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2692488

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%20Tauri

Pi Tauri

Pi Tauri (π Tauri) is a solitary, yellow-hued star in the zodiac constellation of Taurus. With an apparent visual magnitude of +4.69, it is bright enough to be visible to the naked eye. Although it appears to lie among the stars of the Hyades cluster, it is not itself a member, being three times farther from Earth than the cluster. The distance to this star, as determined using an annual parallax shift of 7.83 mas as seen from the Earth, is around 420 light years. At that range, the visual magnitude of the star is diminished by an extinction factor of 0.24 due to interstellar dust. This is an evolved G-type giant star with a stellar classification of , where the suffix notation indicates an underabundance of iron in the spectrum. The measured angular diameter is . At the estimated distance of Pi Tauri, this yields a physical size of about 21 times the radius of the Sun. It possesses nearly four times the mass of the Sun and is radiating 229 times the Sun's luminosity at an effective temperature of 5,086 K. References G-type giants Tauri, Pi Taurus (constellation) Durchmusterung objects Tauri, 073 028100 020732 1396

2692540

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega%20Tauri

Omega Tauri

The Bayer designation Omega Tauri (ω Tau, ω Tauri) is shared by two star systems, ω1 Tauri and ω2 Tauri, in the constellation Taurus. They are separated by 2.13° on the sky. ω1 Tauri ω2 Tauri Tauri, Omega Taurus (constellation)

2692555

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi%20Tauri

Phi Tauri

Phi Tauri (φ Tauri) is a solitary, orange-hued star in the zodiac constellation of Taurus. It has an apparent visual magnitude of +4.96, which indicates the star is faintly visible to the naked eye. Based upon an annual parallax shift of 10.16 mas as seen from Earth, it is located roughly 321 light years distant from the Sun. At that distance, the visual magnitude of the star is diminished by an extinction factor of 0.27 due to interstellar dust. This is an evolved, K-type giant star with a stellar classification of K1 III, currently (97% probability) on the red giant branch. It has an estimated 1.36 times the mass of the Sun and has expanded to 19 times the Sun's radius. At the age of roughly five billion years, it is radiating 131 times the Sun's luminosity from its inflated photosphere at an effective temperature of 4,479 K. Phi Tauri has a magnitude 7.51 visual companion located at an angular separation of 48.80 arc seconds along a position angle of 258°, as of 2015. The pair form a yellow and blue double that is visible in small telescopes. A fainter, magnitude 12.27 companion lies at a separation of 118.10 arc seconds along a position angle of 25°, as of 2001. Naming With κ1, κ2, υ and χ, it composed the Arabic were the Arabs' Al Kalbain, the Two Dogs. According to the catalogue of stars in the Technical Memorandum 33-507 - A Reduced Star Catalog Containing 537 Named Stars, Al Kalbain were the title for five stars : this star (φ) as Alkalbain I, χ as Alkalbain II, κ1 as Alkalbain III, κ2 as Alkalbain IV and υ as Alkalbain V. In Chinese, (), meaning Whetstone, refers to an asterism consisting of φ Tauri, ψ Tauri, 44 Tauri and χ Tauri. Consequently, the Chinese name for φ Tauri itself is (, .). References K-type giants Double stars Tauri, Phi Taurus (constellation) Durchmusterung objects Tauri, 052 027382 020250 1348

2692613

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleione%20%28star%29

Pleione (star)

Pleione is a binary star and the seventh-brightest star in the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45). It has the variable star designation BU Tauri (BU Tau) and the Flamsteed designation 28 Tauri (28 Tau). The star is located approximately from the Sun, appearing in the constellation of Taurus. Pleione is located close on the sky to the brighter star Atlas, so is difficult for stargazers to distinguish with the naked eye despite being a fifth magnitude star. The brighter star of the Pleione binary pair, component A, is a hot type B star 184 times more luminous than the Sun. It is classified as Be star with certain distinguishing traits: periodic phase changes and a complex circumstellar environment composed of two gaseous disks at different angles to each other. The primary star rotates rapidly, close to its breakup velocity, even faster than Achernar. Although some research on the companion star has been performed, stellar characteristics of the orbiting B component are not well known. Nomenclature 28 Tauri is the star's Flamsteed designation and BU Tauri its variable star designation. The name Pleione originates with Greek mythology; she is the mother of seven daughters known as the Pleiades. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included Pleione for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names. Visibility With an apparent magnitude of +5.05 in V, the star is rather difficult to make out with the naked eye, especially since its close neighbour Atlas is 3.7 times brighter and located less than 5 arcminutes away. Beginning in October of each year, Pleione along with the rest of the cluster can be seen rising in the east in the early morning before dawn. To see it after sunset, one will need to wait until December. By mid-February, the star is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe, with only those south of 66° unable to see it. Even in cities like Cape Town, South Africa, at the tip of the African continent, the star rises almost 32° above the horizon. Due to its declination of roughly +24°, Pleione is circumpolar in the northern hemisphere at latitudes greater than 66° North. Once late April arrives, the cluster can be spotted briefly in the deepening twilight of the western horizon, soon to disappear with the other setting stars. Pleione is classified as a Gamma Cassiopeiae type variable star, with brightness fluctuations that range between a 4.8 and 5.5 visual magnitude. It has a spectral classification of B8Vne, a hot main sequence star with "nebulous" absorption lines due to its rapid rotation and emission lines from the surrounding circumstellar disks formed of material being ejected from the star. There has been significant debate as to the star's actual distance from Earth. The debate revolves around the different methodologies to measure distance—parallax being the most central, but photometric and spectroscopic observations yielding valuable insights as well. Before the Hipparcos mission, the estimated distance for the Pleiades star cluster was around 135 parsecs or 440 light years. When the Hipparcos Catalogue was published in 1997, the new parallax measurement indicated a much closer distance of about (), triggering substantial controversy among astronomers. The Hipparcos new reduction produced a broadly similar distance of . If the Hipparcos estimate were accurate, some astronomers contend, then stars in the cluster would have to be fainter than Sun-like stars—a notion that would challenge some of the fundamental precepts of stellar structure. Interferometric measurements taken in 2004 by the Hubble Telescope's Fine Guidance Sensors and corroborated by studies from Caltech and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory showed the original estimate of 135 pc or 440 ly to be the correct figure. The Gaia EDR3 parallax is , indicating a distance around . This is relatively imprecise for a Gaia result due to the brightness of the star, but still with a statistical margin of error similar to the Hipparcos results. Properties In 1942 Otto Struve, one of the early researchers of Be Stars, stated that Pleione is "the most interesting member of the Pleiades cluster". Like many of the stars in the cluster, Pleione is a blue-white B-type main sequence dwarf star with a temperature of about . It has a bolometric luminosity of assuming a distance of roughly 130 pc. With a radius of and mass that is , Pleione is considerably smaller than the brightest stars in the Pleiades. Alcyone for instance has a radius that is with a luminosity , making it roughly 30 times more voluminous than Pleione and about 13 times brighter. Be star Pleione is a classical Be star, often referred to as an "active hot star". Classical Be stars are B-type stars close to the main sequence with the "e" in the spectral type signifying that Pleione exhibits emission lines in its spectrum, rather than the absorption lines typical of B-type stars. Emission lines usually indicate that a star is surrounded by gas. In the case of a Be star, the gas is typically in the form of an equatorial disk, resulting in electromagnetic radiation that emanates not just from the photosphere, but from the disk as well. The geometry and kinematics of this gaseous circumstellar environment are best explained by a Keplerian disk – one that is supported against gravity by rotation, rather than gas or radiation pressure. Circumstellar disks like this are sometimes referred to as "decretion disks", because they consist of material being thrown off the star (as opposed to accretion disks which comprise material falling toward the star). Be Stars are fast rotators (>200 km/s), causing them to be highly oblate, with a substantial stellar wind and high mass loss rate. Pleione's rotational velocity of is considerably faster than the of Achernar, a prototypical Be star. Pleione revolves on its axis once every 11.8 hours, compared to 48.4 hours for Achernar. For comparison, the Sun takes 25.3 days to rotate. Pleione is spinning so fast that it is close to the estimated breakup velocity for a B8V star of about 370–390 km/s, which is why it is losing so much mass. Pleione is unusual because it alternates between three different phases: 1) normal B star, 2) Be star and 3) Be shell star. The cause is changes in the decretion disc, which appears, disappears, and reforms. Material in the disc is pulled back towards the star by gravity, but if it has enough energy it can escape into space, contributing to the stellar wind. Sometimes, Be stars form multiple decretion discs simultaneously, producing complex circumstellar dynamics. As a result of such dynamics, Pleione exhibits prominent long-term photometric and spectroscopic variations encompassing a period of about 35 years. During the 20th century, Pleione went through several phase changes: it was in a Be phase until 1903, a B phase (1905–1936), a B-shell phase (1938–1954), followed by another Be phase (1955–1972). It then returned to the Be-shell phase in 1972, developing numerous shell absorption lines in its spectrum. At the same time, the star showed a decrease in brightness, beginning at the end of 1971. After reaching a minimum brightness in late 1973, the star gradually re-brightened. In 1989, Pleione entered a Be phase which lasted until the summer of 2005. These phase changes are ascribed to the evolution of a decretion disc that formed in 1972. Polarimetric observations show the intrinsic polarization angle has changed, indicating a change in orientation of the disc axis. Because Pleione has a stellar companion with a close orbit, the shift in the polarization angle has been attributed to the companion causing a precession (wobble) of the disk, with a precession period of roughly 81 years. Photometric and spectroscopic observations from 2005 to 2007 indicated that a new disc had formed around the equator – producing a two discs at different inclination angles (60° and 30°). Such a misaligned double-disc structure had not been observed around other Be stars. Star system Pleione is known to be a speckle binary, although its orbital parameters have yet to be fully established. In 1996 a group of Japanese and French astronomers discovered that Pleione is a single-lined spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of 218.0 days and a large eccentricity of 0.6. The Washington Double Star Catalogue lists an angular separation between the two components of 0.2 arcseconds—an angle which equates to a distance of about 24 AU, assuming a distance of 120 parsecs. Ethnological influences Mythology Pleione was an Oceanid nymph of Mount Kyllene in Arkadia (southern Greece), one of the three thousand daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. The nymphs in Greek mythology were the spirits of nature; oceanids, spirits of the sea. Though considered lesser divinities, they were still very much venerated as the protectors of the natural world. Each oceanid was thence a patroness of a particular body of water — be it ocean, river, lake, spring or even cloud — and by extension activities related thereto. The sea-nymph, Pleione, was the consort of Atlas, the Titan, and mother of the Hyas, Hyades and Pleiades. Etymology When names were assigned to the stars in the Pleiades cluster, the bright pair of stars in the East of the cluster were named Atlas and Pleione, while the seven other bright stars were named after the mythological Pleiades (the 'Seven Sisters'). The term "Pleiades" was used by Valerius Flaccus to apply to the cluster as a whole, and Riccioli called the star Mater Pleione. There is some diversity of opinion as to the origin of the names Pleione and Pleiades. There are three possible derivations of note. Foremost is that both names come from the Greek word πλεῖν, (pr. ple'-ō), meaning "to sail". This is particularly plausible given that ancient Greece was a seafaring culture and because of Pleione's mythical status as an Oceanid nymph. Pleione, as a result, is sometimes referred to as the "sailing queen" while her daughters the "sailing ones". Also, the appearance of these stars coincided with the sailing season in antiquity; sailors were well advised to set sail only when the Pleiades were visible at night, lest they meet with misfortune. Another derivation of the name is the Greek word Πλειόνη (pr. plêionê), meaning "more", "plenty", or "full"—a lexeme with many English derivatives like pleiotropy, pleomorphism, pleonasm, pleonexia, plethora and Pliocene. This meaning also coincides with the biblical Kīmāh and the Arabic word for the Pleiades — Al Thurayya. In fact, Pleione may have been numbered amongst the Epimelides (nymphs of meadows and pastures) and presided over the multiplication of the animals, as her name means "to increase in number". Finally, the last comes from Peleiades (Greek: , "doves"), a reference to the sisters' mythical transformation by Zeus into a flock of doves following their pursuit by Orion, the giant huntsman, across the heavens. Modern legacy In the best-selling 1955 nature book published by Time-Life called The World We Live In, there is an artist's impression of Pleione entitled Purple Pleione. The illustration is from the famed space artist Chesley Bonestell and carries the caption: "Purple Pleione, a star of the familiar Pleiades cluster, rotates so rapidly that it has flattened into a flying saucer and hurled forth a dark red ring of hydrogen. Where the excited gas crosses Pleione's equator, it obscures her violet light." Given its mythical connection with sailing and orchids, the name Pleione is often associated with grace, speed and elegance. Some of the finest designs in racing yachts have the name Pleione, and the recent Shanghai Oriental Art Center draws its inspiration from an orchid. Fat Jon in his new album Hundred Eight Stars has a prismatic track dedicated to 28 Tauri. See also Lists of stars in the constellation Taurus Class B Stars Be stars Shell star Circumstellar disk Notes References External links Jim Kaler's Stars, University of Illinois: PLEIONE (28 Tauri) Philippe Stee's in-depth information on: Hot and Active Stars Research Olivier Thizy's in-depth information on: Be Stars High-resolution LRGB image based on 4 hrs total exposure: M45 – Pleiades Open Cluster APOD Pictures: Orion, the giant huntsman, in pursuit of the Pleiades Himalayan Skyscape Pleiades and the Milky Way Pleiades and the Interstellar Medium Taurus (constellation) Pleiades Open Cluster B-type main-sequence stars Be stars Gamma Cassiopeiae variable stars Binary stars Tauri, 028 Tauri, BU 023862 1180 017851 Durchmusterung objects

2692641

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psi%20Tauri

Psi Tauri

Psi Tauri, which is Latinized from ψ Tauri, is a solitary star in the zodiac constellation of Taurus. It has a yellow-white hue and is visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of +5.22. The distance to this system, as determined using an annual parallax shift of as seen from the Earth, is 90 light years. It is drifting further away with a radial velocity of +9 km/s. This object is an F-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of F1 V, which indicates it is undergoing core hydrogen fusion. It is about 1.4 billion years old and is spinning with a projected rotational velocity of 45 km/s. The star has 1.6 times the mass and radius of the Sun. It is radiating 4.8 times the Sun's luminosity from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 7,088 K. References F-type main-sequence stars Tauri, Psi Taurus (constellation) Durchmusterung objects Tauri, 042 025867 019205 1269

2692659

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%20Tauri

Chi Tauri

Chi Tauri, Latinised from χ Tauri, is a star system in the constellation of Taurus. Parallax measurements made by the Hipparcos spacecraft put it at a distance of about from Earth. The primary component has an apparent magnitude of about 5.4, meaning it is visible with the naked eye. The main component of the system is Chi Tauri A. It is a B-type main-sequence star. Its mass is 2.6 times that of the Sun and its surface glows with an effective temperature of . It may be a binary star itself, as suggested from astrometric data from Hipparcos, although no orbit could be derived. The secondary component of the system is Chi Tauri B, separated about 19″ from Chi Tauri A. It was thought to be a post-T Tauri star from its unusual spectrum, but later studies ruled this out. It is a double-lined spectroscopic binary—the two stars are not resolved but their spectra have periodic Doppler shifts indicating orbital motion. The two stars are an F-type star and a G-type star, respectively, and are designated Ba and Bb. The radial velocity of Chi Tauri B has a slow drift indicating the presence of another star in the system. Designated Chi Tauri Bc, this massive object is too dim to be detected, but it appears in Chi Tauri B's spectrum as an infrared excess. Because of this infrared excess, this unseen component is thought to be a pair of K-type main-sequence stars both with masses 70% of the Sun's. The stars within the system appear to be dynamically interacting. Naming With φ, κ1, κ2 and υ, it composed the Arabic were the Arabs' Al Kalbain, the Two Dogs. According to the catalogue of stars in the Technical Memorandum 33-507 - A Reduced Star Catalog Containing 537 Named Stars, Al Kalbain were the title for five stars: φ as Alkalbain I, this star (χ) as Alkalbain II, κ1 as Alkalbain III, κ2 as Alkalbain IV and υ as Alkalbain V. In Chinese, (), meaning Whetstone, refers to an asterism consisting of χ Tauri, ψ Tauri, 44 Tauri and φ Tauri. Consequently, the Chinese name for χ Tauri itself is (, ). References B-type main-sequence stars F-type main-sequence stars Spectroscopic binaries 5 Taurus (constellation) Tauri, Chi Durchmusterung objects Tauri, 059 027638 020430 1369

2692681

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celaeno%20%28star%29

Celaeno (star)

Celaeno , designated 16 Tauri, is a star in the constellation of Taurus and a member of the Pleiades open star cluster (M45) of stars. Properties 16 Tauri is a blue-white B-type subgiant with an apparent magnitude of +5.45. It is approximately 430 light years from the Sun; about the same distance as the Pleiades. The interstellar extinction of this star is fairly small at 0.05 magnitudes. The projected rotational velocity of the equator is 185 km/s. It is over four times the radius of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 12,800 K. Nomenclature 16 Tauri is the star's Flamsteed designation. It bore the traditional named Celaeno (or Celeno) and was called the "Lost Pleiad" by Theon the Younger. Celaeno was one of the Pleiades sisters in Greek mythology. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalogue and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved the name Celaeno for this star on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names. Namesake USS Celeno (AK-76) was a United States Navy Crater class cargo ship named after the star. References Tauri, 016 Taurus (constellation) B-type subgiants Pleiades Open Cluster 017489 1140 023288 BD+23 505 Suspected variables

2692913

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashline%20Mars%20Arctic%20Research%20Station

Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station

The Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS) is the first of two simulated Mars habitats (or Mars Analog Research Stations) located on Devon Island, Nunavut, Canada, which is owned and operated by the Mars Society. The station is a member of the European Union-INTERACT circumarctic network of currently 89 terrestrial field bases located in northern Europe, Russia, US, Canada, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and Scotland as well as stations in northern alpine areas. Background The station is located on Devon Island, a Mars analog environment and polar desert, approximately north east of the hamlet of Resolute in Nunavut, Canada. The station is situated on Haynes Ridge, overlooking the Haughton impact crater, a diameter crater formed approximately 39 million years ago (late Eocene). The location is approximately from the Geographic North Pole and approximately from the Magnetic North Pole (as of 2010). FMARS is the first research station of its kind to be built, completed in the summer of 2000. Operated by the non-profit Mars Society, the station's mission is to help develop key knowledge needed to prepare for human Mars exploration, and to inspire the public by making real the vision of human exploration of Mars. The society uses the station to conduct geological and biological exploration under conditions similar to those found on Mars, to develop field tactics based on those explorations, to test habitat design features, tools, and technologies, and to assess crew selection protocols. The project's final cost was US$1.3 million, raised through sponsorships with major companies. Flashline.com, an internet business, donated $175,000 and was granted the right to affix its name to the project. Other major sponsors included the Kirsch Foundation, the Foundation for the International Non-governmental Development of Space (FINDS) and the Discovery Channel (which purchased exclusive English-language TV rights to the station's activities for the first two years). The FMARS project is one of four stations originally planned by the Mars Society as part of the Mars Analog Research Station Program. The Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS) began operation in 2002 in southern Utah. Stations to be built in Europe (European Mars Analog Research Station / EuroMARS) and Australia (Australia Mars Analog Research Station / MARS-Oz) have not progressed beyond the planning stages. Establishment of the station The establishment of a human Mars exploration analog research station on Devon Island was first proposed by Pascal Lee in April 1998. The station was officially selected as the Mars Society's first project at the society's Founding Convention in August 1998. The station was designed by architect Kurt Micheels and design engineer Wayne Cassalls in coordination with Robert Zubrin and numerous Mars Society volunteers. Kurt Micheels and Robert Zubrin conducted a scouting expedition to Devon Island as part of the 1999 field season of NASA's Haughton Mars Project (HMP), in order to gain the information needed to plan operations and to determine an optimum site for station construction. An appropriate site was selected on a ridge overlooking the Haughton crater, which was named Haynes Ridge by Robert Zubrin in honor of the late Professor Robert Haynes of York University, a founding member of the Mars Society and seminal thinker on issues concerning the terraforming of Mars. Following this scouting expedition, Kurt Micheels was selected as the station's project manager. The station's structure was fabricated between January 2000 and June 2000 by Infrastructures Composites International (Infracomp) under the direction of John Kunz, using a unique type of fiberglass honeycomb construction technology. The Mars Society provided Infracomp additional manpower from Mesa Fiberglass, Pioneer Astronautics and the Rocky Mountain Mars Society Chapter in order to meet the deadline for station deployment. The station's components were transported by truck to Moffett Field, California and loaded onto three C-130 aircraft operated by the U.S. Marine Corps 4th Air Delivery Battalion. The first C-130 departed Moffett Field headed for the arctic on July 1, 2000. On July 3, 2000, the three C-130s, Kurt Micheels, John Kunz, and a paid team of construction workers were in Resolute. The construction team traveled to Devon Island via Twin Otters on July 4. On July 5 the Marines conducted five successful paradrops of station components. A sixth paradrop was also successful on July 8. The seventh and final paradrop, conducted on July 8, was unsuccessful. The parachute separated from the payload at an altitude of 1000 feet. The payload contained a crane for use in constructing the station, a trailer intended to transport the station sections from their landing locations to the construction site, and the fiberglass floors for the structure. All were completely destroyed. On July 12, Kurt Micheels and the construction crew left Devon Island and returned to Resolute, unable to find a way to continue station construction. Micheels later resigned as project manager on July 15. The Mars Society engaged the services of Aziz Kheraj, the owner of Resolute's South Camp Inn. He flew to Devon Island on July 12 and assessed the situation. He would go on to provide critical support, equipment and materials that allowed construction of the station to proceed. Frank Schubert, a Mars Society member who was a homebuilder by trade, had been sent to Resolute following the initial team. It was originally intended that he focus on the interior build-out of the station, but instead played a key role in erecting the structure and was appointed by Robert Zubrin as replacement project manager. He spent several days developing a new construction plan and was joined in Resolute by Zubrin on July 15. John Kunz also agreed to remain and assist the construction effort. Zubrin and Schubert flew to Devon Island later in the day on July 15. John Kunz flew back to Devon Island on July 16. On July 17 parts were obtained from Resolute that were used to construct a crude replacement trailer. Enlisting the help of volunteers from HMP and members of a Japanese TV crew, six of the wall segments were transported from their landing location within the crater to the construction site. The remainder of the habitat's components were transported to the construction site on July 18 and July 19. The existing volunteers were assisted by Joe Amarualuk and several Inuit high school students who also volunteered to help. Matt Smola, the foreman of Frank Schubert's construction company in Denver, arrived on Devon Island on July 20 and assisted with station construction. The station's wall sections were raised to vertical and connected to each other July 20 through July 22. The floors of the station were constructed out of wood and assembled on July 23 and July 24. The dome roof of the station was assembled July 24, 25 and 26th. This completed the exterior construction of the station. Individuals from HMP, the Discovery Channel film team and a number of journalists on-site assisted with the interior build-out of the station, which was only partially completed. Finishing touches of the interior build-out would occur the following year. A red, green and blue Martian tricolor flag was raised on the 28th atop the station. An inauguration ceremony took place at 9PM on the 28th. Every human being on the island attended. This included approximately fifty scientists, Inuit, and journalists. Several individuals spoke. Robert Zubrin gave the concluding remarks and dedicated the station to those whose cause it will ultimately serve, a people who are yet to be, the pioneers of Mars. The station was christened by smashing a bottle of Canadian sparkling wine against it. A symbolic first crew occupied the station the night of the 28th and during the day on the 29th. It consisted of Pascal Lee, Marc Boucher, Frank Schubert, Charles Cockell, Bob Nesson and Robert Zubrin. Frank Schubert, Matt Smola and Robert Zubrin left Devon Island on the afternoon of the 29th. A shakedown crew then occupied the station for four days. It was commanded by Dr. Carol Stoker, and included Larry Lemke, Bill Clancey, Darlene Lim, Marc Boucher, and Bob Nesson. The crew used a prototype Mars space suit supplied by Hamilton Sundstrand to conduct several EVAs, communications were established with the Mission Support group in Denver, and a list of items for correction, installation or improvement were identified with the habitat and its systems. This crew left Devon Island on August 4. A much more detailed account of the establishment of the station can be found in the book Mars on Earth: The Adventures of Space Pioneers in the High Arctic by Robert Zubrin. Operations Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station Management: Dr. Robert Zubrin, President, The Mars Society James Burk, Executive Director, The Mars Society Joe Palaia, Mission Director Michael Stoltz, Liaison, Media Relations Susan Holden Martin, MBA, J.D., EU-Interact Station Manager The Mars Society sends researchers to live and work at the station typically for one month during the arctic summer. Each of these expeditions consists of a crew of between 6 and 7 individuals. Typically 1 to 2 months prior to departing for the Canadian Arctic, the crew gathers for an initial face-to-face meeting and training session in Colorado. Departing for the arctic, the crew travels by commercial airline to Resolute. There they spend a few days organizing their supplies and equipment and conducting some final training while waiting for clear weather. They then board Twin Otter aircraft for the final leg of the journey. These aircraft land on a dirt airstrip located on Devon Island near the station. The primary means of crew transportation while on the island is by All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs). During the formal Mars simulation period of each expedition, it is required that any outside work be done while wearing a simulated spacesuit and that all communications are conducted by radio. Space suited crew members use a simulated airlock depress/repress procedure upon each exit and entry to the habitat. Communications between the station and off-island researchers are subject to a time delay (typically 20 minutes) which mimics that of actual radio traffic between Earth and Mars. A satellite phone is kept on-site for use in emergencies. Due to limited visibility of crew members wearing simulated spacesuits, all work outside the station is conducted with one crew member "out-of-sim". It is the responsibility of this crew member to be on the lookout for, and to protect the crew from polar bears. This crew member is typically armed with a pump-action shotgun loaded with slugs. The crew also carries bear deterrent devices known as bear bangers. No polar bears have yet been encountered by the crew of an FMARS expedition, although signs of their presence on the island are regularly seen, and at least one encounter has occurred with participants in the HMP. Crew members are also required to write periodic reports to document conducted research, to advise on the status of engineering systems, and to capture details related to other aspects of operations. There are four reports that are typically generated, these being the Commander's Report, a Science Report, an Engineering Report and a Narrative Report. The crew transmits these reports to a Mission Support team (typically located in Colorado). Timeline of operations In the first field season during the summer of 2001, six separate crews of five to seven people occupied the station and began work. From 2002 to 2013, seven crews occupied the remote outpost. 2001 An advanced team was sent to Devon Island in April 2001 to check on the condition of the hab after the winter and to finish building out the interior. It consisted of Frank Schubert, Matt Smola, Len Smola, Greg Mungas, Pascal Lee and Joe Amarualik. The team spent one week working within the station and preparing it for the 2001 simulation field season. FMARS Crew 1, with six personnel, occupied the station from July 7, 2001 through the evening of July 10, 2001. FMARS Crew 2, with six personnel, occupied the station from the evening of July 10, 2001 through the evening of July 17, 2001. FMARS Crew 3, with seven personnel, occupied the station from the evening of July 17, 2001 through the morning of July 28, 2001. FMARS Crew 4, with six personnel, occupied the station for five days. 2002 FMARS Crew 7, with seven personnel, occupied the station from July 9, 2002 through July 26, 2002. The crew operated under full Mars simulation constraints between July 11 and July 24. In addition to conducting a systematic program of field geology and microbiology under simulated Mars mission conditions, the crew worked successfully with researchers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Lab to take the farthest-north ground-truth measurements ever obtained for the MISR instrument on the Terra Earth-observing satellite. 2003 FMARS Crew 8, with seven personnel, occupied the station from July 7, 2003 through July 30, 2003. The crew operated under full Mars simulation constraints between July 10 and July 29. The crew conducted an experiment that tracked their cognitive performance throughout the mission. 2004 FMARS Crew 9 consisted of seven personnel. 2005 FMARS Crew 10, with six personnel, occupied the station beginning on July 12, 2005. 2007 The primary FMARS Crew 11 consisted of seven personnel and one alternate crew member. The station was prepared for the crew arrival by an advance field engineering team consisting of Paul Graham, coordinator of the Mars Society's engineering team, along with the FMARS Crew 11 Chief Engineer James Harris, and several workers from the community of Resolute. Later the advance team was joined by Matt Bamsey, with Paul and the other workers leaving shortly before the main crew's arrival. The crew operated under full Mars simulation constraints for 100 days, ending on August 21, 2007. This quadrupled the previous record for in-situ Mars mission simulations. They also operated on the Martian 'sol' for over a month, to evaluate the effects on crew psychophysiology or mission operations. The crew conducted data collection related to a significant number of scientific studies during the course of the mission. Near the end of the mission, the crew spoke with astronaut Clayton Anderson, who was at that time in orbit aboard the International Space Station. Logistical support and research authorization for the mission was provided by the Polar Continental Shelf Project. 2009 FMARS Crew 12, with six personnel, occupied the station from July 2, 2009 through July 28, 2009. The crew operated under full Mars simulation constraints between July 14 and July 26. During the course of the simulation, the crew completed 16 EVAs in 43.5 hrs, traveling a distance of 128 km. This translates into a cumulative in-sim crew time of 106 man-hours and a distance of 323 km. The crew's efforts included a number of firsts for simulated Mars explorers in a Mars analog environment, including the testing of new technologies and equipment for use in robotic aerial surveying, in situ resource utilization (ISRU), geophysical measurement, medical laser treatment, image geotagging, path planning and analysis, and public communications. The start of the simulation was delayed until July 14 due to a large number of maintenance tasks and facility upgrades which could only be completed out of sim. These included construction of new secondary containment areas for fuel storage, changes to the generator shed to improve safety and functionality, installation of a SmartAsh incinerator and a grey water sump, refit and reconditioning of the simulated space suits, as well as general organization and clean-up within, under, and in the general vicinity of the station. This maintenance ensured full compliance with environmental regulations and improved both operational and aesthetic elements of the station. 2013 FMARS Crew 13 was a station refit crew, and the mission was referred to as Phase 1 of the Mars Society's multi-stage Mars Arctic 365 (MA365) Mission. The refit crew consisted of 9 personnel. Crew members Joseph Palaia, Adam Nehr, and Justin Sumpter were in residence at the station between July 10 and July 17. Crew members Garrett Edquist and Dr. Alexander Kumar were at the station between July 15 and July 16. Crew members Jim Moore, Richard Sugden and Richard Spencer also visited Devon Island several times during this timeframe. Crew member Barry Stott remained in Yellowknife during the duration of the expedition to oversee logistics. Of significant note, the 2013 FMARS expedition was greatly enabled, for the first time, through the use of private aircraft. Two Quest Kodiaks owned by Richard Sugden and Richard Spencer, were used to ferry materials, equipment and crew between Driggs, Idaho and Devon Island. Additionally, a Cessna 421 owned by Barry Stott was used between Driggs, Idaho and Yellowknife, NT. 2017 The arctic portion of the Mars 160 mission concluded on September 3, 2017. Principal Investigators Dr. Shannon Rupert and Dr. Paul Sokoloff acquired permission for research on Inuit-owned land for the first time in FMARS history, allowing for more wide-reaching geology studies than have been done in the past. Dr. Alexandre Mangeot was commander of the Mars 160 mission and was joined by Yusuke Murakami (XO – Executive Officer), Dr. Jonathan Clarke (Crew Geologist), Anastasiya Stepanova (Crew Journalist), Anushree Srivastava (Crew Biologist), and Paul Knightly (Crew Geologist). They arrived at the station on July 15, 2017, and departed Devon Island in mid-August. Research and accomplishments Each crew establishes research and education / outreach objectives that they strive to accomplish during their time at FMARS. 2001 The crews in 2001 were the first to conduct operations under full Mars simulation constraints, including the use of simulated Mars spacesuits. EVAs by Crew 1 included the first pedestrian and motorized EVAs while wearing simulated spacesuits. Crew 1 also deployed weather-logging instruments along the western edge of Haynes Ridge. Crew 2 deployed a geophone flute, provided by the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris to produce three-dimensional maps of the subsurface. A similar instrument could one day be used on Mars to search for underground water or ice. Rock samples collected on Haynes Ridge during EVA were analyzed in the habitat's lab, and photographs were obtained of cyanobacteria found within them. The crew deployed cosmic ray dosimeters near Trinity Lake and Breccia Hill. The crew also completed questionnaires provided by the University of Quebec at Hull (UQAH) and NASA Johnson Space Center to aid human-factors research. Crew 3 deployed a dust magnetic properties instrument provided by the Niels Bohr Institute. This instrument is similar to that used on the Mars Pathfinder mission. The crew performed a psychology experiment for the human-factors research group at NASA Johnson Space Center. They conducted a pre-recorded audio question and answer session with visitors at the Kennedy Space Center Visitors Complex, where the society's Mars Desert Research Station was on display. The crew also tested in the field three telerobots, Stumpy, Jan and Titan. Crew 4 continued to test the three telerobots (Stumpy, Jan and Titan) during multiple EVAs. Crew 5 tested a two-person ATV designed by Purdue University. 2002 The crew deployed a weather station on Haynes Ridge which had been donated to the Mars Society by Met One Instruments. The weather station provided data on wind direction and speed, barometric pressure, humidity and temperature. A Terra/MISR reflectance spectrometer provided by the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) was used to take ground truth reflectance spectra of landforms on Devon Island, to compare with measurements taken by a similar device (MISR) onboard the Earth orbiting Terra satellite. These spectra were collected by the crew during multiple EVAs, and were the farthest-north ground-truth measurements ever taken for the MISR instrument. This was an important demonstration of combined human/robot exploration operations that will need to be done on Mars. Systematic sampling and characterization of extremophile bacteria from the local environment was conducted, utilizing equipment provided from several sources including Dartmouth College, an epifluorescent microscope sponsored by the Zeiss Company and a molecular laboratory lent by MJ Research. "In situ" samples were collected by the crew during EVA. These are rock samples that are not broken away from the large rock formations of their origin and are therefore free from modern biological or weathering action. The samples were collected to assist in testing a life-detection experiment called MASSE that was being developed by the Geophysical Department of the Carnegie Institute. Records were collected of rock-size distribution (in which the fraction of ground covered at each location by sand, granules, pebbles, cobbles, small boulders, and large boulders is estimated) in order to provide a quantitative estimate of the roughness of the ground to compare with coloration on Landsat satellite images. Additionally, the crew hosted for a short period two journalists from Russian National Television (NTV) who collected footage of the station and its crew during the simulation. 2003 The crew conducted an experiment that tracked their cognitive performance throughout the mission. The results were analyzed and published in a paper by Jan Osburg and Walter Sipes. 2004 Experiments in 2004 primarily focused on an in-depth biodiversity survey of the arctic desert and geological/geophysical study of the Haughton Crater area. Logistics and engineering experiments were also conducted. The biodiversity study, led by Dr. Shannon Rupert, involved nine sites along streams ranging from first to third order. This survey was also conducted at each of the Mars Society's Analog Research Stations, including the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS) in Utah and the planning site at the Australian Arkaroola desert. Dr. Akos Kereszturi took geological surveys for the early characterization of terrain for the Exomars project. The crew tested an optical lens developed in Hungary called the Micro-Telescopium while on multiple EVAs. The crew found that the lens could be used for 8-15x magnification of objects while the astronaut was in the field, with the lens being fixed on the outside of the helmet. Other experiments included a Geophysical analysis of Haughton Crater led by Dr. Louise Wynn which answered key questions on the physical characteristics of the 20-million-year-old meteor impactor. Błażej Błażejowski studied microfossils in crater soil deposits. A logistics study led by Dr. Jason Held found a method of tracking crew consumption by learning the crew's operations tempo. The crew's engineer, Judd Reed, conducted experiments on image detection in a robotic fish-eye camera, of a design highly relevant to modern Mars rovers. Crew member Joan Roch was interviewed by a number of French-language media channels, including four times live for television (TVA Network of Quebec), six times for radios (Radio-Canada four times, Radio France Bleu Poitou, CISM 89,3FM Montreal), and three times for newspapers (Journal de Montreal, Metro Montreal, Centre-Presse). 2005 The crew was visited on Devon Island for several days by noted columnist John Tierney, who wrote an op-ed piece about the expedition entitled "Over the Moon" which appeared in the New York Times. 2007 The crew conducted a long-duration mission, lasting four months total. This quadrupled the previous record for in-situ Mars mission simulations. They also operated on the Martian 'sol', (39 minutes longer than the 24-hour Earth day), for over a month, to evaluate the effects on crew psychophysiology or mission operations. The crew completed the AstroPCI personality inventory, the NEO-Personality Inventory by Costa and McCrae, as well as an online questionnaire battery dealing with stress, coping, and group functioning on five occasions throughout the mission (pre and monthly). The tests were designed to investigate sources of interpersonal stress and strategies to cope. The results were analyzed and published in a paper by Sheryl Bishop and several of the crew members. The crew conducted data collection related to a significant number of scientific studies during the course of the mission. These included: Biological properties of the active layer above the permafrost Microbial community comparison within the active layer above the permafrost Diversification of microbial activity in different snow types on Devon Island Effects of an asynchronous online collaboration tool on knowledge building and science return on a Mars simulation mission The role of geologic parameters in predicting bioload above the permafrost, while varying depth, location, and soil type, through the spring thaw transition Transient hydrothermal systems of the Haughton impact structure, Devon Island, Canada: Implications for the development of biological habitats Tracing the relative contribution of basement and carbonate lithologies in the Haughton crater impactites Permafrost landform development over the winter-to-summer transition: Characterization of evolving physical conditions of a polygon field in the Canadian High Arctic Observing the "Weeping Cliffs" phenomenon near Haughton Crater as an analogue for Mars Regolith landform mapping of Haughton Crater as an analogue for Mars Mars Radiation Environment Modeling (MarsREM) Measurement and evaluation of support intervention based on distance communication technologies and of physical training on relevance, feasibility and perceived efficacy Analysis of group dynamics-perception of situational factors (heterogeneous and international) and its impact on crew interaction and perception of behavior and performance of crew members Analysis of station environment habitability, of crew cognitive performance and changes in group dynamics CASPER: The use of cardiac autonomic activity as a surrogate marker for sleep in a space analog environment Human factors research as part of a space analogue mission on Devon Island Seasonal variation of Chironomidae in the ponds of the Canadian High Arctic as a paleoclimatic indicator Seasonal variation of the ponds on Devon Island, Nunavut, Canadian High Arctic Metrics of a long duration polar expedition: An analogue for human Moon-Mars exploration Moon and Mars crew water utilization study conducted at the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station Martian sol influence on sleep stability and mental performance during a long duration analogue exploration mission The crew also took part in a number of media and outreach events. A documentary team from Les Productions Vic Pelletier, Quebec visited the station for three days. Photographer Christian Lamontagne took pictures for their web-based program. The crew participated in a live interactive Mars Ed event with the NASA Ames Academy, for which their PCSP Principal Investigator Chris McKay gave an on-site introduction at Ames. Following the mission, several crew members met with Dr. Gary Goodyear, Member of the Canadian Parliament and Chair of the Canadian Space Caucus, to discuss the F-XI LDM mission & the future of space exploration in Canada. 2009 The crew flew the Maveric unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) six times over Devon Island. Four of these flights were conducted in‐sim for the first time ever, supporting the idea that human Mars explorers could launch, operate and recover a UAV while encumbered by a spacesuit. This capability expanded the crew's field of view and the rate at which they could survey surrounding terrain. The Maveric UAV was deployed at the sites of several hydrothermal pipes, where aerial footage of these features with correlated GPS track information was captured for analysis, aiding later site sampling by crew geologists. Several GPS units including a Trimble GeoXM, helped the crew navigate on a long‐distance EVA to the Gemini Hills, an extensive deposit of hydrothermal breccia created by the Haughton meteor impact. The primary objective was to locate and sample a gypsum deposit at this site. Gypsum is a hydrated calcium sulfate mineral that is 20% water and is found in abundance on Earth and at many locations on Mars. Used to make plaster of Paris, sheetrock, cement, and other building materials, this white mineral will be an important resource for Mars industry. The crew returned to the Hab with samples from the gypsum deposit, crushed and heated them, and recovered pure liquid water and plaster of Paris. This ISRU demonstration was a first for a Mars simulation. Seven of the sixteen FMARS EVAs were devoted to two geophysical experiments. One project was to install Devon Island's first seismometer, a Trillium Compact provided by Nanometrics. The crew scouted deployment locations and installed the equipment while fully in‐sim, a first for Mars analog research. Seismic stations similar to this will provide important understanding of the interior of planets including Mars, particularly the deep crust, mantle, and core. The second geophysical project tested how effectively human explorers in space suits could deploy low-frequency electromagnetic survey equipment, a TEM47‐PROTEM provided by Geonics Limited, to search for groundwater beneath Haynes Ridge near the hab location. Future human Mars explorers may conduct similar surveys in their search for life and resources to support human settlement. The crew conducted and were subjects in a research study using a Class IV High Power Laser therapy device provided by Lighthouse Technical Innovation, Inc. Crew members received treatment on focused areas before and after each EVA. The laser therapy is effective due to the penetration of coherent laser light into the tissues causing deep heating and local vasodilation. The additional blood supply provided by the dilated vessels can serve many functions, most notably preparation of the muscles for physical exertion and accelerated healing of muscle soreness, strain, or pain from past injuries. The laser therapy at the FMARS Hab was effective in relieving symptoms caused by physical exertion and was concurrent with the quick healing of minor injuries, recovery from an illness, and the complete lack of muscle pulls or extended soreness. The Omega Envoy Project, a team vying for the Google Lunar X PRIZE, provided a prototype lunar rover for testing during the FMARS 2009 mission. The rover was assembled and tested prior to the mission by 4Frontiers Corporation interns, in coordination with the Florida Space Grant Consortium and NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate. Outfitted with a communications and video package designed in collaboration with the University of Central Florida DARPA team, the rover was continuously operated via the internet from the team's headquarters in Orlando, Florida. This demonstration proved key technologies and provided essential teleoperational experience related to communicating with and controlling the rover from a remote location. It provided a deeper understanding of the complexities to be encountered in lunar rover operation. For all FMARS 2009 EVAs, the crew wore a Garmin Forerunner combined GPS and heart rate monitor system to gather concurrent geographic and physiological data. Crew members also captured geotagged photos and videos using Coolpix P6000 GPS‐enabled cameras, donated by Nikon. These technologies allowed them to easily combine ground and UAV GPS tracks, heart rate data, and photo information within the geographic context of Google Earth to produce visuals for display on the FMARS website. The crew also gathered data useful for the evolution of MIT's Mission Planner Software, which may be used by future astronauts to generate safe and efficient EVA traverses. Social media outlets like Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and Picasa Web Albums also helped the FMARS crew share its activities with the interested public. Some crew members also maintained blogs that garnered substantial followings. At least 25 stories featuring FMARS 2009 have been published, showing media interest in the expedition. Thanks in large part to The Mars Society volunteers serving on the Mission Support team (in Colorado, Florida, Texas, Washington, and Australia), the FMARS website received a major overhaul this year, helping the crew to organize, manage, and release to the interested public the volumes of generated information. Mission Support posted crew reports, photos and video files to the website, and also assisted in troubleshooting technical problems as they arose. The crew also benefited from the expertise of an international team of physicians who provided telemedicine support. In coordination with Southern Methodist University (SMU), Florida Space Grant Consortium (FSGC) and the Georgia Space Grant Consortium (GSGC), FMARS crew members conducted four live video webcasts with students groups. These sessions included the SMU Talented & Gifted Program, NASA Kennedy Space Center Interns, NASA Digital Learning Network via Georgia Tech, and Gardendale Magnet Elementary School in Florida. Students, educators, and interns in attendance gave the FMARS crew high praise for providing this glimpse of life in a simulated Mars habitat. 2013 The 2013 expedition was a survey and refit mission, intended to assess the current condition of FMARS and to deliver equipment, materials and supplies necessary to prepare the station for the planned 1-year Mars simulation (Mars Arctic 365). Accomplishments included: Surveyed the station and on-site infrastructure. Found the hab to be sound but identified some minor issues to be addressed next season. Delivered one new generator Delivered one new ATV. Two additional were purchased and stored in Resolute for deployment next season Deployed additional containment areas for fuel storage Delivered and installed new cooking equipment Delivered a new metal storage and generator building to Resolute for deployment next season Assessed ground conditions, staked out the location for the new building, and cleared the site Surveyed two new airstrips to provide more options and avoid future landings in crosswinds Delivered and installed a new weather station Tested new Iridium satellite phones Performed some clean up and organization The Mars Society is planning to conduct a second refit mission in July 2014 to finish station repair and upgrades prior to the start of the planned one-year Mars Arctic 365 mission. 2017 Crew members during the 2017 expedition will carry outreach in field geology, microbiology, lichen ecology, and small crew dynamics. The research will be similar to that conducted during the MDRS portion of the Mars 160 mission, to gauge how different locations affect the data collected. Dr. Shannon Rupert is serving as the principal investigator of the entire Mars 160 mission, including both the MDRS and FMARS portions. Paul Sokoloff, a senior researcher at the Canadian Museum of Nature is also serving as a PI for the FMARS portion. Publications The following publications have been based on research performed at FMARS. 2001 Alain Souchier. "Private ground infrastructures for space exploration missions simulations", ActaAstronautica66(2010)1580–1592. Presentations Vladimir Pletser, Philippe Lognonne, Michel Diament, Véronique Dehant, Pascal Lee, and Robert Zubrin. "Subsurface Water Detection on Mars by Active Seismology: Simulation at the Mars Society Arctic Research Station", Conference on the Geophysical Detection of Water on Mars, 2001. Robert Zubrin. "The Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station: Dispatches from the First Year's Mission Simulation", AIAA 2002-0993 40th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV. January 14–17, 2002. Vladimir Pletser, Robert Zubrin, K. Quinn. "Simulation of Martian EVA at the Mars Society Arctic Research Station", Presented to World Space Congress, Houston, TX. October 2002. 2003 Jan Osburg and Walter Sipes. "Mars Analog Station Cognitive Testing (MASCOT): Results of First Field Season", SAE-2004-01-2586. Presentations Jan Osburg. "Crew Experience at the ‘Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station’ during the 2003 Field Season", Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Environmental Systems, Colorado Springs, CO, USA, July 2004, SAE-04ICES-31. Cockell, C.S., Lim, D.S.S., Braham, S, Lee, P., Clancey, B., "Exobiological protocol and laboratory for the human exploration of Mars: Lessons from a polar impact crater", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol 56, Num 3–4, pp. 74–86, 2003. W.J. Clancey. "Principles for integrating Mars Analog Science, Operations, and Technology Research", Workshop on analog sites and facilities for the human exploration of the Moon and Mars, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO. May 21–23, 2003 2004 Held, J., Wynn, L., Reed, J., and R. Wang, "Supply requirement prediction during long-duration space missions using Bayesian estimation", International Journal of Logistics, Vol 10, Num 4, pp. 351–366, 2007. Wynn, L., Held, J., Kereszturi, A. and Reed, J., "The Geophysical Study Of An Earth Impact Crater As An Analogue For Studying Martian Impact Craters", published in On To Mars 2, edited by Zubrin, RM, and Crossman, F. Collector's Guide Publishing Inc. 2006 ed S. Sklar and S. Rupert. "A Field Methodology Approach Between an Earth-Based Remote Science Team and a Planetary-Based Field Crew", AAS 06-260, Mars Analog Research, Edited by Jonathan Clarke, Univelt, San Diego, 2006. . 2007 M. Bamsey, A. Berinstain, S. Auclair, M. Battler, K. Binsted, K. Bywaters, J. Harris, R. Kobrick, C. McKay. "Four-month Moon and Mars crew water utilization study conducted at the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station, Devon Island, Nunavut", Advances in Space Research 43 (2009) 1256–1274. Binstead, K., Kobrick, R.L., Ogiofa, M., Bishop, S., Lapierre, J. (2010) Human factors research as part of a Mars exploration analogue mission on Devon Island, Planetary and Space Science, v58 (7–8), p 994–1006. Bishop, S.L, Kobrick, R., Battler, M., Binsted, K. (2010). FMARS 2007: Stress and coping in an arctic Mars simulation, Acta Astronautica, v 66 (9–10), p 1353–1367. . Presentations Sheryl L. Bishop, Ryan Kobrick, Melissa Battler and Kim Binsted. FMARS 2007: Stress and Coping in an Arctic Mars Simulation, 59th IAC Congress, Glasgow, Scotland, 29 September – 3 October 2008. 2009 Shiro, B., J. Palaia, and K. Ferrone (2009). Use of Web 2.0 Technologies for Public Outreach on a Simulated Mars Mission, Eos Trans. AGU, 90(52), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract ED11A-0565, San Francisco, CA, USA. 2010 Shiro, B. and C. Stoker (2010). Iterative Science Strategy on Analog Geophysical EVAs, NASA Lunar Science Forum 2010, 20–22 July, Moffett Field, CA, USA. Ferrone, K., S. Cusack, C. Garvin, V. W. Kramer, J. Palaia, and B. Shiro (2010). Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS) 2009 Crew Perspectives, AIAA paper 2010–2258, In: Proceedings of the AIAA SpaceOps 2010 Conference, 25–30 April, Huntsville, AL, USA. Shiro, B. (May 13, 2010) In Situ Exploration by Humans in Mars Analog Environments. UND 997 Symposium. Shiro, B. and K. Ferrone (2010). In Situ Exploration by Humans in Mars Analog Environments, In: Proceedings of the 41st Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 1–5 March, Abstract 2052, Houston, TX, USA. Additional publications referencing work done at FMARS O. Sindiy, K. Ezra, D. DeLaurentis, B. Caldwell, T. McVittie, and K. Simpson (2010) Analogues Supporting Design of Lunar Command, Control, Communication, and Information Architectures. Journal of Aerospace Computing, Information, and Communication. O. Sindiy, K. Ezra, D. DeLaurentis, B. Caldwell, K. Simpson, and T. McVittie. (2009) Use of Analogous Projects for Trade Space Analysis for Lunar Command, Control, Communication, and Information Architectures. AIAA Infotech@Aerospace Conference, Seattle, WA. Crews Crew 1 (2001) Pascal Lee – Commander Sam Burbank – Film Maker Charles Cockell – Biologist Rainer Effenhauser – Medical Officer Darlene Lim – Geologist Frank Schubert – Engineer Crew 2 (2001) Robert Zubrin – Commander Steve Braham – Engineer Bill Clancey – Cognitive Scientist Charles Cockell Vladimir Pletser Katy Quinn Crew 3 (2001) Robert Zubrin – Commander John Blitch – Robotics Expert Brent Bos – Planetary Scientist Steve Braham – Engineer Cathrine Frandsen – Physicist & Planetary Scientist Charles Frankel – Geologist Christine Jayarajah – Chemist Crew 4 (2001) Pascal Lee John Blitch – Robotics Expert Charles Cockell Larry Lemke Peter Smith Carol Stoker Crew 5 (2001) Pascal Lee Charles Cockell Kelly Snook Jaret Matthews Samson Ootoovak Crew 6 (2001) Pascal Lee Charles Cockell Tamarack Czarnik Rocky Persaud George James Eric Tilenius Crew 7 (2002) Robert Zubrin – Commander Nell Beedle – Executive Officer and Geologist K. Mark Caviezel – Engineer Frank Eckardt – Geologist Shannon Hinsa – Environmental Microbiologist Markus Landgraf – Physicist Emily MacDonald – Astrophysicist Crew 8 (2003) Dr. Steven McDaniel – Commander and Chief Biologist Jody Tinsley – Executive Officer and Geologist Ella Carlsson – Chief Engineer April Childress – Logistician and Public Affairs Officer Peter Hong Ung Lee – Medical Officer and Biologist Jan Osburg – Safety Officer, Communications System Engineer, Navigator and Human Factors Researcher Digby Tarvin – Engineer and IT Specialist Crew 9 (2004) Jason Held – Commander Blazej Blazejowski – Paleontologist Akos Kereszturi – Geologist Judd Reed – Engineer Joan Roch – Journalist Shannon Rupert – Biologist Louise Wynn – Planetary Geology, Health and Safety Officer (HSO), and Journalist Crew 10 (2005) "Crew Greenleaf" Judd Reed – Commander and Engineer Tiffany Vora – Executive Officer, Health and Safety Officer (HSO) and Molecular Biologist Anthony Kendall – Engineer and Hydrogeologist Stacy Sklar – Geologist Tiziana Trabucchi – Paleontologist Andy Wegner – Analytical Chemist Crew 11 (2007) "F-XI LDM (FMARS 11 Long Duration Mission)" Melissa Battler – Commander Matt Bamsey – Executive Officer and Engineer Simon Auclair – Geologist Kim Binstead – Interdisciplinary Scientist Kathryn Bywaters – Biologist James Harris – Chief Engineer Ryan L. Kobrick – Crew Engineer and Human Factors Researcher Emily Colvin – Crew Alternate and Engineer Paul Graham – Advance Team Chief Engineer Crew 12 (2009) Vernon Kramer – Commander & Chief Geologist Joseph E. Palaia, IV – Executive Officer and Engineer Stacy Cusack – EVA Coordinator & Geologist Kristine Ferrone – Interdisciplinary Scientist Christy Garvin – Medical Officer Brian Shiro – Geophysicist Crew 13 (2013) Joseph E. Palaia, IV – Commander Adam Nehr – Engineer & Pilot Justin Sumpter – Engineer / IT Support Barry Stott – Pilot & Expedition Sponsor Dr. Richard Sugden – Pilot & Expedition Sponsor Richard Spencer – Pilot & Expedition Sponsor Garrett Edquist – Videographer James Moore – Journalist Dr. Alexander Kumar – Medical Support Crew 14 (2017) Alexandre Mangeot – Commander Yusuke Murakami – Executive Officer Jonathan Clarke – Crew Geologist Anastasiya Stepanova – Journalist Anushree Srivastava – Crew Biologist Paul Knightly – Crew Geologist Campus The campus currently consists of two buildings, the habitat and the generator shack. Habitat The habitat, commonly referred to as "the Hab", is a tall cylinder that measures in diameter and is used as the living area during simulation. Its basic size and design is based on the Mars Direct architecture. On the first floor there are two airlocks, a shower and toilet, a room for the space suits, and a combined lab and work area. On the second floor are six crew rooms with bunks, a common area, and a kitchen equipped with a gas stove, refrigerator, microwave, oven and a sink. There is also a loft area accessed by ladder from the second floor which provides storage space and can accommodate a bunk for a seventh crew member. Generator shack The generator shack is a small wooden structure located to the east of the habitat. It houses two diesel generators (primary and backup) which alternately provide power for the habitat. Other Also on the campus is a greywater sump, a SmartAsh incinerator, secondary containment areas for storage of barrels of gasoline, diesel fuel, and waste oil, and a satellite dish that provides the station's internet connection. Sponsors Each FMARS expedition is funded by the Mars Society, and through contributions of equipment, materials and support from various donors and sponsors. Establishment of the station The station was made possible due to contributions from a number of organizations, including the Mars Society, Flashline.com, the Kirsch Foundation, the Foundation for the International Non-governmental Development of Space (FINDS), and the Discovery Channel. 2001 expedition FMARS sponsors in 2001 included the Mars Society, the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, the Niels Bohr Institute and Purdue University. 2002 expedition FMARS sponsors in 2002 included the Mars Society, Met One Instruments, NASA JPL, the Zeiss Company, MJ Research and the Geophysical Department of the Carnegie Institute. 2007 expedition FMARS sponsors in 2007 included the Mars Society, Polar Continental Shelf Project, Greenleaf Corporation, NASA Spaceward Bound, Mars Society Canada, the Canadian Space Agency, Wataire Industries Inc., Aerogrow, COM DEV, McNally Strumstick, University of Colorado Book Store, The Mac Shack, Solutions, Government of Quebec, and Strider Knives. 2009 expedition FMARS sponsors in 2009 included the Mars Society, 4Frontiers Corporation, Florida Space Grant Consortium, NASA, Florida's Space Coast, Georgia Space Grant Consortium, Prioria Robotics, AUVSI, Procerus Technologies, Nikon, Lighthouse Technical Innovations, Nanometrics, Geonics Limited, Del Mar College, First Air, E. Barry Stott, MIT Manned Vehicle Laboratory, The Omega Envoy Project, and Tom Jennings Productions. 2013 expedition FMARS sponsors in 2013 included the Mars Society, Barry Stott, Dr. Richard Sugden, Richard Spencer, Association Planete Mars (the French chapter of the Mars Society), Iridium, Arctic Cat, and TempCoat. See also Colonization of Mars Haughton–Mars Project Human mission to Mars Life on Mars List of research stations in the Arctic Mars to Stay MARS-500 Outline of space science Space colonization References External links Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS) Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS) Mars Society Human analog missions Colonization of Mars Exploration of Mars Research stations in the Arctic Science and technology in Canada Buildings and structures in Nunavut Qikiqtaaluk Region Devon Island

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%20Lee

Pascal Lee

Pascal Lee (; born 1964) is co-founder and chairman of the Mars Institute, a planetary scientist at the SETI Institute, and the Principal Investigator of the Haughton-Mars Project (HMP) at NASA Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California. He holds an ME in geology and geophysics from the University of Paris, and a PhD in astronomy and space sciences from Cornell University. Lee's research focuses on Mars, asteroids, and impact craters, in particular in connection with the history of water on planets and the possibility of extraterrestrial life. He is known internationally for his work on Moon and Mars analogs in the Arctic, Antarctica, and other extreme environments on Earth. He is the author and co-author of over 100 scientific publications, and first proposed the "Mars Always Cold, Sometimes Wet" model of Mars evolution based on field studies of the geology of Earth's polar regions. In 1988, Lee wintered over for 402 days at Dumont d'Urville station, Adelie Land, Antarctica, where he served as the station's chief geophysicist. He also participated in five summer campaigns in Antarctica as a geologist and planetary scientist, in particular as a member of the US Antarctic Search for Meteorites (ANSMET) program. In 1997, Lee initiated the Haughton-Mars Project (HMP), an international multidisciplinary field research project centered on science and exploration studies at the Haughton impact crater and surrounding terrain on Devon Island, Arctic Canada, viewed as an analog site for the Moon and Mars. Lee has led over 18 HMP field expeditions to date, including the "Northwest Passage Drive Expedition" in April 2009 and May 2010, and continues to serve as the HMP's Director in support of research for NASA and the Canadian Space Agency. Pascal Lee is widely recognized for his efforts to advance the human exploration of Mars, in particular via its asteroid-like moons Phobos and Deimos. Lee is a recipient of the United States Antarctic Service Medal and the Space Frontier Foundation's Vision to Reality Award. Lee is an FAA-certified helicopter flight instructor and lives in Santa Clara, California. Early years Pascal Lee was born in 1964 (Hong Kong) and attended St. Joseph's Primary School in Wan Chai. At age 8, he went to boarding school in France where he first attended Le Petit College de la Tournelle in Septeuil, Yvelines, then the Ecole Saint Martin de France in Pontoise, near Paris. After graduating with a B.S. in physics from the University of Paris, Lee went on to earn an M.E. in geology and geophysics from the University of Paris's Institute of Science and Technology (IST). He began Mars research as a student intern under Audouin Dollfus at the Paris Observatory and Philippe Masson at the University of Paris-Sud. While in college in Paris, Pascal Lee was an active member of the Cosmos Club de France, a space exploration society founded by space scientist and author Albert Ducrocq. In 1982, Lee was elected the Cosmos Club de France's General Secretary and served in that position until 1987. From November 1987 to February 1989, Lee spent over a year in Antarctica on national service duty. Upon his return, he moved to the United States to begin graduate studies in astronomy at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. Cornell years Pascal Lee studied astronomy and space sciences at Cornell, and worked as a research and teaching assistant for his thesis adviser Joseph Veverka, and the late Carl Sagan. Pascal Lee's PhD thesis dissertation was titled: "Physical properties and processing of asteroid regoliths and interiors". As a graduate student, Lee participated in several NASA planetary spacecraft missions, including Voyager 2s flyby of Neptune and its large moon Triton, Galileos flyby of asteroids 951 Gaspra and 243 Ida, and Mars Observer. In 1993, Pascal Lee was awarded the Cornell University Department of Astronomy Eleanor Norton York Award. In 2004, Lee returned to Cornell to teach for a semester as Visiting assistant professor of astronomy. Mars missions In 1999, Pascal Lee collaborated as a Participating Scientist on the NASA Mars Polar Lander mission. In 2001, Lee was Principal Investigator of the "H2O Mars Exploration Rover" or HOMER mission concept proposed jointly by the SETI Institute and the Boeing Company to NASA's Mars Scout program. HOMER was the first mission to Mars proposed by the Boeing Company. In 2006, Lee was Principal Investigator of the "Phobos Reconnaissance and International Mars Exploration" or PRIME Mars mission concept study proposed jointly by the Mars Institute, Optech Inc., and MDA to the Canadian Space Agency. Lee is currently Principal Investigator of the NASA "Hall" mission concept study, a New Frontiers-class Phobos and Deimos sample return mission concept study. Mars Institute In 2002, Pascal Lee and space entrepreneur Marc Boucher co-founded the Mars Institute, an international non-profit public benefit research organization dedicated to advancing the scientific study, exploration, and public understanding of Mars. Mars Institute-USA is based at the NASA Ames Research Park at Moffett Field, California. Mars Institute-Canada is headquartered in Vancouver, British Columbia. Haughton-Mars Project The Haughton-Mars Project is an international multidisciplinary field research project centered on science and exploration studies at the Haughton impact crater and surrounding terrain on Devon Island, Arctic Canada, viewed as an analog site for the Moon and Mars. The Haughton-Mars Project Research Station or HMPRS, at 75°26′N, 89°52′W, is the world's largest privately operated polar research station. In 2005, the HMPRS was selected to become a node of the Canadian Space Agency's newly formed Canadian Analogue Research Network or CARN program. The HMP RS is managed and operated by the Mars Institute in collaboration with the SETI Institute, and currently supports research from both NASA and the Canadian Space Agency. Pascal Lee's principal collaborators on the HMP at NASA Ames Research Center are Christopher McKay (HMP Technical Monitor), Terry Fong (Director, Intelligent Robotics Group), and Brian Glass (Director, Autonomous Technologies Group). Lee's key collaborators on the HMP at the Mars Institute include Stephen Braham (HMP Deputy Lead and Chief Field Engineer), John Schutt (HMP Base Manager and Chief Field Guide), and Kira Lorber (HMP Logistics Manager). Pressurized rovers In May 2003, Lee led an Arctic winter expedition to drive the Mars Institute's Mars-1 Humvee Rover from Resolute Bay on Cornwallis Island, to Cape McBain on Devon Island across the Wellington Channel's 40 km of sea-ice. The Mars-1, bright red in color, is a modified M997 military ambulance Humvee manufactured by AM General of Mishawaka, IN. Accompanying Lee were American explorer John Schutt and Canadian Inuit field guides Paul Amagoalik and Joe Amarualik of Resolute Bay. The crossing was a success and the Mars-1 has since been serving on the Haughton-Mars Project as a mobile field lab and concept vehicle for future pressurized rovers to be used on the Moon or Mars. NASA's first simulated pressurized rover field traverse was conducted at the Haughton-Mars Project in July 2008 using the Mars-1. Lee commanded the mission while Andrew Abercromby of the NASA Johnson Space Center served as field lead of the rover traverse investigation. In April 2009, Lee led the Northwest Passage Drive Expedition to ferry a second Humvee, the bright yellow Moon-1 Humvee Rover, from Kugluktuk, Nunavut, to Devon Island, on sea-ice. Accompanying Lee were veterans John Schutt and Joe Amarualik, expedition technician Jesse Weaver, and cameraman Mark Carroll of Jules Verne Adventures. The team succeeded in driving 494 km in 8 days from Kugluktuk to Cambridge Bay, along the fabled Northwest Passage, establishing a record for the longest distance driven on sea-ice in a road vehicle. Plans to drive on from Cambridge Bay to Resolute Bay were abandoned due to extremely rough sea-ice conditions. At one point along the drive from Kugluktuk to Cambridge Bay, the Moon-1 partially fell through a lead (crack in the sea-ice), but was ultimately rescued by the expedition team. The Moon-1 was eventually flown from Cambridge Bay to Resolute Bay where it waited a year before completing its journey to Devon Island. In May 2010, Lee led the second and final phase of the Northwest Passage Drive Expedition by driving the Moon-1 Humvee Rover from Resolute Bay, Cornwallis Island, to Domville Point, Devon Island. Accompanying Lee were veterans John Schutt, Joe Amarualik, Jesse Weaver, and Mark Carroll, and documentary director Jean-Christophe Jeauffre of Jules Verne Adventures. The 150 km journey, of which 60 km were on sea-ice, took 12 days. The Moon-1's arrival on Devon Island was hailed as in important success for the Haughton-Mars Project, as it opened the way for dual pressurized rover simulations using the two Humvee rovers working in tandem. Lee also participated in field tests of NASA's Surface Exploration Vehicle (SEV), formerly known as the Lunar Exploration Rover (LER) or Small Pressurized Rover (SPR). In August 2008, Lee was pilot scientist of the first field test of the SEV, which was conducted under the auspices of the NASA Desert RATS project at the Black Point Lava Flow site in Northern Arizona. NASA Astronaut Rex Walheim was pilot commander of the 1-day mission. The SEV was developed at the NASA Johnson Space Center principally under the leadership of astronaut Michael Gernhardt and robotics engineer Robert Ambrose. Mars habitats In 1998, Pascal Lee proposed the creation of a Mars Lander-like habitat at Haughton Crater on Devon Island to support field studies of requirements for future human Mars exploration. After co-founding the Mars Society, Lee led the development, establishment, and early operation of the "Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station" or FMARS, the world's first simulated Mars habitat. The FMARS was conceived by Lee to serve as a new research element of the Haughton-Mars Project. The Mars Society collaborated on the HMP through the 2001 field season, but since 2002, the society is no longer a partner of the HMP. Drake Equation Based on probable values for the Drake Equation, Pascal Lee proposed that the number of intelligent civilizations in the Milky Way is 1 or very close to 1, implying that we are alone. The main contributor to such a low number is the fraction developing intelligent life, which is based on how much time it took for intelligent life (Homo erectus) to develop compared to the overall age of Earth (4.6 billion years). References Additional resources Human-Centered Computing Studies on the NASA Haughton-Mars Project Robotic Follow-Up for Human Exploration Preliminary Testing of a Pressurized Space Suit and Candidate Fabrics Under Simulated Mars Dust Storm and Dust Devil Conditions Field Testing of Utility Robots for Lunar Surface Operations Mars Rotorcraft: Possibilities, Limitations, and Implications For Human/Robotic Exploration To the North Coast of Devon: Collaborative Navigation While Exploring Unfamiliar Terrain Integrated Software Systems for Crew Management During Extravehicular Activity in Planetary Terrain Exploration Mars, Always Cold, Sometimes Wet: New Constraints on Mars Denudation Rates and Climate Evolution from Analog Studies at Haughton Crater, Devon Island, High Arctic Applying Multiagent Simulation to Planetary Surface Operations Search for a meteoritic component at the Beaverhead impact structure, Montana Initial Efforts toward Mission-Representative Imaging Surveys from Aerial Explorers Anomalous scattering of light on Triton Empirical Requirements Analysis for Mars Surface Operations Using the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station External links Haughton-Mars Project Mars Institute SETI Institute The Mars Journal Search for extraterrestrial intelligence 21st-century astronomers Hong Kong emigrants to the United States Planetary scientists University of Paris alumni Cornell University alumni Exploration of Mars Living people 1964 births NASA people

