body. \n\nCompare this to a light bulb. Let's say you have a 60W light bulb built for a 120V circuit (we can say a 20A circuit but that's irrelevant). The internal resistance of the light bulb is 240 Ohm, meaning that 120/240=0.5 ampere current will pass through for an effect of 120*0.5=60 Watts. Now assume we connect this light bulb to a 240V circuit (say 10A but again irrelevant). The current is now 240/240=1 ampere. This will mean the filament gets overheated and burns off (well, light bulbs are pretty robust these days so it might shine brightly for a while first). Now you ask whether it was the 120V- > 240V, 0.5A- > 1A or 60W- > 240W that 'killed' the light bulb. While technically it was the 1A current passing through the filament that caused it to burn up, the question is in itself completely irrelevant because the 1A current could not have existed without the voltage increase (or a resistance decrease). The amperage cap on the fuse of the circuit is completely irrelevant because nowhere near that amount will ever pass through the filament. In most cases it's the same for the human body. 20A actually passing through your body will certainly kill you, but due to the resistance of the body (mostly the skin) there is no way to actually achieve this current without very high voltage (in a low resistance situation low voltage can still kill since nowhere near 20A is needed).\n\nThat \"it's not the volts that hurt you, its the amps\" is one of the most persistent myths among relatively informed people. I regret that I arrived here too late for people to read this.",
"Voltage is Potential Energy. In the analogy of water, its how fast its moving. Amps is current, which is simply how much electricity there is.\n\nIt only takes 100 miliamps applied to the heart to stop it. However, it might take a high voltage to get 100 mA to your heart, if say, the 2 contact points were your right leg and left arm. Or a crap load of amps at low voltage will suffice as well.\n\nHigh voltage can kill you too. Really high energy/voltage electricity can burn you, enough to the point that you die just from damage.",
"Why is it that a nine volt battery will shock my tongue but not my finger?"
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"url": [
"http://www.pa.msu.edu/sciencet/ask_st/010892.html",
"http://books.google.co.in/books?id=sGZdnZ4uTyEC&lpg=PT788&ots=lE62vZEjr2&dq=ohms%20of%20skin%20100000%20to%20200000&pg=PT788#v=onepage&q=ohms%20of%20skin%20100000%20to%20200000&f=false",
"http://forum.allaboutcircuits.com/showthread.php?t=11674",
"http://www.the12volt.com/ohm/ohmslawcalculators.asp",
"http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_3/4.html"
]
} | Is the old adage 'it's not the volts that hurt you, its the amps' true?
I've even asked an electrician about this, and he wasn't sure. People claim that say... a car battery will hurt you more than 120 volt home circuit will, if you get shocked. Having been shocked by both I can say it appeared the car battery was MUCH stronger. This makes sense though, as most car batteries push 500+ amps at 12 volts. This is 6000 watts. A home electrical circuit is usually 20 amps at 120 volts, that's only 2400 watts. Is it really the total power that hurts you, and amps or volts is irrelevant? This makes sense but as I said, even an electrician I talked to seemed confused by this. I said a 20 amp circuit at 120 volts should 'hurt' or be as dangerous as a 10 amp 240 volt circuit, but most people I ask say the 20 amp circuit would be more dangerous. That doesn't seem to make sense. | [
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yz4la | Do people with better reaction times experience the passage of time slower? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"That's a great question. Although, this doesn't answer your question directly, there was an experiment performed asking a similar question.\n\nWhen jumping off a building / bungee jumping, time feels to be moving slower. The hypothesis for this experiment was that you would be able to read a number flashed at you that would otherwise be too fast to read.\n\nThe result of the experiment was no, your reaction speed (or at least your eye/brain's ability to see something quick) does not improve.\n\n_URL_0_",
"I'd like to know how you would measure how people experience the passage of time (not aimed at OP)?",
