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; i heard that the president of the us needs permission from congress to go to war, but i also heard that the president has nuclear launch codes and if he gives the order to attack it must be followed. wtf!?

<p> since world war ii, the president of the united states has had sole authority to launch u.s. nuclear weapons, whether as a first strike or nuclear retaliation. this arrangement was seen as necessary during the cold war to present a credible nuclear deterrent; if an attack was detected, the united states would have only minutes to launch a counterstrike before its nuclear capability was severely damaged, or national leaders killed. if the president has been killed, command authority follows the presidential line of succession. changes to this policy have been proposed, but currently the only way to countermand such an order before the strike was launched would be for the vice president and the majority of the cabinet to relieve the president under section 4 of the twenty-fifth amendment to the united states constitution. <p> if the president (who is commander-in-chief of the armed forces) decides to order the use of nuclear weapons, he or she would be taken aside by the "carrier" and the briefcase would be opened. a command signal, or "watch" alert, would then be issued to the joint chiefs of staff. the president would then review the attack options with the secretary of defense and the chairman of the joint chiefs of staff and decide on a plan, which could range from a single cruise missile to multiple icbm launches. these are preset war plans developed under oplan 8010 (formerly the single integrated operational plan). then, using milstar, the aide, a military officer who has completed a yankee white background check, would contact the national military command center and norad to determine the scope of the pre-emptive nuclear strike and prepare a second strike, following which milstar/advanced extremely high frequency or boeing e-4bs and tacamos would air the currently valid nuclear launch code to all nuclear delivery systems operational. where a two-person verification procedure would be executed following this, the codes would be entered in a permissive action link. <p> before the order can be processed by the military, the president must be positively identified using a special code issued on a plastic card, nicknamed the "biscuit". the united states has a two-man rule in place at the nuclear launch facilities, and while only the president can order the release of nuclear weapons, the order must be verified by the secretary of defense to be an authentic order given by the president (there is a hierarchy of succession in the event that the president is killed in an attack). this verification process deals solely with verifying that the order came from the actual president. the secretary of defense has no veto power and must comply with the president's order. once all the codes have been verified, the military would issue attack orders to the proper units. these orders are given and then re-verified for authenticity. it is argued that the president has almost sole authority to initiate a nuclear attack since the secretary of defense is required to verify the order, but cannot veto it. <p> should the president decide to order the launch of nuclear weapons, he or she would be taken aside by the "carrier" of the nuclear football and the briefcase opened. once opened, the president would decide which "attack options" (specific orders for attacks on specific targets) to use. the attack options are preset war plans developed under oplan 8010, and include major attack options (maos), selected attack options (saos), and limited attack options (laos). the chosen attack option and the gold codes would then be transmitted to the nmcc via a special, secure channel. <p> the president can give a nuclear launch order using his or her nuclear briefcase (nicknamed the nuclear football), or can use command centers such as the white house situation room. the command would be carried out by a nuclear and missile operations officer (a member of a missile combat crew, also called a "missileer") at a missile launch control center. a two-man rule applies to the launch of missiles, meaning that two officers must turn keys simultaneously (far enough apart that this cannot be done by one person). <p> as commander-in-chief, the president is the only individual with the authority to order the use of nuclear weapons. a two-man rule applies, however: the national command authority comprising the president and secretary of defense must jointly authenticate the order to use nuclear weapons to the chairman of the joint chiefs of staff. it is argued by franklin miller that the president has almost single authority to initiate a nuclear attack since the secretary of defense is required to verify the order, but cannot legally veto it. however, section 4 of the 25th amendment of the constitution allows for the vice president, together with a majority of cabinet heads or congress, to declare the president disabled or unfit to execute the duties of the office. <p> in other events, the congress (of the united states) had not made a formal declaration of war, yet the president, as the commander-in-chief, has claimed authority to send in the armed forces when he deemed necessary, with or without the approval of congress. the legal legitimacy of each of these actions was based upon declarations such as the gulf of tonkin resolution and iraq resolution by congress and various united nations resolutions. nonetheless, congressional approval has been asserted by means of funding appropriations or other authorizations as well as the contested war powers resolution.

Going to war and sending troops to attack someone are two different things. The President, being the Commander-in-Chief of the US military can direct that military, including nukes, to attack any place or person in the world. He then has 2 days to notify Congress of the action, Congress then has 10 days to either approve the action, declare war (which is also approving the action), or to decline the action. If they decline it the President then has 30 days to recall the troops. Fully declaring war grants the President a lot of additional powers and that has not been done since WWII. All "wars" since then have not been true wars, they have been "extended military conflicts" or "police actions" which use the military in the same way as a true war, but do not grant the President as many powers over the country such as declaring rationing or reinstating the draft or the like.

why is the distinction between paperbacks and hardcovers so important?

<p> paperback editions of books are issued when a publisher decides to release a book in a low-cost format. cheaper, lower quality paper; glued (rather than stapled or sewn) bindings; and the lack of a hard cover may contribute to the lower cost of paperbacks. paperbacks can be the preferred medium when a book is not expected to be a major seller or where the publisher wishes to release a book without putting forth a large investment. examples include many novels, and newer editions or reprintings of older books. <p> hardcover books are usually sold at higher prices than comparable paperbacks. books for the general public are usually printed in hardback only for authors who are expected to be successful, or as a precursor to the paperback to predict sale levels; however, many academic books are often only published in hardcover editions. <p> since paperbacks tend to have a smaller profit margin, many publishers try to balance the profit to be made by selling fewer hardcovers against the potential profit to be made by selling more paperbacks with a smaller profit per unit. first editions of many modern books, especially genre fiction, are issued in paperback. best-selling books, on the other hand, may maintain sales in hardcover for an extended period to reap the greater profits that the hardcovers provide. <p> a paperback, also known as a softcover or softback, is a type of book characterized by a thick paper or paperboard cover, and often held together with glue rather than stitches or staples. in contrast, hardcover or hardback books are bound with cardboard covered with cloth. the pages on the inside are made of paper. <p> inexpensive books bound in paper have existed since at least the 19th century in such forms as pamphlets, yellowbacks, dime novels, and airport novels. modern paperbacks can be differentiated by size. in the u.s., there are "mass-market paperbacks" and larger, more durable "trade paperbacks." in the u.k., there are a-format, b-format, and the largest c-format sizes. <p> hardcover books have a stiff binding. paperback books have cheaper, flexible covers which tend to be less durable. an alternative to paperback is the glossy cover, otherwise known as a dust cover, found on magazines, and comic books. spiral-bound books are bound by spirals made of metal or plastic. examples of spiral-bound books include teachers' manuals and puzzle books (crosswords, sudoku). <p> the advent of paperback books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing. paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in pulp magazines. as a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich.

Exactly the same content, just one is designed to be kept / collected, and the other is designed to be essentially disposable. Hardbacks are meant to be kept and displayed, that's why the binding is a lot higher quality, they come with a dust jacket, and are more often signed / acknowledged than paperbacks. Paperbacks are designed to be low-cost, more portable, read and chuck copies that are conveniently sized. It's really only the absurdly high pricing of both that has lead to people retaining paperback copies of fiction and nonfiction works.

why has virtually every human civilisation created a religion?

<p> organised religion traces its roots to the neolithic revolution that began 11,000 years ago in the near east but may have occurred independently in several other locations around the world. the invention of agriculture transformed many human societies from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a sedentary lifestyle. the consequences of the neolithic revolution included a population explosion and an acceleration in the pace of technological development. the transition from foraging bands to states and empires precipitated more specialized and developed forms of religion that reflected the new social and political environment. while bands and small tribes possess supernatural beliefs, these beliefs do not serve to justify a central authority, justify transfer of wealth or maintain peace between unrelated individuals. <p> because religion and political power are often intertwined particularly in early states, the archaeology of religion may also engage theories of power and inequality. john janusek’s study of tiwanaku religion, for example, explored the ways that religion served to integrate societies within the andean state. colonial regimes frequently justified expansion through a commitment to religious conversion; archaeologies of coloniality may therefore intersect with the archaeology of religion. james delle’s 2001 article on missions and landscape in jamaica and barbara voss’ work on missions, sexuality and empire demonstrate how religion has intersected with colonial regimes. <p> religion is a prominent part of society, although the dominant religions have evolved. a merging of the major religious groups of the 20th century has resulted in the first amalgamated church, while voodoo is now mainstream. new religions include oprahism, robotology, and the banned religion of "star trek" fandom. religious figures include father changstein-el-gamal, the robot devil, reverend lionel preacherbot, and passing references to the space pope, who appears to be a large crocodile-like creature. several major holidays have robots associated with them, including the murderous robot santa and kwanzaa-bot. while very few episodes focus exclusively on religion within the "futurama" universe, they do cover a wide variety of subjects including predestination, prayer, the nature of salvation, and religious conversion. <p> the vast majority of sacred natural sites were arguably founded by indigenous or folk religions and spiritualities, but many were subsequently adopted or co-opted by mainstream religions. there is consequently a considerable 'layering' and mixing of religious and other spiritual or belief systems. within the larger mainstream religions there are many if not more autonomous or semi-autonomous sub-groups. while fifty per cent of the world's population profess to belong to either christianity or islam and many others are hindus or buddhists, 80 per cent of all people ascribe to a mainstream religion, a large part of which continue to adhere to at least some traditional or folk religion. sacred natural sites are thus connected to a wide range of socio-cultural systems and institutions, some more complex than others, and to different dynamics of change and cultural interaction. <p> religions were among the earliest cultural elements to globalize, being spread by force, migration, evangelists, imperialists, and traders. christianity, islam, buddhism, and more recently sects such as mormonism are among those religions which have taken root and influenced endemic cultures in places far from their origins. <p> religions that are not considered organized religions, or only loosely so, include many indigenous and folk religions, such as traditional african religions, native american religions and prehistoric religions, as well as personal religions including some strands of hinduism. <p> the origins of local religion can be dated back centuries. these diverse religions incorporated elements such as gods and doctrines from other religions and cultures, such as totem worship and traditional legends. for example, monkey king, originated to monkey worship among local ancients, gradually came to embody the god of wealth in fuzhou after the novel "journey to the west" was issued in ming dynasty.

Humans are very good at seeing patterns, actually most animals are, look up BF Skinner's experiments with superstitious pigeon, our brains are so wired to see patterns that we make them up when they aren't there. From superstition it's really just a matter of a bit of imagination to come up with the concepts of spirits and deities.

why does baseball have their draft in the middle of their season when other sports draft in their offseasons?

<p> bullet::::- owners of the 20 national league and american league baseball teams voted to create the major league baseball draft in order to make a more uniform distribution of amateur players. in an imitation of the drafting process in other professional sports leagues, the teams would select "in reverse order off the standings at the end of the previous season". though the proposal was initially opposed by both new york teams (the yankees and mets), both los angeles teams (the dodgers and angels), the st. louis cardinals, the minnesota twins, and the washington senators, the resolution passed unanimously. the teams would have the first option, for a limited time, to negotiate exclusively with the players selected. the first draft would be held on june 8, 1965. <p> bullet::::- major league baseball emails all 30 teams to announce that, effective following this year's draft, players selected in the amateur draft will be available for trade beginning the day after the conclusion of the world series. the change is a revamp of the previous iteration, which had prohibited clubs from trading players for one year after being drafted. with the new deadline in effect, things should be much easier for teams and players going forward. <p> the first-year player draft, also known as the rule 4 draft, is major league baseball's (mlb) primary mechanism for assigning amateur baseball players from high schools, colleges, and other amateur baseball clubs to its teams. unlike most professional sports, mlb does not permit the trading of draft picks, so the draft order is solely determined by the previous season's standings; the team that possesses the worst record receives the first pick. if two teams have identical records, the team with the worse record in the previous season will receive the higher pick. in addition, teams that lost free agents in the previous off-season may be awarded "compensatory" picks. the first draft took place in 1965; it was introduced to prevent richer teams from negotiating wealthier contracts with top-level prospects and therefore, monopolizing the player market. originally, three drafts were held each year. the first draft took place in june and involved high-school graduates and college seniors who had just finished their seasons. the second draft took place in january for high school and college players who had graduated in december. the third draft took place in august and was for players who participated in american amateur summer leagues. the august draft was eliminated after two years, and the january draft lasted until 1986. <p> the rule 5 draft is a major league baseball player draft that occurs each year in december, at the annual winter meeting of general managers. the rule 5 draft aims to prevent teams from stockpiling too many young players on their minor league affiliate teams when other teams would be willing to have them play in the majors. the rule 5 draft is named for its place in major league rules. (it is sometimes erroneously referenced with a roman numeral.) the june rule 4 draft, known as simply "the draft", "amateur draft", or "first year player draft", is a distinctly different process in which teams select high school and college players. <p> the los angeles dodgers are a major league baseball (mlb) franchise based in los angeles. they play in the national league west division. the first game of the new baseball season for a team is played on opening day, and being named the opening day starter is an honor, which is often given to the player who is expected to lead the pitching staff that season, though there are various strategic reasons why a team's best pitcher might not start on opening day. the dodgers have used 22 different opening day starting pitchers in their 61 seasons in los angeles. the 22 starters have a combined opening day record of 27 wins, 26 losses and 8 no decisions. <p> the first-year player draft is major league baseball's primary mechanism for assigning amateur baseball players from high schools, colleges, and other amateur baseball clubs to its teams. the draft order is determined based on the previous season's standings, with the team possessing the worst record receiving the first pick. the most recent draft was held on june 3-5, 2019. <p> the first-year player draft, also known as the rule 4 draft, is mlb primary mechanism for assigning amateur baseball players from high schools, colleges, and other amateur baseball clubs to its teams. the first draft took place in 1965; it was introduced to prevent richer teams from negotiating wealthier contracts with top-level prospects and therefore, monopolizing the player market. originally, three drafts were held each year. the first draft took place in june and involved high-school graduates and college seniors who had just finished their seasons. the second draft took place in january for high school and college players who had graduated in december. the third draft took place in august and was for players who participated in american amateur summer leagues. the august draft was eliminated after two years, and the january draft lasted until 1986.

You hold the draft in June because that's when the students graduating high-school or college are available. You want to draft them then, so that you can be guaranteed to get them. Waiting until after the season means that they've either left school or re-enrolled, and makes it harder to draft college students.

when someone chokes on the liquid there drinking, what causes it?

<p> often the victim has the mouth forced or wedged open, the nose closed with pincers and a funnel or strip of cloth forced down the throat. the victim has to drink all the water (or other liquids such as bile or urine) poured into the funnel to avoid drowning. the stomach fills until near bursting and is sometimes beaten until the victim vomits and the torture begins again. <p> in adults, choking often involves food blocking the airway. risk factors include using alcohol or sedatives, undergoing a procedure involving the oral cavity or pharynx, wearing oral appliances, or having a medical condition that causes difficulty swallowing or impairs the cough reflex. conditions that can cause difficulty swallowing and/or impaired coughing include neurologic conditions such as strokes, alzheimer disease, or parkinson disease. in older adults, risk factors also include living alone, wearing dentures, and having difficulty swallowing. <p> bullet::::- fluid obstruction: fluids, usually vomit, can collect in the pharynx, effectively causing the person to drown. the loss of muscular control which causes the tongue to block the throat can also lead to the stomach contents flowing into the throat, called "passive regurgitation". fluid which collects in the back of the throat can also flow down into the lungs. another complication can be stomach acid burning the inner lining of the lungs, causing aspiration pneumonia. <p> presents as a sensation of food getting stuck (dysphagia) in the mid- or lower esophagus, atypical chest pain, or cough. people often state they must drink liquids to swallow solid food. this motility problem results from atrophy of the gastrointestinal tract wall smooth muscle. this change may occur with or without pathologic evidence of significant tissue fibrosis. <p> vomiting excessive amounts of alcohol is an attempt by the body to prevent alcohol poisoning and death. vomiting may also be caused by other drugs, such as opiates, or toxins found in some foods and plants. food allergies and sensitivities, such as lactose intolerance, can cause vomiting. <p> vomiting is dangerous if gastric content enters the respiratory tract. under normal circumstances the gag reflex and coughing prevent this from occurring; however, these protective reflexes are compromised in persons under the influence of certain substances (including alcohol) or even mildly anesthetized. the individual may choke and asphyxiate or suffer aspiration pneumonia. <p> choking (also known as foreign body airway obstruction) is a life-threatening medical emergency characterized by the blockage of air passage into the lungs secondary to the inhalation or ingestion of food or another object.

The liquid get's into the lungs where it prevents air from reaching a large section of the lung's surface.

in the old days when motor cars started to become more affordable in the us,how did people do long drives without the option of many gas stations and their cars going through gas?

<p> the increase in automobile ownership after henry ford started to sell automobiles that the middle class could afford resulted in an increased demand for filling stations. the world's first purpose-built gas station was constructed in st. louis, missouri in 1905 at 420 s. theresa avenue. the second gas station was constructed in 1907 by standard oil of california (now chevron) in seattle, washington, at what is now pier 32. reighard's gas station in altoona, pennsylvania, claims that it dates from 1909 and is the oldest existing gas station in the united states. early on, they were known to motorists as "filling stations". <p> these cars like their predecessor were slow to move off showroom floors. not because of their appearance, but because of heavy, gas guzzling cars of the time. with gas prices increasing, america was looking for more economical cars. <p> the practicality of the automobile was initially limited because of the lack of suitable roads. travel between cities was mostly done by railroad, waterways, or carriages. roads were mostly dirt and hard to travel, particularly in bad weather. the league of american wheelmen maintained and improved roads as it was viewed as a local responsibility with limited government assistance. during this time, there was an increase in production of automobiles coupled with a swell of auto dealerships, marking their growth in popularity. <p> as the average vehicle of the time consumed between two and three liters (about 0.5–0.8 gallons) of gasoline (petrol) an hour while idling, it was estimated that americans wasted up to of oil per day idling their engines in the lines at gas stations. <p> as demand for automobiles grew, dealerships opened to more easily provide consumers with product. originally reserved for the rich, automobiles became a reality for middle-class families in the early 1900s. <p> bullet::::- by 1896, horseless carriages (cars) were showing up on roads in europe and the united states. because gasoline is so cheap and abundant, and also because ethanol is taxed at a high level, early us automobiles are adapted to gasoline from the beginning. racing cars, on the other hand, usually used ethanol (and other alcohols) because more power could be developed in a smaller, lighter engine. charles edgar duryea builds the first u.s. gasoline powered car but is aware of samuel morey's ethanol fueled experimental car of 1826. henry ford's first car, the quadracycle, is also built that year. the car runs on gasoline, but ford is aware of experiments with ethanol in germany, and subsequently backs the lifting of the u.s. tax on industrial uses of ethanol. <p> even before the 1973 oil crisis, the big american automobile manufacturers were limiting the cubic inch content of their rear-wheel drive manual transmission vehicles as a way to cut costs on the consumers' end. this would serve to keep the carburetor-powered passenger vehicles mainstream in american society until the 1990s when fuel injection offered to limit the emissions on newer vehicles (and help to raise their mpg rating as well). gas prices would exceed $1.29/gallon ($0.33/litre) by the end of the 1990s, causing carbureted vehicles and rear-wheel drive alike to become irrelevant everywhere except in nascar. nascar would not acknowledge this until the beginning of the 2012 nascar sprint cup series season when they legalized fuel injection for the cup series drivers.

They carried extra gas cans with them. The first cars were also prone to overheating and gas stations actually started out as water stations so car owners could cool down their cars and then the network expanded from there. But it was a while before people used cars for long trips.

why is random-number generation non-trivial?

<p> random number generation may also be performed by humans, in the form of collecting various inputs from end users and using them as a randomization source. however, most studies find that human subjects have some degree of non-randomness when attempting to produce a random sequence of e.g. digits or letters. they may alternate too much between choices when compared to a good random generator; thus, this approach is not widely used. <p> the generation of random numbers has many uses (mostly in statistics, for random sampling, and simulation). before modern computing, researchers requiring random numbers would either generate them through various means (dice, cards, roulette wheels, etc.) or use existing random number tables. <p> because it introduces randomness in determining outcomes, there is always the statistical possibility that sortition may put into power an individual or group that do not represent the views of the population from which they were drawn. this argument is mentioned by isocrates in his essay "areopagiticus" (section 23): <p> although the secondary part of the random number generation uses a pseudorandom number generator, the full process essentially qualifies as a "true" random number generator due to the random seed that is used. however, its applicability is limited by its low bandwidth. <p> most computer generated random numbers use pseudorandom number generators (prngs) which are algorithms that can automatically create long runs of numbers with good random properties but eventually the sequence repeats (or the memory usage grows without bound). these random numbers are fine in many situations but are not as random as numbers generated from electromagnetic atmospheric noise used as a source of entropy. the series of values generated by such algorithms is generally determined by a fixed number called a seed. one of the most common prng is the linear congruential generator, which uses the recurrence <p> various applications of randomness have led to the development of several different methods for generating random data, of which some have existed since ancient times, among whose ranks are well-known "classic" examples, including the rolling of dice, coin flipping, the shuffling of playing cards, the use of yarrow stalks (for divination) in the i ching, as well as countless other techniques. because of the mechanical nature of these techniques, generating large numbers of sufficiently random numbers (important in statistics) required a lot of work and/or time. thus, results would sometimes be collected and distributed as random number tables. <p> several computational methods for pseudo-random number generation exist. all fall short of the goal of true randomness, although they may meet, with varying success, some of the statistical tests for randomness intended to measure how unpredictable their results are (that is, to what degree their patterns are discernible). this generally makes them unusable for applications such as cryptography. however, carefully designed cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generators (csprng) also exist, with special features specifically designed for use in cryptography.

What trivial method of random-number generation would you propose? One of the issues is that if it was truly random, we shouldn't be able to predict it. So we're following a set of instructions in order to generate the number, but if you follow the same set of instructions again, you shouldn't be able to predict the outcome.

how can i invest and grow my money without knowing how to invest?

<p> by investing "directly" in an institution, rather than purchasing stock, an investor is able to create a greater social impact: money spent purchasing stock in the secondary market accrues to the stock's previous owner and may not generate social good, while money invested in a community institution is put to work. for example, money invested in a community development financial institution may be used by that institution to alleviate poverty or inequality, spread access to capital to under-served communities, support economic development or green business, or create other social good. in 1984, trillium asset management's founder, joan bavaria, invited chuck matthei of the institute for community economics (ice), an organization that helps communities create and sustain land trusts, to a meeting of us sif. it is likely that this was the first time a nonprofit organization with a loan fund would meet directly with sri managers. trillium clients began investing in ice later that year. <p> individuals have long known that it is possible to make money by investing in real estate, but very few, proportionately speaking, have the capital available to be able to do any investing. the solution is for individuals to join real estate investment clubs (which need to be distinguished from a formally established [real estate investment trust], so that their money can be pooled together in order to purchase properties that they otherwise could not afford to buy. <p> an investor who has some money has two options: to spend it right now or to invest it. the financial compensation for saving it (and not spending it) is that the money value will accrue through the interests that he will receive from a borrower (the bank account on which he has the money deposited). <p> an investor who has some money has two options: to spend it right now or to save it. but the financial compensation for saving it (and not spending it) is that the money value will accrue through the compound interest that he or she will receive from a borrower (the bank account in which he has the money deposited). <p> to raise capital, you require funds from investors who are interested in the investments. you have to present those investors with high-return projects. by displaying high-level potentials of the projects, investors would be more attracted to put their money into those projects. after certain amount of time, usually in a year’s time, rewards of the investment will be shared with investors. this makes investors happy and they may continue to invest further. if returns do not meet the intended level, this could reduce the willingness of investors to invest their money into the funds. hence, the amounts of financial incentives are highly weighted determinants to ensure the funding remains at a desirable level. <p> "investing in the internet is similar in a way to investing in a farm. a farmer sows his seeds and 180 days later, he harvests. with start-up investments you sow your seeds and the harvest could take two or three years, but in the end it will always come. perhaps that's what confuses the investors. they see wagon-loads of produce and they run to sow, but they cannot see when the harvest will come. <p> leverage is a powerful reason for investing in real estate. if an investor used 100% cash to acquire a house worth $100,000, and the house increased in value by $5,000 in one year, then the investor made a return of 5% (assuming no other costs in this case). however, if the investor obtained 95% financing, only $5,000 cash would be required at the closing table, and a bank or other lender would loan the remaining $95,000 to acquire the property.

The market overall is down right now, so it makes sense that you lost some money. The three main things you need to know: Investment gains are slow; it wouldn't be a surprise for it to take a year or so before you make $10 on $500. The safest way to invest is to diversity; buying shares of an index fund or an ETF will let you invest in hundreds of stocks at once rather than putting all of your cash into one or two companies. Third thing to consider is what pre-tax investment options you have. See if your work offers a 401k plan; any money you put into that wont get taxed until you take it out, and some employers will give you extra money for contributions you make to it.

why do we tend to get small violent tendencies when we get angry or have a heated argument with someone else? [biology]

<p> confrontation may occur between individuals, or between larger groups. because groups are composed of multiple individuals, with each member having their own specific triggers for a violent response to a perceived provocation, risk factors which "may not be sufficient individually to explain collective violence, in combination [can] create conditions that may precipitate aggressive confrontations between groups". thus provocation of a single member of one group by a single member of the other group can lead to a confrontation between the groups as a whole. <p> other evolutionary and genetic explanations of violent behaviour include: dopamine receptors mutations, drd2 and drd4, that, when mutate simultaneously, are hypothesized to cause personality disorders, low serotonin levels increasing irritability and gloom and the effects of testosterone on neurotransmitter functioning to explain the increased occurrence of aggression in males. <p> anger causes a reduction in cognitive ability and the accurate processing of external stimuli. dangers seem smaller, actions seem less risky, ventures seem more likely to succeed, and unfortunate events seem less likely. angry people are more likely to make risky decisions, and make less realistic risk assessments. in one study, test subjects primed to feel angry felt less likely to suffer heart disease, and more likely to receive a pay raise, compared to fearful people. this tendency can manifest in retrospective thinking as well: in a 2005 study, angry subjects said they thought the risks of terrorism in the year following 9/11 in retrospect were low, compared to what the fearful and neutral subjects thought. <p> aggression can be the result of both internal and external factors that create a measurable activation in the autonomic nervous system. this activation can become evident through symptoms such as the clenching of fists or jaw, pacing, slamming doors, hitting palms of hands with fists, or being easily startled. it is estimated that 17% of visits to psychiatric emergency service settings are homicidal in origin and an additional 5% involve both suicide and homicide. violence is also associated with many conditions such as acute intoxication, acute psychosis, paranoid personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder and borderline personality disorder. additional risk factors have also been identified which may lead to violent behavior. such risk factors may include prior arrests, presence of hallucinations, delusions or other neurological impairment, being uneducated, unmarried, etc. mental health professionals complete violence risk assessments to determine both security measures and treatments for the patient. <p> anger and frustration confirm negative relationships. the resulting behavior patterns will often be characterized by more than their share of unilateral action because an individual will have a natural desire to avoid unpleasant rejections, and these unilateral actions (especially when antisocial) will further contribute to an individual's alienation from society. if particular rejections are generalized into feelings that the environment is unsupportive,more strongly negative emotions may motivate the individual to engage in crime. this is most likely to be true for younger individuals, and agnew suggested that research focus on the magnitude, recency, duration, and clustering of such strain-related events to determine whether a person copes with strain in a criminal or conforming manner. temperament, intelligence, interpersonal skills, self-efficacy, the presence of conventional social support, and the absence of association with antisocial ("e.g.", criminally inclined) age and status peers are chief among the factors agnew identified as beneficial. <p> the causes of violent behavior in people are often a topic of research in psychology. neurobiologist jan vodka emphasizes that, for those purposes, "violent behavior is defined as overt and intentional physically aggressive behavior against another person." <p> frustration is another major cause of aggression. the frustration aggression theory states that aggression increases if a person feels that he or she is being blocked from achieving a goal (aronson et al. 2005). one study found that the closeness to the goal makes a difference. the study examined people waiting in line and concluded that the 2nd person was more aggressive than the 12th one when someone cut in line (harris 1974). unexpected frustration may be another factor. in a separate study to demonstrate how unexpected frustration leads to increased aggression, kulik & brown (1979) selected a group of students as volunteers to make calls for charity donations. one group was told that the people they would call would be generous and the collection would be very successful. the other group was given no expectations. the group that expected success was more upset when no one was pledging than the group who did not expect success (everyone actually had horrible success). this research suggests that when an expectation does not materialize (successful collections), unexpected frustration arises which increases aggression.

The "Fight or Flight" response to the confrontation. Anticipating a fight, a cascade of things happen to your physiology..adrenaline production, flushing, heat, respiration increasing, muscles tensing..the whole brain is prepped to go to battle. This also suppresses normal functions, like situational awareness giving way to tunnel vision, reduced perception of pain and fatigue, and most noteworthy: rapidly reduced impulse control. Impulse control in a potentially fatal situation can be deadly, and we have evolved a way of shutting it down in the face of danger: Don't *think* about the tiger in the bushes, just run. Baser impulses become difficult if not impossible to suppress, as seen when someone "rages". Those violent tendencies rush to the surface and find expression. We don't even have to full on rage for this. It varies from person to person but when there is moderate stimulation of a fight-or-flight response we can observe expressions of anxiety and/or aggression. It's why people yell during sports matches.

why real estate agents promote themselves like they're a celebrity and how this became standard practice?

<p> celebrity endorsement benefits both branding and advertising agencies, promoting them on social media, such as instagram and facebook. 'firms invest significant monies in juxtaposing brands and organisations with endorser qualities such as attractiveness, likeability, and trustworthiness. they trust that these qualities operate in a transferable way, and, will generate desirable campaign outcomes' (journal of marketing management, volume 15 1999). examples of celebrities that act as ambassadors for obtaining "likes" for coca-cola and l'oreal are selena gomez and cheryl cole. <p> marketers and agencies commonly consider celebrities as a good influencer with endorsement work. this conception is similar to celebrity marketing. based on a survey, 69% of company marketing department and 74% of agencies are currently working with celebrities in the uk. the celebrity types come along with their working environment. traditional celebrities are considered as singles, dancers, actors or models. these types of public characters are continuing to be the most commonly used by company marketers. the survey found that 4 in 10 company having worked with these traditional celebrities in the prior year. however, people these years are spending more time on social media rather than traditional media such as tv. the researchers also claim that customers are not firmly believed celebrities are effectively influential. <p> in modern-day many businesses have chosen to use celebrities in their marketing communications to make their product or organisation seem appealing to consumers, this type of strategy is used to increase sales and help the business seem more popular than other competitors. by using many known celebrities to be the face of their business campaign this puts a high emplacement of the brand in the consumers mind and helps shows trustworthiness, expertise and attractiveness by the use of the celebrity (escalas & bettman, 2015, p. xx). by using celebrities it not only makes the consumer feel attracted to the product it also maintains attention and keeps a higher recall about the business in their minds due to their fame in today's modern environment. many businesses around the world are flooded with competitors so turn to celebrity branding to appeal to their targeted consumers, due to celebrities being seen as role models this will trigger a sense of need and satisfaction to the product in the consumers mind and will make them be able to related more to the business. <p> furthermore, in the late 1900s, celebrity endorsements came to another level, instead of images of them promoting a brand, companies started to hold press conferences with the celebrity announcing special deals, this meant celebrities had now become a spokesman for the firm. as more companies got their celebrity ambassador to hold press conferences and announce special deals, sales for the brands were increasing immensely and more deals were introduced to the market. <p> at one time, all real estate brokers and agents, or realtors, practiced "single agency," meaning they represented only the buyer or the seller. in the 1990s, the concept of buyer agency became popular, allowing a buyer to retain an agent who would represent the best interests of the buyer alone. the first national company to provide this service was the buyer's agent, inc. a 2008 study by "consumer reports" indicates that prior to this development, a realtor was presumed by state law to be working for the seller. the same study shows that buyers using buyer agents obtained a savings of $5000 in the price of the home as compared to prices paid by unrepresented buyers. it remains true that an unrepresented real estate buyer can still call the sellers agent to arrange a showing of the property. in such cases, the buyer should be advised by agency disclosure laws (a state law in every state in the u.s.) that any information obtained, as well as all conversations and negotiations undertaken, will be for the benefit of the seller. <p> in cosmopolitan cities with large affluent populations, there are upscale venues that employ the services of a special kind of promoter called an image promoter. the role of the image promoter is to bring celebrities or fashion models to high end venues and host them at a vip table. in order to entice models and celebrities to come to the venue, the image promoter is provided with a vip table and complementary alcohol. high end venues use the presence of models and celebrities to market their venue to an affluent clientele which may often only obtain admittance to the venue through agreeing to spend a certain amount of money on alcohol at the establishment. <p> since companies started making products around celebrities and the celebrity becoming the brand ambassador for the company, athletes and entertainment celebrity's then started to negotiate salaries and pay out's for them representing the company due to the competition of other firms. due to salaries always increasing because of the demands of the celebrity, usually, sales for the company that the celebrity was promoting would increase.

Many people don't do much homework when choosing something, in this case a realtor. If you decide to sell your house, the conversation may well go like this: "Let's sell this dump!" "K" "Who should we call?" "I dunno, how about that guy's face that we see everywhere all the time? I can't think of any others at this moment, and I can't wait to spend all the money we get from this house." Plus there's a chance that somebody so interested in self-promotion is probably interested in heavily promoting your property along with his picture. And lastly, it's a tough business; the realtor who can afford to self promote probably sells stuff to afford it.

mood swings due to hormones (like contraception or pms)

<p> a large body of research has looked at the effects of positive or negative mood manipulations on performance in tasks of executive function. in most cases, positive mood inductions impair executive function, whereas negative mood has little effect. overall, the best supported explanation for the observed effects is that mood affects processing style, with positive mood facilitating more heuristic methods of solving problems, and negative mood facilitating more algorithmic methods. research in this area is incomplete, as negative mood inductions are less thoroughly studied. <p> there have been concerns about a possible risk of depression and mood changes with progestins like mpa, and this has led to reluctance of some clinicians and women to use them. however, contrary to widely-held beliefs, most research suggests that progestins do not cause adverse psychological effects such as depression or anxiety. a 2018 systematic review of the relationship between progestin-based contraception and depression included three large studies of dmpa and reported no association between dmpa and depression. according to a 2003 review of dmpa, the majority of published clinical studies indicate that dmpa is not associated with depression, and the overall data support the notion that the medication does not significantly affect mood. <p> the onset of a positive mood can make people more receptive to negative diagnostic feedback. past successes are reviewed with expectation of receiving such positive feedback, presumably to buffer their mood. <p> mood can play an influential role in impression formation by affecting the way the primacy effect is used when making judgments. being in a positive mood causes a person to process information in a holistic, all-inclusive fashion while being in a negative mood encourages more adaptive processing which accounts for each detail individually. therefore, positive mood tends to increase the influence of early information while negative mood has the opposite effect. there is also evidence of a mood-congruent factor, where people in good moods form positive impressions and people in bad moods form negative impressions. this is most likely due to the selective priming of information associated with the current mood state, which causes mood-congruent biases in impression formation. <p> negative moods have been connected with depression, anxiety, aggression, poor self-esteem, physiological stress and decrease in sexual arousal. in some individuals, there is evidence that depressed or anxious mood may increase sexual interest or arousal. in general, men were more likely than women to report increased sexual drive during negative mood states. negative moods are labeled as nonconstructive because it can affect a person’s ability to process information; making them focus solely on the sender of a message, while people in positive moods will pay more attention to both the sender and the context of a message. this can lead to problems in social relationships with others. <p> along with a clearer understanding of the effect of mood on a person's information processing, the aim also provides a guide by which researchers can design experiments to investigate the effect of sending persuasive messages to subjects. one important area of research involves the concept of 'mood congruence', or how the results of mood compare to the mood itself. it has been found that 'mood congruence' occurs when a person exhibits a positive relationship between his or her mood and a dependent variable; essentially, as the strength of the mood increases or decreases, so the performance measured by this variable increases or decreases correspondingly. conversely, 'mood incongruence' occurs when a person exhibits a negative relationship between mood and the dependent variable; thus, as mood increases, performance decreases and vice versa. <p> it is thought that fluctuations in the levels of inhibitory neurosteroids during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy play an important role in a variety of women's conditions, including premenstrual syndrome (pms), premenstrual dysphoric disorder (pmdd), postpartum depression (ppd), postpartum psychosis, and catamenial epilepsy. in addition, it is thought that changes in neurosteroid levels may be involved in the changes in mood, anxiety, and sexual desire that occur during puberty in both sexes and during menopause in women.

Hormones produced by the ovaries act as powerful neurotransmitters. When the amount you have in the body changes, it can affect your mood because it affects your brain.

what is significant about a 4th domain of life being discovered

<p> bullet::::- researchers announce the discovery of considerable amounts of life forms, including 70% of bacteria and archea on earth, comprising up to 23 billion tonnes of carbon, living up to at least deep underground, including below the seabed, according to a ten-year deep carbon observatory project. <p> scientists have found life in an antarctic lake vida that was sealed off from the outside world by a thick sheet of ice several thousands of years ago. the discovery of the ecosystem pushes the boundaries of what life can endure, and may inform the search for alien microbes on other planets, such as mars, or on icy moons, for instance, jupiter's moon europa. <p> the deep life community documents the extreme limits and global extent of subsurface life in our planet, exploring the evolutionary and functional diversity of earth's deep biosphere and its interaction with the carbon cycle. the deep life community maps the abundance and diversity of subsurface marine and continental microorganisms in time and space as a function of their genomic and biogeochemical properties, and their interactions with deep carbon. by integrating "in situ" and "in vitro" assessments of biomolecules and cells, the deep life community explores the environmental limits to the survival, metabolism and reproduction of deep life. the resulting data informs experiments and models that study the impact of deep life on the carbon cycle, and the deep biosphere's relation to the surface world. members of the deep life community are conducting research as a part of the census of deep life, which seeks to identify the diversity and distribution of microbial life in continental and marine deep subsurface environments and to explore mechanisms that govern microbial evolution and dispersal in the deep biosphere. <p> the development of new genomic techniques has now made it possible to explore life’s diversity in the sunless depths of the oceans and assess the metabolic potential of the life they conceal. exploring biodiversity in the ocean’s depths could also yield important discoveries with applications in biotechnology. <p> life has been found at depths of 5 km in continents and 10.5 km below the ocean surface. the estimated volume of the deep biosphere is 2–2.3 billion cubic kilometers, about twice the volume of the oceans. <p> the field of biochemistry has greatly developed since darwin's time, and this serological study is one of the most recent pieces of evidence of evolution. a number of biochemical products like nucleic acids, enzymes, hormones and phosphagens clearly show the relationship of all life forms. the composition of body fluid has shown that the first life originated in the oceans. the presence of nitrogenous waste products reveal the aquatic ancestry of vertebrates, and the nature of visual pigments points out the fresh water ancestry of land vertebrates. serological tests indicate relationships within these animal phyla. <p> astrobiological exploration is founded upon the premise that biosignatures encountered in space will be recognizable as extraterrestrial life. the usefulness of a biosignature is determined not only by the probability of life creating it, but also by the improbability of non-biological (abiotic) processes producing it. concluding that evidence of an extraterrestrial life form (past or present) has been discovered requires proving that a possible biosignature was produced by the activities or remains of life. as with most scientific discoveries, discovery of a biosignature will require evidence building up until no other explanation exists.

To the average person, absolutely nothing. I'm sure someone else will come through and explain to me why I am wrong, but the truth is that this knowledge will not change how you live your life for decades (if ever). What this means though is that scientists will have to rethink evolutionary biology. Evolution isn't wrong by any means, but to have an entire domain of life that we weren't aware of is huge. It begs the question is there another domain we haven't found yet? How long ago did this domain of life split off from the other domains? What caused the change (i.e. why was this domain better suited to whichever niche it filled than one of the other 3 domains). And more questions like that

how does cargo transport operate?