2694958

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RV%20Tauri

RV Tauri

RV Tauri (RV Tau) is a star in the constellation Taurus. It is a yellow supergiant and is the prototype of a class of pulsating variables known as RV Tauri variables. It is a post-AGB star and a spectroscopic binary about away. Variability RV Tau was discovered to be variable in 1905 by Lydia Ceraski, and by 1907 it was clear that it had minima of alternating brightness. Over a period of 78.5 days it shows two maxima at around magnitude 9.5, a minimum around magnitude 10.0, and another minimum about 0.5 magnitudes fainter. This change in brightness is caused by pulsations: the temperature and radius vary, causing some variation in luminosity but mostly a shift of the emitted radiation from visual to infrared. The spectral type varies in line with the temperature, being classified as G2 at its brightest and M2 at its dimmest. In addition to the fundamental period given, RV Tauri also shows variations in its mean brightness over a period of about 1,200 days, a characteristic which defines the subclass RVb. The maxima and minima in each period vary by several tenths of a magnitude with no obvious regularity. Binary system RV Tauri is a single-lined spectroscopic binary. The period of 1,198 days corresponds to the long-term variations in the mean brightness of the system. These are caused by changing obscuration of the primary star by a circumstellar disc. The companion is thought to be more massive than the variable primary star, but it cannot be detected in the spectrum and it is likely to be a red dwarf. The disc surrounds both stars at a distance of about five astronomical units (AU). The stars themselves have an eccentric orbit and their separation varies between about 0.75 and . Visibility RV Tau is well placed for northern hemisphere observers during the winter months, and observations can be made from August to April. However it is faint, located in a nondescript patch of sky between The Pleiades and Beta Aurigae. Properties The distance to RV Tau has been calculated by various methods, including modelling the atmosphere. RV Tauri stars have been shown to follow a period-luminosity relationship, and this can be used to confirm the luminosity and distance. They have low masses, but are extended cool stars of high luminosity undergoing strong mass loss. RV Tau has a luminosity of but a spectral luminosity class of bright supergiant (Ia), indicating the rarified nature of its atmosphere. Its temperature varies as it pulsates, between about and . Surface abundances show enhancement of some heavy elements, fusion products thought to have been dredged up during an earlier AGB phase. Carbon in particular is strongly in excess in RV Tau. However, its overall metallicity is lower than the Sun's. Evolution RV Tau is likely a post-asymptotic giant branch (AGB) star, an originally sun-like star which is in the end stages of its life just prior to the expulsion of a planetary nebula and contraction to a white dwarf. RV Tau gives an insight into the lives and deaths of stars like the Sun. Evolution models show it takes about 10 billion years for a 1 solar mass () star to reach the Asymptotic Giant Branch. References External links AAVSO observations of RV Tauri RV Tauri — The strange prototype of a strange class Taurus (constellation) RV Tauri variables G-type supergiants K-type supergiants M-type supergiants Tauri, RV 283868 BD+25 732 IRAS catalogue objects J04470673+2610455

2696278

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ys%C3%A4tters-Kajsa

Ysätters-Kajsa

Ysätters-Kajsa was a wind-troll that people in the Swedish province of Närke used to believe in; probably the only one of her kind in Scandinavia. The Swedish writer Selma Lagerlöf immortalised Ysätters-Kajsa in the first part of Chapter 24 of her famous novel The Wonderful Adventures of Nils (1906–1907). She wrote that in the Swedish province of Närke, in the old days, there lived a troll named Ysätters-Kajsa. She was named Kajsa because wind-trolls used to be called by that name. Her cognomen Ysätter came from the swamp Ysätter () in Asker parish where she was born. She appeared to have lived in Asker parish, but she played jokes on people all over Närke and was unique to that region. Portrayal by Lagerlöf Ysätters-Kajsa was not a dark and gloomy troll, but a happy and playful one. What she liked most was a real gale. As soon as there was enough wind she would leave her home to go dance on the Närke flatland. Närke is essentially nothing but a flatland surrounded by woody hills. It is only in the north-eastern corner where we find Hjälmaren that there is an aperture. Whenever the winds would summon their forces on the Baltic Sea and rush into the hinterland, they would first rush unimpeded across the hills of Södermanland into Närke. At Närke they would then collide with the ridge of Kilsbergen, which would turn the winds southwards, where they would then collide with Tiveden, which would direct them eastwards to collide with Tylöskog. They would then rush northwards to collide with Käglan, turning the winds westwards again towards Kilsbergen, and so on. The winds would circulate in this manner in smaller and smaller circles until there was nothing left but a whirlwind on the plain. Ysätters-Kajsa enjoyed herself the most whenever those whirlwinds rushed over the plain. She would then stand in the centre of the whirlwind. Her long hair would whirl among the clouds, while her skirt would drag on the ground like a dust storm. The whole plain under her was like her own private dance floor. In the mornings, Ysätters-Kajsa used to sit up on a high Scots Pine on the top of a high cliff and look out on the plain. If it was winter and the snow allowed sleighs to move about, she could see many people traveling on the plain from this vantage point. Then she would start a real storm and create snow drifts so high that people could hardly get home in the evening. If it were summer and good weather for loading the dry hay on the fields, she would wait until after the first carts had been fully loaded and then rush in with a few rains which would put an end to the farmer's working day. She rarely thought of anything besides making mischief. The colliers in Kilsbergen were afraid to go to sleep because as soon as she saw an unguarded charcoal kiln, she would sneak in and puff on the fire so that it would start burning brightly. If the ore transporters were late transporting their ore from Laxå and Svartå, Ysätters-Kajsa would create so much dark fog that both people and horses would get lost and end up driving into nearby marshes and swamps. If the vicar's wife in Glanshammar had prepared afternoon coffee in her garden a Sunday in the summer and a breeze came up which lifted the table cloth and dumped the cups and plates on the ground, then everyone knew who was to blame. Also, if the hat of the mayor in Örebro suddenly blew off his head and he was seen running across the town square, or if small cargo boats laden with vegetables of the people of the island of Vinön hit a shoal in lake Hjälmaren, or if laundry hanging out to dry blew away and was then found heaped with dust, or if smoke blew into the houses without warning some evening, then it was easy for the people of Närke to guess to who was out having a good time. In spite of the fact that Ysätters-Kajsa loved creating mischief, she was not bad to the bone. People noticed that she was hardest on people who were quarrelsome, mean and wicked, but she would often take honest folks and small poor children into her care. Old people used to say that once, when the church of Asker was burning, Ysätters-Kajsa came, nestled herself among the smoke and fire on the roof of the church, and put it out. In many cases the people of Närke had become quite tired of the wind-troll, but on the other hand she never got tired of causing trouble for the people of Närke. Whenever she was sitting on the top of a cloud watching Närke, which lay under her with its affluence and wealth of prominent homesteads on the plain and rich mines and ironworks in the hills, with its turbid Svartån River, and saw the shallow lakes of the Närke plain that were so rich in fish, and looked over the old borough of Örebro surrounding a grave, old castle with its sturdy towers, she must have thought: "The people would be much too well off, if it were not for me. I shake them up a bit and keep them happy." Then she would laugh loudly and tauntingly like a magpie, and whirl away, dancing and whirling from one corner of the plain to another. Whenever a farmer saw her running in a trail of dust over the plain, he could not help smiling, because however teasing and naughty she could be, she had a good temper. It was also just as refreshing for the farmers to deal with the troll, as it was for the plain to be whipped by the storm. Lagerlöf finishes her presentation of the troll by saying: "Nowadays, people claim that Ysätters-Kajsa is dead and gone, like all other trolls, but such things are almost impossible to believe. It is just as if someone would say that the air would be still on the plains and the wind would no more dance over it with whistling and roars and fresh air and downpours." Närke Scandinavian legendary creatures Scandinavian folklore Trolls Female legendary creatures

2697451

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haughton%E2%80%93Mars%20Project

Haughton–Mars Project

The Haughton–Mars Project (HMP) is an international interdisciplinary field research project being carried out near the Haughton impact crater on Canada's northern Devon Island. Human-centered computing (HCC) studies are aimed at determining how human explorers might live and work on other planetary objects, in particular on Mars. Conducted jointly by SETI and the Mars Institute, the project's goal is to utilize the Mars-like features of Devon Island and the impact crater to develop and test new technologies and field operating procedures, and to study the human dynamics which result from extended contact in close quarters. This knowledge will be used in planning missions by both humans and robots to other terrestrial bodies. The HMP came about as a postdoctoral research proposal by Pascal Lee, then a Cornell University graduate student. The proposal was approved by the National Research Council and NASA Ames Research Center in 1996. By 2000, the science and exploration research goals had been set, and a number of features which could serve as Mars analogs had been found. The core module of the NASA HMP Base Camp, the HMP X-1 Station, had been built. It serves as a hub, connecting a number of tents in a star-like configuration. The project is funded primarily by NASA, but draws nearly half of its support from other sources. A large number of governmental and non-governmental organizations and agencies worldwide contribute annually to the project's activities. As well as financial contributions, the project has also been the recipient of gifts such as the Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse, donated by SpaceRef Interactive, and a specially-equipped Humvee, donated by AM General. The active period of the project is in the summer, when tens of researchers, students, support staff, and media arrive on site. A core group of about ten stays the summer, while other individuals stay for shorter periods. Local high school students are hired to assist with field activities. Ten participants in the project voluntarily underwent comprehensive field immunology assessments. The purpose of the study was to evaluate mission-associated effects on the human immune system, as well as to evaluate techniques developed for processing immune samples in remote field locations. See also Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station References Additional References Haughton-Mars Project Haughton-Mars Project Website Mars on Earth: The NASA Haughton-Mars Project, Part 1 NASA Haughton-Mars Project - Summertime on a "Planet" Close to Home Economy of Nunavut Mars Scientific organizations based in Canada Human analog missions Science and technology in Canada Devon Island

2698529

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars%20Institute

Mars Institute

The Mars Institute is an international non-governmental organization created with the goals of advancing the scientific study and exploration of Mars, conducting peer-reviewed research, and educating the public about Mars exploration. It was incorporated as a non-profit corporation in both United States and Canada in 2002. The Haughton-Mars Project is an interdisciplinary research project being carried out by the Mars Institute and SETI. The Haughton-Mars Project is dedicated to advancing planetary science and exploration. The Haughton-Mars Project is centered on the scientific study of the Haughton meteorite impact crater and surrounding terrain on Devon Island. The institute also supports two other projects: the Mars Institute Mars-1 Humvee Rover and the Romance to Reality project. Donated by AM General, the Mars-1 Humvee is designed to accommodate crews of up to four researchers on Devon Island and to act as a test bed for future crewed rovers on the Moon and Mars. The Romance to Reality: Moon & Mars mission plans project was first launched on August 28, 1996 by David S. F. Portree. This project is a project that documents and teaches about the many plans for space missions and programs that either never happened or took a long time to actually complete. The Romance to Reality project was written by David S. F. Portree until 2006. In 2001, he wrote a spin off to Romance to Reality that was called Humans to Mars. After both of these websites, David S. F. Portree created a blog titled Beyond Apollo that moved to WIRED in 2012. In 2015, David S. F. Portree then moved to another blog which is called DSFP's Spaceflight History Blog which is still currently running. Mars Institute-USA is based in the NASA Ames Research Park at Moffett Field, California. Mars Institute-Canada is headquartered in Vancouver, British Columbia. References External links The Mars Institute 2009 Northwest Passage Drive Expedition Space organizations Scientific organizations based in the United States Human missions to Mars

2699310

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2887269%29%202000%20OO67

(87269) 2000 OO67

(prov. designation: ) is a trans-Neptunian object, approximately in diameter, on a highly eccentric orbit in the outermost region of the Solar System. It was discovered by astronomers at the Chilean Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory on 29 July 2000. Description At aphelion it is over 1,000 AU from the Sun and, with a perihelion of 21 AU, almost crosses the orbit of Uranus at closest approach. Astronomers with the Deep Ecliptic Survey classify it as a centaur rather than a trans-Neptunian object. came to perihelion in April 2005. Both and are calculated to take longer than Sedna to orbit the Sun using either heliocentric coordinates or barycentric coordinates. Comparison See also TAU (spacecraft) (probe designed to go 1000 AU in 50 years) List of Solar System objects by greatest aphelion References External links List Of Centaurs and Scattered-Disk Objects at the Minor Planet Center Scattered disc and detached objects Centaurs (small Solar System bodies) Discoveries by CTIO Discoveries by the Deep Ecliptic Survey 20000729

2699568

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPOESS

NPOESS

The National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) was to be the United States' next-generation satellite system that would monitor the Earth's weather, atmosphere, oceans, land, and near-space environment. NPOESS satellites were to host proven technologies and operational versions of sensors that were under operational-prototyping by NASA, at that time. The estimated launch date for the first NPOESS satellite, "C1" or "Charlie 1" was around 2013. Issues with sensor developments were the primary cited reason for delays and cost-overruns. NPOESS was a tri-agency program led by an Integrated Program Office (IPO) containing staff from the US Department of Defense, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and NASA. NPOESS was to be operated by the NOAA/National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) / NPOESS Program Executive Office Flight Operations at the NOAA Satellite Operations Facility (NSOF) in Suitland, MD. TRW, later Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems (NGAS) after TRW was acquired by Northrop Grumman, was the primary system integrator for the NPOESS project. Raytheon, Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. and Boeing were developing the sensors. The NPOESS satellites were intended to be a replacement for both the United States Department of Defense's Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) and the NOAA Polar Operational Environmental Satellites (POES) series. The NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP) was planned as a pathfinder mission for NPOESS. The project had to go through three Nunn-McCurdy reviews, Congressional hearings that are automatically triggered when a program goes over budget by more than 25%. Suomi NPP was launched five years behind schedule, on October 28, 2011. The White House announced on February 1, 2010, that the NPOESS satellite partnership was to be dissolved, and that two separate lines of polar-orbiting satellites to serve military and civilian users would be pursued instead: The NOAA/NASA portion is called the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS). The first satellite in the program – originally called JPSS-1, but now known as NOAA-20 – was constructed by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp., under a fixed price contract of $248 million with a performance period through Feb. 1, 2015. The common ground system was constructed by Raytheon. NOAA-20 launched on November 18, 2017. The Defense Department's portion was called the Defense Weather Satellite System (DWSS). In January 2012, the US Air Force cancelled the program. References External links NPOESS at NOAA NOAA NESDIS POES Satellites Weather satellites of the United States

2700491

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius%20%28satellite%29

Sirius (satellite)

Sirius was a constellation of communications satellites operated at 5.0° East in geostationary orbit (GEO) by NSAB (later SES Sirius, and now a non-autonomous part of SES S.A., owner and operator of the Astra satellites). They carried digital satellite television to the countries of Scandinavia, Baltic states, Eastern Europe and Africa, including the Viasat pay TV system, along with several pay TV packages for Eastern Europe, the TopTV package for Africa, a number of Ukrainian channels and the national Latvian and Lithuanian channel service free-to-air. Satellites Sirius 4 A fourth satellite, Sirius 4, was ordered in 2005 and launched at 22:39:47 UTC on 17 November 2007. It carries 52 active Ku-band transponders and two active Ka-band transponders. Sirius 4 was built by Lockheed Martin Space Systems based upon the A2100AX design. Among the services carried are Viasat and Viasat Ukraine which has used the Sirius satellites for their digital platform since its launch. Sirius 4 was renamed to Astra 4A in June 2010, when the SES took full ownership and control of SES Sirius. Sirius 5 Sirius 5 was the original name of the SES-5 satellite. SES-5 that was launched in July 2012 and is now co-located with Astra 4A (Sirius 4) at 5.0° East. This satellite provides a similar European and African coverage as Astra 4A. When ordered by the SES Sirius AB of Sweden in October 2008, the name of the satellite was Sirius 5. SES Sirius was acquired by SES in 2010 and the company was named SES Astra (a subsidiary of SES). This led to the satellite being renamed to Astra 4B in 2010. The name was changed to SES-5 in 2011. Retired satellites Sirius 1 Sirius 1 (later Sirius W) was purchased from British Sky Broadcasting after Sky Television's merger with British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) (the merger was conducted on Sky's terms and BSB's satellites were sold in favour of Sky's leased Astra satellite operations). The satellite had previously operated as Marcopolo 1. It operated at 5.0° East from 1994 until 2000, when it was moved to 13.0° West. It operated here before being moved to a graveyard orbit in 2003. Sirius 2 Sirius 2 was manufactured by Aérospatiale and launched from Kourou on 12 November 1997 to replace the Tele-X satellite. It is of the model Spacebus 3000B2 and has 32 Ku-band transponders with beams targeting both the Nordic region and all of Europe. It was moved to 31.5° East () and renamed Astra 5A on 29 April 2008. The Astra 5A satellite mission ended on 16 January 2009 due to an abnormal condition with the spacecraft. Sirius 3 Sirius 3 was stationed at 51.2° East at the end if its lifetime () in an inclined orbit. Sirius 3 was leased to SES immediately after its launch on 5 October 1998 for a period of 12 months (after which it was moved to its original destination of 5.0° East) to provide capacity at 28.2° East and to back up Astra 2A, pending the launch of Astra 2B on 14 September 2000. Satellite was retired in 2015 and moved to a graveyard orbit. Sirius Satellite Radio The Sirius satellites are not the satellites used for the American Sirius Satellite Radio service, whose satellites are named Radiosat 1-4 due to being launched after the Sirius fleet of satellites. References External links Sirius 1 info from Swedish Space Corporation Sirius 2 info from Swedish Space Corporation Sirius 3 info from Swedish Space Corporation SES - Official SES site SES fleet information SES S.A. Communications satellite constellations de:SES Sirius

2701177

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid%20spectral%20types

Asteroid spectral types

An asteroid spectral type is assigned to asteroids based on their reflectance spectrum, color, and sometimes albedo. These types are thought to correspond to an asteroid's surface composition. For small bodies that are not internally differentiated, the surface and internal compositions are presumably similar, while large bodies such as Ceres and Vesta are known to have internal structure. Over the years, there has been a number of surveys that resulted in a set of different taxonomic systems such as the Tholen, SMASS and Bus–DeMeo classifications. Taxonomic systems In 1975, astronomers Clark R. Chapman, David Morrison, and Ben Zellner developed a simple taxonomic system for asteroids based on color, albedo, and spectral shape. The three categories were labelled "C" for dark carbonaceous objects, "S" for stony (silicaceous) objects, and "U" for those that did not fit into either C or S. This basic division of asteroid spectra has since been expanded and clarified. A number of classification schemes are currently in existence, and while they strive to retain some mutual consistency, quite a few asteroids are sorted into different classes depending on the particular scheme. This is due to the use of different criteria for each approach. The two most widely used classifications are described below: Overview of Tholen and SMASS S3OS2 classification The Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey (S3OS2 or S3OS2, also known as the Lazzaro classification) observed 820 asteroids, using the former ESO 1.52-metre telescope at La Silla Observatory during 1996–2001. This survey applied both the Tholen and Bus–Binzel (SMASS) taxonomy to the observed objects, many of which had previously not been classified. For the Tholen-like classification, the survey introduced a new "Caa-type", which shows a broad absorption band associated indicating an aqueous alteration of the body's surface. The Caa class corresponds to Tholen's C-type and to the SMASS hydrated Ch-type (including some Cgh-, Cg-, and C-types), and was assigned to 106 bodies or 13% of the surveyed objects. In addition, S3OS2 uses the K-class for both classification schemes, a type which does not exist in the original Tholen taxonomy. Bus–DeMeo classification The Bus-DeMeo classification is an asteroid taxonomic system designed by Francesca DeMeo, Schelte Bus and Stephen Slivan in 2009. It is based on reflectance spectrum characteristics for 371 asteroids measured over the wavelength 0.45–2.45 micrometers. This system of 24 classes introduces a new "Sv"-type and is based upon a principal component analysis, in accordance with the SMASS taxonomy, which itself is based upon the Tholen classification. Tholen classification The most widely used taxonomy is that of David J. Tholen, first proposed in 1984. This classification was developed from broad band spectra (between 0.31 μm and 1.06 μm) obtained during the Eight-Color Asteroid Survey (ECAS) in the 1980s, in combination with albedo measurements. The original formulation was based on 978 asteroids. The Tholen scheme includes 14 types with the majority of asteroids falling into one of three broad categories, and several smaller types (also see above). The types are, with their largest exemplars in parentheses: C-group Asteroids in the C-group are dark, carbonaceous objects. Most bodies in this group belong to the standard C-type (e.g., 10 Hygiea), and the somewhat "brighter" B-type (2 Pallas). The F-type (704 Interamnia) and G-type (1 Ceres) are much rarer. Other low-albedo classes are the D-types (624 Hektor), typically seen in the outer asteroid belt and among the Jupiter trojans, as well as the rare T-type asteroids (96 Aegle) from the inner main-belt. S-group Asteroids with an S-type (15 Eunomia, 3 Juno) are silicaceous (or "stony") objects. Another large group are the stony-like V-type (4 Vesta), also known as "vestoids" most common among the members of the large Vesta family, thought to have originated from a large impact crater on Vesta. Other small classes include the A-type (246 Asporina), Q-type (1862 Apollo), and R-type asteroids (349 Dembowska). X-group The umbrella group of X-type asteroid can be further divided into three subgroups, depending on the degree of the object's reflectivity (dark, intermediate, bright). The darkest ones are related to the C-group, with an albedo below 0.1. These are the "primitive" P-type (259 Aletheia, 190 Ismene), which differ from the "metallic" M-type (16 Psyche) with an intermediate albedo of 0.10 to 0.30, and from the bright "enstatite" E-type asteroid, mostly seen among the members of the Hungaria family in the innermost region of the asteroid belt. Taxonomic features The Tholen taxonomy may encompass up to four letters (e.g. "SCTU"). The classification scheme uses the letter "I" for "inconsistent" spectral data, and should not be confused with a spectral type. An example is the Themistian asteroid 515 Athalia, which, at the time of classification was inconsistent, as the body's spectrum and albedo was that of a stony and carbonaceous asteroid, respectively. When the underlying numerical color analysis was ambiguous, objects were assigned two or three types rather than just one (e.g. "CG" or "SCT"), whereby the sequence of types reflects the order of increasing numerical standard deviation, with the best fitting spectral type mentioned first. The Tholen taxonomy also has additional notations, appended to the spectral type. The letter "U" is a qualifying flag, used for asteroids with an "unusual" spectrum, that falls far from the determined cluster center in the numerical analysis. The notation ":" (single colon) and "::" (two colons) are appended when the spectral data is "noisy" or "very noisy", respectively. For example, the Mars-crosser 1747 Wright has an "AU:" class, which means that it is an A-type asteroid, though with an unusual and noisy spectrum. SMASS classification This is a more recent taxonomy introduced by American astronomers Schelte Bus and Richard Binzel in 2002, based on the Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey (SMASS) of 1,447 asteroids. This survey produced spectra of a far higher resolution than ECAS (see Tholen classification above), and was able to resolve a variety of narrow spectral features. However, a somewhat smaller range of wavelengths (0.44 μm to 0.92 μm) was observed. Also, albedos were not considered. Attempting to keep to the Tholen taxonomy as much as possible given the differing data, asteroids were sorted into the 26 types given below. As for the Tholen taxonomy, the majority of bodies fall into the three broad C, S, and X categories, with a few unusual bodies categorized into several smaller types (also see above): C-group of carbonaceous objects includes the C-type asteroid, the most "standard" of the non-B carbonaceous objects, the "brighter" B-type asteroid largely overlapping with the Tholen B- and F types, the Cb-type that transition between the plain C- and B-type objects, and the Cg, Ch, and Cgh-types that are somewhat related to the Tholen G-type. The "h" stands for "hydrated". S-group of silicaceous (stony) objects includes the most common S-type asteroid, as well as the A-, Q-, and R-types. New classes include the K-type (181 Eucharis, 221 Eos) and L-type (83 Beatrix) asteroids. There are also five classes, Sa, Sq, Sr, Sk, and Sl that transition between plain the S-type and the other corresponding types in this group. X-group of mostly metallic objects. This includes the most common X-type asteroids as well as the M, E, or P-type as classified by Tholen. The Xe, Xc, and Xk are transitional types between the plain X- and the corresponding E, C and K classes. Other spectral classes include the T-, D-, and V-types (4 Vesta). The Ld-type is a new class and has more extreme spectral features than the L-type asteroid. The new class of O-type asteroids has since only been assigned to the asteroid 3628 Božněmcová. A significant number of small asteroids were found to fall in the Q, R, and V types, which were represented by only a single body in the Tholen scheme. In the Bus and Binzel SMASS scheme only a single type was assigned to any particular asteroid. Color indices The characterization of an asteroid includes the measurement of its color indices derived from a photometric system. This is done by measuring the object's brightness through a set of different, wavelength-specific filters, so-called passbands. In the UBV photometric system, which is also used to characterize distant objects in addition to classical asteroids, the three basic filters are: U: passband for the ultraviolet light, (~320-380 nm, mean 364 nm) B: passband for the blue light, including some violet, (~395-500 nm, mean 442 nm) V: passband sensitive to visible light, more specifically the green-yellow portion of the visible light (~510-600 nm, mean 540 nm) In an observation, the brightness of an object is measured twice through a different filter. The resulting difference in magnitude is called the color index. For asteroids, the U−B or B−V color indices are the most common ones. In addition, the V−R, V−I and R−I indices, where the photometric letters stand for visible (V), red (R) and infrared (I), are also used. A photometric sequence such as V–R–B–I can be obtained from observations within a few minutes. Appraisal These classification schemes are expected to be refined and/or replaced as further research progresses. However, for now the spectral classification based on the two above coarse resolution spectroscopic surveys from the 1990s is still the standard. Scientists have been unable to agree on a better taxonomic system, largely due to the difficulty of obtaining detailed measurements consistently for a large sample of asteroids (e.g. finer resolution spectra, or non-spectral data such as densities would be very useful). Correlation with meteorite types Some groupings of asteroids have been correlated with meteorite types: C-type – Carbonaceous chondrite meteorites S-type – Stony meteorites M-type – Iron meteorites V-type – HED meteorites See also Asteroid mining References External links Asteroid spectrum classification using Bus-DeMeo taxonomy, Planetary Spectroscopy at MIT (2017) Astronomical spectroscopy

2701330

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthelion

Anthelion

An anthelion (plural anthelia, from late Greek ανθηλιος, "opposite the sun") is a rare optical phenomenon of the halo family. It appears on the parhelic circle opposite to the Sun as a faint white spot, not unlike a sundog, and may be crossed by an X-shaped pair of diffuse arcs. How anthelia are formed is disputed. Walter Tape, among others, has argued they are not separate haloes, but simply where various haloes caused by horizontally oriented column-shaped ice crystals coincide on the parhelic circle to create a bright spot. If this theory is correct, anthelia should only appear together with these other haloes. However, anthelia occur unaccompanied by other plate crystal haloes, thus scientists have produced alternative explanations. The Dutch professor S.W. Visser proposed they form by two exterior light reflections in quadrangular prisms, while Robert Greenler has suggested two interior reflections in column-shaped crystals produces the phenomenon. While the anthelion area is usually sparse on haloes, in a complex display it features various rare optic phenomena: Flanking the anthelion on the parhelic circle are two 120° parhelia (and two Liljequist parhelia) caused by plate crystals. The Tricker and diffuse arcs are produced in singly oriented column crystals and form an ankh-like shape passing through the anthelion. Wegener arcs occasionally cross the sky to converge in the anthelion. See also False sunrise Glory Rainbow References External links Earth Science Picture of the Day, April 26, 2006 - Photo of an anthelion and anthelic arcs display in Germany February 2006. Atmospheric optical phenomena