"I'm uncertain of whether or not this directly addresses your question, but often reactions don't even get to your brain by the time they're processed -- they're processed in ganglia. I can't find a direct source ATM, but we just learned this in physiology.\n\nBasically you'd receive a signal from an afferent neuron (for example placing your hand on something incredibly hot), which then would cause an excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP) to your bicep muscles (causing contraction, and thus flexion), and an inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP) to your triceps (preventing contraction, and thus preventing extension). The EPSPs and IPSPs are graded potentials, and thus are summated from several neurons. If they cause the neuron to hit the threshold potential in the ganglia, they cause an appropriate response (inhibition or excitation of the muscle group) without any cranial interaction at all.\n\n_URL_3_\n_URL_3_\n\nAssuming you mean this form of reaction (my studies haven't gone too in depth into this topic so far), then I would imagine that reaction speed has very little to do with your thought process at all.\n\nI hope this helps :).\n\nThe following poster explains what I mentioned in significantly better and more relevant detail: _URL_3_",
"I don't mind if this is downvoted and deleted for speculation, just wanted to put this out there: \n\nAs a volleyballer who relies on fast reflexes, time does not pass any faster or slower in the middle of an adrenaline-pumping point. As far as I can work out; faster reflexes causes your subconscious to become more in tune with what you are trying to achieve and is able to act more efficiently.\n\nIf I make a pass from an opponents extremely hard hit, I generally won't have any idea how I did it, it was just fast reflexes and a technique which is well embedded in subconscious muscle memory.\n\n**tl;dr: I don't think my conscious mind can perceive adrenalin-improved reflexes, its all in the subconscious.**",
"Neuroscientist here.\n\nOk, I'll break this into two parts.\n\n**Reaction to stimuli:**\n\nIf a stimuli is reacted to often enough a (reflex loop develops.)[_URL_4_]\n\nThis allows for a reaction to occur without any input from the brain. It is also known as a reflex arc, or muscle memory. So in this type of reaction (the fastest type of reaction) no brain activity has to occur. As the passage of time is experienced in the brain, this reaction will not allow for faster or slower time experience.\n\n**Time Experience:**\n\nTime is experienced in our brain. Specifically the hippocampus. \"Time\" cells fire systematically to allow us to keep track of time. This system is constantly re-calibrated by our interactions with our surroundings. Looking at your watch will re-calibrate it. Due to the re-calibration it means all humans have a very similar experience of time.\n\nNote, that this is a distinct system from the hypothalamus and thalamus which is concerned with day tracking via light input.\n\nSo far I have explained that time is constantly recalibrated and the fastest of responses are not involved in the brain, and thus not involved in faster or slower time experience.\n\n\nAdrenaline has been linked to slowing down time by forming a larger than normal amount of memory data. The extra memory tricks the brain into thinking more time has passed than has. This means the time slowing down is linked to the stimulus to which the person responds and not the speed of the response.\n\n\nTo physically respond to a stimuli (not in a reflex arc) your neurones must carry a signal to brain, the signal must be processed, and a new signal sent to effectors to make a response.\n\nThe speed of this system is dependant on conduction velocity of the neurones. (Speed the signal travels) The speed at which the effectors actually react. (Muscles firing and limbs moving).\n\n**To tie this all together:**\n\nReaction speed is not linked to any processes I have previously mentioned, so does not alter time perception. These are two distinct and separate body functions. \n\nThe presence of adrenaline in situations requiring fast reactions will slow down the perception of time, not speed it up. However speed of reaction remains irrelevant and stimuli causes adrenaline release.\n\nHope this helps\n\n**TL;DR: No.**"
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/profile-david-eagleman.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhibitory_postsynaptic_potential",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/yz4la/do_people_with_better_reaction_times_experience/c608rc5",
"http://img.tfd.com/dorland/thumbs/arc_reflex.jpg"
]
} | Do people with better reaction times experience the passage of time slower?