<p> shipment of cargo by trucks, directly from the shipper's place to the destination, is known as a door-to-door shipment, or more formally as multimodal transport. trucks and trains make deliveries to sea and airports where cargo is moved in bulk. <p> freight transport is the physical process of transporting commodities and merchandise goods and cargo. the term shipping originally referred to transport by sea but in american english, it has been extended to refer to transport by land or air (international english: "carriage") as well. "logistics", a term borrowed from the military environment, is also used in the same sense. <p> a cargo ship or freighter is any sort of ship or vessel that carries cargo, goods, and materials from one port to another. thousands of cargo carriers ply the world's seas and oceans each year; they handle the bulk of international trade. cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being equipped with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes. <p> cargo, i.e. merchandise being transported, can be moved through a variety of transportation means and is organized in different shipment categories. unit loads are usually assembled into higher standardized units such as: iso containers, swap bodies or semi-trailers. especially for very long distances, product transportation will likely benefit from using different transportation means: multimodal transport, intermodal transport (no handling) and combined transport (minimal road transport). when moving cargo, typical constraints are maximum weight and volume. <p> the benefit to shipping by truck is convenience. the teamster who picks up the merchandise is contractually bound to ensure its delivery to the products destination. using short sea shipping adds two more legs to the shipping equation. the first teamster carries the goods from its point of origin to the port authority, from there by barge or ship to the second port authority. a second teamster then collects the cargo and delivers it to the final destination. this forces the business owner to either work with a single large trucking company working in both ports, or coordinate with two owner-operators independently, and possibly have the cargo sitting on a pierside holding area until a second trucking contract can be agreed upon. <p> freight transport, or shipping, is a key in the value chain in manufacturing. with increased specialization and globalization, production is being located further away from consumption, rapidly increasing the demand for transport. transport creates place utility by moving the goods from the place of production to the place of consumption. while all modes of transport are used for cargo transport, there is high differentiation between the nature of the cargo transport, in which mode is chosen. logistics refers to the entire process of transferring products from producer to consumer, including storage, transport, transshipment, warehousing, material-handling, and packaging, with associated exchange of information. incoterm deals with the handling of payment and responsibility of risk during transport. <p> delivery is the process of transporting goods from a source location to a predefined destination. there are different delivery types. cargo (physical goods) are primarily delivered via roads and railroads on land, shipping lanes on the sea and airline networks in the air. certain specialized goods may be delivered via other networks, such as pipelines for liquid goods, power grids for electrical power and computer networks such as the internet or broadcast networks for electronic information.

Without getting into specifics regarding INCO terms and their differences between transportation modes or NVOCC vs asset based carriers, it's fairly simple. The vast majority of ocean freight is moved in containers that the shipper does not own. Embedded within the cost structure of the transportation is a factor that essentially accounts for the rental of the container. When the freight is dropped off to a container yard or freight forwarder, the shipper provides that forwarder or ocean carrier with documentation including shipping instructions. From those instructions, the freight provider creates a Bill Of Lading. The BOL then provides many of the instructions for the container once it reaches its destination port. Assuming you've purchased a "port-to-door" services from your carrier/forwarder, they will retrieve your container from the port of discharge once it clears customs. They will then deliver it to your determined location. At that location, most times the carrier will expect a "live unload" of the container so they can take it with them. If you do not "live unload" you will pay detention charges after the container has been in your possession for X days (depending on the terms of your agreement). At a VERY high level, that is how ocean freight is moved.

what do foundries actually do?

<p> emery is a producer of commodity and specialty chemicals made from natural oils and fats. it is one of the largest oleochemical manufacturers in the united states, along with vantage specialty chemicals. <p> floristry is the production, commerce and trade in flowers. it encompasses flower care and handling, floral design, or flower arranging, merchandising, and display and flower delivery. wholesale florists sell bulk flowers and related supplies to professionals in the trade. retail florists offer fresh flowers and related products and services to consumers. the first flower shop opened in 1875. <p> floris (also j. floris ltd or floris of london holdings ltd) is the oldest english retailer of fragrance and toiletries and is still family owned and run today by the 8th and 9th generation of the family. <p> finders keepers, also known as the finder , is an australian children's television show, directed by scott hicks, that first aired on 28 october 1991, based on a book by emily rodda. the story revolves around a boy called patrick who, whilst playing on a computer, receives an invitation to take part on a tv game show called "finders keepers" through a store in a shopping arcade. he accepts the invitation and is sucked into another world where he is given clues to find missing treasures from his own world and take part in an interdimensional hunt. <p> floristry can involve the cultivation of flowers as well as their arrangement, and to the business of selling them. much of the raw material supplied for the floristry trade comes from the cut flowers industry. florist shops, along with online stores, are the main flower-only outlets, but supermarkets, garden supply stores, and filling stations also sell flowers. <p> in england and wales, finders of objects that are not treasure or treasure trove are encouraged to voluntarily report them under the portable antiquities scheme to finds liaison officers at county councils and local museums. under the scheme, which started in september 1997, the officers examine finds and provide finders with information on them. they also record the finds, their functions, dates, materials and locations, and place this information into a database which can be analysed. the information on the findspots may be used to organize further research on the areas. non-treasure finds remain the property of their finders or landowners, who are free to dispose of them as they wish. <p> the uk detector finds database is an initiative by some members of the metal-detecting community in the united kingdom to promote good practice within the hobby. it is an online facility for detectorists to record their finds and ensure that the information is preserved for future generations.

What is the conflict here? Qualcomm designs the processors, and ASML builds the machines that TSMC uses to actually manufacture the chips in large numbers.

what is executive order 13673, fair pay and safe workplaces?

<p> executive order 11246, signed by president lyndon b. johnson on september 24, 1965, established requirements for non-discriminatory practices in hiring and employment on the part of u.s. government contractors. it "prohibits federal contractors and federally assisted construction contractors and subcontractors, who do over $10,000 in government business in one year from discriminating in employment decisions on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin." it also requires contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, color, religion, sex or national origin." the phrase "affirmative action" had appeared previously in executive order 10925 in 1961. <p> american workplace protections laws generally conform to international labor standards. the occupational safety and health act of 1970 established the occupational safety and health administration (osha), an agency of the united states department of labor that set and mandated national standards for workplace safety. the act gave osha several critical powers including the ability to inspect workplaces for noncompliance, impose penalties for safety violations, and remove a health or safety hazard. when determining fines, the agency has wide discretion: osha considers many factors including the employer's previous compliance with safety standards, size, good faith, and the severity of the violation. osha standards apply to all workers, included those who are undocumented or not citizens. <p> bullet::::- july 31 − president obama signs an executive order titled "fair pay and safe workplace" ensuring all americans get fair pay and safe workplaces. federal agencies will be given more guidance on how to consider labor violations when awarding federal contracts. <p> ten days later, obama signed a related executive order 13673, "fair pay and safe workplaces." it required companies receiving federal contracts over a half-million dollars to demonstrate compliance with labor laws, including those with lgbt protections. on march 27, 2017, president trump revoked executive order 13673, meaning that companies no longer must prove their compliance with labor laws to retain their federal contracts. this action indirectly weakened executive order 13672. <p> part 3 details the rights and responsibilities of employees and employers. examples employer responsibilities outlined by the ohs regulation include workplace inspections, providing occupational health and safety programs when required, and providing orientation and training to young or new workers. employee rights include the ability to refuse unsafe work. <p> in regard to australian workplace agreements (awa) brian boyd has voiced concern many may breach ohs law following statistics released in april by the major newspapers that claim 30% of awas do not allow workers to have rest breaks during scheduled hours of work. he has called awas that breach ohs regulations as criminal and asked that worksafe victoria prosecute any employer found to have taken away this safety condition under the occupational health and safety act. "workers are protected by occupational health and safety law. our victorian law says that the employer has to provide a safe system of work – and that includes decent rest breaks," boyd said. "employers think they can do what they want under howard’s laws, but they are forgetting that state-based ohs laws still call them to account." <p> the mcnamara–o'hara service contract act of 1965 (sca), codified at , is a us labor law that requires government to use its bargaining power to ensure fair wages for workers when it buys services from private contractors.

It sounds like the part that applies to you is part II of the order: "The second part of the Order creates new paycheck-transparency protections for workers on Federal contracts. This part, section 5 of the Order, contains two separate requirements. It requires contracting agencies to ensure that certain workers on covered Federal contracts and subcontracts receive a wage statement that that contains information concerning that individual's hours worked, overtime hours, pay, and any additions made to or deductions made from pay. It also instructs covered contractors and subcontractors to inform individuals in writing if the individual is being treated as an independent contractor, and not an employee." Overall, it sounds like the order requires Federal contractors to be explicit about when and how they break Federal labor laws, and also clearly explain on pay stubs how the employee is getting payed. You should be seeing some more detail on future pay statements is the very short version.

modern file systems

<p> before the advent of computers the term "file system" was used to describe a method of storing and retrieving paper documents. by 1961 the term was being applied to computerized filing alongside the original meaning. by 1964 it was in general use. <p> the extended file system, or ext, was implemented in april 1992 as the first file system created specifically for the linux kernel. it has metadata structure inspired by the traditional unix file system (ufs) and was designed by rémy card to overcome certain limitations of the minix file system. it was the first implementation that used the virtual file system (vfs), for which support was added in the linux kernel in version 0.96c, and it could handle file systems up to 2 gigabytes (gb) in size. <p> there are many different kinds of file systems. each one has different structure and logic, properties of speed, flexibility, security, size and more. some file systems have been designed to be used for specific applications. for example, the iso 9660 file system is designed specifically for optical discs. <p> file systems can be used on numerous different types of storage devices that use different kinds of media. as of 2019, hard disk drives have been key storage devices and are projected to remain so for the foreseeable future. other kinds of media that are used include ssds, magnetic tapes, and optical discs. in some cases, such as with tmpfs, the computer's main memory (random-access memory, ram) is used to create a temporary file system for short-term use. <p> in unix and operating systems inspired by it, the file system is considered a central component of the operating system. it was also one of the first parts of the system to be designed and implemented by ken thompson in the first experimental version of unix, dated 1969. <p> in computing, a file system is a type of data store which could be used to store, retrieve and update files. each file can be uniquely located by its path. the user must know the path in advance to access a file and the path does not necessarily include any information about the content of the file. <p> a file system relies on data structures "about" the files, beside the file content. the former are called "metadata"—data that describes data. each file is associated with an "inode", which is identified by an integer number, often referred to as an "i-number" or "inode number".

ReFS is a newer filesystems that is designed to have more resiliency then NTFS by doing things like having checksums to validate that a disk drive isn't corrupting data (what you wrote is what you read) and store more data then NTFS can safely, as well as not requiring extended disk checks to ensure its internal structures aren't corrupt. That last part is important when a single filesystems can store petabytes of data, and taking the system down to do a CHKDSK can take many hours where in a corporate setting not having the file server available is a major issue. ReFS doesn't support all the features that NTFS does - it is specifically designed to be the file system for a large corporate file server. has a good outline of the differences between ReFS and NTFS. It's only available on Windows Server right now, and only for data drives. It's not a replacement for NTFS, it has a very different design goal at present. ReFS has larger drive limits (up to 2^78 bytes) then NTFS does and is better designed to handle them then NTFS is. ReFS is also not supported on removable disks at all. This is pure conjecture, but we might see it as consumers in the next client version of Windows (Windows 9?), or if there is ever going to be another Windows Home Server. I don't know if it will ever be supported as a boot drive file system. exFAT is completely different - it's actually closer to FAT/FAT32 then it is to NTFS, and Microsoft has patents on it, making it proprietary and requiring licensing from Microsoft to implement. It is designed to be used on larger ( > 32 GiB I'd say) removable / flash storage and support files larger then 4GiB. The downside is that not all devices support it. It does optionally support a lot of the same features that NTFS does (meaning they're in the spec, but not required to be implemented), but it's also not designed to replace NTFS. It's not a journaling file system - meaning if the system crashes while it's writing to the disk there is a chance (albeit pretty small in my experience) that the disk will be corrupted and require either a CHKDSK or reformat to be usable again. exFAT is not well supported by Linux systems due to the patent issues either (in my experience), and only fairly new devices and operating systems support it. It does have less overhead on disk compared to NTFS which is why it is better suited to removable flash drives then NTFS, where the media may not do wear levelling. NTFS is actually a predecessor to FAT32 - it was first released with Windows NT 3.1 in 1993, while FAT32 was introduced in Windows 95 OSR2 in 1996. As a guess, it was easier to support and convert older FAT16 drives to FAT32 and to write a FAT32 driver for Windows 95/DOS7 then to write a NTFS driver - not to mention all the backwards compatibility that had to be added to DOS to make the hodgepodge actually hold together. The new filesystems from Microsoft aren't replacements for the old ones yet, though it might happen over the next several years.

why does it take so long after your flight has pulled into the gate to open the doors?

<p> thomas g. doty arrived at the gate after the doors had been closed. although airline policy is that once the doors are closed they are not to be reopened, the doors were reopened and doty was allowed to board. <p> a problem with the outward-opening cargo door first became publicly known on june 12, 1972, when american airlines flight 96 lost its aft cargo door shortly after takeoff from detroit metro airport, in flight above windsor, ontario. before flight 96 took off, an airport employee had forced the door shut. due to the cargo door's design, the door appeared to be securely locked despite the internal locking mechanism not being fully engaged. subsequently, when the aircraft reached approximately in altitude, the rear cargo door blew out, causing an explosive decompression that created a large pressure differential between the cabin above and the cargo bay below, causing the cabin floor to collapse. this collapsed section of the floor cut or impeded many of the control cables to the empennage control systems necessary to fly the aircraft, which were routed through the floor beams, leaving the pilots with very limited control of the aircraft. the crew performed an emergency landing by using the ailerons, right elevator, some limited rudder trim, and asymmetrical thrust of the wing engines. all 67 passengers evacuated safely. <p> at most gates a single doorway opens to a jet bridge which leads to the aircraft door depending on aircraft model. if the gate is being used for departures, domestic arrivals, or international arrivals coming from airports with preclearance for the destination airport, a door that goes to a waiting area will be opened and a hallway to customs will be closed, preventing passengers from entering into the customs hall. for international arrivals that is coming from cities that does not have preclearance, the door leading to the waiting area is closed and passengers are directed to a hallway where they can either go into the customs hall, if they end at that city, or clear customs and pre-board security if they have a connecting flight. <p> investigators interviewed the ground crew at detroit and learned that the cargo loader who operated the rear door had found it extremely difficult to close. he stated that he closed the door electrically, and waited for the sound of the actuator motors to stop. when they did, he attempted to operate the locking handle, but found it very difficult to close. he managed to get the latch to lock only by applying force with his knee, but he noticed that the vent plug (see below) was not entirely closed. he brought this to the attention of a mechanic, who cleared the flight. the flight engineer reported that the "door ajar" warning light on his panel was not lit at any time during the taxi out or flight. <p> doors which lead from interior, pressurized, sections of an aircraft to exterior or unpressurized areas can pose extreme risk if they are inadvertently opened during flight. this can be mitigated by having doors that open inwardly and are designed to be forced into their door frames by the internal cabin pressure – most cabin doors are of this type. however, an outward opening door is often advantageous for cargo doors to maximise available space, and these need to be secured by hefty locking mechanisms to overcome internal pressure. <p> on 9 december 2009 a door on an hst came open in the vicinity of the tunnel and a passenger attempted to close it, without success but at some personal risk. a local newspaper attempted to sensationalise the incident by stating that the passenger concerned was "almost thrown from the train" as the door "flew" open. careful reading of the rest of the article shows that statement to be inaccurate and misleading; in fact nobody was near the door when it opened, and any risk to the passenger concerned arose entirely as a result of his decision to attempt to close it. <p> after the doors are opened, the conductor sticks their head out the window to observe passenger boarding and exiting. the doors stay open for at least ten seconds, and when the conductor decides to close the doors, the conductor announces a door-closing warning using a pa system on the train. when the platform is clear, the conductor closes the doors in the rear cars. when a locked-door signal is received, the conductor closes the doors in the forward section of the train. door chimes warn passengers that the doors are closing. when all the doors are closed, the conductor removes the door key, which alerts the motorman that it is safe to proceed.

The pilot needs to shut down engine and ground crew need to chock the plane. The cabin crew then need to unbuckle once they're told the plane is in position and make their way to the exit door. The doors are armed against unintentional opening and disarming them takes some time. The largest part of the delay, however, is moving the stairs or airbridge into position. They must be moved slowly and deliberately. Once when they are in position does a ramp agent knock on the plane door, which notifies the attendant to open it, at which point it must be secured. It may feel like 5-10 minutes, but it's almost always just 2 or 3 at most.

what's the difference between donating blood to the red cross vs. donating to a hospital? if the red cross supplies blood to hospitals, why do hospitals run their own blood banks?

<p> the united states does not have a centralized blood donation service. the american red cross collects a little less than half of the blood used, the other half is collected by independent agencies, most of which are members of america's blood centers. the us military collects blood from service members for its own use, but also draws blood from the civilian supply. <p> apart from governmental and non-governmental organizations, major hospitals in the country have their own blood banks where blood donation is conducted within the facility. organizations such as bloodconnect, indian blood donors and friends2support maintain a database of blood donors which facilitates a network between blood donors and organizations/hospitals. <p> the national blood service (nbs), now renamed blood donation, is the organisation for england which collects blood and other tissues, tests, processes, and supplies all the hospitals in england. other official blood services in the united kingdom include the northern ireland blood transfusion service, scottish national blood transfusion service and the welsh blood service. <p> today in the developed world, most blood donors are unpaid volunteers who donate blood for a community supply. in some countries, established supplies are limited and donors usually give blood when family or friends need a transfusion (directed donation). many donors donate as an act of charity, but in countries that allow paid donation some donors are paid, and in some cases there are incentives other than money such as paid time off from work. donors can also have blood drawn for their own future use (autologous donation). donating is relatively safe, but some donors have bruising where the needle is inserted or may feel faint. <p> blood donations are divided into groups based on who will receive the collected blood. an 'allogeneic' (also called 'homologous') donation is when a donor gives blood for storage at a blood bank for transfusion to an unknown recipient. a 'directed' donation is when a person, often a family member, donates blood for transfusion to a specific individual. directed donations are relatively rare when an established supply exists. a 'replacement donor' donation is a hybrid of the two and is common in developing countries such as ghana. in this case, a friend or family member of the recipient donates blood to replace the stored blood used in a transfusion, ensuring a consistent supply. when a person has blood stored that will be transfused back to the donor at a later date, usually after surgery, that is called an 'autologous' donation. blood that is used to make medications can be made from allogeneic donations or from donations exclusively used for manufacturing. <p> red blood cells are the limiting step for whole blood donations, and the frequency of donation varies widely depending on the type of donor and local policies. during whole blood donation, blood is drawn from the inner forearm venipuncture area from the right or left arm. the blood goes to the main collection bag located on the shaker which is next to the donor bed and this bag holds one pint of whole blood. after collection the blood bag along with three tubes of blood for testing and typing is sent to the laboratory. here, the blood bag is separated into its different component parts in a centrifuge process (red cells, platelets, and plasma). <p> a blood bank is a center where blood gathered as a result of blood donation is stored and preserved for later use in blood transfusion. the term "blood bank" typically refers to a division of a hospital where the storage of blood product occurs and where proper testing is performed (to reduce the risk of transfusion related adverse events). however, it sometimes refers to a collection center, and indeed some hospitals also perform collection.

We don't give blood any more. We fractionate it into the different components and give only what is needed. If you need red blood cells, you get Packed Red Blood Cells. If you need platelets, you get that. Same for plasma, albumin, etc. etc. The blood bank stores the blood products. They also ensure that the blood matches the recipients, and that special blood products (e.g. leukocyte reduced PRBCs, etc.) are kept stored appropriately. Most hospital blood drives are actually the Red Cross or another blood supply vendor setting up a station in the hospital to accept the blood. Hospitals never accept blood donations because they aren't well equipt to screen it appropriately or to separate and store all the components. Edit: to throw this in, the Red Cross supplies about 40% of the blood in the US. That leaves another 60% of the blood supply that hospitals could buy from if the Red Cross abused pricing.

how are people's ideas not stolen when they propose them to a company in a sales pitch?

<p> marketing ideas are developed in myriad ways; often, fielder and the writing team will come up with an idea specifically for the business, while other times concepts are formed in a completely unrelated way. ideas can be thrown out if they are deemed not visually interesting or engaging for viewers. as a result, the show's writing process involves "a lot of guessing and testing," according to fielder. episodes are constantly re-written based on the interactions they receive. fielder called the show's process "a very inefficient way of making tv." <p> the whole process of buying ideas takes place on-line, directly between advertisers/marketers and creatives, disintermediating agencies in the process. clients have the option of setting a pitch deadline and a license price for pitched ideas, while creatives have the option of setting a licensing price for ideas in the gallery. clients receive on average from 20 to 100 creative solutions and can decide to license one, more or none of the ideas proposed. marketers pay $3,000 to $100,000 to post "briefs" describing proposed assignments on its web site. ideas accepted by clients are subject to negotiation with the creator, with openad.net collecting a 22½% commission on the transaction. <p> in selling technique, a sales presentation or sales pitch is a line of talk that attempts to persuade someone or something, with a planned sales presentation strategy of a product or service designed to initiate and close a sale of the product or service. <p> increasingly, the term proposal management is being used to suggest that engagement with the proposal process is important to more than just the sales team, and should also affect those working in marketing, legal, and sales. <p> trade ideas (or trading ideas, or "electronic alpha-capture") are investment ideas, typically equity related, ("long" i.e. buy, or "short" i.e. sell) which are sent by institutional stockbrokers to their institutional clients (i.e. this is not a service provided to private clients). they typically propose a trade in a specific stock and are developed by the individual idea author’s (e.g. a salesman) own knowledge of their client’s particular area of investment interest, so will take into account: the client’s investment style, portfolio size and the sector and geographic focus. recipients of trade ideas can be hedge funds, bank’s proprietary trading desks and money managers. trade ideas are sent to the client with a recommendation to buy or sell, an investment value (e.g. $2 million) and often a timeframe and an indication of level of conviction. the most active consumers of trade ideas are funds using quantitative or systematic strategies. <p> there's a difference between selling out your ideas and selling your ideas, and the british national party isn't about selling out its ideas, which are your ideas too, but we are determined now to sell them, and that means basically to use the saleable words, as i say, freedom, security, identity, democracy. nobody can criticise them. nobody can come at you and attack you on those ideas. they are saleable. <p> the first phase of product planning is developing the product concept. marketing managers usually create ideas for new products by identifying certain problems that consumers face or various customers need. for example, a small computer retailer may see the need to create a computer repair division for the products it sells. after the product idea is conceived, managers will start planning the dimensions and features of the product. some small companies will even develop a product mock-up or model.

Fair warning, I sell IP for a living. Basically, we are very careful what we share when we are selling. We show just enough to let you see the potential, but not enough that you are able to duplicate the work without us. Sure, you may see a piece of it, but its a long road between one website page and a fully functional site.

why do artists release full music videos? doesn't it cut into album sales?

<p> they are yet to release a full-length album, because they prefer giving out their music for free. they have had millions of downloads from their site and other related pages. they did release a free multimedia cd of their singles and videos in 2001. the band does not have any policies against their music being copied and distributed. they have made their music available for download on their official website. <p> music videos have been released commercially on physical formats such as videotape, laserdisc, dvd and blu-ray. similar to an audio album, a video album is a longform release containing multiple music videos on a disc. the market size of music videos is considerably smaller than audio albums and audio singles. video albums are eligible for gold certifications from the recording industry association of america (riaa) after record labels shipped 50,000 units to retailers, while both audio albums and singles have to ship 500,000 units to achieve gold. one of the early video albums was "eat to the beat" (1979) by american rock band blondie, a videocassette containing music videos of all tracks from their fourth studio album of the same name. the music videos were taped in new york and new jersey, with some songs featuring the band playing in a concert fashion, and some others having scenarios based on the songs' lyrics. another popular video album was "olivia physical" (1982) by olivia newton-john, which won the video of the year at the 25th grammy awards. the video collection features music videos of all songs from her ninth studio album, "physical" (1981). <p> however, by the release date, the album had not surfaced, aside from advanced promo copies given to the press. subsequently, the album's release never materialized. songs from the advance copies subsequently leaked online, but the full album has never been commercially released or leaked. there are no music videos released at all. <p> mp3 and music video releases are an exception in that they are not packaged into a single archive like almost all other sections. these releases have content that is not further compressible without loss of quality, but also have small enough files that they can be transferred reliably without breaking them up. since these releases rarely have large numbers of files, leaving them unpackaged is more convenient and allows for easier scripting. for example, scripts can read id3 information from mp3s and sort releases based on those contents. <p> music rights issues are also reasons for occasional editing by wwe of its library when airing or releasing videos. while most wrestlers' entrance themes are done in-house (notably by composer jim johnston), those whose music is not owned by wwe are often dubbed over with cheaper alternatives rather than providing the original audio, in lieu of wwe paying licensing fees to the writers/performers of the original songs. videos heavily affected in particular by these cost-cutting decisions are those featuring footage from extreme championship wrestling, which was famous for using recordings by mainstream music acts such as metallica, ac/dc, and dr. dre for their wrestlers' entrances, although ac/dc and metallica have provided music for wwe pay-per-view events as well. exceptions to non-johnston composed themes that wwe leaves in its archives are either songs that are in the public domain, such as the "dawn" section of "also sprach zarathustra" used by ric flair and "pomp and circumstance", which was used by gorgeous george and later randy savage; or songs that the wwe acquired from its purchase of wcw, most notably the entrance music for booker t. <p> sometimes, when an artist didn't have a video for their single, footage of a previous video would be used, and sometimes slowed down or distorted to accompany the track that had no video or a live performance of the single. one notable example was pearl jam: from 1993 to 1997, pearl jam refused to make promo videos for their singles, and so the chart show often used footage from the band's "even flow" video to accompany a few seconds of their singles from that time, whenever they appeared on the rock chart. apart from when spin the black circle had first appeared in which the clip would be a distorted piece of their previous video, alive. <p> none of them are released in cinema halls, due to low budget and least support of state government in development of the cinema. music albums are preferred over video films, as the budget is very low and production cost is easily recovered. the number of these ranges from 10 to 20.

It's something visual to look at which can help keep audience viewership and have more people listen to their other music. For instance, the most popular video on YouTube, Gangnam Style, has 2.84 billion views. Assuming Psy (or the publishing company/whatever) is getting $1 per 1,000 views, that's $2.84 million dollars in ad revenue. Since the release of the song, the other songs he had on YouTube grew in popularity, thus, making him more money. Can it cut into album sales? Yes. Does it hurt? No.

why do your eyes tear up when laying on your side?

<p> tearing (), lacrimation or lachrymation () is the secretion of tears, a body fluid which cleans and lubricates the eyes in response to irritation. humans may display visible tears by crying when associated with strong internal emotions. these emotions can include sorrow, elation, love, awe, and pleasure. laughing or yawning can also cause tear production. <p> the tear of meniscus is among the most common knee injuries. it is usually caused by torsional stress; twisting or turning of the knee too quickly with the foot planted on the ground while the knee is flexed. the feeling of a "pop" in the knee is usually felt when the meniscus is torn. athletes, particularly those who participate in contact sports, are at a greater risk for meniscal tears. sports-related meniscal tears often occur with other knee injuries, such as an anterior cruciate ligament tear. <p> crying is the shedding of tears (or welling of tears in the eyes) in response to an emotional state, pain or a physical irritation of the eye. emotions that can lead to crying include anger, happiness, or sadness. the act of crying has been defined as "a complex secretomotor phenomenon characterized by the shedding of tears from the lacrimal apparatus, without any irritation of the ocular structures", instead, giving a relief which protects from conjunctivitis. a related medical term is lacrimation, which also refers to non-emotional shedding of tears. various forms of crying are known as "sobbing", "weeping", "wailing", "whimpering", "bawling", and "blubbering". <p> cooper's sign is present in over 92% of tears. it is a subjective symptom of pain in the affected knee when turning over in bed at night. osteoarthritic pain is present with weightbearing, but the meniscal tear causes pain with a twisting motion of the knee as the meniscal fragment gets pinched, and the capsular attachment gets stretched causing the complaint of pain. <p> disc herniation is frequently associated with age-related degeneration of the outer ring, known as the "anulus fibrosus", but is normally triggered by trauma or straining by lifting or twisting. tears are almost always postero-lateral (on the back of the sides) owing to the presence of the posterior longitudinal ligament in the spinal canal. a tear in the disc ring may result in the release of chemicals causing inflammation, which can result in severe pain even in the absence of nerve root compression. <p> "lonesome tears in my eyes" is a song written by johnny burnette, dorsey burnette, paul burlison and al mortimer. it was first released by co-writer johnny burnette and his rock 'n' roll trio in march 1957. <p> an eye injury or other problem with the eyes or eyelids, such as bulging eyes or a drooping eyelid can cause keratoconjunctivitis sicca. disorders of the eyelid can impair the complex blinking motion required to spread tears.

Mine dont? Am i an alien?

flavour tones in wine. what are they, and why do white and red wines have flavour tones of apricot, berries, or tropical flavour tones despite not having those fruits in them?

<p> characteristics of white wines fermented in oak include a pale color and extra silky texture. white wines fermented in steel and matured in oak will have a darker coloring due to heavy phenolic compounds still present. flavor notes commonly used to describe wines exposed to oak include caramel, cream, smoke, spice and vanilla. chardonnay is a varietal with very distinct flavor profiles when fermented in oak, which include coconut, cinnamon and cloves notes. the "toastiness" of the barrel can bring out varying degrees of mocha and toffee notes in red wine. <p> same aromas that may be thought to be confined to red wines are found in white wines. this is the case especially in some white champagne wines partly made from black grapes and reminiscent of red fruit (strawberry, raspberry, blueberry, gooseberry, etc.). <p> the taste of the red wine depends on the ripeness of the grapes from which it is made. red berry fruit flavors like raspberry predominate in wines from cooler areas, whereas blackberry, anise and pepper notes are more common in wines made in warmer areas and in wines made from the earlier-ripening primitivo clone. <p> depending on the climate, the flavor can range from aggressively grassy to sweetly tropical. in cooler climates, the grape has a tendency to produce wines with noticeable acidity and "green flavors" of grass, green bell peppers and nettles with some tropical fruit (such as passion fruit) and floral (such as elderflower) notes. in warmer climates, it can develop more tropical fruit notes but risk losing a lot of aromatics from over-ripeness, leaving only slight grapefruit and tree fruit (such as peach) notes. <p> the vitality of this wine can already be guessed from its colour. in its warm, spicy fragrance, the different fruits are mixed, with is completed by a harmony nice in flavours, fine structure and round tannins, with a long and playful subsiding. <p> the fruity aromas include citrus fruit such as lemon and grapefruit, white fruit such as apple, quince, peach and apricot, and nuts such as walnut and hazelnut. exotic fruits are also present: pineapple, mango, and lychee. obviously the aromatic palette includes these cooked flavours: apple, jam, candied fruit, etc. white wines may also convey floral aromas of acacia, honeysuckle, verbena, violet, etc.. (scents of honey can also be assimilated). <p> the wine has a light red color. its flavor resembles honeysuckle and ripe juicy peaches. the sweet taste sometimes has a barely perceptible almond like bitter aroma caused by the latent cyanide moiety.

Flavor tones in wines are a lot like finding shapes in the clouds, they don’t actually exist but when you take a sip of that wine the flavors you taste remind you of something you once ate or smelled.

does brain activity correlate with heart rhythm?

<p> the fundamental understanding of the communication between the heart and the brain via the nervous system has led scientists into understanding its elaborate circuitry. the brain emits neurological signals of oscillating frequencies. the neural rhythms provide information on steady state conditions of healthy individuals. variations in the neural rhythms provide evidence that a problem is present regarding physiologic regulation and help physicians determine the underlying condition quicker based on the given symptoms. <p> the normal sinus rhythm of the heart, giving the resting heart rate, is influenced a number of factors. the cardiovascular centres in the brainstem that control the sympathetic and parasympathetic influences to the heart through the vagus nerve and sympathetic trunk. these cardiovascular centres receive input from a series of receptors including baroreceptors, sensing stretch the stretching of blood vessels and chemoreceptors, sensing the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and its ph. through a series of reflexes these help regulate and sustain blood flow. <p> as well as motor neurons, the nucleus ambiguus in its "external formation" contains cholinergic preganglionic parasympathetic neurons for the heart. these neurons are cardioinhibitory. this cardioinhibitory effect is one of the means by which quick changes in blood pressure are achieved by the central nervous system (the primary means being changes in sympathetic nervous system activity, which constricts arterioles and makes the heart pump faster and harder). that is, through integrated and antagonistic system with sympathetic outflow from the vasomotor center of the brainstem, the parasympathetic outflow arising from the nucleus ambiguus and dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve acts to decrease cardiac activity in response to fast increases in blood pressure. the external formation of the nucleus ambiguus also sends bronchoconstrictor fibers to the bronchopulmonary system, which can produce reflexive decreases in pulmonary bronchial airflow. the pathophysiologic relevance of this system, which may act in concert with the cardioinhibitory system, is poorly understood, but likely plays a role in bronchospastic diseases like copd/emphysema (in which inhaled anticholinergic medications such as spiriva/tiotropium or ipratropium are standard-of-care treatment) and asthma, particularly for exercise-related asthma exacerbations, which may have a component of autonomic dysregulation. <p> the complicated link between the brain and the heart can be mapped out from the complex of higher nervous system influences descending down to the heart. this complex innervates key autonomic structures from the brain's cortex to the heart along the neurocardiac axis. the heart is both the source of life and a source of cardiac arrhythmias and complications. the information originates in the brain's cortex and descends down to the hypothalamus. the neural signals are then transferred to the brainstem, followed by the spinal cord, which is the location where the heart receives all its signals from. in further detail, the heart receives its neural input through parasympathetic and sympathetic ganglia and lateral grey column of the spinal cord. <p> the neuroscience of rhythm refers to the various forms of rhythm generated by the central nervous system (cns). nerve cells, also known as neurons in the human brain are capable of firing in specific patterns which cause oscillations. the brain possesses many different types of oscillators with different periods. oscillators are simultaneously outputting frequencies from .02 hz to 600 hz. it is now well known that a computer is capable of running thousands of processes with just one high frequency clock. humans have many different clocks as a result of evolution. prior organisms had no need for a fast responding oscillator. this multi-clock system permits quick response to constantly changing sensory input while still maintaining the autonomic processes that sustain life. this method modulates and controls a great deal of bodily functions. <p> the normal sinus rhythm of the heart rate is generated by the sa node. it is also influenced by central factors through sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves of the two paired cardiovascular centres of the medulla oblongata. activity is increased via sympathetic stimulation of the cardioaccelerator nerves, and inhibited via parasympathetic stimulation by the vagus nerve. during rest vagal stimulation normally predominates as, left unregulated, the sa node would initiate a sinus rhythm of approximately 100 bpm. <p> cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. during submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain’s oxygen needs. however, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: "maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial o content during whole body exercise" the autoregulation of the brain’s blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments

Blood follows the rhythm of your heart in the sense that your heart squeezes and generates a pressure wave that pushes blood through the circulatory system. The important aspect of this is that it keeps fresh blood moving to your brain in a consistent fashion so that it continues to deliver oxygen. If the flow slows, you will rapidly lose consciousness because of the loss of oxygen. So in that respect it is important to 'thought,' but there's no corresponding 'thinking rhythm' that matches your heart rate that I am aware of.

rugby union, rugby league, and afl all walk into a building. how do you tell the difference?

<p> narrow footbridges or walkways to allow workers access to parts of a structure otherwise difficult to reach are referred as catwalks or cat walks. such catwalks are located above a stage (theater catwalk) in a theater, between parts of a building, along the side of a bridge, on the inside of a tunnel, on the outside of any large storage tank in a refinery or elsewhere, etc. the walkway on the outside (top) of a railroad cars such as boxcars, before air brakes came into use, or on top of some covered hopper cars is also called a catwalk. with the exception of those on top of railroad cars, catwalks are equipped with railings or handrails. <p> footwork is a martial arts and combat sports term for the general usage of the legs and feet in stand-up fighting. footwork involves keeping balance, closing or furthering the distance, controlling spatial positioning, and/or creating additional momentum for strikes. <p> the walk, which began in 1971, is a post-game tradition of the williams football team. if williams wins its homecoming football game, played against either amherst or wesleyan, the team walks up spring street to st. pierre's barber shop. there, they enjoy cold beverages and cigars and subject underclassmen players to embarrassing haircuts. the walk was named the best post-game tradition in america by sports illustrated in 1992. <p> the term walk-on is used in sports, particularly american college athletics, to describe an athlete who becomes part of a team without being recruited beforehand or awarded an athletic scholarship. this results in the differentiation between "walk-on" players and "scholarship" players. <p> bullet::::- rail: a metal feature, either rounded or with a flat surface, which a skier or snowboarder can slide across (called "jibbing"). many people confuse rails with wider surfaces with boxes, however these are not, and are just rails with a little uhmwpe on top. <p> similar to the "blitz series", "street" is seven-on-seven american football, modeled roughly after its informal variant, street football. nfl players in the game wear street clothing instead of helmets and uniforms (although the players can wear football jerseys). like other american football games, nfl street has basic football rules, but the gameplay has no fouls and low penalty, naturally leading to much more aggressive gameplay than its real-life model. however, to maintain the "ironman" status, there are no injuries in the game. <p> street football is more similar to beach football and futsal than to association football. often the most basic of set-ups will involve just a ball with a wall or fence used as a goal, or items such as clothing being used for goalposts (hence the phrase "jumpers for goalposts"). the phrase was used by ed sheeran in his 2015 documentary "" as a nod to playing the concerts at wembley stadium, the home of english football. the ease of playing these informal games on the streets and open spaces make football the most popular sport in the world.

Rugby Union -- they'll walk into a building, then they will get into a scrum which will last for 20 minutes since they keep on doing it wrong. Rugby League -- they run all over the place, it's hard to follow them. And then each side gets the ball back in five minutes. AFL -- that's where they kick the ball around, wearing their ultra-chic sleeveless kit.

when you grab something hot, why does the 'hotness' increase and isn't just hot from the start

<p> the heat, or burning sensation, experienced when consuming hot sauce is caused by capsaicin and related capsaicinoids. the burning sensation is not "real" in the sense of damage being wrought on tissues. the mechanism of action is instead a chemical interaction with the neurological system. <p> when a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. the sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. this is referred to as reciprocal innervation. <p> hot flashes are a form of flushing due to reduced levels of estradiol. hot flashes are a symptom which may have several other causes, but which is often caused by the changing hormone levels that are characteristic of menopause. they are typically experienced as a feeling of intense heat with sweating and rapid heartbeat, and may typically last from 2 to 30 minutes for each occurrence. <p> however, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. this is the process of convection. convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as the other air at the same elevation. <p> however, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. this is the process of convection. convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. this is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. as the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. the rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °c per kilometer (or 5.4 °f per 1000 feet) of altitude. <p> however, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. this is the process of convection. convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. this is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. as the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. the rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °c per kilometer (or 5.4 °f per 1000 feet) of altitude. <p> solid objects that are hot can also cause contact burns, especially by children who intentionally touch things that they are unaware are too hot to touch. such burns imprinted on the skin usually form a pattern that resembles the object. sources of burns from solid objects include ashes and coal, irons, soldering equipment, frying pans and pots, oven containers, light bulbs, and exhaust pipes.