2701674

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20Decathlon

Solar Decathlon

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Solar Decathlon is a collegiate competition, comprising 10 contests, that challenges student teams to design and build highly efficient and innovative buildings powered by renewable energy. The winners will be those teams that best blend design architectural and engineering excellence with innovation, market potential, building efficiency, and smart energy production. In the summer of 2018, DOE merged its two student building design competitions into one Solar Decathlon competition. The combined competition features two tracks, the Design Challenge and the Build Challenge. The Solar Decathlon provides a hands-on experience and unique training that prepares the competing students to enter the clean energy workforce. This international competition has been a driving force in raising awareness about clean energy since its inception in 2002. Technologies and solutions used in Solar Decathlon homes have advanced the residential building industry both in the United States and abroad. After the first Solar Decathlon was held in 2002, the competition occurred biennially in 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2017. The Solar Decathlon 2017 was located in Denver, Colorado, adjacent to the 61st & Peña station on the University of Colorado A line commuter train connecting Denver International Airport to downtown Union Station. In addition to the competition, Solar Decathlon 2017 also featured a sustainability expo, professional development and consumer workshops, and middle-school education events. Open to the public and free of charge, the Solar Decathlon allows visitors to tour energy- and water-efficient houses, and gather ideas to save energy and conserve water in their own homes. The Solar Decathlon 2017 competition was presented by DOE and administered by Energetics, Incorporated, a subsidiary of VSE Corporation. Previous competitions were administered by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Since the first competition in 2002, the Solar Decathlon has expanded internationally to include competitions in Europe, China, Latin America and Caribbean, the Middle East, and Africa. Solar Decathlon Europe was established under a 2007 memorandum of understanding between the United States and Spain , which hosted competitions in 2010 and 2012. France hosted in 2014. The Solar Decathlon Europe 2019 was hosted by Hungary in Szentendre. The next Solar Decathlon Europe was planned for 2021, in Wuppertal, Germany and postponed to 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Solar Decathlon China was established with the signing of a memorandum of understanding between DOE, China’s National Energy Administration, Peking University and Applied Materials on January 20, 2011. The first Solar Decathlon China took place in August 2013 in the city of Datong. The next Solar Decathlon China will take place in 2018 and was formed through a memorandum of understanding among the United States Department of Energy, the People’s Republic of China, and the China Overseas Development Corporation. Solar Decathlon Latin America and Caribbean was established under a memorandum of understanding between the United States Department of Energy and the government of Colombia in 2014. The first competition was held in Cali in December 2015, and another competition is planned for 2019. Solar Decathlon Middle East, to be held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, in 2018, was formed by a memorandum of understanding between DOE and the Dubai Electricity and Water Authority in 2015. An additional Solar Decathlon Middle East is also expected to take place in 2020. On November 15, 2016, the Moroccan Ministry of Energy, Mines, Water, and the Environment (MEMEE); the Moroccan Research Institute in Solar Energy and New Energies (IRESEN); and DOE signed a memorandum of understanding to collaborate on the development of Solar Decathlon Africa. The competition is planned for 2019. History The inaugural Solar Decathlon was open to the public between September 19 and October 6, 2002. Fourteen teams from across the United States, including Puerto Rico, presented their projects on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. The University of Colorado was awarded first place. At the second Solar Decathlon, likewise held on the National Mall on October 6–16, 2005, 18 teams from the United States, Canada, and Spain participated; the University of Colorado successfully defended its championship. The third Solar Decathlon took place on the National Mall on October 12–20, 2007. Twenty teams from the United States, Canada, Spain, and Germany competed, and Technische Universität Darmstadt (Team Germany) was named the overall champion. The fourth Solar Decathlon was held on the National Mall on October 8–18, 2009, and included teams from the United States, Canada, Germany, and Spain; Team Germany was named the winner for a second time. The fifth Solar Decathlon took place between September 23 and October 2, 2011, with nineteen participating teams representing the United States, China, New Zealand, Belgium, and Canada. The event was held in Washington D.C.'s West Potomac Park, near the Potomac River, the Tidal Basin and the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, along a road between the Lincoln and Jefferson Memorials. The University of Maryland was the overall competition winner. The sixth Solar Decathlon took place on October 3–13, 2013, in Orange County Great Park in Irvine, California – it was the first Solar Decathlon to take place outside Washington D.C., and was won by Vienna University of Technology (Team Austria). The seventh Solar Decathlon was held October 8 – 18, 2015, also at the Orange County Great Park. Stevens Institute of Technology was the overall winner. This was their third Solar Decathlon competition. The eighth Solar Decathlon in the U.S. was held October 5–15, 2017, in Denver, Colorado, at the 61st & Peña Station on the University of Colorado A line commuter rail connecting Denver International Airport to downtown Union Station. Eleven teams competed to design, build, and operate the most cost-effective, energy-efficient, and attractive solar-powered house. The Swiss Team won the overall competition with their entry, NeighborHub. It was the first entry for this combined team of École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, School of Engineering and Architecture Fribourg, Geneva University of Art and Design, and the University of Fribourg. Awards In 2010, the National Building Museum awarded the Solar Decathlon an Honor Award for its emphasis on "renewable energy, energy-efficient, and environmentally responsible systems" and its role in "educating a new generation of built-environment professionals". Scope of contests Like the Olympic decathlon, the DOE Solar Decathlon consists of 10 contests. The contests evaluate cost-effective design; innovation balanced with market potential; water and energy efficiency; energy production and time-of-use energy; and communications strategies. Each Solar Decathlon contest is worth a maximum of 100 points, for a potential competition total of 1,000 points. Teams earn points through task completion, performance monitoring, and jury evaluation. The contests may change after each competition in response to participant feedback, market dynamics, and DOE goals. The contests for the 2019-2020 event: Energy Performance Engineering Financial Feasibility and Affordability Resilience Architecture Operations Market Potential Comfort and Environmental Quality Innovation Presentation Competitors 2017 The project NeighborHub by the Swiss team won the overall competition. Teams selected for the Solar Decathlon 2017 competition held in Denver, Colorado: Georgia Tech: Georgia Institute of Technology (Atlanta, GA) The Georgia Tech team withdrew from the competition on November 22, 2016. Las Vegas: University of Nevada, Las Vegas (Las Vegas, NV) Maryland: University of Maryland (College Park, MD) Missouri S&T: Missouri University of Science and Technology (Rolla, MO) Netherlands: HU University of Applied Science Utrecht (Utrecht, Netherlands) Northwestern: Northwestern University (Evanston, IL) Swiss Team: École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, School of Engineering and Architecture Fribourg, University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Geneva, and the University of Fribourg (Lausanne, Switzerland and Fribourg, Switzerland) Team Alabama: University of Alabama at Birmingham; University of Alabama, Huntsville; and Calhoun Community College (Birmingham, AL, Huntsville, AL and Tanner, AL) Team Daytona Beach: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University and Daytona State College (Daytona Beach, FL) UC Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley (Berkeley, CA) UC Davis: University of California, Davis (Davis, CA) WashU: Washington University in St. Louis (St. Louis, MO) Washington State: Washington State University (Pullman, WA) The Washington State team withdrew from the competition in September 2017, just before the time to transport the house to the competition. West Virginia: West Virginia University (Morgantown, WV) The West Virginia University team withdrew from Solar Decathlon 2017 in April 2017, after completing many rigorous competition deliverables, including construction drawings. 2015 Teams selected for the Solar Decathlon 2015 competition held at Orange County Great Park in Irvine, California: California Polytechnic State University (San Luis Obispo, CA) California State University, Sacramento (Sacramento, CA) Clemson University (Clemson, SC) Crowder College (Neosho, MO) and Drury University (Springfield, MO) Missouri University of Science and Technology (Rolla, MO) New York City College of Technology (New York, NY) State University of New York at Alfred College of Technology and Alfred University (Alfred, NY) Stevens Institute of Technology (Hoboken, NJ) winner 2015 University of Florida, National University of Singapore, and Santa Fe College The University of Texas at Austin and Technische Universitaet Muenchen University at Buffalo, The State University of New York University of California, Davis University of California, Irvine; Chapman University; Irvine Valley College and Saddleback College Vanderbilt University and Middle Tennessee State University West Virginia University and University of Roma Tor Vergata Western New England University, Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, and Universidad Tecnológica Centroamericana 2013 Teams selected for the Solar Decathlon 2013 competition in Orange County Great Park in Irvine, California, the first one to be held outside of Washington, DC,: Arizona State University and The University of New Mexico (Tempe, Arizona, and Albuquerque, New Mexico) Czech Technical University (Prague, Czech Republic) Hampton University and Old Dominion University (Hampton and Norfolk, Virginia) Middlebury College (Middlebury, Vermont) Missouri University of Science and Technology (Rolla, Missouri) Norwich University (Northfield, Vermont) Queen's University, Carleton University, and Algonquin College (Kingston and Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) Santa Clara University (Santa Clara, California) Southern California Institute of Architecture and California Institute of Technology (Los Angeles, California) Stanford University (Palo Alto, California) Stevens Institute of Technology (Hoboken, New Jersey) The Catholic University of America, George Washington University, and American University (Washington, DC) The University of North Carolina at Charlotte (Charlotte, North Carolina) The University of Texas at El Paso and El Paso Community College (El Paso, Texas) University of Calgary (Calgary, Alberta, Canada) University of Louisville, Ball State University and University of Kentucky (Louisville, Kentucky; Muncie, Indiana; and Lexington, Kentucky) University of Nevada Las Vegas (Las Vegas, Nevada) University of Southern California (Los Angeles, California) Vienna University of Technology (Vienna, Austria) winner 2013 West Virginia University (Morgantown, West Virginia) 2011 Teams selected for the Solar Decathlon 2011 competition: Appalachian State University (team page) Florida International University (team page) Middlebury College (team page ) New Zealand: Victoria University of Wellington (team page) The Ohio State University (team page) Parsons The New School for Design, Milano The New School for Management and Urban Policy, and Stevens Institute of Technology (team page) Purdue University (team page) The Southern California Institute of Architecture and California Institute of Technology (team page) Team Belgium: Ghent University (team page) Team Canada: University of Calgary (team page) Team China: Tongji University (team page) Team Florida: Florida State University, the University of Central Florida, the University of Florida, and the University of South Florida (team page) Team Massachusetts: Massachusetts College of Art and Design and the University of Massachusetts Lowell (team page) Team New Jersey: Rutgers - The State University of New Jersey and New Jersey Institute of Technology (team page) Team New York: The City College of New York (team page) Tidewater Virginia: Old Dominion University and Hampton University (team page) University of Hawaii (team page)*On June 1, 2011, the U.S. Department of Energy received formal notification from the *University of Hawaii of its withdrawal from Solar Decathlon 2011. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (team page) University of Maryland (team page) winner 2011 The University of Tennessee (team page) 2009 The competing teams in Solar Decathlon 2009: Cornell University (team page) Iowa State University (team page) Penn State (team page) Rice University (team page) Team Alberta: University of Calgary, SAIT Polytechnic, Alberta College of Art and Design, and Mount Royal College (team page) Team Boston: Boston Architectural College and Tufts University (team page) Team California: Santa Clara University and California College of the Arts (team page) Team Germany: Technische Universität Darmstadt (team page) winner 2009 Team Missouri: Missouri University of Science and Technology and University of Missouri (team page) Team Ontario/BC: University of Waterloo, Ryerson University, and Simon Fraser University (team page) Team Spain: Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (team page) Ohio State University (team page) The University of Arizona (team page) Universidad de Puerto Rico (team page) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (team page) University of Kentucky (team page) University of Louisiana at Lafayette (team page) University of Minnesota (team page) University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (team page) Virginia Tech (team page) 2007 The 20 competing teams in Solar Decathlon 2007: Carnegie Mellon University (team page) Cornell University (team page) Georgia Institute of Technology (team page) Kansas Project Solar House: Kansas State University and University of Kansas (team page) Lawrence Technological University (team page) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (team page) New York Institute of Technology (team page) Penn State University (team page) Santa Clara University (team page) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (team page) Team Montréal: École de Technologie Supérieure, Université de Montréal, and McGill University (team page) Technische Universität Darmstadt (team page) winner 2007 Texas A&M University (team page) Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (team page) Universidad de Puerto Rico (team page) University of Cincinnati (team page) University of Colorado at Boulder (team page) University of Maryland (team page) University of Missouri-Rolla (now Missouri S&T) (team page) University of Texas at Austin (team page) 2005 The 18 competing universities in Solar Decathlon 2005: California Polytechnic State University Canadian Solar Decathlon: Concordia University and Université de Montréal Cornell University (team page) Crowder College Florida International University New York Institute of Technology (team page) Pittsburgh Synergy: Carnegie Mellon University, University of Pittsburgh, and the Art Institute of Pittsburgh (team page) Rhode Island School of Design Universidad de Puerto Rico Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (team page) University of Colorado, Denver and Boulder winner 2005 University of Maryland (team page) University of Massachusetts Dartmouth University of Michigan University of Missouri–Rolla (now Missouri S&T) and Rolla Technical Institute (team page) University of Texas at Austin (UT SolarD team page) Virginia Tech (team page) Washington State University 2002 The 14 competing teams in Solar Decathlon 2002: Auburn University Carnegie Mellon Crowder College Texas A&M University Tuskegee University University of Colorado at Boulder winner 2002 University of Delaware University of Maryland University of Missouri–Rolla (now Missouri S&T) and Rolla Technical Institute (team page) University of North Carolina at Charlotte Universidad de Puerto Rico University of Texas at Austin University of Virginia (team page) Virginia Tech See also Solar Decathlon Africa Solar Decathlon China Solar Decathlon Europe Solar Decathlon Latin America and Caribbean Energy conservation Green building Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, a U.S. certification for sustainable architecture Low-energy house Sustainable architecture References External links Solar Decathlon official website Solar Decathlon Europe official website Solar Decathlon China official website Solar Decathlon 2009 photo gallery via DC Photo Tour Solar architecture 2002 establishments in the United States

2706449

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-type%20asteroid

L-type asteroid

L-type asteroids are relatively uncommon asteroids with a strongly reddish spectrum shortwards of 0.75 μm, and a featureless flat spectrum longwards of this. In comparison with the K-type, they exhibit a more reddish spectrum at visible wavelengths and a flat spectrum in the infrared. These asteroids were described as "featureless" S-types in the Tholen classification. The L-type was formally introduced in the SMASS classification, although previous studies had noted the unusual spectra of two of its members 387 Aquitania and 980 Anacostia. There are 41 asteroids classified as L-types in the SMASS taxonomy. Ld-type asteroids The Ld type is a grouping proposed in the SMASS classification for asteroids with an L-like flat spectrum longwards of 0.75 μm, but even redder in visible wavelengths, like the D-type. An example may be 728 Leonisis, although it has also been classified as an A-type. References See also Asteroid spectral types Asteroid spectral classes

2708627

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-type%20asteroid

X-type asteroid

The X-group of asteroids collects together several types with similar spectra, but probably quite different compositions. Tholen classification In the Tholen classification, the X-group consists of the following types: E-type – with high albedo (> 0.30), composed of enstatite, forsterite and feldspar. They are found in the inner main belt. M-type – the largest grouping, intermediate albedo, "metallic", composed of iron and nickel, thought to be the progenitors of nickel–iron meteorites. They are found around 3.0 AU and in the Hungaria region (innermost main-belt). P-type – low albedos (< 0.10) with featureless red spectra; presumably composed of carbonaceous chondrites, and found in the outer main-belt and the Jupiter trojan region. Since in this scheme, the albedo is crucial in discriminating between the above types, some objects for which albedo information was not available were assigned an X-type. An example of this is 50 Virginia. SMASS classification The SMASS classification does not use albedo, but several spectral types are distinguished on the basis of spectral features which were too subtle to be visible in the broad-band ECAS survey used for the Tholen scheme. The X-group contains the types: core X-type containing the asteroids with the most "typical" spectra Xe-type of asteroids whose spectra contain a moderately broad absorption band around 0.49 μm. It has been suggested that this indicates the presence of troilite (FeS). There is some correlation between this group and the Tholen E-type. Xc- and Xk-type asteroids, which contain a broad convex spectral feature in the range 0.55 μm to 0.8 μm (i.e. increased flux in this range). These spectra tend to be intermediate between the core X-type and the C and K-type. Apart from the Xe-type, there is no significant correlation between the split into these SMASS types and the Tholen E, M, and P-types. All the types in the X-group contain a mixture of asteroids classified as either type E, M, or P. See also Asteroid spectral types L-type asteroid S-type asteroid K-type asteroid References Asteroid spectral classes

2708731

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration%20Systems%20Architecture%20Study

Exploration Systems Architecture Study

The Exploration Systems Architecture Study (ESAS) is the official title of a large-scale, system level study released by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in November 2005 of his goal of returning astronauts to the Moon and eventually Mars—known as the Vision for Space Exploration (and unofficially as "Moon, Mars and Beyond" in some aerospace circles, though the specifics of a crewed "beyond" program remain vague). The Constellation Program was cancelled in 2010 by the Obama Administration and replaced with the Space Launch System, later renamed as the Artemis Program in 2017 under the Trump Administration. Scope NASA Administrator Michael Griffin ordered a number of changes in the originally planned Crew Exploration Vehicle (now Orion MPCV) acquisition strategy designed by his predecessor Sean O'Keefe. Griffin's plans favored a design he had developed as part of a study for the Planetary Society, rather than the prior plans for a Crew Exploration Vehicle developed in parallel by two competing teams. These changes were proposed in an internal study called the Exploration Systems Architecture Study, whose results were officially presented during a press conference held at NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., on September 19, 2005. The ESAS included a number of recommendations for accelerating the development of the CEV and implementing Project Constellation, including strategies for flying crewed CEV flights as early as 2012 and methods for servicing the International Space Station (ISS) without the use of the Space Shuttle, using cargo versions of the CEV. Originally slated for release as early as July 25, 2005, after the "Return to Flight" mission of Discovery, the release of the ESAS was delayed until September 19, reportedly due to poor reviews of the presentation of the plan and some resistance from the Office of Management and Budget. Shuttle based launch system The initial CEV “procurement strategies” under Sean O’ Keefe would have seen two “phases” of CEV design. Proposals submitted in May 2005 were to be part of the Phase 1 portion of CEV design, which was to be followed by an orbital or suborbital fly-off of technology demonstrator spacecraft called FAST in 2008. Downselect to one contractor for Phase 2 of the program would have occurred later that year. First crewed flight of the CEV would not occur until as late as 2014. In the original plan favored by former NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe, the CEV would launch on an Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV), namely the Boeing Delta IV Heavy or Lockheed Martin Atlas V Heavy EELVs. However, with the change of NASA Administrators, Mike Griffin did away with this schedule, viewing it as unacceptably slow, and moved directly to Phase 2 in early 2006. He commissioned the 60-day internal study for a re-review of the concepts—now known as the ESAS—which favored launching the CEV on a shuttle-derived launch vehicle. Additionally, Griffin planned to accelerate or otherwise change a number of aspects of the original plan that was released last year. Instead of a CEV fly-off in 2008, NASA would have moved to Phase 2 of the CEV program in 2006, with CEV flights to have commenced as early as June 2011. The ESAS called for the development of two shuttle-derived launch vehicles to support the now defunct Constellation Program; one derived from the space shuttle's solid rocket booster which would become the now cancelled Ares I to launch the CEV, and an in-line heavy-lift vehicle using SRBs and the shuttle's external tank to launch the Earth Departure Stage and Lunar Surface Access Module which was known as Ares V (this design was reused for the Space Launch System). The performance of the Cargo Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle (SDLV) would be 125 to 130 metric tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO). A SDLV would allow a much greater payload per launch than an EELV option. The crew would be launched in the CEV atop a five-segment derivative of the Shuttle's Solid Rocket Booster and a new liquid-propellant upper stage based on the Shuttle's External Tank. Originally to be powered by a single, throw-away version of the Space Shuttle Main Engine, it was later changed to a modernized and uprated version of the J-2 rocket engine (known as the J-2X) used on the S-IVB upper stages used on the Saturn IB and Saturn V rockets. This booster would be capable of placing up to 25 tons into low Earth orbit. The booster would use components that have already been man-rated. Cargo would be launched on a heavy-lift version of the Space Shuttle, which would be an "in-line" booster that would mount payloads on top of the booster. The in-line option originally featured five throw-away versions of the SSMEs on the core stage, but was changed later to five RS-68 rocket engines (currently in use on the Delta IV Heavy rocket), with higher thrust and lower costs, which required a slight increase in the overall diameter of the core. Two enlarged five-segment SRBs would help the RS-68 engines propel the rocket's second stage, known as the Earth Departure Stage (EDS), and payload into LEO. It could lift about 125 tons to LEO, and was estimated to cost $540 million per launch. The infrastructure at Kennedy Space Center, including the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) and Shuttle launch pads LC-39A and 39B was maintained and adapted to the needs of future giant launch vehicle. The new pad LC-39C was later constructed to support small launch vehicles with the option of constructing LC-39D or resurrecting the former LC-34 or LC-37A pads at the nearby Cape Canaveral Air Force Station used by the Saturn IB for the early Apollo earth orbital missions. CEV configuration The ESAS recommended strategies for flying the crewed CEV by 2014, and endorsed a Lunar Orbit Rendezvous approach to the Moon. The LEO versions of the CEV would carry crews four to six to the ISS. The lunar version of the CEV would carry a crew of four and the Mars CEV would carry six. Cargo could also be carried aboard an uncrewed version CEV, similar to the Russian Progress cargo ships. Lockheed Martin was selected as the contractor for the CEV by NASA. This vehicle would ultimately become the Orion MPCV with its first flight in 2014 (EFT-1), its first crewed flight in 2022 (Artemis 2), and first lunar landing flight in 2024 (Artemis 3). Only one version of the vehicle was constructed to support deep space missions with ISS crew transfers being handled by the Commercial Crew Program. The CEV re-entry module would weigh about 12 tons—almost twice the mass of the Apollo Command Module—and, like Apollo, would be attached to a service module for life support and propulsion (European Service Module). The CEV would be an Apollo-like capsule, with a Viking-type heat shield, not a lifting body or winged vehicle like the Shuttle was. It would touch down on land rather than water, similar to the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. This would be changed to splashdown only to save weight, the CST-100 Starliner would be the first US spacecraft to touchdown on land. Possible landing areas that had been identified included Edwards Air Force Base, California, Carson Flats (Carson Sink), Nevada, and the area around Moses Lake, Washington state. Landing on the west coast would allow the majority of the reentry path to be flown over the Pacific Ocean rather than populated areas. The CEV would use an ablative (Apollo-like) heat shield that would be discarded after each use, and the CEV itself could be reused about 10 times. Accelerated lunar mission development was slated to start by 2010, once the Shuttle retired. The Lunar Surface Access Module, which would later be known as Altair, and heavy-lift booster (Ares V) would be developed in parallel and would both be ready for flight by 2018. The eventual goal was to achieve a lunar landing by 2020, the Artemis Program is now targeting a lunar landing in 2024. The LSAM would be much larger than the Apollo Lunar Module and would be capable of carrying up to 23 tons of cargo to the lunar surface to support a lunar outpost. Like the Apollo LM, the LSAM would include a descent stage for landing and an ascent stage for returning to orbit. The crew of four would ride in the ascent stage. The ascent stage would be powered by a methane/oxygen fuel for return to lunar orbit (later changed to liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, due to the infancy of oxygen/methane rocket propulsion). This would allow a derivative of the same lander to be used on later Mars missions, where methane propellant can be manufactured from the Martian soil in a process known as In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU). The LSAM would support the crew of four on the lunar surface for about a week and use advanced roving vehicles to explore the lunar surface. The huge amount of cargo carried by the LSAM would be extremely beneficial for supporting a lunar base and for bringing large amounts of scientific equipment to the lunar surface. Artemis will use separately launched landers under the CLPS Program to deliver support equipment for lunar outposts. Lunar mission profile The lunar mission profile was a combination of earth orbit rendezvous and lunar orbit rendezvous (LOR) approach. First, the LSAM and the EDS would be launched atop the heavy-lift, Shuttle-derived vehicle (Ares V). The EDS would be a derivative of the S-IVB upper stage used on the Saturn V rocket and will use a single J-2X engine similar to that used on the SRB-derived booster (originally two J-2X engines were to be used, but the RS-68 engines for the core stage will allow NASA to only use one). The crew would then be launched in the CEV on the SRB-derived booster (Ares I), and the CEV and LSAM will dock in Earth orbit. The EDS would then send the complex to the Moon. The LSAM would brake the complex into lunar orbit (similar to the Block D rocket on the failed Soviet moonshot attempt in the 1960s and 1970s), where four astronauts would board the LSAM for descent to the lunar surface for a week of exploration. Part of the LSAM could be left behind with cargo to begin the establishment of a long-term outpost. Both the LSAM and the lunar CEV would carry a crew of four. The entire crew would descend to the lunar surface, leaving the CEV unoccupied. After the time on the lunar surface had been spent, the crew would return to lunar orbit in the ascent stage of the LSAM. The LSAM would dock with the CEV. The crew would return to the CEV and jettison the LSAM, and then the CEV's engine would put the crew on a course for Earth. Then, much like Apollo, the service module would be jettisoned and the CEV would descend for a landing via a system of three parachutes. Ultimately a NASA-sponsored lunar outpost would be built, possibly near the Moon's south pole. But this decision had not yet been taken and would depend on potential international and commercial participation in the exploration project. The Artemis Program hopes to set up a small international lunar outpost by 2028 Extension to Mars The use of scalable CEVs and a lander with methane-fueled engines meant that meaningful hardware testing for Mars missions could be done on the Moon. The eventual Mars missions would start to be planned in detail around 2020 and would include the use of Lunar ISRU and also be "conjunction-class", meaning that rather than doing a Venus flyby and spending 20–40 days on the Martian surface, the crew would go directly to Mars and back and spend about 500–600 days exploring Mars. Costs The ESAS estimated the cost of the crewed lunar program through 2025 to be $217 billion, only $7 billion more than NASA's current projected exploration budget through that time. The ESAS proposal was originally said to be achievable using only existing NASA funding, without significant cuts to NASA's other programs, however, it soon became apparent that much more money was needed. Supporters of Constellation saw this as a justification for terminating the Shuttle program as soon as possible, and NASA implemented a plan to terminate support for both Shuttle and ISS in 2010. This was about 10 years earlier than planned for both programs, so must be considered a significant cut. This resulted in strong objections from the international partners that the US was not meeting its commitments, and concerns in Congress that the investment in ISS would be wasted. Criticism Beginning April 2006 there were some criticisms on the feasibility of the original ESAS study. These mostly revolved around the use of methane-oxygen fuel. NASA originally sought this combination because it could be "mined" in situ from lunar or martian soil – something that could be potentially useful on missions to these celestial bodies. However, the technology is relatively new and untested. It would add significant time to the project and significant weight to the system. In July, 2006, NASA responded to these criticisms by changing the plan to traditional rocket fuels (liquid hydrogen and oxygen for the LSAM and hypergolics for the CEV). This has reduced the weight and shortened the project's timeframe. However, the primary criticism of the ESAS was based on its estimates of safety and cost. The authors used the launch failure rate of the Titan III and IV as an estimate for the failure rate of the Delta IV heavy. The Titan combined a core stage derived from an early ICBM with large segmented solid fuel boosters and a hydrogen-fueled upper stage developed earlier. It was a complex vehicle and had a relatively high failure rate. In contrast, the Delta IV Heavy was a "clean sheet" design, still in service, which used only liquid propellant. Conversely, the failure rate of the Shuttle SRB was used to estimate the failure rate of the Ares I, however only launches subsequent to the loss of Challenger were considered, and each shuttle launch was considered to be two successful launches of the Ares even though the Shuttle SRBs do not include systems for guidance or roll control. The Delta IV is currently launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Complex 37, and the manufacturer, United Launch Alliance, had proposed launching human flights from there. However, in the estimation of costs, the ESAS assumed that all competing designs would have to be launched from Launch Complex 39, and that the Vehicle Assembly Building, Mobile launcher Platforms and pads A and B would have to be modified to accommodate them. The LC-39 facilities are much larger, more complex, older, and more expensive to maintain than the modern facilities at Complex 37 and are entirely inappropriate for the Delta, which is integrated horizontally and transported unfueled. This assumption was not justified in the report and greatly increased the estimated operational cost for the Delta IV. Finally, the decision in 2011 to add an uncrewed test of the Orion on a Delta IV clearly contradicts the ESAS conclusion that this was infeasible. Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee The Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee (also known as the HSF Committee, Augustine Commission, or Augustine Committee) was a group convened by NASA at the request of the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), to review the nation's human spaceflight plans to ensure "a vigorous and sustainable path to achieving its boldest aspirations in space." The review was announced by the OSTP on May 7, 2009. It covered human spaceflight options after the time NASA had planned to retire the Space Shuttle. A summary report was provided to the OSTP Director John Holdren, White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), and NASA Administrator on September 8, 2009. The estimated cost associated with the review was expected to be US$3 million. The committee was scheduled to be active for 180 days; the report was released on October 22, 2009. The Committee judged the 9-year old Constellation program to be so behind schedule, underfunded and over budget that meeting any of its goals would not be possible. President Obama removed the program from the 2010 budget effectively canceling the program. One component of the program, the Orion crew capsule was added back to plans but as a rescue vehicle to complement the Russian Soyuz in returning Station crews to Earth in the event of an emergency. The proposed "ultimate goal" for human space flight would appear to require two basic objectives: (1) physical sustainability and (2) economic sustainability. The Committee adds a third objective: to meet key national objectives. These might include international cooperation, developing new industries, energy independence, reducing climate change, national prestige, etc. Therefore, the ideal destination should contain resources such as water to sustain life (also providing oxygen for breathing, and hydrogen to combine with oxygen for rocket fuel), and precious and industrial metals and other resources that may be of value for space construction and perhaps in some cases worth returning to Earth (e.g., see asteroid mining). See also Crew Exploration Vehicle Crew Space Transportation System Liquid Rocket Booster Reusable launch system Shuttle-derived vehicle Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster References External links NASA's Exploration Systems Architecture Study Official Constellation NASA Web Site Official Orion NASA Web Site Official Ares NASA Web Site White House: A Renewed Spirit of Discovery President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy NASA: Exploration Systems Apollo 2.0: Moon Program on Drugs National Space Society NASA formally unveils lunar exploration architecture NASA Revives Apollo - While Starving Space Life Science Full Resolution Photos of NASA's New Spaceship ESAS Fact sheet ESAS Presentation Full ESAS report ESAS Appendix with launch vehicle configurations QuickTime animation Spacedaily on ESAS Human spaceflight Constellation program Space colonization Exploration of the Moon

2709416

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine%20Views

Nine Views

Nine Views () is an ambiental installation in Zagreb, Croatia which, together with the sculpture Prizemljeno Sunce (The Grounded Sun), comprises a scale model of the Solar System. Prizemljeno Sunce by Ivan Kožarić was first displayed in 1971 by the building of the Croatian National Theatre, and since then changed location a few times. Since 1994, it has been situated in Bogovićeva Street. It is a bronze sphere around in diameter. In 2004, artist Davor Preis had a two-week exhibition in the Josip Račić Exhibition Hall in Margaretska Street in Zagreb, and afterwards, he placed 9 models of the planets of the Solar System around Zagreb, to complete a model of the entire solar system. The models' sizes as well as their distances from the Prizemljeno Sunce are all in the same scale as the Prizemljeno Sunce itself. Preis did this installation with very little or no publicity, so his installation is not well known among citizens of Zagreb. On a few occasions, individuals or small groups of people, particularly physics students, "discovered" that there was a model of the Solar System in Zagreb. One of the earliest efforts to find all of the planets was started in November 2004 on the web forum of the student section of the Croatian Physics Society. The locations of the planets are as follows: Mercury - 3 Margaretska Street Venus - 3 Ban Josip Jelačić Square Earth - 9 Varšavska Street Mars - 21 Tkalčićeva Street Jupiter - 71 Voćarska Street Saturn - 1 Račićeva Street Uranus - 9 Siget (not at the residential building but at the garage across the street) Neptune - Kozari 17 Pluto - Bologna Alley (underpass) - included in the installation before being demoted to dwarf planet (someone has since ripped Pluto off, however the plaque remains) The system is at scale 1:680 000 000. Earth's model is about in diameter and is distance from the Sun's model, while Pluto's model is away from it. Gallery See also Monument to the Sun, a Solar System model in Zadar, Croatia Solar System model References External links Web site of the project The photos and the locations of all "grounded planets" Complete guide with maps, public transportation and pictures 2004 works Culture in Zagreb Croatian art Space art Solar System models

2710364

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O-type%20asteroid

O-type asteroid

The rare O-type asteroids have spectra similar to the unusual asteroid 3628 Boznemcová, which is the best asteroid match to the spectra of L6 and LL6 ordinary chondrite meteorites. Their spectra have a deep absorption feature longward of 0.75 μm. List Seven asteroids have been classified as O-type by the second Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey (SMASSII) and none by Tholen's Eight-Color Asteroid Survey. With the exception of main-belt asteroid 3628 Božněmcová, all other bodies are near-Earth asteroids from the Apollo, Aten or Amor group: See also Asteroid spectral types References Asteroid spectral classes

2715607

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safar

Safar

Ṣafar () also spelt as Safer in Turkish, is the second month of the lunar Islamic calendar. The Arabic word ṣafar means "travel, migration", corresponding to the pre-Islamic Arabian time period when Muslims fled the oppression of Quraish in Mecca and travelled (mostly barefooted) to Madina. Most of the Islamic months were named according to ancient Sabean/Sabaic weather conditions; however, since the calendar is lunar, the months shift by about 11 days every solar year, meaning that these conditions do not necessarily correspond to the name of the month. Timing The Islamic calendar is a purely lunar calendar, and its months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, Safar migrates throughout the seasons. The estimated start and end dates for Safar are as follows (based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia): Islamic events 01 Safar 61 AH, prisoners of Karbalā entered Yazid's Palace in Syria 10 Safar 61 AH, death of Sakina bint Husayn, youngest daughter of Hussain ibn Ali and a prisoner of Karbalā 17 Safar 202 AH, martyrdom of Ali al-Ridha according to one tradition 18 Safar, Grand Magal pilgrimage is celebrated at Touba, Senegal, commemorating the departure of Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba 18, 19 and 20 Safar, Death Anniversary (urs) of Ali Hajveri is celebrated at Data Darbar, Lahore Every 20 or 21 Safar, Arba'een or Chehlum (the 40th day after Ashura) 27 Safar 1 AH, Migration was started (Hijrah) from Mecca to Medina by Muhammad with Abu Bakr 27 Safar 589 AH, death of Salahuddin al-Ayyubi 28 Safar 11 AH, Muhammad fell deathly ill 28 Safar 50 AH, Martyrdom of Imam Hasan ibn ‘Alī, grandson of Muhammad References External links Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar) 2 Islamic terminology

2715626

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabi%27%20al-Awwal

Rabi' al-Awwal

Rabiʽ al-Awwal (, also known as Rabi' al-Ula (), or Rabi' I, is the third month of the Islamic calendar. The name Rabī‘ al-awwal means "the first month or beginning of spring", referring to its position in the pre-Islamic Arabian calendar. In the days of the Ottoman Empire, the name of this month in Ottoman Turkish was Rèbi' ulèvvèl, with the abbreviation Ra. In modern Turkish, it is Rebiülevvel. Meaning The word "Rabi" means "spring" and Al-awwal means "the first" in the Arabic language, so "Rabi' al-awwal" means "the first spring" in Arabic. The name seems to have to do with the celebratory events in the month, as spring marks the end of winter (a symbol of sadness) and consequently the start of happiness. As the Islamic calendar is a purely lunar calendar, the month naturally rotates over solar years, so Rabīʽ al-awwal can fall in spring or any other season. Therefore, the month cannot be related to the actual season of spring. Celebrations Although historians and scholars disagree on the exact date of Muhammad's birth, it is celebrated by some Muslims on the 12th or 17th of Rabi' al-awwal. Mawlid is done across the globe by some Muslims. Some muslims do not partake whatsoever as they believe it to be an innovation. The essence of the Mawlid is from the Sunnah. The sahaba would congregate specifically to thank Allah for blessing them with the prophet, distribute food, read poetry about the prophet as done by Hassan Ibn Thabit, speak about the life and birth of the Prophet and other praiseworthy acts which is what is carried out in Mawlid gatherings today. The Prophet ‎صَلَّى اللّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّم would fast on Mondays as it was the day he ‎صَلَّى اللّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّم was born (Sahih Muslim) Although a lot of Muslims make an extra effort in the month of Rabi Ul Awwal, mawlid can be done at any day and time of the year. It is done by all Muslims everyday without realising - simply praising the Prophet or speaking about the seerah (life of prophet) can be a form of mawlid. In many countries, a procession is also conducted on the night and day of the 12th or 17th of Rabi' al-awwal. On these occasions, sweets and drinks are distributed widely from home to home and the general public. In some areas, Muslims also exchange gifts. This (birthday celebration/procession) is an innovation, not practiced nor recommended by the Prophet or his Companions. In fact the Prophet is said to have disapproved of festival-like celebrations other than the two Eids (narration: Sunan Abī Dāwūd 1134). Timing The Islamic calendar is a purely lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, Rabī‘ al-Awwal migrates throughout the seasons. The estimated start and end dates for Rabī‘ al-Awwal are as follows (based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia): Islamic events 01 Rabī‘ al-Awwal 897 AH, the fall of the Emirate of Granada, the final Muslim kingdom of al-Andalus 08 Rabī‘ al-Awwal, death of Imam Hassan Al-Askari Twelver Imām, Hasan al-‘Askarī (see: Chup Tazia) 09 Rabī‘ al-Awwal, Eid e shuja 12 Rabī‘ al-Awwal, Sunni Muslims observe Mawlid in commemoration of Muhammad's birthday 13 Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Death of [Umm Rubab] (beloved wife of Imam Hussain) 17 Rabī‘ al-Awwal, Shia celebrate the birthday of the Imām Ja‘far al-Sādiq. 18 Rabī‘ al-Awwal, birth of Umm Kulthum bint Ali 26 Rabī‘ al-Awwal 1333 AH, death of Khwaja Sirajuddin Naqshbandi, a Naqshbandi Sufi shaykh Other events: The Hijra (migration) took place in this month Eid-e-Zahra (a.k.a. Eid e shuja), a celebration of Shi‘ah Muslims Marriage of Muhammad to Khadijah bint Khuwaylid Building of the Quba Mosque (first mosque in Islam) The week including 12th and 17th is called Islamic Unity Week in Iran to address both Sunni and Shia views on the birth date of Mohammad. References External links 12 Rabi Ul Awwal Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar) 3 Islamic terminology kk:Рабииғул әууәл sv:Rabi' al-Awwal

