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Home » NCAR's Mass Storage System gets bigger, faster NCAR's Mass Storage System gets bigger, faster The MSS, located in the Computer Room at NCAR’s Mesa Laboratory, is one of the largest archives in the world dedicated to geoscience research. Some of the data it stores originate from field experiments and observations: international climate records from the past 100 years include data from weather stations, ships, planes, and satellites. The bulk of MSS data, however, is generated by global climate simulations and other Earth systems models that run on high-performance computers. As these computers become larger and faster, they generate an exponential amount of output data to be archived. Even greater demands for archiving data result from the growing use of coupled atmosphere, ocean, and sea ice climate models. Back in the 1960s, NCAR supercomputers performed at the then-astonishing peak speed of 1.3 megaflops (1.3 million floating-point operations per second). Today, NCAR’s IBM Cluster 1600, a system named bluesky, has a peak speed of 8.3 teraflops—an increase of 6 orders of magnitude. As NCAR supercomputers have evolved over the years, so has the repository for the data they use and generate: NCAR’s Mass Storage System (MSS). In January 2006, total data holdings on the MSS exceeded 2.5 petabytes (the equivalent of 2.5 billion 500-page paperback novels), while the quantity of unique data files is increasing by about 35 terabytes each month. Each day, the MSS handles an average of 40,000 requests for data, transporting more than 3.8 terabytes of data to and from NCAR supercomputers. Ensuring that this enormous amount of information can be stored and accessed speedily, safely, and reliably by geoscientists around the world is the job of NCAR’s Scientific Computing Division (SCD), which designed the MSS in the mid-1980s and has been extending its capabilities it ever since. A significant upgrade This month SCD made a significant upgrade to the MSS by completing the transition from High Performance Parallel Interface (HiPPI) technology to Fibre Channel technology. “HiPPI is being retired after 13 years of faithful service,” says John Merrill, head of SCD’s Mass Storage Systems Group. “For several years we’ve been moving from HiPPI to Gigabit Ethernet and Fibre Channel as a means to access the MSS. Two weeks ago we decommissioned the last of the HiPPI devices and eliminated all remaining HiPPI data traffic. All MSS reads and writes are currently being carried through Fibre Channel.” Data files can now be transferred three to four times faster than before, although users may not notice a sudden change because the transition has been gradual. In addition, the storage capacity of Fiber Channel-enabled media and tape drives is 3.3 times greater than the devices they replace. These improvements will allow the MSS to expand yet further into the multi-petabyte range, while reducing the latency to access MSS files. The HiPPI era John Merrill, head of SCD's Mass Storage Systems Group, bids adieu to the last HiPPI switch as it leaves the NCAR Computer Room. SCD decommissioned HiPPI technology at NCAR on January 12, 2006. Photo detail HiPPI, a popular technology in the late 1980s to mid-1990s, was an early high-speed Local Area Network (LAN) protocol. Designed for connecting supercomputers and storage devices, it offered near-gigabit data transfer rates at a time when Ethernet was still rated at 10 megabits per second (Mbps) and leading-edge OC-3 technology was rated at 155 Mbps. “Back in 1993, we needed a high-speed connection to the MSS, and HiPPI was the only technology available,” says Merrill. “We’d been using HYPERchannel, which had a top data transfer rate of 50 megabits per second. HiPPI was faster and more flexible.” Although the actual transfer rate was limited by the speed of the various MSS devices, HiPPI could make multiple transfers simultaneously, providing an aggregate rate of up to 800 Mbps. Merrill recalls getting HiPPI up and running on two small Sun servers in December 1992. The next challenge was to install it on shavano, a CRAY Y-MP. “We first moved data to and from shavano via HIPPI on March 24, 1993,” Merrill says. “After that, all our computers had HiPPI. We usually had 20 to 25 machines all using the HiPPI interface. Every time we got a new system, we had to put HiPPI on it before it could talk to the MSS. Each one had a different way of accessing the interface, so we always had to modify and test the software. It kept us busy.” A single HiPPI connection initially made use of two heavy-duty cables, each containing 100 copper wires running in parallel. By the late 1990's, SCD had replaced most HiPPI connections with serial fiber-optic cables, although some equipment continued to use the older copper cables. Serial HiPPI had many advantages, including lower cost and increased reliability. The data path between NCAR supercomputers and the MSS consisted of HiPPI cables from the supercomputers to a set of HiPPI adapters, and ESCON channels from the adapters to the tape and disk devices of the MSS. (ESCON, which stood for Enterprise System CONnection, was a fiber-optic protocol developed by IBM.) While revolutionary in their time, HiPPI and ESCON were losing support by the late 1990s. The cost of HiPPI technology was high and the number of vendors was small. At the same time, Gigabit Ethernet and Fibre Channel technologies were on the rise. Gigabit Ethernet, a standard for hardware, communication, and cabling, is one of the most common methods of connecting computers in a LAN. Fibre Channel is especially suited for interconnecting storage controllers and drives. Both Gigabit Ethernet and Fibre Channel offer data transfer rates of 1 gigabit per second. By the early 2000s, supercomputer vendors were offering high-performance systems that were by default supplied with Gigabit Ethernet, while storage devices were increasingly using Fibre Channel rather than ESCON. Accordingly, SCD developed a new, software-based Storage Manager to take advantage of these new technologies, superseding the HiPPI/ESCON data path. Gigabit Ethernet gradually took the place of HiPPI, and Fibre Channel supplanted ESCON. (In 2001, for example, SCD decommissioned the MSS’s ESCON-attached disk farm and installed a high-speed Fibre Channel disk cache. Soon after, SCD began swapping out ESCON tape drives with faster Fibre Channel drives.) On January 12, 2006, SCD decommissioned the last of the ESCON tape drives and terminated the HiPPI/ESCON data path. It was the end of an era. “We had our share of problems and difficulties with HiPPI, especially in the early years, but overall it served us well,” says Merrill. “It will remain an important part of the history of the NCAR Mass Storage System.” The larger picture: MSS evolution The move to Gigabit Ethernet and Fiber Channel is part of the larger, two-decade evolution of the MSS toward technologies that are faster and more reliable. In the 1980s, the MSS was comprised strictly of tapes that were mounted manually by human operators. In November 1989, SCD acquired the first StorageTek Powderhorn data silo, which employed robotic arms to mount tapes at the blazing speed of 350 per hour. In 1995, an upgrade increased the speed to 450 mounts per hour. While early MSS tapes held only 200 megabytes of data, over the years storage technology advanced until today, the same-sized tapes hold 200 gigabytes—a thousand-fold increase over the original cartridge capacity. MSS tape drives have also improved to accommodate higher storage densities and faster data transfers, while the number of data silos has increased to five. The “brain” of the MSS, the computer that controls the entire storage facility, is called the Mass Storage Control Processor (MSCP). SCD has managed a steady succession of better, faster MSCPs; the current model is a high-speed, high-performance IBM z/890-320. Currently SCD is at work on a new software implementation of the MSS metadata catalog, which will further increase bandwidth, accessibility, and reliability for data transfers. As technology continues to evolve and computational output multiplies, SCD remains committed to providing optimum, cost-effective mass storage for the Earth sciences community—just as it has since 1978, when NCAR’s first rudimentary archival system contained less than 1 terabyte of data.—Lynda Lester Photos: Lynda Lester, CISL/NCAR

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You are here: Home / News and Events / News / 2011 Archive / November / Talk explores the point where mathematics meets literature Talk explores the point where mathematics meets literature Posted by mjs76 at Nov 14, 2011 02:13 PM | Permalink The links between literary fiction and mathematics are explored in a lecture being hosted by the University of Leicester tomorrow. Tony Mann from the University of Greenwich, President of the British Society for the History of Mathematics (BSHM) will speak on the subject ‘From Sylvia Plath to Bad Sex: uses of mathematics in fiction’. The lecture takes place in the Ken Edwards Building at 7.30pm on Tuesday 15 November 2011. The BSHM, which organises meetings and publishes a regular bulletin for its members, was founded in 1971 “to promote and encourage research in the history of mathematics and the dissemination of the results of such research.” Tuesday’s event is jointly organised with the East Midlands Branch of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications (IMA) and is hosted by our Department of Mathematics. Tony Mann’s lecture is based on a talk which he gave at a BHSM conference in Oxford in 2009 and a related paper which was published in the BSHM Bulletin in June 2010. American poet Sylvia Plath published her only novel The Bell Jar in 1963, in which one of the minor characters is a professional mathematician. This was the first example of a mathematician in a fictional work which Mann had ever seen. A much later example is The Infinities by Irish novelist John Banville which was shortlisted for the Literary Review’s coveted Bad Sex in Fiction Award in 2009. The talk will draw on my other examples of mathematics and mathematicians in literary and genre fiction, from The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy to The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time. However, if the talk follows the precedent of the Bulletin paper, it may skip over the most famous examples of mathematical fiction – Edwin A Abbott’s Flatland and the works of Lewis Carroll – as those have been thoroughly explored in both literary and mathematical terms by many other academics. For more information about the talk, please contact the IMA East Midlands Branch co-ordinator dr Stephen Hibberd, stephen.hibberd@nottingham.ac.uk. Filed under: Magazine:Staff, Mathematics, Magazine:Student, English Half a century after its first flight, we should stop debating whether Concorde could fly again and celebrate the ‘Engineering DNA’ that survives in modern airliners Apr 09, 2019 Mrs Hinch and Zoella: how internet influencers shot to literary stardom – with a very outdated view of women Apr 05, 2019 Exquisite fossil finds shed new light on the ‘Cambrian explosion’, when oceans first filled with complex animal life Mar 27, 2019 What is breastfeeding for Research? Jan 24, 2020 Crimes against humanity in the EU’s migration policy: facing the inconceivable Jan 29, 2020 A tinpot regime? Antisemitism, Racism and Violence in Fascist Italy Jan 31, 2020 Virtual Reality Techniques for Psychosis Feb 04, 2020 Understanding pterosaur anatomy using patterns of limb association and decay (taphonomy) Feb 07, 2020

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Welsh Government scraps plans for controversial Marine Conservation Zones CONTROVERSIAL plans to further protect coastal areas in Pembrokeshire have been scrapped by the Welsh Government. There had been a proposal to create ten marine conservation zones off the Welsh coast, including the waters around Strumble Head, Skomer and Dale. The sites would have been given a high level of protection from activities that could potentially change, damage or disturb the marine environment. The Welsh Government held a consultation into the plans and received 7,000 responses, with many containing ‘strongly held’ views. They included Abercastle Boat Owners Association, which said: “If adopted, the zone could have a serious and long lasting effect on the fishing and general use of the area.” Alun Davies, the minister for natural resources, has announced that he is withdrawing all the proposed sites to avoid any uncertainty over the options presented in the 2012 consultation. The move has been welcomed by Preseli Pembrokeshire MP Stephen Crabb. He said: “Marine activity is crucial to the economy of our coastal communities and Pembrokeshire as a whole. I had strong concerns that the proposed zones would have had a damaging impact and I made this clear in my representations to the Welsh Government." Mark Andrews, Corporate Affairs Director of the Port of Milford Haven, added: “Naturally we are pleased to learn that the proposed zones have been withdrawn. These were originally put forward on the basis that they would be ‘no take, no deposit zones’ which would preclude fishing and leisure activities. It would also severely restrict or even prohibit dredging operations within the Haven. The Port dredges from time to time to maintain the depth in the channel that’s required to handle large ships." The Welsh Government will now concentrate its conservation efforts on the existing 125 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) that cover 36% of Welsh seas to see if any changes need to be made. Comments are closed on this article.