It's the reaction time for your nervous system to register it. The same thing happens when you stub your toe. You don't feel itninstantly.because it takes a short, albeit quote very short, period of time to feel the paim/heat.

why there's no way to see the dislikes on a youtube comment?

<p> in september 2008, "the daily telegraph" commented that youtube was "notorious" for "some of the most confrontational and ill-formed comment exchanges on the internet", and reported on youtube comment snob, "a new piece of software that blocks rude and illiterate posts". "the huffington post" noted in april 2012 that finding comments on youtube that appear "offensive, stupid and crass" to the "vast majority" of the people is hardly difficult. <p> in september 2008, "the daily telegraph" commented that youtube was "notorious" for "some of the most confrontational and ill-formed comment exchanges on the internet", and reported on youtube comment snob, "a new piece of software that blocks rude and illiterate posts". "the huffington post" noted in april 2012 that finding comments on youtube that appear "offensive, stupid and crass" to the "vast majority" of the people is hardly difficult. <p> most videos enable users to leave comments, and these have attracted attention for the negative aspects of both their form and content. in 2006, "time" praised web 2.0 for enabling "community and collaboration on a scale never seen before", and added that youtube "harnesses the stupidity of crowds as well as its wisdom. some of the comments on youtube make you weep for the future of humanity just for the spelling alone, never mind the obscenity and the naked hatred". "the guardian" in 2009 described users' comments on youtube as: <p> most youtube videos allow users to leave comments, and these have attracted attention for the negative aspects of both their form and content. in 2006, "time" praised web 2.0 for enabling "community and collaboration on a scale never seen before", and added that youtube "harnesses the stupidity of crowds as well as its wisdom. some of the comments on youtube make you weep for the future of humanity just for the spelling alone, never mind the obscenity and the naked hatred". "the guardian" in 2009 described users' comments on youtube as: <p> measurement of dislikes on youtube has been of academic and political interest. following its immediate negative reception, rick perry's 2012 presidential campaign advertisement strong garnered over 600,000 dislikes within five days. this phenomenon was seen by mike barthel of "the village voice" as a reason not to judge entertainment and politics by the same standard of online publicity; he opined that the only time people are going to care more about politics than entertainment is when there is a clear and immediate threat to their well being. <p> some people find it annoying to watch a video with bullet comments all over the screen because there are so much that they cannot even watch the actual video. with some heat videos like sherlock, there are more than 8,000 bullet comments. however, people also argue that bullet comment allows users to share opinion and draw discussion easily, which creates a unique chat-room environment that makes viewer feel like they are watching the video with the whole world. bullet comments became a special culture and language in bilibili. one commonly seen is "high energy alert" (高能预警), which is a kind of spoiler, to tell the audience of the coming climax or some exciting, terrible scenes. <p> bullet::::- feed: every comment made by a user is grouped on a list on his or her profile page. the access to these comments by other users depends on whether they have marked those episodes as watched or not. if they have, they can see the comment, but if they have not, they see a warning message instead. this prevents users from reading unwanted spoilers. however, if the user wants to see a comment of an episode they have not seen, they can do so by simply clicking on a button.

Same reason that Reddit doesn't display negative account karma below -100 or let you look for the worst posts/comments. If you put a number on something, somebody is going to see it as a challenge and break the "high score". Letting people see the "worst" content just incentives trolls to compete with each other for creating the worst possible shit.

do photons age?

<p> recent evidence suggests that aging is also related to the loss of myelinated nerve fiber length and the mass of white matter, with individuals losing approximately 45% of total nerve fiber length as they age. <p> age plays a role in brightness, as a contributing factor is the observer's pupil. with age the pupil naturally shrinks in diameter; generally accepted a young adult may have a 7 mm diameter pupil, an older adult as little as 5 mm, and a younger person larger at 9 mm. the minimum magnification formula_60 can be expressed as the division of the aperture formula_2 and pupil formula_62 diameter given by: formula_63. a problematic instance may be apparent, achieving a theoretical surface brightness of 100%, as the required effective focal length of the optical system may require an eyepiece with too large a diameter. <p> as a star ages it slows its rotation and diminishes the amount of magnetic activity in its chromosphere. hence the measured emission from the chromosphere can be used to estimate the age of a star, particularly for f and g-type dwarf stars with an age of less than two billion years. however, this technique becomes less accurate for ages beyond about 5.6 billion years. based upon the chromosphere emission of hd 12661, it is older than the sun with an estimated age of roughly seven billion years. it has a low projected rotational velocity of 1.20 km/s, consistent with it being an older star. the age of a star can also be estimated by the abundance of lithium, as this element is destroyed through thermonuclear fusion at the core. however, this is less accurate technique. for hd 12661, the lithium abundance gives an age estimate of 4.4 billion years. <p> within the retina, the accumulation of ages in the drusen and bruch's membrane has been associated with age, and has also been observed at a higher level among patients with age-related macular degeneration. this is manifested by the thickening of the bruch's membrane. furthermore, it has been observed that age levels increase with age within the lamina cribrosa, and the products of the maillard reaction have been observed there, as well. <p> another way of estimating the age of the cluster is by looking at the lowest-mass objects. in normal main-sequence stars, lithium is rapidly destroyed in nuclear fusion reactions. brown dwarfs can retain their lithium, however. due to lithium's very low ignition temperature of 2.5 × 10 k, the highest-mass brown dwarfs will burn it eventually, and so determining the highest mass of brown dwarfs still containing lithium in the cluster can give an idea of its age. applying this technique to the pleiades gives an age of about 115 million years. <p> such aged stars as red giants and white dwarfs are also unlikely to support life. red giants are common in globular clusters and elliptical galaxies. white dwarfs are mostly dying stars that have already completed their red giant phase. stars that become red giants expand into or overheat the habitable zones of their youth and middle age (though theoretically planets at a much greater distance may become habitable). <p> - igc scientists led by miguel godinho ferreira found that certain organs, such as the gut, start to age before other tissues because its cells have a "timekeeper" with a faster pace. the results published in the journal "plos genetics" in january 2016 also showed that monitoring the pace of these timekeepers can be a good indicator for the aging of the whole organism since the appearance of local age-related lesions anticipates the onset of age-associated diseases, such as cancer.

Photons do not experience time, so they do not age as we understand it. They do 'die' whenever they are absorbed. Every photon emitted by your monitor 'dies' in your retina (converted to electrical impulses) so you can read this answer.

why is victim blaming seen as bad? when in my mind there seems to be legitimate circumstances where the victim would be to blame?

<p> victim blaming occurs when the victim of a crime or any wrongful act is held entirely or partially at fault for the harm that befell them. the study of victimology seeks to mitigate the prejudice against victims, and the perception that victims are in any way responsible for the actions of offenders. there is historical and current prejudice against the victims of domestic violence and sex crimes, such as the greater tendency to blame victims of rape than victims of robbery if victims and perpetrators knew each other prior to the commission of the crime. <p> in such cases where victim blaming is possible, identification of individuals may not induce sympathy and may actually increase negative perception of the victim (kogut, 2011). this reduction in help is even more pronounced if the individual believes in the just world hypothesis, which is the tendency for people to blame the victim for what has happened to them. this pattern of blame results from a desire to believe that the world is predictable and orderly and that those who suffer must have done something to deserve their suffering. <p> it has been proposed that one cause of victim blaming is the "just world hypothesis". people who believe that the world is intrinsically fair may find it difficult or impossible to accept a situation in which a person is badly hurt for no reason. this leads to a sense that victims must have done something to deserve their fate. another theory entails the psychological need to protect one's own sense of invulnerability, which can inspire people to believe that rape only happens to those who provoke the assault. believers use this as a way to feel safer: if one avoids the behaviours of the past victims, one will be less vulnerable. a global survey of attitudes toward sexual violence by the global forum for health research shows that victim-blaming concepts are at least partially accepted in many countries. <p> "victim blaming" is the phenomenon in which a victim of a crime is partially or entirely attributed as responsible for the transgressions committed against them. for instance, a victim of a crime (in this case rape or sexual assault), is asked questions by the police, in an emergency room, or in a court room, that suggest that the victim was doing something, acting a certain way, or wearing clothes that may have provoked the perpetrator, therefore making the transgressions against the victim their own fault. <p> in certain situations, identification of a victim can actually reduce the amount of help offered to that individual. research suggests that if an individual is seen as responsible for their plight, people are less likely to offer help than if the victim was not identified at all (kogut, 2011). most research dedicated to the identifiable victim effect avoids the topic of blame, using explicitly blameless individuals, such as children suffering from an illness (kogut & ritov, 2005). however, there are real-world situations where victims may be seen as to blame for their current situation. for example, in a 2011 study by kogut, individuals were less likely to offer help to an aids victim if the victim had contracted aids through sexual contact than if the individual was born with aids. in other words, individuals were less likely to offer help to victims if they were seen as at least partially responsible for their plight. a meta-study conducted in 2016 supports these findings, reporting that charitable donations were highest when the victim showed little responsibility for their victimization (lee & feeley, 2016). <p> the term "victim blaming" refers to holding the victim of a crime to be responsible for that crime, either in whole or in part. in the context of rape, it refers to the attitude that certain victim behaviors (such as flirting or wearing sexually provocative clothing) may have encouraged the assault. this can cause the victim to believe the crime was indeed their fault. rapists are known to use victim blaming as their primary psychological disconnect from their crime(s) and in some cases it has led to their conviction. female rape victims receive more blame when they exhibit behavior which breaks the gender roles of society. society uses this behavior as a justification for the rape. similarly, blame placed on female rape victims often depends on the victim’s attractiveness and respectability. while such behavior has no justified correlation to an attack, it can be used in victim blaming. a “rape supportive” society refers to when perpetrators are perceived as justified for raping. male victims are more often blamed by society for their rape due to weakness or emasculation. the lack of support and community for male rape victims is furthered by the lack of attention given to sexual assaults of males by society. <p> victim blaming is part of a phenomenon known as 'rape myth acceptance,' a term coined by researcher martha burt in the 1980s. it is defined as prejudicial, stereotyped or false beliefs about rape, rape victims, and rapists which can range from trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, labeling an accuser as a liar, stating that most rape accusations are false, refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by some forms of sexual violence, or accepting that the victim "deserved it" because she was defined as a slut. another cause of victim blaming has been the vague understanding of what constitutes rape in the scenario of a victim wanting to have sex with the perpetrator. if a victim wants to have sex but refuses to consent to sex and the perpetrator continues, the situation would be considered rape; however, it becomes easier for others to blame the victim for the situation because he or she did "want to have sex".

People think it empowers the offender, that it means the offender is somehow not in the wrong. Which of course isn't correct. e.g. saying those celebrities that got their pictures hacked should have been more vigilant somehow implies that the hacker wasn't in the wrong.

how is snowden in hiding yet constantly able to do ama's and such?

<p> in may 2013, snowden went on temporary leave from his position at the nsa, citing the pretext of receiving treatment for his epilepsy. towards the end of may, he traveled to hong kong. greenwald, poitras and the guardian's defence and intelligence correspondent ewen macaskill flew to hong kong to meet snowden. <p> in 2013, snowden was hired by an nsa contractor, booz allen hamilton, after previous employment with dell and the cia. snowden says he gradually became disillusioned with the programs with which he was involved and that he tried to raise his ethical concerns through internal channels but was ignored. on may 20, 2013, snowden flew to hong kong after leaving his job at an nsa facility in hawaii, and in early june he revealed thousands of classified nsa documents to journalists glenn greenwald, laura poitras, and ewen macaskill. snowden came to international attention after stories based on the material appeared in "the guardian" and "the washington post". further disclosures were made by other publications including "der spiegel" and "the new york times". <p> in may 2013, snowden was permitted temporary leave from his position at the nsa in hawaii, on the pretext of receiving treatment for his epilepsy. in mid-may, snowden gave an electronic interview to poitras and jacob appelbaum which was published weeks later by "der spiegel". <p> snowden was then employed for less than a year in 2005 as a security guard at the university of maryland's center for advanced study of language, a research center sponsored by the national security agency (nsa). according to the university, this is not a classified facility, though it is heavily guarded. in june 2014, snowden told "wired" that his job as a security guard required a high-level security clearance, for which he passed a polygraph exam and underwent a stringent background check. <p> in may 2006, snowden wrote in "ars technica" that he had no trouble getting work because he was a "computer wizard". after distinguishing himself as a junior employee on the top computer-team, snowden was sent to the cia's secret school for technology specialists, where he lived in a hotel for six months while studying and training full-time. <p> snowden's decision to leak nsa documents developed gradually following his march 2007 posting as a technician to the geneva cia station. snowden first made contact with glenn greenwald, a journalist working at "the guardian", on december 1, 2012. he contacted greenwald anonymously as "cincinnatus" and said he had sensitive documents that he would like to share. greenwald found the measures that the source asked him to take to secure their communications, such as encrypting email, too annoying to employ. snowden then contacted documentary filmmaker laura poitras in january 2013. according to poitras, snowden chose to contact her after seeing her "new york times" article about nsa whistleblower william binney. what originally attracted snowden to both greenwald and poitras was a "salon" article written by greenwald detailing how poitras' controversial films had made her a target of the government. <p> in his may 2014 interview with nbc news, snowden accused the u.s. government of trying to use one position here or there in his career to distract from the totality of his experience, downplaying him as a "low level analyst." in his words, he was "trained as a spy in the traditional sense of the word in that i lived and worked undercover overseas—pretending to work in a job that i'm not—and even being assigned a name that was not mine." he said he'd worked for the nsa undercover overseas, and for the dia had developed sources and methods to keep information and people secure "in the most hostile and dangerous environments around the world. so when they say i'm a low-level systems administrator, that i don't know what i'm talking about, i'd say it's somewhat misleading." in a june interview with globo tv, snowden reiterated that he "was actually functioning at a very senior level." in a july interview with "the guardian", snowden explained that, during his nsa career, "i began to move from merely overseeing these systems to actively directing their use. many people don’t understand that i was actually an analyst and i designated individuals and groups for targeting." snowden subsequently told "wired" that while at dell in 2011, "i would sit down with the cio of the cia, the cto of the cia, the chiefs of all the technical branches. they would tell me their hardest technology problems, and it was my job to come up with a way to fix them."

Snowden is in Russia. Now his exact position in or around Moscow may be unknown to most people, but we have a general idea of where he is. So as long as he has access to an internet connection, he can access Reddit. He may also use a service such as Tor or a VPN to help further protect his location, even if he was still in full hiding.

what is the environmental impact of “clean”energy?

<p> the ecology center's clean energy, clean fuels campaign promotes policy solutions that increase united states energy independence, decrease michigan's global warming pollution, and encourage sustainable agricultural and forestry practices that improve soil quality, enhance wildlife habitat, and preserve other conservation values <p> all products and services have environmental impacts, from the extraction of raw materials for production to manufacture, distribution, use and disposal. following the waste hierarchy will generally lead to the most resource-efficient and environmentally sound choice but in some cases refining decisions within the hierarchy or departing from it can lead to better environmental outcomes. <p> the us department of energy created clean cities to, "advance the energy, economic, and environmental security of the united states by supporting local initiatives to adopt practices that reduce the use of petroleum in the transportation sector". clean cities performs these duties through a network of more than 80 offices that develop public/private partnerships to promote alternative fuels, advanced vehicles, fuel blends, hybrid vehicles, and idle reduction. they also provide information about financial opportunities, coordinate technical assistance projects, update and maintain energy databases, publish fact sheets, newsletters, and related technical and informational material. <p> the mission of the clean energy program is to accelerate development and adoption of clean energy technologies, services, and policies that enhance regional sustainability. the work of the program includes several areas: stationary fuel cells; combined heat and power generation; energy market tools and products; strategic energy planning; clean energy applications analysis; and clean energy policy analysis. <p> bullet::::- clean energy and a stable climate – focuses on cases that reduce the utilization of fossil fuels, eliminate barriers to and create incentives for the use of renewable energy sources, and cases that promote ecological resiliency to withstand warming global temperatures. through litigation, earthjustice establishes and enforces national regulation for coal ash waste, retires old coal-fired power plants, prevents coal exports, and stops coal mining. cases in this key area also focus on preventing fracking, preventing oil and gas drilling on public lands, strengthening environmental and health protections, and preventing fossil fuel infrastructure investments. <p> bullet::::- clean energy: elpc works to create policies that drive markets for clean energy to succeed. this includes creating markets for wind and solar energy, designing energy efficiency programs and policies, promoting farm energy, and advancing transmission policies that support clean energy. <p> "the environmental sustainability focuses on the overall viability and health of ecological systems. natural resource degradation, pollution, and loss of biodiversity are detrimental because they increase vulnerability, undermine system health, and reduce resilience. this aspect of sustainability has been the most often discussed through the literature by numerous authors such as hall, c. m. & lew a.a. (1998), hall, d. (2000), weaver (2006), and many others."

All forms of energy capture and storage have *some* environmental impact. Manufacturing solar panels requires rare-earth minerals that have to be mined which can cause pollution, hydroelectric dams can impact the ecosystem's water use and dependent wildlife and and wind farms can impact wildlife as well. And yes, we'll have to manufacture things like batteries and flywheels, but we can also use things like cryostorage, compressed air storage, thermal storage, superconducting magnetic storage, and pumped hydroelectric storage. These technologies are all far far *far* more environmentally friendly than fossil fuels. It's not even a close contest. And if we (hopefully) phase in more green energy production, the technology for storing that energy will improve in both efficiency and environmental impact. In the end though, it really doesn't matter what minor environmental impact there is, because we have no choice. We have to rapidly transition to 100% renewable energy or face a planet that will be unable to support human life in not-very-distant future.

what exactly is ocd and anxiety? (i mean actual ocd, not the "it's not perfectly symmetrical" one)

<p> obsessive–compulsive disorder (ocd) is not classified as an anxiety disorder by the dsm-5 but is by the icd-10. it was previously classified as an anxiety disorder in the dsm-iv. it is a condition where the person has obsessions (distressing, persistent, and intrusive thoughts or images) and compulsions (urges to repeatedly perform specific acts or rituals), that are not caused by drugs or physical order, and which cause distress or social dysfunction. the compulsive rituals are personal rules followed to relieve the anxiety. ocd affects roughly 1-2% of adults (somewhat more women than men), and under 3% of children and adolescents. <p> the diagnosis of an anxiety disorder requires first ruling out an underlying medical cause. diseases that may present similar to an anxiety disorder, including certain endocrine diseases (hypo- and hyperthyroidism, hyperprolactinemia), metabolic disorders (diabetes), deficiency states (low levels of vitamin d, b2, b12, folic acid), gastrointestinal diseases (celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, inflammatory bowel disease), heart diseases, blood diseases (anemia), and brain degenerative diseases (parkinson's disease, dementia, multiple sclerosis, huntington's disease). <p> bullet::::- anxiety disorders are common among children with asd, although there are no firm data. symptoms include generalized anxiety and separation anxiety, and are likely affected by age, level of cognitive functioning, degree of social impairment, and asd-specific difficulties. many anxiety disorders, such as social phobia, are not commonly diagnosed in people with asd because such symptoms are better explained by asd itself, and it is often difficult to tell whether symptoms such as compulsive checking are part of asd or a co-occurring anxiety problem. the prevalence of anxiety disorders in children with asd has been reported to be anywhere between 11% and 84%. <p> anxiety disorders are common among children and adults with asd. symptoms are likely affected by age, level of cognitive functioning, degree of social impairment, and asd-specific difficulties. many anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder and generalized anxiety disorder, are not commonly diagnosed in people with asd because such symptoms are better explained by asd itself, and it is often difficult to tell whether symptoms such as compulsive checking are part of asd or a co-occurring anxiety problem. the prevalence of anxiety disorders in children with asd has been reported to be anywhere between 11% and 84%; the wide range is likely due to differences in the ways the studies were conducted. <p> cognitive-behavioral factors and models of ocd and anxiety: the cognitive-behavioral model is the leading conceptual approach to understanding ocd and anxiety disorders. abramowitz conducts cross-sectional, experimental, and prospective (longitudinal) research that has helped to clarify and advance this conceptual model. his work focuses on cognitive biases such as anxiety sensitivity, thought-action fusion, intolerance of uncertainty, and attentional biases that factor in the persistence of ocd and irrational fear. with his team at unc, he has developed experimental paradigms for studying thought-action fusion and intolerance of uncertainty. his work has also demonstrated that cognitive factors prospectively predict the escalation of intrusive thoughts into obsessions. <p> abramowitz has argued that ocd symptoms lie on a continuum with normal everyday experiences, and that one’s learning history (and to a lesser extent, their biology) influence the frequency, intensity, and duration of ocd symptoms. he has also criticized the dsm-5’s re-classification of ocd as separate from the anxiety disorders and as overlapping with conditions such as hair pulling disorder and skin picking disorder. abramowitz is generally critical of biomedical models which view problems such as ocd and anxiety as brain diseases or genetic disorders. <p> generalized anxiety disorder (gad) is a common disorder, characterized by long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any one object or situation. those suffering from generalized anxiety disorder experience non-specific persistent fear and worry, and become overly concerned with everyday matters. generalized anxiety disorder is "characterized by chronic excessive worry accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance". generalized anxiety disorder is the most common anxiety disorder to affect older adults. anxiety can be a symptom of a medical or substance abuse problem, and medical professionals must be aware of this. a diagnosis of gad is made when a person has been excessively worried about an everyday problem for six months or more. a person may find that they have problems making daily decisions and remembering commitments as a result of lack of concentration/preoccupation with worry. appearance looks strained, with increased sweating from the hands, feet, and axillae, and they may be tearful, which can suggest depression. before a diagnosis of anxiety disorder is made, physicians must rule out drug-induced anxiety and other medical causes.

Do you mean chemically or the actual definition of it? OCD is a disorder characterized by compulsive behavior and obsessive thoughts. A person with OCD has a need to perform a certain behavior. If they don't, then they have a very intense feeling of wrongness and need to fix it. Their thoughts circle around this behavior and will always come back to it, even if they try to redirect them. They will also continue to do these behaviors even if it is harmful to their bodies, such as washing their hands until they bleed. The compulsive behaviors are called tics, and are usually done in groups of a certain number, like knocking 3 times on a door. It has to be 3, if they do 4, then they have to do 2 more to make it 6. The numbers vary from person to person. The tics can be somewhat limited with behavioral therapy, but there's not much you can do to make them go away completely.

i'm not allowed to donate blood because i'm on multiple mood altering meds. why am i allowed to be an organ donor?

<p> in 2012, the constitutional court found that one's sexual orientation cannot be a criterion for preventing blood donation, for this purpose the court ordered the ministry of health and social protection to change the current regulations which established that persons with homosexual orientation could not donate blood because they believed that they had a high risk of carrying hiv. the court ordered the ministry of health that regulation on the donation must be addressed to verify and identify high or low levels of risk according to the sexual behavior of the person and that sexual orientation is not in itself a "de facto" risk. <p> currently, a person must "opt-in" to organ donation by applying for an organ donor card or by ticking a box when applying for a driving licence. having a medical condition does not always prevent a person from becoming a donor – it is ultimately up to a doctor after the donor has died. <p> for example, some believe that livers should not be given to alcoholics in danger of reversion, while others view alcoholism as a medical condition like diabetes. faith in the medical system is important to the success of organ donation. brazil switched to an opt-out system and ultimately had to withdraw it because it further alienated patients who already distrusted the country's medical system. adequate funding, strong political will to see transplant outcomes improve, and the existence of specialized training, care and facilities also increase donation rates. expansive legal definitions of death, such as spain uses, also increase the pool of eligible donors by allowing physicians to declare a patient to be dead at an earlier stage, when the organs are still in good physical condition.allowing or forbidding payment for organs affects the availability of organs. generally, where organs cannot be bought or sold, quality and safety are high, but supply is not adequate to the demand. where organs can be purchased, the supply increases. <p> since jehovah’s witnesses are not allowed to accept external blood products, their view on organ donation is complicated by the medical procedure itself. jehovah’s witnesses believe that organ donation with no transfusion of blood is an individual decision. <p> approximately one in three donations in the us, uk, and israel is now from a live donor. potential donors are carefully evaluated on medical and psychological grounds. this ensures that the donor is fit for surgery and has no disease which brings undue risk or likelihood of a poor outcome for either the donor or recipient. the psychological assessment is to ensure the donor gives informed consent and is not coerced. in countries where paying for organs is illegal, the authorities may also seek to ensure that a donation has not resulted from a financial transaction. <p> there is also a risk that, in an emergency or if more blood is required than has been set aside in advance, the patient could still be exposed to donor blood instead of autologous blood. autologous donation is also not suitable for patients who are medically unable to or advised not to give blood, such as cardiac patients or small children and infants. <p> there are several reasons why individuals can be deferred from donating blood, including intravenous drug use, living in the uk for certain periods of time, coming from an hiv-endemic country, as well hiv high risk activity.

There are techniques that can filter literally anything out of blood/tissues. But they are expensive both in time and money, or at least expensive enough to make it inefficient to take your blood (because they can take it from somebody else that doesn't require filtering). Organs are WAY more rare, so if you can get a compatible one it is worth it

why do our voices get higher when speaking to people we don’t know well or just met?

<p> the aspect of speaking publicly whether it be in front of a group of unknown people, or a close group of friends, is what triggers the anxiety for the speaker. the speaker may be comfortable if they speak in front of a group of complete strangers, but when it comes to speaking in front of family/friends, their anxiety skyrockets, and vice versa. some speakers are more comfortable in larger groups, and some are more comfortable speaking to smaller groups. <p> a speaker's anxiety can also be reduced if they know their topic well and believe in it. it has been suggested that people should practice speaking in front of smaller, less intimidating groups when they're getting started in public speaking. additionally, focusing on friendly, attentive people in the audience has been found to help. <p> a woman's voice was almost never heard as a woman's voice—it was always filtered through men's voices. so here a guy comes along saying, "i'm going to be a girl now and speak for girls." and we thought, "no you're not." a person cannot just join the oppressed by fiat. <p> the duo have been accused of communicating on set telepathically due to their deep voices and their quiet demeanor according to evan who said in an interview, "we both have deep voices and talk at a level that is hard for most people to hear...so they think we're communicating without words, but really we're carrying on full conversations. you just can't hear them." <p> a woman's voice was almost never heard as a woman's voice - it was always filtered through men's voices. so here a guy comes along saying, "i'm going to be a girl now and speak for girls." and we thought, "no you're not." a person cannot just joined the oppressed by fiat. <p> the facial bones begin to grow as well. cavities in the sinuses, the nose, and the back of the throat grow bigger, thus creating more space within the head to allow the voice to resonate. occasionally, voice change is accompanied by unsteadiness of vocalization in the early stages of untrained voices. due to the significant drop in pitch to the vocal range, people may unintentionally speak in head voice or even strain their voices using pitches which were previously chest voice, the lowest part of the modal voice register. <p> in a crowded room, people find it easy to focus on the person they are speaking to and effectively ignore other conversations. conversely, a person can try to get the attention of someone down the street by cupping their hands around their mouth, which directs their voice to improve the odds of being heard and understood.

Low pitch = big animal = more threatening. Higher pitch = smaller animal = less threatening. Using a higher pitch could indicate that you're not interested in posing a threat to the newcomer, creating a more welcoming atmosphere. I don't think this is 100% universal, however. It probably depends a lot on your sex and the sex of those you're interacting with. You seem to be female from your post history, so that makes perfect sense for you, but as a man I feel that my pitch usually drops when I'm introduced to other men. The reason for that is probably the same as the above, but the opposite--I want to convey that I'm capable and confident.

what happens if i don't click "i accept" on these cookie-prompts on webpages?

<p> the problem occurs when a cookie stuffing site stuffs all its visitors with a batch of cookies in a scattergun approach. the genuine affiliate cookie may get overwritten and when the user visits the target affiliate site and completes a qualifying transaction, the cookie stuffer gets the credit instead of the original affiliate who had brought about the first genuine visit to the target site. <p> on the world wide web, cookie stuffing (also cookie dropping) is an affiliate marketing technique in which, as a result of visiting a website, a user receives a third-party cookie from a website unrelated to that visited by the user, usually without the user being aware of it. <p> the use of cookies may generate an inconsistency between the state of the client and the state as stored in the cookie. if the user acquires a cookie and then clicks the "back" button of the browser, the state on the browser is generally not the same as before that acquisition. as an example, if the shopping cart of an online shop is built using cookies, the content of the cart may not change when the user goes back in the browser's history: if the user presses a button to add an item in the shopping cart and then clicks on the "back" button, the item remains in the shopping cart. this might not be the intention of the user, who possibly wanted to undo the addition of the item. this can lead to unreliability, confusion, and bugs. web developers should therefore be aware of this issue and implement measures to handle such situations. <p> instead of expiring when the web browser is closed as session cookies do, a "persistent cookie" expires at a specific date or after a specific length of time. this means that, for the cookie's entire lifespan (which can be as long or as short as its creators want), its information will be transmitted to the server every time the user visits the website that it belongs to, or every time the user views a resource belonging to that website from another website (such as an advertisement). <p> bullet::::2. from this point on, the cookie will automatically be sent by the browser to the server every time a new page from the site is requested. the server not only sends the page as usual but also stores the url of the requested page, the date/time of the request, and the cookie in a log file. <p> bullet::::1. if the user requests a page of the site, but the request contains no cookie, the server presumes that this is the first page visited by the user. so the server creates a unique identifier (typically a string of random letters and numbers) and sends it as a cookie back to the browser together with the requested page. <p> if the user later visits the target website and completes a qualifying transaction (such as making a purchase), the cookie stuffer is paid a commission by the target. because the stuffer has not actually encouraged the user to visit the target, this technique is considered illegitimate by many affiliate schemes.

Nothing happens, cookies are stored the moment you load the page. These banners are only there because the eu passed a law that makes it mandatory to inform users if the site is using cookies, which every site does

how does the iss stay in orbit?

<p> the iss serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. the station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the moon and mars. the iss maintains an orbit with an average altitude of by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the "zvezda" module or visiting spacecraft. it circles the earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes  orbits per day. <p> the iss is maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of and a maximum of , in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to earth's equator, necessary to ensure that russian soyuz and progress spacecraft launched from the baikonur cosmodrome may be safely launched to reach the station. spent rocket stages must be dropped into uninhabited areas and this limits the directions rockets can be launched from the spaceport. <p> when a shuttle is operating in low earth orbit, the iss serves as a safety refuge in case of emergency. the inability to fall back on the safety of the iss during the latest hubble space telescope servicing mission (because of different orbital inclinations) was the reason a backup shuttle was summoned to the launch pad. so, iss astronauts operate with the mindset that they may be called upon to give sanctuary to a shuttle crew should something happen to compromise a mission. the international space station is a colossal cooperative project between many nations. the prevailing atmosphere on board is one of diversity and tolerance. this does not mean that it is perfectly harmonious. astronauts experience the same frustrations and interpersonal quarrels as their earth-based counterparts. <p> in the case of an abort to orbit, where the shuttle is unable to reach the iss orbit and the thermal protection system inspections suggest the shuttle cannot return to earth safely, the iss may be capable of descent down to meet the shuttle. such a procedure is known as a joint underspeed recovery. <p> the position of the space station in low earth orbit is effectively just outside of the earth's appreciable atmosphere, and is therefore an excellent training area in which astronauts can put on space suits, leave the iss life support systems behind, and conduct spacewalks - or "extravehicular activity (eva)." an eva may be undertaken to make repairs, reconfigure the station to accommodate new modules, deploy new equipment, etc. the iss orbits high enough to permit an astronaut and their sponsoring nation to gain valuable eva experience outside of the atmosphere, but it is low enough to avoid the increased radiation exposure and other difficulties associated with climbing further out of earth's gravity well. (if the earth is compared to a 16 inch beach ball, the orbit of the iss would be about half an inch above the beach ball's surface.) <p> the iss provides a location in the relative safety of low earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the moon and mars. this provides experience in operations, maintenance as well as repair and replacement activities on-orbit, which will be essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from earth, mission risks can be reduced and the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft advanced. referring to the mars-500 experiment, esa states that "whereas the iss is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations". sergey krasnov, the head of human space flight programmes for russia's space agency, roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a "shorter version" of mars-500 may be carried out on the iss. <p> after a two-day orbital chase, the orion spacecraft, having jettisoned much of the initial stack during takeoff, would meet with the international space station. after getting the go ahead from houston, orion would then dock with the iss. the six-man crew (at a maximum) would then enter the station in order to perform numerous tasks and activities for the duration of their flight, usually lasting six months, but possibly shortened to four or lengthened to eight, depending upon nasa's goals for that particular mission. once completed, the crew would then reenter the orion, seal itself off from the iss, and then undock from the station.

The ISS does require periodic "boosting" to maintain altitude, along with the occasional resupply mission to bring up more fuel.

why do students tend to separate by race in their teen years?

<p> consistent with the dictionary definition of peer groups, youth tend to form groups based on similarities. it has been found that one of these similarities is by race. preference for same race grows stronger as youth develop. when latino and caucasian youth were given surveys asking them to indicate who in their school they had the highest preference to spend time with, they both nominated peers of their same race over peers of different races. this is especially prevalent in classrooms and schools that have a clear cut majority and minority racial groups. though benefits of homophily are met, preference for one's own racial group can lead to rejection of the racial out group, which can cause stress for both groups particularly in females. <p> in the united states race remains an even stronger determinant of friendship than socioeconomic status. like socioeconomic status, ethnicity is not a strong determinant of childhood friendships, but becomes increasingly potent with age. by high school, ethnically mixed cliques are rarely observed. this pattern of social segregation is strongest between black students and all other students and most prevalent in schools where students are divided into academic tracks. this is because various factors disadvantage black children, affecting performance in some cases and adult decisions in others so that in many cases black children are disproportionately likely to be placed in lower tracks, regardless of intelligence or performance resulting in uneven distribution between tracks in the majority of american high schools. researchers suggest that because close friends in adolescence "usually have similar attitudes toward school, similar educational aspirations, and similar school achievement levels", early tracking may both decrease exposure to peers of other racial and socioeconomic backgrounds and decrease perceived similarity with the majority of those peers racial divisions are most acute in tracked schools but are fundamental to crowd and clique composition in almost all american schools, and thus cannot be attributed to, nor changed by, any one educational program. more encouragingly, however, longitudinal observations suggest that interventions in early childhood may have the potential to influence social segregation: the more schools foster close cross-racial friendships in childhood the less peer group segregation manifests. <p> researchers have argued that age grading in school has significant impact on age segregation among adolescent peer groups. it is also present in the work force, which can make it more difficult for older adults to find jobs or change employment paths because of their age. they are often either expected to have a significantly larger background of experience in the field, or be far enough away from retirement to be considered. although seen less in younger adults and children, there is evidence that younger populations segregate within themselves. until around ages 7 and 8, children tend to only associate with people within 2 years of their own age. children mostly segregate from adults, showing less adult interaction as they move into their teenage and young adult years. studies suggest that the gap in age segregation will grow because of technological knowledge seen in younger adults that is not seen in older adults. it is predicted that younger adults will have to teach older adults about new social environments that will be essential to healthy living. without these teachings, age segregation is set to increase. <p> different schools have different effects on similar students. children of color tend to be concentrated in low-achieving, highly segregated schools. in general, minority students are more likely to come from low-income households, meaning minority students are more likely to attend poorly funded schools based on the districting patterns within the school system. schools in lower-income districts tend to employ less qualified teachers and have fewer educational resources. research shows that teacher effectiveness is the most important in-school factor affecting student learning. good teachers can actually close or eliminate the gaps in achievement on the standardized tests that separate white and minority students. <p> differences of academic skills in children of different race starts at an early age, according to national assessment of educational progress there is a remaining gap showing black and latino children being able to demonstrate cognitive proficiency compared to their white counterparts. in the data 89 percent of white children presented the ability to understand written and spoken words while only 79 and 78 percent of black and latino children were able to comprehend written and spoken words the trend would continue into ages 4–6. experts believe that the racial differences in academic achievement fall under three major categories: genetic, cultural, and structural. for example, in the 1980s minorities experienced a cultural phenomenon called "fear of acting white", minorities would shun and ridicule those in their social groups who had shown a higher intelligence than others. shown in a graph comparing popularity to grade point average among blacks, latinos, and whites built based on data from the national longitudinal study of adolescent health popularity of white students increased as their grades increased, for black and latino students popularity would drop as grades would rise. race and ethnics will continue to play a major role in the disbursement of education through the american public school system, through diversity placement programs such as seo and mlt, grants and social and cultural changes the education gap has slowly been closing between whites and minorities in more recent years. <p> because the contemporary school system divides children by age and structures the majority of most adolescents' time and social exposure, age is the most universal common factor among clique members; notable exceptions include friendships formed in neighborhoods or on the internet and those initiated with early-maturing pubertal girls, all of which are often detrimental to the younger friend. <p> in the present day, it has been reported that white districts have more children from minority backgrounds enrolled in special education than they do majority students. “it was also suggested that districts with a higher percentage of minority faculty had fewer minority students placed in special education suggesting that 'minority students are treated differently in predominantly white districts than in predominantly minority districts'".

Most people are just more comfortable with people of similar cultures. I found people in my high school separated by wealth more so than skin color.

what limits mobile data speed and why?

<p> this means that, typically, data frames pass an 802.11 (wlan) medium, and are being converted to 802.3 (ethernet) or vice versa. due to the difference in the frame (header) lengths of these two media, the application's packet size determines the speed of the data transfer. this means applications that use small packets (e.g., voip) create dataflows with high-overhead traffic (i.e., a low goodput). other factors that contribute to the overall application data rate are the speed with which the application transmits the packets (i.e., the data rate) and, of course, the energy with which the wireless signal is received. the latter is determined by distance and by the configured output power of the communicating devices. <p> , only 40% of internet connections now have a fixed data cap. once users have exceeded their data cap, they typically have the option of having the speed limited to 64-128 kbit/s for the rest of the month or paying for any extra data used. most rsp's (retail service providers) offer unlimited data plans. on average (may 2018), each household uses 204gb of data per month. <p> due to the difference in the frame (header) lengths of these two media, the packet size of an application determines the speed of the data transfer. this means that an application which uses small packets (e.g. voip) creates a data flow with a high overhead traffic (e.g. a low goodput). <p> in addition, speed may vary markedly between writing a large amount of data to a single file (sequential access, as when a digital camera records large photographs or videos) and writing a large number of small files (a random-access use common in smartphones). a study in 2012 found that, in this random-access use, some class 2 cards achieved a write speed of 1.38 mb/s, while all cards tested of class 6 or greater (and some of lower classes; lower class does not "necessarily" mean better small-file performance), including those from major manufacturers, were over 100 times slower. in 2014, a blogger measured a 300-fold performance difference on small writes; this time, the best card in this category was a class 4 card. <p> on december 16, 2014, t-mobile announced un-carrier 8.0 as "data stash". this lets users carry over unused high-speed data usage for up to one year. the feature applies to customers of eligible post-paid plans who purchase qualifying amounts of additional high-speed data. on march 16, 2015, t-mobile announced that data stash would be extended to simple choice prepaid customers. <p> data rates, including those given in this article, are usually defined and advertised in terms of the maximum or peak download rate. in practice, these maximum data rates are not always reliably available to the customer. actual end-to-end data rates can be lower due to a number of factors. in late june 2016, internet connection speeds averaged about 6 mbit/s globally. physical link quality can vary with distance and for wireless access with terrain, weather, building construction, antenna placement, and interference from other radio sources. network bottlenecks may exist at points anywhere on the path from the end-user to the remote server or service being used and not just on the first or last link providing internet access to the end-user. <p> mobile data traffic doubled between the end of 2011 (~620 petabytes in q4 2011) and the end of 2012 (~1280 petabytes in q4 2012). this traffic growth is and will continue to be driven by large increases in the number of mobile subscriptions and by increases in the average data traffic per subscription due to increases in the number of smartphones being sold, the use of more demanding applications and in particular video, and the availability and deployment of newer 3g and 4g technologies capable of higher data rates. total mobile broadband traffic was expected to increase by a factor of 12 to roughly 13,000 petabytes by 2018 .