2715674

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabi%27%20al-Thani

Rabi' al-Thani

Rabiʽ al-Thani (, also known as Rabi' al-Akhirah (), Rabi al-Akhir (), or Rabi' II is the fourth month of the Islamic calendar. The name Rabī‘ al-Thani means "the second spring" in Arabic, referring to its position in the pre-Islamic Arabian calendar. In the days of the Ottoman Empire, the name of this month in Ottoman Turkish was Rèbi' ul-aher, with the Turkish abbreviation Rè, or Reb.-ul-Akh. in western European languages. In modern Turkish, it is Rebiülahir or Rebiülsani. Meaning The word "Rabi" means "spring" and Al-thani means "the second" in the Arabic language, so "Rabi' al-Thani" means "the second spring" in Arabic. As the Islamic calendar is a purely lunar calendar, the month naturally rotates over solar years, so Rabīʽ al-Thani can fall in spring or any other season. Therefore, the month cannot be related to the actual season of spring. Timing The Islamic calendar is a purely lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the tropical year, Rabī' al-Thānī migrates throughout the seasons. The estimated start and end dates for Rabī' al-Thānī are as follows (based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia): Islamic events 08 or 10 Rabī' al-Thānī, the birth of the Eleventh Imam Hasan al-Askari 10 or 12 Rabī’ al-Thānī, death of Fatimah bint Musa 11 of Rabī’ al-Thānī, death of Abdul-Qadir Gilani, the Sufi sheikh who is believed to be the "saint of saints" 15 of Rabi' al-Thani, death of Habib Abu Bakr al-Haddad 27 of Rabi' al-Thani, death of Ahmad Sirhindi 28 or 29 of Rabī’ al-Thānī, death of ibn Arabi, the great philosopher from Spain who died and rests in Damascus, Syria. References External links Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar) 4 Islamic terminology

2715711

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumada%20al-Awwal

Jumada al-Awwal

Jumada al-Awwal (), also known as Jumada al-Ula (), or Jumada I, is the fifth month of the Islamic calendar. Jumada al-Awwal spans 29 or 30 days. The origin of the month's name is theorized by some as coming from the word jamād (), meaning "arid, dry, or cold", denoting the dry and parched land and hence the dry months of the pre-Islamic Arabian calendar. Jumādā () may also be related to a verb meaning "to freeze", and another account relates that water would freeze during this time of year. The secondary name Jumādā al-Ūlā may possibly mean "to take charge with, commend, entrust, commit or care during the arid or cold month". However, this explanation is rejected by some as Jumada al-Awwal is a lunar month that does not coincide with seasons as solar months do. In the Ottoman Turkish language used in the Ottoman Empire, the name of the month was Jèmāzìyyu-'l-èvvel, or G̃émazi lèlèvvèl. In Turkish, it was abbreviated Jā, or G̃a. In Turkish today the spelling is Cemaziyelevvel. Timing The Islamic calendar is a purely lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, Jumada al-Awwal migrates backwards throughout the seasons in a cycle of about 33 solar years. The estimated start and end dates for Jumada al-Awwal are as follows (based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia): Islamic events On 5 Jumada al-Awwal, Zainab bint Ali was born. On 8th Jumada al-Awwal, URS Sayyid Amir al-Kulal Amir Kulal. On 10 Jumada al-Awwal 11 AH, Fatima bint Muhammad (Fatima al-Zahra) beloved daughter of Prophet Muhammad died in Medina at the young age of 23 years according to Sunni Muslim sources. On 13 Jumada al-Awwal 11 AH, Fatima bint Muhammad was buried by her husband Ali. On 15 Jumada al-Awwal, Ali ibn Husayn (Zayn al-Abideen) was born. On 20 Jumada al-Awwal 857, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople. See also Jumada al-Thani References External links Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar) 5 Islamic terminology kk:Жүмәдүл әууәл sv:Jumada-l-Awwal tt:Cömäd-äl-äwäl

2715736

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumada%20al-Thani

Jumada al-Thani

Jumada al-Thani (), also known as Jumada al-Akhirah (), Jumada al-Akhir (), or Jumada II, is the sixth month of the Islamic calendar. The word Jumda (), from which the name of the month is derived, is used to denote dry, parched land, a land devoid of rain. Jumādā () may also be related to a verb meaning "to freeze", and another account relates that water would freeze in pre-Islamic Arabia during this time of year. In Ottoman Turkish, the month was called Jèmāzìyyu-'l-ākhir, or G̃emazi-yèl-Aher. The month's Turkish abbreviation was jìm''', and its Latin abbreviation was Djem. II. This is also spelled Cümadelahir or Cümâd-el-âhire. The modern Turkish spellings are Cemaziyelahir and Cemaziyelsani''. Timing The Islamic calendar is a purely lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, Jumada al-Thani migrates throughout the seasons. The estimated start and end dates for Jumada al-Thani are as follows (based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia): Islamic events 03 Jumada al-Thani, death of Muhammad's (SAW) daughter Fatimah in 11 AH. 03 Jumada al-Thani, death of Harun al-Rashid, the fifth Abbasid caliph. 10 Jumada al-Thani, victory of Ali in the Battle of Bassorah (Jamal). 13 Jumada al-Thani, death of Umm al-Banin (the mother of Abbas ibn Ali). 20 Jumada al-Thani, birth of Muhammad's (SAW) daughter Fatima Zahra. 22 Jumada al-Thani, death of Caliph Abu Bakr. In 8 AH, Dhat as-Salasil. 25 Jumada al-Thani of 564 AH, Saladin became amir of Egypt. See also Jumada al-Awwal References External links Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar) 6 Islamic terminology sv:Jumada-l-Akhirah

2715902

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhu%20al-Qadah

Dhu al-Qadah

Dhu al-Qa'dah (, , ), also spelled Dhu al-Qi'dah or Zu al-Qa'dah, is the eleventh month in the Islamic calendar. It could possibly mean "possessor or owner of the sitting and seating place" - the space occupied while sitting or the manner of the sitting, pose or posture. It is one of the four sacred months in Islam during which warfare is prohibited, hence the name "Master of Truces". In Ottoman times, the name in Ottoman Turkish was Zi'l-ka'dé, abbreviation Za. In modern Turkish, it is Zilkade. Transliteration The most correct and most traditionally widespread transliteration of the month according to the thirteenth century Syrian jurist al-Nawawi is Dhu'l Qa'dah. Al-Nawawi also mentions that a smaller group of linguists allow the transliteration Dhu'l-Qi'dah, however. In modern times, it is most commonly referred to as Dhu'l Qi'dah although this is neither linguistically nor historically the strongest position. Timing The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar calendar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the tropical year, Dhu'l-Qi'dah migrates throughout the seasons. The estimated start and end dates for Dhu'l-Qi'dah, based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia, are: Islamic events 5 AH, the Muslims took part in the Battle of the Trench. 6 AH, Truce of Hudaubiyah. 6 AH, Pledge of the Tree. 7 AH, The first pilgrimage - the return to Mecca for the performance of Umrah by Muhammad and his companions. 1 Dhu'l-Qi'dah, birth anniversary of Fātimah bint Mūsā. 1 Dhu'l-Qi'dah, Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. 8 Dhu'l-Qi'dah, Hajj was made incumbent upon Muslims in 8 AH. 11 Dhu'l-Qi'dah, birth anniversary of Imam Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha, the eighth Twelver Imam. 23 Dhu'l-Qi'dah, martyrdom of Imam Ali al-Ridha according to one tradition. 25 Dhu'l-Qi'dah, , the day earth was laid beneath the Ka'ba, and the birth date of Ibrahim and Jesus. 29 Dhu'l-Qi'dah, martyrdom of Imam Muhammad ibn Ali at-Taqi al-Jawad, the ninth Twelver Imam. References External links Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar) 92 Islamic terminology sv:Dhu-l-Qa'dah

2715945

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhu%20al-Hijja

Dhu al-Hijja

Dhu al-Hijja ( ) is the twelfth and final month in the Islamic calendar. It is the month in which the Ḥajj (Pilgrimage) takes place as well as Eid al-Adha, the “Festival of the Sacrifice.” The Arabic name of the month, Dhu al-Hijja, means "Possessor of the Pilgrimage" or "The Month of the Pilgrimage". During this month, Muslim pilgrims from all around the world congregate at Mecca to visit the Kaaba. The Hajj is performed on the eighth, ninth and the tenth of this month. The Day of Arafah takes place on the ninth of the month. Eid al-Adha, the "Festival of the Sacrifice", begins on the tenth day and ends on sunset of the 13th. The name of this month is also spelled Dhul-Hijja or Zu al-Hijja. In Urdu, the month is commonly known as Zilhaj or Zilhij. In modern Turkish, the name is Zilhicce. Hadiths According to Islamic traditions, the first 10 days of Dhu al-Hijja are the most blessed days in which to do good deeds according to Imam Ali: "9-10 Dhu al Hajja are the best days for nikah relations." Narrated Ibn Abbas: The Prophet (ﷺ ) said, "No good deeds done on other days are superior to those done on these (first ten days of Dhu al-Hijja)." Then some companions of the Prophet said, "Not even Jihad?" He replied, "Not even Jihad, except that of a man who does it by putting himself and his property in danger (for Allah's sake) and does not return with any of those things." (Reported by Tirmidhi) Prophet Muhammad ﷺ used to fast the first nine days of this month, owing to their perceived virtue. One of the wives of Muhammad said: "Allah's Messenger used to fast the [first] nine days of Dhul-Hijjah, the day of 'Ashurah, and three days of each month." (Reported by Abu Dawud) Timing The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and months begin when new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar calendar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, Dhu al-Hijja migrates throughout the seasons. The estimated start and end dates for Dhu al-Hijja, based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia, are: Special days The first 9 days of Dhu al-Hijja for fasting The first 10 nights of Dhu al-Hijja for standing (Qiyaam) in Tahajjud The 8th, 9th and 10th of Dhu al-Hijja as the days of Hajj The 9th of Dhu al-Hijja as the Day of Arafah Takbirut Tashreeq is observed from the 9 Dhu al-Hijja till 13 Dhu al-Hijja The 10th of Dhu al-Hijja as the Night of Eid Eid al-Adha (Festival of the Sacrifice) begins on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijja and ends on sunset of the 13th Dhu al-Hijja 18th Dhu al-Hijja - Eid-al-Ghadeer Prescribed acts of worship The following acts have been prescribed for the first nine days of Dhu al-Hijja: A person should give extra charity Sadaqah in these 9 days Better your Salaah in these days Spend time in the Masjid Perform voluntary Nafl prayer at home Recitation, Memorization and Reading of the Qur’an Dhikr Dua Fasting the first nine days sawm Iʿtikāf On the days of Qurbani, i.e. 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th of Dhu al-Hijja, the greatest action is the spilling of blood of a sacrificial animal (Qurbani). Reward for fasting and Tahajjud According to the hadith, great rewards have been mentioned for fasting the first nine days of Dhu al-Hijja and standing in worship (Tahajjud) in the first 10 nights of Dhu al-Hijja: This hadith has been classed as a daeef(weak) hadith by many scholars, Narrated by at-Tirmidhi (no. 758); al-Bazzaar (no. 7816) and Ibn Maajah (1728) via Abu Bakr ibn Naafi‘ al-Basri, who said: Mas‘ood ibn Waasil told us, from Nahhaas ibn Qaham, from Qataadah, from Sa‘eed ibn al-Musayyab, from Abu Hurayrah.  This is a da‘eef isnaad because of an-Nahhaas ibn Qaham and Mas‘ood ibn Waasil. Hence the scholars of hadith unanimously agreed that it is to be classed as da‘eef.  At-Tirmidhi (may Allah have mercy on him) said:  This is a ghareeb hadith, which we know only from the hadith of Mas‘ood ibn Waasil, from an-Nahhaas.  I asked Muhammad – i.e., al-Bukhaari – about this hadith and he did not know it except via this isnaad.  Some of this was also narrated from Qataadah, from Sa‘eed ibn al-Musayyab, from the Prophet (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) in a mursal report. Yahya ibn Sa‘eed criticised Nahhaas ibn Qaham with regard to his memory. End quote.  Al-Baghawi (may Allah have mercy on him) said:  Its isnaad is da‘eef (end quote)  Sharh as-Sunnah (2/624)  Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him) said: There is some weakness in it. End quote  Sharh al-‘Umdah (2/555)  Al-Haafiz Ibn Hajar (may Allah have mercy on him) said:  Its isnaad is da‘eef. End quote.  Fath al-Baari (2/534)  It was classed as da‘eef by Shaykh al-Albaani (may Allah have mercy on him) in as-Silsilah ad-Da‘eefah (no. 5142).  The reason for the 10 days being distinguished is due to the combination of worship in this period of prayer, fasting, charity, Takbir and Hajj. From the first nine days of Dhu al-Hijja, it is particularly recommended to fast the Day of Arafah (9 Dhu al-Hijja) as expiation of the sin of two years: General events 9 Dhu al-Hijja, Day of Arafah. 10-13 Dhu al-Hijja, Eid al-Adha is observed by Muslims on the hajj and around the world in commemoration of the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son Isma'il (Ishmael) for Allah. Sunni 18 Dhu al-Hijja, assassination of Uthman, the prominent companion and son-in-law of Muhammad and Khadija. Husband of Ruqayyah and Umm Kulthum. Shi'ite 01 Dhu al-Hijja, Nikah (marriage) of Ali and Fatimah – AH 2 (24 February AD 624). 07 Dhu al-Hijja, martyrdom of Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shīʿite Imām, Muhammad al-Bāqir ‐ AH 114. 08 Dhu al-Hijja, Husayn ibn ʿAlī began his journey to Karbalāʾ from Mecca. 09 Dhu al-Hijja, martyrdom of Muslim ibn ʿAqīl and Hani ibn Urwah in Kufah. It is also a day of supererogatory fasting – AH 60. 15 Dhu al-Hijja, birth of Twelver Imām, ʿAlī al-Naqī - AH 214 [Disputed date]. 18 Dhu al-Hijja, Shīʿite Muslims celebrate the event of Ghadir Khumm - AH 10. 19 Dhu al-Hijja, Fatimah went to Ali's house after their marriage. 23 Dhu al-Hijja, martyrdom of Meesam Tammar, friend of Ali – AH 60. 23 Dhu al-Hijja, martyrdom of two sons of Muslim ibn ʿAqīl in Kufa - AH 60. 24 Dhu al-Hijja, event of al-Mubahalah took place ('Eid al-Mubahilah). 24 Dhu al-Hijja, some historians mention that the Hadith, Ahl al-Kisa', event was also on the same day prior to Muhammad setting out for Mubahila. 24 Dhu al-Hijja, supplication day and giving of alms with the ring by Ali. In reply verse, "Verily your Walee is Allah; and His Messenger and those who establish Salaat, and pay Zakaat while they be in Rukooʿ. (Maa-Idah: 55)" was revealed. 25 Dhu al-Hijja, Sura Al-Insan or Hal Ata, or Dahar, which records the giving of alms to orphans, the destitute and travellers by Fatimah Hasan and Husain was revealed. 25 Dhu al-Hijja, Ali becomes the Caliph of Islam – AH 35. Notes References External links Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar). Hadith on Dhul-Hijjah 93 Islamic terminology

2717435

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity%20Field%20and%20Steady-State%20Ocean%20Circulation%20Explorer

Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer

The Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) was the first of ESA's Living Planet Programme heavy satellites intended to map in unprecedented detail the Earth's gravity field. The spacecraft's primary instrumentation was a highly sensitive gravity gradiometer consisting of three pairs of accelerometers which measured gravitational gradients along three orthogonal axes. Launched on 17 March 2009, GOCE mapped the deep structure of the Earth's mantle and probed hazardous volcanic regions. It brought new insight into ocean behaviour; this in particular, was a major driver for the mission. By combining the gravity data with information about sea surface height gathered by other satellite altimeters, scientists were able to track the direction and speed of geostrophic ocean currents. The low orbit and high accuracy of the system greatly improved the known accuracy and spatial resolution of the geoid (the theoretical surface of equal gravitational potential on the Earth). The satellite's unique arrow shape and fins helped keep GOCE stable as it flew through the thermosphere at a comparatively low altitude of . Additionally, an ion propulsion system continuously compensated for the variable deceleration due to air drag without the vibration of a conventional chemically powered rocket engine, thus limiting the errors in gravity gradient measurements caused by non-gravitational forces and restoring the path of the craft as closely as possible to a purely inertial trajectory. After running out of propellant, the satellite began dropping out of orbit and made an uncontrolled re-entry on 11 November 2013. Discoveries and applications Mission objectives To determine gravity-field anomalies with an accuracy of (1 mGal). To increase resolution, the satellite flew in an unusually low orbit. To determine the geoid with an accuracy of 1–2 cm. To achieve the above at a spatial resolution better than 100 km. Gravity map and model The final gravity map and model of the geoid will provide users worldwide with well-defined data product that will lead to: A better understanding of the physics of the Earth's interior to gain new insights into the geodynamics associated with the lithosphere, mantle composition and rheology, uplift and subduction processes. A better understanding of the ocean currents and heat transport. A global height-reference system, which can serve as a reference surface for the study of topographic processes and sea-level change. Better estimates of the thickness of polar ice-sheets and their movement. Findings The first Earth global gravity model based on GOCE data was presented at ESA's Living Planet Symposium, in June 2010. Initial results of the GOCE satellite mission were presented at the American Geophysical Union (AGU) 2010 Fall (Autumn) Meeting by Dr Rory Bingham from Newcastle University, UK. The maps produced from the GOCE data show ocean currents in much finer detail than had been available previously. Even very small details like the Mann Eddy in the North Atlantic were visible in the data, as was the effect of Hurricane Igor in 2010. Detailed analysis of GOCE's thruster and accelerometer data serendipitously revealed that it had detected the infrasound waves generated by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake (whereupon it inadvertently became the first seismograph in orbit). Later results from the GOCE data exposed details in the Earth's mantle including mantle plumes, ancient subduction zones, and remnants of the Tethys Ocean. Subsequent analysis of GOCE data has also provided new information about the geological makeup of the Antarctic continent, including the detection of ancient continent remnants and at least three cratons beneath the Antarctic ice. Operations Launch The first launch attempt on 16 March 2009 was aborted due to a malfunction with the launch tower. GOCE was launched on 17 March 2009 at 14:21 UTC from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in northern Russia aboard a Rokot/Briz-KM vehicle. The Rokot is a modified UR-100N intercontinental ballistic missile that was decommissioned after the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. The launcher used the two lower liquid fuel stages of the original missile and was equipped with a Briz-KM third stage developed for precise orbit injection. GOCE was launched into a Sun-synchronous dusk-dawn orbit with an inclination of 96.7° and an ascending node at 18:00. Separation from the launcher was at 295 km. The satellite's orbit then decayed over a period of 45 days to an operational altitude, planned at 270 km. During this time, the spacecraft was commissioned and the electrical propulsion system checked for reliability in attitude control. Operation In February 2010 a fault was discovered in the satellite's computer, which meant controllers were forced to switch control to the backup computer. In July 2010, GOCE suffered a serious communications malfunction, when the satellite suddenly failed to downlink scientific data to its receiving stations. Extensive investigations by experts from ESA and industry revealed that the issue was almost certainly related to a communication link between the processor module and the telemetry modules of the main computer. The recovery was completed in September 2010: as part of the action plan, the temperature of the floor hosting the computers was raised by some , resulting in restoration of normal communications. In November 2010, the due completion date for the original 20-month mission before it was delayed by the glitches, it was decided to extend the mission lifetime until the end of 2012 in order to complete the original work and carry out a further 18-month mission to improve the collected data. In November 2012 the orbit was lowered from to get higher resolution data, at which time fuel remained for another 50 weeks. End of mission and re-entry In May 2013 a further lowering to took place. The satellite ran out of its xenon propellant in October 2013, at which time it would take to re-enter. On 18 October 2013, ESA reported that the pressure in the fuel system of GOCE's ion engine had dropped below 2.5 bar, which is the nominal operating pressure required to fire the engine. Subsequently, end of mission was formally declared on 21 October when the spacecraft ran out of fuel; deprived of xenon, the ion drive stopped working at 03:16 UTC. On 9 November 2013, a published report indicated that the satellite was expected to re-enter within a day or two. By this date, the perigee altitude had decayed to . On 10 November, ESA expected re-entry to occur between 18:30 and 24:00 UTC that day, with the most probable impact ground swath largely running over ocean and polar regions. Its descending orbit on 11 November 2013 passed over Siberia, the western Pacific Ocean, the eastern Indian Ocean and Antarctica. The satellite finally disintegrated around 00:16 UTC on 11 November near the Falkland Islands. Design Payload The satellite's main payload was the Electrostatic Gravity Gradiometer (EGG) to measure the gravity field of Earth. This instrument consisted of three pairs of capacitive accelerometers arranged in three dimensions that responded to tiny variations in the 'gravitational tug' of the Earth as it traveled along its orbital path. Because of their different position in the gravitational field they all experienced the gravitational acceleration of the Earth slightly differently. The three axes of the gradiometer allowed the simultaneous measurement of the five independent components of the gravity gradient tensor. Other payload was an onboard GPS receiver used as a Satellite-to-Satellite Tracking Instrument (SSTI); a compensation system for all non-gravitational forces acting on the spacecraft. The satellite was also equipped with a laser retroreflector to enable tracking by ground-based Satellite laser ranging stations. Power and propulsion GOCE's frame had fixed solar panels covering its sun-facing side, which produced 1,300 watts of power. The panels were shaped to act as fins, stabilising the spacecraft while it orbited through the residual air in the thermosphere. The ion propulsion electric engine, designed and built at QinetiQ's space centre in Farnborough, England, ejected xenon ions at velocities exceeding , which compensated for the orbital decay losses. GOCE's mission ended when the xenon fuel tank emptied. The dual Kaufman-type ion thrusters could produce up to of thrust. Although its predicted lifetime was 20 months, an ESA report in June 2010 suggested that unusually low solar activity (meaning a calmer upper atmosphere, and hence less drag on the craft) meant the fuel would last longer than its predicted 20 months—possibly into 2014. In reality, the end of mission was formally declared on 21 October 2013 after 55 months, with the final 11 months in a lower orbit (with greater air density and therefore greater fuel use). See also GRACE (NASA; DLR; in orbit 2002–2017) and the follow-up mission GRACE-FO SLATS (JAXA), also used ion thrusters to maintain altitude, 2017-2019 Satellite gravimetry References External links GOCE site by the European Space Agency GOCE site by ESA Earth Explorers GOCE site by ESA Operations GOCE site by ESA Earth Online GOCE site by ESA eoPortal Earth observation satellites of the European Space Agency Satellites in very low Earth orbit Spacecraft launched in 2009 Spacecraft which reentered in 2013 Spacecraft launched by Rokot rockets Gravimetry satellites

2719041

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melt%20pond

Melt pond

Melt ponds are pools of open water that form on sea ice in the warmer months of spring and summer. The ponds are also found on glacial ice and ice shelves. Ponds of melted water can also develop under the ice, which may lead to the formation of thin underwater ice layers called false bottoms. Melt ponds are usually darker than the surrounding ice, and their distribution and size is highly variable. They absorb solar radiation rather than reflecting it as ice does and, thereby, have a significant influence on Earth's radiation balance. This differential, which had not been scientifically investigated until recently, has a large effect on the rate of ice melting and the extent of ice cover. Melt ponds can melt through to the ocean's surface. Seawater entering the pond increases the melt rate because the salty water of the ocean is warmer than the fresh water of the pond. The increase in salinity also depresses the water's freezing point. Water from melt ponds over land surface can run into crevasses or moulins – tubes leading under ice sheets or glaciers – turning into meltwater. The water may reach the underlying rock. The effect is an increase in the rate of ice flow to the oceans, as the fluid behaves like a lubricant in the basal sliding of glaciers. Effects of melt ponds The effects of melt ponds are diverse (this subsection refers to melt ponds on ice sheets and ice shelves). Research by Ted Scambos, of the National Snow and Ice Data Center, has supported the melt water fracturing theory that suggests the melting process associated with melt ponds has a substantial effect on ice shelf disintegration. Seasonal melt ponded and penetrating under glaciers shows seasonal acceleration and deceleration of ice flows affecting whole icesheets. Accumulated changes by ponding on ice sheets appear in the earthquake record of Greenland and other glaciers: "Quakes ranged from six to 15 per year from 1993 to 2002, then jumped to 20 in 2003, 23 in 2004, and 32 in the first 10 months of 2005." Ponding in the extreme is lakes and lakes in association with glaciers are examined in the particular case of the Missoula Floods. See also Moulin (geology) Glacier ice accumulation Antarctic ice pack Arctic ice pack References Climatology Earth phenomena Ponds Sea ice