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Brookside MS teacher arrested, accused of inappropriately touching students Police believe there may be more victims Posted: Nov 18, 2019 / 02:07 PM EST / Updated: Nov 19, 2019 / 04:45 AM EST SARASOTA, Fla. (WFLA) – A middle school teacher in Sarasota has been charged with lewd and lascivious conduct after police say two students accused him of inappropriately touching them. Authorities now believe there may be more victims. Sarasota police arrested 34-year-old Maxwell Guss of Bradenton on Monday afternoon. According to the police department, Guss has been on administrative leave from Brookside Middle School, where he was a business teacher. Detectives were initially called to the middle school in early September. Two students told detectives Guss had inappropriately touched them in the beginning of the month, according to the police department. Later, in October, police say they met with an assistant principal at Sarasota High School, where Guss previously worked as an algebra teacher. During the meeting, detectives learned a student at Sarasota High accused Guss of inappropriately touching her in 2017. According to detectives, that student told school administration back in 2017 when it happened but the school administration never reported it to law enforcement. Sarasota detectives believe there may be more victims out there. In addition to working at Brookside Middle and Sarasota High, Guss also previously taught in Manatee County at Harllee Middle School and Bayshore High School. Anyone with information is asked to call Detective Angela Cox at 941-263-6075 or leave an anonymous tip with Crime Stoppers by calling 941-366-TIPS. More Sarasota County Stories by SNN TV / Jan 20, 2020 SARASOTA, Fla. (SNN) - Small donations are making a big difference in Sarasota. Six-year-old Ella Taylor turned lemonade into love for others. Taylor hosted a lemonade-stand Sunday morning, donating all proceeds to Meals on Wheels. Women’s March draws thousands in cities across the country, including Sarasota by The Associated Press, WFLA 8 On Your Side Staff / Jan 19, 2020 WASHINGTON (AP/WFLA) — Thousands gathered in cities across the country Saturday as part of the nationwide Women’s March rallies focused on issues such as climate change, pay equity, reproductive rights and immigration. A number of people gathered in downtown Sarasota on Saturday to participate.

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For other uses, see Eritrea (disambiguation) and Eritrean. "Erythrea" redirects here. For other uses, see Erythrean. Not to be confused with Eretria. Country in the Horn of Africa This article needs to be updated. In particular: five to ten-year old data in several sections needs attention.. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2019) Coordinates: 15°N 39°E / 15°N 39°E / 15; 39 State of Eritrea Anthem: "Ertra, Ertra, Ertra" (English: "Eritrea, Eritrea, Eritrea" or "Ertra, Ertra, Ertra") Location of Eritrea (dark blue) – in Africa (light blue & dark grey) – in the African Union (light blue) and largest city None[1] (see working languages) Recognised national languages Saho English[2] Italian[4][5] (2012[6]) 60% Tigrinya 30% Tigre 5% Saho 2% Kunama 5% Bilen 2% Rashaida 1% hedarb ∟ Bahrmidri (historic) Unitary one-party presidential republic under a totalitarian dictatorship[7][8][9][10][11] • President from Ethiopia • De facto State of Eritrea • De jure State of Eritrea 117,600 km2 (45,400 sq mi) (99th) • Water (%) • 2018 estimate 5,750,433 [12][13] (116th) 51.8/km2 (134.2/sq mi) (154th) $10.625 billion[14] (156th) $1,725[14] (180th) $7.720 billion[14] (149th) 0.434[15] low · 182nd Nakfa (ERN) UTC+3 (EAT) UTC+3 (not observed) Driving side Eritrea (/ˌɛrɪˈtreɪə, ˌɛrɪˈtriːə/;[16] ( listen); officially the State of Eritrea,[17] is a country in the Horn of Africa in East Africa, with its capital at Asmara. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast. The northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along the Red Sea. The nation has a total area of approximately 117,600 km2 (45,406 sq mi), and includes the Dahlak Archipelago and several of the Hanish Islands. Eritrea is a multi-ethnic country, with nine recognized ethnic groups in its population of around 3 million. Eritrea has nine national languages which are Tigrinya language, Tigre, Afar, Beja, Bilen, Kunama, Nara, Saho.Tigrinya, Arabic, and English serve as the three working languages.[3] Most residents speak languages from the Afroasiatic family, either of the Ethiopian Semitic languages or Cushitic branches. Among these communities, the Tigrinyas make up about 55% of the population, with the Tigre people constituting around 30% of inhabitants. In addition, there are a number of Nilo-Saharan-speaking Nilotic ethnic minorities. Most people in the territory adhere to Islam or Christianity.[18] The Kingdom of Aksum, covering much of modern-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, was established during the first or second centuries AD.[19][20] It adopted Christianity around the middle of the fourth century.[21] In medieval times much of Eritrea fell under the Medri Bahri kingdom, with a smaller region being part of Hamasien. The creation of modern-day Eritrea is a result of the incorporation of independent, distinct kingdoms and sultanates (for example, Medri Bahri and the Sultanate of Aussa) eventually resulting in the formation of Italian Eritrea. After the defeat of the Italian colonial army in 1942, Eritrea was administered by the British Military Administration until 1952. Following the UN General Assembly decision, in 1952, Eritrea would govern itself with a local Eritrean parliament but for foreign affairs and defense it would enter into a federal status with Ethiopia for a period of 10 years. However, in 1962 the government of Ethiopia annulled the Eritrean parliament and formally annexed Eritrea, but the Eritreans who had argued for complete Eritrean independence since the ouster of the Italians in 1941 anticipated what was coming and, in 1961, organized the Eritrean Liberation Front in opposition. In 1991, after 30 years of continuous armed struggle for independence, the Eritrean liberation fighters entered the capital city, Asmara, in victory. The sovereign state is a totalitarian one-party dictatorship in which national legislative and presidential elections have never been held since independence.[22][9] According to Human Rights Watch, the Eritrean government's human rights record is among the worst in the world.[23] The Eritrean government has dismissed these allegations as politically motivated.[24] The compulsory military service requires long, indefinite conscription periods (6.5 years on average), which some Eritreans leave the country to avoid.[25] Because all local media is state-owned, Eritrea was also ranked as having the third-least press freedom in the global Press Freedom Index, behind North Korea and Turkmenistan. The sovereign state of Eritrea is a member of the African Union, the United Nations, and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, and is an observer state in the Arab League alongside Brazil, Venezuela and Turkey.[26] 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Antiquity 2.2.1 Punt 2.2.2 Ona Culture 2.2.3 Gash Group 2.2.4 Kingdom of D'mt 2.2.5 Kingdom of Aksum 2.3 Middle Ages 2.3.1 Medri Bahri 2.3.2 Aussa Sultanate 2.3.3 Habesh Eyalet 2.4 Modern history 2.4.1 Italian Eritrea 2.4.2 British administration 2.4.3 Federation with Ethiopia 2.4.4 Independence 3.1 Location and habitat 5.1 National elections 5.2 Military 5.3 Legal profession 6 Foreign relations 6.1 Relations with Ethiopia 7 Administrative divisions 8 Largest cities 11 Demographics 11.1 Ethnic composition 11.2 Languages 11.3 Religion 12 UNESCO world heritage site 13 Human rights 13.1 Media freedom 14 Health care 15 Education 16 Culture 16.1 Cuisine 16.2 Music 16.3 Sports The name Eritrea is derived from the ancient Greek name for the Red Sea (Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα Erythra Thalassa, based on the adjective ἐρυθρός erythros "red"). It was first formally adopted in 1890, with the formation of Italian Eritrea (Colonia Eritrea).[27] The name persisted over the course of subsequent British and Ethiopian occupation, and was reaffirmed by the 1993 independence referendum and 1997 constitution.[28] Main article: History of Eritrea Prehistory[edit] You may need rendering support to display the Ethiopic text in this article correctly. Buya in Eritrea, one of the oldest hominids representing a possible link between Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens was found by Italian scientists. Dated to over 1 million years old, it is the oldest skeletal find of its kind and provides a link between hominids and the earliest anatomically modern humans.[29] It is believed that the section of the Danakil Depression in Eritrea was also a major player in terms of human evolution, and may contain other traces of evolution from Homo erectus hominids to anatomically modern humans.[30] Neolithic rock art in a Qohaito canyon cave Pre-Axumite monolithic columns in Qohaito During the last interglacial period, the Red Sea coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans.[31] It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World.[31] In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch and French scientists discovered a Paleolithic site with stone and obsidian tools dated to over 125,000 years old near the Bay of Zula south of Massawa, along the Red Sea littoral. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources such as clams and oysters.[32] According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley.[33][34] Other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there.[35] Antiquity[edit] Punt[edit] Main article: Land of Punt Together with Djibouti, Ethiopia, northern Somalia, and the Red Sea coast of Sudan,[36] Eritrea is considered the most likely location of the land which the ancient Egyptians called Punt, first mentioned in the 25th century BC.[37] The ancient Puntites had close relations with Ancient Egypt during the rule of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut. This is confirmed by genetic studies of mummified baboons. In 2010, a study was conducted on baboon mummies that were brought from Punt to Egypt as gifts by the ancient Egyptians. The scientists from the Egyptian Museum and the University of California used oxygen isotope analysis to examine hairs from two baboon mummies that had been preserved in the British Museum. One of the baboons had distorted isotopic data, so the other's oxygen isotope values were compared to those of present-day baboon specimens from regions of interest. The researchers initially found that the mummies most closely matched modern baboon specimens in Eritrea and Ethiopia, which suggested that Punt was likely a narrow region that included eastern Ethiopia and all of Eritrea.[38] In 2015, isotopic analysis of other ancient baboon mummies from Punt confirmed that the specimens likely originated from an area encompassing the Eritrea-Ethiopia corridor and eastern Somalia.[39] Ona Culture[edit] Excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization in greater Asmara. This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the earliest pastoral and agricultural communities in the Horn region. Artifacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC.[40] Additionally, the Ona culture may have had connections with the ancient Land of Punt. In a tomb in Thebes (Luxor) dated to the 18th dynasty reign of Pharaoh Amenophis II (Amenhotep II), long-necked pots similar to those that were made by the Ona people are depicted as part of the cargo in a ship from Punt.[41] Gash Group[edit] Excavations in and near Agordat in central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group.[42] Ceramics were discovered that were related to those of the C-Group (Temehu) pastoral culture, which inhabited the Nile Valley between 2500–1500 BC.[43] Some sources dating back to 3500 BC.[44] Kingdom of D'mt[edit] Main article: Dʿmt Bronze oil lamp excavated at Matara, dating from the Kingdom of Dʿmt (1st century BCE or earlier) Dʿmt was a kingdom that encompassed most of Eritrea and the northern frontier of Ethiopia. The polity existed during the 10th to 5th centuries BC. Given the presence of a massive temple complex at Yeha, this area was most likely the kingdom's capital. Qohaito, often identified as the town of Koloe in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,[45] as well as Matara were important ancient Dʿmt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea. The realm developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, the Kingdom of Aksum, which was able to reunite the area.[46] Kingdom of Aksum[edit] Main article: Kingdom of Aksum The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.[47] It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period around the 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. According to the medieval Liber Axumae (Book of Aksum), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.[48] The capital was later moved to Aksum in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century.[19][20] The Aksumites erected a number of large stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christian times. One of these granite columns, the Obelisk of Aksum, is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet (27 metres).