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||
477pe0 | Is there a maximum voltage obtainable by simply stacking transformers one after the other? | What stops me from stacking 10 transformers which each multiply the voltage by 100, getting a compounded 10^20 fold increase in voltage, with an initial voltage of 1 V, each electron would get an energy increase of 10^20 eV, easily surpassing the LHC, so what stops this from happening? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d0aw9nj",
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"d0b384u",
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"text": [
"Darn physics. Again.\n\nFirst you'll need to account for different levels of isolation. At high voltages it gets hard.\n\nNext - internal resistances. Once your current is down to a few uA that pesky 0.05ohm inherent resistance suddenly spoils the party. Not much left to drive the next stage.\n\nAlso you are making a mistake of using voltage as energy. They are not the same.",
"Transformers don't increase **energy**, they increase **voltage**. Power is equal to the voltage times the current (Energy is the amount of power consumption over time iirc). So if you stepped up your voltage by 10^20, the current would drop by 10^20. At this point (actually well before this point) there wouldn't be enough current to drive the next stage of the transformer.",
"This totally works fine, though the details vary depending on your transformer.\n\nAs /u/a_fools_gold mentioned, stuff like the breakdown of air and internals resistance (plus possible overheating and melting) will ultimately limit your transformer chain.\n\nBut if you want to generate super high voltages, you can use chains of capacitors and diodes, like [this](_URL_1_) or [this](_URL_0_) (same thing, but fancier name). As long as you can minimize internal resistances and prevent arcing, there is no limit to what voltage you can create.",
"You'll get a short as soon as your voltage exceeds the breakdown field strength of your insulator (for PE it is 160 MV/m) so assuming probably about 2 MV your transformers will arc through the plastic insultation..",
"A transformer consists of coils of wire wrapped around a core to form a magnetic field. The wire must be insulated to avoid a short circuit (a short would cause the magnetic field to collapse).\n\nCurrently, our materials science is limited in the insulators we can coat wires with. At some point, the voltage on the wire would exceed the dielectric breakdown of the wire insulation, and the transformer would go poof, probably spectacularly.\n\nI'm not sure what the practical voltage limit is, but that is probably the limiting factor.",
"i've been building a few high voltage supplies recently (for a client) and a even the low voltage of 15,000 or so (peak) AC, things get weird. Mostly, a little dirt or fingerprints or dust and you get arcs. sharp edges, kinked wires, screw threads all matter. i've got a bunch of magnetics in these things, too, but most are for safety or monitoring and only one is for making the high voltage and it's 1000:1. Current output < 25 mA. \n\ni normally have the luxury of making things without regard to arcs, and it's new territory for me. the connectors, wire, resistors, various goops and ointments... all pretty cool. and a lot more expensive. \n\nmegavolts would be way cooler, though.",
"On top of everything that other people mentioned here, the final limit would be when the energy of one electron is high enough to leave the conduction band of the metal and become unbound. It is then radiated of and its energy is lost to you."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_multiplier"
]
} | Is there a maximum voltage obtainable by simply stacking transformers one after the other?
What stops me from stacking 10 transformers which each multiply the voltage by 100, getting a compounded 10^20 fold increase in voltage, with an initial voltage of 1 V, each electron would get an energy increase of 10^20 eV, easily surpassing the LHC, so what stops this from happening? | [
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|
93j1k7 | How do internet service providers harness the internet and distribute access to it via cables? What do the cables in our homes connect to on the other side? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Routers. The internet is routing all the way down.\n\nEverything sent over the internet is broken down into little collections of data (called a packet) and then sent like a letter -- with a destination \"address\". The process of getting a packet to a particular address is called routing.\n\nRouting is super complicated in detail, but in concept it's pretty simple. Imagine you're trying to pass notes in math class: you look to see if it's for you, and if not you hand it off to a friend that who's closer to the desired recipient. Your note bounces around for a while but eventually ends up at its desired destination. Your ISP does the same thing but at a larger scale -- messages arrive over the wire from your house to a router in their data center and that router figures out where to pass the messages (via a routing table) so they get closer to the destination.",