Most of the frequencies used on cell phones are locked in by the government, so we cant really use increased frequency to speed things up. Bandwidth is also already pretty wide and has little more to grow. If you look at the 4G protocol the peak bit rates are actually very high, 1Gbit per second. Obviously Our 4g phones get way less then that. The cell providers could give us these rates in the future but it depends on the bandwidth of the backbone that connects all this together. I suppose it all comes down to money. If we want hundreds of Mbits/s on our phones ATT would have to expand there backbone capacity, which takes time and money. Also, we aren't at "Full" 4G yet, LTE is only a half measure. LTE Advanced is where it really gets good. I believe LTE Advanced doubles current bit rates for our phones. LTE Advanced networks and phones should start rolling out in the next couple of years, so expect a doubling of bit rates fairly soon.

how does a computer know how big a file is before it begins downloading?

<p> at any instant in time, a file might have a size, normally expressed as number of bytes, that indicates how much storage is associated with the file. in most modern operating systems the size can be any non-negative whole number of bytes up to a system limit. many older operating systems kept track only of the number of blocks or tracks occupied by a file on a physical storage device. in such systems, software employed other methods to track the exact byte count (e.g., cp/m used a special control character, ctrl-z, to signal the end of text files). <p> file contents are distributed over several storage servers using striping, i.e. each file is split into chunks of a given size and these chunks are distributed over the existing storage servers. the size of these chunks can be defined by the file system administrator. in addition, also the metadata is distributed over several metadata servers on a directory level, with each server storing a part of the complete file system tree. this approach allows fast access on the data. <p> file size is a measure of how much data a computer file contains or, alternately, how much storage it consumes. typically, file size is expressed in units of measurement based on the byte. by convention, file size units use either a metric prefix (as in megabyte and gigabyte) or a binary prefix (as in mebibyte and gibibyte). <p> a second way to identify a file format is to "use information" regarding the format stored inside the file itself, either information meant for this purpose or binary strings that happen to always be in specific locations in files of some formats. since the easiest place to locate them is at the beginning, such area is usually called a "file header" when it is greater than a few bytes, or a "magic number" if it is just a few bytes long. <p> each file in the system has a set of file attributes. these attributes record all sorts of meta data about a file, most importantly its name and its type (which tells the system how to handle a file, like the more limited four-character file type code on the macintosh). other attributes have the file's record size (if fixed for commercial applications), the block size (in multiples of records that tells the mcp how many records to read and write in a single physical io) and an area size in multiples of blocks, which gives the size of disk areas to be allocated as the file expands. <p> individual files do not span disk volumes. the maximum size of a file is limited to the free space available on the disk volume where it resides. by default, files are created one page in size, but a larger size as well as a maximum size may be specified ($create "name" size="n"p maxsize="n"p). files will automatically expand until they reach their maximum size or the disk space limit for the owner's signon id is exceeded. users may request that a file be created on a specific disk volume ($create "name" volume="name"). <p> file size was specified as the number of 128 byte "records" (directly corresponding to disk sectors on 8-inch drives) occupied by a file on the disk. there was no generally supported way of specifying byte-exact file sizes. the current size of a file was maintained in the file's file control block (fcb) by the operating system. since many application programs (such as text editors) prefer to deal with files as sequences of characters rather than as sequences of records, by convention text files were terminated with a control-z character (ascii sub, hexadecimal 1a). determining the end of a text file therefore involved examining the last record of the file to locate the terminating control-z. this also meant that inserting a control-z character into the middle of a file usually had the effect of truncating the text contents of the file.

If you download via HTTP (a super-common way), then yes, there's a content-size header that the server can send to say how big the download will be. Not all downloads will have this header.

why i have to wait ten minutes to post another post on reddit.

<p> posts show up in google search results. however, most post types expire after seven days, no longer showing in search results at that time. there is one exception: event posts expire when the event date the post referenced has passed. <p> posts may be successfully published at first, but deleted or "unpublished" some time later - usually within approximately 24 hours, although over weekends it could sometimes take as long as two days before a blog post would be taken down. industry sources have confirmed that in these cases the content is flagged by the internal software system due to the presence of keywords. it is then reviewed by someone who then decides whether to remove, or un–publish, the post in question. <p> users must complete an online registration and create a username to post to the forum. users gain "dork" status as their post count rises. users with several thousand posts are not rare, and it typically takes them less than a year to rack them up. <p> bullet::::- post office workers go on killing sprees because "the mail never stops! it just keeps coming and coming and coming, there's never a let-up! it's relentless! every day, it piles up more and more and more! and you gotta get it out! but the more you get it out, the more it keeps coming in! and then, the bar code reader breaks, and it's "publisher's clearing house" day...!" <p> days/weeks later, participants will get a random email from mouchette. this will often be unsettling because it's random and unexpected, leaving the participant to question their identity/decision to input personal information of the website. <p> each post is assigned a post number. certain post numbers are sought after with a large amount of posting taking place to "get" them. a "get" occurs when a post's number ends in a special number, such as 12345678, 22222222, or every millionth post. a sign of 4chan's scaling, according to poole, was when gets lost meaning due to the high post rate resulting in a get occurring every few weeks. he estimated /b/'s post rate in july 2008 to be 150,000–200,000 posts per day. <p> postbacks are commonly seen in edit forms, where the user introduces information in a form and hits "save" or "submit", causing a postback. the server then refreshes the same page using the information it has just received.

Reddit throttles new posters. This means that (until you've built up some karma) you will have time limits posting multiple times. This is to discourage people from making a new account and using it to spam the site with posts.

why do movie and video game classical music soundtracks sound so much better than the famous classics?

<p> in the earliest years, filmi music was generally indian (classical carnatic, hindustani, and village folk) in inspiration; over the years, western elements have increased significantly. however, film soundtracks continue to be very diverse, sometimes fusing genres or reverting to entirely classical music. examples of this can be found throughout the history of filmi music. <p> the distinction between classical and popular music has sometimes been blurred in marginal areas such as minimalist music and light classics. background music for films/movies often draws on both traditions. in this respect, music is like fiction, which likewise draws a distinction between literary fiction and popular fiction that is not always precise. <p> having now gained experience with the super famicom sound chip, uematsu felt that the sound quality of the soundtrack for the next game in the series, "final fantasy v" (1992), was much better than that of "iv". he named this as the primary reason that the soundtrack album was two cds long, a first for the series. like "iv", the discography of "final fantasy v" included an arranged and a piano album in addition to the main soundtrack album. <p> the artistic merits of film music are frequently debated. some critics value it highly, pointing to music such as that written by erich wolfgang korngold, aaron copland, bernard herrmann, and others. some consider film music to be a defining genre of classical music in the late 20th century, if only because it is the brand of classical music heard more often than any other. in some cases, film themes have become accepted into the canon of classical music. these are mostly works from already noted composers who have done scores; for instance, sergei prokofiev's score to "alexander nevsky", or vaughan williams' score to "scott of the antarctic". others see the great bulk of film music as meritless. they consider that much film music is derivative, borrowing heavily from previous works. composers of film scores typically can produce about three or four per year. the most popular works by composers such as john williams and danny elfman are still far from entering the accepted canon. even so, considering they are often the most popular modern compositions of classical music known to the general public, major orchestras sometimes perform concerts of such music, as do pops orchestras. <p> the use of john williams' soundtrack from the "star wars" films was met with praise, though one reviewer believed that the music is overused in "star wars" video games. the sound effects were also lauded, and seen as providing a good atmosphere for the game, in particular the lightsaber sound and its implementation. <p> a number of classic rock, classical music, and contemporary works appeared in the film. the commercial film soundtrack focuses on an original score by john debney and includes some but not all of the classical and classic rock works. <p> although no music is indicated in marber's script to specifically be used, different productions have often most commonly used classical music, like in the 2004 film version of "closer". in one production, the music in "closer" was composed by paddy cunneen, a score described as sounding like "modern bach".

they dont sound better objectively, many people (the majority even) prefer traditional music as for why you prefer it, it's probably because of nostalgia, when you hear a traditional classical piece you hear a good song, but when you hear the zelda theme you hear a good song + all the awesome memories you have of being a child/teenager and getting lost in the world

compass/navigation experts

<p> the compass, a cross-staff or astrolabe, a method to correct for the altitude of polaris and rudimentary nautical charts were all the tools available to a navigator at the time of christopher columbus. in his notes on ptolemy's geography, johannes werner of nurenberg wrote in 1514 that the cross-staff was a very ancient instrument, but was only beginning to be used on ships. <p> orienteering, or compass navigation, is a matter of training, practice and familiarity with the use of underwater compasses, combined with various techniques for reckoning distance underwater, including kick cycles (one complete upward and downward sweep of a kick), time, air consumption and occasionally by actual measurement. kick cycles depend on the diver's finning technique and equipment, but are generally more reliable than time, which is critically dependent on speed, or air consumption, which is critically dependent on depth, work rate, diver fitness, and equipment drag. techniques for direct measurement also vary, from the use of calibrated distance lines or surveyor's tape measures, to a mechanism like an impeller log, to pacing off the distance along the bottom with the arms. <p> orienteering, or compass navigation, is a matter of training, practice and familiarity with the use of underwater compasses, combined with various techniques for reckoning distance underwater, including kick cycles (one complete upward and downward sweep of a kick), time, air consumption and occasionally by actual measurement. kick cycles depend on the diver's finning technique and equipment, but are generally more reliable than time, which is critically dependent on speed, or air consumption, which is critically dependent on depth, work rate, diver fitness, and equipment drag. techniques for direct measurement also vary, from the use of calibrated distance lines or surveyor's tape measures, to a mechanism like an impeller log, to pacing off the distance along the bottom with the arms. <p> classic geological compasses that are of practical use combine two functions, direction finding and navigation (especially in remote areas), and the ability to measure strike and dip of bedding surfaces and/or metamorphic foliation planes. structural geologists (i.e. those concerned with geometry and the pattern of relative movement) also have a need to measure the plunge and plunge direction of lineations. <p> a "bearing compass" is a magnetic compass mounted in such a way that it allows the taking of bearings of objects by aligning them with the lubber line of the bearing compass. a "surveyor's compass" is a specialized compass made to accurately measure heading of landmarks and measure horizontal angles to help with map making. these were already in common use by the early 18th century and are described in the 1728 cyclopaedia. the bearing compass was steadily reduced in size and weight to increase portability, resulting in a model that could be carried and operated in one hand. in 1885, a patent was granted for a hand compass fitted with a viewing prism and lens that enabled the user to accurately sight the heading of geographical landmarks, thus creating the "prismatic compass". another sighting method was by means of a reflective mirror. first patented in 1902, the "bézard compass" consisted of a field compass with a mirror mounted above it. this arrangement enabled the user to align the compass with an objective while simultaneously viewing its bearing in the mirror. <p> the marine hand compass, or hand-bearing compass as it is termed in nautical use, has been used by small-boat or inshore sailors since at least the 1920s to keep a running course or to record precise bearings to landmarks on shore in order to determine position via the resection technique. instead of a magnetized needle or disc, most hand bearing compasses feature liquid damping with a "floating card" design (a magnetized, degreed float or dial atop a jeweled pivot bearing). equipped with a viewing prism, the hand bearing compass allows instant reading of forward bearings from the user to an object or vessel, and some provide the reciprocal bearing as well. modern examples of marine hand bearing compasses include the "suunto kb-14" and "kb-77", and the "plastimo iris 50". these compasses frequently have battery-illuminated or photoluminescent degree dials for use in low light or darkness. <p> in terms of global significance, zhu yu's book was the first book in history to mention the use of the mariner's magnetic-needle compass for navigation at sea. although the compass needle was first described in detail by the chinese scientist shen kuo (1031–1095) in his "dream pool essays" of 1088 ad, he did not specifically outline its use for navigation at sea. the passage from zhu yu's "pingzhou ketan" relating to the use of the compass states:

If you are lost a compass will not help you out on its own. A compass will only tell you the direction you are facing and not the direction you should be heading in. To be able to navigate with a compass you also need a map and you need to know your position. On a map you can figure out what direction you want to walk in and follow that direction on the compass. If you place the compass on the map along the path you want to take you can move the inner compass or a marker so it points to North on the map. Then you put away the map and turn around so the needle points towards the marker that you set. Look ahead and pick something in the distance straight ahead. Then put away the compass and walk to it. Get the compass again and find the next marker in the distance to walk towards. For the distance you can count your steps or find out how long you need to walk the distance. However both these only give you an estimate. When you plot the course you need to make sure you get to a place you will recognize like a road, a river, a lake, a mountain, etc. When you reach this you know how far you have gone and know where you are on the map. Navigating to the stars is quite difficult. The basics of it is that you can find the north star or the southern cross. These stars are always in the north or south respectively and you can then use them instead of a compass. The rest of the stars including the Sun are constantly moving in the sky so you can not navigate over long distances using them as a guide.

if fish are cold-blooded how do they move so quickly in ice-cold water?

<p> fish are cold-blooded, and in general their body temperature is the same as that of their surroundings. they gain and lose heat through their skin and during respiration and are able to regulate their circulation in response to changes in water temperature by increasing or reducing the blood flow to the gills. metabolic heat generated in the muscles or gut is quickly dissipated through the gills, with blood being diverted away from the gills during exposure to cold. because of their relative inability to control their blood temperature, most teleosts can only survive in a small range of water temperatures. <p> almost all fish are cold-blooded (ectothermic). however, tuna and mackerel sharks are warm-blooded: they can regulate their body temperature. warm-blooded fish possess organs near their muscles called "retia mirabilia" that consist of a series of minute parallel veins and arteries that supply and drain the muscles. as the warmer blood in the veins returns to the gills for fresh oxygen it comes into close contact with cold, newly oxygenated blood in the arteries. the system acts as a counter-current heat exchanger and the heat from the blood in the veins is given up to the colder arterial blood rather than being lost at the gills. the net effect is less heat loss through the gills. fish from warmer water elevate their temperature a few degrees whereas those from cold water may raise it as much as warmer than the surrounding sea. <p> to cope with low temperatures, some fish have developed the ability to remain functional even when the water temperature is below freezing; some use natural antifreeze or antifreeze proteins to resist ice crystal formation in their tissues. <p> fish are normally cold-blooded, with body temperatures the same as the surrounding water. however, some oceanic predatory fish, such as swordfish and some shark and tuna species, can warm parts of their body when they hunt for prey in deep and cold water. the highly visual swordfish uses a heating system involving its muscles which raises the temperature in its eyes and brain by up to 15 °c. the warming of the retina improves the rate at which the eyes respond to changes in rapid motion made by its prey by as much as ten times. <p> coldwater fish species survive in the coldest temperatures, preferring a water temperature of . in north america, air temperatures that result in sufficiently cold water temperatures are found in the northern united states, canada, and in the southern united states at high elevation. common coldwater fish include brook trout, rainbow trout, and brown trout. <p> the icefishes are considered a monophyletic group and likely descended from a sluggish demersal ancestor. the cold, well-mixed, oxygen-rich waters of the southern ocean provided an environment where a fish with a low metabolic rate could survive even without hemoglobin, albeit less efficiently. <p> insects that live under the water have different strategies for dealing with freezing than do terrestrial insects. many insect species survive winter not as adults on land, but as larvae underneath the surface of the water. under the water many benthic invertebrates will experience some subfreezing temperatures, especially in small streams. aquatic insects have developed freeze tolerance much like their terrestrial counterparts. however, freeze avoidance is not an option for aquatic insects as the presence of ice in their surroundings may cause ice nucleation in their tissues. aquatic insects have supercooling points typically around −3º to −7°c. in addition to using freeze tolerance, many aquatic insects migrate deeper into the water body where the temperatures are higher than at the surface. insects such as stoneflies, mayflies, caddisflies, and dragonflies are common overwintering aquatic insects. the dance fly larvae have the lowest reported supercooling point for an aquatic insect at −22°c.

There are different methods depending on the fish species. Some are adapted to the colder water, their body's proteins most efficient at the lower temperature. They can idly swim and save energy for short bursts of speed when needed. Combine that with colder water often holding more oxygen and it can be quite the system. Some fish, such as tuna and some sharks, have a form of warm-bloodedness. They use the heat created from moving their muscles to raise their body temperature above the surrounding water. The fastest fish in the world use this method. It's also why tuna steaks are such a deep red.

how can medical studies with very small sample sizes be deemed as credible?

<p> sample sizes may be evaluated by the quality of the resulting estimates. for example, if a proportion is being estimated, one may wish to have the 95% confidence interval be less than 0.06 units wide. alternatively, sample size may be assessed based on the power of a hypothesis test. for example, if we are comparing the support for a certain political candidate among women with the support for that candidate among men, we may wish to have 80% power to detect a difference in the support levels of 0.04 units. <p> to improve the quality of replications, larger sample sizes than those used in the original study are often needed. larger sample sizes are needed because estimates of effect sizes in published work are often exaggerated due to publication bias and large sampling variability associated with small sample sizes in an original study. further, using significance thresholds usually leads to inflated effects, because particularly with small sample sizes, only the largest effects will become significant. <p> sample size determination in qualitative studies takes a different approach. it is generally a subjective judgment, taken as the research proceeds. one approach is to continue to include further participants or material until saturation is reached. the number needed to reach saturation has been investigated empirically. <p> the limitations of statistical stability become apparent for large sample sizes and in the passage to the limit. sample sizes are often small and therefore many practical tasks can be solved with acceptable accuracy using random (stochastic) models. such models are usually simpler than the hyper-random models, so "are preferred" for not very large sample sizes. <p> while researchers agree that large sample sizes are required to provide sufficient statistical power and precise estimates using sem, there is no general consensus on the appropriate method for determining adequate sample size. generally, the considerations for determining sample size include the number of observations per parameter, the number of observations required for fit indexes to perform adequately, and the number of observations per degree of freedom. researchers have proposed guidelines based on simulation studies, professional experience, and mathematical formulas. <p> it is not possible to take the measures from all the elements of a population. because of that, the sampling process is very important for statistical inference. sampling is defined as to randomly get a representative part of the entire population, to make posterior inferences about the population. so, the sample might catch the most variability across a population. the sample size is determined by several things, since the scope of the research to the resources available. in clinical research, the trial type, as inferiority, equivalence, and superiority is a key in determining sample size. <p> the issues surrounding sample size and number of variants become exacerbated particularly when gwa studies consider variants of volume in the order of millions. therefore, due to the current constraints in the curse of dimensionality, prior screening methods that decrease the number of loci to below the number of observations may be used before modelling disease risk. hayes et al. states that population size must be 100,000 in order to achieve high accuracy under their model assumptions; the exception is the case where there is a small effective population size. furthermore, ethnic specific gwa studies show that each group has varied detectability of variants in terms of: frequency, linkage disequilibrium – the co-inheritance of snps through generations – and the actual loci themselves.

One reason is that the available group to sample is very small. Take, for example, a new chemotherapy for retinoblastoma. There are less than 500 new cases each year. Even if I go to a really populous area, there aren't that many people who have it to test on. The other reason is that the studies are extremely rigorous otherwise. The big reason for having big samples is that the larger the sample size, the less likely other factor are to have a statistically appreciable effect, but with extreme rigor in every other possible area, there can be useful information obtained from a small sample.

why, when copying files, is the progress bar always wildly inaccurate?

<p> because the backup is already halfway done and the index already copied, the backup will be written with the article data present, but with the index reference missing. as a result of the inconsistency, this file is considered corrupted. <p> apple file system is designed to avoid metadata corruption caused by system crashes. instead of overwriting existing metadata records in place, it writes entirely new records, points to the new ones and then releases the old ones. this avoids corrupted records containing partial old and partial new data caused by a crash that occurs during an update. it also avoids having to write the change twice, as happens with an hfs+ journaled file system, where changes are written first to the journal and then to the catalog file. <p> a file's modification time describes when the content of the file most recently changed. because most file systems do not compare data written to a file with what is already there, if a program overwrites part of a file with the same data as previously existed in that location, the modification time will be updated even though the contents did not technically change. <p> main reason for better performance was the fact that compressing a file and writing it was faster than writing the original file as the bottleneck was to be found in hard disk i/o times. the same is correct for reading and decrompessing files. <p> some programs, in an attempt to avoid losing data if a write operation is interrupted, avoid modifying existing files. instead, the updated data is written to a new file, and the new file is moved to overwrite the original. this practice loses the original file metadata unless the program explicitly copies the metadata from the original file. windows is not affected by this due to a workaround feature called file system tunneling. <p> updating file systems to reflect changes to files and directories usually requires many separate write operations. this makes it possible for an interruption (like a power failure or system crash) between writes to leave data structures in an invalid intermediate state. <p> bullet::::- identification of changes: some filesystems have an archive bit for each file that says it was recently changed. some backup software looks at the date of the file and compares it with the last backup to determine whether the file was changed.

Lol, I hate this! The first 99 percent takes 4 minutes; why does the last 1 percent take another 4 minutes? Do the programmers really have such a shitty understanding of math?

what happens to the colony when you trap/kill wasps?

<p> as with most wasp species, those in the genus "microstigmus" are predators. prey for the wasps can vary from flies to aphids. most of the time, the kill is performed with the powerful mandibles literally biting through the head of the prey causing either death or immobilization. social wasps will kill the prey and then return to the nest to provide for the young. this can be done in several ways. one is for the wasp to suck out the inner bodily fluids of the prey and carry the hemolymph back to the nest where the adults will regurgitate some of the fluids to the larva wherein the adult retains some of the hemolymph. this trophallaxis between adults and larva may have played a role in social wasp evolution in three primary ways. adults who provide nourishment for larva and get food in return may reduce the need to forage for food for themselves. therefore, flights from the nests may be more efficient where flights are only performed for larval food foraging and nest construction materials over species that do not practice trophallaxis. the larval-adult saliva exchange may also increase reproductive fitness in females. an example would be a period of inclement weather where food is hard to come by. the reproducing females would still have a source of nutrition and be able to continue reproductive cycles which are crucial in eusocial colonies. there might also be a situation where the trophallaxis benefits the adults but also hinders the larva in form of nutritional castration where the lack of food results in underdeveloped reproductive organs thus leading to the creation of a worker class. <p> in addition, there are also "permanent" traps covering areas where the colony is completely open to the desert (e.g. at the main entrance, where there is no fencing). these traps always destroy insects that wander into them without disappearing. however, they are reliant on the colony's power supply and if the player allows the power to drop too low these traps will disappear. <p> social wasps, such as "p. chartergoides", are generally carnivores, preying mostly on insects, such as caterpillars and flies. the wasps digest their victims' bodies into a paste that can be fed to their larvae. the larvae then produce nutritional syrup that the adults consume. <p> social wasps like "parachartergus fraternus" are biological control agents of pests. they mostly prey on caterpillars and grubs of lepidoptera to gain protein to feed to their larvae. lepidoptera larvae are pests in forest and agriculture plantations, so these wasps help to control the numbers of these animals. if wasps did not prey on these caterpillars, their numbers would swell and much crop damage would be done because caterpillars eat away at these plants. <p> "vespula atropilosa" only forage for live prey and are not scavengers like other wasps. when in screenhouses, workers will also forage for vegetation growing in the screenhouse. workers in screenhouses often steal captured prey from each other even when there is no shortage of prey. theft occurs while workers cut up prey before taking it back to the nest. after prey has been caught, workers fly off quickly so they can malaxate the prey. this behavior might be adaptive since it takes successful workers away from the site of capture and avoids further contact with other workers. prey theft occurs when "v. atropilosa" are confined in screenhouses but not when they are foraging in their natural habitat. <p> some species of social insects will commit suicide in an act of altruism through autothysis. these insects will sacrifice themselves if the colony is in danger, to alert the colony of danger, or if they become diseased they will sacrifice themselves to prevent the colony from becoming diseased. carpenter ants and some species of termite will rupture glands and expel a sticky toxic substance thought to be an aliphatic compound in a process called "autothysis". termites will use autothysis to defend their colony, as the ruptured gland produces a sticky harmful secretion that leads to a tar baby effect in defense. when threatened by a ladybug, the pea aphid will explode itself, protecting other aphids and sometimes killing the ladybug. another example is the "camponotus saundersi," or malaysian worker ant, which is capable of committing suicide by exploding. <p> when another wasp attempts to land on an occupied perch site, the owner is alerted to the intruder. if the intruder does not fly away right away, then the owner will lunge and grapple the other wasp. typically the two wasps will fight on the perch site and often fall off the site and land on the ground to finish fighting. following the fight, the owner returns to its perch site, and again, rubs its abdomen to secrete its scent and ward off future intruders.

I think they will first re-allocate surviving wasps from expanding the nest to feeding the babies (to replace the dead ones) But if you catch enough of them, the colony will not be able to feed itself, and will die. I doubt the queen can re-start a colony in mid-season. And some reading:

is the reporting of al jazeera reputable? can you compare the reporting bias to other popular us news sources?

<p> when al jazeera reported events featuring very graphic footage from inside iraq, al jazeera was described as anti-american and as inciting violence because it reported on issues concerning national security. <p> rushing laments about al jazeera's bias, and speculates why the network shows no photos of alleged iraqi military atrocities, such as soldiers holding families hostage. abdallah schleifer, an american reporter, counters that no such pictures exist. he has no doubt these atrocities occur. however, he explains that hearsay filtering down through centcom is not convincing to skeptical arab viewers; 'that's why pictures of these things are so vital.' <p> honest reporting believe that failing to provide proper context and full background information, journalists can dramatically distort the true picture. camera believes it to be a frequent problem when reporting about the middle east. <p> since 9/11 u.s. officials have claimed an anti-american bias to al jazeera's news coverage. the station first gained widespread attention in the west following the september 11, 2001 attacks, when it broadcast videos in which osama bin laden and sulaiman abu ghaith defended and justified the attacks. this led to significant controversy and accusations by the united states government that al jazeera was engaging in propaganda on behalf of terrorists. al jazeera countered that it was merely making information available without comment, and several western television channels later followed suit in broadcasting portions of the tapes. at a press conference on 3 october 2001, colin powell tried to persuade the emir of qatar to shut down al jazeera. <p> "arab news" offers a variety of news ranging from politics and finance to sports and social events. one of the good examples of the transparency in media was a commentary written on the first anniversary of the september 11 attacks by rasheed abu alsamh published in "arab news": <p> media bias/fact check is a web site that rates factual accuracy and political bias in news media. the site classifies media sources on a political bias spectrum, as well as on the accuracy of their factual reporting. the site is run by founder and editor dave van zandt. <p> studies conducted by "the sentencing project" found that journalists gravitated towards cases where caucasians were the victims and cases where the assailant was african american. studies drew the conclusion that newsworthiness is not a product of how representative or novel a crime is, but rather how well it can be "scripted using stereotypes grounded in racism and fewer of african american crime." robert entman believes it is crucial to understand that journalists may not support modern racism. the news personnel shape reports in accordance with professional norms and conventions rather than their own perspective. furthermore, journalistic practices yield to dialogue that fit audience stereotypes. for example, select sound bites for a story about african american political activity will often choose those that convey trauma and conflict. entman suggests that african american leaders produced ample supply of such quotes because the structure of social political power often maximizes them.

anybody here? haha

how and/or when did the egyptians, greeks, vikings, etc came up with the name of their gods?

<p> in the greek text, the names of gods are hephaestus and helios. apparently, the unknown russian translator tried to re-tell the entire story (set in egypt) by replacing the names of classical deities with those that were better known to his readers. it is uncertain to what extent the greek gods were thought to resemble their slavic counterparts. <p> this is in fact a slavic translation of an original greek manuscript of malalin from the 6th century. in greek text, the names of gods are hephaestus and helios. apparently, the unknown russian translator tried to re-tell the entire story (set in egypt) by replacing the names of classical deities with those that were better known to his readers. one can only hope that he indeed replaced the names of greek gods with their fitting slavic counterparts; however, at least one issue remains problematic: in all slavic languages, the word for sun, "sunce", is of neutral or feminine gender, never masculine (however, there is russian epic character vladimir beautiful sun which has the same place as arthur in english culture.) also, in baltic mythology, which is most akin to slavic, sun is a female deity, saule, while the moon is a male one. the same pattern can be observed in folklore of many slavic nations, where the sun is most often identified with mother or a bride, and moon with father or husband, their children being the stars. where exactly this leaves dažbog as a possible male solar deity of slavic pantheon remains questionable. <p> the greek practice of grafting their gods' names onto the planets was almost certainly borrowed from the babylonians. the babylonians named phosphoros after their goddess of love, "ishtar"; pyroeis after their god of war, "nergal", stilbon after their god of wisdom nabu, and phaethon after their chief god, "marduk". there are too many concordances between greek and babylonian naming conventions for them to have arisen separately. the translation was not perfect. for instance, the babylonian nergal was a god of war, and thus the greeks identified him with ares. unlike ares, nergal was also god of pestilence and the underworld. <p> the germanic peoples adapted the system introduced by the romans but glossed their indigenous gods over the roman deities in a process known as "interpretatio germanica". in the case of saturday, however, the roman name was borrowed directly by west germanic peoples, apparently because none of the germanic gods were considered to be counterparts of the roman god saturn. otherwise old norse and old high german did not borrow the name of the roman god (icelandic "laugardagur", german "samstag"). <p> today, most people in the western world know the planets by names derived from the olympian pantheon of gods. although modern greeks still use their ancient names for the planets, other european languages, because of the influence of the roman empire and, later, the catholic church, use the roman (latin) names rather than the greek ones. the romans, who, like the greeks, were indo-europeans, shared with them a common pantheon under different names but lacked the rich narrative traditions that greek poetic culture had given their gods. during the later period of the roman republic, roman writers borrowed much of the greek narratives and applied them to their own pantheon, to the point where they became virtually indistinguishable. when the romans studied greek astronomy, they gave the planets their own gods' names: "mercurius" (for hermes), "venus" (aphrodite), "mars" (ares), "iuppiter" (zeus) and "saturnus" (cronus). when subsequent planets were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries, the naming practice was retained with "neptūnus" (poseidon). uranus is unique in that it is named for a greek deity rather than his roman counterpart. <p> ancient egyptian deities represent natural and social phenomena, as well as abstract concepts. these gods and goddesses appear in virtually every aspect of ancient egyptian civilization, and more than 1,500 of them are known by name. many egyptian texts mention deities' names without indicating their character or role, while other texts refer to specific deities without even stating their name, so a complete list of them is difficult to assemble. <p> from the history traced by nilsson and guthrie, the mycenaean pantheon consisted of minoan deities, but also of gods and goddesses who appear under different names with similar functions in east and west. many of these names appearing in the linear b inscriptions can be found later in classical greece like zeus, hera, poseidon, athena, hermes, eileithyia and dionysos, but the etymology is the only evidence of the cults.

The Greek/Roman/Norse/Germanic gods developed alongside the languages. The names similarly changed. We do have texts written about all those gods in a phonographic alphabet so we know how they pronounced the names. For example Dyeus Phater (Day father or Light father) would be pronounced slightly differently in different regions of Europe over centuries and would become both Dipeter or Jupiter and also Zeus Peter in Greek and Roman languages respectively. In Germanic languages however Dyeus became Tiwaz and then in Norse Tyr. This is just like any other words in the language changes over time.

why does it seem black people are so much more athletic than white people?

<p> black people are stereotyped as being more athletic and better at sports compared to white people. even though african-americans make up only 12.4 percent of the u.s. population, seventy-five percent of nba players and sixty-five percent of nfl players are black. until 2010, all sprinters who had broken the 10-second barrier in the 100 meter dash are black. african-american college athletes may be seen as getting into college solely on their athletic ability and not their intelligence. <p> "black athletic superiority" is the theory that black people possess certain traits that are acquired through genetic and/or environmental factors that allow them to excel over other races in athletic competition. whites are more likely to hold these views; however, some blacks and other racial affiliations do as well. a 1991 poll in the united states indicated that half of the respondents agreed with the belief that "blacks have more natural physical ability". <p> "the black is a better athlete to begin with because he's been bred to be that way, because of his high thighs and big thighs that goes up into his back, and they can jump higher and run faster because of their bigger thighs and he's bred to be the better athlete because this goes back all the way to the civil war when during the slave trade … the slave owner would breed his big black to his big woman so that he could have a big black kid …" <p> the black athletic superiority is a theory that says black people possess certain traits that are acquired through genetic and/or environmental factors that allow them to excel over other races in athletic competition. whites are more likely to hold these views; however, some blacks and other racial affiliations do as well. a 1991 poll in the united states indicated that half of the respondents agreed with the belief that "blacks have more natural physical ability". <p> a 2001 study indicated that black high school students play harder than white students, because the former were more likely to perceive sports as a venue to success. the study denies that racial characteristics, per se, is a factor in success in sports. <p> in "darwin's athletes", john hoberman writes that the prominence of african-american athletes encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in black communities. several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights "natural black athleticism" has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas, such as intelligence. some contemporary sports commentators have questioned whether black people are intelligent enough to hold "strategic" positions or coach games such as football. <p> various theories regarding racial differences of black and white people and their possible effect on sports performance have been put forth since the later part of the nineteenth century by professionals in many different fields. in the united states, attention to the subject faded over the first two decades of the twentieth century as black athletes were eliminated from white organized sport and segregated to compete among themselves on their own amateur and professional teams. interest in the subject was renewed after the 1932 summer olympics in los angeles and jesse owens's record-breaking performances at the 1935 big ten track championships. regarding jesse owen's impressive four-gold medal performance in the following 1936 olympics, the then u.s head coach remarked that “the negro excels. it was not long ago that his ability to sprint and jump was a life-and-death matter to him in the jungle. his muscles are pliable, and his easy going disposition is a valuable aid to the mental and physical relaxation that a runner and jumper must have.”

Genetically, black people tend to have more fast-twitch fibers than white people. Fast-twitch fibers are REALLY good at allowing your muscles to perform well at high impact explosive work - and is therefore perfect for activities such as sprinting which has obvious benefits in athletics, football, basketball, soccer, etc. However, the genetics is only a small part of the bigger story. You have to look far beyond genetics to see the whole picture. For example, black areas tend to be poorer than white areas (be it suburbs or entire countries) and as such black folk may see sport as the way out - its a way to a scholorship etc. As such, there is more likleyhood that a black child will dedicate himself wholy to a given sport than a white kid who may have more options open to him. Obviously this is MASSIVLY generalised, and every case is different, but thats the general reason.

does the principle of confidentiality between a doctor and a patient also holds in the other direction?

<p> confidentiality is commonly applied to conversations between doctors and patients. legal protections prevent physicians from revealing certain discussions with patients, even under oath in court. this physician-patient privilege only applies to secrets shared between physician and patient during the course of providing medical care. <p> confidentiality is commonly applied to conversations between doctors and patients. this concept is commonly known as patient-physician privilege. legal protections prevent physicians from revealing their discussions with patients, even under oath in court. <p> the ethical principle of confidentiality requires that information shared by a client with a therapist in the course of treatment is not shared with others. this principle bolsters the therapeutic alliance, as it promotes an environment of trust. there are important exceptions to confidentiality, namely where it conflicts with the clinician's duty to warn or duty to protect. this includes instances of suicidal behavior or homicidal plans, child abuse, elder abuse and dependent adult abuse. recently, confidentiality laws have been changed so that doctors and nurses face strict penalties if they breach confidentiality. <p> physician–patient privilege is a legal concept, related to medical confidentiality, that protects communications between a patient and their doctor from being used against the patient in court. it is a part of the rules of evidence in many common law jurisdictions. almost every jurisdiction that recognizes physician–patient privilege not to testify in court, either by statute or through case law, limits the privilege to knowledge acquired during the course of providing medical services. in some jurisdictions, conversations between a patient and physician may be privileged in both criminal and civil courts. <p> establishing a breach of confidentiality depends on proving the existence and breach of a duty of confidentiality. courts in the us look at the nature of the relationship between the parties. most commonly, breach of confidentiality applies to the patient-physician relationship but it can also apply to relationships involving banks, hospitals, and insurance companies and many others. <p> right to confidentiality, human dignity and privacy: doctors should observe strict confidentiality of a patient's condition, with the only exception of potential threats to public health. in case of a physical inspection by a male doctor on a female patient, the latter has the right to have a female person present throughout the procedure. hospitals also have an obligation to secure patient information from any external threats. <p> physicians and psychiatrists in many cultures and countries have standards for doctor–patient relationships, which include maintaining confidentiality. in some cases, the physician–patient privilege is legally protected. these practices are in place to protect the dignity of patients, and to ensure that patients will feel free to reveal complete and accurate information required for them to receive the correct treatment.

As an MD the answer is no. This allows the patient to attack the doctor, not only in the courts, but also in the press. The doctor can not refute the publicly aired allegations. This is not uncommon.

what is time where there is nothing to measure it by?

<p> time in physics is defined by its measurement: time is what a clock reads. in classical, non-relativistic physics it is a scalar quantity and, like length, mass, and charge, is usually described as a fundamental quantity. time can be combined mathematically with other physical quantities to derive other concepts such as motion, kinetic energy and time-dependent fields. "" is a complex of technological and scientific issues, and part of the foundation of "recordkeeping". <p> time in physics is defined by its measurement: time is what a clock reads. in classical, non-relativistic physics it is a scalar quantity and, like length, mass, and charge, is usually described as a fundamental quantity. time can be combined mathematically with other physical quantities to derive other concepts such as motion, kinetic energy and time-dependent fields. "" is a complex of technological and scientific issues, and part of the foundation of "recordkeeping". <p> time is an abstract measurement of elemental changes over a non spatial continuum. it is denoted by numbers and/or named periods such as hours, days, weeks, months and years. it is an apparently irreversible series of occurrences within this non spatial continuum. it is also used to denote an interval between two relative points on this continuum. <p> time is often thought to be a fundamental quantity (that is, a quantity which cannot be defined in terms of other quantities), because time seems like a fundamentally basic concept, such that one cannot define it in terms of anything simpler. however, certain theories such as loop quantum gravity claim that spacetime is emergent. as carlo rovelli, one of the founders of loop quantum gravity has said: "no more fields on spacetime: just fields on fields". time is defined via measurement—by its standard time interval. currently, the standard time interval (called "conventional second", or simply "second") is defined as 9,192,631,770 oscillations of a hyperfine transition in the 133 caesium atom. (iso 31-1). what time is and how it works follows from the above definition. time then can be combined mathematically with the fundamental quantities of space and mass to define concepts such as velocity, momentum, energy, and fields. <p> time is the indefinite continued progress of existence and events that occur in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, to the future. time is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to compare the duration of events or the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change of quantities in material reality or in the conscious experience. time is often referred to as a fourth dimension, along with three spatial dimensions. <p> in other words, time is an entanglement phenomenon, which places all equal clock readings (of correctly prepared clocks - or of any objects usable as clocks) into the same history. this was first understood by physicist don page and william wootters in 1983. they made a proposal to address the problem of time in systems like general relativity called conditional probabilities interpretation. it consists in promoting all variables to quantum operators, one of them as a clock, and asking conditional probability questions with respect to other variables. they made a solution based on the quantum phenomenon of entanglement. page and wootters showed how quantum entanglement can be used to measure time. <p> in other words, time is an entanglement phenomenon, which places all equal clock readings (of correctly prepared clocks, or of any objects usable as clocks) into the same history. this was first fully theorized by don page and william wootters in 1983.