[49] Under Ezana (fl. 320–360), Aksum later adopted Christianity.[50] In the 7th century, early Muslims from Mecca, at least companions of the Islamic Nabī , Prophet) Muhammad, sought refuge from Qurayshi persecution by travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in Islamic history as the First Hijrah. They reportedly built the first African mosque, that is the Mosque of the Companions, Massawa.[51] The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at the time ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis.[52] The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency. The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. The country is also the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant, and the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.[53] Middle Ages[edit] Medri Bahri[edit] Main article: Medri Bahri The Northern Red Sea Region, part of the Hamasien province of the medieval Medri Bahri kingdom After the decline of Aksum, the Eritrean highlands were under the domain of Bahr Negash ruled by the Bahr Negus. The area was then known as Ma'ikele Bahr ("between the seas/rivers", i.e. the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river).[54] It was later renamed under Emperor Zara Yaqob as the domain of the Bahr Negash, the Medri Bahri ("Sea land" in Tigrinya, although it included some areas like Shire on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia).[55] With its capital at Debarwa,[56] the state's main provinces were Hamasien, Serae and Akele Guzai. Turks briefly occupied the highland parts of Baharnagash in 1559 and withdrew after they encountered resistance and were pushed back by the Bahrnegash and highland forces. In 1578 they tried to expand into the highlands with the help of Bahr Negash Yisehaq who had switched alliances due to power struggle, and by 1589 once again they were apparently compelled to withdraw their forces to the coast. After that Ottomans abandoned their ambitions to establish themselves on the highlands and remained in the lowlands until they left the region by 1872.[57][58] The Scottish traveler James Bruce reported in 1771 that Medri Bahri was a distinct political entity from Abyssinia, noting that the two territories were frequently in conflict. The Bahre-Nagassi ("Kings of the Sea") alternately fought with or against the Abyssinians and the neighbouring Muslim Adal Sultanate depending on the geopolitical circumstances. Medri Bahri was thus part of the Christian resistance against Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi of Adal's forces, but later joined the Adalite states and the Ottoman Empire front against Abyssinia in 1572. That 16th century also marked the arrival of the Ottomans, who began making inroads in the Red Sea area.[59] James Bruce in his book published in 1805 reported Hadawi, the seat of Baharanagash, was part of the Tigré province of Abyssinia which was ruled by Ras Mikael Sehul at the time of his travel. The officer in Hadawi watched over the Naybe of Masawa (province of Turk's Habesh Eyalet), and starved him into obedience by intercepting his provisions, whenever the officer in Hadawi and the governor of Tigré found it necessary. Bruce also located Tigré between Red Sea and the river Tekezé and stated many large governments, such as Enderta and Antalow, and the great part of Baharhagash were on the eastern side of Tigré province.[60][61][62] Aussa Sultanate[edit] Main article: Sultanate of Aussa At the end of the 16th century, the Aussa Sultanate was established in the Denkel lowlands of Eritrea.[63] The polity had come into existence in 1577, when Muhammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Aussa (Asaita) with the split of the Adal Sultanate into Aussa and the Sultanate of Harar. At some point after 1672, Aussa declined in conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin Adam's recorded ascension to the throne.[64] In 1734, the Afar leader Kedafu, head of the Mudaito clan, seized power and established the Mudaito Dynasty.[65][66] This marked the start of a new and more sophisticated polity that would last into the colonial period.[66] Habesh Eyalet[edit] Main article: Habesh Eyalet Bahta Hagos was an important leader of the Eritrean resistance to foreign domination specifically against northern Ethiopian and Italian colonialism. By 1517, the Ottomans had succeeded in conquering Medri Bahri. They occupied all of northeastern present-day Eritrea for the next two decades, an area which stretched from Massawa to Swakin in Sudan.[59] The territory became an Ottoman governorate (eyalet), known as the Habesh Eyalet. Massawa served as the new province's first capital. When the city became of secondary economical importance, the administrative capital was soon moved across the Red Sea to Jeddah. Its headquarters remained there from the end of the 16th century to the early 19th century, with Medina temporarily serving as the capital in the 18th century.[67] The Ottomans were eventually driven out in the last quarter of the 16th century. However, they retained control over the seaboard until the establishment of Italian Eritrea in the late 1800s.[59] Modern history[edit] Italian Eritrea[edit] Main article: Italian Eritrea Map of Eritrea in 1896 The boundaries of the present-day Eritrea nation state were established during the Scramble for Africa. In 1869[68] or 1870, the ruling Sultan of Raheita sold lands surrounding the Bay of Assab to the Rubattino Shipping Company.[69] The area served as a coaling station along the shipping lanes introduced by the recently completed Suez Canal. It had long been part of the Ottoman Habesh Eyalet centered in Egypt.[70] The first Italian settlers arrived in 1880.[69] In the vacuum that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV, Gen. Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of the new colony of Italian Eritrea, a colony of the Kingdom of Italy. In the Treaty of Wuchale (It. Uccialli) signed the same year, King Menelik of Shewa, a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelek II (r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory.[71] In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888,[72] and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911.[73] The Asmara–Massawa Cableway was the longest line in the world during its time, but was later dismantled by the British in World War II. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector. It also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments.[73] Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army, serving during the Italo-Turkish War in Libya as well as the First and Second Italo-Abyssinian Wars. Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened a number of new factories, which produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide and other household commodities. In 1939, there were around 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens. The establishment of industries also made an increase in the number of both Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities. The number of Italians residing in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industries, trade and fruit plantation was expanded across the nation, while some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans.[74] In 1922, Benito Mussolini's rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea. After il Duce declared the birth of the Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and Italian Somaliland were merged with the just conquered Ethiopia in the new Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana) administrative territory. This Fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa.[75] Asmara's architecture after 1935 was greatly improved to become a "modernist Art Deco city" (in 2017 has been declared a "UNESCO World City Heritage"[76]), featuring eclectic and rationalist built forms, well-defined open spaces, and public and private buildings, including cinemas, shops, banks, religious structures, public and private offices, industrial facilities, and residences (according to UNESCO's publications). The Italians designed more than 400 buildings in a construction boom that was only halted by Italy's involvement in WW2. These included art deco masterpieces like the worldwide famous Fiat Tagliero Building and the Cinema Impero[77] Coat of Arms of Italian Eritrea Eritrean children vow allegiance to Mussolini's National Fascist Party. An Asmara station on the Eritrean Railway (1938) Eritrean tallero, coined in 1890 by the Italian government British administration[edit] Through the 1941 Battle of Keren, the British expelled the Italians,[78] and took over the administration of the country. The British placed Eritrea under British military administration until Allied forces could determine its fate. In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines and annexed partly to the British colony of Sudan and partly to Ethiopia.[citation needed] The Soviet Union, anticipating a communist victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony.[citation needed] Federation with Ethiopia[edit] Main article: Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea In the 1950s, the Ethiopian feudal administration under Emperor Haile Selassie sought to annex Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. He laid claim to both territories in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations.[79] In the United Nations, the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede all of Eritrea except the Western province to the Ethiopians as a reward for their support during World War II.[80] The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the UN General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty. Eritrean War of Independence against Ethiopia 1961–1991 Following the adoption of UN Resolution 390A(V) in December 1950, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia under the prompting of the United States.[81] The resolution called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the Emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation.[79] The federal government, which for all practical purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence, but guaranteed the population democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. Independence[edit] Main article: Eritrean War of Independence Asmara, Eritrea in 2015 In 1958, a group of Eritreans founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). The organization mainly consisted of Eritrean students, professionals and intellectuals. It engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state.[82] On 1 September 1961, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), under the leadership of Hamid Idris Awate, waged an armed struggle for independence. In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the territory. The ensuing Eritrean War of Independence went on for 30 years against successive Ethiopian governments until 1991, when the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), a successor of the ELF, defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea and helped a coalition of Ethiopian rebel forces take control of the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa. Following a UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993.[83] The EPLF seized power, established a one-party state along nationalist lines and banned further political activity. There have been no elections since. Main article: Geography of Eritrea Location and habitat[edit] Map of Eritrea Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa in East Africa. It is bordered to the northeast and east by the Red Sea, Sudan to the west, Ethiopia to the south, and Djibouti to the southeast. Eritrea lies between latitudes 12° and 18°N, and longitudes 36° and 44°E. The country is virtually bisected by a branch of the East African Rift. Eritrea, at the southern end of the Red Sea, is the home of the fork in the rift. The Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy and arid coastline. The Dahlak Archipelago Dahlak Islands in the Red Sea as seen from the International Space Station Eritrea can be split into three ecoregions. To the east of the highlands are the hot, arid coastal plains stretching down to the southeast of the country. The cooler, more fertile highlands, reaching up to 3000 m, have a different habitat. Habitats here vary from the sub-tropical rainforest at Filfil Solomona to the precipitous cliffs and canyons of the southern highlands.[84] The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another. The highest point of the country, Emba Soira, is located in the center of Eritrea, at 3,018 meters (9,902 ft) above sea level. The main cities of the country are the capital city of Asmara and the port town of Asseb in the southeast, as well as the towns of Massawa to the east, the northern town of Keren, and the central town Mendefera. Eritrea is part of a 14-nation constituency within the Global Environment Facility, which partners with international institutions, civil society organizations, and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.[85] Local variability in rainfall patterns and/or reduced precipitation is known to occur, which may precipitate soil erosion, floods, droughts, land degradation and desertification.