"The phrase \"harness the internet\" doesn't really make sense. Internet isn't a thing. I can't give you a barrel of internet, the same way I could give you a battery charged with energy.\n\nWhen you hear \"internet\", you should think \"conversation\", except the conversation is between computers. I can't give you a conversation, but I *can* give you a private room to talk to someone in. \n\nISPs own the cables that connect computers around the world and across oceans, as well as the routers that figure out which way a given piece of data should be sent at every junction. But fundamentally, its just a bunch of wires linking a lot of computers together.\n\nLets say you wanted to visit _URL_0_,\n\nWhen you type that into your browser and hit enter, a bunch of things happen.\n\n1. Your browser knows the *name* of the website, but not where to find the computer that has the data on it, it needs its *address*, called an IP address. It gets this by connecting to a Domain Name Server (DNS) which is like a phone book for the internet, maintaining a list of names and their corresponding addresses.\n\n2. Now that it knows the address, it sends a request for the webpage to that address, through the cable from your house.\n\n3. Every time that request gets to a junction, the router there figures out which way to send it based on how addresses are assigned around the world. In the same way that a neighborhood might have all even numbers on the right and odd numbers on the left, there are patterns that routers can use to figure out what country, city, etc. an address is in even if they don't know the exact machine.\n\n4. When the request gets to the servers hosting _URL_0_, those servers receive it, interpret what the request is asking for, and generate a response to send back.\n\n5. The original request came with its own IP address, like a return address on a letter, so the server sends its response back to there, and it follows the same process of routing on the way back (although it might take a different route, depending on traffic and other factors, just like navigating by road)\n\n6. When your browser receives the response, it decodes it, and displays it for you to see.",
"I'll assume you're asking about the physical structure, not some other aspect like how your ISP knows where to send your data. \n\nThe cable from your house connects to your ISP's network. From there your data goes to: an onsite server (for content distribution networks, or other services hosted by your ISP), out to another customer of that ISP (if that's who you're trying to reach), up to a bigger ISP (that provides services to your ISP), a regional service provider (RSP), or a peer ISP (that provides service to the site you're trying to connect to)\n\nAt the 2nd ISP/RSP it faces these same choices. At this level and beyond, \"other customers\" means an entire ISP or network, rather than an individual user. This process repeats until you reach the top-tier providers that connect nation-sized networks.\n\nIt helps if you think of your data/traffic as cars and trucks. You start out on small, residential streets. If you need to go a bit further, you'll move up to larger roads, than a major thoroughfare, possibly even a freeway or highway. \n\nThis page has a very good illustration and a better explanation:\n_URL_1_"
],
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16,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"www.reddit.com",
"http://navigators.com/sessphys.html"
]
} | How do internet service providers harness the internet and distribute access to it via cables? What do the cables in our homes connect to on the other side?
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1ytfsb | I am Dr. Reid Harris and I study the chytrid fungus that is decimating amphibians around the world and ways to stop it, AMA | Thank you all so much for taking the time to come talk with me and ask questions about frogs, salamanders and the amphibian chytrid fungus. I hope to come back to reddit in the future as our studies continue into probiotic therapies to save amphibian biodiversity from the chytrid fungus.
Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, home to over 400 frog species. These wonderful, diverse creatures are critical members of the ecosystems, providing services to the ecosystem and to humans. Frogs are one of the best controllers of biological pests, such as mosquitoes, which helps control disease such as dengue virus and malaria. Many frogs also produce compounds that can be use by humans models for organic chemists for drug development and synthesis. Compounds derived from frogs have been found to reduce high blood pressure, relieve pain, and inhibit HIV. Frogs in Madagascar are threatened by the arrival of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which has already decimated frog populations around the world and caused extinctions of numerous species. We do not want the same catastrophic declines and extinction to happen to the frogs of Madagascar. Therefore, it is imperative to consider a prevention and mitigation strategy promptly. Initiatives to keep Bd out of Madagascar and monitor its potential arrival are in place; however, a plan to mitigate and limit its spread around Madagascar once it arrives is needed. People consume yogurt to maintain and restore good bacteria, which protect us from disease, and the same principle works for frogs! Amphibian skin harbors many bacterial species. Some of these bacteria are beneficial and can inhibit the lethal chytrid fungus. The addition of locally-occurring protective bacteria to amphibians has effectively prevented disease in lab experiments and recent field trials in the US. We plan to proactively find effective anti-Bd probiotics in order to implement probiotic conservation strategies to curb the devastation of Bd if it arrives in Madagascar and help preserve the remarkable amphibian biodiversity on the island. Please visit our website, _URL_2_, for more details about our project and to meet the scientists involved! I will be answering questions starting at 2 pm today.