2719753

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scattered%20disc

Scattered disc

The scattered disc (or scattered disk) is a distant circumstellar disc in the Solar System that is sparsely populated by icy small Solar System bodies, which are a subset of the broader family of trans-Neptunian objects. The scattered-disc objects (SDOs) have orbital eccentricities ranging as high as 0.8, inclinations as high as 40°, and perihelia greater than . These extreme orbits are thought to be the result of gravitational "scattering" by the gas giants, and the objects continue to be subject to perturbation by the planet Neptune. Although the closest scattered-disc objects approach the Sun at about 30–35 AU, their orbits can extend well beyond 100 AU. This makes scattered objects among the coldest and most distant objects in the Solar System. The innermost portion of the scattered disc overlaps with a torus-shaped region of orbiting objects traditionally called the Kuiper belt, but its outer limits reach much farther away from the Sun and farther above and below the ecliptic than the Kuiper belt proper. Because of its unstable nature, astronomers now consider the scattered disc to be the place of origin for most periodic comets in the Solar System, with the centaurs, a population of icy bodies between Jupiter and Neptune, being the intermediate stage in an object's migration from the disc to the inner Solar System. Eventually, perturbations from the giant planets send such objects towards the Sun, transforming them into periodic comets. Many objects of the proposed Oort cloud are also thought to have originated in the scattered disc. Detached objects are not sharply distinct from scattered disc objects, and some such as Sedna have sometimes been considered to be included in this group. Discovery Traditionally, devices like a blink comparator were used in astronomy to detect objects in the Solar System, because these objects would move between two exposures—this involved time-consuming steps like exposing and developing photographic plates or films, and people then using a blink comparator to manually detect prospective objects. During the 1980s, the use of CCD-based cameras in telescopes made it possible to directly produce electronic images that could then be readily digitized and transferred to digital images. Because the CCD captured more light than film (about 90% versus 10% of incoming light) and the blinking could now be done at an adjustable computer screen, the surveys allowed for higher throughput. A flood of new discoveries was the result: over a thousand trans-Neptunian objects were detected between 1992 and 2006. The first scattered-disc object (SDO) to be recognised as such was , originally identified in 1996 by astronomers based at Mauna Kea in Hawaii. Three more were identified by the same survey in 1999: , , and . The first object presently classified as an SDO to be discovered was , found in 1995 by Spacewatch. As of 2011, over 200 SDOs have been identified, including Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà (discovered by Schwamb, Brown, and Rabinowitz), Gonggong (Schwamb, Brown, and Rabinowitz) (NEAT), Eris (Brown, Trujillo, and Rabinowitz), Sedna (Brown, Trujillo, and Rabinowitz) and 474640 Alicanto (Deep Ecliptic Survey). Although the numbers of objects in the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc are hypothesized to be roughly equal, observational bias due to their greater distance means that far fewer SDOs have been observed to date. Subdivisions of trans-Neptunian space Known trans-Neptunian objects are often divided into two subpopulations: the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc. A third reservoir of trans-Neptunian objects, the Oort cloud, has been hypothesized, although no confirmed direct observations of the Oort cloud have been made. Some researchers further suggest a transitional space between the scattered disc and the inner Oort cloud, populated with "detached objects". Scattered disc versus Kuiper belt The Kuiper belt is a relatively thick torus (or "doughnut") of space, extending from about 30 to 50 AU comprising two main populations of Kuiper belt objects (KBOs): the classical Kuiper-belt objects (or "cubewanos"), which lie in orbits untouched by Neptune, and the resonant Kuiper-belt objects; those which Neptune has locked into a precise orbital ratio such as 2:3 (the object goes around twice for every three Neptune orbits) and 1:2 (the object goes around once for every two Neptune orbits). These ratios, called orbital resonances, allow KBOs to persist in regions which Neptune's gravitational influence would otherwise have cleared out over the age of the Solar System, since the objects are never close enough to Neptune to be scattered by its gravity. Those in 2:3 resonances are known as "plutinos", because Pluto is the largest member of their group, whereas those in 1:2 resonances are known as "twotinos". In contrast to the Kuiper belt, the scattered-disc population can be disturbed by Neptune. Scattered-disc objects come within gravitational range of Neptune at their closest approaches (~30 AU) but their farthest distances reach many times that. Ongoing research suggests that the centaurs, a class of icy planetoids that orbit between Jupiter and Neptune, may simply be SDOs thrown into the inner reaches of the Solar System by Neptune, making them "cis-Neptunian" rather than trans-Neptunian scattered objects. Some objects, like (29981) 1999 TD10, blur the distinction and the Minor Planet Center (MPC), which officially catalogues all trans-Neptunian objects, now lists centaurs and SDOs together. The MPC, however, makes a clear distinction between the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc, separating those objects in stable orbits (the Kuiper belt) from those in scattered orbits (the scattered disc and the centaurs). However, the difference between the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc is not clear-cut, and many astronomers see the scattered disc not as a separate population but as an outward region of the Kuiper belt. Another term used is "scattered Kuiper-belt object" (or SKBO) for bodies of the scattered disc. Morbidelli and Brown propose that the difference between objects in the Kuiper belt and scattered-disc objects is that the latter bodies "are transported in semi-major axis by close and distant encounters with Neptune," but the former experienced no such close encounters. This delineation is inadequate (as they note) over the age of the Solar System, since bodies "trapped in resonances" could "pass from a scattering phase to a non-scattering phase (and vice versa) numerous times." That is, trans-Neptunian objects could travel back and forth between the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc over time. Therefore, they chose instead to define the regions, rather than the objects, defining the scattered disc as "the region of orbital space that can be visited by bodies that have encountered Neptune" within the radius of a Hill sphere, and the Kuiper belt as its "complement ... in the a > 30 AU region"; the region of the Solar System populated by objects with semi-major axes greater than 30 AU. Detached objects The Minor Planet Center classifies the trans-Neptunian object 90377 Sedna as a scattered-disc object. Its discoverer Michael E. Brown has suggested instead that it should be considered an inner Oort-cloud object rather than a member of the scattered disc, because, with a perihelion distance of 76 AU, it is too remote to be affected by the gravitational attraction of the outer planets. Under this definition, an object with a perihelion greater than 40 AU could be classified as outside the scattered disc. Sedna is not the only such object: (discovered before Sedna) and 474640 Alicanto have a perihelion too far away from Neptune to be influenced by it. This led to a discussion among astronomers about a new minor planet set, called the extended scattered disc (E-SDO). may also be an inner Oort-cloud object or (more likely) a transitional object between the scattered disc and the inner Oort cloud. More recently, these objects have been referred to as "detached", or distant detached objects (DDO). There are no clear boundaries between the scattered and detached regions. Gomes et al. define SDOs as having "highly eccentric orbits, perihelia beyond Neptune, and semi-major axes beyond the 1:2 resonance." By this definition, all distant detached objects are SDOs. Since detached objects' orbits cannot be produced by Neptune scattering, alternative scattering mechanisms have been put forward, including a passing star or a distant, planet-sized object. Alternatively, it has been suggested that these objects have been captured from a passing star. A scheme introduced by a 2005 report from the Deep Ecliptic Survey by J. L. Elliott et al. distinguishes between two categories: scattered-near (i.e. typical SDOs) and scattered-extended (i.e. detached objects). Scattered-near objects are those whose orbits are non-resonant, non-planetary-orbit-crossing and have a Tisserand parameter (relative to Neptune) less than 3. Scattered-extended objects have a Tisserand parameter (relative to Neptune) greater than 3 and have a time-averaged eccentricity greater than 0.2. An alternative classification, introduced by B. J. Gladman, B. G. Marsden and C. Van Laerhoven in 2007, uses 10-million-year orbit integration instead of the Tisserand parameter. An object qualifies as an SDO if its orbit is not resonant, has a semi-major axis no greater than 2000 AU, and, during the integration, its semi-major axis shows an excursion of 1.5 AU or more. Gladman et al. suggest the term scattering disk object to emphasize this present mobility. If the object is not an SDO as per the above definition, but the eccentricity of its orbit is greater than 0.240, it is classified as a detached TNO. (Objects with smaller eccentricity are considered classical.) In this scheme, the disc extends from the orbit of Neptune to 2000 AU, the region referred to as the inner Oort cloud. Orbits The scattered disc is a very dynamic environment. Because they are still capable of being perturbed by Neptune, SDOs' orbits are always in danger of disruption; either of being sent outward to the Oort cloud or inward into the centaur population and ultimately the Jupiter family of comets. For this reason Gladman et al. prefer to refer to the region as the scattering disc, rather than scattered. Unlike Kuiper-belt objects (KBOs), the orbits of scattered-disc objects can be inclined as much as 40° from the ecliptic. SDOs are typically characterized by orbits with medium and high eccentricities with a semi-major axis greater than 50 AU, but their perihelia bring them within influence of Neptune. Having a perihelion of roughly 30 AU is one of the defining characteristics of scattered objects, as it allows Neptune to exert its gravitational influence. The classical objects (cubewanos) are very different from the scattered objects: more than 30% of all cubewanos are on low-inclination, near-circular orbits whose eccentricities peak at 0.25. Classical objects possess eccentricities ranging from 0.2 to 0.8. Though the inclinations of scattered objects are similar to the more extreme KBOs, very few scattered objects have orbits as close to the ecliptic as much of the KBO population. Although motions in the scattered disc are random, they do tend to follow similar directions, which means that SDOs can become trapped in temporary resonances with Neptune. Examples of possible resonant orbits within the scattered disc include 1:3, 2:7, 3:11, 5:22 and 4:79. Formation The scattered disc is still poorly understood: no model of the formation of the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc has yet been proposed that explains all their observed properties. According to contemporary models, the scattered disc formed when Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) were "scattered" into eccentric and inclined orbits by gravitational interaction with Neptune and the other outer planets. The amount of time for this process to occur remains uncertain. One hypothesis estimates a period equal to the entire age of the Solar System; a second posits that the scattering took place relatively quickly, during Neptune's early migration epoch. Models for a continuous formation throughout the age of the Solar System illustrate that at weak resonances within the Kuiper belt (such as 5:7 or 8:1), or at the boundaries of stronger resonances, objects can develop weak orbital instabilities over millions of years. The 4:7 resonance in particular has large instability. KBOs can also be shifted into unstable orbits by close passage of massive objects, or through collisions. Over time, the scattered disc would gradually form from these isolated events. Computer simulations have also suggested a more rapid and earlier formation for the scattered disc. Modern theories indicate that neither Uranus nor Neptune could have formed in situ beyond Saturn, as too little primordial matter existed at that range to produce objects of such high mass. Instead, these planets, and Saturn, may have formed closer to Jupiter, but were flung outwards during the early evolution of the Solar System, perhaps through exchanges of angular momentum with scattered objects. Once the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn shifted to a 2:1 resonance (two Jupiter orbits for each orbit of Saturn), their combined gravitational pull disrupted the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, sending Neptune into the temporary "chaos" of the proto-Kuiper belt. As Neptune traveled outward, it scattered many trans-Neptunian objects into higher and more eccentric orbits. This model states that 90% or more of the objects in the scattered disc may have been "promoted into these eccentric orbits by Neptune's resonances during the migration epoch...[therefore] the scattered disc might not be so scattered." Composition Scattered objects, like other trans-Neptunian objects, have low densities and are composed largely of frozen volatiles such as water and methane. Spectral analysis of selected Kuiper belt and scattered objects has revealed signatures of similar compounds. Both Pluto and Eris, for instance, show signatures for methane. Astronomers originally supposed that the entire trans-Neptunian population would show a similar red surface colour, as they were thought to have originated in the same region and subjected to the same physical processes. Specifically, SDOs were expected to have large amounts of surface methane, chemically altered into tholins by sunlight from the Sun. This would absorb blue light, creating a reddish hue. Most classical objects display this colour, but scattered objects do not; instead, they present a white or greyish appearance. One explanation is the exposure of whiter subsurface layers by impacts; another is that the scattered objects' greater distance from the Sun creates a composition gradient, analogous to the composition gradient of the terrestrial and gas giant planets. Michael E. Brown, discoverer of the scattered object Eris, suggests that its paler colour could be because, at its current distance from the Sun, its atmosphere of methane is frozen over its entire surface, creating an inches-thick layer of bright white ice. Pluto, conversely, being closer to the Sun, would be warm enough that methane would freeze only onto cooler, high-albedo regions, leaving low-albedo tholin-covered regions bare of ice. Comets The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the source of the Solar System's ecliptic comets. However, studies of the region since 1992 have shown that the orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable, and that ecliptic comets originate from the scattered disc, where orbits are generally less stable. Comets can loosely be divided into two categories: short-period and long-period—the latter being thought to originate in the Oort cloud. The two major categories of short-period comets are Jupiter-family comets (JFCs) and Halley-type comets. Halley-type comets, which are named after their prototype, Halley's Comet, are thought to have originated in the Oort cloud but to have been drawn into the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets, whereas the JFCs are thought to have originated in the scattered disc. The centaurs are thought to be a dynamically intermediate stage between the scattered disc and the Jupiter family. There are many differences between SDOs and JFCs, even though many of the Jupiter-family comets may have originated in the scattered disc. Although the centaurs share a reddish or neutral coloration with many SDOs, their nuclei are bluer, indicating a fundamental chemical or physical difference. One hypothesis is that comet nuclei are resurfaced as they approach the Sun by subsurface materials which subsequently bury the older material. See also List of possible dwarf planets List of trans-Neptunian objects Notes References Trans-Neptunian region 19961009

2724555

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnificent%20Desolation%3A%20Walking%20on%20the%20Moon%203D

Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D

Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D is a 2005 IMAX 3D documentary film about the first humans on the Moon, the twelve astronauts in the Apollo program. It is co-written, produced and directed by Mark Cowen, and co-written, produced by and starring Tom Hanks. Production The film includes historical NASA footage as well as re-enactments and computer-generated imagery. Tom Hanks is the narrator, co-writer and co-producer. Magnificent Desolation is the third Apollo-related project for Hanks: he was previously involved in the film Apollo 13 and the miniseries From the Earth to the Moon. The cast includes Andrew Husmann, Aaron White, Brandy Blackledge, Gary Hershberger, and Scott Wilder. The voice cast includes Morgan Freeman, John Travolta, Paul Newman, Matt Damon, Matthew McConaughey. Bryan Cranston and Peter Scolari reprised their From the Earth to the Moon roles as Buzz Aldrin and Pete Conrad, respectively; many of the other actors had previously portrayed different people depicted in the film, in From the Earth to the Moon, The Right Stuff, and/or Apollo 13. Score by James Newton Howard and Blake Neely. The film was released in IMAX theaters on September 23, 2005. It was released on DVD on November 6, 2007. Origins of title The title comes from Buzz Aldrin's description of the lunar landscape: Aldrin: Beautiful view! Armstrong: Isn't that something! Magnificent sight out here. Aldrin: Magnificent desolation. Aldrin's statement was substantially predicted nineteen years earlier in the film, Destination Moon, in which Charles Cargraves, the fictional second man on the Moon, states "The first impression is one of utter barrenness and desolation." Without Aldrin realising it, he was also quoting the Wilkie Collin's classic "The Moonstone": '..I resolved not to leave Kattiawar, without looking once more on the magnificent desolation of Somnauth..' Cast Tom Hanks as The Narrator (voice) [portrayed Jim Lovell in Apollo 13 and hosted From the Earth to the Moon eps. 1-11] John Corbett as Harrison Schmitt (voice) Andrew Husmann as David Scott Bryan Cranston as Buzz Aldrin (voice) [reprised From the Earth to the Moon role, portrayed Gus Grissom in That Thing You Do] Aaron White as James Irwin Matt Damon as Alan Shepard (voice) John Travolta as James Irwin (voice) Morgan Freeman as Neil Armstrong (voice) Gary Hershberger as Astronaut Grace Scott Wilder as Astronaut Wallace Brandy Blackledge as Future Astronaut Scott Glenn as Charles Duke (voice) [portrayed Alan Shepard in The Right Stuff] Rick Gomez as Alpha Station Commander (voice) Colin Hanks as Conspiracy Neil Armstrong Bo Stevenson as Conspiracy Grip Frank John Hughes as Future Houston Capcom (voice) Tim Matheson as Houston Capcom (voice) Matthew McConaughey as Alan Bean (voice) Neal McDonough as Reservoir Commander (voice) Paul Newman as David Scott (voice) Bill Paxton as Edgar Mitchell (voice) [portrayed Fred Haise in Apollo 13] Barry Pepper as John Young (voice) Kevin Pollak as Director (voice) [portrayed Joe Shea in From the Earth to the Moon and the voice of Pres. Eisenhower in The Right Stuff] Julie Shimer as Future Astronaut (voice) Gary Sinise as Eugene Cernan (voice) [portrayed Ken Mattingly in Apollo 13] Peter Scolari as Pete Conrad (voice) [reprised From the Earth to the Moon ep. 1 role] Donnie Wahlberg as Helium 3 Commander (voice) Rita Wilson as Beta Station Commander (voice) [portrayed Susan Borman in From the Earth to the Moon] Awards On February 16, 2006, Jack Geist, Johnathan Banta, and Jerome Morin received the award for Outstanding Visual Effects in a Special Venue Film from the Visual Effects Society for their work on the film. See also Apollo 11 in popular culture References External links Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D official web site Preview: Magnificent Desolation by Jeff Foust, The Space Review, August 1, 2005 Review: Magnificent Desolation by Jeff Foust, The Space Review, September 26, 2005 Review: Magnificent Desolation by Robert Pearlman, collectSPACE, September 20, 2005 2005 films 2005 short documentary films IMAX short films Films about astronauts Films about the Apollo program Playtone films American short documentary films Documentary films about the space program of the United States 2005 3D films American 3D films 3D short films Films produced by Tom Hanks Films with screenplays by Tom Hanks Films scored by Blake Neely IMAX documentary films Documentary films about outer space Cultural depictions of Neil Armstrong Cultural depictions of Dwight D. Eisenhower Cultural depictions of Buzz Aldrin 3D documentary films Harrison Schmitt David Scott James Irwin Alan Bean Alan Shepard Charles Duke Edgar Mitchell John Young (astronaut) Pete Conrad Gene Cernan 2000s English-language films 2000s American films

2725411

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20Radiation%20and%20Climate%20Experiment

Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment

The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) was a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measured incoming X-ray, ultraviolet, visible, near-infrared, and total solar radiation. These measurements specifically addressed long-term climate change, natural variability, atmospheric ozone, and UV-B radiation, enhancing climate prediction. These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun, its effect on the Earth's system, and its influence on humankind. SORCE was launched on 25 January 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA's Earth Science Enterprise (ESE) with precise measurements of solar radiation. SORCE measured the Sun's output using radiometers, spectrometers, photodiodes, detectors, and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory orbiting the Earth. Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter. Data obtained by SORCE can be used to model the Sun's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun's radiation on the Earth's atmosphere and climate. Flying in a orbit at a 40.0° inclination, SORCE was operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) at the University of Colorado Boulder, Colorado. It continued the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and extended to the 21st century with the ACRIM series of measurements. SORCE provided measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 to 2000 nm, accounting for 95% of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance. Objectives The science objectives of the SORCE mission were: To make accurate measurements with high precision of total solar irradiance, connect them to previous TSI measurements, and continue this long-term climate record. Provide TSI with an accuracy of 0.01% (100 parts per million) based on SI units and with long-term repeatability of 0.001%/yr. To make daily measurements of the solar ultraviolet irradiance from 120 to 300 nm, with a spectral resolution of 1 nm. Achieve this spectral irradiance measurement with an accuracy of better than 5%, and with long-term repeatability of 0.5%/yr. Use the solar/stellar comparison technique to relate the solar irradiance to the ensemble average flux from a number of bright, early-type stars (same stars used by the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) SOLSTICE program). To make the first measurements of the visible and near-infrared solar irradiance with sufficient precision for future climate studies. Obtain daily measurements of solar spectral irradiance between 0.3 and 2 µm with a spectral resolution of at least 1/30, an accuracy of 0.03%, and long-term repeatability of better than 0.01%/yr. To improve the understanding of how and why solar irradiance varies, estimate past and future solar behavior, and investigate climate responses. Experiments SORCE carried four instruments, including the Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM), Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE), Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM), and the XUV Photometer System (XPS): Total Irradiation Monitor (TIM) TIM (Total Irradiation Monitor) was a 7.9 kg, 14 watts instrument that covered all visual and infrared wavelengths at an irradiance accuracy of one part in 10000. It used differential, heat-sensitive resistors as detectors. Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM) SIM (Spectral Irradiance Monitor) was a 22 kg, 25 watts rotating Fery prism spectrometer with a bolometer output that covered the 200-2400 nm band at a resolution of a few nm, and at an irradiance accuracy of three parts in ten thousand. Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE) SOLSTICE (SOlar STellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment) A and B are 36 kg, 33 watts, UV grating spectrometers with photomultiplier detectors that covered the 115-320 nm band at a resolution of 0.1 nm, and at an irradiance accuracy of about 4%. It used an ensemble of bright stars (selected for their stable luminosities) as calibrators for the instrument variability. Extreme Ultraviolet Photometer System (XPS) XPS (XUV Photometer System) was a 3.6 kg, 9 watts photometer which invoked filters to monitor the X-ray and UV band at 1-34 nm, at a resolution of about seven nm, and at an irradiance accuracy of about 15%. End of mission NASA decommissioned SORCE on 25 February 2020, after 17 years of operation (over three times the original design life of five years). The spacecraft had struggled with battery degradation problems since 2011, which prevented SORCE from conducting measurements full-time. Ground teams switched to daytime-only observations, effectively allowing SORCE to operate with no functioning battery through its solar panels. NASA planned to keep operating SORCE until a replacement could be developed and launched. The Glory satellite, which would have continued SORCE's observations, was lost in a launch failure in 2011. A stopgap solar irradiance instrument, the Total Solar Irradiance Calibration Transfer Experiment (TCTE), was launched in November 2013 on the U.S. Air Force's STPSat-3, but a full replacement for SORCE did not launch until December 2017, when the Total and Spectral solar Irradiance Sensor (TSIS-1 and TSIS-2) was delivered to the International Space Station (ISS). Left to drift in orbit, SORCE is projected to re-enter the atmosphere in 2032, with most of the spacecraft expected to burn up during re-entry. See also Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite References External links http://lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/ Satellites orbiting Earth Spacecraft launched in 2003 Spacecraft decommissioned in 2020 Solar observatories Spacecraft launched by Pegasus rockets NASA satellites

2727074

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clipperton

John Clipperton

John Clipperton (1676 – June 1722) was an English privateer who fought against the Spanish in the 18th century. He was involved in two buccaneering expeditions to the South Pacific—the first led by William Dampier in 1703, and the second under his own command in 1719. He used Clipperton Island in the eastern Pacific Ocean as a base for his raids. Early life and personality John Clipperton was born in Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, in 1676 into a family of seafarers. In his younger days he sailed all the seas of Europe, made one trip to the West Indies and one around the world. He was an able pilot and seaman, but also a man of faults. He was a blunt, plain-spoken sailor. He was definitely no gentleman; but at times tried to be seen as one. Rash fits of rage would befall him, although he was soon appeased. Then he would be ready to repair any injustice that he had committed in the heat of anger—at least when this was possible. Privateering voyage with Dampier In 1703 he sailed with the expedition of Captain William Dampier during the War of the Spanish Succession. Dampier appointed Clipperton captain of one of the Spanish ships they had taken as a prize. This first voyage of Clipperton did not proceed well. He led a mutiny against Dampier, and was later taken captive by the Spanish. José Antonio de la Rocha y Carranza, the Marquis of Villa-Rocha, who would subsequently become governor of Panama, treated him with much indifference. Clipperton returned home in 1712 after four years of captivity. It was, however, during this journey that he is said to have discovered Clipperton Island, which he would use as a hideout. He would later become captain of the Success as part of a different privateering syndicate, in which he also held under his nominal command Captain George Shelvocke of the Speedwell. In his activities attacking Spanish targets on the west coast of the Americas, he used Clipperton Island as a base from which to stage his attacks and store loot and supplies, fortifying Clipperton Rock and expanding its cave network. In 1714, Clipperton attacked the Manila Galleon while the crew was resting at Cabo San Lucas at the foot of the Baja California peninsula. This incident prompted King Philip V of Spain to call for the settlement of San Diego, California, presumably as a base from which to defend the western coast of New Spain. Later privateering expedition Much more is known about Clipperton's second voyage to the Pacific Ocean in 1719. By that time he had become an able and diligent captain, but he was still unable to control his rash temper. In 1718 a group of London merchants, the "Gentleman Venturers", had financed a privateering expedition in expectation of the outbreak of the War of the Quadruple Alliance, with a commission to cruise against the Spanish in the South Sea. Clipperton in the Success sailed with the Speedwell, captained by George Shelvocke. Clipperton had replaced Shelvocke as overall commander of the expedition before the two ships left Plymouth in February 1719. The ships lost contact with each other shortly after during a storm in the Bay of Biscay and did not meet up again until nearly two years later in the Pacific. On the voyage around Cape Horn, Clipperton dallied in the islands there hoping that Speedwell, which had been separated from Success in the storm, would catch up. When the Success departed the area, Clipperton left two men marooned as punishment on Juan Fernández, which Alexander Selkirk (who may have partly inspired the Robinson Crusoe story) had been marooned on years before. Clipperton sailed right around South America, raiding Spanish shipping about the coasts of Perú at the so-called "Southern Seas", where he was chased by Spanish admiral Blas de Lezo during the latter's first safety operations in the area. The privateer managed to escape Blas de Lezo and finally fled to Asian shores, where he was taken for dead. He captured his old enemy the Marquis de Villa-Rocha, whom he treated with much respect. Later, his travels carried him to Mexico. On May 10, 1721, Clipperton arrived in the Mariana Islands after 53 days of sailing from Mexico, having lost six crew and the rest weak. He decided to seek provisions at Guam and anchored off Merizo. Clipperton and the Spanish governor of the Marianas, Luis Antonio Sánchez de Tagle, agreed to trade for provisions. Matters escalated when Clipperton proposed that the governor ransom the Marquis de Villa-Rocha, who was still aboard. The Marquis and two of the Success'''s crew went ashore, but Clipperton grew increasingly aggravated when the promised ransom and his crewmen were not returned. He sent a message ashore threatening to "demolish all the houses on shore, burn the ship in the harbour, and do all the mischief he could at the Philippine Islands" if his demands were not met, according to Shelvocke's journal. On May 28, the Spanish refused to trade for provisions unless Success continued trading its powder and shot. In response, Clipperton ordered to sail close to shore and start firing. However, Success'' grounded itself, becoming an easy target for Spanish cannon fire, killing the ship's first lieutenant. Shelvocke writes, "Clipperton, by now quite overcome with liquor, was unable to command. Another officer took over and after three days of false starts got the ship afloat after all the while under attack from the Spanish on shore." Clipperton finally managed to sail from Guam on May 31, 1721. Spain's Council of the Indies was already concerned about competing navies threatening the Manila galleon trade and Spain's possessions in the Pacific, and this incident appears to have finally convinced Spain that it needed to better protect its ships at Guam. In 1734, new anchorages were opened at Apra Harbor and two cannon batteries protecting approaches were constructed. Clipperton then traveled to Macau, where he stayed as his health deteriorated. He then sailed to Batavia (now Jakarta) in the Dutch East Indies, finally returning to his family in Galway in Ireland in June 1722. He died a week after returning home. References 1676 births 1722 deaths Circumnavigators of the globe Clipperton Island English privateers People from Great Yarmouth 18th-century English people

2727109

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/617%20Patroclus

617 Patroclus

617 Patroclus ( ) is a large binary Jupiter trojan asteroid. It is a dark D-type asteroid and a slow rotator, due to the 103-hour orbital period of its two components. It is one of five Jupiter trojan asteroids targeted by the Lucy space probe, and is scheduled for a flyby in 2033. Patroclus was discovered on 17 October 1906, by astronomer August Kopff at the Heidelberg Observatory in Germany, and was named after Patroclus in Greek mythology. It was the second trojan to be discovered and the only member of the Trojan camp named after a Greek figure, as the convention of naming one 'camp' after Greek figures of the Trojan War and the other after Trojan figures had not yet been established. Patroclus was long thought to be one of the largest Jupiter trojans, with a diameter on the order of 150 km. However, in 2001 it was discovered to be a binary asteroid of two similarly sized objects. The name Patroclus is now assigned to the larger component, some 110–115 km in diameter, while the secondary, slightly smaller at 100–105 km in diameter, has been named Menoetius ( ). This was the first discovery of a binary trojan asteroid. Orbit Patroclus orbits in Jupiter's trailing Lagrangian point, , in an area called the Trojan camp after one of the sides in the legendary Trojan War (the other node, at the , is called the "Greek camp"). It orbits the Sun at a distance of 4.5–5.9 AU once every 11 years and 11 months (4,353 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 22° with respect to the ecliptic. The asteroid's observation arc begins at the discovering Heidelberg Observatory in November 1906, about 3 weeks after its official discovery observation. Binary system {{Infobox planet | minorplanet = yes | name = Menoetius | background = | image = File:617PatroclusMenoetius20131021.jpg | image_size = 220px | caption = Plot of the results of the multi-chord stellar occultation by 617 Patroclus and Menoetius | discovery_ref = | discovered = 2001 | discoverer = | discovery_site = | mpc_name = | alt_names = | pronounced = | named_after = Menoetius | mp_category = | adjectives = Menoetian <ref>Redfield (1994) Nature and culture in the Iliad: the tragedy of Hector</ref>) | satellite_of = Patroclus | orbit_ref = | epoch = | uncertainty = | observation_arc = | aphelion = | perihelion = | semimajor = 664.6 km | eccentricity = | period = | mean_anomaly = | mean_motion = | inclination = | dimensions = | mean_diameter = | mass = | volume = | density = | rotation = | albedo = | spectral_type = | abs_magnitude = }} In 2001, it was discovered that Patroclus is a binary system, made up of two components of roughly similar size. It is one of six Trojan asteroids believed to be binary. In 2006, accurate measurements of the orbit from the Keck Laser guide star adaptive optics system were reported. It was estimated that the two components orbit around their center of mass in days at a distance of in a roughly circular orbit. Combining these observations with thermal measurements taken in 2000, the sizes of the components of the system were estimated at 106 km and 98 km, with an equivalent whole-system diameter of 145 km, refined by later measurements from the Keck Observatory to approximately 122 km and 112 km for each partner, and a co-orbital period of hours ( days). On 21 October 2013, both bodies occulted a magnitude 8.8 star as observed by a team of 41 observers stationed across the USA. Observation data put the orbital distance at the time of 664.6 km (with an unstated uncertainty), and give a size for the slightly larger component, which retains the name Patroclus with overall volume equivalent to a –diameter sphere, with the smaller component now named Menoetius with a volume equivalent to a –diameter sphere. Physical characteristics Lightcurves Since 1989, several rotational lightcurves of Patroclus have been obtained from photometric observations. Analysis of the best rated lightcurves gave a rotation period between 102.8 and 103.5 hours with a brightness amplitude of less than 0.1 magnitude (). A low brightness variation typically indicates that a body has a nearly spheroidal shape. Its long rotation period makes it a slow rotator. Diameter and albedo According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, the Patroclus system has an effective combined size between 140.36 and 140.92 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.047. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.0471 and a diameter of 140.92 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 8.19. Composition Recent evidence suggests that the objects are icy like comets, rather than rocky like most asteroids. In the Tholen classification, Patroclus is a dark P-type asteroid. Because the density of the components (0.88 g/cm3) is less than water and about one third that of rock, it was suggested that the Patroclus system, previously thought to be a pair of rocky asteroids, is more similar to a comet in composition. It is suspected that many Jupiter trojans are in fact small planetesimals captured in the Lagrange point of the Jupiter–Sun system during the migration of the giant planets 3.9 billion years ago. This scenario was proposed by A. Morbidelli and colleagues in a series of articles published in May 2005 in Nature. Exploration The Patroclus–Menoetius system is a scheduled target for Lucy, a flyby mission to multiple asteroids, mostly Jupiter trojans. Name This minor planet was named after the legendary Greek hero Patroclus. Friend and lover of Achilles, he was killed by Hector during the Trojan War. (See 588 Achilles and 624 Hektor.) The name was proposed by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa. The official naming citation was mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 (). In Greek and thus in Latin, Patroclus'' has all short vowels. Thus the expected English pronunciation would be with stress on the 'a', *. However, Alexander Pope shifted the stress to the first 'o', , a convention from Latin poetry, for metrical convenience in his verse translation of Homer, and this irregular pronunciation has become established in English. The satellite Menoetius ( ; official designation (617) Patroclus I Menoetius) was named after the legendary father of Patroclus. It was previously known by the provisional designation . Patroclus and Menoetius are the only objects in the Trojan camp to be named after Greek rather than Trojan characters. The naming conventions for the Jupiter trojans were not adopted until after Patroclus was named (similarly, the asteroid Hektor is the only Trojan character to appear in the Greek camp). Notes References External links Keck Obs. press release Trojan Asteroid Patroclus: Comet in Disguise? Patroclus and Menoetius web page Asteroids with Satellites, Robert Johnston, johnstonsarchive.net Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info ) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center Jupiter trojans (Trojan camp) Patroclus Patroclus Binary asteroids Minor planets to be visited by spacecraft Slow rotating minor planets P-type asteroids (Tholen) Objects observed by stellar occultation 19061017

2727977

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22%20Tauri

22 Tauri

22 Tauri is a component of the Asterope double star in the Pleiades open cluster. 22 Tauri is the stars' Flamsteed designation. It is situated near the ecliptic and thus is subject to lunar occultation. The star has an apparent visual magnitude of 6.43, which is near the lower threshold of visibility to the naked eye. Anybody attempting to view the object is likely to instead see the Asterope pair as a single elongated form of magnitude 5.6. Based upon an annual parallax shift of , this star is located 444 light years away from the Sun. It is moving further from the Earth with a heliocentric radial velocity of +7 km/s. This is an ordinary A-type main-sequence star with a stellar classification of A0 Vn. The 'n' suffix indicates the spectrum displays "nebulous" absorption lines due to rapid rotation. This is confirmed by a high projected rotational velocity of 232 km/s. The star is radiating sixty times the Sun's luminosity from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 11,817 K. References A-type main-sequence stars Pleiades Open Cluster Taurus (constellation) Durchmusterung objects Tauri, 022 023441 017588 1152 Sterope II

2728339

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta1%20Tauri

Delta1 Tauri

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Delta1 Tauri}} Delta¹ Tauri (δ¹ Tauri, abbreviated Delta¹ Tau, δ¹ Tau) is a double star in the zodiac constellation of Taurus. Based upon an annual parallax shift of 20.96 mas as seen from Earth, it is located roughly 156 light-years distant from the Sun. The system is faintly visible to the naked eye with a combined apparent visual magnitude of +3.772. It is considered a member of the Hyades cluster. The two constituents are designated δ¹ Tauri A and B. A is itself a binary star with components designated δ¹ Tauri Aa (officially named Secunda Hyadum , the traditional name for the entire system) and Ab. Nomenclature δ¹ Tauri (Latinised to Delta¹ Tauri) is the system's Bayer designation. The designations of the two constituents as Delta¹ Tauri A and B, and those of A's components - Delta¹ Tauri Aa and Ab - derive from the convention used by the Washington Multiplicity Catalog (WMC) for multiple star systems, and adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). The system bore the traditional name Hyadum II, which is Latin for "Second of the Hyades". In 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN decided to attribute proper names to individual stars rather than entire multiple systems. It approved the name Secunda Hyadum for the component Delta¹ Tauri Aa on 5 September 2017 and it is now so included in the List of IAU-approved Star Names. In Chinese, (), meaning Net, refers to an asterism consisting of δ¹ Tauri, Epsilon Tauri, Delta³ Tauri, Gamma Tauri, Alpha Tauri (Aldebaran), 71 Tauri and Lambda Tauri. Consequently, the Chinese name for Delta¹ Tauri itself is (), "the Third Star of Net". Properties Delta¹ Tauri A is a single-lined spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of 529.8 days and an eccentricity of 0.42. The visible member, component Aa, is an evolved G- or K-type giant star with a stellar classification of . The 'CN0.5' suffix indicates a mild overabundance of cyanogen in the outer atmosphere. It is chromospherically active and shows a radial velocity variation of with a period of . The primary, component Aa, has 2.8 times the mass of the Sun, while the secondary, component Ab, has 1.3 times the Sun's mass. Delta¹ Tauri B is a magnitude 13.21 visual companion separated by 111.8 arcseconds from A. It is most likely not physically related to the main star. References G-type giants Spectroscopic binaries Hyades (star cluster) Tauri, Delta Taurus (constellation) Secunda Hyadum Durchmusterung objects Tauri, 061 027697 020455 1373

2735812

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee%20calendar

Cherokee calendar

The Cherokee calendar is traditionally defined as a Lunar calendar marked by 13 moon cycles of 28 days. Each cycle was accompanied by a ceremony. In order to rectify the Cherokee calendar with that of the Julian calendar, these cycles were reduced to 12. The seasonal round of ceremonies was integral to Cherokee society. It was considered an important spiritual element for social cohesion and a way to bring all the Cherokee clans together. The Cherokee, like many other Native tribes, used the number of scutes on the backs of certain species of turtles to determine their calendar cycle. The scutes around the edge added up to 28, the same number of days as in a lunar cycle, while the center contained 13 larger scutes, representing the 13 moon cycles of a year. Thirteen seasonal moon ceremonies Cherokee priests, known as (A-ni-ku-ta-ni), defined the 13 ceremonies as listed below. The common names in English are listed followed by their names in Cherokee syllabics, the Cherokee name's transcription in the Latin alphabet in parentheses, and a literal translation of the Cherokee name for some of the moons. Cold Moon – (Nv-da Ka-na-wo-ga) Bone Moon – (Nv-da Ko-la); Wind Moon – (Nv-da U-no-le); Flower Moon – (Nv-da A-tsi-lu-s-gi); Planting Moon – (Nv-da Ga-hlv-sga); Green Corn Moon – (Nv-da Se-lu-i-tse-i-yu-s-di); Corn in Tassel Moon – (Nv-da U-tsi-dsa-ta); Ripe Corn Moon – (Nv-da Se-lu-u-wa-nv-sa) End of Fruit Moon – (Nv-da U-da-ta-nv-a-gi-s-di U-li-s-dv) Nut Moon – (Nv-da U-da-ta-nv) Harvest Moon – (Nv-da Tsi-yah-lo-ha) Hunting Moon – (Nv-da Ga-no-ha-li-do-ha) Snow Moon – (Nv-da Gu-ti-ha); Cherokee names for Julian calendar months With the expansion of Euro-American influences in North America, the Cherokee adapted their calendar to the widely accepted Julian calendar. As such the 13-moon phase calendar was gradually replaced by a 12-month calendar. However, the months were still associated with ceremonies and are still practiced by traditional Cherokee today. Below is a list of months according to the Julian calendar followed by their Latin transliterated Kituwah and Overhill dialect name and then Cherokee syllabics for each dialect. Below is a list of months as they appeared in ethnological studies and books of the Cherokee people from 1894 into the late 20th century, with Julian calendar name followed by Cherokee names and finally the meanings and associations: Seasons Below are the seasons of the year with relatable names from Mooney in 1894, the Kituwah and Overhill dialects and their respective Syllabics. Notes References Citations Bibliography Moon Ceremonies Native American religion Specific calendars Lunar calendars