Light would be passing you, and the speed of the light arriving and moving past would define time for you.

how does telling video game cheaters what program they were detected with help them develop better cheats?

<p> players found several ways to cheat in the game. most often, two players resort to using a third-party instant messaging service in order to coordinate their moves outside of the in-game chat interface. other players developed more sophisticated methods, including running multiple sessions of the game and creating secondary or unregistered accounts ("sock puppets" or "socks") to tilt a game's outcome in their favor. <p> ahn has described countermeasures which prevent players from "cheating" the game, and introducing false data into the system. by giving players occasional test images for which common labels are known, it is possible to check that players are answering honestly, and a player's guesses are only stored if they successfully label the test images. <p> cheating in video games has existed for almost their entire history. the first cheat codes were put in place for play testing purposes. playtesters had to rigorously test the mechanics of a game and introduced cheat codes to make this process easier. an early cheat code can be found in "manic miner", where typing "6031769" (based on matthew smith's driving license) enables the cheat mode. within months of ""s 1981 release, at least two commercial trainers appeared. 1983 advertisements for "the great escape utility" for "castle wolfenstein" (1981) promised that the $15 product "remodels every feature of the game. stop startup delays, crashes and chest waiting. get any item, in any quantity. start in any room, at any rank. handicap your aim. even add items". <p> cheating in computer games may involve cheat codes and hidden spots implemented by the game developers, modification of game code by third parties, or players exploiting a software glitch. modifications are facilitated by either cheat cartridge hardware or a software trainer. cheats usually make the game easier by providing an unlimited amount of some resource; for example weapons, health, or ammunition; or perhaps the ability to walk through walls. other cheats might give access to otherwise unplayable levels or provide unusual or amusing features, like altered game colors or other graphical appearances. <p> the most basic type of cheat code is one created by the game designers and hidden within the video game itself, that will cause any type of uncommon effect that is not part of the usual game mechanics. <p> cheat codes may sometimes produce unusual or interesting effects which don't necessarily make the game easier to play. for example, one cheat in "" makes dinosaurs appear "undead". another example occurs in the game "dungeon siege", where activating the cheat to extend the range of a bow also allows the enemies to fire at the same distance, thereby eliminating the advantage the cheat would have given. a cheat may even make the game harder to play; for instance, one could give the enemy special abilities, increase general difficulty, make neutral bystanders attack the player or grant the player a disadvantage such as low health points. cheats in "grand theft auto" games can make npcs start rioting or wield weapons. in "grand theft auto iii", the player can activate a cheat to enable blowing off the limbs of npcs, a feature originally included in the game. recently, however, rockstar games has not included such violent or unusual cheat codes in its games, instead choosing to focus on cheats such as vehicle spawns, player effects (for example, invincibility) and weapon spawns. <p> fraud detection, a reference to an inside joke within the competitive fighting game community wherein a player who does not perform as well as expected is labeled a "fraud." if a player loses four games in a row without winning one, the game will activate a "fraud detection warning". losing afterwards will announce "fraud detected", but winning will avert it.

If you log onto a game and you get busted cheating, and the game says "We tracked your mouse movements and they were always in a straight line from point to point, and at a constant speed, instead of having some curve in them and variation in speed, like a normal human would do it" then you would know to rewrite your cheating program to never move your mouse in a straight line from point A to point B, you'd make it move at a random speed with a random amount of curvature to it. Instead they just say "You were busted cheating. Goodbye."

what it srs, all the drama surrounding it, and why pretty much all of reddit hates it?

<p> the srs was first published in 2010 and has been used by an increasing number of users since then (a current list of adopters is available on the srs website)). in 2014, a new version of the guidelines was published. findings from user workshops and phone consultations regarding the srs 2012 as well as feedback from numerous users were taken into account. the basic concept has proven itself successful and remains unchanged, however, the srs 2014 is optimized with regards to user-friendliness and significance. <p> a dms publishes to popular social channels, including facebook and twitter as a means to communicate with fans, friends, followers, and customers and drive traffic to the user's website. the social publication can take the form of a status update, a text message, a 'tweet', a photo, a video and many other means of social communication. the idea is to find browsers in social spaces who might not otherwise be targeted. and that of which helps to communicate including social media networks for example click here <p> the ssa is an independent, democratically structured organization in the u.s. that promotes freethinking high school and college students. the ssa was formed "to organize, unite, educate and serve students and student communities that promote the ideals of scientific and critical inquiry, democracy, secularism, and human based ethics". <p> during the history of dcmst thus far, there have been students that have chosen to quit dcmst and resign from the spot that they had been awarded during the admissions process. these resignations usually come after the freshmen or sophomore year as students realize that he/she believes the program is too rigorous or that he/she does not want to go into a field involving math, science, and technology specifically. the latter is why many of the students who have dropped out have done so, as he/she wants to go into the arts. many students that attend dcmst like the arts along with math, science, and technology. others have moved out of the district. <p> glaad (formerly the gay & lesbian alliance against defamation) is an american non-governmental media monitoring organization founded by lgbt people in the media. before march 2013, the name "glaad" had been an acronym for "gay & lesbian alliance against defamation", but became the primary name due to its inclusiveness of bisexual and transgender issues. <p> some bloggers predicted the death of rss when google reader was shut down. later, however, rss was considered more of a success as an appealing way to obtain information. "feedly, likely the most popular rss reader today, has gone from around 5,000 paid subscribers in 2013 to around 50,000 paid subscribers in early 2015 – that’s a 900% increase for feedly in two years." customers use rss to get information more easily while businesses take advantages of being able to spread announcements. "rss serves as a delivery mechanism for websites to "push" online content to potential users and as an information aggregator and filter for users." however, it has been pointed out that in order to "push the content" rss should be user-friendly to ensure proactive interaction so that the user can remain engaged without feeling "trapped", good design to avoid being overwhelmed by stale data, and optimization for both desktop and mobile use. rss has a positive impact on marketing since it contributes to better search engine rankings, to building and maintaining brand awareness, and increasing site traffic. <p> pkids, which stands for parents of kids with infectious diseases, is a national nonprofit organization based in the united states that serves families of children living with chronic, viral infectious diseases and educates the public on various methods of disease prevention. founded in 1996 by a handful of parents, the group became a 501 (c) (3) nonprofit in 1997. since then, thousands of families have been helped and millions of individuals around the country have received pkids’ health messages.

Because they claim to be calling out the worst parts of Reddit on ignorance on bigotry but in fact may be the most ignorant and bigoted subreddit in existence. They invent conflict and intent where it does not exist, they hypocritically make extremely disturbing and unfounded accusations and generalizations that are more fucked up than anything they complain about (I saw a post where an SRSer claimed that most males on reddit "probably have raped someone, but they don't want to admit it to themselves") and then claim that it's "all part of the really funny circle jerk and you just don't get it". Which is ironically the logic they so viciously berate Redditors for using to defend slightly off-color comments and jokes. But the biggest reason is that they instantly perma-ban anyone who dares to question the raging mob of self-aggrandizing inoffensiveness. People in that subreddit will call out individual users by name, and say how that person is a pathetic, sexist, racist, virgin who has probably raped someone and then instantly ban anyone who claims otherwise, especially the person they are so gleefully tearing to shreds. They are taking the worst parts of people like the extreme Christian Fundamentalists who wrap themselves in a shield of God's love and then tell every normal person they are going to burn in hell for all eternity because they are a sinner and pure evil, and take any dissent as an all-out attack and respond like it's war. Anyone who disagrees with SRS's militant justice must be pedophiles and neo-nazi's. They are the most fucked thing I have ever seen on this site. EDIT: Oh lord, they found me. This post has taken about 80 downvotes today. Last night it stopped moving at about 400, but this afternoon every time I check a reply it's less and less. Not a downvote brigade my ass.

why is a mortgage only 30 years? why can't it be 60 years?

<p> depending on the size of the loan and the prevailing practice in the country the term may be short (10 years) or long (50 years plus). in the uk and u.s., 25 to 30 years is the usual maximum term (although shorter periods, such as 15-year mortgage loans, are common). mortgage payments, which are typically made monthly, contain a repayment of the principal and an interest element. the amount going toward the principal in each payment varies throughout the term of the mortgage. in the early years the repayments are mostly interest. towards the end of the mortgage, payments are mostly for principal. in this way the payment amount determined at outset is calculated to ensure the loan is repaid at a specified date in the future. this gives borrowers assurance that by maintaining repayment the loan will be cleared at a specified date, if the interest rate does not change. some lenders and 3rd parties offer a bi-weekly mortgage payment program designed to accelerate the payoff of the loan. similarly, a mortgage can be ended before its scheduled end by paying some or all of the remainder prematurely, called curtailment. <p> outside the united states, fixed-rate mortgages are less popular, and in some countries, true fixed-rate mortgages are not available except for shorter-term loans. for example, in canada the longest term for which a mortgage rate can be fixed is typically no more than ten years, while mortgage maturities are commonly 25 years. a fixed rate mortgage in singapore has the interest rate fixed for only the first three to five years of the loan, and it then becomes variable. in australia, "honeymoon" mortgages with introductory rates are common, but can last as short as a year, and may instead offer a fixed reduction in interest rate rather than a fixed rate itself. furthermore, they are often combined with properties of flexible mortgages to create what is known as an australian mortgage, which often allow borrowers to overpay to reduce interest charges and then draw on these overpayments in the future. <p> for those who plan to move within a relatively short period of time (three to seven years), variable rate mortgages may still be attractive because they often include a lower, fixed rate of interest for the first three, five, or seven years of the loan, after which the interest rate fluctuates. <p> fixed-rate mortgages are the most classic form of loan for home and product purchasing in the united states. the most common terms are 15-year and 30-year mortgages, but shorter terms are available, and 40-year and 50-year mortgages are now available (common in areas with high priced housing, where even a 30-year term leaves the mortgage amount out of reach of the average family). <p> variable rate mortgages are the most common form of loan for house purchase in the united kingdom, ireland and canada but are unpopular in some other countries such as germany. variable rate mortgages are very common in australia and new zealand. in some countries, true fixed-rate mortgages are not available except for shorter-term loans; in canada, the longest term for which a mortgage rate can be fixed is typically no more than ten years, while mortgage maturities are commonly 25 years. <p> in the uk variable-rate mortgages are more common than in the united states. this is in part because mortgage loan financing relies less on fixed income securitized assets (such as mortgage-backed securities) than in the united states, denmark, and germany, and more on retail savings deposits like australia and spain. thus, lenders prefer variable-rate mortgages to fixed rate ones and whole-of-term fixed rate mortgages are generally not available. nevertheless, in recent years fixing the rate of the mortgage for short periods has become popular and the initial two, three, five and, occasionally, ten years of a mortgage can be fixed. from 2007 to the beginning of 2013 between 50% and 83% of new mortgages had initial periods fixed in this way. <p> bullet::::- a group of mortgages could create 4 different classes of bonds. the first group would receive any prepayments before the second group would, and so on. thus the first group of bonds would be expected to pay off sooner, but would also have a lower interest rate. thus a 30-year mortgage is transformed into bonds of various lengths suitable for various investors with various goals.

They don't want your property, they want your money. Banks are in the business of loaning money, not real estate. Besides, who would want to be saddled with a mortgage their entire life? The whole point is to pay the thing off. 30 years is long enough to make the payments manageable. Edit: Proofreading

how do seasons work around the world? is it summer everywhere, or is it just summer on a part of the world?

<p> a season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology, and amount of daylight. on earth, seasons result from earth's orbit around the sun and earth's axial tilt relative to the ecliptic plane. in temperate and polar regions, the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the earth's surface, variations of which may cause animals to undergo hibernation or to migrate, and plants to be dormant. various cultures define the number and nature of seasons based on regional variations. <p> seasons result from the tilt of the earth's axis compared to the plane of its revolution around the sun. throughout the year the northern and southern hemispheres are alternately turned either toward or away from the sun depending on earth's position in its orbit. the hemisphere turned toward the sun receives more sunlight and is in summer, while the other hemisphere receives less sun and is in winter (see solstice). <p> the "seasons" are a continuation of poussin's mythological landscapes, depicting the power and grandeur of nature, "benign in spring, rich in summer, sombre yet fruitful in autumn, and cruel in winter." the series also represents successive times of the day: early morning for spring, midday for summer, evening for autumn and a moonlit night for winter. for both stoic philosophers and for early christians the seasons represented the harmony of nature; but for christians the seasons, often depicted personified surrounding the good shepherd, and the succession of night and day also symbolized the death and resurrection of christ and the salvation of man (1 clement 9: 4-18, 11: 16-20 ). <p> spring and "springtime" refer to the season, and also to ideas of rebirth, rejuvenation, renewal, resurrection and regrowth. subtropical and tropical areas have climates better described in terms of other seasons, e.g. dry or wet, monsoonal or cyclonic. cultures may have local names for seasons which have little equivalence to the terms originating in europe. <p> ecologically speaking, a season is a period of the year in which only certain types of floral and animal events happen (e.g.: flowers bloom—spring; hedgehogs hibernate—winter). so, if we can observe a change in daily floral/animal events, the season is changing. in this sense, ecological seasons are defined in absolute terms, unlike calendar-based methods in which the seasons are relative. if specific conditions associated with a particular ecological season don't normally occur in a particular region, then that area cannot be said to experience that season on a regular basis. <p> bullet::::- seasons are not caused by the earth being closer to the sun in the summer than in the winter, but by the earth's 23.4-degree axial tilt. each hemisphere is tilted towards the sun in its respective summer (july in the northern hemisphere and january in the southern hemisphere), resulting in longer days and more direct sunlight, with the opposite being true in the winter. <p> since prehistory, the summer solstice has been seen as a significant time of year in many cultures, and has been marked by festivals and rituals. traditionally, in many temperate regions (especially europe), the summer solstice is seen as the middle of summer and referred to as "midsummer". today, however, in some countries and calendars it is seen as the beginning of summer.

When it is summer in the northern hemisphere, it is winter in the southern hemisphere. When it is hot in the US, it is cold in Australia. When the days are long in the US, they are short in Australia. This is due to the tilted axis of the earth, resulting in the different hemispheres getting different amounts of sunlight as we travel around the sun.

why do snipers exhale before taking a shot?

<p> snipers are trained to squeeze the trigger straight back with the ball of their finger, to avoid jerking the gun sideways. the most accurate position is prone, with a sandbag supporting the stock, and the stock's cheek-piece against the cheek. in the field, a bipod can be used instead. sometimes a sling is wrapped around the weak arm (or both) to reduce stock movement. some doctrines train a sniper to breathe deeply before shooting, then hold their lungs empty while they line up and take their shot. some go further, teaching their snipers to shoot between heartbeats to minimize barrel motion. <p> shot placement, which is where on the body the sniper is aiming, varies with the type of sniper. military snipers, who generally do not shoot at targets at less than , usually attempt body shots, aiming at the chest. these shots depend on tissue damage, organ trauma, and blood loss to kill the soldier. body shots are used because the chest is a larger target. <p> bullet::::- breathing (because "the current of it is very rapid; and it 'flows the opposite way to the assyrians,' because after the breath is breathed out, on breathing in again, the breath that is drawn in from without, from the air, comes in more rapidly, and with greater force.") <p> the sniper applies a dressing, though in great pain, and prone in position for some time. he decides he has to escape from the roof before morning. he is no longer able to hold his rifle; hence, he tricks the enemy sniper into shooting his cap, which he places over the rifle. he lets the cap fall into the street, drops his rifle and lets his left hand hang over the edge of the roof, giving the impression that he has been shot dead. <p> often in situations with multiple targets, snipers use relocation. after firing a few shots from a certain position, snipers move unseen to another location before the enemy can determine where they are and mount a counter-attack. snipers will frequently use this tactic to their advantage, creating an atmosphere of chaos and confusion. in other, rarer situations, relocation is used to eliminate the factor of wind. <p> bullet::::- "smoke screen:" in urban settings or other environments with limited movement and fields of view, smoke can be an effective means to screen friendly movement. this can be used either to pass through and escape, or to close in on and eliminate the enemy sniper. ordinary soldiers can still do damage through smoke by firing randomly or on intuition, but snipers lose their precision advantage and are far less likely to hit anything with their much lower possible shot volume. a determined enemy, such as an emplaced heavy machine gun, will fire randomly through smoke, so this is a dangerous tactic. it should also be noted that weapons of opportunity may also provide a smoke screen, anything from igniting a car's gas tank, oil drum, or using fragmentation grenades to throw up debris and quickly break line of sight and concentration. <p> a sniper must have the ability to accurately estimate the various factors that influence a bullet's trajectory and point of impact such as: range to the target, wind direction, wind velocity, altitude and elevation of the sniper and the target and ambient temperature. mistakes in estimation compound over distance and can decrease lethality or cause a shot to miss completely.

They actually exhale and during that time they take the shot. This is also accompanied by steadying the heart rate to time the exhale and shot between heart beats, the shot not the breath. It allows the sniper to take a steadier shot so not to move the barrel and make a more precise shot

why do i wake up with glop in my eyes?

<p> it transpires that blinky, who is in charge of the man's eyes, has neglected his duty by staying in bed. the other two numskulls burst into his department and force him out of bed. grumbling, blinky opens the man's eyes with a hand-crank whilst brainy and luggy stow his bedding in cabinets under the eyes. in the last panel we see "our man" reflecting that he couldn't open his eyes this morning and now he has bags under them, caused by the bedding. <p> when the individual is awake, blinking of the eyelid causes rheum to be washed away with tears via the nasolacrimal duct. the absence of this action during sleep, however, results in a small amount of dry rheum accumulating in corners of the eye, most notably in children. <p> bacterial conjunctivitis causes the rapid onset of conjunctival redness, swelling of the eyelid, and a sticky discharge. typically, symptoms develop first in one eye, but may spread to the other eye within 2–5 days. conjunctivitis due to common pus-producing bacteria causes marked grittiness or irritation and a stringy, opaque, greyish or yellowish discharge that may cause the lids to stick together, especially after sleep. severe crusting of the infected eye and the surrounding skin may also occur. the gritty or scratchy feeling is sometimes localized enough that patients may insist that they have a foreign body in the eye. <p> "e. rufescens" has not been observed sleeping with closed eyes, but has been observed resting with eyes partially closed for a period of 1 – 2 minutes. during these rest periods, which occur in rest spot along the trails, "e. rufescens" keeps their feet under their body to allow for a quick escape. this species takes flight when even the smallest noise is heard. <p> next morning blinky and nutsy witness the woodcutters reducing the animals former homes into sawdust, narrowly escaping the circular buzz-saw. then they stay in hiding till night time, but as they try to escape, they alert the dogs. when blinky slingshoots the security light, harry's wife flo urges her husband to investigate. blinky manages to slip out of the place, but nutsy is trapped and makes a run for it, climbing into the bedroom of the family's daughter claire ann. <p> it takes sandy some time to determine that the "noozle" is the action that revives blinky from magic sleepytime. she does this several times without thinking about it, and gets frustrated over the fact that blinky falls asleep repeatedly (during which time his appearance is similar to that of an ordinary stuffed animal) and stubbornly refuses to awaken until she realizes what she must do to revive him. early in the series, sandy decides to introduce blinky and pinky to her grandmother, but decides to keep them a secret to everyone else. <p> yungoos are known for being voracious eaters with the majority of their elongated body devoted to their stomach—they are almost constantly hungry and become angry when not eating. once satiated, the pokémon will fall asleep standing. at level 20, yungoos are able to evolve into the larger gumshoos. gumshoos are considerably more patient than yungoos and will learn the patterns of their prey. at night they tend to sleep standing upright. the name "gumshoos" is derived from gumshoes, a slang term for a detective. both pokémon can have the abilities "strong jaw" or "stakeout". the former powers-up all biting moves, while the latter—a newly introduced ability unique to the two pokémon—doubles the power of their attacks if used on a pokémon that is just switched in.

Oddly enough, it's because your body temperature drops when you sleep. Your eyes need moisture to work correctly. But you don't want a constant stream of liquid running out of your eyes and down your face either. You would dehydrate pretty quickly if that was the case. So, to keep your eyes moist but not leak water everywhere your eyes are covered with a waxy coating. This coating also acts like a lubricant and you spread it around when you blink. So, that's part of the reason why you have to blink so often. Back to this waxy stuff. It works great at keeping your eyes moist. The thing is that it is really sensitive to temperature. At normal body temperature it is a fluid. But, drop the temperature of it just a little bit and it starts to solidify. While you are sleeping your body temperature drops a few degrees normally. It's not a huge change but it is enough to allow this waxy seal to start to turn into a solid. Neat, huh?

what is the difference between the us midterm elections and primaries?

<p> states vie for earlier primaries to claim greater influence in the nomination process, as the early primaries can act as a signal to the nation, showing which candidates are popular and giving those who perform well early on the advantage of the bandwagon effect. also, candidates can ignore primaries that fall after the nomination has already been secured, and would owe less to those states politically. as a result, rather than stretching from march to july, most primaries take place in a compressed time frame in february and march. national party leaders also have an interest in compressing the primary calendar, as it enables the party to reduce the chance of a bruising internecine battle and to preserve resources for the general campaign. <p> midterm elections in the united states are the general elections that are held near the midpoint of a president's four-year term of office. federal offices that are up for election during the midterms include all 435 seats in the united states house of representatives, and 33 or 34 of the 100 seats in the united states senate. <p> midterm elections are sometimes regarded as a referendum on the sitting president's and/or incumbent party's performance. the party of the incumbent president tends to lose ground during midterm elections: since wwii the president's party has lost an average 26 seats in the house, and an average four seats in the senate; moreover, in its entire history of direct public midterm elections, in only seven of those (under presidents woodrow wilson, franklin d. roosevelt, john f. kennedy, richard nixon, bill clinton, george w. bush and donald trump) has the president's party gained seats in the house or the senate and of those only two (1934 franklin roosevelt and 2002 george bush) have seen the president's party gain seats in both houses. <p> the staggered nature of the presidential primary season allows candidates to concentrate their resources in each area of the country one at a time instead of campaigning in every state simultaneously. in some of the less populous states, this allows campaigning to take place on a much more personal scale. however, the overall results of the primary season may not be representative of the u.s. electorate as a whole: voters in iowa, new hampshire and other less populous states which traditionally hold their primaries and caucuses in late-january/february usually have a major impact on the races, while voters in california and other large states which traditionally hold their primaries in june generally end up having no say because the races are usually over by then. as a result, more states vie for earlier primaries, known as "front-loading", to claim a greater influence in the process. the national parties have used penalties and awarded bonus delegates in efforts to stagger the system over broadly a 90-day window. where state legislatures set the primary or caucus date, sometimes the out-party in that state has endured penalties in the number of delegates it can send to the national convention. <p> midterm elections historically generate lower voter turnout than presidential elections. while the latter have had turnouts of about 50–60% over the past 60 years, only about 40% of those eligible to vote actually go to the polls in midterm elections. midterm elections usually see the president's party lose seats in congress, and also frequently see the president's intraparty opponents gain control of one or both houses of congress. <p> conversely, states that traditionally hold their primaries in june, like california (the most populous state overall) and new jersey (the most densely populated state), usually end up having no say in who the presidential candidate will be. as stated above, the races were usually over well before june. california and new jersey moved their primaries to february for the 2008 election, but in 2012 both states ended up moving them back to june. california lawmakers stated that consolidating their presidential and statewide primary election in june saves them about $100 million, and that it is not worth the cost when there is generally no competitive balance between the two political parties within california. <p> historically, the presidential primary season started slowly, ramping up several weeks after the iowa caucuses and the new hampshire primary. in the 2008 presidential primary season, with competition to increase the relevance of each state's selection process, 34 states (plus the district of columbia), have scheduled their primary or caucus process to be held in january and february, tripling the number of states voting this early than the count in the 2000 races.

Primary elections are to determine who appears on the general election tickets. "Midterm" elections is a term for the general elections that aren't a presidential election year, typically the one two years before/after presidential election where some US Senators and all Representatives are up for election, along with state/local elections.

the conservative argument that obama has worsened race-relations in the us. while president

<p> conservative "the new york times" columnist bill kristol rejected obama's call for a discussion of race in america, saying: "the last thing we need now is a heated national conversation about race. ... 'national conversations' tend to be pointless and result-less." in contrast, liberal columnist frank rich said that he shared "the general view that mr. obama's speech is the most remarkable utterance on the subject by a public figure in modern memory." <p> many cite the 2008 united states presidential election as a step forward in race relations: white americans played a role in electing barack obama, the country's first black president. in fact, obama received a greater percentage of the white vote (43%), than did the previous democratic candidate, john kerry (41%). racial divisions persisted throughout the election; wide margins of black voters gave obama an edge during the presidential primary, where 8 out of 10 african-americans voted for him in the primaries, and an msnbc poll found that race was a key factor in whether a candidate was perceived as being ready for office. in south carolina, for instance,"whites were far likelier to name clinton than obama as being most qualified to be commander in chief, likeliest to unite the country and most apt to capture the white house in november. blacks named obama over clinton by even stronger margins—two- and three-to one—in all three areas." <p> in his speeches as president, obama did not make more overt references to race relations than his predecessors, but according to one study, he implemented stronger policy action on behalf of african-americans than any president since the nixon era. <p> in the book wise argues that the election of barack obama did not signal the end of racism in america, writing that his political success could instead "deepen the denial in which so much of the white public has been embedded for generations." <p> obama described the resultant situation as "a racial stalemate we've been stuck in for years." he pointed out that his "imperfect" candidacy is not the solution to racial division, but argued that it is possible and important for americans of all races to work together to overcome it. to that end, he called for the african-american community to "[bind] our particular grievances—for better health care, and better schools, and better jobs—to the larger aspirations of all americans" and for the white community to acknowledge the "legacy of discrimination ... and current incidents of discrimination." obama insisted that progress on matters of race was both possible and actual: <p> a poll taken by the pew research center between march 19 and march 22 showed that, although 35 percent of likely voters said that their opinion of obama had grown less favorable because of the wright affair, it had not had a significant effect on the support for his candidacy; he maintained a 49 percent to 39 percent lead over hillary clinton among likely democratic voters. the survey showed that 51 percent of the public had heard "a lot" about wright's controversial sermons, and 54 percent heard "a lot" about obama's speech. of those who heard "a lot" about the speech, 51 percent felt that he had handled the situation well, as did 66 percent of democrats (84 percent of obama supporters and 43 percent of clinton supporters). <p> larry sabato of the university of virginia said that it "was a serious speech about the incendiary topic of race in america." sabato noted that a debate about race was "inevitable" in the campaign and that "from obama's perspective, it's much better to have this discussion now", rather than shortly before the november election (assuming he captured the democratic nomination).

I'm not a conservative pundit but if I hat to guess I'd say that that conclusion is being reached from the fact that race-related violence and controversy has been in the news frequently over the past few years or so. Ferguson, Baltimore, etcetera. This sort of thing seems to have occurred with much more frequency over the last few years, especially as compared to before 2008. I'm not supporting that idea (I happen to think its really bad logic) but that's how someone might reach that conclusion.

why does closing a door lessen the amount of sound that enters a room even though sound travels best through solids?

<p> a room can be said to have formants characteristic of that particular room, due to the way sound reflects from its walls and objects. room formants of this nature reinforce themselves by emphasizing specific frequencies and absorbing others, as exploited, for example, by alvin lucier in his piece "i am sitting in a room". <p> bullet::::1. airborne transmission - a noise source in one room sends air pressure waves which induce vibration to one side of a wall or element of structure setting it moving such that the other face of the wall vibrates in an adjacent room. structural isolation therefore becomes an important consideration in the acoustic design of buildings. highly sensitive areas of buildings, for example recording studios, may be almost entirely isolated from the rest of a structure by constructing the studios as effective boxes supported by springs. air tightness also becomes an important control technique. a tightly sealed door might have reasonable sound reduction properties, but if it is left open only a few millimeters its effectiveness is reduced to practically nothing. the most important acoustic control method is adding mass into the structure, such as a heavy dividing wall, which will usually reduce airborne sound transmission better than a light one. <p> the interaction between the loudspeakers and the room (room acoustics) plays an important part in sound quality. sound vibrations are reflected from walls, floor and ceiling, and are affected by the contents of the room. room dimensions can create standing waves at particular (usually low) frequencies. there are devices and materials for room treatment that affect sound quality. soft materials, such as draperies and carpets, can absorb higher frequencies, whereas hard walls and floors can cause excess reverberation. <p> the way the room sounds or reverberates can change dramatically the way music is mixed, written, and recorded. untreated rooms have an uneven frequency response, which means that any mixing decisions being made are being based on a sound that is ‘coloured,’ because sound mixers can not accurately hear what is being played. acoustic panels and bass traps can improve the sound in the room. <p> another element is that all the doors in the room are acoustically designed and double-layered (internal and external); on the parterre level the internal doors are made of perforated metal and filled with an insulator, while the external ones are made of wood, creating a vacuum between them that prevents both the exit of sound from the hall and excludes external noise. on the balcony level, the doors function in the same way, though both the internal and external doors are made of wood. there is also a folded wooden canopy positioned eight meters above the stage to further soften sound. <p> a stiff physical barrier tends to reflect higher sound frequencies, and so acts as an acoustic low-pass filter for transmitting sound. when music is playing in another room, the low notes are easily heard, while the high notes are attenuated. <p> when sound from a loudspeaker collides with the walls of a room part of the sound's energy is reflected, part is transmitted, and part is absorbed into the walls. just as the acoustic energy was transmitted through the air as pressure differentials (or deformations), the acoustic energy travels through the material which makes up the wall in the same manner. deformation causes mechanical losses via conversion of part of the sound energy into heat, resulting in acoustic attenuation, mostly due to the wall's viscosity. similar attenuation mechanisms apply for the air and any other medium through which sound travels.

Because sound will be lost when it goes from one medium to another(for example: from air to water). When you close a door, the sound has to make this ' medium shift ' twice: from the air to the door (solid), and from the door to the air.

why/how do some people pass out on amusement park rides and then wake up like it never happened?

<p> over the years, a number of incidents have occurred at the park, including some fatalities. has been the scene of two fatal incidents nearly identical in nature, where individuals were underneath the attraction while it was operational and were struck and killed by the train itself or by the riders' exposed legs. <p> bullet::::- there were several instances where visitors became unconscious on the ride, leading to the installation of warning cards for riders before entering the ride. the cards are similar to those on and warn riders about fear of heights, motion sickness, and the seating restraints. <p> on the evening of august 23, 1999, a 20-year-old man was thrown from the train's final turn at a speed of sustaining a fatal head injury upon contact with a steel walkway. shockwave and two similar rides at other paramount amusement parks were immediately closed. the event was originally reported as "an accident [that] resulted in the death of one park visitor," but further investigation proved otherwise. bolstered by numerous eyewitness accounts, the cause was later attributed to the victim's disregard of park safety rules as he was seen intentionally freeing himself from restraints. in addition, an inspection found the safety restraints to be working properly at the time of the accident. shockwave was reopened three days later on august 26, 1999. <p> on july 6, 2009, a guest complained of feeling faint after the ride. raptor was immediately shut down as the guest was transported to a local hospital. the ride remained closed for the remainder of the day, reopening the next afternoon after a thorough inspection was completed. the guest was later released from the hospital. <p> occasionally we get a glimpse of a person lying motionless, stage left. the ghost dancer goes over to the person, and it is revealed to be a man. the ghost reaches her hands down to him, and her body returns, and the pair look very happy. they start to dance gracefully, while the sad shabby dancer can only skip as if she has a limp. <p> "the sunday times" ran an article debunking an urban legend associated with the station, along with an article featuring an account by a passenger who claimed that, while riding on a train passing through the station one morning in the early 1990s, she was groped by several unseen hands before passing out. she was later revived by fellow passengers. there are also other alleged encounters of ghosts and other entities by several passengers in and around the station, such as headless figures, footsteps coming from the roof of the train, and phantom passengers who do not cast reflections on the train windows. <p> several people have been taken to local hospitals for chest pain and nausea after riding. most who complained of these symptoms were over 55 years old. two people have died after completing the ride, although due to pre-existing conditions — one, a 4-year-old boy, with an undiagnosed heart condition, and the other, a 49-year-old woman, from a stroke due to high blood pressure.

G-force moves a not insignificant amount of blood away from the brain. How much it moves and how long the g-forces are sustained determine the degree to which you experience symptoms ranging from blurred or otherwise severely impaired vision, to blackout or even GLOC (completely unconscious). And, for your morbid reading pleasure:

if i ate way too many calories in one day, let's say 2000 more than usual (yes this is after holiday party shame...) how much of that turns to fat? meaning, about how much of the extra calories turns to fat? is some excreted??

<p> calories expended, however, changed little. accordingly, cutler posits that the 20 min average reduced time of food preparation has resulted in an average increase of 100 cal per day per individual. the extra 100 cal can largely account for a weight gain of 10-12 lb in the american population over the past 20 years. <p> nutrition fell from 3,052 calories per day in 1989 to 2,099 calories per day in 1993. other reports indicate even lower figures, 1,863 calories per day. some estimated that the very old and children received only 1,450 calories per day. the recommended minimum is 2,100–2,300 calories <p> in addition to binge eating, compulsive overeaters may also engage in "grazing" behavior, during which they continuously eat throughout the day. these actions result in an excessive overall number of calories consumed, even if the quantities eaten at any one time may be small. <p> from 1971 – 2000, the average daily number of calories which women consumed in the united states increased by 335 calories per day (1542 calories in 1971 and 1877 calories in 2000). for men, the average increase was 168 calories per day (2450 calories in 1971 and 2618 calories in 2000). most of these extra calories came from an increase in carbohydrate consumption, though there was also an increase in fat consumption over the same time period. the increase in caloric consumption is attributed primarily to the "consumption of food away from home; increased energy consumption from salty snacks, soft drinks, and pizza; and increased portion sizes". other sources note that the consumption of soft drinks and other sweetened beverages now accounts for almost 25 percent of daily calories in young adults in america. as these estimates are based on a person's recall, they may underestimate the amount of calories actually consumed. <p> mcdonald's uk responded that the author intentionally consumed an average of 5,000 calories per day and did not exercise, and that the results would have been the same regardless of the source of overeating. <p> as told in the textbook "nutrition: concepts and controversies" by frances sienkiewicz sizer and ellie whitney, sedentary men have a recommended daily calorie intake of about 2400 kcal. for sedentary women the intake is about 2000 kcal. the average calorie intake during a meal is about 500 kilocalories leaving a range of 300-800 kilocalories for snacks between meals. overdoing this daily allowance can cause weight gain no matter whether the snack is healthy or unhealthy. <p> typically, an adult is given 250g per day. although this is a calorie deficit, it provides the recommended protein and basic vitamin requirements. because it is easily digestible, neutral tasting, and contains no dairy or meat products the food may be widely used, even for people with severe malnourishment.

The general rule of thumb is 3000 Cal's = 1 lbs. So as long as you go back to normal eating habits, not much if any.

computer architecture

<p> computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. it focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory. the field often involves disciplines of computer engineering and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance, and cost goals. <p> in computer engineering, "computer architecture" is a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. some definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer but not a particular implementation. in other definitions computer architecture involves instruction set architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design, and implementation. <p> in computer engineering, computer architecture is a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. some definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer but not a particular implementation. in other definitions computer architecture involves instruction set architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design, and implementation. <p> bullet::::- computer architecture – in computer science and engineering, computer architecture is the practical art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals and the formal modeling of those systems. <p> bullet::::- computer architecture – in computer engineering, computer architecture is a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. some definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer but not a particular implementation. in other definitions computer architecture involves instruction set architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design, and implementation. <p> computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems. this may involve the design of new hardware, the design of pdas, tablets, and supercomputers, or the use of computers to control an industrial plant. computer engineers may also work on a system's software. however, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline. desktop computers represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of devices including video game consoles and dvd players. <p> computer architecture is a specialized engineering activity that tries to arrange the registers, calculation logic, buses and other parts of the computer in the best way for some purpose. computer architects have applied large amounts of ingenuity to computer design to reduce the cost and increase the speed and immunity to programming errors of computers. an increasingly common goal is to reduce the power used in a battery-powered computer system, such as a cell-phone. many computer architects serve an extended apprenticeship as microprogrammers.

Programming-wise, you will probably cover some assembly language (unless that was covered extensively in a previous class) since you need to understand the machine code that a processor is actually executing. But most of the time you will probably spend studying what is in a processor, and how things are done/what some of the different design tradeoffs are. You'll look at the various blocks/functional units of the processor, like how instructions are fetched from memory, decoded, executed, and something is done with the result. You'll probably cover single-cycle execution (where one instruction executes completely on each clock cycle, easiest to understand) compared to pipelined architectures (where the processor is divided into pipeline stages so that, for example, the next instruction can be decoded while the current one is executing.) That leads into how you deal with dependencies between instructions (e.g. if one instruction uses the result from the previous, it can't start executing until the previous one finishes.) You'll probably talk about caches, how they are organized, and strategies for propagating data to and from cache levels and main memory. (And in a more advanced class, between processors.) And depending on how advanced the class is/how far you go, you might cover superscalar architectures (which have multiple functional units that can execute multiple instructions at once), and out-of-order execution (rearranging instructions to better schedule functional units, without changing the behavior of the program). Many modern computer architecture courses include "building" a processor of some sort, either writing code that simulates one or writing Hardware Description Language code (e.g. Verilog or VHDL) that actually implements one that can run on an FPGA or in an HDL simulator.

what is it about potatoes that cause them to retain the heat of four suns as opposed to the other ingredients in the soup?

<p> wrapping the potato in aluminium foil before cooking in a standard oven will help to retain moisture, while leaving it unwrapped will result in a crisp skin. when cooking over an open fire or in the coals of a barbecue, it may require wrapping in foil to prevent burning of the skin. a potato buried directly in coals of a fire cooks very nicely, with a mostly burned and inedible skin. a baked potato is fully cooked when its internal temperature reaches . <p> the resulting potatoes are creamy, as the starch in the potatoes cooks more completely due to the higher boiling temperature of the extra-salty water. the salty skin stands up particularly well to both herbed and plain melted butter. <p> once a potato has been baked, some people discard the skin and eat only the softer and moister interior, while others enjoy the taste and texture of the crisp skin, which is rich in dietary fiber. potatoes baked in their skins may lose between 20 and 40% of their vitamin c content because heating in air is slow and vitamin inactivation can continue for a long time. small potatoes bake more quickly than large ones and therefore retain more of their vitamin c. <p> other types of processing increase resistant starch content. if cooking includes excess water, the starch is gelatinized and becomes more digestible. however, if these starch gels are then cooled, they can form starch crystals resistant to digestive enzymes (type rs3 or retrograded resistant starch), such as those occurring in cooked and cooled cereals or potatoes (e.g., potato salad). cooling a boiled potato overnight increases the amount of resistant starch. <p> many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation than storage in cool dark conditions, for example by burial in the ground, such as in a storage clamp. century eggs are traditionally created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other alkaline substance), resulting in their "inorganic" fermentation through raised ph instead of spoiling. the fermentation preserves them and breaks down some of the complex, less flavorful proteins and fats into simpler, more flavorful ones. cabbage was traditionally buried during autumn in northern us farms for preservation. some methods keep it crispy while other methods produce sauerkraut. a similar process is used in the traditional production of kimchi. sometimes meat is buried under conditions that cause preservation. if buried on hot coals or ashes, the heat can kill pathogens, the dry ash can desiccate, and the earth can block oxygen and further contamination. if buried where the earth is very cold, the earth acts like a refrigerator. <p> though the stew was tolerable, most soldiers detested it. as one soldier put it, "warmed in the tin, maconochie was edible; cold, it was a man-killer." others complained about how the potatoes appeared to be black lumps. a reporter once described the stew as "an inferior grade of garbage". <p> it can be used in recipes for baking, boiling, mashing, roasting or in salads, and can be cooked in a microwave oven. it is not so suitable for frying. red potatoes may be cooked with the skin on, and should be scrubbed and rinsed before preparation.