[86] In 2006, Eritrea also announced that it would become the first country in the world to turn its entire coast into an environmentally protected zone. The 1,347 km (837 mi) coastline, along with another 1,946 km (1,209 mi) of coast around its more than 350 islands, will come under governmental protection. Highlands between Asmara and Massawa Wildlife[edit] Main article: Wildlife of Eritrea See also: List of mammals in Eritrea and List of birds of Eritrea Pelicans in a pond near Asmara Eritrea has several species of mammals and a rich avifauna of 560 species of birds.[87] Eritrea is home to an abundant amount of big game species. Enforced regulations have helped in steadily increasing their numbers throughout Eritrea.[88] Mammals commonly seen today include the Abyssinian hare, African wild cat, Black-backed jackal, African golden wolf, Genet, Ground squirrel, pale fox, Soemmerring's gazelle, warthog. Dorcas gazelle are common on the coastal plains and in Gash-Barka. A Precis pelarga butterfly species from Eritrea Lions are said to inhabit the mountains of the Gash-Barka Region. There is also a small population of African bush elephants that roam in some parts of the country. Dik-diks can also be found in many areas. The endangered African wild ass can be seen in Denakalia Region. Other local wildlife include bushbuck, duikers, greater kudu, Klipspringer, African leopards, oryx and crocodiles.[89][90] The spotted hyena is widespread and fairly common. Between 1955 and 2001 there were no reported sightings of elephant herds, and they are thought to have fallen victim to the war of independence. In December 2001 a herd of about 30, including 10 juveniles, was observed in the vicinity of the Gash River. The elephants seemed to have formed a symbiotic relationship with olive baboons, with the baboons using the water holes dug by the elephants, while the elephants use the tree-top baboons as an early warning system. Eritrean landscape near road to Massawa It is estimated that there are around 100 African bush elephant left in Eritrea, the most northerly of East Africa's elephants.[91] The endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) was previously found in Eritrea, but is now deemed extirpated from the entire country.[92] In Gash-Barka, snakes like saw-scaled viper are common. Puff adder and red spitting cobra are widespread and can be found even in the highlands. In the coastal areas marine species that are common include dolphin, dugong, whale shark, turtles, marlin, swordfish, and manta ray.[90] Climate[edit] The climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topographical features and its location within the tropics. The diversity in landscape and topography in the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea result in the diversity of climate across the country. The highlands have temperate climate throughout out the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid. The distribution of rainfall and vegetation types varies markedly throughout the country. Eritrean climate varies on the basis of seasonal and altitudinal differences. Based on variations in temperature, Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones: the temperate zone, subtropical climate zone, and tropical climate zone.[93] Climate data for Eritrea in general, based on 14 cities (91.9) 33 Daily mean °C (°F) (0.26) 6.9 (0.27) 9 (0.4) 14.8 (0.58) 20.3 Source: weatherbase[94] Government and politics[edit] Main article: Politics of Eritrea This section contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (April 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The National Assembly of Eritrea The wreath with the upright olive-branch symbol derived from the 1952 flag, which had a light blue background to honour the United Nations. The green colour in the flag stands for the agriculture and livestock of the country, the blue stands for the sea, and the red for the blood shed in the fight for freedom. The People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) is the only legal party in Eritrea.[95] Other political groups are not allowed to organize, although the unimplemented Constitution of 1997 provides for the existence of multi-party politics. The National Assembly has 150 seats. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled; none have ever been held in the country.[18] President Isaias Afwerki has been in office since independence in 1993. In 1993, seventy five representatives were elected to the National Assembly; the rest are appointed. As the report by the UN Human Rights Council explained: "No national elections have taken place since that time, and no presidential elections have ever taken place. Local or regional elections have not been held since 2003–2004." President Isaias Afwerki has regularly expressed his disdain for what he refers to as "western-style" democracy. In a 2008 interview with Al Jazeera, for example, the President stated that "Eritrea will wait three or four decades, maybe more, before it holds elections. Who knows?"[96] National elections[edit] Main article: Elections in Eritrea Eritrean National elections were set for 2001 but it was then decided that because 20% of Eritrea's land was under occupation, elections would be postponed until the resolution of the conflict with Ethiopia. However, local elections have continued in Eritrea. The most recent round of local government elections were held in 2010 and 2011. On further elections, the President's Chief of Staff, Yemane Gebremeskel said,[97] “ The electoral commission is handling these elections this time round so that may be the new element in this process. The national assembly has also mandated the electoral commission to set the date for national elections, so whenever the electoral commission sets the date there will be national elections. It's not dependent on regional elections. ” As yet, no national elections have been held since independence.[18] Military[edit] The Eritrean Defence Forces are now the official armed forces of the State of Eritrea. Eritrea's military is one of the largest in Africa. Compulsory military service was instituted in 1995. Officially, conscripts, male and female, must serve for 18 months (although a human rights inquiry stated that it lasts for decades, and sometimes life[98]), which includes six months of military training and 12 months doing "national reconstruction". Thus around 5% of Eritreans live in barracks in the desert doing projects such as road building as part of their service. After regular service, reservists with skills, such as teachers, may be forced to work as professionals anywhere. President Isaias Afewerki with U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, December 2002 The National Service Proclamation of 1995 does not recognize the right to conscientious objection to military service. According to the 1957 Ethiopian penal code adopted by Eritrea during independence, failure to enlist in the military or refusal to perform military service are punishable with imprisonment terms of six months to five years and up to ten years, respectively.[99] National service enlistment times may be extended during times of "national crisis"; since 1998, everyone under the age of 50 is enlisted in national service for an indefinite period until released, which may depend on the arbitrary decision of a commander. In a study of 200 escaped conscripts, the average service was 6.5 years, and some had served more than 12 years.[25] Legal profession[edit] According to the NYU School of Law, the Legal Committee of the Ministry of Justice oversees the admission and requirements to practice law in Eritrea. Although the establishment of an independent bar association is not proscribed under Proclamation 88/96, among other domestic laws, there is no bar association. The community electorate in the local jurisdiction of the Community Court chooses the Court's judges. The Community Court's standing on women in the legal profession is unclear, but elected women judges have reserved seat.[100] Foreign relations[edit] Main article: Foreign relations of Eritrea Eritrea is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, and is an observing member of the Arab League alongside Brazil, Venezuela and Turkey.[26] The nation holds a seat on the United Nations' Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ). Eritrea also holds memberships in the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Finance Corporation, International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa, and the World Customs Organization. The 23d ISCOE East Africa Conference in Asmara in 2019 The Eritrean government previously withdrew its representative to the African Union to protest the AU's alleged lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding border decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia. The Eritrean government has since January 2011 appointed an envoy, Tesfa-Alem Tekle, to the AU.[101] Eritrea maintains diplomatic ties with a number of other countries, including China, Denmark, Djibouti, Israel, the United States and Yemen. Its relations with Djibouti and Yemen are tense due to territorial disputes over the Doumeira Islands and Hanish Islands, respectively. On 28 May 2019, the United States removed Eritrea from the "Counterterror Non-Cooperation List" which also includes: Iran, North Korea, Syria and Venezuela.[102] Moreover, Eritrea was visited two months earlier by a US congressional delegation for the first time in 14 years.[103] Relations with Ethiopia[edit] See also: Eritrea–Ethiopia relations and Eritrean–Ethiopian War Further information: Eritrean War of Independence and Eritrean independence referendum, 1993 The Independence Day of Eritrea is one of the most important public holidays in the country. The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue currently facing Eritrea. Eritrea's relations with Ethiopia turned from that of cautious mutual tolerance, following the 30-year war for Eritrean independence, to a deadly rivalry that led to the outbreak of hostilities from May 1998 to June 2000 which claimed approximately 70,000 lives from both sides.[104] The border conflict cost hundreds of millions of dollars.[105] Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war.[106][107][108] The stalemate led the President of Eritrea to urge the UN to take action on Ethiopia with the Eleven Letters penned by the President to the United Nations Security Council. The situation has been further escalated by the continued efforts of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting opposition in one another's countries.[citation needed] In 2011, Ethiopia accused Eritrea of planting bombs at an African Union summit in Addis Ababa, which was later supported by a UN report. Eritrea denied the claims.[109] A peace treaty between both nations was signed on 8 July 2018.[110] The next day, they signed a joint declaration formally ending the Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict.[111][112] Administrative divisions[edit] Main articles: Regions of Eritrea and Districts of Eritrea Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions. These areas are further divided into 58 districts. A map of Eritrea regions. 1.Northern Red Sea, 2.Anseba, 3.Gash-Barka, 4.Central(to right), 5.Southern, 6.Southern Red Sea Regions of Eritrea Central 1,300 1,053,254 Asmara Anseba 23,200 893,587 Keren Gash-Barka 33,200 1,103,742 Barentu Southern 8,000 1,476,765 Mendefera Northern Red Sea 27,800 897,454 Massawa Southern Red Sea 27,600 398,073 Assab The regions of Eritrea are the primary geographical divisions through which the country is administered. Six in total, they include the Maekel/Central, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Debub/Southern, Northern Red Sea and Southern Red Sea regions. At the time of independence in 1993, Eritrea was arranged into ten provinces. These provinces were similar to the nine provinces operating during the colonial period. In 1996, these were consolidated into six regions (zobas). The boundaries of these new regions are based on catchment basins. Largest cities[edit] Largest cities or towns in Eritrea Keren 1 Asmara Maekel 650,000 Massawa Assab 2 Keren Anseba 82,198 3 Massawa Northern Red Sea 53,090 4 Assab Southern Red Sea 28,000 5 Mendefera Debub 25,332 6 Barentu Gash-Barka 15,891 7 Adi Keyh Debub 13,061 8 Edd Southern Red Sea 11,259 9 Dekemhare Debub 10,959 10 Ak'ordat Gash-Barka 8,857 Transportation[edit] Main article: Transport in Eritrea Eritrean mountain road Transport in Eritrea includes highways, airports, railway, and seaports in addition to various forms of public and private vehicular, maritime and aerial transportation. The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification. The three levels of classification are: primary (P), secondary (S), and tertiary (T). The lowest level road is tertiary and serves local interests. Typically they are improved earth roads which are occasionally paved. During the wet seasons these roads typically become impassable. The next higher level road is a secondary road and typically is a single-layered asphalt road that connects district capitals together and those to the regional capitals. Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully asphalted (throughout their entire length) and in general they carry traffic between all the major cities and towns in Eritrea. Eritrean steam train on the Eritrean Railway As of 1999, there is a total of 317 kilometres of 950 mm (3 ft 1 3⁄8 in) (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea. The Eritrean Railway was built between 1887 and 1932. [113] [114] Badly damaged during WWII and in later fighting, it was closed section by section, with the final closure coming in 1978. [115]After independence, a rebuilding effort commenced, and the first rebuilt section was reopened in 2003. As of 2009, the section from Massawa to Asmara was fully rebuilt and available for service. Rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock has occurred in recent years. Current service is very limited due to the extreme age of most of the railway equipment and its limited availability. Further rebuilding is planned. The railway linking Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa; had been inoperative since 1978 except for about a 5 kilometre stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994. A railway formerly ran from Massawa to Bishia via Asmara, and is under re-construction. Main article: Economy of Eritrea Eritrea's main exports, 2013 The economy of Eritrea has experienced considerable growth in recent years, indicated by an improvement in gross domestic product (GDP) in October 2012 of 7.5% over 2011.[116] A big reason for the recent growth of the Eritrean economy is the commencement of full operations in the gold and silver Bisha mine and the production of cement from the cement factory in Massawa.[117] An Eritrean Airlines Boeing 767-366/ER aircraft. The national carrier is based in Asmara. The real GDP (2009 est.): $1.8 billion, and the annual growth rate (2011 est.):14%.[118][119] Worker remittances from abroad are estimated to account for 32% of gross domestic product.[16] Eritrea has an extensive amount of resources such as copper, gold, granite, marble, and potash. The Eritrean economy has undergone extreme changes due to the War of Independence. In 2011, Eritrea's GDP grew by 8.7% making it one of the fastest growing economies in the world.[120] 80% of the Eritrean workforce are employed in agriculture.[121] Eritrea's main agricultural products include sorghum, millet, barley, wheat, legumes, vegetables, fruits, sesame, linseed, cattle, sheep, goats and camels.[122] The Eritrean–Ethiopian War severely hurt Eritrea's economy. GDP growth in 1999 fell to less than 1%, and GDP decreased by 8.2% in 2000. In May 2000, the war resulted in some $600 million in property damage and loss, including losses of $225 million in livestock and 55,000 homes. Even during the war, Eritrea developed its transportation infrastructure by asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war-damaged roads and bridges as a part of the Wefri Warsay Yika'alo program. The most significant of these projects was the construction of a coastal highway of more than 500 km connecting Massawa with Asseb, as well as the rehabilitation of the Eritrean Railway. The rail line has been restored between the port of Massawa and the capital Asmara, although services are sporadic. Steam locomotives are sometimes used for groups of enthusiasts. In theory, Eritrea has a national carrier, Eritrean Airlines, but services are intermittent. Demographics[edit] Main article: Demographics of Eritrea A group of people in traditional attires Eritrea's population increased from 3.2 million to 5,755,124 million between 1990 and 2020. [13]The average number of children born to Eritrean mothers is 4.1. Ethnic composition[edit] There are nine recognized ethnic groups according to the government of Eritrea.[18][123] Eritrean society is ethnically heterogeneous. An independent census has yet to be conducted, but the Tigrinya people make up about 55% and Tigre people make up about 30% of the population. A majority of the remaining ethnic groups belong to Afroasiatic-speaking communities of the Cushitic branch, such as the Saho, Hedareb, Afar and Bilen. There are also a number of Nilotic ethnic minorities, who are represented in Eritrea by the Kunama and Nara. Each ethnicity speaks a different native tongue but, typically, many of the minorities speak more than one language. The Rashaida represent about 2% of Eritrea's population.[6] They reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea as well as the eastern coasts of Sudan. The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the 19th century from the Hejaz region.[124] In addition, there exist Italian Eritrean (concentrated in Asmara) and Ethiopian Tigrayan communities. Neither is generally given citizenship unless through marriage or, more rarely, by having it conferred upon them by the State. Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians, in 1941.[125] Most Italians left after Eritrea became independent from Italy. It is estimated up to 100,000 Eritreans are of Italian descent.[126][127] Languages[edit] Main article: Languages of Eritrea Population pyramid of Eritrea 2016 Population in Eritrea[12][13] Eritrea is a multilingual country. The nation has no official language, as the Constitution establishes the "equality of all Eritrean languages".[128] Eritrea has nine national languages which are Tigrinya language, Tigre, Afar, Beja, Bilen, Kunama, Nara, Saho. Tigrinya, Arabic, and English serve as de facto working languages, with the latter used in university education and many technical fields. While Italian, the former colonial language, holds no government recognized status in Eritrea, it is spoken by a few monolinguals and Asmara has Scuola Italiana di Asmara, a long running Italian government-operated school.[2] Also, native Eritreans assimilated the language of the Italian Eritreans and spoke a version of Italian mixed with many Tigrinya words: Eritrean Italian.[129] Tigrinya serves as the de facto language of national identity. With 2,540,000 total speakers of a population of 5,254,000 in 2006, it is the most widely spoken language, particularly in the southern and central parts of Eritrea. Most of the languages spoken in Eritrea belong to the Ethiopian Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family.[130] Other Afroasiatic languages belonging to the Cushitic branch are also widely spoken in the country.[130] The latter include Afar, Beja, Blin, and Saho. Smaller groups also speak other Afroasiatic languages, such as the newly recognized Dahlik and Arabic (the Hejazi and Hadhrami dialects spoken by the Rashaida and Hadhrami, respectively). In addition, Nilo-Saharan languages (Kunama and Nara) are spoken as a native language by the Nilotic Kunama and Nara ethnic minority groups that live in the northern and northwestern part of the country.[130] Main article: Religion in Eritrea Eritrea religious groups U.S Department of State 2011[131] Pew Research Center 2010[132] Religion Percent According to the Pew Research Center, as of 2010[update], 62.9% of the population of Eritrea adheres to Christianity, 36.6% follows Islam, and 0.4% practices folk religion. The remainder observes Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism and other faiths (<0.1% each), or are religiously unaffiliated (0.1%).[132] The U.S. Department of State estimates that, as of 2011[update], 50% of the population of Eritrea adheres to Christianity, 48% follows Islam, and 2% observes other religions, including traditional faiths and animism.[131] Since May 2002, the government of Eritrea has officially recognized the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (Oriental Orthodox), Sunni Islam, the Eritrean Catholic Church (a Metropolitanate sui juris), and the Evangelical Lutheran church. All other faiths and denominations are required to undergo a registration process.[133] Among other things, the government's registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information on their membership to be allowed to worship.[133] The 15th century Sheikh Hanafi Mosque in Massawa Church of Our Lady of the Rosary in the capital Asmara The Eritrean government is against what it deems as "reformed" or "radical" versions of its established religions. Therefore, alleged radical forms of Islam and Christianity, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Bahá'í Faith (though the Bahá'í Faith is neither Islamic nor Christian), the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and numerous other non-Protestant Evangelical denominations are not registered and cannot worship freely. Three named Jehovah's Witnesses are known to have been imprisoned since 1994 along with 51 others.[134][135][136] The government treats Jehovah's Witnesses especially harshly, denying them ration cards and work permits.[137] Jehovah's Witnesses were stripped of their citizenship and basic civil rights by presidential decree in October 1994.[138] In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC).[139] UNESCO world heritage site[edit] On 8th July 2017 the capital of Asmara became listed as a UNESCO world heritage site. The inscription took place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session. The city which has thousands of modernist, art deco, futurist and rationalists buildings which were built during Italian imperialist period during 1890-1940.[140][141][142][143][144] [145] The city, nicknamed “La piccola Roma” – or “Little Rome” which is located over 2000 meter above sea level was a ideal spot for constructing the buildings due to its cooler climate. The Italian architects used a combination of Italian and local materials. Some of the many famous buildings include the Fiat Tagliero Building which was built as a garage and shaped like air plane. Other buildings include opera houses, hotels and cinemas such as Cinema Impero. A statement from UNESCO read: “ It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context. ” — UNESCO [146] Some of the buildings included in the Asmara UNESCO World Heritage Site Teatro d'opera, opera house A University of Asmara building Villa Roma, Italian embassy Fiat tagliero building Human rights[edit] Main article: Human rights in Eritrea Building of regional administration in Asmara Eritrea is a one-party state in which national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed.[22] According to Human Rights Watch, the government's human rights record is considered among the worst in the world.[23] Most Western countries have accused the Eritrean authorities of arbitrary arrest and detentions, and of detaining an unknown number of people without charge for their political activism. However, the Eritrean government has continually dismissed the accusations as politically motivated.[24] Both male and female same-sex sexual activity is illegal in Eritrea.[147] A prominent group of fifteen Eritreans, called the G-15, including three cabinet members, were arrested in September 2001 after publishing an open letter to the government and President Isaias Afewerki calling for democratic dialogue. This group and thousands of others who were alleged to be affiliated with them are imprisoned without legal charges, hearing, trial and judgment.[148][149] Since Eritrea's conflict with Ethiopia in 1998–2001, the nation's human rights record has been criticized at the United Nations.[150] Human rights violations are allegedly often committed by the government or on behalf of the government. Freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association are limited. Those who practice "unregistered" religions, try to flee the nation, or escape military duty are arrested and put into prison.[150] During the Eritrean independence struggle and 1998 Eritrean-Ethiopian War, many atrocities were also committed by the Ethiopian authorities against unarmed Eritrean civilians.[151][152] In June 2016, a 500-page United Nations Human Rights Council report accused Eritrea's government of extrajudicial executions, torture, indefinitely prolonged national service (6.5 years on average) and forced labour, and indicated that sexual harassment, rape and sexual servitude by state officials are also widespread.[7][153] Barbara Lochbihler of the European Parliament Subcommittee on Human Rights said the report detailed 'very serious human rights violations', and asserted that EU funding for development would not continue as at present without change in Eritrea.[154] The Eritrean Foreign Ministry responded by describing the Commission's report as "wild allegations" which were "totally unfounded and devoid of all merit".[155] Several countries also disputed the report's language and accuracy, including the US and China.[156] A street in the capital Asmara. All Eritreans aged between 18 and 40 years must complete a mandatory national service, which includes military service. This requirement was implemented after Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia, as a means to protect Eritrea's sovereignty, to instill national pride, and to create a disciplined populace.[25] Eritrea's national service requires long, indefinite conscription (6.5 years on average), which some Eritreans leave the country in order to avoid.[25][157][158] In an attempt at reform, Eritrean government officials and NGO representatives in 2006 participated in many public meetings and dialogues. In these sessions they answered questions as fundamental as, "What are human rights?", "Who determines what are human rights?", and "What should take precedence, human or communal rights?"[159] In 2007, the Eritrean government also banned female genital mutilation.[160] In Regional Assemblies and religious circles, Eritreans themselves speak out continuously against the use of female circumcision. They cite health concerns and individual freedom as being of primary concern when they say this. Furthermore, they implore rural peoples to cast away this ancient cultural practice.