Check out our publication in Ecology Letters for more details about probiotic bioaugmentation: _URL_1_.
For more information on amphibians and amphibian conservation, check out _URL_0_ | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Hi Dr. Harris, I'm a mycologist studying human fungal pathogens thanks for doing this AMA! My question is:\n\nOnce you find some probiotics that exhibit anti-fungal qualities, do you test those against other fungi or look at mechanism? I'm curious to see how quickly Bd may develop resistance to the anti-fungals and by which mechanism (chromosomal duplication, gene amplification, mutation of target etc).",
"Hi Dr. Harris! Thank you for talking to us! What are some examples of species who have gone extinct because of this fungus? \n\nAlso, how does it relate to white nose syndrome in bats? Are the spreading because of similar reasons? Are any researchers looking into whether probiotics could help them, too?",
"How does chytrid fungus harm amphibians? And why does this problem seem to be new? Where did it come from?",
"I read an article on New Scientist that proposed that mammals and birds evolved warm-bloodedness because their elevated body temperatures protect them from fungal infections. The fungi can't take the heat. Mammals suffer from very few fungal infections compared to reptiles and amphibians. What do you think of this theory?",
"I know from a talk several years ago that biologists are partly to blame for the chytrid's spread. When in the field do you have containment protocols so that you're not going to spread the fungus from one population to another on your boots?",
"How many labs out there are studying and characterizing *B. dendrobatidis*?",
"Are you concerned about any potential fallout from prolonged and such widespread probiotic treatment? I've read papers about probiotic treatments conferring antibiotic resistance to local microbiota. Is there a possibility that this could taint the genomic integrity and usefulness of the frogs?",
"Where else has the fungi been that wiped out frogs? What is the ecosystem like in those areas now, and how long have those areas been without frogs?",
"Hi Dr. Harris,\n\nWhat are your thoughts on the climate-linked epidemic hypothesis and has your group been studying the response of amphibian populations in Madagascar to climate change?\n\nThank you for taking the time to do this AMA today!",
"How many species has the fungus wiped out so far? Can we say with any degree of certainty how many more species are likely to perish?",
"It appears your link isn't working because of the citation? [1]\n\nHow did Bd get introduced?",
"Thank you for doing this AMA Dr. Harris. This might be a little off topic, but do you think that continual habitat loss on Madagascar may contribute to the eventual spread of the chytrid fungus?",
"Is there any risk in this fungus creating zombie amphibians?",
"Does Bd affect only frogs? If so, why are frogs the only ones vulnerable?\n\nAlso, what methods are being tested to stop it?",
"Hi. Bat researcher here (although I don't study WNS). Wondering what your thoughts were on WNS and parallels/differences with Bd."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"www.amphibians.org",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.12099/full",
"www.frogprobiotics.org"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | I am Dr. Reid Harris and I study the chytrid fungus that is decimating amphibians around the world and ways to stop it, AMA
Thank you all so much for taking the time to come talk with me and ask questions about frogs, salamanders and the amphibian chytrid fungus. I hope to come back to reddit in the future as our studies continue into probiotic therapies to save amphibian biodiversity from the chytrid fungus. Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, home to over 400 frog species. These wonderful, diverse creatures are critical members of the ecosystems, providing services to the ecosystem and to humans. Frogs are one of the best controllers of biological pests, such as mosquitoes, which helps control disease such as dengue virus and malaria. Many frogs also produce compounds that can be use by humans models for organic chemists for drug development and synthesis. Compounds derived from frogs have been found to reduce high blood pressure, relieve pain, and inhibit HIV. Frogs in Madagascar are threatened by the arrival of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which has already decimated frog populations around the world and caused extinctions of numerous species. We do not want the same catastrophic declines and extinction to happen to the frogs of Madagascar. Therefore, it is imperative to consider a prevention and mitigation strategy promptly. Initiatives to keep Bd out of Madagascar and monitor its