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Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father.[SEP]Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis. |
Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis.[SEP]Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. |
Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces.[SEP]At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour. |
At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour.[SEP]As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. |
As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior.[SEP]Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix. |
Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix.[SEP]They promise that, if Achilles returns to battle, Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and other gifts. |
They promise that, if Achilles returns to battle, Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and other gifts.[SEP]Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do. |
Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do.[SEP]The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. |
The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships.[SEP]With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. |
With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp.[SEP]Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy. |
Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy.[SEP]After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. |
After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death.[SEP]His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. |
His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles.[SEP]She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. |
She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector.[SEP]The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem. |
The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem.[SEP]Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. |
Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector.[SEP]Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. |
Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed.[SEP]The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. |
The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus.[SEP]Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. |
Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself.[SEP]Finally, Achilles finds his prey. |
Finally, Achilles finds his prey.[SEP]Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. |
Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face.[SEP]After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. |
After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable.[SEP]Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. |
Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses.[SEP]Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. |
Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him.[SEP]Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me". |
Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me".[SEP]Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. |
Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot.[SEP]After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion. |
After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion.[SEP]At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog (Sirius); a sign of evil. |
At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog (Sirius); a sign of evil.[SEP]During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus, the evening/western star (Venus), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus, the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended). |
During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus, the evening/western star (Venus), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus, the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended).[SEP]With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. |
With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried.[SEP]Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of Niobe's offspring). |
Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of Niobe's offspring).[SEP]The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come. |
The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come.[SEP]Later epic accounts: fighting Penthesilea and Memnon |
Later epic accounts: fighting Penthesilea and Memnon[SEP]The Aethiopis (7th century BC) and a work named Posthomerica, composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century CE, relate further events from the Trojan War. |
The Aethiopis (7th century BC) and a work named Posthomerica, composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century CE, relate further events from the Trojan War.[SEP]When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. |
When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles.[SEP]After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. |
After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later.[SEP]At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. |
At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual.[SEP]Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her. |
Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her.[SEP]Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion. |
Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion.[SEP]When Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. |
When Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon.[SEP]Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus persuades her. |
Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus persuades her.[SEP]The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess. |
The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess.[SEP]Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the Iliads description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. |
Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the Iliads description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it.[SEP]The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic Aethiopis, which was composed after the Iliad, possibly in the 7th century BC. |
The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic Aethiopis, which was composed after the Iliad, possibly in the 7th century BC.[SEP]The Aethiopis is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors. |
The Aethiopis is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors.[SEP]The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. |
The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times.[SEP]In the Iliad, it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. |
In the Iliad, it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship.[SEP]Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had sexual relations. |
Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had sexual relations.[SEP]Although there is no direct evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. |
Although there is no direct evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors.[SEP]Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. |
Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures.[SEP]In 5th-century BCE Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of paiderasteia. |
In 5th-century BCE Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of paiderasteia.[SEP]In Plato's Symposium, the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. |
In Plato's Symposium, the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover.[SEP]However, ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. |
However, ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women.[SEP]Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship. |
Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship.[SEP]The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions. |
The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions.[SEP]In the oldest version, the Iliad, and as predicted by Hector with his dying breath, the hero's death was brought about by Paris with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). |
In the oldest version, the Iliad, and as predicted by Hector with his dying breath, the hero's death was brought about by Paris with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius).[SEP]In some versions, the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow. |
In some versions, the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow.[SEP]Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. |
Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow.[SEP]All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valour, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. |
All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valour, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield.[SEP]After death, Achilles' bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. |
After death, Achilles' bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held.[SEP]He was represented in the Aethiopis as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube. |
He was represented in the Aethiopis as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube.[SEP]Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena. |
Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena.[SEP]Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. |
Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage.[SEP]Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. |
Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior.[SEP]But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him. |
But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him.[SEP]In the Odyssey, Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his mound at the Hellespont while they are receiving the dead suitors in Hades. |
In the Odyssey, Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his mound at the Hellespont while they are receiving the dead suitors in Hades.[SEP]He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the ocean. |
He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the ocean.[SEP]Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus. |
Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus.[SEP]Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles. |
Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles.[SEP]In Book 11 of Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. |
In Book 11 of Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades.[SEP]One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. |
One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead.[SEP]But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. |
But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction.[SEP]This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life. |
This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life.[SEP]According to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades – as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' Argonautica (3rd century BC). |
According to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades – as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' Argonautica (3rd century BC).[SEP]Fate of Achilles' armour |
Fate of Achilles' armour[SEP]Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater). |
Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater).[SEP]They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who, after considering both men's presentations, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. |
They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who, after considering both men's presentations, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour.[SEP]Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena, who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. |
Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena, who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades.[SEP]After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, he was so ashamed that he committed suicide. |
After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, he was so ashamed that he committed suicide.[SEP]Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. |
Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles.[SEP]When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades (Odyssey 11.543–566), Ajax is still so angry about the outcome of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus. |
When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades (Odyssey 11.543–566), Ajax is still so angry about the outcome of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus.[SEP]A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. |
A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf.[SEP]The city was visited in 333 BCE by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the Iliad with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear; however, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century CE. |
The city was visited in 333 BCE by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the Iliad with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear; however, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century CE.[SEP]Achilles, Ajax and a game of petteia |
Achilles, Ajax and a game of petteia[SEP]Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. |
Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions.[SEP]At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (petteia). |
At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (petteia).[SEP]They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. |
They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle.[SEP]The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena. |
The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.[SEP]Worship and heroic cult |
Worship and heroic cult[SEP]The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in Troad, was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Caracalla. |
The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in Troad, was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Caracalla.[SEP]Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. |
Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e.[SEP]on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades, in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achilles' homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton, accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero. |
on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades, in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achilles' homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton, accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero.[SEP]The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BCE Polyxena sarcophagus, which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles. |
The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BCE Polyxena sarcophagus, which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles.[SEP]Strabo (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad: |
Strabo (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad:[SEP]The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus, today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. |
The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus, today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable.[SEP]An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island (Ukrainian Зміїний, Zmiinyi, near Kiliya, Ukraine). |
An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island (Ukrainian Зміїний, Zmiinyi, near Kiliya, Ukraine).[SEP]Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea (graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings, from Olbia, the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards. |
Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea (graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings, from Olbia, the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards.[SEP]The cult was still thriving in the third century CE, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an Achilles Pontárchēs (Ποντάρχης, roughly "lord of the Sea," or "of the Pontus Euxinus"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, or Poseidon. |
The cult was still thriving in the third century CE, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an Achilles Pontárchēs (Ποντάρχης, roughly "lord of the Sea," or "of the Pontus Euxinus"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, or Poseidon.[SEP]This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be the iconic spit, called today Tendra (or Kosa Tendra and Kosa Djarilgatch), situated between the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay, but which is hardly 125 Roman miles (c. |
This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be the iconic spit, called today Tendra (or Kosa Tendra and Kosa Djarilgatch), situated between the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay, but which is hardly 125 Roman miles (c.[SEP]185 km) away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary, as Pliny states. |
185 km) away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary, as Pliny states.[SEP](To the "Race-course" he gives a length of 80 miles, c. |