2737533

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Patent%20Classification

International Patent Classification

The International Patent Classification (IPC) is a hierarchical patent classification system used in over 100 countries to classify the content of patents in a uniform manner. It was created under the Strasbourg Agreement (1971), one of a number of treaties administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). The classification is updated on a regular basis by a Committee of Experts, consisting of representatives of the Contracting States of that Agreement with observers from other organisations, such as the European Patent Office. Classification Patent publications from all of the Contracting States (and also most others) are each assigned at least one classification symbol indicating the subject to which the invention relates and may also be assigned further classification symbols and indexing codes to give further details of the contents. Each classification symbol is of the form A01B 1/00 (which represents "hand tools"). The first letter represents the "section" consisting of a letter from A ("Human Necessities") to H ("Electricity"). Combined with a two digit number, it represents the "class" (class A01 represents "Agriculture; forestry; animal husbandry; trapping; fishing"). The final letter makes up the "subclass" (subclass A01B represents "Soil working in agriculture or forestry; parts, details, or accessories of agricultural machines or implements, in general"). The subclass is followed by a one-to-three-digit "group" number, an oblique stroke and a number of at least two digits representing a "main group" or "subgroup". A patent examiner assigns classification symbols to patent application or other document in accordance with classification rules, and generally at the most detailed level which is applicable to its content. A: Human Necessities B: Performing Operations, Transporting C: Chemistry, Metallurgy D: Textiles, Paper E: Fixed Constructions F: Mechanical Engineering, Lighting, Heating, Weapons G: Physics H: Electricity History The origin of the International Patent Classification is the "International Classification" created under the European Convention on the International Classification of Patents for Invention. The first edition of the International Classification became effective on September 1, 1968. It consisted of eight sections, 103 classes, and 594 subclasses, as compared with the IPC eighth edition consisting of eight sections, 129 classes, 639 subclasses, 7,314 main groups, and 61,397 subgroups. In 1967, BIRPI, WIPO's predecessor, and the Council of Europe began negotiations aiming to "internationalize" the International Classification. Their efforts bore the Strasbourg Agreement in 1971. For the first seven editions of the IPC, the classification was updated approximately every five years. With the eighth edition, which came into force January 1, 2006, the system was revised and the classification was divided into "core" and "advanced" levels. The core level was to be updated on a three-yearly basis. The advanced level provided more detailed classification and was updated more frequently (probably every three months). International Patent classification edition 8 was designed to allow patent offices the choice between a simpler to implement but more general classification using the core classifications, or a more detailed but more complex to maintain advanced classification. This division into core and advanced levels was reversed with the 2011 version of IPC, IPC2011.01. The IPC is under continual revision, with new editions coming into force on January 1 of every year. The current version is IPC2021.01. See also Cooperative Patent Classification (CPC) Espacenet European Classification system (ECLA) F-term INPADOC References External links International Patent Classification (IPC) at the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Patent classifications International classification systems

2741870

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level%20%28optical%20instrument%29

Level (optical instrument)

A level is an optical instrument used to establish or verify points in the same horizontal plane in a process known as levelling. It is used in conjunction with a levelling staff to establish the relative height or levels (the vertical separation) of objects or marks. It is widely used in surveying and construction to measure height differences and to transfer, measure, and set heights of known objects or marks. It is also known as a surveyor's level, builder's level, dumpy level or the historic "Y" level. It operates on the principle of establishing a visual level relationship between two or more points, for which an inbuilt optical telescope and a highly accurate bubble level are used to achieve the necessary accuracy. Traditionally the instrument was completely adjusted manually to ensure a level line of sight, but modern automatic versions self-compensate for slight errors in the coarse levelling of the instrument, and are thereby quicker to use. The optical level should not be confused with a theodolite, which can also measure angles in the vertical plane. Description The complete unit is normally mounted on a tripod, and the telescope can freely rotate 360° in a horizontal plane. The surveyor adjusts the instrument's level by coarse adjustment of the tripod legs and fine adjustment using three precision levelling screws on the instrument to make the rotational plane horizontal. The surveyor does this with the use of a bull's eye level built into the instrument mount. The surveyor looks through the eyepiece of the telescope while an assistant holds a vertical level staff which is graduated in inches or centimeters. The level staff is placed with its foot on the point for which the level measurement is required. The telescope is rotated and focused until the level staff is plainly visible in the crosshairs. In the case of a tilting level, the fine level adjustment is made by an altitude screw, using a high accuracy bubble level fixed to the telescope. This can be viewed by a mirror whilst adjusting, or the ends of the bubble in a "split bubble" display can be viewed within the telescope. This also allows assurance of the accurate level of the telescope whilst the sight is being taken. However, in the case of an automatic level, altitude adjustment is done automatically by a suspended prism due to gravity, as long as the coarse levelling of the instrument base is accurate within certain limits. When level, the staff graduation readings at the crosshairs and stadia marks are recorded, and an identifying mark or marker placed where the level staff rested on the object or position being surveyed. Invention In 1832, English civil engineer and inventor William Gravatt, who was commissioned to examine a scheme for the South Eastern Railway's route from London to Dover, became frustrated with the slow and cumbersome operation of the "Y" level during the survey work, and devised the more transportable, easier-to-use "dumpy" level, so called because of its shorter appearance. The telescope of the historic "Y" level is held in two brass arms, which are part of the mount and the telescope could be easily removed to allow sighting reversal though 180 degrees or an axial rotation of the telescope; both to compensate for optical collimation errors. Because the telescope is not fixed to the level adjusting mechanism, the "Y" instrument is assembled and disassembled for each sighting station. However, the dumpy level is permanently secured to its two support arms and the levelling mechanism, thereby reducing measurement uncertainty and considerably reducing the time taken to set up the instrument. The dumpy uses the same basic principle of level sighting. Survey operation After careful setup of the level, the height of the crosshairs is determined by either sighting from a known benchmark with known height determined by a previous survey or an arbitrary point with an assumed height is used. Sighting is done with an assistant surveyor who holds a graduated staff vertical at the point under measurement. The surveyor rotates the telescope until the graduated staff is in the crosshairs and records the reading. This is repeated for all sightings from that datum. Should the instrument be moved to another position within sighting distance, it is re-levelled, and a sighting taken of a known level in the previous survey. This relates any new levels to the previous levels. Variants The Y level or wye level is the oldest and bulkiest of the older style optical instruments. A low-powered telescope is placed in a pair of clamp mounts, and the instrument then leveled using a spirit level, which is mounted parallel to the main telescope. The term dumpy level (also builder's level) endures despite the evolution in design. They can be manual or automatic, the latter being much quicker to set up. A tilting level is a variant which has a precision vertical adjustment screw which tilts both the telescope and the high accuracy bubble level attached to it to make them level. This reduces the complete reliance on the levelling accuracy of the instruments' bottom mount, and the "split bubble" display gives additional assurance that the telescope is level whilst taking the sight. This allows faster operation as the bottom mount need not be truly level, though it will introduce a slight error as the vertical axis of the mount is not completely co-incident with the telescope centre. The split bubble works by displaying half of both ends of the bubble side by side in the telescope, and when the curved ends are aligned it is level. An automatic level, self-levelling level, or builder's auto level includes an internal compensator mechanism (a swinging prism) that, when set close to level, automatically removes any remaining variation. This reduces the need to set the instrument base truly level, as with a dumpy level. Self-levelling instruments are the preferred instrument on building sites, construction, and during surveying due to ease of use and rapid setup time. A digital electronic level is also set level on a tripod and reads a bar-coded staff using electronic laser methods. The height of the staff where the level beam crosses the staff is shown on a digital display. This type of level removes interpolation of graduation by a person, thus removing a source of error and increasing accuracy. During night time, the dumpy level is used in conjunction with an auto cross laser for accurate scale readings. A transit level also has the ability to measure both the altitude and azimuth of a target object with respect to a reference in the horizontal plane. The instrument is rotated to sight the target, and the vertical and horizontal angles are read off calibrated scales In popular culture In the first chapter of Thomas Hardy's 1887 novel The Woodlanders, the narrator states, "He knew every subtle incline of the ten miles of ground between Abbot's Cernel and Sherton—the market town to which he journeyed—as accurately as any surveyor could have learnt it by a Dumpy level." In the online game World of Warcraft, there is a quest in Wetlands given by Surveyor Thurdan to retrieve his lost dumpy level. He even comments on the name, saying, "I didn't name the bloody thing, alright? Go look it up!" See also Glossary of levelling terms Laser level Laser line level Theodolite Total station Philadelphia rod Water level (device) References External links Checking a level Wye level (Y level) British inventions Construction surveying Optical instruments Surveying instruments Vertical position

2744441

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple%20of%20Venus%20and%20Roma

Temple of Venus and Roma

The Temple of Venus and Roma (Latin: Templum Veneris et Romae) is thought to have been the largest temple in Ancient Rome. Located on the Velian Hill, between the eastern edge of the Forum Romanum and the Colosseum, in Rome, it was dedicated to the goddesses Venus Felix ("Venus the Bringer of Good Fortune") and Roma Aeterna ("Eternal Rome"). The building was the creation of the emperor Hadrian and construction began in 121. It was officially inaugurated by Hadrian in 135, and finished in 141 under Antoninus Pius. Damaged by fire in 307, it was restored with alterations by the emperor Maxentius. History The temple was erected on the remains of Emperor Nero's Domus Transitoria, and subsequent Domus Aurea, and first the Colossus of Nero was moved and placed near the amphitheatre, which shortly afterwards became known as the Colosseum. An elaborate domed rotunda from the Domus Transitoria is still intact beneath the temple, an extravagant architectural design which included marble-lined pools and paving in multicoloured opus sectile. Unimpressed by Hadrian's architectural design for the temple, his most brilliant architect, Apollodorus, made a scornful remark on the size of the seated statues within the cellae, saying that they would surely hurt their heads if they tried to stand up from their thrones. Apollodorus was banished and executed not long after this. According to the ancient historian Ammianus Marcellinus the temple was among the great buildings of Rome which astonished the Emperor Constantius II on his visit to the city in 357. The sanctuary was closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. Further restoration was performed under Eugenius, a short-lived usurper (392–394) against Theodosius I, whose policy was the restoration of Pagan cults and temples. However, as with many of Rome's majestic ancient buildings the temple was later targeted for its rich materials. In 630 Pope Honorius I with the consent of the Emperor Heraclius, removed the gilt-bronze tiles from the roof of the temple for the adornment of St. Peter's. A severe earthquake at the beginning of the 9th century is believed to have destroyed the temple. Around 850 Pope Leo IV ordered the building of a new church, Santa Maria Nova, on the ruins of the temple. After a major rebuilding in 1612, this church was renamed Santa Francesca Romana, incorporating Roma's cella as the belltower. A somewhat fanciful veduta engraving by Giovanni Battista Mercati depicts the site in 1629. The vast quantity of marble that once adorned the temple has all but disappeared due to its use as a raw material for building projects from the Middle Ages onwards. The Italian archaeologist Rodolfo Amedeo Lanciani makes reference to his discovery of a lime kiln in close proximity to the temple in his work The Destruction of Ancient Rome”. Architecture It was set on a platform measuring x . The peripteral temple itself measured x and high (counting the statues) and consisted of two main chambers (cellae), each housing a cult statue of a god—Venus, the goddess of love, and Roma, the goddess of Rome, both figures seated on a throne. The cellae were arranged symmetrically back-to-back. Roma's cella faced west, looking out over the Forum Romanum, and Venus' cella faced east, looking out over the Colosseum. A row of four columns (tetrastyle) lined the entrance to each cella, and the temple was bordered by colonnaded entrances ending in staircases that led down to the Colosseum. As an additional clever subtlety by Hadrian, Venus also represented love (Amor in Latin), and "AMOR" is "ROMA" spelled backwards. Thus, placing the two divinities of Venus and Rome back-to-back in a single temple created a further symmetry with the back-to-back symmetry of their names. Within Venus' cella was another altar where newly wed couples could make sacrifices. Directly adjacent to this altar stood gigantic silver statues of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. The west and east sides of the temple (the short sides) had ten white marble columns (decastyle) while the south and north sides featured twenty columns. All of these columns measured in width, making the temple very imposing. Most of the remains are incorporated in the church of S.Francesca Romana and due to the rebuilding by Maxentius. A coffered vaulted ceiling replaced the original wooden roof and the walls were doubled in thickness to take the increased load. The walls were inset with niches with small statues between small red porphyry columns standing above the floor on a plinth, all fronted by a colonnade in red porphyry. Today Since the papacy of John Paul II, the heights of the temple and its position opposite the main entrance to the Colosseum have been used to good effect as a public address platform. This may be seen in the photograph at right where a red canopy has been erected to shelter the Pope as well as an illuminated cross, on the occasion of the Good Friday ceremony. The Pope, either personally or through a representative, leads the faithful through meditations on the stations of the cross while a cross is carried from there to the Colosseum. The Temple has now been reopened to the public after an extensive restoration programme that lasted 26 years. Access to the temple is included in tickets for the Colosseum, the Forum and the Palatine Hill. See also List of Ancient Roman temples Notes References Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro. 1987. Hadrian and the City of Rome. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Brown, Frank Edward. 1964. “Hadrianic Architecture.” In Essays in Memory of Karl Lehmann, Edited by Lucy F. Sandler. Marsyas, Stud. in the Hist. of Art Suppl.; I, 55–58. New York: Inst. of Fine Arts New York Univ. Henderson, L. E. 1936. “The Temple of Venus and Roma.” The Classical Bulletin CII: 1–62. Jacobson, David M. 1986. “Hadrianic Architecture and Geometry.” American Journal of Archaeology XC: 69–85. Ng, Diana Y. and Molly Swetnam-Burland eds. 2018. Reuse and Renovation in Roman Material Culture: Functions, Aesthetics, Interpretations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stamper, John. 2005. The Architecture of Roman Temples: The Republic to the Middle Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ziemssen, Hauke. 2006. “Maxentius and the City of Rome: Imperial Building Policy in an Urban Context.” In Common Ground: Archaeology, Art, Science, and Humanities: Proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Boston, August 23–26, 2003'', Edited by Carol C. Mattusch, Alice A. Donohue, and Amy Brauer, 400–404. Oxford: Oxbow Books. External links High-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images of Temple of Venus and Roma | Art Atlas 135 2nd-century religious buildings and structures Venus Hadrian Rome R. X Campitelli Temples of Venus

2748544

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario%20Lacus

Ontario Lacus

Ontario Lacus is a lake composed of methane, ethane and propane near the south pole of Saturn's moon Titan. Its character as a hydrocarbon lake was confirmed by observations from the Cassini spacecraft, published in the 31 July 2008 edition of Nature. Ontario Lacus has a surface area of about , about 20% smaller than its terrestrial namesake, Lake Ontario in North America. In April 2012, it was announced that it may be more like a mudflat or salt pan. Shorelines On January 12, 2010, Cassini took a more detailed radar-image of Ontario Lacus showing numerous remarkable features. The northern shoreline features low hills, probably about 1 kilometer (3,000 feet) high, and flooded river valleys. A smooth wave-sculpted shoreline, like on the southeast side of Lake Michigan, can be seen at the northeast part of the lake. Smooth lines parallel to the current shoreline could be formed by low waves over time, which were likely driven by winds sweeping in from the west or southwest. The southeast shore features a round-headed bay intruding into the shore. The middle part of the western shoreline shows the first well-developed river delta observed on Titan, showing that liquid hydrocarbons flowing down from a higher plain have switched channels on their way into the lake, forming at least two lobes. Examples of this kind of channel switching and wave-modified deltas can be found on Earth at the south end of Lake Albert between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo in Africa and in the remains of an ancient lake known as Megachad in the African country Chad. Shore recession Infrared observations show that the southwest shoreline of the lake receded 9–11 km over four years (2005-2009), evidently due to evaporation during the dry southern hemisphere autumn. Over the same interval, no change was observed in the south or southeast shorelines, indicating steeper slopes there. The sizes of northern hemisphere lakes and maria, in contrast, have been much more stable. Depth By terrestrial standards, the lake appears to be extremely shallow. Radar measurements made in July 2009 and January 2010 indicate an average depth of 0.4 – 3.2 m, and a maximum depth of 2.9 – 7.4 m. This gives the lake an estimated volume of 7 to 50 km3, less than one thirtieth the volume of Earth's Lake Ontario. The notoriously shallow Lake Okeechobee in Florida has a similar depth. Geomorphology and hydrology Ontario Lacus may resemble a semi-arid shallow depression lying in an alluvial fan where the water table height (of liquid hydrocarbons) rises above the elevation of the depression floor, analogous to the Etosha Pan in Namibia. Hydrological runoff models have found evidence for an extensive basin catchment area for the lake, suggesting seasonal rainfall may be responsible for filling liquids in the local depression. This situation may be analogous to the ephemeral filling of Lake Eyre in Australia due to its notably large catchment area and the semi-arid climate of central Australia. Waves Any waves on the lake are also far smaller than those that would be on a sizable body of liquid water on Earth; their estimated maximum height was less than 3 mm during observations of a radar specular reflection during Cassini's T49 flyover of July 2009. On Titan, waves can be generated at lower wind speeds than on Earth, due to the four times greater atmospheric density, and should be seven times higher at a given wind speed, due to Titan's surface gravity being one seventh as strong. On the other hand, pure liquid methane is only half as dense as water and may not be dense enough to form a wave in the first place, comparable of building a sand castle with bone dry sand. Alternatively, the lack of waves could indicate either wind speeds less than 0.5 m/s, or an unexpectedly viscous composition of the hydrocarbon-mix fluid. In any case, the apparent presence of a wave-generated beach on the lake's northeast shore suggests that at times considerably higher waves form. Notes References External links NASA/JPL videos describing recent discoveries about Ontario Lacus Lakes of Titan (moon)

2748665

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernican%20Revolution

Copernican Revolution

The Copernican Revolution was the paradigm shift from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens, which described the cosmos as having Earth stationary at the center of the universe, to the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System. This revolution consisted of two phases; the first being extremely mathematical in nature and the second phase starting in 1610 with the publication of a pamphlet by Galileo. Beginning with the publication of Nicolaus Copernicus’s De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, contributions to the “revolution” continued until finally ending with Isaac Newton’s work over a century later. Heliocentrism Before Copernicus The "Copernican Revolution" is named for Nicolaus Copernicus, whose Commentariolus, written before 1514, was the first explicit presentation of the heliocentric model in Renaissance scholarship. The idea of heliocentrism is much older; it can be traced to Aristarchus of Samos, a Hellenistic author writing in the 3rd century BC, who may in turn have been drawing on even older concepts in Pythagoreanism. Ancient heliocentrism was, however, eclipsed by the geocentric model presented by Ptolemy in the Almagest and accepted in Aristotelianism. European scholars were well aware of the problems with Ptolemaic astronomy since the 13th century. The debate was precipitated by the reception by Averroes' criticism of Ptolemy, and it was again revived by the recovery of Ptolemy's text and its translation into Latin in the mid-15th century. Otto E. Neugebauer in 1957 argued that the debate in 15th-century Latin scholarship must also have been informed by the criticism of Ptolemy produced after Averroes, by the Ilkhanid-era (13th to 14th centuries) Persian school of astronomy associated with the Maragheh observatory (especially the works of Al-Urdi, Al-Tusi and Ibn al-Shatir). The state of the question as received by Copernicus is summarized in the Theoricae novae planetarum by Georg von Peuerbach, compiled from lecture notes by Peuerbach's student Regiomontanus in 1454 but printed only in 1472. Peuerbach attempts to give a new, mathematically more elegant presentation of Ptolemy's system, but he does not arrive at heliocentrism. Regiomontanus himself was the teacher of Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara, who was in turn the teacher of Copernicus. There is a possibility that Regiomontanus already arrived at a theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, as he paid particular attention to the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus in a later work, and mentions the "motion of the Earth" in a letter. Nicolaus Copernicus Copernicus studied at Bologna University during 1496–1501, where he became the assistant of Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara. He is known to have studied the Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei by Peuerbach and Regiomontanus (printed in Venice in 1496) and to have performed observations of lunar motions on 9 March 1497. Copernicus went on to develop an explicitly heliocentric model of planetary motion, at first written in his short work Commentariolus some time before 1514, circulated in a limited number of copies among his acquaintances. He continued to refine his system until publishing his larger work, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543), which contained detailed diagrams and tables. The Copernican model makes the claim of describing the physical reality of the cosmos, something which the Ptolemaic model was no longer believed to be able to provide. Copernicus removed Earth from the center of the universe, set the heavenly bodies in rotation around the Sun, and introduced Earth's daily rotation on its axis. While Copernicus's work sparked the "Copernican Revolution", it did not mark its end. In fact, Copernicus's own system had multiple shortcomings that would have to be amended by later astronomers. Copernicus did not only come up with a theory regarding the nature of the sun in relation to the earth, but thoroughly worked to debunk some of the minor details within the geocentric theory. In his article about heliocentrism as a model, author Owen Gingerich writes that in order to persuade people of the accuracy of his model, Copernicus created a mechanism in order to return the description of celestial motion to a “pure combination of circles.” Copernicus’s theories made a lot of people uncomfortable and somewhat upset. Even with the scrutiny that he faced regarding his conjecture that the universe was not centered around the Earth, he continued to gain support- other scientists and astrologists even posited that his system allowed a better understanding of astronomy concepts than did the geocentric theory. Reception Tycho Brahe Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) was a Danish nobleman who was well known as an astronomer in his time. Further advancement in the understanding of the cosmos would require new, more accurate observations than those that Nicolaus Copernicus relied on and Tycho made great strides in this area. Tycho formulated a geoheliocentrism, meaning the Sun moved around the Earth while the planets orbited the Sun, known as the Tychonic system. Although Tycho appreciated the advantages of Copernicus's system, he like many others could not accept the movement of the Earth. In 1572, Tycho Brahe observed a new star in the constellation Cassiopeia. For eighteen months, it shone brightly in the sky with no visible parallax, indicating it was part of the heavenly region of stars according to Aristotle's model. However, according to that model, no change could take place in the heavens so Tycho's observation was a major discredit to Aristotle's theories. In 1577, Tycho observed a great comet in the sky. Based on his parallax observations, the comet passed through the region of the planets. According to Aristotelian theory, only uniform circular motion on solid spheres existed in this region, making it impossible for a comet to enter this region. Tycho concluded there were no such spheres, raising the question of what kept a planet in orbit. With the patronage of the King of Denmark, Tycho Brahe established Uraniborg, an observatory in Hven. For 20 years, Tycho and his team of astronomers compiled astronomical observations that were vastly more accurate than those made before. These observations would prove vital in future astronomical breakthroughs. Johannes Kepler Kepler found employment as an assistant to Tycho Brahe and, upon Brahe's unexpected death, replaced him as imperial mathematician of Emperor Rudolph II. He was then able to use Brahe's extensive observations to make remarkable breakthroughs in astronomy, such as the three laws of planetary motion. Kepler would not have been able to produce his laws without the observations of Tycho, because they allowed Kepler to prove that planets traveled in ellipses, and that the Sun does not sit directly in the center of an orbit but at a focus. Galileo Galilei came after Kepler and developed his own telescope with enough magnification to allow him to study Venus and discover that it has phases like a moon. The discovery of the phases of Venus was one of the more influential reasons for the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism. Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica concluded the Copernican Revolution. The development of his laws of planetary motion and universal gravitation explained the presumed motion related to the heavens by asserting a gravitational force of attraction between two objects. In 1596, Kepler published his first book, the Mysterium Cosmographicum, which was the second (after Thomas Digges, in 1576) to endorse Copernican cosmology by an astronomer since 1540. The book described his model that used Pythagorean mathematics and the five Platonic solids to explain the number of planets, their proportions, and their order. The book garnered enough respect from Tycho Brahe to invite Kepler to Prague and serve as his assistant. In 1600, Kepler set to work on the orbit of Mars, the second most eccentric of the six planets known at that time. This work was the basis of his next book, the Astronomia nova, which he published in 1609. The book argued heliocentrism and ellipses for planetary orbits instead of circles modified by epicycles. This book contains the first two of his eponymous three laws of planetary motion. In 1619, Kepler published his third and final law which showed the relationship between two planets instead of single planet movement. Kepler's work in astronomy was new in part. Unlike those who came before him, he discarded the assumption that planets moved in a uniform circular motion, replacing it with elliptical motion. Also, like Copernicus, he asserted the physical reality of a heliocentric model as opposed to a geocentric one. Yet, despite all of his breakthroughs, Kepler could not explain the physics that would keep a planet in its elliptical orbit. Kepler's laws of planetary motion 1. The Law of Ellipses: All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus. 2. The Law of Equal Areas in Equal Time: A line that connects a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times. 3. The Law of Harmony: The time required for a planet to orbit the Sun, called its period, is proportional to long axis of the ellipse raised to the 3/2 power. The constant of proportionality is the same for all the planets. Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist who is sometimes referred to as the "father of modern observational astronomy". His improvements to the telescope, astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism were all integral to the Copernican Revolution. Based on the designs of Hans Lippershey, Galileo designed his own telescope which, in the following year, he had improved to 30x magnification. Using this new instrument, Galileo made a number of astronomical observations which he published in the Sidereus Nuncius in 1610. In this book, he described the surface of the Moon as rough, uneven, and imperfect. He also noted that "the boundary dividing the bright from the dark part does not form a uniformly oval line, as would happen in a perfectly spherical solid, but is marked by an uneven, rough, and very sinuous line, as the figure shows." These observations challenged Aristotle's claim that the Moon was a perfect sphere and the larger idea that the heavens were perfect and unchanging. Galileo's next astronomical discovery would prove to be a surprising one. While observing Jupiter over the course of several days, he noticed four stars close to Jupiter whose positions were changing in a way that would be impossible if they were fixed stars. After much observation, he concluded these four stars were orbiting the planet Jupiter and were in fact moons, not stars. This was a radical discovery because, according to Aristotelian cosmology, all heavenly bodies revolve around the Earth and a planet with moons obviously contradicted that popular belief. While contradicting Aristotelian belief, it supported Copernican cosmology which stated that Earth is a planet like all others. In 1610, Galileo observed that Venus had a full set of phases, similar to the phases of the moon we can observe from Earth. This was explainable by the Copernican or Tychonic systems which said that all phases of Venus would be visible due to the nature of its orbit around the Sun, unlike the Ptolemaic system which stated only some of Venus's phases would be visible. Due to Galileo's observations of Venus, Ptolemy's system became highly suspect and the majority of leading astronomers subsequently converted to various heliocentric models, making his discovery one of the most influential in the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism. Sphere of the fixed stars In the sixteenth century, a number of writers inspired by Copernicus, such as Thomas Digges, Giordano Bruno and William Gilbert argued for an indefinitely extended or even infinite universe, with other stars as distant suns. This contrasts with the Aristotelian view of a sphere of the fixed stars. Although opposed by Copernicus and (initially) Kepler, in 1610 Galileo made his telescopic observation of the faint strip of the Milky Way, which he found it resolves in innumerable white star-like spots, presumably farther stars themselves. By the middle of the 17th century this new view became widely accepted, partly due to the support of René Descartes. Isaac Newton Newton was a well known English physicist and mathematician who was known for his book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. He was a main figure in the Scientific Revolution for his laws of motion and universal gravitation. The laws of Newton are said to be the ending point of the Copernican Revolution. Newton used Kepler's laws of planetary motion to derive his law of universal gravitation. Newton's law of universal gravitation was the first law he developed and proposed in his book Principia. The law states that any two objects exert a gravitational force of attraction on each other. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the gravitational masses of the objects, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Along with Newton's law of universal gravitation, the Principia also presents his three laws of motion. These three laws explain inertia, acceleration, action and reaction when a net force is applied to an object. Metaphorical usage Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant in his Critique of Pure Reason (1787 edition) drew a parallel between the "Copernican revolution" and the epistemology of his new transcendental philosophy. Kant's comparison is made in the Preface to the second edition of the Critique of Pure Reason (published in 1787; a heavy revision of the first edition of 1781). Kant argues that, just as Copernicus moved from the supposition of heavenly bodies revolving around a stationary spectator to a moving spectator, so metaphysics, "proceeding precisely on the lines of Copernicus' primary hypothesis", should move from assuming that "knowledge must conform to objects" to the supposition that "objects must conform to our [a priori] knowledge". Much has been said on what Kant meant by referring to his philosophy as "proceeding precisely on the lines of Copernicus' primary hypothesis". There has been a long-standing discussion on the appropriateness of Kant's analogy because, as most commentators see it, Kant inverted Copernicus' primary move. According to Tom Rockmore, Kant himself never used the "Copernican revolution" phrase about himself, though it was "routinely" applied to his work by others. After Kant Following Kant, the phrase "Copernican Revolution" in the 20th century came to be used for any (supposed) paradigm shift, for example in reference to Freudian psychoanalysis or continental philosophy and analytic linguistic philosophy. See also History of science in the Renaissance Notes References Works cited Gillies, Donald. (2019). Why did the Copernican revolution take place in Europe rather than China?. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332320835_Why_did_the_Copernican_revolution_take_place_in_Europe_rather_than_China Gingerich, Owen. "From Copernicus to Kepler: Heliocentrism as Model and as Reality". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 117, no. 6 (December 31, 1973): 513–22. Huff, Toby E. (2017). The Rise of Early Modern Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . Huff, Toby E. (Autumn–Winter 2002). "The Rise of Early Modern Science: A Reply to George Sabila". Bulletin of the Royal Institute of Inter-Faith Studies (BRIIFS). 4, 2. Kuhn, Thomas S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: Chicago University Press. . Kunitzch, Paul. "The Arabic Translations of Ptolemy's Almagest". Qatar Digital Library, July 31, 2018. https://www.qdl.qa/en/arabic-translations-ptolemys-almagest. Koyré, Alexandre (2008). From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe. Charleston, S.C.: Forgotten Books. . Lawson, Russell M. Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2004. Lin, Justin Y. (1995). The Needham Puzzle: Why the Industrial Revolution Did Not Originate in China. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 43(2), 269–292. Retrieved from . Metzger, Hélène (1932). Histoire des sciences. Revue Philosophique De La France Et De L'Étranger, 114, 143–155. Retrieved from . Rushkin, Ilia. "Optimizing the Ptolemaic Model of Planetary and Solar Motion". History and Philosophy of Physics 1 (February 6, 2015): 1–13. Saliba, George (1979). "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School". Isis. 70 (4). ISSN 0021-1753. Sabila, George (Autumn 1999). "Seeking the Origins of Modern Science?". Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies (BRIIFS). 1, 2. Sabila, George (Autumn–Winter 2002). "Flying Goats and Other Obsessions: A Response to Toby Huff's "Reply"". Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies (BRIIFS). 4, 2. Swetz, Frank J. "Mathematical Treasure: Ptolemy's Almagest". Mathematical Treasure: Ptolemy's Almagest | Mathematical Association of America, August 2013. https://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/mathematical-treasure-ptolemy-s-almagest. External links History of astronomy Revolution Scientific revolution

2753835

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy%201

Galaxy 1

Galaxy 1 was the first in a line of Galaxy communications satellites launched by Hughes Communications in 1983. It helped fill a hole in satellite broadcasting bandwidth created by the loss of RCA's Satcom 3 in 1979. Unlike satellite owners RCA and Western Union, Hughes did not lease time on their transponders in the fashion of a common carrier, but instead sold transponders outright to content providers. This created a stable lineup of content attractive enough for cable providers to dedicate Earth station receivers to it full-time. Among the services on Galaxy 1 by mid-1984: HBO, Cinemax, The Movie Channel, Showtime, The Disney Channel, TBS, CNN, ESPN, and The Nashville Network. Retirement of Galaxy 1 Galaxy 1 was originally slated for retirement in 1992 and replacement by Galaxy 1R, but the replacement was lost during launch on 22 August 1992, due to a failure of the booster rocket's second stage Centaur engine. Galaxy 1 was eventually replaced in 1994 by Galaxy 1RR. Home Box Office The HBO (Home Box Office) signal on transponder 23 of Galaxy 1 was interrupted during the infamous Captain Midnight attack on 27 April 1986. The attack was directed at HBO for their adoption of the Videocipher system and for charging high prices for access to the HBO and Cinemax services with that system. See also List of Intelsat satellites References Communications satellites Spacecraft launched in 1983 Satellites using the HS-376 bus