potential arrival are in place; however, a plan to mitigate and limit its spread around Madagascar once it arrives is needed. People consume yogurt to maintain and restore good bacteria, which protect us from disease, and the same principle works for frogs! Amphibian skin harbors many bacterial species. Some of these bacteria are beneficial and can inhibit the lethal chytrid fungus. The addition of locally-occurring protective bacteria to amphibians has effectively prevented disease in lab experiments and recent field trials in the US. We plan to proactively find effective anti-Bd probiotics in order to implement probiotic conservation strategies to curb the devastation of Bd if it arrives in Madagascar and help preserve the remarkable amphibian biodiversity on the island. Please visit our website, _URL_2_, for more details about our project and to meet the scientists involved! I will be answering questions starting at 2 pm today. Check out our publication in Ecology Letters for more details about probiotic bioaugmentation: _URL_1_. For more information on amphibians and amphibian conservation, check out _URL_0_ | [
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1p73dn | In a major blackout, could you see the Milky Way in the middle of a city? | So I saw [these pictures](_URL_0_) of cites without light pollution. If there was a total blackout of a region, including emergency lights or natural lights, would the Milky Way become visible like this? How large of an area would have to go dark? Has it ever been recorded in large blackouts? | askscience | {
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"Yes. [This page](_URL_1_) has a picture taken during a 1994 blackout in LA where it's clearly visible (seeing the before and after is absolutely tragic).\n\n[There have long been tales](_URL_0_) that during the blackout alarmed residents called 911 to report a mysterious silvery cloud in the sky.\n\nEdit: oops, I just noticed that pic came from the 2003 Northeast blackout, not the 1994 LA one.",
"Sure, the Milky Way would be visible. But it wouldn't look like it does in those photos. Astrophotography takes advantage of long exposure times and/or image stacking to create bright, crisp images of the night sky. Through human eyes, the Milky Way is much less brilliant and defined. Still a beautiful sight, though.",
"Yes, in the 1990s, Los Angeles residents reportedly called 911 to express alarm about strange clouds hovering overhead; they were seeing the Milky Way for the first time.\n\nsource: _URL_2_",
"TIL Some people haven't seen the Milky Way with their own eyes. I've stared into the night sky my entire life, in Oklahoma mostly, yet I am still amazed every time at The Milky Way. It's breathtakingly mesmerizing.",
"Yes you could see whatever stars are above, as far as the area without power, it depends greatly on the amount of light coming from an area. In NYC, the whole area would need to go dark, in a smaller town, just the streetlights going out could really affect how many stars you see. \n\nHere are a few images from the 2003 [NYC blackout](_URL_3_). No star pictures, sorry.\n\nAnd I don't have time to find the article now. But many people during this and other blackouts saw stars brighter than they've ever seen them. Hundreds even called police to say they believe the extremely bright stars were responsible for the blackout (oh city slickers).",
"I took [this picture](_URL_5_) from a back yard in Johannesburg.\n\nIt was an unusually clear night and although this picture has been contrast enhanced, you could see the milky way with the naked eye.\n\nEdit: Here's a clearer picture:\n\n_URL_4_\n\nAnd one I took on the same night in the same place, but heavily photoshopped:\n\n_URL_6_",
"It all depends on how many lights go out really. But yes. As soon as the city goes dark, after a few minutes of letting your eyes adjust to the new darkness you will be able to see the milky way (this also depends on the time of night, time of the year and location) and many other wonders of the sky.\n\nAnd yes, in the 90's there was a blackout in LA where [people reportedly called 911 not understanding what they were seeing.](_URL_7_)",
"Follow up question: How far away from civilisation would I have to go to be able to see the sky like that? I live in Australia so I could probably just keep driving through the outback until I'm far enough.",
"Absolutely. The black out in Toronto and a large part of eastern north america in 2003, was amazing. Right smack dab in the middle of the city I was amazed at the stars we could see. Must have spent most of the night out there. \n\nThis is only from memory and may have only been a myth, but I read somewhere that during a blackout in California or some place like that the police were getting hundreds of calls about strange lights in the sky. It was stars. That nobody had ever seen before because of the light pollution.",