[161][162] In 2009, a movement called Citizens for Democratic Rights in Eritrea formed to create dialogue between the government and political opposition. The group consists of ordinary citizens and some people close to the government.[163] In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Eritrea, have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim minority groups in the Xinjiang region.[164] Media freedom[edit] In its 2017 Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked the media environment in Eritrea at the bottom of a list of 180 countries.[165] According to the BBC, "Eritrea is the only African country to have no privately owned news media",[166] and Reporters Without Borders said of the public media, "[They] do nothing but relay the regime's belligerent and ultra-nationalist discourse. ... Not a single [foreign correspondent] now lives in Asmara."[167] The state-owned news agency censors news about external events.[168] Independent media have been banned since 2001.[168] The Eritrean authorities had reportedly imprisoned the fourth highest number of journalists after Turkey, China and Egypt.[169] Health care[edit] Main article: Health in Eritrea Eritrea has achieved significant improvements in health care and is one of the few countries to be on target to meet its Millennium Development Goals (MDG) for health, in particular child health.[170] Life expectancy at birth increased from 39.1 years in 1960 to 59.5 years in 2008; maternal and child mortality rates dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure expanded.[170] Due to Eritrea's relative isolation, information and resources are extremely limited and the World Health Organisation (WHO) in 2008 found average life expectancy to be slightly less than 63 years. Immunisation and child nutrition have been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi-sectoral approach; the number of children vaccinated against measles almost doubled in seven years, from 40.7% to 78.5% and the prevalence of underweight children decreased by 12% from 1995 to 2002 (severe underweight prevalence by 28%).[170] The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health registered reductions in malarial mortality by as much as 85% and in the number of cases by 92% between 1998 and 2006.[170] The Eritrean government has banned female genital mutilation (FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life-threatening health problems.[171] However, Eritrea still faces many challenges. Although the number of physicians increased from only 0.2 in 1993 to 0.5 in 2004 per 1000 people, this is still very low.[170] Malaria and tuberculosis are common.[172] HIV prevalence for ages 15 to 49 years exceeds 2%.[172] The fertility rate is about 5 births per woman.[172] Maternal mortality dropped by more than half from 1995 to 2002, but is still high.[170] Similarly, the number of births attended by skilled health personnel doubled from 1995 to 2002, but still is only 28.3%.[170] A major cause of death in newborns is severe infection.[172] Per-capita expenditure on health is low.[172] Education[edit] Main article: Education in Eritrea The Eritrea Institute of Technology Eritrean pupils in uniform There are five levels of education in Eritrea: pre-primary, primary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary. There are nearly 238,000 students in the primary, middle, and secondary levels of education. There are approximately 824 schools,[173] two universities (the University of Asmara and the Eritrea Institute of Technology) and several smaller colleges and technical schools. Education in Eritrea is officially compulsory for children aged 7 to 13 years . However, the education infrastructure is inadequate to meet current needs. Statistics vary at the elementary level, suggesting that 65% to 70% of school-aged children attend primary school; Approximately 61% attend secondary school. Student-teacher ratios are high: 45:1 at the elementary level and 54:1 at the secondary level. Class sizes average 63 and 97 students per classroom at the elementary and secondary school levels, respectively. Learning hours at school are often less than six hours per day. However, the literacy rate is high: for ages 18 to 24 years, it is 92.6% for men and 87.7% for women (2008–2012)[174] Overall literacy is 84%.[175] Barriers to education in Eritrea include traditional taboos, school fees (for registration and materials), and the opportunity costs of low-income households.[176] The Eritrea Institute of Technology "EIT" is a technological institute located near the town Himbrti, Mai Nefhi outside Asmara. The institute has three colleges: Science, Engineering and Technology, and Education. The institute began with about 5,500 students during the 2003-2004 academic year. The EIT was opened after the University of Asmara was reorganized. According to the Ministry of Education, the institution was established, as one of many efforts to achieve equal distribution of higher learning in areas outside the capital city, Asmara. Accordingly, several similar colleges are also established in different other parts of the country. The Eritrea Institute of Technology is the main local institute of higher studies in science, engineering and education. The University of Asmara is the oldest University in the country and was opened in 1958. [177] Culture[edit] Main article: Culture of Eritrea An Eritrean woman pouring traditionally brewed coffee from a jebena during a coffee ceremony One of the most recognizable parts of Eritrean culture is the coffee ceremony.[178] Coffee (Ge'ez ቡን būn) is offered when visiting friends, during festivities, or as a daily staple of life. During the coffee ceremony, there are traditions that are upheld. The coffee is served in three rounds: the first brew or round is called awel in Tigrinya (meaning "first"), the second round is called kalaay (meaning "second"), and the third round is called bereka (meaning "to be blessed"). Traditional Eritrean attire is quite varied among the ethnic groups of Eritrea. In the larger cities, most people dress in Western casual dress such as jeans and shirts. In offices, both men and women often dress in suits. A common traditional clothing for Christian Tigrayan highlanders consists of bright white gowns called zurias for the women, and a white shirt accompanied by white pants for the men. In Muslim communities in the Eritrean lowland, the women traditionally dress in brightly colored clothes. Besides convergent culinary tastes, Eritreans share an appreciation for similar music and lyrics, jewelry and fragrances, and tapestry and fabrics as many other populations in the Horn region.[179] Cuisine[edit] See also: Eritrean cuisine Eritrean injera with various stews A typical traditional Eritrean dish consists of injera accompanied by a spicy stew, which frequently includes beef, chicken, lamb or fish.[180] Overall, Eritrean cuisine strongly resembles those of neighboring Ethiopia,[180][181] Eritrean cooking tend to feature more seafood than Ethiopian cuisine on account of their coastal location.[180] Eritrean dishes are also frequently "lighter" in texture than Ethiopian meals. They likewise tend to employ less seasoned butter and spices and more tomatoes, as in the tsebhi dorho delicacy. Additionally, owing to its colonial history, cuisine in Eritrea features more Italian influences than are present in Ethiopian cooking, including more pasta and greater use of curry powders and cumin.The Italian Eritrean cuisine started to be practiced during the colonial times of the Kingdom of Italy, when a large number of Italians moved to Eritrea. They brought the use of "pasta" to Italian Eritrea, and it is one of the main food eaten in present-day Asmara. An Italian Eritrean cuisine emerged, and common dishes are 'Pasta al Sugo e Berbere', which means "Pasta with tomato sauce and berbere" (spice), but there are many more like "lasagna" and "cotoletta alla milanese" (milano cutlet).[182] Alongside sowa, people in Eritrea also tend to drink coffee.[180] Mies is another popular local alcoholic beverage, made out of honey.[183] Music[edit] Main article: Music of Eritrea Eritrean artist Helen Meles Eritrea's ethnic groups each have their own styles of music and accompanying dances. Amongst the Tigrinya, the best known traditional musical genre is the guaila. Traditional instruments of Eritrean folk music include the stringed krar, kebero, begena, masenqo and the wata (a distant/rudimentary cousin of the violin). A popular Eritrean artist is the Tigrinya singer Helen Meles, who is noted for her powerful voice and wide singing range.[184] Other prominent local musicians include the Kunama singer Dehab Faytinga, Ruth Abraha, Bereket Mengisteab, the late Yemane Ghebremichael, and the late Abraham Afewerki. Sports[edit] See also: Sport in Eritrea Tour of Eritrea Cycling competetition in Asmara Eritrea Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea. In recent years, Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena. Zersenay Tadese, an Eritrean athlete, formerly held the world record in the half marathon.[185] Ghirmay Ghebreslassie became the first Eritrean to win a gold medal at a World Championships in Athletics for his country when he took the marathon at the 2015 World Championships.[186] Eritrea made Winter Olympic debut 25 February 2018 when they competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea 2018. Eritrea's team was represented by their flagbearer Shannon-Ogbnai Abeda who competed as alpine skier.[187] The Tour of Eritrea, a multi-stage cycling event, is held annually since 1946 throughout the country. Cycling has a long tradition in Eritrea and was first introduced during the colonial period.[188][189] Six Eritrean riders have been signed to international cycling teams, including Natnael Berhane and Daniel Teklehaimanot. Berhane was named African Sportsman of the Year in 2013, while Teklehaimanot became the first Eritrean to ride the Vuelta a España in 2012.[190] In 2015, Teklehaimanot won the King of the Mountains classification in the Critérium du Dauphiné. Teklehaimanot and fellow Eritrean Merhawi Kudus became the first black cyclists from Africa to compete in the Tour de France, when they were selected by the MTN–Qhubeka team for the 2015 edition of the race.[191] In July of the year, Teklehaimanot also became the first rider from an African team to wear the polka dot jersey at the Tour de France.[192] The Eritrea national cycling team has experienced a lot of success, winning the continental cycling championship several years in a row. The national cycling teams of both men and women are ranked first on the African continent. The men's team have won gold several years in a row. 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Retrieved 2 May 2010. ^ "Italiano e dialetti fuori d'Italia" [Italian and dialects out of Italy]. www.viv-it.org (in Italian). Retrieved 17 May 2019. ^ a b c Minahan, James (1998). Miniature empires: a historical dictionary of the newly independent states. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-313-30610-5. The majority of the Eritreans speak Ethiopian Semitic languages, mainly Tigrinya and Tigre, other languages belongs to Cushitic languages of the Afroasiatic language group. The Kunama, and other groups in the north and northwest speak Nilotic languages. ^ a b "Eritrea". U.S. State Department. ^ a b "Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ a b Fisher, Jonah (17 September 2004). "Religious persecution in Eritrea". BBC News. Retrieved 11 December 2009. ^ "Jehovah's Witnesses — Eritrea Country Profile – October 2008". Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2009. ^ "Twenty Years of Imprisonment in Eritrea—Will It Ever End?". jw.org. Retrieved 25 September 2014. ^ "UN Report on Eritrea's Human Rights Violations". jw.org. Retrieved 21 October 2015. ^ "Eritrea: Diplomacy Changes, but Political Prisoners Remain". Human Rights Watch. ^ "Eritrea: 20 Years and Counting – The Exceptional Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses". Human Rights Concern - Eritrea (HRCE). ^ "International Religious Freedom Report, 2017" (PDF). U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1550/ ^ https://qz.com/africa/1026237/eritreas-asmara-is-now-a-unesco-world-heritage-site-and-should-boost-tourism/ ^ https://www.africanews.com/2017/07/12/eritrea-capital-asmara-makes-unesco-world-heritage-list/ ^ https://www.dw.com/en/eritreas-capital-added-to-unesco-world-heritage-site-list/a-39609655 ^ https://www.apollo-magazine.com/eritrea-italy-modernist-architecture/ ^ https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/design/asmara-eritrea-art-deco-unesco-architecture-italy-little-rome-world-heritage-a8040871.html ^ https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1550 ^ "71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal". Newsweek. 4 April 2019. ^ Zere, Abraham Tesfalul (20 August 2015). "'If we don't give them a voice, no one will': Eritrea's forgotten journalists, still jailed after 14 years The country is ranked worst in the world for press freedom, its writers locked in secret jails. Here, PEN Eritrea profiles the men who fought for a free press, and paid the price". Guardian. ^ "Who are the Eritrean G15? And where are they now?". Eritrean G-15 advocacy site. 4 October 2014. Archived from the original on 23 October 2015. ^ a b "Eritrea's human rights record comes under fire at United Nations". The Guardian. Associated Press. 