That starchy sponge soaks up lots of water. Not only is it insulated, but water has a very high specific heat, so they take longer to cool down than most of your soup.

how do news satellites stay out of orbit?

<p> there are five major components in a satellite system: the programming source, the broadcast center, the satellite, the satellite dish, and the receiver. "direct broadcast" satellites used for transmission of satellite television signals are generally in geostationary orbit above the earth's equator. the reason for using this orbit is that the satellite circles the earth at the same rate as the earth rotates, so the satellite appears at a fixed point in the sky. thus satellite dishes can be aimed permanently at that point, and don't need a tracking system to turn to follow a moving satellite. a few satellite tv systems use satellites in a molniya orbit, a highly elliptical orbit with inclination of +/-63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve hours. <p> one of the most common techniques is to use a satellite dish to transmit the video feed on a microwave uplink signal to a communication satellite orbiting the earth, which then retransmits it back to a dish at the studio. satellite feed allows televising live events virtually anywhere on earth. the satellite is in a geostationary orbit about the earth and so appears at a stationary position in the sky, so the dish merely has to be pointed initially at the satellite when the truck reaches its remote location, and does not have to turn to "track" the satellite. satellite feed became common in the 1970s, when there were enough satellites in orbit that a consumer market for satellite use started in television. this open market for satellite space spawned a flurry in mobile satellite uplink trucks for hire, making possible the television viewing of live events all over the world. the first satellite trucks were allocated frequencies in the c band (5.700-6.500 ghz) which required large 2 meter dishes. in the 1980s frequencies in the k band (12 to 18 ghz). were authorized, which required only small dishes less than a meter in diameter, but these are not usable in rainy weather because of rain fade. today, the satellite dish and microwave transmitter may be on a satellite truck (uplink truck) separate from the production truck, but some production trucks (called "hybrids") also incorporate the satellite dish and transmitter. <p> the station used a broadcast system that allowed them to send images live over the cellular phone network, allowing them to go to places that traditional television network news journalists could not go with their satellite trucks. as well their images went out live, rather that delayed, and they offered an alternative perspective on the events. <p> on 5 february, the satellite was deployed from the international space station using the japanese experiment module (jem) small satellite orbital deployer, but an unknown malfunction caused it to be unable to transmit any data back to earth. the satellite reentered the atmosphere on 11 may 2015. <p> the satellites used for broadcasting television are usually in a geostationary orbit above the earth's equator. the advantage of this orbit is that the satellite's orbital period equals the rotation rate of the earth, so the satellite appears at a fixed position in the sky. thus the satellite dish antenna which receives the signal can be aimed permanently at the location of the satellite, and does not have to track a moving satellite. a few systems instead use a highly elliptical orbit with inclination of +/−63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve hours, known as a molniya orbit. <p> while satellites may be seen by chance, there are websites and mobile apps which provide location specific information as to when and where in the sky a satellite flare may be seen (for controlled satellites), or trajectory of a tumbling satellite's pass (for uncontrolled satellites) in the sky. <p> the satellites have camera systems for imaging the earth. amateur radio operators can receive data transmitted from the satellites. each country's receiving station can receive data from all three satellites with a store and forward (s&f) system.

They do indeed orbit. They are cleverly placed in an orbit that goes around at exactly the same speed as Earth's rotation, so their orbit stays over the same spot on the planet's surface.

knowing sleep paralysis is just a wonky out-of-sync body issue, why am i still scared after it's all over?

<p> sleep paralysis could lead the individual to acquire conditioned fear of the experience ("worry attacks"), resulting in more nighttime awakening and fragmented sleep (because of nocturnal arousal and hyper-alertness to symptoms of paralysis), making the person more likely to have sleep paralysis in the future. it is more frequent in students and psychiatric patients. <p> several circumstances have been identified that are associated with an increased risk of sleep paralysis. these include insomnia, sleep deprivation, an erratic sleep schedule, stress, and physical fatigue. it is also believed that there may be a genetic component in the development of risp, because there is a high concurrent incidence of sleep paralysis in monozygotic twins. sleeping in the supine position has been found an especially prominent instigator of sleep paralysis. <p> the events experienced during sleep paralysis are often unusual and terrifying, but are often dismissed as being a minor sleep disorder. others are convinced the event was so unusual and unpleasant that the explanation must be equally unusual and unpleasant; they search for such an explanation. <p> additionally, it is expected that new warnings related to sleep paralysis will also be added to the viibryd label and prescribing information. sleep paralysis is a condition in which a person is awake but cannot move or speak. generally, sleep paralysis occurs upon waking and lasts less than one minute. although sleep paralysis is a serious condition, and can cause psychological harm in the most severe cases, the condition is generally not life threatening. <p> episodes of sleep paralysis can occur in the context of several medical conditions (e.g., narcolepsy, hypokalemia). when episodes occur independent of these conditions or substance use, it is termed "isolated sleep paralysis" (isp). when isp episodes are more frequent and cause clinically significant distress and/or interference, it is classified as "recurrent isolated sleep paralysis"(risp). episodes of sleep paralysis, regardless of classification, are generally short (1–6 minutes), but longer episodes have been documented. with risp the individual can also suffer back-to-back episodes of sleep paralysis in the same night, which is unlikely in individuals who suffer from isp. <p> although the core features of sleep paralysis (e.g., atonia, a clear sensorium, and frequent hallucinations) appear to be universal, the ways in which they are experienced vary according to time, place, and culture. over 100 terms have been identified for these experiences. some scientists have proposed sleep paralysis as an explanation for reports of paranormal phenomena such as ghosts, alien visits, demons or demonic possession, alien abduction experiences, the night hag and shadow people haunting. <p> this could explain why the rem and waking stages of sleep overlap during sleep paralysis, and definitely explains the muscle paralysis experienced on awakening. if the effects of sleep on neural populations cannot be counteracted, characteristics of rem sleep are retained upon awakening. common consequences of sleep paralysis include headaches, muscle pains or weakness and/or paranoia. as the correlation with rem sleep suggests, the paralysis is not complete: use of eog traces shows that eye movement is still possible during such episodes; however, the individual experiencing sleep paralysis is unable to speak.

Having not experienced it myself, I don't think I can weigh in too well here... However, it's like just because I know the inner workings down to the chemical level of how a pistol works doesn't mean that I won't be jittery and scare for hours or days after a run-in in with a pistol toting 'bandit'. (the only word I could put there, dammit Borderlands)

how does the buying, selling, and timing of tv commercials work and not affect other show's time slots?

<p> because a single television advertisement can be broadcast repeatedly over the course of weeks, months, and even years (the tootsie roll company has been broadcasting a famous advertisement that asks "how many licks does it take to get to the tootsie center of a tootsie pop?" for over three decades), television advertisement production studios often spend very large sums of money in the production of a single thirty-second television spot. this significant expenditure has resulted in a number of high-quality advertisements with high production values, the latest in special effects technology, the most popular personalities, and the best music. a number of television advertisements are so elaborately produced that they can be considered miniature thirty-second movies; indeed, many film directors have directed television advertisements both as a way to gain exposure and to earn a paycheck. one of film director ridley scott's most famous cinematic moments was a television advertisement he directed for the apple macintosh computer, that was broadcast in 1984. although this advertisement was broadcast only once (aside from occasional appearances in television advertisement compilation specials and one 1 a.m. airing in idaho a month before the super bowl so that the advertisement could be submitted for the 1983 clio awards), it has become famous and well-known, to the point where it is considered a classic television moment. <p> in an hour of broadcast time on a commercial broadcasting station, 10 to 20 minutes are typically devoted to advertising. advertisers pay a certain amount of money to air their commercials, usually based upon program ratings or the audience measurement of a station or network. this makes commercial broadcasters more accountable to advertisers than public broadcasting, a disadvantage of commercial radio and television. <p> in order to reap the benefits of advertising in an era where television programs are no longer necessarily watched first-run on network television station, advertisers have innovated, using product placement in more popular television shows and producing their own branded entertainment, a form of media in which the content and advertising messages are inextricably linked. this differs from traditional advertising practices that only saw the broadcast of a number of 30-second adverts in chunks during pre-planned ad-breaks. <p> telemundo will air several seven packages of product placements instead of regular commercials. only one 30-second spot will appear during each episodes, either near the very beginning or end of the show. it will use three types of product insertion, each more expensive than the other: <p> tv advertising means conveying a message, typically to market a product or service. tv advertising allows you to show and tell a wide audience about your business, product, or service. it allows you to actually demonstrate the benefits of ownership. you can show how your product or service works and how it's packaged so prospective customers will know what to look for at the point of sale. television advertising advantages are tv reaches a much larger audience than local newspapers and radio stations, and it does so during a short period of time. it reaches viewers when they’re the most attentive. it allows you to convey your message with sight, sound, and motion, which can give your business, product, or service instant credibility. it gives you an opportunity to be creative and attach a personality to your business, which can be particularly effective for small businesses that rely on repeat customers. <p> commercials on tv are shot in its own studio. in the intervals between transmissions of them audience have the opportunity to buy clothes, shoes, accessories and furnishings from renowned designers and newcomers to the world of fashion. <p> in most cases, a production committee (a group of several related companies) buys a time slot from a tv station. this process is known as brokered programming, and is similar to how infomercials are broadcast. therefore, unlike ordinary programs, production companies are sponsoring companies as well. this way, tv stations can fill the time slots with low viewership, while production companies can advertise their products (anime dvds) at a lower cost. since a production’s purpose is to promote the title to fans, low ratings or a lack of sponsors is of little concern. consequently, the number of late night anime is increasing. the fact that they rely on the sales of dvds means that these anime are virtually the same as ovas, except that they get a chance to be promoted. this is why "pure" ova series have decreased rapidly.

I can respond to the breaks part of your question. The shows have a TRT or total run time, and segment times, mid-break, and end break. These times are put into a computer and adjusted within a few seconds with :03 of bumpers to make up the total. There's a formula that's been used for years that the breaks averaged 2:02... But today they are getting longer. Since it's all file based today, it 's timed down to 3 seconds over a 24 hour period.

why are cpu's so expensive?

<p> the prices of different pieces of graphics hardware vary due to the power and speed of the piece. most high end gaming pieces of hardware are dedicated graphics cards, and cost over $200, and can go as high as the price of a new computer, depending on the quality desired. in the graphics cards department, using integrated chips is much cheaper than buying a dedicated card, however the performance conforms to the price. <p> the vast majority of revenues generated from cpu sales is for general purpose computing, that is, desktop, laptop, and server computers commonly used in businesses and homes. in this market, the intel ia-32 and the 64-bit version x86-64 architecture dominate the market, with its rivals powerpc and sparc maintaining much smaller customer bases. yearly, hundreds of millions of ia-32 architecture cpus are used by this market. a growing percentage of these processors are for mobile implementations such as netbooks and laptops. <p> for mass-market personal computers, there may be no financial advantage to a manufacturer in providing more memory sockets, address lines, or other hardware than necessary to run mass-market software. when memory devices were relatively expensive compared with the processor, often the ram delivered with the system was much less than the address capacity of the hardware, because of cost. <p> the embedded cpu family with the largest number of total units shipped is the 8051, averaging nearly a billion units per year. the 8051 is widely used because it is very inexpensive. the design time is now roughly zero, because it is widely available as commercial intellectual property. it is now often embedded as a small part of a larger system on a chip. the silicon cost of an 8051 is now as low as us$0.001, because some implementations use as few as 2,200 logic gates and take 0.0127 square millimeters of silicon. <p> reduced prices in personal computers caused the masses to turn away from the more expensive workstations. advancements in technology have increased the speed of hardware processing and the capacity of memory units. software developers write new, more powerful programs for sequencing, recording, notating, and mastering music. <p> bullet::::- the hardware is cheaper on thin clients, since processing requirements on the client are minimal, and 3d acceleration and elaborate audio support are not usually provided. of course, a diskless node can also be purchased with a cheap cpu and minimal multimedia support, if suitable. thus, cost savings may be smaller than they first appear for some organizations. however, many large organizations habitually buy hardware with a higher than necessary specification to meet the needs of particular applications and uses, or to ensure future proofing "(see next point)". there are also less "rational" reasons for overspecifying hardware which quite often come into play: departments wastefully using up budgets in order to retain their current budget levels for next year; and uncertainty about the future, or lack of technical knowledge, or lack of care and attention, when choosing pc specifications. taking all these factors into account, thin clients may bring the most substantial savings, as only the servers are likely to be substantially "gold-plated" and/or "future-proofed" in the thin client model. <p> since these devices are used to run countless different types of programs, these cpu designs are not specifically targeted at one type of application or one function. the demands of being able to run a wide range of programs efficiently has made these cpu designs among the more advanced technically, along with some disadvantages of being relatively costly, and having high power consumption.

They are very hard to make. They are sandwiches of various metals and semiconductors formed into billions of microscopic structures which are sensitive to the faintest electrical impulses and impossibly complexly arranged so as to perform billions of mathematical operations in the blink of an eye, all in the space of a postage stamp. The fact that they can be made at all is one of the greatest technological achievements of mankind, and the fact that you can afford one to make your pooping time more entertaining is an absolute marvel. So yeah, they aren't cheap as dirt yet. Get over it.

in court, why do you need to place your hand on the bible for the oath. also, say a jewish person went to court. would they place it on their holy book? what about atheists?

<p> the clerk then calls each juror individually to either affirm or to take the oath, reading from a printed card whilst, if taking an oath, holding a holy book in his right hand (new testament for those christians who will swear an oath; old testament for jews; or qur'an for muslims). some christians (notably quakers, moravians and jehovah's witnesses) will not take an oath because they believe it is prohibited by matthew 5:33-37 and james 5:12. the right of quakers and moravians to affirm, rather than swear, when joining a jury was introduced under the quakers and moravians act 1833, and later extended to those who were formerly quakers or formerly moravians under the quakers and moravians act 1838. since then the right to affirm has been extended to anyone who chooses to do so, and no reason for choosing to affirm has to be given. the option to affirm is now commonly used by quakers, moravians, jehovah's witnesses, and some other christians as well as by atheists and agnostics. under the oaths act 1978, all affirmations are given in the format "i, do solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm..." <p> in a courtroom, jurors and witnesses are required to swear an oath before partaking in a trial. this involves the individual raising his or her right hand, often placing the other hand on an object of ceremonial importance, such as the bible, and vowing, as a juror, that he or she will give a “true” verdict based on the evidence or, as a witness, that he or she will tell the truth. up to the 13th century in northern europe, oaths were sworn “on the threshold”. when a bible was unavailable, the person taking the oath would place one hand on the doorframe or door ring. <p> historically, this accusation was leveled so often and so persistently that many non-jewish legislators considered it necessary to have a special form of oath administered to jews ("oath more judaico"), and many judges refused to allow them to take a supplementary oath, basing their objections chiefly on this prayer. as early as 1240 in the disputation of paris, yechiel of paris was obliged to defend "kol nidrei" against these charges. the russian government, in 1857, decreed that the prayerbooks must include, as an introduction to kol nidrei, a hebrew explanation to the readers of the limited nature of the vows that could be released by this ceremony. <p> section 1 provides that an oath may be administered by the person taking the oath holding the new testament, or, in the case of a jew, the old testament, in his uplifted hand, and saying or repeating after the officer administering the oath the words "i swear by almighty god that ...", followed by the words of the oath prescribed by law. in the case of a person who is neither a christian nor a jew, the oath shall be administered in any lawful manner. <p> rabbah explained that the torah in requires those who admit to a part of a claim against them to take an oath, because the law presumes that no debtor is so brazen in the face of a creditor as to deny the debt entirely. <p> north carolina's state law "allows witnesses preparing to testify in court to take their oath in three ways: by laying a hand over 'the holy scriptures', by saying 'so help me god' without the use of a religious book, or by an affirmation using no religious symbols". <p> the tosefta reported that jewish judicial proceedings adopted the oath that abraham imposed in and rav judah said that rav said that the judge adjures the witness with the oath stated in "and i will make you swear by the lord, the god of heaven." ravina explained that this accorded with the view of rabbi haninah bar idi, who said that jewish judicial proceedings require swearing by the name of god. rav ashi replied that one might even say that it accorded with the view of the rabbis, who said that a witness can be adjured with a substitute for the name of god. they concluded that the witness needs to hold something sacred in his hand, as abraham's servant did when in he put his hand under abraham's thigh and held abraham's circumcision. rava said that a judge who adjures by "the lord god of heaven" without having the witness hold a sacred object errs and has to repeat the swearing correctly. rav papa said that a judge who adjures with tefillin errs and has to repeat the swearing. the law follows rava, but not rav papa, as tefillin are considered sacred.

You don't, you are confusing it with sworn in for public offices (which you get to choose what book you use). In court you only have to say you swear to tell the truth.

how does rubbing ink off make it go away?

<p> the rubbings are created in uniform style using black wax and white fabric and great care is taken to clean the markers before rubbing and to avoid any damage during the rubbing process. the collection is ongoing and continually expanding. while many of the rubbings have been collected from markers in the united states, the project is participatory and rubbings are accepted from contributors from all over the world. <p> a piece of matte board, a plastic "card", or a wad of cloth is often used to push the ink into the incised lines. the surface is wiped clean with a piece of stiff fabric known as "tarlatan" and then wiped with newsprint paper; some printmakers prefer to use the blade part of their hand or palm at the base of their thumb. the wiping leaves ink in the incisions. you may also use a folded piece of organza silk to do the final wipe. if copper or zinc plates are used, then the plate surface is left very clean and therefore white in the print. if steel plate is used, then the plate's natural tooth gives the print a grey background similar to the effects of aquatinting. as a result, steel plates do not need aquatinting as gradual exposure of the plate via successive dips into acid will produce the same result. <p> a final washing of the print is performed after fixing. any veils that have developed are fragile, which makes the print difficult to wash without causing them to pull away from the paper. because of this difficulty, mordançage prints will often remain imbued with chemicals. the chemical saturation of the paper can lead to these prints contaminating work areas and other photographs. <p> to print an intaglio plate, ink is applied to the surface by wiping and/or dabbing the plate to push the ink into the recessed lines, or grooves. the plate is then rubbed with tarlatan cloth to remove most of the excess ink. the final smooth wipe is often done with newspaper or old public phone book pages, leaving ink only in the incisions. a damp piece of paper is placed on top of the plate, so that when going through the press the damp paper will be able to be squeezed into the plate's ink-filled grooves.the paper and plate are then covered by a thick blanket to ensure even pressure when going through the rolling press. the rolling press applies very high pressure through the blanket to push the paper into the grooves on the plate. the blanket is then lifted, revealing the paper and printed image. <p> stone rubbing is the practice of creating an image of surface features of a stone on paper. the image records features such as natural textures, inscribed patterns or lettering. by rubbing hard rendering materials over the paper, pigment is deposited over protrusions and on edges; depressions remain unpigmented since the pliable paper moves away from the rendering material. common rendering materials include charcoal, wax, graphite or inksticks. over time, the practice of stone rubbing can cause permanent damage to cultural monuments due to abrasion. for an artist, stone rubbings can become an entire body of creative work that is framed and displayed. <p> the ink also acts as a coolant to protect the metal-plate heating elements − when the ink supply is depleted, and printing is attempted, the heating elements in thermal cartridges often burn out, permanently damaging the print head. when the ink first begins to run low, the cartridge should be refilled or replaced, to avoid overheating damage to the print head. <p> surfactant leaching of acrylic (latex) paints, also known as streak staining, streaking, weeping, exudation, etc., occurs when the freshly painted surface becomes wet and water-soluble components of the paint (dispersants, surfactants, thickeners, glycols, etc.) leach out of the paint in sticky brown streaks. this may happen, e.g., due to rain or dew for exterior surfaces, or water vapor condensation on interior ones. on the external surfaces the streaks will normally weather off in several weeks, and removal of them before that time is impractical, especially because it may damage the paint before it is completely cured. the streaking phenomenon may also be observed for some silicone sealants.

You rubbed off a layer of dead skin containing the ink, that then clumps into a ball. Said ball is very tiny, because the layer of skin and ink are both very thin.

how can companies give away free products and still make money?

<p> not all offers that give the consumer something free with a particular purchase may be considered sales promotion. for example, a mobile phone deal that offers a free bluetooth headset may be considered as part of a package deal rather than a sales promotion. <p> examples of free goods are ideas and works that are reproducible at zero cost, or almost zero cost. for example, if someone invents a new device, many people could copy this invention, with no danger of this "resource" running out. other examples include computer programs and web pages. <p> pay what you can (pwyc) is a non-profit or for-profit business model which does not depend on set prices for its goods, but instead asks customers to pay what they feel the product or service is worth to them. it is often used as a promotional tactic, but can also be the regular method of doing business. it is a variation on the gift economy and cross-subsidization, in that it depends on reciprocity and trust to succeed. <p> humanitarian use licenses have the potential to enhance the supply of important consumer products. when cheap or cost free licenses are granted to companies in developing countries, it would be possible for them to produce copies of drugs or seeds to provide the population with. apart from missing royalty payments companies in developing countries will possibly be able to produce and distribute at a much lower price than companies in wealthier countries. <p> freemium, a portmanteau of the words "free" and "premium", is a pricing strategy by which a product or service (typically a digital offering or an application such as software, media, games or web services) is provided free of charge, but money (premium) is charged for additional features, services, or virtual (online) or physical (offline) goods. the business model has been in use by the software industry since the 1980s as a licensing scheme. a subset of this model used by the video game industry is called free-to-play. <p> "give-away shops", "freeshops" or "free stores" are stores where all goods are free. they are similar to charity shops, with mostly second-hand items—only everything is available at no cost. whether it is a book, a piece of furniture, a garment or a household item, it is all freely given away, although some operate a one-in, one-out–type policy (swap shops). the free store is a form of constructive direct action that provides a shopping alternative to a monetary framework, allowing people to exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy. the anarchist 1960s countercultural group the diggers opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art. the diggers took their name from the original english diggers led by gerrard winstanley and sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism. although free stores have not been uncommon in the united states since the 1960s, the freegan movement has inspired the establishment of more free stores. today the idea is kept alive by the new generations of social centres, anarchists and environmentalists who view the idea as an intriguing way to raise awareness about consumer culture and to promote the reuse of commodities. <p> give-away shops, freeshops, or free stores are stores where all goods are free. they are similar to charity shops, with mostly second-hand items—only everything is available at no cost. whether it is a book, a piece of furniture, a garment or a household item, it is all freely given away, although some operate a one-in, one-out type policy (swap shops). the free store is a form of constructive direct action that provides a shopping alternative to a monetary framework, allowing people to exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy.

Generally, people are risk ~~adverse~~ averse. If you need to make a purchase of something, you will generally go with something you know (or heard of) is decent versus something unknown. Free products help people "know" what is out there so in the future, they will purchase something they have tried and liked before over an unknown competing product. For example, Monster energy drinks. The company gives out free drinks to freshmen in college. The freshmen like the taste and how it allows them to stay up to study. Throughout their years in college, they buy more of them since its known and familiar. Maybe when they graduate and join a startup, they have the company stock Monster drinks in the company fridge. A few free samples turns a person into a lifelong customer. EDIT: English hard.

how can companies give away free products and still make money?

<p> not all offers that give the consumer something free with a particular purchase may be considered sales promotion. for example, a mobile phone deal that offers a free bluetooth headset may be considered as part of a package deal rather than a sales promotion. <p> examples of free goods are ideas and works that are reproducible at zero cost, or almost zero cost. for example, if someone invents a new device, many people could copy this invention, with no danger of this "resource" running out. other examples include computer programs and web pages. <p> pay what you can (pwyc) is a non-profit or for-profit business model which does not depend on set prices for its goods, but instead asks customers to pay what they feel the product or service is worth to them. it is often used as a promotional tactic, but can also be the regular method of doing business. it is a variation on the gift economy and cross-subsidization, in that it depends on reciprocity and trust to succeed. <p> humanitarian use licenses have the potential to enhance the supply of important consumer products. when cheap or cost free licenses are granted to companies in developing countries, it would be possible for them to produce copies of drugs or seeds to provide the population with. apart from missing royalty payments companies in developing countries will possibly be able to produce and distribute at a much lower price than companies in wealthier countries. <p> freemium, a portmanteau of the words "free" and "premium", is a pricing strategy by which a product or service (typically a digital offering or an application such as software, media, games or web services) is provided free of charge, but money (premium) is charged for additional features, services, or virtual (online) or physical (offline) goods. the business model has been in use by the software industry since the 1980s as a licensing scheme. a subset of this model used by the video game industry is called free-to-play. <p> "give-away shops", "freeshops" or "free stores" are stores where all goods are free. they are similar to charity shops, with mostly second-hand items—only everything is available at no cost. whether it is a book, a piece of furniture, a garment or a household item, it is all freely given away, although some operate a one-in, one-out–type policy (swap shops). the free store is a form of constructive direct action that provides a shopping alternative to a monetary framework, allowing people to exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy. the anarchist 1960s countercultural group the diggers opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art. the diggers took their name from the original english diggers led by gerrard winstanley and sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism. although free stores have not been uncommon in the united states since the 1960s, the freegan movement has inspired the establishment of more free stores. today the idea is kept alive by the new generations of social centres, anarchists and environmentalists who view the idea as an intriguing way to raise awareness about consumer culture and to promote the reuse of commodities. <p> give-away shops, freeshops, or free stores are stores where all goods are free. they are similar to charity shops, with mostly second-hand items—only everything is available at no cost. whether it is a book, a piece of furniture, a garment or a household item, it is all freely given away, although some operate a one-in, one-out type policy (swap shops). the free store is a form of constructive direct action that provides a shopping alternative to a monetary framework, allowing people to exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy.

It's a marketing expense... a company needs to spend $X on acquiring each customer. That could be by running TV ads, could be direct mail, could be coupons in the newspaper, could be banner ads, could be samples of their product. A company like Proctor & Gamble has many products that, once people begin to use them, they remain loyal. Things like laundry detergent, soap, deodorant, packaged food, etc. They can run a ton of TV commercials claiming that "NEW Tide with Nuclear Power Cleaning Action" is the best thing ever, spending millions in the process, and hope you'll spend $20 on a jug next time you're at Wal-Mart or Target. Or they can spend $1 to send you a sample and have you see for yourself and do the same for a million more people... similar cost, different tactic, probably better results. And then you'll definitely grab that $20 jug of that detergent at the store and every other time you need more laundry detergant.

how can companies give away free products and still make money?

<p> not all offers that give the consumer something free with a particular purchase may be considered sales promotion. for example, a mobile phone deal that offers a free bluetooth headset may be considered as part of a package deal rather than a sales promotion. <p> examples of free goods are ideas and works that are reproducible at zero cost, or almost zero cost. for example, if someone invents a new device, many people could copy this invention, with no danger of this "resource" running out. other examples include computer programs and web pages. <p> pay what you can (pwyc) is a non-profit or for-profit business model which does not depend on set prices for its goods, but instead asks customers to pay what they feel the product or service is worth to them. it is often used as a promotional tactic, but can also be the regular method of doing business. it is a variation on the gift economy and cross-subsidization, in that it depends on reciprocity and trust to succeed. <p> humanitarian use licenses have the potential to enhance the supply of important consumer products. when cheap or cost free licenses are granted to companies in developing countries, it would be possible for them to produce copies of drugs or seeds to provide the population with. apart from missing royalty payments companies in developing countries will possibly be able to produce and distribute at a much lower price than companies in wealthier countries. <p> freemium, a portmanteau of the words "free" and "premium", is a pricing strategy by which a product or service (typically a digital offering or an application such as software, media, games or web services) is provided free of charge, but money (premium) is charged for additional features, services, or virtual (online) or physical (offline) goods. the business model has been in use by the software industry since the 1980s as a licensing scheme. a subset of this model used by the video game industry is called free-to-play. <p> "give-away shops", "freeshops" or "free stores" are stores where all goods are free. they are similar to charity shops, with mostly second-hand items—only everything is available at no cost. whether it is a book, a piece of furniture, a garment or a household item, it is all freely given away, although some operate a one-in, one-out–type policy (swap shops). the free store is a form of constructive direct action that provides a shopping alternative to a monetary framework, allowing people to exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy. the anarchist 1960s countercultural group the diggers opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art. the diggers took their name from the original english diggers led by gerrard winstanley and sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism. although free stores have not been uncommon in the united states since the 1960s, the freegan movement has inspired the establishment of more free stores. today the idea is kept alive by the new generations of social centres, anarchists and environmentalists who view the idea as an intriguing way to raise awareness about consumer culture and to promote the reuse of commodities. <p> give-away shops, freeshops, or free stores are stores where all goods are free. they are similar to charity shops, with mostly second-hand items—only everything is available at no cost. whether it is a book, a piece of furniture, a garment or a household item, it is all freely given away, although some operate a one-in, one-out type policy (swap shops). the free store is a form of constructive direct action that provides a shopping alternative to a monetary framework, allowing people to exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy.

The actual cost of *producing* those products is only a fraction of the cost the average consumer will usually end up paying for them. Meanwhile, marketing is actually a huge expense for businesses. i.e. Let's say a vibrator costs $10 to make. The company usually sells for $20. You get one for free - to you, it's a savings of $20, but to the company, it's a loss of only $10. It's risky, but people are creatures of habit. When this vibrator breaks or no longer satisfies you, you'll likely go back to that particular company. Assuming every vibrator costs $20, then just buying one will recoup costs for the company (since you've paid $20, and the company has given you two vibrators that cost them $10 each to make). Then, any *more* you buy will be more profitable for them. Especially since word of mouth from your friends is often one of the biggest influences on a consumer. You happen to brag about how awesome that vibrator is to your friend, and when their boyfriend dumps them and they need something to get them through the day, they'll go the company you were bragging about. And then they'll form a habit or positive association with this company, so when their vibrator gets stolen by that creepy one-night stand and they need a new one, they'll also go back to this same company. So in this hypothetical, the company gives away one free vibrator, which only costs them $10, and in return guarantee four more vibrators bought, each of which brings the company a $10 net profit (-$10 cost of production + $20 sale of vibrator = $10 profit). So that's $40 in profit off of the vibrators directly resulting from this one freebie. Subtract the cost of the freebie, and they just $30 profit. **tl;dr - Company gives you a $10 vibrator for free because they'll get a $30 net profit from it.**

how can companies give away free products and still make money?

<p> not all offers that give the consumer something free with a particular purchase may be considered sales promotion. for example, a mobile phone deal that offers a free bluetooth headset may be considered as part of a package deal rather than a sales promotion. <p> examples of free goods are ideas and works that are reproducible at zero cost, or almost zero cost. for example, if someone invents a new device, many people could copy this invention, with no danger of this "resource" running out. other examples include computer programs and web pages. <p> pay what you can (pwyc) is a non-profit or for-profit business model which does not depend on set prices for its goods, but instead asks customers to pay what they feel the product or service is worth to them. it is often used as a promotional tactic, but can also be the regular method of doing business. it is a variation on the gift economy and cross-subsidization, in that it depends on reciprocity and trust to succeed. <p> humanitarian use licenses have the potential to enhance the supply of important consumer products. when cheap or cost free licenses are granted to companies in developing countries, it would be possible for them to produce copies of drugs or seeds to provide the population with. apart from missing royalty payments companies in developing countries will possibly be able to produce and distribute at a much lower price than companies in wealthier countries. <p> freemium, a portmanteau of the words "free" and "premium", is a pricing strategy by which a product or service (typically a digital offering or an application such as software, media, games or web services) is provided free of charge, but money (premium) is charged for additional features, services, or virtual (online) or physical (offline) goods. the business model has been in use by the software industry since the 1980s as a licensing scheme. a subset of this model used by the video game industry is called free-to-play. <p> "give-away shops", "freeshops" or "free stores" are stores where all goods are free. they are similar to charity shops, with mostly second-hand items—only everything is available at no cost. whether it is a book, a piece of furniture, a garment or a household item, it is all freely given away, although some operate a one-in, one-out–type policy (swap shops). the free store is a form of constructive direct action that provides a shopping alternative to a monetary framework, allowing people to exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy. the anarchist 1960s countercultural group the diggers opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art. the diggers took their name from the original english diggers led by gerrard winstanley and sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism. although free stores have not been uncommon in the united states since the 1960s, the freegan movement has inspired the establishment of more free stores. today the idea is kept alive by the new generations of social centres, anarchists and environmentalists who view the idea as an intriguing way to raise awareness about consumer culture and to promote the reuse of commodities. <p> give-away shops, freeshops, or free stores are stores where all goods are free. they are similar to charity shops, with mostly second-hand items—only everything is available at no cost. whether it is a book, a piece of furniture, a garment or a household item, it is all freely given away, although some operate a one-in, one-out type policy (swap shops). the free store is a form of constructive direct action that provides a shopping alternative to a monetary framework, allowing people to exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy.

I read an article years ago (on slashdot, I think) about Adobe. They knew college kids were pirating photoshop, but did nothing about it. The idea was turn turn them into photoshop users first. I pirated photoshop in college, but in my career I've bought around 25 copies of Adobe software.

why don't we have fully electronic medical records yet?

<p> the usage of electronic medical records can vary depending on who the user is and how they are using it. electronic medical records can help improve the quality of medical care given to patients. many doctors and office-based physicians refuse to get rid of the traditional paper records. harvard university has conducted an experiment in which they tested how doctors and nurses use electronic medical records to keep their patients' information up to date. the studies found that electronic medical records were very useful; a doctor or a nurse was able to find a patient's information fast and easy just by typing their name; even if it was misspelled. the usage of electronic medical records increases in some work places due to the ease of use of the system; whereas the president of the canadian family practice nurses association says that using electronic medical records can be time consuming, and it isn't very helpful due to the complexity of the system. beth israel deaconess medical center reported that doctors and nurses prefer to use a much more friendly user software due to the difficulty and time it takes for a medical staff to input the information as well as to find a patients information. a study was done and the amount of information that was recorded in the emrs was recorded; about 44% of the patients information was recorded in the emrs. this shows that emrs are not very efficient most of the time. <p> moreover, some do not feel their medical records are safe in the database since others are able to get into personal files and potentially change medical records or misuse the information. a group of researchers conducted a study on the privacy issues raised by the use of emrs. they concluded that all electronic systems around us have this one-to-many exchange such as the internet and email just like the emr system. however, more clarity needs to be provided around patient consent and patient restrictions as well as confidentiality issues. with the issue of privacy at hand, many ethical questions have surfaced on whether this electronic system is safe or a hazard to patients due to the easy access and misuse of a patient's information. <p> since technology continues to revolutionize, medical records have become accessible as electronic health records. this allows information to be shared more easily but appears to create a challenge for stigma management and disclosing information during medical appointments. <p> the increased transparency, portability and accessibility acquired by the adoption of electronic medical records may increase the ease with which they can be accessed by healthcare professionals, but also can increase the amount of stolen information by unauthorized persons or unscrupulous users versus paper medical records, as acknowledged by the increased security requirements for electronic medical records included in the health information and accessibility act and by large-scale breaches in confidential records reported by emr users. concerns about security contribute to the resistance shown to their adoption. <p> because many consider the information in medical records to be sensitive private information covered by expectations of privacy, many ethical and legal issues are implicated in their maintenance, such as third-party access and appropriate storage and disposal. although the storage equipment for medical records generally is the property of the health care provider, the actual record is considered in most jurisdictions to be the property of the patient, who may obtain copies upon request. <p> although electronic medical records improve efficiency, quality, cost-effectiveness and safety of primary care and are increasingly being adopted by physicians in canada, canada still lags behind other developed countries in their use. increased adoption could be facilitated by additional financial and human resources and improved interoperability among information technologies used by physicians, hospitals and pharmacies. <p> the advent of electronic medical records has not only changed the format of medical records but has increased accessibility of files. the use of an individual dossier style medical record, where records are kept on each patient by name and illness type originated at the mayo clinic out of a desire to simplify patient tracking and to allow for medical research.

Electronic medical records technologies do exist, and the government has mandated that they be put in effect by 2015 (It may be 2017. My mind is a bit fuzzy. I need more coffee!) by any medical facility who wishes to take part in Medicare and Medicaid programs or to get other government funding. Many major hospitals have already began using EMR technologies, and its use should continue to grow rapidly from here on out. In fact, the government is pushing for the technology to allow patients to have online access to their own records 24/7. EMR is facing a lot of resistance because people are concerned about the financial, security, and privacy risks involved. A lot of that criticism is valid, but to me, it seems like people are afraid of change. Kind of like each time Facebook changes its UI. Then again, Timeline is pretty terrible, so maybe, we should be worried about EMR. Anyhow, your dream will be realized within the next 2-4 years.

how does eye black work?

<p> bullet::::- eye liner is used to enhance and elongate the apparent size or depth of the eye. for example, white eyeliner on the waterline and inner corners of the eye makes the eyes look bigger and more awake. it can come in the form of a pencil, a gel, or a liquid and can be found in almost any color. conversely, black eyeliner makes eyes look smaller, brightens up the face and draws attention to the eyes. <p> on an episode of "mythbusters", adam savage and jamie hyneman tested whether eye black reduces glare. they determined that, while eye black does not eliminate glare, it does improve an athlete's ability to differentiate between light and dark, enhancing a player's ability to track moving objects in a sunny environment. <p> a black eye is bruising around the eye commonly due to an injury to the face rather than to the eye. the name is given due to the color of bruising. the so-called black eye is caused by bleeding beneath the skin and around the eye. sometimes a black eye can worsen if not referred to a doctor if not resolved after a few months, indicating a more extensive injury - potentially even a skull fracture, particularly if the area around both eyes has bruised (raccoon eyes), or if there has been a prior head injury. <p> an eye is essentially a darkened chamber with a small hole in front that allows light to enter. the lens, just behind the pupil’s aperture, is perfectly clear but appears black because the interior space behind it is dark. rays of light pass through the lens, producing an upside-down image on the retina. the brain reorients the image. this optical process of projecting an inverted image is known as a camera obscura (from the latin, meaning dark room). the first pinhole/camera obscura eyes evolved about 540 million years ago on a sea mollusk, known as a nautilus, during the cambrian period. the camera obscura principle is primordial, and life on earth has evolved to take advantage of it. <p> an "eye" is an empty point or group of points surrounded by one player's stones. if the eye is surrounded by black stones, white cannot play there unless such a play would take black's last liberty and capture the black stones. (such a move is forbidden according to the "suicide rule" in most rule sets, but even if not forbidden, such a move would be a useless suicide of a white stone.) <p> in the visible spectrum, black is the absorption of all colors. black can be defined as the visual impression experienced when no visible light reaches the eye. pigments or dyes that absorb light rather than reflect it back to the eye "look black". a black pigment can, however, result from a "combination" of several pigments that collectively absorb all colors. if appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called "black". this provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black. black is the absorption of all colors of light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment. <p> black eye is a 1974 action film and blaxploitation film produced by pat rooney, directed by jack arnold and starring fred williamson. the film was based on the novel "murder on the wild side" (published in 1971) by jeff jacks.

Less light reflects off of black than lighter shades like skin tone. Combined with our tendency to sweat (and make our cheeks even more reflective), an unpainted cheek can push a lot of unwanted sunlight into your eye. Matte black strip fixes a lot of that.

- why is astronaut food so strange? it has no flavor whatsoever, and doesn't even taste like food.