"During the blackout that took out the entire northeast US in 2003, the sky in Cleveland looked as bright and clear as the sky in the wilderness of New Mexico when I visited there as a teenager. There was zero light pollution and the milky way was extremely bright. It was actually very difficult to recognize familiar constellations because so many more stars were visible than usual.",
"Can someone explain why people say \"see the Milky Way\"? Aren't we in the Milky Way? Like, isn't our sun one of the stars of the Milky Way? So we're seeing it every day right? Or do people just mean they can see a lot of nearby stars which are obviously part of the Milky Way galaxy considering that's the galaxy we're in. I'm not trying to be a jerk, I'm legitimately confused.",
"I live in the middle of nowhere, In North Wales... on a farm that has no lights around it from streets or neighbours, but not once have I seen the Milky Way as in the linked pictures.\n\nI've seen amazingly deep and detailed stars, but never the nebulae.",
"Yes! I speak from experience when the April 2011 tornadoes pretty much shut down power for all of north Alabama for a week straight. As the days went on a lot of the larger companies set up generators so even in a state wide blackout light pollution was there. But for the first night or two you could see stars like never before, including the Milky Way. It was probably the first time most people around here had ever looked at the stars and sadly last. It was beautiful. I'll never forget watching the Milky Way from my roof laying back with some suds next to my drying towels and thinking that this will never happen again. \n,",
"I was a cop during Katrina in the area just north of New Orleans. The blackout was complete, and most people had been evacuated. The stars were amazingly visible. It was a sight I've never seen since, except for once in Acadia National Park (Maine, and pretty damn empty)",
"If there was a complete blackout then yes, you'd be able to see the milky was as you can anywhere else with a dark sky. Those photos, however, are likely longer exposures that make it look more impressive than is does to the naked eye.",
"My nephews still don't believe that you can really see stars like you see in the picture's depicting different areas with varying amounts of light pollution. I remember the first time seeing the haze for myself and just stopping in my tracks, realizing what I was seeing and feeling very, very tiny all of the sudden. It was an eye opener for me and I hope to have a piece of land away from the cities where I can experience feeling tiny every day.",
"No. It wouldn't look like any of the photos shown. I live in a rural area with little light polution and the milky way doesn't look loke this. \n\nThese images are taken with a fastwide angle lens, high ISO and 20ish seconds for shutter speed which allows as much light into the sensor as possible. Our eyes are not that sensitive.",
"I was on a date when a girl from Arizona told me should had seen the milky way before. I didn't believe her and thought she did not understand that we are in the milky way/was just making it up... My naivety and urban upbringing kept me from realizing this was possible until just a few months ago.",
"[yes. it happens.](_URL_8_) Old people in the united states who never left the capital city they where born in over night and who lack education and internet have called 911 during a blackout because they saw the milky way for the first time and got scared about those strange clouds in the dark."
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} | {
"url": [
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.pbs.org/seeinginthedark/astronomy-topics/light-pollution.html",
"http://physics.fau.edu/observatory/lightpol-astro.html",
"http://www.pbs.org/seeinginthedark/astronomy-topics/light-pollution.html",
"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/14/2003-northeast-blackout_n_3751171.html",
"http://i.imgur.com/m2QRbJn.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/bJ7eCL1.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/Gv3LRut.jpg",
"http://www.pbs.org/seeinginthedark/astronomy-topics/light-pollution.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/1di2db/til_that_after_a_massive_power_outage_in_los/"
]
} | In a major blackout, could you see the Milky Way in the middle of a city?
So I saw [these pictures](_URL_0_) of cites without light pollution. If there was a total blackout of a region, including emergency lights or natural lights, would the Milky Way become visible like this? How large of an area would have to go dark? Has it ever been recorded in large blackouts? | [
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