25 October 2013. Retrieved 30 October 2013. ^ Tracey L. Cousin. "Eritrean and Ethiopian Civil War". ICE Case Studies. Archived from the original on 11 September 2007. Retrieved 3 September 2007. ^ "A critical look into the Ethiopian elections". Archived from the original on 29 November 2006. Retrieved 19 February 2007. ^ Jones, Sam. "Eritrea human rights abuses may be crimes against humanity, says UN". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 June 2015. The report 'catalogues a litany of human rights violations by the "totalitarian" regime of President Isaias Afwerki "on a scope and scale seldom witnessed elsewhere"' said The Guardiandate=8 June 2015 ^ "Human rights: EU 'should put more pressure on Eritrea'". Deutsche Welle. 23 June 2015. Archived from the original on 4 July 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2015. ^ "Eritrea: Asmara Lashes Out at UN's 'Vile Slanders'". AllAfrica news website. 10 June 2015. Archived from the original on 11 June 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2015. ^ Miles, Tom. "Eritrea escapes U.N. Security Council referral over human rights". AF. Retrieved 17 September 2017. ^ "Professor to lecture on African refugees of Eritrea". The Daily Beacon. Archived from the original on 21 November 2014. ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (5 May 2015). "Young African Migrants, Enticed by Smugglers, End Up Mired in Libya". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 May 2015. ^ "Public Dialogue Human Rights in Eritrea". 1 June 2006. Archived from the original on 8 September 2006. Retrieved 10 September 2006. ^ "Eritrea bans female circumcision". BBC News. 4 April 2007. ^ "Anseba Religious leaders condemn female circumcision". Eritrea Ministry of Information. 31 August 2006. Archived from the original on 20 June 2007. ^ "Religious leaders of Northern Red Sea region condemn female circumcision". Eritrea Ministry of Information. 9 September 2006. [dead link] ^ Plaut, Martin (11 January 2009). "Eritrea group seeks human rights". BBC News. ^ "Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies?". The Diplomat. 15 July 2019. ^ "Press Freedom Index 2017 – Reporters Without Borders". Reports Without Borders. ^ "Country profile: Eritrea". BBC News. 30 November 2010. ^ "World Report – Eritrea – Reporters Without Borders". Reports Without Borders. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2011. ^ a b Keita, Mohamed (18 February 2011). "Sub-Saharan Africa censors Mideast protests". Committee to Protect Journalists. ^ "Number of Jailed Journalists Hits Record High, Advocacy Group Says". The New York Times. 13 December 2017. ^ a b c d e f g Rodríguez Pose, Romina; Samuels, Fiona (December 2010). "Progress in health in Eritrea: Cost-effective inter-sectoral interventions and a long-term perspective". Overseas Development Institute. London: Overseas Development Institute. Archived from the original on 28 December 2010. ^ "IRIN Africa | ERITREA: Government outlaws female genital mutilation | Human Rights". IRIN. 5 April 2007. Retrieved 17 July 2011. ^ a b c d e Health profile at Eritrea WHO Country Office. afro.who.int ^ Baseline Study on Livelihood Systems in Eritrea (PDF). National Food Information System of Eritrea. January 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2013. ^ Statistics | Eritrea. UNICEF. Retrieved on 5 June 2016. ^ Adult literacy rate, population 15+ years, male (%) | Data | Table. Data.worldbank.org. Retrieved on 15 January 2020. ^ Kifle, Temesgen (2002). Educational Gender Gap in Eritrea. PDF copy ^ http://www.uoa.edu.er ^ It's coffee time Archived 4 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine Network Africa Online, April 2008 interview. ^ Tekle, Amare (1994). Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation. The Red Sea Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0932415974. ^ a b c d Goyan Kittler, Pamela; Sucher, Kathryn P.; Nahikian-Nelms, Marcia (2011). Food and Culture, 6th ed. Cengage Learning. p. 202. ISBN 978-0538734974. ^ Carman, Tim (9 January 2009). "Mild Frontier: the differences between Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisines come down to more than spice". Washington City Paper. Retrieved 12 March 2013. ^ Eritrea: Travel Trade Manual. Ministry of Tourism of Eritrea. 2000. p. 4. ^ Blum, Bruno (2007). De l'art de savoir chanter, danser et jouer la bamboula comme un éminent musicien africain: le guide des musiques africaines. Scali. p. 198. ISBN 978-2350121970. ^ World records ratified. Iaaf.org (8 May 2010). Retrieved 20 September 2013. ^ "World Athletics Championships 2015: Eritrean teen Ghirmay Ghebreslassie wins men's marathon title". smh.com.au. 22 August 2015. Retrieved 22 August 2015. ^ Rieger, Sarah (28 December 2017). "Calgary skier headed to Winter Olympics... but not with Team Canada". CBC News. Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Retrieved 31 December 2017. ^ https://www.sbs.com.au/cyclingcentral/article/2017/07/28/cycling-isolated-eritreas-window-world ^ https://thebestofafrica.org/content/eritrea-and-cycling-an-unlikely-relationship ^ "Berhane could become the first Eritrean to ride the Tour de France". Cycling News. 2 March 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2014. ^ "Heroes welcome for Daniel Teklehaimanot and Merhawi Kudus in Eritrea". Caperi. 1 August 2015. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2016. ^ "Eritrea's Daniel Teklehaimanot 1st African to wear the King of the Mountains jersey at the Tour de France". Caperi. 9 July 2015. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2016. ^ Eritrean Cycling Team Wins the 2015 African Continental Cycling Championships TTT – Archived 9 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Raimoq.com (10 February 2015). Retrieved on 5 June 2016. ^ 'Next wave of riders is even better' – Eritrean cycling preparing to peak. The Guardian (17 August 2015). Retrieved on 5 June 2016. ^ Eritrean national teams rank first at the African Cycling Championship time race – Archived 9 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Raimoq.com (1 December 2013). Retrieved on 5 June 2016. ^ https://www.procyclingstats.com/race/african-cycling-championships-ttt/2019 Beretekeab, R. (2000); Eritrea: The Making of a Nation 1890–1991. Thesis. Uppsala University, Uppsala. ISBN 9789150613872. OCLC 632423867. Cliffe, Lionel; Connell, Dan; Davidson, Basil (2005), Taking on the Superpowers: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1976–1982). Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-188-0 Cliffe, Lionel & Davidson, Basil (1988), The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace. Spokesman Press, ISBN 0-85124-463-7 Connell, Dan (1997), Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution With a New Afterword on the Postwar Transition. Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-046-9 Connell, Dan (2001), Rethinking Revolution: New Strategies for Democracy & Social Justice: The Experiences of Eritrea, South Africa, Palestine & Nicaragua. Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-145-7 Connell, Dan (2004), Conversations with Eritrean Political Prisoners. Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-235-6 Connell, Dan (2005), Building a New Nation: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1983–2002). Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-198-8 Firebrace, James & Holand, Stuart (1985), Never Kneel Down: Drought, Development and Liberation in Eritrea. Red Sea Press, ISBN 0-932415-00-8 Gebre-Medhin, Jordan (1989), Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea. Red Sea Press, ISBN 0-932415-38-5 Hatem Elliesie: Decentralisation of Higher Education in Eritrea, Afrika Spectrum, Vol. 43 (2008) No. 1, p. 115–120. Hill, Justin (2002), Ciao Asmara, A classic account of contemporary Africa. Little, Brown, ISBN 978-0-349-11526-9 Iyob, Ruth (1997), The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941–1993. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-59591-6 Jacquin-Berdal, Dominique; Plaut, Martin (2004), Unfinished Business: Ethiopia and Eritrea at War. Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-217-8 Johns, Michael (1992), "Does Democracy Have a Chance", Congressional Record, 6 May 1992 Keneally, Thomas (1990), To Asmara ISBN 0-446-39171-9 Kendie, Daniel (2005), The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle. Signature Book Printing, ISBN 1-932433-47-3 Killion, Tom (1998), Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Scarecrow Press, ISBN 0-8108-3437-5 Mauri, Arnaldo (2004), "Eritrea's Early Stages in Monetary and Banking Development", International Review of Economics, Vol. LI, n. 4. Mauri, Arnaldo (1998), "The First Monetary and Banking Experiences in Eritrea", African Review of Money, Finance and Banking, n. 1–2. Miran, Jonathan (2009), Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa. Indiana University Press, ISBN 978-0-253-22079-0 Müller, Tanja R.: Bare life and the developmental State: the Militarization of Higher Education in Eritrea, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 46 (2008), No. 1, p. 1–21. Negash T. (1987); Italian Colonisation in Eritrea: Policies, Praxis and Impact, Uppsala Univwersity, Uppsala. Ogbaselassie, G (10 January 2006). "Response to remarks by Mr. David Triesman, Britain's parliamentary under-secretary of state with responsibility for Africa". Retrieved 7 June 2006. Pateman, Roy (1998), Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning. Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-057-4 Phillipson, David W. (1998), Ancient Ethiopia. Reid, Richard. (2011). Frontiers of Violence in North-East Africa: Genealogies of Conflict Since c. 1800. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199211883 Wrong, Michela (2005), I Didn't Do It For You: How the World Betrayed a Small African Nation. Harper Collins, ISBN 0-06-078092-4 Eritreaat Wikipedia's sister projects Ministry of Information of Eritrea (official government website). EriTV News, Music, Movie and Comedy from Eritrea Television "Eritrea". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Eritrea web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries Eritrea at Curlie Eritrea profile from BBC News. Wikimedia Atlas of Eritrea Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea, United Nations Human Rights Council Report, 8 June 2015 HRCE – Human Rights Concern – Eritrea Documentary on Women's liberation in Eritrea Tigrinya online learning with numbers, alphabet and history (Eritrea and north Ethiopia (Tigray-Province)). Ferrovia Eritrea Eritrean Railway (in Italian) Atlas of Eritrea About Eritrea (in Italian) Key Development Forecasts for Eritrea from International Futures. Special section about Eritrea from Espresso online magazine (in Italian) History of Eritrea: First recordings – Munzinger – exploitation by colonialism and fight against colonialism (Italy, England, Ethiopia, Soviet Union, USA, Israel) – independence Eritrea articles Kingdom of Dʿmt Kingdom of Aksum Medri Bahri Italian Eritrea Nakfa (currency) List of Eritreans Countries and territories of Africa Entirely or mostly Pelagie Islands Plazas de soberanía Territories and Îles Éparses 1 Unclear sovereignty. Countries bordering the Red Sea African Union (AU) Decolonisation of Africa Casablanca Group Monrovia Group African and Malagasy Union Abuja Treaty Sirte Declaration Lome Summit Organisation of African Unity Permanent Representatives' Committee Specialized Technical Committees Deputy Chairperson AUCC Pan-African Parliament Gallagher Estate African Court of Justice African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights ECOSOCC Committees Social Affairs and Health HR, Sciences and Technology Trade and Industry Rural Economy and Agriculture Cross-Cutting Programs AFRA Commission African Central Bank African Monetary Fund African Investment Bank ACIRC African Standby Force Panel of the Wise UNAMID AMIB APRM African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights United States Africa Command (United States military bases) Currencies (Gold standard) African Economic Community NEPAD African Continental Free Trade Area Single African Air Transport Market United States of Latin Africa Community of Sahel–Saharan States (CEN-SAD) MusicBrainz: 2005d841-29df-3445-8b5c-c981de756bd3 TDVİA: eritre