<p> one effect of weightlessness on humans is that some astronauts report a change in their sense of taste when in space. some astronauts find that their food is bland, others find that their favorite foods no longer taste as good (one who enjoyed coffee disliked the taste so much on a mission that he stopped drinking it after returning to earth); some astronauts enjoy eating certain foods that they would not normally eat, and some experience no change whatsoever. multiple tests have not identified the cause, and several theories have been suggested, including food degradation, and psychological changes such as boredom. astronauts often choose strong-tasting food to combat the loss of taste. <p> today, fruits and vegetables that can be safely stored at room temperature are eaten on space flights. astronauts also have a greater variety of main courses to choose from, and many request personalized menus from lists of available foods including items like fruit salad and spaghetti. astronauts sometimes request beef jerky for flights, as it is lightweight, calorie dense, and can be consumed in orbit without packaging or other changes; this is an option preferred by the canadian space agency, as well as some other countries. <p> in august 2006, lagasse contributed several recipes to the meal selection aboard the international space station, as part of a general nasa effort to improve the quality of the food supply for astronauts. lagasse's cuisine in particular was selected in the hopes that the spicier fare would offset the reported tendency of microgravity to deaden flavors. <p> bullet::::- taste - the sense of taste is directly affected by the sense of smell and therefore when the sense of smell is damaged, the sense of taste is also damaged. the astronauts' food is bland, and there are only certain foods that can be eaten. the food comes only once every few months when supplies arrive, and there is little to no variety. <p> after astronaut requests, nasa bought paul masson some cream sherry for one skylab mission and packaged some for testing on a reduced gravity aircraft. in microgravity smells quickly permeate the environment and the agency found that the sherry triggered the gag reflex. concern over public reaction to taking alcohol into space led nasa to abandon its plans, so astronauts drank the purchased supply while consuming their pre-mission special diet. <p> astronauts were uninterested in watching movies on a proposed entertainment center or in playing games, but they did want books and individual music choices. food was also important; early apollo crews complained about its quality, and a nasa volunteer found it intolerable to live on the apollo food for four days on earth. its taste and composition were unpleasant, in the form of cubes and squeeze tubes. skylab food significantly improved on its predecessors by prioritizing edibility over scientific needs. <p> apollo promised the best food ever eaten in space. for the first time, astronauts had both hot and cold water to prepare meals with (the food came in freeze-dried vacuum packs that would be injected with water or else eaten dry followed by a sip of water) and wally schirra, who had had only toothpaste-like tubes for food on his mercury flight, described the food as "still does not match home cooking, but it comes a lot closer than space food used to." thirty-three meals were provided for the three crewmen, allowing them three meals a day for each of the 11 days in space. even so, the astronauts complained that there was more food than they could eat and that most of it was too sweet, although the menus had been prepared based on their personal preferences.

Astronaut food you get in science museums is just novelty dehydrated or freeze-dried food. It's generally not the same quality as what real astronauts eat, and some of the flavor and texture is lost when the food is freeze dried. Some of the original astronaut food was focused on just satisfying nutritional needs, flavor wasn't as important. Today, what astronauts eat has a lot more flavors, but still nothing like what normal people eat. Sending food to space has different priorities, such as being light weight, able to be eaten in space with out causing crumbs or dust, and has to fit space shuttle or space station cooking equipment.

law of independent assortment and law of segregation

<p> in u.s. law, particularly after "brown v. board of education" (1954), the difference between de facto segregation (segregation that existed because of the voluntary associations and neighborhoods) and de jure segregation (segregation that existed because of local laws that mandated the segregation) became important distinctions for court-mandated remedial purposes. <p> after the redeemers took control in the mid-1870s, jim crow laws were created to legally enforce racial segregation in public facilities and services. the phrase "separate but equal", upheld in the 1896 supreme court case "plessy v. ferguson", came to represent the notion that whites and blacks should have access to physically separate but ostensibly equal facilities. it would not be until 1954 that "plessy" was overturned in "brown v. board of education", and only in the late 1960s was segregation fully repealed by legislation passed following the civil rights movement. <p> racial segregation follows two forms. "de jure" segregation mandated the separation of races by law, and was the form imposed by slave codes before the civil war and by black codes and jim crow laws following the war. "de jure" segregation was outlawed by the civil rights act of 1964, the voting rights act of 1965, and the fair housing act of 1968. in specific areas, however, segregation was barred earlier by the supreme court in decisions such as the "brown v. board of education" decision that overturned school segregation in the united states. "de facto" segregation, or segregation "in fact", is that which exists without sanction of the law. "de facto" segregation continues today in areas such as residential segregation and school segregation because of both contemporary behavior and the historical legacy of "de jure" segregation. <p> racial segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist "de facto" through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by thomas schelling's models of segregation and subsequent work. segregation may be maintained by means ranging from discrimination in hiring and in the rental and sale of housing to certain races to vigilante violence (such as lynchings). generally, a situation that arises when members of different races mutually prefer to associate and do business with members of their own race would usually be described as "separation" or "de facto separation" of the races rather than "segregation". in the united states, segregation was mandated by law in some states and came with anti-miscegenation laws (prohibitions against interracial marriage). segregation, however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical situations, such as allowing a person of one race to work as a servant for a member of another race. segregation can involve spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races. <p> in 1896, the united states supreme court decision "plessy v. ferguson" upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal". this decision led to the proliferation of jim crow laws throughout the united states. these laws mandated or explicitly allowed segregation in virtually all spheres of public life and allowed racial discrimination to flourish across the country, especially in the southern united states. <p> bullet::::- "plessy v. ferguson" (1896): in a 7–1 decision written by justice brown, the court declared that racial segregation does not violate the equal protection clause so long as the "separate but equal" doctrine is followed. the decision allowed the continued existence of jim crow laws. "plessy" was overruled by "brown v. board of education" in 1954, and the civil rights act of 1964 outlawed racial discrimination by the government. <p> in 1954, the warren court overturned a landmark fuller court ruling on the fourteenth amendment interpreting racial segregation as permissible in government and commerce providing "separate but equal" services. warren built a coalition of justices after 1962 that developed the idea of natural rights as guaranteed in the constitution. "brown v. board of education" banned segregation in public schools. "baker v. carr" and "reynolds v. sims" established court ordered "one-man-one-vote". bill of rights amendments were incorporated into the states. due process was expanded in "gideon v. wainwright" and "miranda v. arizona." first amendment rights were addressed in "griswold v. connecticut" concerning privacy, and "engel v. vitale" relative to free speech.

To sexually reproduce, (how most complex life has children), you need to mix half of your DNA (the instructions for how to make you) with half of your partners. Your body does this by making cells that only have half of your DNA in them (unlike every other cell that has all of it). Your partner does this too, and when you sexually reproduce, this combines the two into one cell with a whole set of DNA. Mendels laws come into play when we talk about *how* the DNA decides what traits (like your eye colour, how your ear lobes look etc.) are passed on. The traits are governed by pairs of genes (places on the list of DNA that says what the body needs to make to cause a certain trait). It takes two genes to decide whether or not, or how a trait is expressed. These two genes are called alleles, they govern the same trait (eg. hair colour), but they can lay out instructions for it differently (blonde, brown etc). **NB**: Mendel's laws (the guy who discovered them by spending his life growing and monitoring pea plants) only apply at the *time the gametes are being formed*. The Law of Segregation says that when a gamete is being made, a chromosome pair (the chromosomes are each half-lists of DNA instructions in your cells) has to split. This means that one chromosome's *allele* for a certain trait has to be segregated from the other. The law of independent assortment is the very similar, but it is used when more than one allele pair is being looked at. The law says that when allele pairs split (when the chromosome pairs separate), they separate without paying attention to how the other pairs are separating. It doesn't matter to pair 1 how pair 2 separates. This also means that when the gametes from either partner are joined up again, all of the traits are passed on independently, in other words, your hair colour doesn't depend on how your ears look, because the two are goverend by different alleles. The Law of Independent Assortment doesn't apply when the two different allele pairs lie on the same chromosome however, because if you separate the lists, the two alleles are being separated together.

why do electronics usually require 2 batteries instead of just one bigger battery? ie: 2 aaa instead of 1 aa.

<p> aaa batteries are most often used in small electronic devices, such as tv remote controls, mp3 players and digital cameras. devices that require the same voltage, but have a higher current draw, are often designed to use larger batteries such as the aa battery type. aa batteries have about three times the capacity of aaa batteries. with the increasing efficiency and miniaturization of modern electronics, many devices that previously were designed for aa batteries (remote controls, cordless computer mice and keyboards, etc.) are being replaced by models that accept aaa battery cells. <p> an aaa or triple-a battery is a standard size of dry cell battery commonly used in low-drain portable electronic devices. a zinc–carbon battery in this size is designated by iec as "r03", by ansi c18.1 as "24", by old jis standard as "um 4", and by other manufacturer and national standard designations that vary depending on the cell chemistry. <p> aa batteries are common in portable electronic devices. an aa battery is composed of a single electrochemical cell that may be either a primary battery (disposable) or a rechargeable battery. several different chemistries are used for their construction. the exact terminal voltage, capacity and practical discharge rates depend on cell chemistry; however, devices designed for aa cells will usually only take 1.2-1.5 v unless specified by the manufacturer. <p> alkaline batteries are made in the same button sizes as the other types, but typically provide less capacity and less stable voltage than more costly silver oxide or lithium cells. they are often sold as watch batteries, and bought by people who do not know the difference. <p> while the original devices used diodes to charge the two batteries, while keeping them separate from each other, most devices now use other configurations in order to avoid the 0.7v drop which reduces efficiency and increases power dissipation. however the name still remains. <p> this battery size is most often used in small devices such as laser pointers, led penlights, powered computer styluses, glucose meters, and small headphone amplifiers. these batteries are not as popular as aaa or aa type batteries, and consequently are not as commonly available. <p> a triple-a battery is a single cell and measures in diameter and in length, including the positive terminal button, which is a minimum . the positive terminal has a maximum diameter of ; the flat negative terminal has a minimum diameter of . alkaline aaa batteries weigh around , while primary lithium aaa batteries weigh about . rechargeable nickel–metal hydride (nimh) aaa batteries typically weigh .

It's to do with the voltages at play. The common battery sizes -- AAA, AA, C, and D -- are all 1.5V. If you connect two batteries in series, you increase the voltage. So, 2 AAA batteries have a total voltage of 3V, compared to a single AA battery with a voltage of 1.5V.

what exactly can be done to punish a corporation that breaks the law and doesn't pay a fine?

<p> bullet::::- justifies more severe penalties because it is necessary to overcome the higher burden of proof to establish criminal liability. but the high burden means that it is more difficult to secure a judgment than in the civil courts, and many corporations are cash-rich and so can pay apparently immense fines without difficulty. further, if the corporation knows that the fine is going to be severe, it may seek bankruptcy protection before sentencing. <p> the imposition of criminal liability is only one means of regulating corporations. there are also civil law remedies such as injunction and the award of damages which may include a penal element. generally, criminal sanctions include imprisonment, fines and community service orders. a company has no physical existence, so it can only act vicariously through the agency of the human beings it employs. while it is relatively uncontroversial that human beings may commit crimes for which punishment is a just desert, the extent to which the corporation should incur liability is less clear. obviously, a company cannot be sent to jail, and if a fine is to be paid, this diminishes both the money available to pay the wages and salaries of all the remaining employees, and the profits available to pay all the existing shareholders. thus, the effect of the only available punishment is deflected from the wrongdoer personally and distributed among all the innocent parties who supply the labour and the capital that keep the corporation solvent. <p> further, a corporation may simply be a "veil" for an individual's activities, easily liquidated and with no reputation to protect. again it is argued, company fines ultimately punish shareholders, customers and employees in general, rather than culpable managers. <p> in most cases, penalties against corporate entities involve a mandatory compliance component requiring the entity to spend funds on compliance measures, including the appointment of "internal special compliance officers". penalties may also require the party to submit to external audit. in serious cases, a party may be debarred from future exporting for a period of time. <p> breach of the regulations by an employer or employee is a crime, punishable on summary conviction or on indictment by an unlimited fine. either an individual or a corporation can be punished and sentencing practice is published by the sentencing guidelines council. enforcement is the responsibility of the health and safety executive or in some cases, local authorities. <p> companies that do not comply with the restrictive trade practices provisions of cca may be fined by the federal court. there are three ways the maximum fine can be calculated. the maximum possible fine is the larger of a$10,000,000; or three times the value of the illegal benefit; or (if the value of the benefit cannot be ascertained) 10% of turnover for the preceding 12 months. individuals may be fined up to $500,000 and since 2009 certain offences under the competition and consumer act (such as price fixing or participation in a cartel) have been criminalised with executives who engage in conduct which contravenes the relevant provisions liable for a custodial sentence of up to 10 years in prison (44zzrf and 44zzrg of the cca). <p> criminal sanctions remain problematic, for instance if a company director had no intention to harm anyone, no "mens rea", and managers in the corporate hierarchy had systems to prevent employees committing offences. one step toward reform is found in the corporate manslaughter and corporate homicide act 2007. this creates a criminal offence for manslaughter, meaning a penal fine of up to 10 per cent of turnover against companies whose managers conduct business in a grossly negligent fashion, resulting in deaths. without lifting the veil there remains, however, no personal liability for directors or employees acting in the course of employment, for corporate manslaughter or otherwise. the quality of a company's accountability to a broader public and the conscientiousness of its behaviour must rely also, in great measure, on its governance.

You can organize people into a boycott and make a lot of noise about refusing to buy any of their products. Get the boycott big enough, and you can hurt their bottom line, which is realistically the only thing they care about. EDIT: I seem to have misread you post. Please ignore.

why do some cops in big cities like new york use horses?

<p> mounted police have been used since the 18th century, and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds, patrol public parks, keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties. today, many cities still have mounted police units. in rural areas, horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain, crowd control at religious shrines, and border patrol. <p> the highways of new york city are teeming with illegal rush-hour grave-racers. bad racers end up scraped off the side of skyscrapers while good ones build reputations that some would literally kill for. this is no pedestrian street race scene. it's a contest of minds where confidence, control and a taste for razor's-edge maneuvers separate the original gangsters of the skies from the wannabes and has-been. <p> a number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses. horse dealers (frequently called "horse coursers" in england) bought and sold horses, and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures, responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses. others, such as the "hackneymen" offered horses for hire, and many formed large establishments on busy roads, often branding their horses to deter theft. <p> this area has served the transport trade for more than a hundred years; most of the stables for new york's remaining horse cabs are located on its side streets, though many now store taxis and pedicabs. it is not uncommon to hear the clip clop of horses in the vicinity, as a result. the carriage horses live in historic stables originally built in the 19th century, but today boast the latest in barn design, such as fans, misting systems, box stalls, and state-of-the-art sprinkler systems. as horses always have in densely populated urban areas, the carriage horses live upstairs in their stables while the carriages are parked below on the ground floor. <p> mounted police are police who patrol on horseback or camelback. their day-to-day function is typically picturesque or ceremonial, but they are also employed in crowd control because of their mobile mass and height advantage and increasingly in the uk for crime prevention and high visibility policing roles. the added height and visibility that the horses give their riders allows officers to observe a wider area, but it also allows people in the wider area to see the officers, which helps deter crime and helps people find officers when they need them. mounted police may be employed for specialized duties ranging from patrol of parks and wilderness areas, where police cars would be impractical or noisy, to riot duty, where the horse serves to intimidate those whom it is desired to disperse through its larger size, or may be sent in to detain trouble makers or offenders from the crowd. for example, in the uk, mounted police are most often seen at football matches, although they are also a common sight on the streets of many towns and cities as a visible police presence and crime deterrent during the day and night. some mounted police units are trained in search and rescue due to the horse's ability to travel where vehicles cannot. <p> commercial horse-and-buggy rides mainly for tourists are conducted in several places, for example in new york city's central park area, in vienna, brussels and other european and north american sites. <p> since 2000 the village and colliery have seen an influx of travellers with horses and traps using the roads as they demonstrate their horsemanship and harness driving skills. many of the locals in the colliery now keep horses, even though they are not romany or gypsies, and can be seen (especially at weekends) trotting around the village. the church of st. mary the virgin overlooking the green in may 2013 held a funeral with a horse from essex brought up to pull the cart carrying the coffin.

They're usually used for crowd control purposes. Being on a horse allows the officer more visibility while also being easier to spot for those who may need them. They're also used where a car just wouldn't be practical, like a wilderness areas or a very large grassy park, ex: Central Park in New York

why do some cops in big cities like new york use horses?

<p> mounted police have been used since the 18th century, and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds, patrol public parks, keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties. today, many cities still have mounted police units. in rural areas, horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain, crowd control at religious shrines, and border patrol. <p> the highways of new york city are teeming with illegal rush-hour grave-racers. bad racers end up scraped off the side of skyscrapers while good ones build reputations that some would literally kill for. this is no pedestrian street race scene. it's a contest of minds where confidence, control and a taste for razor's-edge maneuvers separate the original gangsters of the skies from the wannabes and has-been. <p> a number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses. horse dealers (frequently called "horse coursers" in england) bought and sold horses, and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures, responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses. others, such as the "hackneymen" offered horses for hire, and many formed large establishments on busy roads, often branding their horses to deter theft. <p> this area has served the transport trade for more than a hundred years; most of the stables for new york's remaining horse cabs are located on its side streets, though many now store taxis and pedicabs. it is not uncommon to hear the clip clop of horses in the vicinity, as a result. the carriage horses live in historic stables originally built in the 19th century, but today boast the latest in barn design, such as fans, misting systems, box stalls, and state-of-the-art sprinkler systems. as horses always have in densely populated urban areas, the carriage horses live upstairs in their stables while the carriages are parked below on the ground floor. <p> mounted police are police who patrol on horseback or camelback. their day-to-day function is typically picturesque or ceremonial, but they are also employed in crowd control because of their mobile mass and height advantage and increasingly in the uk for crime prevention and high visibility policing roles. the added height and visibility that the horses give their riders allows officers to observe a wider area, but it also allows people in the wider area to see the officers, which helps deter crime and helps people find officers when they need them. mounted police may be employed for specialized duties ranging from patrol of parks and wilderness areas, where police cars would be impractical or noisy, to riot duty, where the horse serves to intimidate those whom it is desired to disperse through its larger size, or may be sent in to detain trouble makers or offenders from the crowd. for example, in the uk, mounted police are most often seen at football matches, although they are also a common sight on the streets of many towns and cities as a visible police presence and crime deterrent during the day and night. some mounted police units are trained in search and rescue due to the horse's ability to travel where vehicles cannot. <p> commercial horse-and-buggy rides mainly for tourists are conducted in several places, for example in new york city's central park area, in vienna, brussels and other european and north american sites. <p> since 2000 the village and colliery have seen an influx of travellers with horses and traps using the roads as they demonstrate their horsemanship and harness driving skills. many of the locals in the colliery now keep horses, even though they are not romany or gypsies, and can be seen (especially at weekends) trotting around the village. the church of st. mary the virgin overlooking the green in may 2013 held a funeral with a horse from essex brought up to pull the cart carrying the coffin.

In nEw Orleans we use them for crowd contol. You get the fuck out of the way when one of those huge horses start moving. I've also seen them form a wall. Pretty cool.

why do some cops in big cities like new york use horses?

<p> mounted police have been used since the 18th century, and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds, patrol public parks, keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties. today, many cities still have mounted police units. in rural areas, horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain, crowd control at religious shrines, and border patrol. <p> the highways of new york city are teeming with illegal rush-hour grave-racers. bad racers end up scraped off the side of skyscrapers while good ones build reputations that some would literally kill for. this is no pedestrian street race scene. it's a contest of minds where confidence, control and a taste for razor's-edge maneuvers separate the original gangsters of the skies from the wannabes and has-been. <p> a number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses. horse dealers (frequently called "horse coursers" in england) bought and sold horses, and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures, responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses. others, such as the "hackneymen" offered horses for hire, and many formed large establishments on busy roads, often branding their horses to deter theft. <p> this area has served the transport trade for more than a hundred years; most of the stables for new york's remaining horse cabs are located on its side streets, though many now store taxis and pedicabs. it is not uncommon to hear the clip clop of horses in the vicinity, as a result. the carriage horses live in historic stables originally built in the 19th century, but today boast the latest in barn design, such as fans, misting systems, box stalls, and state-of-the-art sprinkler systems. as horses always have in densely populated urban areas, the carriage horses live upstairs in their stables while the carriages are parked below on the ground floor. <p> mounted police are police who patrol on horseback or camelback. their day-to-day function is typically picturesque or ceremonial, but they are also employed in crowd control because of their mobile mass and height advantage and increasingly in the uk for crime prevention and high visibility policing roles. the added height and visibility that the horses give their riders allows officers to observe a wider area, but it also allows people in the wider area to see the officers, which helps deter crime and helps people find officers when they need them. mounted police may be employed for specialized duties ranging from patrol of parks and wilderness areas, where police cars would be impractical or noisy, to riot duty, where the horse serves to intimidate those whom it is desired to disperse through its larger size, or may be sent in to detain trouble makers or offenders from the crowd. for example, in the uk, mounted police are most often seen at football matches, although they are also a common sight on the streets of many towns and cities as a visible police presence and crime deterrent during the day and night. some mounted police units are trained in search and rescue due to the horse's ability to travel where vehicles cannot. <p> commercial horse-and-buggy rides mainly for tourists are conducted in several places, for example in new york city's central park area, in vienna, brussels and other european and north american sites. <p> since 2000 the village and colliery have seen an influx of travellers with horses and traps using the roads as they demonstrate their horsemanship and harness driving skills. many of the locals in the colliery now keep horses, even though they are not romany or gypsies, and can be seen (especially at weekends) trotting around the village. the church of st. mary the virgin overlooking the green in may 2013 held a funeral with a horse from essex brought up to pull the cart carrying the coffin.

I used to wonder about this too. Then I was caught in a football riot, and saw a mass of hundreds controlled by just a few cops on horses. The sight of those beasts coming towards you in a row, slowly and inexorably, is awe-inspiring. I can't even imagine what having them galloping at you would do to you.

why do some cops in big cities like new york use horses?

<p> mounted police have been used since the 18th century, and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds, patrol public parks, keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties. today, many cities still have mounted police units. in rural areas, horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain, crowd control at religious shrines, and border patrol. <p> the highways of new york city are teeming with illegal rush-hour grave-racers. bad racers end up scraped off the side of skyscrapers while good ones build reputations that some would literally kill for. this is no pedestrian street race scene. it's a contest of minds where confidence, control and a taste for razor's-edge maneuvers separate the original gangsters of the skies from the wannabes and has-been. <p> a number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses. horse dealers (frequently called "horse coursers" in england) bought and sold horses, and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures, responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses. others, such as the "hackneymen" offered horses for hire, and many formed large establishments on busy roads, often branding their horses to deter theft. <p> this area has served the transport trade for more than a hundred years; most of the stables for new york's remaining horse cabs are located on its side streets, though many now store taxis and pedicabs. it is not uncommon to hear the clip clop of horses in the vicinity, as a result. the carriage horses live in historic stables originally built in the 19th century, but today boast the latest in barn design, such as fans, misting systems, box stalls, and state-of-the-art sprinkler systems. as horses always have in densely populated urban areas, the carriage horses live upstairs in their stables while the carriages are parked below on the ground floor. <p> mounted police are police who patrol on horseback or camelback. their day-to-day function is typically picturesque or ceremonial, but they are also employed in crowd control because of their mobile mass and height advantage and increasingly in the uk for crime prevention and high visibility policing roles. the added height and visibility that the horses give their riders allows officers to observe a wider area, but it also allows people in the wider area to see the officers, which helps deter crime and helps people find officers when they need them. mounted police may be employed for specialized duties ranging from patrol of parks and wilderness areas, where police cars would be impractical or noisy, to riot duty, where the horse serves to intimidate those whom it is desired to disperse through its larger size, or may be sent in to detain trouble makers or offenders from the crowd. for example, in the uk, mounted police are most often seen at football matches, although they are also a common sight on the streets of many towns and cities as a visible police presence and crime deterrent during the day and night. some mounted police units are trained in search and rescue due to the horse's ability to travel where vehicles cannot. <p> commercial horse-and-buggy rides mainly for tourists are conducted in several places, for example in new york city's central park area, in vienna, brussels and other european and north american sites. <p> since 2000 the village and colliery have seen an influx of travellers with horses and traps using the roads as they demonstrate their horsemanship and harness driving skills. many of the locals in the colliery now keep horses, even though they are not romany or gypsies, and can be seen (especially at weekends) trotting around the village. the church of st. mary the virgin overlooking the green in may 2013 held a funeral with a horse from essex brought up to pull the cart carrying the coffin.

They've been a tried and tested way to control crowds for thousands of years. Ever tried fucking with someone on a horse who knows what he's doing?

why do some cops in big cities like new york use horses?

<p> mounted police have been used since the 18th century, and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds, patrol public parks, keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties. today, many cities still have mounted police units. in rural areas, horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain, crowd control at religious shrines, and border patrol. <p> the highways of new york city are teeming with illegal rush-hour grave-racers. bad racers end up scraped off the side of skyscrapers while good ones build reputations that some would literally kill for. this is no pedestrian street race scene. it's a contest of minds where confidence, control and a taste for razor's-edge maneuvers separate the original gangsters of the skies from the wannabes and has-been. <p> a number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses. horse dealers (frequently called "horse coursers" in england) bought and sold horses, and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures, responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses. others, such as the "hackneymen" offered horses for hire, and many formed large establishments on busy roads, often branding their horses to deter theft. <p> this area has served the transport trade for more than a hundred years; most of the stables for new york's remaining horse cabs are located on its side streets, though many now store taxis and pedicabs. it is not uncommon to hear the clip clop of horses in the vicinity, as a result. the carriage horses live in historic stables originally built in the 19th century, but today boast the latest in barn design, such as fans, misting systems, box stalls, and state-of-the-art sprinkler systems. as horses always have in densely populated urban areas, the carriage horses live upstairs in their stables while the carriages are parked below on the ground floor. <p> mounted police are police who patrol on horseback or camelback. their day-to-day function is typically picturesque or ceremonial, but they are also employed in crowd control because of their mobile mass and height advantage and increasingly in the uk for crime prevention and high visibility policing roles. the added height and visibility that the horses give their riders allows officers to observe a wider area, but it also allows people in the wider area to see the officers, which helps deter crime and helps people find officers when they need them. mounted police may be employed for specialized duties ranging from patrol of parks and wilderness areas, where police cars would be impractical or noisy, to riot duty, where the horse serves to intimidate those whom it is desired to disperse through its larger size, or may be sent in to detain trouble makers or offenders from the crowd. for example, in the uk, mounted police are most often seen at football matches, although they are also a common sight on the streets of many towns and cities as a visible police presence and crime deterrent during the day and night. some mounted police units are trained in search and rescue due to the horse's ability to travel where vehicles cannot. <p> commercial horse-and-buggy rides mainly for tourists are conducted in several places, for example in new york city's central park area, in vienna, brussels and other european and north american sites. <p> since 2000 the village and colliery have seen an influx of travellers with horses and traps using the roads as they demonstrate their horsemanship and harness driving skills. many of the locals in the colliery now keep horses, even though they are not romany or gypsies, and can be seen (especially at weekends) trotting around the village. the church of st. mary the virgin overlooking the green in may 2013 held a funeral with a horse from essex brought up to pull the cart carrying the coffin.

This is why Notice the guy at the beginning and the guy at the end that are too slow to move. Turns out horses are pretty heavy and strong

why do some cops in big cities like new york use horses?

<p> mounted police have been used since the 18th century, and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds, patrol public parks, keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties. today, many cities still have mounted police units. in rural areas, horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain, crowd control at religious shrines, and border patrol. <p> the highways of new york city are teeming with illegal rush-hour grave-racers. bad racers end up scraped off the side of skyscrapers while good ones build reputations that some would literally kill for. this is no pedestrian street race scene. it's a contest of minds where confidence, control and a taste for razor's-edge maneuvers separate the original gangsters of the skies from the wannabes and has-been. <p> a number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses. horse dealers (frequently called "horse coursers" in england) bought and sold horses, and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures, responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses. others, such as the "hackneymen" offered horses for hire, and many formed large establishments on busy roads, often branding their horses to deter theft. <p> this area has served the transport trade for more than a hundred years; most of the stables for new york's remaining horse cabs are located on its side streets, though many now store taxis and pedicabs. it is not uncommon to hear the clip clop of horses in the vicinity, as a result. the carriage horses live in historic stables originally built in the 19th century, but today boast the latest in barn design, such as fans, misting systems, box stalls, and state-of-the-art sprinkler systems. as horses always have in densely populated urban areas, the carriage horses live upstairs in their stables while the carriages are parked below on the ground floor. <p> mounted police are police who patrol on horseback or camelback. their day-to-day function is typically picturesque or ceremonial, but they are also employed in crowd control because of their mobile mass and height advantage and increasingly in the uk for crime prevention and high visibility policing roles. the added height and visibility that the horses give their riders allows officers to observe a wider area, but it also allows people in the wider area to see the officers, which helps deter crime and helps people find officers when they need them. mounted police may be employed for specialized duties ranging from patrol of parks and wilderness areas, where police cars would be impractical or noisy, to riot duty, where the horse serves to intimidate those whom it is desired to disperse through its larger size, or may be sent in to detain trouble makers or offenders from the crowd. for example, in the uk, mounted police are most often seen at football matches, although they are also a common sight on the streets of many towns and cities as a visible police presence and crime deterrent during the day and night. some mounted police units are trained in search and rescue due to the horse's ability to travel where vehicles cannot. <p> commercial horse-and-buggy rides mainly for tourists are conducted in several places, for example in new york city's central park area, in vienna, brussels and other european and north american sites. <p> since 2000 the village and colliery have seen an influx of travellers with horses and traps using the roads as they demonstrate their horsemanship and harness driving skills. many of the locals in the colliery now keep horses, even though they are not romany or gypsies, and can be seen (especially at weekends) trotting around the village. the church of st. mary the virgin overlooking the green in may 2013 held a funeral with a horse from essex brought up to pull the cart carrying the coffin.

Horses offer a number of benefits in city environments that make them an ideal partner in many situations. They allow a rider to sit up high for a better view of what's going on. They can turn around or maneuver in tighter spaces than a car could. Horses are great for dealing with crowds as well, because they're big animals and if they push you, you're going to move. There's also a bit of natural fear that humans have of a big animal that may trample them, so people tend to respect a horse much more than they respect a police car. Adding to that, some people won't think twice about smashing a cop car window, but it's a whole different story if you're attacking an animal. Especially if that animal can fight back. It's also only my personal opinion, but I think a cop on a horse is seen as a bit more friendly and personable than a cop in a car.

why do some cops in big cities like new york use horses?

<p> mounted police have been used since the 18th century, and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds, patrol public parks, keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties. today, many cities still have mounted police units. in rural areas, horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain, crowd control at religious shrines, and border patrol. <p> the highways of new york city are teeming with illegal rush-hour grave-racers. bad racers end up scraped off the side of skyscrapers while good ones build reputations that some would literally kill for. this is no pedestrian street race scene. it's a contest of minds where confidence, control and a taste for razor's-edge maneuvers separate the original gangsters of the skies from the wannabes and has-been. <p> a number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses. horse dealers (frequently called "horse coursers" in england) bought and sold horses, and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures, responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses. others, such as the "hackneymen" offered horses for hire, and many formed large establishments on busy roads, often branding their horses to deter theft. <p> this area has served the transport trade for more than a hundred years; most of the stables for new york's remaining horse cabs are located on its side streets, though many now store taxis and pedicabs. it is not uncommon to hear the clip clop of horses in the vicinity, as a result. the carriage horses live in historic stables originally built in the 19th century, but today boast the latest in barn design, such as fans, misting systems, box stalls, and state-of-the-art sprinkler systems. as horses always have in densely populated urban areas, the carriage horses live upstairs in their stables while the carriages are parked below on the ground floor. <p> mounted police are police who patrol on horseback or camelback. their day-to-day function is typically picturesque or ceremonial, but they are also employed in crowd control because of their mobile mass and height advantage and increasingly in the uk for crime prevention and high visibility policing roles. the added height and visibility that the horses give their riders allows officers to observe a wider area, but it also allows people in the wider area to see the officers, which helps deter crime and helps people find officers when they need them. mounted police may be employed for specialized duties ranging from patrol of parks and wilderness areas, where police cars would be impractical or noisy, to riot duty, where the horse serves to intimidate those whom it is desired to disperse through its larger size, or may be sent in to detain trouble makers or offenders from the crowd. for example, in the uk, mounted police are most often seen at football matches, although they are also a common sight on the streets of many towns and cities as a visible police presence and crime deterrent during the day and night. some mounted police units are trained in search and rescue due to the horse's ability to travel where vehicles cannot. <p> commercial horse-and-buggy rides mainly for tourists are conducted in several places, for example in new york city's central park area, in vienna, brussels and other european and north american sites. <p> since 2000 the village and colliery have seen an influx of travellers with horses and traps using the roads as they demonstrate their horsemanship and harness driving skills. many of the locals in the colliery now keep horses, even though they are not romany or gypsies, and can be seen (especially at weekends) trotting around the village. the church of st. mary the virgin overlooking the green in may 2013 held a funeral with a horse from essex brought up to pull the cart carrying the coffin.

Multiple reasons, some have already been mentioned in to comments, others haven't. Keep in mind that this is based on my experience working with this in Sweden. Mileage in other countries may vary. 1. Horses are less noisy and more approachable. People can come up and talk to the officer in a different way. 2. The horse still offers mobility and speed. 3. Tradition and culture. In a lot of places, like Sweden (where I live) horses are fairly integrated in culture. People enjoy seeing horses out and about. Not everyone want to approach one, but that's fine. 4. Crowd control. You absolutely do not fuck with one of those horses. They're huge, and on their back you have a trained police officer. It's a force multiplier. I've seen sports events riot like situations where three mounted officers replaced 20-25 officers in riot gear. The fights stopped immediately and people scattered. 5. Accessibility. A mounted officer can move in areas where a car can technically move, but is advised not to because it could cause blockage or congestion. Such as walking streets or shop streets. 6. Visibility. A police forces primary task is to maintain law and order. This is preferably done by preemptive measure, with things as simple as visible presence being at the top of efficiency. A mounted officer can both see and be seen easier. This has a calming effect on the public as well as encourages approaching the officer. We were often approached about very minor things, which didn't warrant any kind of report or anything, but that keeps the public happy and calm to be able to let the authorities know about.

the singularity is near?

<p> a coordinate singularity occurs when an apparent singularity or discontinuity occurs in one coordinate frame, which can be removed by choosing a different frame. an example is the apparent singularity at the 90 degree latitude in spherical coordinates. an object moving due north (for example, along the line 0 degrees longitude) on the surface of a sphere will suddenly experience an instantaneous change in longitude at the pole (in the case of the example, jumping from longitude 0 to longitude 180 degrees). this discontinuity, however, is only apparent; it is an artifact of the coordinate system chosen, which is singular at the poles. a different coordinate system would eliminate the apparent discontinuity, e.g. by replacing the latitude/longitude representation with an -vector representation. <p> the fictional singularity corresponding to the powers (0, 0, 1) arises as a result of time line coordinates crossing over some 2-dimensional "[[focal surface]]". as pointed out in, a synchronous reference frame can always be chosen in such a way that this inevitable time line crossing occurs exactly on such surface (instead of a 3-dimensional caustic surface). therefore, a solution with such simultaneous for the whole space fictional singularity must exist with a full set of arbitrary functions needed for the general solution. close to the point "t" = 0 it allows a regular expansion by whole powers of "t". <p> not encounter the point singularity are complete; those that do can be extended beyond it by proceeding along any of the geodesics that encounter the singularity from the opposite time direction and have compatible tangents (similarly to geodesics of the graph of formula_50 that encounter the singularity at the origin). <p> as with the event horizon in the schwarzschild metric the apparent singularities at "r" and "r" are an illusion created by the choice of coordinates (i.e., they are coordinate singularities). in fact, the space-time can be smoothly continued through them by an appropriate choice of coordinates. <p> the singularity theorems use the notion of geodesic incompleteness as a stand-in for the presence of infinite curvatures. geodesic incompleteness is the notion that there are geodesics, paths of observers through spacetime, that can only be extended for a finite time as measured by an observer traveling along one. presumably, at the end of the geodesic the observer has fallen into a singularity or encountered some other pathology at which the laws of general relativity break down. <p> the technological singularity (also, simply, the singularity) is a hypothetical future point in time at which technological growth becomes uncontrollable and irreversible, resulting in unfathomable changes to human civilization. <p> the technological singularity (also, simply, the singularity) is a hypothetical future point in time at which technological growth becomes uncontrollable and irreversible, resulting in unfathomable changes to human civilization.

Advances in genetic engineering, nanotechnology and cybernetics, *it is presumed*, will cause drastic changes in how we live by the end of the century. You name it: land of plenty, immortality...so many changes, we can't even guess. That's the singularity,

how do websites know when i am logged in?

<p> some users may be tracked based on the ip address of the computer requesting the page. the server knows the ip address of the computer running the browser (or the proxy, if any is used) and could theoretically link a user's session to this ip address. <p> when a user opens a web page, his or her ip address and other computer information (e.g. device fingerprint) becomes visible to the target web page's server. this information can be used to track the user. the user's ip address can be hidden via a proxy server or a vpn server, though this can be circumvented by just using the wrong browser. these types of servers work by sending a request to the target server from itself rather than from the user directly. for example, if a user requests to visit a link on a web page, the request will—instead of being sent directly to the web site server—be sent to the proxy server, which then relays the request to the targeted internet server. this hides the user's ip address from the target server, as only the proxy server's information is visible. <p> all of the internet behavior that occurs on the computer on which you install the application, including both your normal web browsing and the activity that you undertake during secure sessions, such as filling a shopping basket, completing an application form or checking your online accounts, which may include personal financial or health information. we may use the information that we monitor, such as name and address, for the purpose of better understanding your household demographics; however we make commercially viable efforts to automatically filter confidential personally identifiable information such as userid, password, credit card numbers, and account numbers. inadvertently, we may collect such information about our panelists; and when this happens, we make commercially viable efforts to purge our database of such information. <p> there are many ways in which online tracking has manifested itself. historically, when companies wanted to track users’ online behavior, they simply had users sign in to their website. this is a form of deterministic cross-device tracking, in which the user’s devices are associated with their account credentials, such as their email or username. consequently, while the user is logged in, the company can keep a running history of what sites the user has been to and which ads the user interacted with between computers and mobile devices. <p> the identifying information provided by the user's computer typically includes its ip address, the time the request was made, the type of web browser or email reader that made the request, and the existence of cookies previously sent by the host server. the host server can store all of this information, and associate it with a session identifier or tracking token that uniquely marks the interaction. <p> once a company can identify a particular user, the company can then track that user's behavior across multiple interactions with different websites or web servers. as an example, consider a company that owns a network of websites. this company could store all of its "images" on one particular server, but store "the other contents" of its web pages on a variety of other servers. for instance each server could be specific to a given website, and could even be located in a different city. but the company could use web beacons to count and recognize individual users who visit the different websites. rather than gathering statistics and managing cookies for each server independently, the company can analyze all this data together, and track the behavior of individual users across all the different websites, assembling a profile of each user as he or she navigates in these different environments. <p> an online address book typically enables users to create their own web page (or profile page) which is then indexed by search engines like google and yahoo. this in turn enables users to be found by other people via a search of their name and then contacted via their web page containing their personal information. ability to find people registered with online address books via search engine searches usually varies according to the commonness of the name and the amount of results for the name. typically users of such systems can synchronize their contact details with other users that they know to ensure that their contact information is kept up to date.

There's not a unique way, so it's different from site/system to site/system. In general, though, when you "log in", you establish some shared unique token that is tracked by the system in its "back-end" and the computer/device you use to log in. For instance, imagine that you're using your desktop PC to "log in" to a web site/system... the server checks that you provided the correct username/password (or other credentials), and if so, generates a random(*) token, saves it in a storage area (eg: a database, where it tracks "the user [your username] is logged in from a device uniquely identified by this [long unique token], with this security token [the token generated above]". Then, it sends the token back to you/your machine. Your web browser can save that (as a cookie or by other means), and every time you access a page on that site, it can send it over. So, now, every time you access a page for that website, your browser is sending over your user id, its unique identification and this security token, and the server can verify that you are indeed "logged in" (in other words: you did provide the right credentials at some point). Of course, things are more complicated (eg: sessions are usually limited in time so that every so often you'll have to log in again, and you may clear out your browser cache or cookies, so you need to log back in, etc etc) and this allows the server to know you are a valid user, but does NOT prove to your device that the server is indeed the server you think you are talking to (which is an important factor when dealing with secure information), but it's a rough approximation. (*) random enough that it is very very unlikely to be generated elsewhere, at a different time, on a different machine, etc...

how we can say the earth is tilted on it's axis, when it's a sphere?

<p> due to the combined effects of gravity and rotation, the figure of the earth (and of all planets) is not quite a sphere, but instead is slightly flattened in the direction of its axis of rotation. for that reason, in cartography the earth is often approximated by an oblate spheroid instead of a sphere. the current world geodetic system model uses a spheroid whose radius is at the equator and at the poles. <p> the z-axis extends through true north, which does not coincide with the instantaneous earth rotational axis. the slight "wobbling" of the rotational axis is known as polar motion. the x-axis intersects the sphere of the earth at 0° latitude (the equator) and 0° longitude (prime meridian in greenwich). this means that ecef rotates with the earth, and therefore coordinates of a point fixed on the surface of the earth do not change. conversion from a wgs84 datum to ecef can be used as an intermediate step in converting velocities to the north east down coordinate system. <p> earth's orbital plane is known as the ecliptic plane, and earth's tilt is known to astronomers as the obliquity of the ecliptic, being the angle between the ecliptic and the celestial equator on the celestial sphere. it is denoted by the greek letter "ε". <p> the origin at the center of earth means the coordinates are "geocentric", that is, as seen from the centre of earth as if it were transparent. the fundamental plane and the primary direction mean that the coordinate system, while aligned with earth's equator and pole, does not rotate with the earth, but remains relatively fixed against the background stars. a right-handed convention means that coordinates increase northward from and eastward around the fundamental plane. <p> when tilted, the general perspective projection is not azimuthal (see second figure below); directions are not true from the central point, and the projection plane is not tangent to the sphere. tilted perspectives are common from aerial and low orbit photography, generally taken from at a height measured in kilometers to hundreds of kilometers, rather than the hundreds or thousands of kilometers typical of a vertical perspective. <p> which appears to rotate westward overhead; meanwhile, earth underfoot seems to remain still. for purposes of spherical astronomy, which is concerned only with the directions to celestial objects, it makes no difference if this is actually the case or if it is earth that is rotating while the celestial sphere is stationary. <p> also, each rotation is actually represented by two antipodal points on the sphere, which are at opposite ends of a line through the center of the sphere. this reflects the fact that each rotation can be represented as a rotation about some axis, or, equivalently, as a negative rotation about an axis pointing in the opposite direction (a so-called double cover). the "latitude" of a circle representing a particular rotation angle will be half of the angle represented by that rotation, since as the point is moved from the north to south pole, the latitude ranges from zero to 180 degrees, while the angle of rotation ranges from 0 to 360 degrees. (the "longitude" of a point then represents a particular axis of rotation.) note however that this set of rotations is not closed under composition.

What is meant by "tilted" is that the earth's axis of rotation is not perpendicular to the plane of its rotation around the sun.

how do printers print white when the cartidges only hold black, yellow, cyan & magenta ink?

<p> the cyan ink absorbs red light but transmits green and blue, the magenta ink absorbs green light but transmits red and blue, and the yellow ink absorbs blue light but transmits red and green. the white substrate reflects the transmitted light back to the viewer. because in practice the cmy inks suitable for printing also reflect a little bit of color, making a deep and neutral black impossible, the k (black ink) component, usually printed last, is needed to compensate for their deficiencies. use of a separate black ink is also economically driven when a lot of black content is expected, e.g. in text media, to reduce simultaneous use of the three colored inks. the dyes used in traditional color photographic prints and slides are much more perfectly transparent, so a k component is normally not needed or used in those media. <p> a typical desktop inkjet printer can print just 16 colors (the combination of dot or no dot from cyan, magenta, yellow and black print heads). some of these ink combinations are not useful though, because when the black ink is used it typically obscures any of the other colors. to reproduce a large range of colors, dithering is used. in densely printed areas, where the color is dark the dithering is often not visible because the dots of ink merge producing a more uniform print. however, a close inspection of the light areas of a print where the dithering has placed dots much further apart reveals the tell-tale dots of dithering. <p> inks used in color printing presses are semi-transparent and can be printed on top of each other to produce different hues. for example, green results from printing yellow and cyan inks on top of each other. however, a printing press cannot vary the amount of ink applied to particular picture areas except through "screening," a process that represents lighter shades as tiny dots, rather than solid areas, of ink. this is analogous to mixing white paint into a color to lighten it, except the white is the paper itself. in process color printing, the screened image, or halftone for each ink color is printed in succession. the screen grids are set at different angles, and the dots therefore create tiny rosettes, which, through a kind of optical illusion, appear to form a continuous-tone image. you can view the halftoning, which enables printed images, by examining a printed picture under magnification. <p> for some inkjet printers, monochrome ink sets are available either from the printer manufacturer or from third-party suppliers. these allow the inkjet printer to compete with the silver-based photographic papers traditionally used in black-and-white photography, and provide the same range of tones: neutral, "warm" or "cold". when switching between full-color and monochrome ink sets, it is necessary to flush out the old ink from the print head with a cleaning cartridge. special software or at least a modified device driver are usually required, to deal with the different color mapping. <p> black ink is the most common color used for printing books, newspapers and documents, as it provides the highest contrast with white paper and thus the easiest color to read. similarly, black text on a white screen is the most common format used on computer screens. <p> in the cmyk color model, used in color printing, it is one of the three primary colors, along with cyan and yellow, used to print all the rest of the colors. if magenta, cyan, and yellow are printed on top of each other on a page, they make black. in this model, magenta is the complementary color of green, and these two colors have the highest contrast and the greatest harmony. if combined, green and magenta ink will look dark gray or black. the magenta used in color printing, sometimes called process magenta, is a darker shade than the color used on computer screens. <p> in printing, under color removal (ucr) is a process of eliminating overlapping yellow, magenta, and cyan that would have added to a dark neutral (black) and replacing them with black ink only, called a "full black", during the color separation process. under color removal is used in four-color (or more colors) printing. black ink used to add details and darkness in shadowed areas is called a "skeletal black".

They don’t print white. They leave the white areas blank, which leaves the white paper exposed. If you printed the same design on colored paper, the white areas would show up as that color.

the difference between routers, switches, access points

<p> layer 3 switching is solely based on (destination) ip address stored in the header of ip datagram (see layer 4 switching later on this page for the difference). the difference between a layer 3 switch and a router is the way the device is making the routing decision. traditionally, routers use microprocessors to make forwarding decisions in software, while the switch performs only hardware-based packet switching (by specialized asic with the help of content-addressable memory). however, some traditional routers can have advanced hardware functions as well in some of the higher-end models. <p> internet routers are typically built using line cards connected with a switch. routers supporting moderate total bandwidth may use a bus as their switch, but high bandwidth routers typically use some sort of crossbar interconnection. in a crossbar, each output connects to one input, so that information can flow through every output simultaneously. crossbars used for packet switching are typically reconfigured tens of millions of times per second. the schedule of these configurations is determined by a central arbiter, for example a wavefront arbiter, in response to requests by the line cards to send information to one another. <p> when multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers can exchange information about destination addresses using a routing protocol. each router builds up a routing table listing the preferred routes between any two systems on the interconnected networks. <p> a router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks. when a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the network address information in the packet to determine the ultimate destination. then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. <p> in the network there are various classes of switching systems. an end office switch connects directly to the stations. it knows which circuit to activate (ring) when given a destination number. other switches in the network are for transport only. these are sometimes called tandem switches. in this case, the goal of destination routing would be to select an outbound span for a particular destination number. the objective is to get a continuous signal path from the starting location of the caller to the ending location of the called party. <p> switching strategy : the routing algorithm only determines the path that a message must take to reach its destination node. the actual traversal of the message within the network is the responsibility of the switching strategy. there are basically two types of switching strategies, a circuit switched network is a network where a path is reserved and blocked off from other messages, till the message is delivered to its destination node. a famous example of circuit switched network is the telephone services, which establish a circuit through many switches for a call. the alternative approach is the packet switched network where messages are broken down into smaller compact entities called packets. each packet contains a part of data in addition to a sequence number. this implies that each packet can now be transferred individually and assembled at the destination based on the sequence number. <p> in telecommunication switching centers, multiple access is the connection of a user to two or more switching centers by separate access lines using a single message routing indicator or telephone number.

For this example we will keep it simple. Routes are smart switches, they can assign IP addreses and handle local and internet traffic. Switches are not as smart as routers, they basically add more ports to your router, they allow more devices to access the functions of the router. however they can function independently, handle traffic and some can grant IP address. There is also a hub, which is the most simplistic. It can only add connections, it will not grant IPs and it wont handle traffic well. an access point is a device you add to an existing hard-wire network to add wireless. By handle traffic i mean they balance the load so multiple computers can use the internet or share files without disrupting the service of others.

how does dopamine work in the brain on methamphetamine and other dopamine releasing chemicals?

<p> inside the brain, dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator, and is controlled by a set of mechanisms common to all monoamine neurotransmitters. after synthesis, dopamine is transported from the cytosol into synaptic vesicles by a solute carrier—a vesicular monoamine transporter, vmat2. dopamine is stored in these vesicles until it is ejected into the synaptic cleft. in most cases, the release of dopamine occurs through a process called exocytosis which is caused by action potentials, but it can also be caused by the activity of an intracellular trace amine-associated receptor, taar1. taar1 is a high-affinity receptor for dopamine, trace amines, and certain substituted amphetamines that is located along membranes in the intracellular milieu of the presynaptic cell; activation of the receptor can regulate dopamine signaling by inducing dopamine reuptake inhibition and efflux as well as by inhibiting neuronal firing through a diverse set of mechanisms. <p> inside the brain, dopamine plays important roles in executive functions, motor control, motivation, arousal, reinforcement, and reward, as well as lower-level functions including lactation, sexual gratification, and nausea. the dopaminergic cell groups and pathways make up the dopamine system which is neuromodulatory. <p> dopamine is an endogenous compound that is used as a neurotransmitter to modulate reward expectation. dopamine kills dopamine-producing neurons by interfering with the electron transport chain in neurons. this interference results in an inhibition of cellular respiration, leading to neuron death. <p> catecholamines are produced mainly by the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla and the postganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system. dopamine, which acts as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, is largely produced in neuronal cell bodies in two areas of the brainstem: the ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra, the latter of which contains neuromelanin-pigmented neurons. the similarly neuromelanin-pigmented cell bodies of the locus coeruleus produce norepinephrine. epinephrine is produced in small groups of neurons in the human brain which express its synthesizing enzyme, phenylethanolamine "n"-methyltransferase; these neurons project from a nucleus that is adjacent (ventrolateral) to the area postrema and from a nucleus in the dorsal region of the solitary tract. <p> dopamine (da, a contraction of 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine) is an organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families. it functions both as a hormone and a neurotransmitter, and plays several important roles in the brain and body. it is an amine synthesized by removing a carboxyl group from a molecule of its precursor chemical l-dopa, which is synthesized in the brain and kidneys. dopamine is also synthesized in plants and most animals. in the brain, dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter—a chemical released by neurons (nerve cells) to send signals to other nerve cells. the brain includes several distinct dopamine pathways, one of which plays a major role in the motivational component of reward-motivated behavior. the anticipation of most types of rewards increases the level of dopamine in the brain, and many addictive drugs increase dopamine release or block its reuptake into neurons following release. other brain dopamine pathways are involved in motor control and in controlling the release of various hormones. these pathways and cell groups form a dopamine system which is neuromodulatory. <p> dopamine as a neurotransmitter has a dominant role in the putamen, most of it is supplied from the substantia nigra. when a cell body of a neuron (in the putamen or caudate nuclei) fires an action potential, dopamine is released from the presynaptic terminal. since projections from the putamen and caudate nuclei modulate the dendrites of the substantia nigra, the dopamine influences the substantia nigra, which affects motor planning. this same mechanism is involved in drug addiction. in order to control the amount of dopamine in the synaptic cleft, and the amount of dopamine binding to post synaptic terminals, presynaptic dopaminergic neurons function to reuptake the excess dopamine. <p> dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter involved in the reward pathway in the brain. thus, drugs that increase dopamine signaling may produce euphoric effects. many recreational drugs, such as cocaine and substituted amphetamines, inhibit the dopamine transporter (dat), the protein responsible for removing dopamine from the neural synapse. when dat activity is blocked, the synapse floods with dopamine and increases dopaminergic signaling. when this occurs, particularly in the nucleus accumbens, increased d and decreased d receptor signaling mediates the "rewarding" stimulus of drug intake.

Methamphetamine is a dopamine agonist, so when you take it you overflow the dopamine receptors amd get the corresponding reactions, just more intense. With frequent use the receptors cannot tolerate the constant "high" so they either diminish in number or grow less sensitive to dopamine. This leads to the need of increasing the dose to feel the same effects you felt at the beginning and when the effects wear off you feel the oposite ones, but with higher intensity. This is called a physiological addiction, your body needs the substance to feel "normal".

how graduate school works.

<p> the graduate school oversees the post-bachelor's degree programs that are embedded within the college of arts & sciences and the four professional schools. the dean of the graduate school reports to the provost and collaborates with the deans of the various schools to ensure academic standards are enforced for their respective graduate-level courses of study. <p> the graduate school is "not a seminary" but offers degrees in which students are encouraged to "incorporate the principles of their faith into their academic work and to show how it influences their vocational practices." the intention is to establish a community of scholars united in their efforts to find practical solutions to social problems in business and industry, the social professions, religion, para-church organizations, and society as a whole. the program teaches social scientific research focused on the family, community, and the church or a combination of these areas . <p> the college of education is an educator preparation program offering degrees in middle grades education, undergraduate and graduate; agriculture education, undergraduate and post-baccalaureate; early childhood / special education undergraduate; school counseling; early childhood / special education graduate; health and physical education; family and consumer sciences education; and an mat degree in the secondary teaching areas. <p> the university's graduate schools are divided into schools of education, administration, management, business and information, and labor. undergraduate offerings are divided between colleges of humanities, social science, natural science, engineering, and art. <p> school) is a school that awards advanced academic degrees (i.e. master's and doctoral degrees) with the general requirement that students must have earned a previous undergraduate (bachelor's) degree with a high grade point average. a distinction is typically made between graduate schools (where courses of study vary in the degree to which they provide training for a particular profession) and professional schools, which offer specialized advanced degrees in professional fields such as medicine, nursing, business, engineering, speech-language pathology, or law. the distinction between graduate schools and professional schools is not absolute, as various professional schools offer graduate degrees and vice versa. <p> the graduate school was created in 1971, initiating its academic activities with the programs of doctorate and masters in education. the master's degree in psychology and philosophy were created in 1988, and the doctorate in psychology in 1994. subsequently, created the master's degree in civil law and nutrition and dietetics. <p> the college of teacher development is the undergraduate school of the university that offers bachelor's degree in early childhood, elementary, and secondary education with fields of specialization. the college dean is assisted by four associate deans of faculties — arts and languages (fal) that houses the fields of english, filipino, literature, music and arts, and speech and theater arts; behavioral and social sciences (fbess) that houses the fields of history, psychology, social sciences, and values education; education sciences (fes) that houses the fields of early childhood education, elementary education and nutrition and dietetics; and science, technology and mathematics (fstem) that houses the fields of biology, chemistry, general science, mathematics, and physics.

In undergrad, you're taking classes in a variety of areas as well as classes specific to your specialization/major. You will generally have to have some basic understanding of math, science, literature, history, foreign language etc., in order to graduate. The proportion of general education requirements to major-specific requirements varies based on degree and program, but you're required to take at least one or two classes in each discipline. In graduate school, you're taking classes that are only meant to further your knowledge in one field of study, and are not required to learn anything outside of that. Of course, you can still take other classes as electives, but the goal is that those electives are supposed to enhance your understanding of your specialization in some way. You take what you learned in undergrad and push it further without having to deal with general ed requirements. People get into grad school the same way they get into undergrad: they have to send a statement of purpose detailing why they want to go to that school, along with test scores (GRE, LSAT, MCAT, etc), grades, and recommendations. Depending on your program you may also be required to send in samples of your previous work, like a thesis or portfolio.

what happened to tebow, why do nfl teams dislike him exactly?

<p> as a member of the denver broncos, he started the last three games of his rookie season and became the team's full-time starting quarterback beginning in the sixth game of 2011. the broncos were 1–4 before he became the starter, but began winning with him on the field, often coming from behind late in the fourth quarter, until they won their first afc west title and first playoff game since 2005, defeating the pittsburgh steelers in overtime. despite the team's success, however, tebow's potential as a professional level quarterback was called into question due to a perceived lack of passing ability, persistent fumbles, and having the lowest passing completion rate in the league. <p> before the 2007 season had even come to a close, florida coach urban meyer stated that he would likely use two quarterbacks during the 2008 season to take some of the workload off of tebow's shoulders. tebow led the gators in rushing in 2007 but also had to play through a bruised shoulder and broken non-throwing hand. before the 2008 season even started, tebow had his name pulled from consideration for the playboy preseason all-american team because it conflicted with his christian beliefs. <p> the first five weeks of the season were dominated by a quarterback controversy involving kyle orton and tim tebow, with fans voicing their displeasure with the play of orton, which resulted in a 1–4 start, and the public outcry for tebow to be moved to starter. on october 11, tebow was named the starting quarterback beginning with the team's week 7 game at the miami dolphins on october 23. tebow compiled an 8–5 record (including the playoffs, with a six-game win streak from weeks 9–14) since replacing orton, including game-winning drives in the fourth quarter and/or overtime in six of those games, despite constant criticism of his unorthodox mechanics and abilities as a passer. orton was later waived on november 22. another notable roster change was the trade that sent wide receiver brandon lloyd to the st. louis rams in exchange for a conditional 2012 draft selection. <p> tebow began the 2011 season as the denver broncos' backup quarterback, behind kyle orton. after the broncos started 1–3, tebow replaced orton at halftime during a home game against the san diego chargers in week five. tebow passed and ran for a touchdown in the fourth quarter, narrowing a 16-point difference to an ultimate 29–24 loss. shortly afterward, broncos' head coach john fox announced tebow would start in the following game on the road against the miami dolphins. tebow struggled for three-and-a-half quarters against the dolphins, taking six sacks, but rallied from a 15–0 deficit in the last three minutes to win the game 18–15 in overtime. <p> the show has been criticized for what is perceived by many as its excessive coverage of the career of tim tebow. during his tenure with the jets, in which he did not start in a game, and threw just eight passes the entire season. tebow was nonetheless often a leading topic. <p> it was the last regular-season win of tebow's career. in week 15, tebow rushed for two touchdowns and completed 11-of-22 passes against the new england patriots in a 41–23 loss. he was sacked four times in the game and had one fumble. in the broncos' 40–14 loss to the buffalo bills the following week, he had one passing and one rushing touchdown but also threw three interceptions, two of which were returned for touchdowns, and two fumbles. he struggled for a third straight game the following week in a 7–3 loss to the kansas city chiefs, completing only 6-of-22 passes and finishing with a career low quarterback rating of 20.6, but a loss by the oakland raiders clinched a playoff spot for the broncos in the afc west. after the three consecutive losses, broncos vice president and former quarterback john elway said tebow was playing tentatively and needed to "pull the trigger." <p> tim tebow became the full-time starting quarterback for the 2007 season. although the gators began with a 4–0 record and were ranked as high as third in media polls, a mid-season slump in which they lost three of four games to conference foes ended their hopes for another national championship. they finished with a 9–4 record and a # 13 final ranking, but tebow's record-setting season earned him the heisman trophy; he was the first sophomore to receive the honor.

He just wasn't good enough. The NFL and college require different skill sets from their QBs. There is a lot of talent at QB in the NFL, and he just didn't make it up to their minimum standards. He had a poor sense of reading the play (very important in NFL, less important college), his passing was inaccurate (very important), and he has a non-traditional style (which is difficult to design pro-caliber plays for). He was offered to play positions other than QB for several teams, presumably FB/RB or TE, but he turned them down.

why don't we get rid of parties?

<p> there are a number of reasons that an elected official, or someone seeking office, might choose to switch parties. one reason is ethical obligation when the person has views that are no longer aligned with those of the current party. <p> another disadvantage of the system is that it affords a "foot dragging party," another opportunity for stalling and delay tactics to wear out the other side. a party that knows it has no real case but refuses to settle will naturally seek every opportunity available to achieve an unexpected success or at least a delay. <p> bullet::::- make the formation or electoral participation of new parties more difficult, because such parties do not receive public funding right from the start and occasionally private funding is prohibited. <p> accordingly, each party shall strive to ensure that it does not waive or otherwise derogate from, or offer to waive or otherwise derogate from, such laws in a manner that weakens or reduces the protections afforded in those laws as an encouragement for trade with the other party, or as an encouragement for the establishment, acquisition, expansion, or retention of an investment in its territory. <p> political parties may be dissolved only by declaration of the supreme court. the constitution establishes grounds for dissolution of political parties. if party objectives or activities are in contravention of the constitution; if a party has received money or assistance from foreign sources; or if the election laws are violated, the supreme court may declare that party dissolved. furthermore, parliament may proscribe other laws with the effect of disqualifying political parties. once dissolved, political parties may not comprise any members. <p> since late february 2016 a party congress is allowed to remove any candidate from its party list before the central election commission recognizes him or her elected. meaning that parties after elections can prevent their candidates to take a seat in parliament that they were entitled to due to their place on the party list. a party is (since late february 2016) also allowed to excluded people from its electoral list of the last parliamentary elections. <p> since the structure of the constitutional court will change, closing down parties will not be as easy as it used to be. deputies will not be banned from politics if their party is closed down, but will keep their seats for the normal term.

What do you mean, "get rid of parties"? We obviously can't make it illegal for people to form political advocacy groups, so how do you plan to do this?

what's the deal with italian leather vs leather from any other country?

<p> this leather was a major export good from russia in the 17th and 18th centuries because of its high quality, its usefulness for a range of purposes, and the difficulty of replicating its manufacture elsewhere. it was an important item of trade for the muscovy company. <p> most leatherwork can be found in ejutla de crespo and jalatlaco, whose products are exported to other countries. notable pieces include scabbards for machetes, saddles, wallets, belts, portfolios and more. the leather is made from the skins of local animals. leather pieces such as belts and bags can be found embroidered with ixtle fiber, which is extracted from maguey leaves. <p> leather working was introduced to the state by the spanish and is currently done to make items such as handbags, saddles, shoes, scabbards for knives and machetes and more. most of this work is cone in comitán and san cristobal de las casas. <p> russia leather is a water-resistant leather, oiled with birch oil after tanning. this leather was a major export good from 17th and 18th century russia, as the availability of birch oil limited its geographical production. the oil impregnation also deterred insect attack and gave a distinctive and pleasant aroma that was seen as a mark of quality in leather. <p> santiniketan leather goods are leather products made in santiniketan and surrounding villages near kolkata, west bengal, india. the material used is vegetable tanned leather with art work done by touch dyeing. its artistic leather bags are popular in foreign markets and are exported to many countries including japan and the u.s. they are generally made of e. i. leather (east india leather) from sheepskin and goatskin. <p> leather is a highly sought after material due to its resistance to tearing, flexing and puncture. it is also a good insulator of heat and prevents the passage of air flow. in order for skins to be turned into leather they must go through the process known as tanning to stabilize the collagen for the duration of the manufacture. however, leather is unique in that it contains more than just the hide itself. it also contains all of the materials used in the manufacturing process which must be known for the proper conservation and preservation of leather objects. <p> products made of leather are often used in bondage because of their flexibility and resistance to tearing. because leather is easy to acquire, care for and work upon, it is one of the most popular materials for home-made bondage items. many people have a fetish for leather, latex and polish and use these materials in connection with bondage, for example for cuffs, belts or neck bands. there are special bondage skirts, trousers or sacks made of these materials, as well as clothing and equipment for bdsm role play that can be used in connection with bondage. for example, harnesses are used in pony play, but would not be used without the corresponding role play.

It's simply a matter of Italy being famous for high quality leather production and subsequently high quality leather products when compared to other regions that produce leather. Typically, high quality Italian leather is made by hand with natural vegetable and plant extracts as opposed to the automated mass production present in a lot of areas now. I've been to Florence (famous for leather) and in a leather clothier's shop (Leonardo's) and they explain the process and care that goes into the work.

what happens if evidence is obtained, illegally, that someone is a criminal?

<p> fbi agents cannot legally store dna of a person not convicted of a crime. dna collected from a suspect not later convicted must be disposed of and not entered into the database. in 1998, a man residing in the uk was arrested on accusation of burglary. his dna was taken and tested, and he was later released. nine months later, this man's dna was accidentally and illegally entered in the dna database. new dna is automatically compared to the dna found at cold cases and, in this case, this man was found to be a match to dna found at a rape and assault case one year earlier. the government then prosecuted him for these crimes. during the trial the dna match was requested to be removed from the evidence because it had been illegally entered into the database. the request was carried out. <p> historically in the united states, if the police made an illegal search and seizure of evidence, the evidence, once obtained, could often be used against a defendant in a criminal trial regardless of its illegality. <p> in the united states and other countries, evidence may be excluded from a trial if it is the result of illegal activity by law enforcement, such as a search conducted without a warrant. such illegal evidence is known as the fruit of the poisonous tree and is normally not permitted at trial. <p> in the united kingdom changes have been made affecting this principle. defendants' previous convictions may in certain circumstances be revealed to juries. although the suspect is not compelled to answer questions after formal arrest, failure to give information may now be prejudicial at trial. statute law also exists which provides for criminal penalties for failing to decrypt data on request from the police. if the suspect is unwilling to do so, it is an offence. citizens can therefore be convicted and imprisoned without any evidence that the encrypted material was unlawful. furthermore, in sexual offence cases such as rape, where the sexual act has already been proved beyond reasonable doubt, there are a limited number of circumstances where the defendant has an obligation to adduce evidence that the complainant consented to the sexual act, or that the defendant reasonably believed that the complainant was consenting. these circumstances include, for example, where the complainant was unconscious, unlawfully detained, or subjected to violence. <p> in strict cases, when an illegal action is used by police/prosecution to gain any incriminating result, "all" evidence whose recovery stemmed from the illegal action—this evidence is known as "fruit of the poisonous tree"—can be thrown out from a jury (or be grounds for a mistrial if too much information has been irrevocably revealed). <p> in many jurisdictions, if an individual has accepted possession of goods or property and knew they were stolen, then the individual is typically charged with a misdemeanor or felony, depending on the value of the stolen goods. if the individual did not know the goods were stolen, then the goods are returned to the owner and the individual is not prosecuted. however, there are often exceptions, due to the difficulty of proving or disproving an individual's knowledge that the goods were stolen. <p> such evidence is not generally admissible in court. for example, if a police officer conducted an unconstitutional (fourth amendment) search of a home and obtained a key to a train station locker, and evidence of a crime came from the locker, that evidence would most likely be excluded under the fruit of the poisonous tree legal doctrine. the testimony of a witness who is discovered through illegal means would not necessarily be excluded, however, due to the "attenuation doctrine", which allows certain evidence or testimony to be admitted in court if the link between the illegal police conduct and the resulting evidence or testimony is sufficiently attenuated. for example, a witness who freely and voluntarily testifies is enough of an independent intervening factor to sufficiently "attenuate" the connection between the government's illegal discovery of the witness and the witness's voluntary testimony itself. ("united states v. ceccolini", 435 u.s. 268 (1978))

Assuming you're in a US court, and the evidence was obtained by the police (as opposed to a third party, and then given to the police), it will typically not be admissible as evidence in a trial. Further, if that evidence leads to finding more evidence, that evidence will also not be allowed (known as the "fruit of the poisoned tree"). For example, a police officer conducts an unlawful search of a home and finds a bag of cocaine. That cocaine will not be allowed in as evidence in a drug trial. The officer also finds a picture in the house of the defendant and a known street-level drug dealer. That picture will not be allowed in as evidence of the two having a relationship (such as if the prosecution was trying to prove the defendant is a mid-level drug distributor). However, If the police go to the dealer pictured in the photo and convince him to testify against the defendant, that testimony *would* be allowed in, because that testimony has a source (the dealer) that's independent from the illegal search. The other two main exceptions to the rule are if the evidence would have inevitably been found anyways, and if there was an improper warrant but it was executed in good faith. The crime the defendant is suspected of doesn't matter. Murderers have the same rights as drug dealers, who have the same rights as completely innocent individuals.

does long grass or cut grass require more water to sustain itself?

<p> a grassed waterway reduces soil erosion and captures most nutrients and pesticides that would normally wash out of crop fields and into major waters. these waterways help to carry surface water at a non-erosive velocity to an area where it will have a stable outlet. outlets must be adequate enough to allow water to drain without ponding or flooding the area being protected, while also preventing erosion of the water into the outlet which can be accomplished through the use of riprap. a limitation is during large runoff events, when soil is saturated, grassed waterways will have a very concentrated flow of water making them not as effective during high rainfalls. grassed waterways require very little maintenance once they are introduced with major upkeep being mowing of the grass and reseeding. farm machinery and cattle can cross these waterways but it may be hazardous during wet periods. one of the major disadvantages of waterways are actually getting them established. a late summer or early fall seeding when rainfall is minimal is recommended to allow the seed to have the best chance at establishing a root system. <p> bamboo is another plant that works particularly well since it can clean water 27.6% better than domestic plants like grass or clovers. rice, although it is hard to grow and maintain, works even better. <p> during drought, the loss of water through vacuoles induces the reduced bulliform cells to allow the leaves of many grass species to close as the two edges of the grass blade fold up toward each other. once enough water is available, these cells enlarge and the leaves are forced open again. <p> in this context, a grassed waterway allows increasing soil cohesion and roughness. it also prevents the formation of rills and gullies. furthermore, it can slow down runoff and allow its re-infiltration during long winter rains. in contrast, its infiltration capacity is generally not sufficient to reinfiltrate runoff produced by heavy spring and summer storms. it can therefore be useful to combine it with extra measures, like the installation of earthen dams across the grassed waterway, in order to buffer runoff temporarily. <p> like other xerophytes, marram grass is well adapted to its surroundings in order to thrive in an otherwise harsh environment. the natural loss of water through transpiration is not desirable in a very dry landscape, and marram grass has developed particular adaptations to help it deal with this. sandy conditions drain water quickly, and very windy conditions will further increase rates of transpiration. <p> plants have a competitive advantage over plants possessing the more common c carbon fixation pathway under conditions of drought, high temperatures, and nitrogen or limitation. when grown in the same environment, at 30 °c, grasses lose approximately 833 molecules of water per molecule that is fixed, whereas grasses lose only 277. this increased water use efficiency of grasses means that soil moisture is conserved, allowing them to grow for longer in arid environments. <p> bullet::::5. reduced soil erosion u.s. forest service et al. cite perennial grasses as a preventative for soil erosion. perennials of all kinds establish thick root systems which tie up soil and prevent surface erosion by wind and water. since water runoff is slowed, it has a longer time to soak in and enter the groundwater system. net water inflow into streams is marginally reduced due to groundwater infusion, but this also reduces high flow rates in streams associated with fast-flowing water-based erosion of streambeds. .

That depends on the relative humidity of the air and the weather. In bright days, the broader leaf will tend to consume more water - photosynthesis is 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2. However, on dry days, the air will naturally manage to pull more moisture from the cut while it heals. These two factors will balance to give a different answer based on the weather.

how come a burglar, who gets hurt while robbing a house, can sue the owner and win?

<p> burglary can also be committed in "part of a building" and in r v walkington 1979 1 wlr 1169 the defendant had entered a large shop during trading hours but went behind a counter and put his hand in an empty till. the court held that he had entered that part of the building normally reserved for staff as a trespasser with intention to steal money and was therefore guilty of burglary. <p> a person commits the offense of burglary when, without authority and with the intent to commit a felony or theft therein, they enters or remains within the dwelling house of another or any building, vehicle, railroad car, watercraft, or other such structure designed for use as the dwelling of another or enters or remains within any other building, railroad car, aircraft, or any room or any part thereof. a person convicted of the offense of burglary, for the first such offense, shall be punished by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than 20 years. for the purposes of this code section, the term "railroad car" shall also include trailers on flatcars, containers on flatcars, trailers on railroad property, or containers on railroad property. o.c.g.a. § 16-7-1 <p> robbery occurs if an aggressor forcibly snatched a mobile phone or if they used a knife to make an implied threat of violence to the holder and then took the phone. the person being threatened does not need to be the owner of the property. it is not necessary that the victim was actually frightened, but the defendant must have put or sought to put the victim or some other person in fear of immediate force. <p> in wisconsin, burglary is committed by one who forcibly enters a building without consent and with intent to steal or to commit another felony. burglary may also be committed by entry to a locked truck, car or trailer or a ship. the crime of burglary is treated as being more serious if the burglar is armed with a dangerous weapon when the burglary is committed or arms himself/herself during the commission of the burglary. <p> in the united states, burglary is prosecuted as a felony or misdemeanor and involves trespassing and theft, entering a building or automobile, or loitering unlawfully with intent to commit any crime, not necessarily a theft--for example, vandalism. even if nothing is stolen in a burglary, the act is a statutory offense. buildings can include hangars, sheds, barns, and coops; burglary of boats, aircraft, trucks, and railway cars is possible. burglary may be an element in crimes involving rape, arson, kidnapping, identity theft, or violation of civil rights; indeed, the "plumbers" of the watergate scandal were technically burglars. as with all legal definitions in the u.s., the foregoing description may not be applicable in every jurisdiction, since there are 50 separate state criminal codes, plus federal and territorial codes in force. <p> if the claimant is involved in wrongdoing at the time the alleged negligence occurred, this may extinguish or reduce the defendant's liability. the legal maxim "ex turpi causa non oritur actio", latin for "no right of action arises from a despicable cause". thus, if a burglar is verbally challenged by the property owner and sustains injury when jumping from a second story window to escape apprehension, there is no cause of action against the property owner even though that injury would not have been sustained but for the property owner's intervention. <p> under florida state statutes, "burglary" occurs when a person "enter[s] a dwelling, a structure, or a conveyance with the intent to commit an offense therein, unless the premises are at the time open to the public or the defendant is licensed or invited to enter." depending on the circumstances of the crime, burglary can be classified as third, second, or first-degree felonies, with maximum sentences of five years, fifteen years, and life, respectively.

First, this is actually very rare. It is extremely uncommon that a burglar is actually able to sue for injuries they suffer. (partly because of the law, and partly because juries aren't especially sympathetic to burglars) No "unknown and unforeseen." trespasser can ever sue for damages based on some accident on the property. So, if someone really does break in and is there in a way that would not be anticipated or expected, they definitely can't sue. (EDIT: and, IIRC, burglar's in most places are by definition not foreseeable) Even if the robber is "foreseeable" they can only, generally speaking, sue for two things: 1.) injuries that they suffer from hazards that the owner created, and that were likely to cause serious damage to a person, and that did cause damage, and that they had no warning of (warning alone is enough). 2.) some action the homeowner takes that harms the burglar that isn't actually self-defense. That's a very small universe of things. And, it's not like being a burglar means that you are no longer a human in the eyes of the law. If a homeowner actually uses way too much force, or really does have extremely hazardous stuff on the property that could have snarled anyone but happen to catch the burglar, why shouldn't they bear some responsibility to compensate for injuries?

how come a burglar, who gets hurt while robbing a house, can sue the owner and win?

<p> burglary can also be committed in "part of a building" and in r v walkington 1979 1 wlr 1169 the defendant had entered a large shop during trading hours but went behind a counter and put his hand in an empty till. the court held that he had entered that part of the building normally reserved for staff as a trespasser with intention to steal money and was therefore guilty of burglary. <p> a person commits the offense of burglary when, without authority and with the intent to commit a felony or theft therein, they enters or remains within the dwelling house of another or any building, vehicle, railroad car, watercraft, or other such structure designed for use as the dwelling of another or enters or remains within any other building, railroad car, aircraft, or any room or any part thereof. a person convicted of the offense of burglary, for the first such offense, shall be punished by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than 20 years. for the purposes of this code section, the term "railroad car" shall also include trailers on flatcars, containers on flatcars, trailers on railroad property, or containers on railroad property. o.c.g.a. § 16-7-1 <p> robbery occurs if an aggressor forcibly snatched a mobile phone or if they used a knife to make an implied threat of violence to the holder and then took the phone. the person being threatened does not need to be the owner of the property. it is not necessary that the victim was actually frightened, but the defendant must have put or sought to put the victim or some other person in fear of immediate force. <p> in wisconsin, burglary is committed by one who forcibly enters a building without consent and with intent to steal or to commit another felony. burglary may also be committed by entry to a locked truck, car or trailer or a ship. the crime of burglary is treated as being more serious if the burglar is armed with a dangerous weapon when the burglary is committed or arms himself/herself during the commission of the burglary. <p> in the united states, burglary is prosecuted as a felony or misdemeanor and involves trespassing and theft, entering a building or automobile, or loitering unlawfully with intent to commit any crime, not necessarily a theft--for example, vandalism. even if nothing is stolen in a burglary, the act is a statutory offense. buildings can include hangars, sheds, barns, and coops; burglary of boats, aircraft, trucks, and railway cars is possible. burglary may be an element in crimes involving rape, arson, kidnapping, identity theft, or violation of civil rights; indeed, the "plumbers" of the watergate scandal were technically burglars. as with all legal definitions in the u.s., the foregoing description may not be applicable in every jurisdiction, since there are 50 separate state criminal codes, plus federal and territorial codes in force. <p> if the claimant is involved in wrongdoing at the time the alleged negligence occurred, this may extinguish or reduce the defendant's liability. the legal maxim "ex turpi causa non oritur actio", latin for "no right of action arises from a despicable cause". thus, if a burglar is verbally challenged by the property owner and sustains injury when jumping from a second story window to escape apprehension, there is no cause of action against the property owner even though that injury would not have been sustained but for the property owner's intervention. <p> under florida state statutes, "burglary" occurs when a person "enter[s] a dwelling, a structure, or a conveyance with the intent to commit an offense therein, unless the premises are at the time open to the public or the defendant is licensed or invited to enter." depending on the circumstances of the crime, burglary can be classified as third, second, or first-degree felonies, with maximum sentences of five years, fifteen years, and life, respectively.

They usually can't, stories about them doing that are usually turn out to be urban legends. The only time the homeowner is responsible is if there is some extreme hazard in their house, like a trap designed to maim a burglar. If a burglar trips over a roller skate and falls down a flight of stairs, they are out of luck.