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Yup Tab Why Patients Should Cooperate with Doctors in Health Care by yup tab Medical care in this society is a complex issue as many people struggle with availability of health care due to loss of jobs and insurance benefits. In the United Kingdom they have a National Health System (NHS) for people who need to rely on public health care. Professor Martyn Evans of Durham University in the UK; made comments regarding the responsible use of the National Health System in the publication “State of Healthcare” annual report published on December 10, 2008. Professor Evans pointed out that people who want access to free health care provided by the National Health Service (NHS) should behave more responsibly. Patients should recognize they have to take responsibility for their own health if they want access to free healthcare. Patients should comply with ten moral duties, requiring them to look after themselves and other people around them. Patients should use access to public health care in a responsible way. NHS resources are being drained by people who neglect their health and the health of others. Professor Evans stated in a press release, “Widespread behavior that is adverse to health and to the effectiveness of the NHS, such as binge drinking and missing GP appointments, is on the increase. There is clearly a need to state more clearly the responsibilities patients have to secure the future of the free public healthcare system. Professor Evans noted that most people have no control of when and how they get sick. There are many people who do fall ill because of lifestyle choices and lack of regard for their own health and the health of others. Lifestyle choices that may contribute to poor health include smoking, binge drinking, and poor nutrition, lack of exercise and lack of sleep. Professor Evans has published an academic paper that outlines patient duties, suggesting that individual patients should cooperate with medical advice and treatment plans, be courteous to NHS staff and follow health promotion guideline. Good health practices could help to speed recovery and would make the health care system more efficient, freeing the system to care for other patients who need access to medical treatments. Professor Evans noted that many people have no choice but to rely on the public health care but that patients should cooperate with medical professionals to make sure that public health resources are used most effectively. Following are theten moral duties that Professor Evans has outlined in his paper. 1. Participate in a ‘healthcare jurisdiction’ 2. Uphold his or her own health 3. Protect the health of others 4. Seek and access healthcare responsibly 5. Truthfulness 7. Inpatient conduct 8. Recovery or maintenance 9. Research participation 10. Citizenship People who take care of their own health and the health of others make better use of the National Health System, cut the costs of overall medical care and free up the system to serve other patients. Durham University Martyn Evans, Eureka Alert Healthy Lifestyle Choices May Help Prevent Alzheimers Ten Motivating Reasons to Start an Aerobic Exercise Program Skipping Sleep Linked to Coronary Artery Disease Pre-Drinking Alcohol Before Going Out Encourages Over-Imbibing Study Finds that Buffet Eating and Lack of Exercise Equals Obesity in Rural America Obama's Health Care Plan a Big Stimulus to Health Care and Economy How Mental Health Patients Are Treated in the Emergency Room Diet and Crohn's Disease: Why Doctors May Tell You It's Not Related Qualities Every Good Health Care Provider Should Have Should Health Care Workers Have a Right to Refuse Treatment Based on Conscience? What is an Ecosystem and Why Should You Care? © 2020 Yup Tab · Contact · Privacy

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Art Market Sem categoria What happens to a collection when a museum closes? 21 June, 2016 0 Comment zet gallery read Have you ever wondered what happens to the artworks that are part of a museum collection when the space is forced to close doors? Fortunately this is an unusual situation, but how can an instituion deal with the need to discard the artworks that compose its assets? Many believe that, in the event of a permanent closure of a museum, its objects are welcomed by other cultural institutions, but that is not exactly how things are processed most of the times. The 12 months before the closure of The Museum of Biblical Art (MOBIA), in New York, were a “blind operation” to the director Richard P. Townsend. We were in 2015 and Townsend discovered that there were not any guidelines that helped a museum knowing how to act. More peculiar than that, when Richard P. Townsend asked The American Alliance of Museums for help, he received exactly the same answer: officially, there’s no “closure plan” to these institutions. Who determines what happens when a museum closes? Although public opinion may play a role on the course of events, the truth is that the determinations belong exclusively to three parts: the board of trustees, the creditors, and the state’s attorney general. The board of trustees is in charge of maximizing assets after settling the debt, the creditors just want to be paid in full, and the attorney general need to ensure that any additional assets (after paying the debt) are used in the best public interest. Obviously this scenario collide with a basic question … The institutions may not hold sufficient assets to output its debts. What happens then when the value of the assets (including, yes, the museum collections) is lower than the debt? Value of assets is lower than the museum debt When the debt of a museum ascends the value of its assets, the institution has no choice but to sell the assets (which, unfortunately, includes its private collection). It is expected that the board of directors ensure that the sale is conducted in the most advantageous way possible (we have no doubt that creditors will make sure that this happens). The practical case of the Fresno Metropolitan Museum The Fresno Metropolitan Museum, forced to shut down in 2010, had a collection of over 3000 artworks and artifacts. Evaluated the need for closure, it became apparent that the institution didn’t have sufficient assets to pay all creditors, forcing it to seek for alternatives. Instead of starting a bankruptcy process, the board took an “Assignment for Benefit of Creditors” that transmitted to an administrator (from outside the institution) the responsibility to liquidate the assets and pay creditors the debt value. Most of the museum’s pieces were auctioned and sold to private collectors, leaving therefore the public domain. Value of assets covers debt Obviously, if the museum is in this “relatively more comfortable” position, the flexibility that will streamline the distribution of its belongings is completely different. In those situations, the museum can control which assets will be sold first and how the negotiations will occur, thus ensuring a more interesting fate for the collectibles. What if there are assets left? This decision is mainly stakeholders’ responsibility but, theoretically, the more appropriate way to use the assets is on a similar mission to the one provided by the (now) closed museum. For example, if the institution was a regional museum, the objects can be donated to a space that occupies the same purpose. In some cases, the institution may lead to another museum or nonprofit organization with the remaining assets. O que acontece à coleção quando um museu encerra? Picasso seen in detail with the new Google’s camera Museum of Modern Art acquires an emoji collection Collecting Art: The Essential Guide What’s behind Mona Lisa’s smile? Like, literally! 10 curiosities about Edward Hopper This map shows the most expensive artists in Europe 21 June, 2016 0 Comment zet gallery read ← This map shows the most expensive artists in Europe SEMIBREVE Award – prize for digital art creation → Follow zet gallery on Instagram! Copyright © 2020 zet gallery, all rights reserved.

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What is Hadoop? 什么是数据科学？ 4.7（22,479 個評分） | 160K 名學生已註冊 課程 1（共 9 門，IBM 数据科学 專項課程） The art of uncovering the insights and trends in data has been around since ancient times. The ancient Egyptians used census data to increase efficiency in tax collection and they accurately predicted the flooding of the Nile river every year. Since then, people working in data science have carved out a unique and distinct field for the work they do. This field is data science. In this course, we will meet some data science practitioners and we will get an overview of what data science is today. LIMITED TIME OFFER: Subscription is only $39 USD per month for access to graded materials and a certificate. 4.7（22,479 個評分） Excellent quality content! It's a great introductory course that really gets you interested in Data Science. I would highly recommend it to anyone curious in learning about what Data Science is about. Descriptive picture of data science. Videos are short but nicely presented which gives an student a clear idea of the subject. Even Documents at the end of the course presentation are well explained. Data Science Topics In this module, you will hear from Norman White, the Faculty Director of the Stern Centre for Research Computing, at New York University, as he talks about data science and what skills are required for anyone interested in pursuing a career in this field and as he gives advice to those who are looking to start a career in data science. Finally, you will be required to complete reading assignments to learn about the process of mining a given dataset and about regression analysis. Data Science Skills & Big Data4:43 Data Scientists at New York University4:21 What is Hadoop?6:45 Alex Aklson Ph.D., Data Scientist Polong Lin 選擇語言英語（English）阿拉伯語（Arabic） (popping) (upbeat music) - Traditionally in computation and processing data we would bring the data to the computer. You'd wanna program and you'd bring the data into the program. In a big data cluster what Larry Page and Sergey Brin came up with is very simple is they took the data and they sliced it into pieces and they distributed each and they replicated each piece or triplicated each piece and they would send it the pieces of these files to thousands of computers first it was hundreds but then now it's thousands now it's tens of thousands. And then they would send the same program to all these computers in the cluster. And each computer would run the program on its little piece of the file and send the results back. The results would then be sorted and those results would then be redistributed back to another process. The first process is called a map or a mapper process and the second one was called a reduce process. Fairly simple concepts but turned out that you could do lots and lots of different kinds of handle lots and lots of different kinds of problems and very, very, very large data sets. So the one thing that's nice about these big data clusters is they scale linearly. You had twice as many servers and you get twice the performance and you can handle twice the amount of data. So this was just broke a bottleneck for all the major social media companies. Yahoo then got on board. Yahoo hired someone named Doug Cutting who had been working on a clone or a copy of the Google big data architecture and now that's called Hadoop. And if you google Hadoop you'll see that it's now a very popular term and there are many, many, many if you look at the big data ecology there are hundreds of thousands of companies out there that have some kind of footprint in the big data world. (music) Most of the components of data science have been around for many, many, many decades. But they're all coming together now with some new nuances I guess. At the bottom of data science you see probability and statistics. You see algebra, linear algebra you see programming and you see databases. They've all been here. But what's happened now is we now have the computational capabilities to apply some new techniques - machine learning. Where now we can take really large data sets and instead of taking a sample and trying to test some hypothesis we can take really, really large data sets and look for patterns. And so back off one level from hypothesis testing to finding patterns that maybe will generate hypotheses. Now this can bother some very traditional statisticians and gets them really annoyed sometimes that you know you're supposed to have a hypothesis that is not that is independent of the data and then you test it. So once some of these machine learning techniques started we're really the only thing the only way you can analyze some of these really large social media data sets. So what we've seen is that the combination of traditional areas computer science probability, statistics, mathematics all coming together in this thing that we call Decision Sciences. Our department at Stern I'll give a little plug here we happen to have been very well situated among business schools because we're one of the few business schools that has a real statistics department with real PhD level statisticians in it. We have an operations management department and an information systems department. So we have a wide range of computer scientists to statisticians, to operations researchers. And so we were perfectly positioned as a couple of other business schools were to jump on this bandwagon and say; okay this is Decision Sciences. And Foster Provost who's in my department was the first director of the NYU Center for Data Science. (music) Four years ago maybe five years ago. I mean, I feel this is one of those cases where you can just to Google and search for data science and see how often it occurred and you'll see almost nothing and then just a spike. The same thing you would see with big data about seven or eight years ago. So data science is a term I haven't heard of probably five years ago. (music) The first question is what is it? And I think faculty and everybody is still trying to get their hands around exactly what is business analytics and what is data science. We certainly know the components of it. But it's morphing and changing and growing. I mean the last three years deep learning has just been added into the mix. Neural networks have been around for 20 or 30 years. 20 years ago I would teach neural networks in a class and you really couldn't do very much with them. And now some researchers have come up with multi-layer neural networks in Toronto in particular the University of Toronto. And that technology is now rapidly expanding it's being used by Google, by Facebook, by lots of companies. (music)

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