2756370

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20almoin

Frank almoin

Frank almoin, frankalmoign or frankalmoigne () was one of the feudal land tenures in feudal England whereby an ecclesiastical body held land free of military service such as knight service or other secular or religious service (but sometimes in return for the religious service of saying prayers and masses for the soul of the grantor). Not only was secular service not due but in the 12th and 13th centuries jurisdiction over land so held belonged to the ecclesiastical courts, and was thus immune from royal jurisdiction. In English law, frankalmoign(e) was also known as "tenure in free alms". Gifts to religious institutions in free alms were defined first as gifts to God, then to the patron saint of the religious house, and finally to those religious serving God in the specific house. The following example is from a charter of William de Vernon, 5th Earl of Devon (d.1217), to Quarr Abbey: As the above example makes clear it was a freehold tenure as it was held in perpetual possession, which is equivalent to "hereditable" in secular terms. Religious houses in receipt of free alms could not recognise a secular lord. The gift of land or other property made over to God and to a patron Saint was inalienable, and the relationship between the grantor and the religious house was subsidiary. In the 12th century the institution came to be misused. Land could be donated to a church organization and then leased back to the donor, allowing the donor to avoid the feudal services due to his lord. Legal cases became so complicated that the Assize of Utrum was established in the middle of the 12th century to adjudicate claims. Thomas de Littleton's Tenures, which perhaps appeared about 1470 as an update of a then century-old predecessor tract (the Old Tenures), said to have been written under Edward III, contains a section on Frankalmoin. Edward Coke commented on this in the first part of his Institutes of the Lawes of England, published within his Commentary upon Littleton, which he completed about a century and a half after its subject's first appearance. Coke provided cases and noted how practice related to Littleton's work had changed during that time. Frankalmoin was the tenure by which the greater number of the monasteries and religious houses held their lands; it was expressly exempted from the Tenures Abolition Act 1660, by which the other ancient tenures were abolished, and it was the tenure by which the parochial clergy and many ecclesiastical and eleemosynary foundations held their lands through the 19th century. As a form of donation, frankalmoin fell into disuse because on any alienation of the land the tenure was converted into socage. An apparent attempt was made to abolish frankalmoin in the Administration of Estates Act 1925; but in any case no fresh grants in frankalmoin, save by the Crown, were possible after in 1290. See also History of English land law Frank-marriage Quia Emptores Henry de Bracton Sources References Feudal duties Real property law English property law Land tenure

2756802

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantropical

Pantropical

A pantropical ("all tropics") distribution is one which covers tropical regions of both hemispheres. Examples of species include caecilians, modern sirenians and the plant genera Acacia and Bacopa. Neotropical is a zoogeographic term that covers a large part of the Americas, roughly from Mexico and the Caribbean southwards (including cold regions in southernmost South America). Palaeotropical refers to geographical occurrence. For a distribution to be palaeotropical a taxon must occur in tropical regions in the Old World. According to Takhtajan (1978), the following families have a pantropical distribution: Annonaceae, Hernandiaceae, Lauraceae, Piperaceae, Urticaceae, Dilleniaceae, Tetrameristaceae, Passifloraceae, Bombacaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rhizophoraceae, Myrtaceae, Anacardiaceae, Sapindaceae, Malpighiaceae, Proteaceae, Bignoniaceae, Orchidaceae and Arecaceae. See also Afrotropical realm Tropical Africa Tropical Asia References Tropics Biogeography

2760814

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abeona%20Mons

Abeona Mons

Abeona Mons is a mountain on Venus named after the goddess Abeona. References Surface features of Venus Mountains on Venus

2770501

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald%27s%20Party

Gerald's Party

Gerald's Party is the fourth novel written by Robert Coover, published in 1986. The book encompasses a single night at a party given by the title character and narrator, Gerald. Though the murder of a beautiful actress is central to the plot, Coover's text has little in common with a traditional murder mystery. He appears to be approaching the murder mystery genre with the goal of subverting/exhausting its possibilities. A comparable strategy can be seen in his retellings of fairy tales (see Briar Rose, A Child Again), and his reframing of movie conventions (Ghost Town, A Night at the Movies). Like most of Coover's works, this is experimental fiction. The text regularly returns to themes of sex, violence, and a blurred boundary between theatre and reality. Plot introduction As Gerald tries to describe the things around him in painstaking detail, he recounts simultaneous conversations and events as they happen by using a format similar to data packet handling. After describing a small part of a situation or a conversation, he moves on to a small part of a different conversation, then returns to the first conversation, or maybe moves on to a third or a fourth, returning each time to try to be as accurate as possible while recording the events. Major themes The tone of the novel is humorous, and there are many puns, double-entendres, jokes, sight-gags, and deliberate ironies. There are also graphic depictions of various bodily functions, including different types of sexual intercourse. Gerald, speaking in what could be described as stream-of-consciousness, often appears unaffected by the decadent and orgiastic events that surround him, and, in addition, he comes across as an unreliable narrator. References 1986 American novels American crime novels Fiction with unreliable narrators Novels set in one day

2771477

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuk%20%28mythology%29

Abuk (mythology)

Abuk is the first woman in the myths of the Dinka people of South Sudan and the Nuer of South Sudan and Ethiopia, who call her Buk or Acol. She is the only well-known female deity of the Dinka. She is also the patron goddess of women as well as gardens. Her emblem or symbols are, a small snake, the moon and sheep. She is the mother of the god of rain and fertility (Denka). The story from her birth to marriage and child-birth is: References External links Dinka mythology Dinka mythology Nuer mythology African goddesses Agricultural goddesses Lunar goddesses

2771652

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Quijote%20%28spacecraft%29

Don Quijote (spacecraft)

Don Quijote is a past space mission concept that has been studied from 2005 until 2007 by the European Space Agency, and which would investigate the effects of crashing a spacecraft into an asteroid to test whether a spacecraft could successfully deflect an asteroid on a collision course with Earth. The orbiter was designed to last for seven years. The mission did not proceed beyond initial studies. Nonetheless, this concept inspired the ESA which is currently working with its American counterpart, the NASA, on the space cooperation called AIDA (for Asteroid Impact and Deflection Assessment). AIDA includes two consecutive but independent missions : DART and Hera. Overview The mission would have consisted of two spacecraft that would execute a series of maneuvers around a small, 500-metre (1,600-foot) asteroid. The first spacecraft, Sancho, was intended to arrive at the asteroid and orbit it for several months, studying it. The orbiter would have used a single xenon ion engine. After a few months, the second spacecraft, Hidalgo, would have hurtled toward the asteroid on a collision course. Having “slept” for most of the trip, it would have then steered itself using optical sensors with an accuracy of 50 meters. Sancho would have retreated to a safe distance while Hidalgo hit the asteroid at around 10 km/s. Sancho would have then returned to its close orbit and observed how much the asteroid's shape, internal structure, orbit and rotation might have been affected by the impact. Sancho would then release the Autonomous Surface Package, a lander which would then free-fall toward the asteroid for two hours before landing. This package would have been directed towards the interior of the impact crater where it would investigate properties of the surface. Don Quijote was one of six Near Earth Object precursor studies funded by ESA's General Studies Programme, other missions being: EUNEOS (European NEO Survey), Earthguard-I, NERO (NEO Remote Observations), SIMONE (Smallsat Intercept Missions to Objects Near Earth) and ISHTAR (Internal Structure High-resolution Tomography by Asteroid Rendezvous). Propulsion The craft would have been launched by a Vega launcher and a Star 48 upper stage. The ESA considered two design options: the "Cheap Option" using a chemical propulsion system, and the "Flexible Option" using an electric propulsion system. The former would have been targeted to the Amor asteroid 2003 SM84, the latter to the asteroid 99942 Apophis. Instrumentation Sancho (orbiter) The instruments on the orbiter were classified into those essential to the success of the mission and those for the completion of extended mission objectives. The primary instruments were the Radio Science Experiment, Orbiter Camera, Imaging Laser Altimeter, and a LIDAR instrument. For the extended mission objectives, the orbiter would have carried an IR Spectrometer, a Thermal IR Imager, an X-Ray Spectrometer, a Radiation Monitor and the Autonomous Surface Package (ASP). Hidalgo (impactor) Unlike many other spacecraft, the goal of the Hidalgo impactor was to be as massive as possible upon reaching the target asteroid; because of this goal, the propulsion module would not have been jettisoned after use. The impactor was to carry few subsystems to make it as low-cost and maneuverable as possible. It would have had no moving appendages (solar panels, etc.) to complicate orientation, using only its RCS thrusters for course corrections, and it was to have a high-resolution targeting camera for ~50 m targeting accuracy on impact. The LISA Pathfinder design was considered an initial design reference. Target Originally, the ESA identified two near-Earth asteroids as possible targets: and (10302) 1989 ML. Neither asteroid represents a threat to Earth. In a subsequent study, two different possibilities were selected: the Amor asteroid 2003 SM84 and 99942 Apophis; the latter is of particular significance to Earth as it will make a close approach in 2029 and 2036. In 2005, the proposed mission was combined with AIDA, with the target selected as a binary asteroid, so that the effect of the deflection would be seen even from Earth by observing the period of the binary. The targets were 2002 AT4 and (10302) 1989 ML. The current target for AIDA is the binary asteroid 65803 Didymos. Names The mission was named after the fictional Spanish knight from Miguel de Cervantes' renowned novel, Don Quixote, who charged against a windmill, thinking it to be a giant. Like Quixote, the Hidalgo spacecraft was to 'attack' an object much larger than itself, hopefully making impressive results. 'Sancho' was named after Sancho Panza, the Quixote's squire, who preferred to stay back and watch from a safe distance, which was the role assigned to that probe. Finally, the name Hidalgo was a minor Spanish title (roughly equivalent to a Baronet), now obsolete. In the novel, it was the title Alonso Quijano had even before becoming Don Quijote. See also List of asteroids visited by spacecraft Spacecraft AIDA - the space cooperation, successor to Don Quijote, that comprehends two independently managed missions: NASA's DART, completed mission against asteroid Dydimos' moon Dimorphos in 2022, and ESA's Hera, to be launched in 2024 and with a rendezvous set to start very late 2026. Deep Impact - completed NASA comet impactor mission (2005). Hayabusa2 - JAXA asteroid probe carrying an impactor. SMART-1 - completed ESA lunar impact probe (2006). References Further reading External links ESA News: ESA selects targets for asteroid-deflecting mission Don Quijote. ESA PR 41-2005. Don Quijote Asteroid Deflection Mission video European Space Agency space probes Missions to near-Earth asteroids

2773160

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelsat%20Americas

Intelsat Americas

Intelsat Americas, was the re-designation given to the several Telstar satellites serving North America following their sale to Intelsat by Loral Space & Communications in 2003. On February 1, 2007, they were renamed under the "Galaxy" brand. The Telstar satellites that do not directly serve the United States retained their original Telstar designation. The following name conversions were applied to the Telstar satellites serving the United States: Telstar 5 → Intelsat Americas 5 → Galaxy 25 Telstar 6 → Intelsat Americas 6 → Galaxy 26 Telstar 7 → Intelsat Americas 7 → Galaxy 27 Telstar 8 → Intelsat Americas 8 → Galaxy 28 Telstar 13 → Intelsat Americas 13 → Galaxy 23 Intelsat Americas 9, while under construction → was finished and launched as Galaxy 19 See also Loral Space & Communications Telstar References External links Official website Intelsat Direct broadcast satellite services

2773895

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow-1

Rainbow-1

Echostar 12 (E*12), also known as Cablevision-1 and Rainbow-1, is a commercial communications satellite in geosynchronous Earth orbit. It was launched on 17 July 2003, as Rainbow-1, on the third flight of the Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Its original purpose was to transmit digital television streams for the ill-fated Voom high definition direct broadcast satellite network. Part of the A2100 series of commercial satellites, Rainbow-1 was constructed by the Lockheed Martin corporation at an approximate cost of $100 million USD, although this amount has not been verified. It is solar powered, has an approximate mass of (launch vehicle mass ), and is capable of transmitting on the C- and Ku bands. EchoStar (Dish Network spin off) now owns the satellite. The satellite was renamed Echostar 12 (or E*12) in March 2006. EchoStar 12 is still in orbit and located at 61.5 degrees West longitude, over the Earth's equator. It is currently being used for Dish Network HDTV television signals, transmitted using DVB, on the Ku band transponders. The satellite has lost some capability due to degradation of its solar power system. References Lockheed Martin satellites and probes Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Satellites using the A2100 bus E12 Spacecraft launched in 2003

2774324

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DF-5

DF-5

The Dongfeng 5 () or DF-5 is a second-generation two stage Chinese intercontinental ballistic missile. It has a length of 38.5 m and a diameter of 4.08 m. It weighs in at 312,500 kilograms and it has an estimated range of 7,000 to 10,000 kilometers. The DF-5 had its first flight in 1971 and was in operational service 10 years later. One of the limitations of the missile is that it takes between 30 and 60 minutes to fuel. The DF-5 is due to be replaced by the solid-fuelled DF-41. Around 2015, the newest variant DF-5B force are believed to have received a MIRV upgrade; according to Business Insider, with DF-5B: "China has the ability to deliver nuclear warheads nearly anywhere on earth (outside of South America, at least)". History The DF-5 was designed under the leadership of Tu Shou'e [屠守锷]] at the China Academy of Launch Technology (CALT); Li Xu'e [李绪鄂] served as deputy chief designer. The missile was produced at the China's Factory 211 (Capital Astronautics Co. [首都航天机械公司], also known as the Capital Machine Factory [首都机械厂]). The DF-5 was first flight tested in 1971, with final tests into the Pacific Ocean in May 1980. Two silo-based missiles were put into 'trial operational deployment' in 1981. It had a range of 10,000 to 13,000 km which allowed it to target western portions of the United States. Beginning in 1986 the Chinese started developing the improved DF-5A, with range increased to over 15,000 km and a more accurate guidance system. The DF-5A upgrade increased the throw-weight of the system from 7,000 kg to 10,200 kg. Deployment As with the DF-4, initially the DF-5 was stored in a horizontal position in tunnels under high mountains, and are launched immediately outside the mouth of the tunnel. The missiles must be moved into the open and fueled prior to firing, an operational mode dubbed chu men fang pao (firing a cannon outdoors), with the fueling operation apparently requiring about two hours. The initial deployment of a pair of DF-5s in silos in Central China was completed in 1981. That portion of the DF-5A force that is deployed in silos could be maintained in a ready-to-fire status. In order to enhance the survivability of these missiles, China has constructed a large number of decoy silos which consist of shallow holes excavations with headworks that resemble operational silos. According to the US National Air and Space Intelligence Center, as of 1998 the deployed DF-5 force consisted of "about 25" missiles. From early 1999 to 2008 the total deployed DF-5 force was generally estimated at about 20 missiles. As of 2017, there were about 20 operational DF-5 launchers. Variants DF-5B According to a 2015 US report, Business Insider, Jane's Defence Weekly, and The Diplomat, China had begun to MIRV its DF-5s. It is believed about that twelve warheads can be placed on each MIRVed missile. An improved version, named DF-5B, was shown to the public during the parade in Beijing celebrating 70 years since the end of World War II on 3 September 2015. By that time, the DoD estimated China of having approximately 83 DF-5 ICBMs, with 50 of them being DF-5B variants containing MIRVs. Although China has had the technology to field MIRV warheads for decades, they have only recently begun to do so, likely in response to the development of the American ballistic missile defense system. The DF-5B supposedly has an increased throw weight of 8000 kg. DF-5C China has begun testing a new variant of a DF-5 missile, which has a MIRV with 12 nuclear warheads. It is called the DF-5C. Gallery Operators : The People's Liberation Army Rocket Force is the only operator of the DF-5. See also SS-18 Titan II References External links CSIS Missile Threat - Dong Feng 5 A/B DF-5 1971 in spaceflight Intercontinental ballistic missiles of the People's Republic of China Weapons of the People's Republic of China Nuclear missiles of the People's Republic of China Military equipment introduced in the 1980s

2775435

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11020%20Orwell

11020 Orwell

11020 Orwell, provisional designation , is a background asteroid from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 14 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 31 July 1984, by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos at Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic. The asteroid was named after English writer George Orwell. Classification and orbit Orwell orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.6–3.6 AU once every 5 years and 6 months (1,993 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. It was first observed as at Crimea–Nauchnij in 1979, extending the body's observation arc by 5 years prior to its official discovery observation at Klet. Physical characteristics According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Orwell measures 14.466 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.089. It has an absolute magnitude of 12.6. Lightcurves As of 2017, Orwells spectral type, as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown. Naming This minor planet was named for British writer Eric Blair (1903–1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, who is associated with the year of the object's discovery, 1984, due to his dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, which explores the dangers of totalitarian rule. He is also known for the novel Animal Farm. The name was proposed by Czech astronomer Jana Tichá at Klet and supported by Brian G. Marsden. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 23 May 2000 (). References External links Kleť Observatory & KLENOT Project homepage Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info ) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (10001)-(15000) – Minor Planet Center 011020 Discoveries by Antonín Mrkos Named minor planets George Orwell 19840731

2782964

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma%20Richards%20%28sailor%29

Emma Richards (sailor)

Emma Charlotte Richards MBE (born in 1975) is a British yachtswoman. In 2002–2003, she became the first British woman and youngest person to complete the Around Alone, a 29,000 mile, single-handed round the world yacht race with stops. She was a crew member during the Volvo Ocean Race 2001–2002 on AMER SPORTS TOO. From a young age she spent much time sailing. At 11 she competed in dinghy world championships. She took a degree in sports medicine at the University of Glasgow. She was awarded an MBE in the New Years Honours List 2004, in recognition of her achievements. References External links Solo Navigator website Living people Alumni of the University of Glasgow English female sailors (sport) Single-handed circumnavigating sailors Members of the Order of the British Empire English explorers Female explorers Volvo Ocean Race sailors 1975 births

2783196

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpuscular%20theory%20of%20light

Corpuscular theory of light

In optics, the corpuscular theory of light states that light is made up of small discrete particles called "corpuscles" (little particles) which travel in a straight line with a finite velocity and possess impetus. This was based on an alternate description of atomism of the time period. Isaac Newton laid the foundations for this theory through his work in optics. This early conception of the particle theory of light was an early forerunner to the modern understanding of the photon. This theory came to dominate the conceptions of light in the eighteenth century, displacing the previously prominent vibration theories, where light was viewed as 'pressure' of the medium between the source and the receiver, first championed by René Descartes, and later in a more refined form by Christiaan Huygens. It would fall out of the spotlight in the early nineteenth century, as the wave theory of light amassed new experimental evidence. Mechanical philosophy In the early 17th century, natural philosophers began to develop new ways to understand nature gradually replacing Aristotelianism, which had been for centuries the dominant scientific theory, during the process known as the Scientific Revolution. Various European philosophers adopted what came to be known as mechanical philosophy sometime between around 1610 to 1650, which described the universe and its contents as a kind of large-scale mechanism, a philosophy that explained the universe is made with matter and motion. This mechanical philosophy was based on Epicureanism, and the work of Leucippus and his pupil Democritus and their atomism, in which everything in the universe, including a person's body, mind, soul and even thoughts, was made of atoms; very small particles of moving matter. During the early part of the 17th century, the atomistic portion of mechanical philosophy was largely developed by Gassendi, René Descartes and other atomists. Pierre Gassendi's atomist matter theory The core of Pierre Gassendi's philosophy is his atomist matter theory. In his great work, Syntagma Philosophicum, ("Philosophical Treatise"), published posthumously in 1658, Gassendi tried to explain aspects of matter and natural phenomena of the world in terms of atoms and the void. He took Epicurean atomism and modified it to be compatible with Christian theology, by suggesting several key changes to it: God exists God created a finite number of indivisible and moving atoms God has a continuing divine relationship to creation (of matter) Humans have free will The human soul exists God was not born and will never die (God was always here and will always be) Gassendi thought that atoms move in an empty space, classically known as the void, which contradicts the Aristotelian view that the universe is fully made of matter. Gassendi also suggests that information gathered by the human senses has a material form, especially in the case of vision. Corpuscular theories Corpuscular theories, or corpuscularianism, are similar to the theories of atomism, except that in atomism the atoms were supposed to be indivisible, whereas corpuscles could in principle be divided. Corpuscles are single, infinitesimally small, particles that have shape, size, color, and other physical properties that alter their functions and effects in phenomena in the mechanical and biological sciences. This later led to the modern idea that compounds have secondary properties different from the elements of those compounds. Gassendi asserts that corpuscles are particles that carry other substances or substances and are of different types. These corpuscles are also emissions from various sources such as solar entities, animals, or plants. Robert Boyle was a strong proponent of corpuscularianism and used the theory to exemplify the differences between a vacuum and a plenum, by which he aimed to further support his mechanical philosophy and overall atomist theory. About a half-century after Gassendi, Isaac Newton used existing corpuscular theories to develop his particle theory of the physics of light. Isaac Newton Isaac Newton worked on optics throughout his research career, conducting various experiments and developing hypotheses to explain his results. He dismissed Descartes' theory of light because he rejected Descartes’ understanding of space, which derived from it. With the publication of Opticks in 1704, Newton for the first time took a clear position supporting a corpuscular interpretation, though it would fall on his followers to systemise the theory. In the book, Newton argued that the geometric nature of reflection and refraction of light could only be explained if light were made of particles because waves do not tend to travel in straight lines. Newton's corpuscular theory was an elaboration of his view of reality as interactions of material points through forces. Note Albert Einstein's description of Newton's conception of physical reality: [Newton's] physical reality is characterised by concepts of space, time, the material point and force (interaction between material points). Physical events are to be thought of as movements according to the law of material points in space. The material point is the only representative of reality in so far as it is subject to change. The concept of the material point is obviously due to observable bodies; one conceived of the material point on the analogy of movable bodies by omitting characteristics of extension, form, spatial locality, and all their 'inner' qualities, retaining only inertia, translation, and the additional concept of force. Maxwell's influence on the development of the conception of physical reality , Albert Einstein, in James Clerk Maxwell: A Commemorative Volume 1831-1931 (Cambridge, 1931), pp. 66–73 Every source of light emits large numbers of tiny particles known as corpuscles in a medium surrounding the source. These corpuscles are perfectly elastic, rigid, and weightless. Eighteenth century The dominance of Newtonian natural philosophy in the eighteenth century was one of the decisive factors ensuring the prevalence of the corpuscular theory of light. Newtonians maintained that the corpuscles of light were projectiles that travelled from the source to the receiver with a finite speed. In this description, the propagation of light is transportation of matter. By the turn of the century, however, more evidence in the form of novel experiments on diffraction, interference, and polarization showcased issues with the theory. A wave theory based on Huygens’, Leonard Euler's, Thomas Young's, and Augustin-Jean Fresnel's work would materialise in a novel wave theory of light. To some extent, Newton's corpuscular (particle) theory of light re-emerged in the 20th century, as a light phenomenon is currently explained as particle and wave. Polarization The fact that light could be polarized was for the first time qualitatively explained by Newton using the particle theory. Étienne-Louis Malus in 1810 created a mathematical particle theory of polarization. Jean-Baptiste Biot in 1812 showed that this theory explained all known phenomena of light polarization. At that time polarization was considered proof of the particle theory. Nowadays, polarisation is considered a property of waves and may only manifest in transverse waves. Longitudinal waves may not be polarised. See also Corpuscularianism Speed of gravity Photon Philosophy of physics Opticks by Isaac Newton The Skeptical Chemist by Robert Boyle References External links Observing the quantum behavior of light in an undergraduate laboratory JJ Thorn et al.: Am. J. Phys. 72, 1210-1219 (2004) Opticks, or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections, and Colours of Light. Sir Isaack Newton. 1704. Project Gutenberg book released 23 August 2010. Pierre Gassendi. Fisher, Saul. 2009. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Isaac Newton. Smith, George. 2007. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Robert Boyle. MacIntosh, J.J. 2010. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Youtube video. Physics - Newton's corpuscular theory of light - Science. elearnin. Uploaded 5 Jan 2013. Robert Hooke's Critique of Newton's Theory of Light and Colors (delivered 1672) Robert Hooke. Thomas Birch, The History of the Royal Society, vol. 3 (London: 1757), pp. 10–15. Newton Project, University of Sussex. Corpuscule or Wave. Arman Kashef. 2022. Xaporia: The Free and Independent Blog. Obsolete theories in physics Isaac Newton Natural philosophy

2783661

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERIS

MERIS

MEdium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) was one of the main instruments on board the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Envisat platform. The sensor was in orbit from 2002 to 2012. ESA formally announced the end of Envisat's mission on 9 May 2012. This instrument was composed of five cameras disposed side by side, each equipped with a pushbroom spectrometer. These spectrometers used two-dimensional CCDs. One of the sides of the detector was oriented perpendicular to the trajectory of the satellite and simultaneously collected, through the front optics, observations for a line of points at the Earth's surface (or in the atmosphere). The displacement of the platform along its orbit, combined with a short integration time, generated data that was later used to create two-dimensional images. A light dispersing system separated the various wavelengths (colors) composing the incoming radiation at the entrance of the instrument and directed these on the detector along the second dimension, i.e., along-track. These spectrometers acquired data in many spectral bands. For technical reasons only 16 of the bands were actually transmitted to the ground segment (one of which is required for the low-level processing of the raw data). This instrument thus provided useful data in 15 spectral bands, which were actually programmable in position, width and gain. In practice these technical characteristics were kept constant most of the time to allow many systematic or operational missions. The intrinsic spatial resolution of the detectors provided for samples every 300 m near nadir at the Earth's surface, and the pushbroom design avoided or minimized the distortions (e.g., bow tie effects) typical of scanning instruments. This is known as the 'Full Resolution (FR)' product. The more common 'Reduced Resolution (RR)' products were generated by aggregating the FR data to a nominal resolution of 1200 m. The total field of view of MERIS was 68.5 degrees around nadir (yielding a swath width of 1150 km), which was sufficient to collect data for the entire planet every three days (in equatorial regions). Polar regions were visited more frequently due to the convergence of orbits. The primary objective of MERIS was to observe the color of the ocean, both in the open ocean (clear or Case I waters) and in coastal zones (turbid or Case II waters). These observations were used to derive estimates of the concentration of chlorophyll and sediments in suspension in the water. It was also used for monitoring and mapping the deposits of seagrass Posidonia oceanica, in couple with the airborne HR/VHR (High/Very High Resolution) multispectral sensors for correcting the atmospheric and water column noise attenuation of the reflectance signals which arise from the shallow and turbid sea bottom waters in the Northern Mediterranean. These measurements are useful to study the oceanic component of the global carbon cycle and the productivity of these regions, amongst other applications. The characterization of atmospheric properties (gaseous absorption and aerosol scattering) is essential to derive accurate information over the oceans because they contribute to the bulk of the signal measured (under clear skies) or simply because clouds prevent the observation of the underlying surface. In addition, this instrument is useful to monitor the evolution of terrestrial environments, such as the fraction of the solar radiation effectively used by plants in the process of photosynthesis, amongst many others applications. See also Ocean color Sentinel-3 References External links Earth Snapshot - Web Portal dedicated to Earth Observation. Includes commented satellite images, information on storms, hurricanes, fires and meteorological phenomena. Miravi - Meris Image Rapid Visualization. MIRAVI shows the gallery of images generated on the Level0 (raw data) Meris Full Resolution (300m) products, few seconds after their availability. SRRS - Satellite Rapid Response System. Like MIRAVI but including also ASAR, MERIS Full and Reduced Resolution and ALOS AVNIR2 images. ESA page on MERIS Earth observation satellites Oceanographic satellites Spectrometers Satellite imaging sensors Satellite meteorology

2784023

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesquito

Mesquito

The Mesquito is an American sounding rocket vehicle developed for the NASA Sounding Rocket Program on Wallops Island, Virginia. The Mesquito was developed to provide rocket-borne measurements of the mesospheric region of the upper atmosphere. An area of great science interest is in the 82–95 km region, where the conventional understanding of atmospherics physics is being challenged. The Mesquito is a two-stage sounding rocket using a solid propellant rocket motor as the first-stage propulsion device. The non-propulsive second-stage dart contains a free-flying structural body that includes an avionics suite and an experiment space with interface. The maiden flight occurred on 6 May, 2008, from LC-2 at the Wallops Flight Facility. Launch history References Sounding rockets of the United States

2786441

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20Emission%20Spectrometer

Thermal Emission Spectrometer

The Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) is an instrument on board Mars Global Surveyor. TES collects two types of data, hyperspectral thermal infrared data from 6 to 50 micrometres (μm) and bolometric visible-NIR (0.3 to 2.9 μm) measurements. TES has six detectors arranged in a 2x3 array, and each detector has a field of view of approximately 3 × 6 km on the surface of Mars. The TES instrument uses the natural harmonic vibrations of the chemical bonds in materials to determine the composition of gases, liquids, and solids. TES identified a large (30,000 square-kilometer) area that contained the mineral olivine. Olivine was found in the Nili Fossae formation. It is thought that the ancient impact that created the Isidis basin resulted in faults that exposed the olivine. Olivine is present in many mafic volcanic rocks. In the presence of water it weathers into minerals such as goethite, chlorite, smectite, maghemite, and hematite. Olivine was also discovered in many other small outcrops within 60 degrees north and south of the equator. Olivine has also been found in the SNC (shergottite, nakhlite, and chassigny) meteorites that are generally accepted to have come from Mars. Later studies have found the olivine-rich rocks to cover over 113,000 square kilometers. That is 11 times larger than the five volcanoes on the Big Island of Hawaii. See also Thermal Emission Imaging System Thermal infrared spectroscopy Phil Christensen References Spectrometers Spacecraft instruments Mars Global Surveyor

2786476

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Code%20of%20Nomenclature%20for%20Cultivated%20Plants

International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants

The International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) is a guide to the rules and regulations for naming cultigens, plants whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity. It is also known as Cultivated Plant Code. Cultigens under the purview of the ICNCP include cultivars, Groups (cultivar groups), and grexes. All organisms traditionally considered to be plants (including algae and fungi) are included. Taxa that receive a name under the ICNCP will also be included within taxa named under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, for example, a cultivar is a member of a species. Brief history The first edition of the ICNCP, which was agreed in 1952 in Wageningen and published in 1953, has been followed by seven subsequent editions – in 1958 (Utrecht), 1961 (update of 1958), 1969 (Edinburgh), 1980 (Seattle), 1995 (Edinburgh), 2004 (Toronto) and 2009 (Wageningen). The ninth (most recent) edition was published in 2016 (Beijing). William Stearn has outlined the origins of ICNCP, tracing it back to the International Horticultural Congress of Brussels in 1864, when a letter from Alphonse de Candolle to Edouard Morren was tabled. This set out de Candolle's view that Latin names should be reserved for species and varieties found in the wild, with non-Latin or "fancy" names used for garden forms. Karl Koch supported this position at the 1865 International Botanical and Horticultural Congress and at the 1866 International Botanical Congress, where he suggested that future congresses should deal with nomenclatural matters. De Candolle, who had a legal background, drew up the Lois de la Nomenclature botanique (rules of botanical nomenclature). When adopted by the International Botanical Congress of Paris in 1867, this became the first version of today's International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). Article 40 of the Lois de la Nomenclature botanique dealt with the names of plants of horticultural origin: Among cultivated plants, seedlings, crosses [] of uncertain origin and sports, receive fancy names in common language, as distinct as possible from the Latin names of species or varieties. When they can be traced back to a botanical species, subspecies or variety, this is indicated by a sequence of names (Pelargonium zonale Mistress-Pollock). This Article survived redrafting of the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature until 1935 and its core sentiments remain in the present-day ICNCP of 2009. The first version (1953) was published by the Royal Horticultural Society as a 29-page booklet, edited by William Stearn. Following the structure of the Botanical Code, the ICNCP is set out in the form of an initial set of Principles followed by Rules and Recommendations that are subdivided into Articles. Amendments to the ICNCP are prompted by international symposia for cultivated plant taxonomy which allow for rulings made by the International Commission on the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants. Each new version includes a summary of the changes made to the previous version; the changes have also been summarised for the period 1953 to 1995. Name examples The ICNCP operates within the framework of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants which regulates the scientific names of plants. The following are some examples of names governed by the ICNCP: Clematis alpina 'Ruby': a cultivar within a species; the cultivar epithet is in single quotes and capitalized. Magnolia 'Elizabeth': a selected clone (cultivar) among a pool of hybrids between two species, Magnolia acuminata (cucumbertree) and Magnolia denudata (Yulan magnolia). Rhododendron boothii Mishmiense Group: a cultivar group name; both the name of the cultivar group and the word "Group" are capitalized and not enclosed in quotes. Paphiopedilum Maudiae 'The Queen': a combination of grex name and cultivar name; the name of the grex is capitalized, and may be followed by a clonal (cultivar) name such as 'The Queen' in this case. Paphiopedilum Maudiae is a hybrid between Paphiopedilum callosum and Paphiopedilum lawrenceanum. 'The Queen' is a selected clone (cultivar). Apple 'Jonathan': permitted use of an unambiguous common name with a cultivar epithet. + Crataegomespilus: a graft-chimera of Crataegus and Mespilus Note that the ICNCP does not regulate trademarks for plants: trademarks are regulated by the law of the land involved. Nor does the ICNCP regulate the naming of plant varieties in the legal sense of that term. Trade designations Many plants have "selling names" or "marketing names" as well as a cultivar name; the ICNCP refers to these as "trade designations". Only the cultivar name is governed by the ICNCP. It is required to be unique; in accordance with the principle of priority, it will be the first name that is published or that is registered by the discoverer or breeder of the cultivar. Trade designations are not regulated by the ICNCP; they may be different in different countries. Thus the German rose breeder Reimer Kordes registered a white rose in 1958 as the cultivar 'KORbin'. This is sold in the United Kingdom under the selling name "Iceberg", in France as "" and in Germany as "". Trade designations are not enclosed in single quotes. The ICNCP states that "trade designations must always be distinguished typographically from cultivar, Group and grex epithets." It uses small capitals for this purpose, thus Syringa vulgaris (trade designation) is distinguished from S. vulgaris 'Andenken an Ludwig Späth' (cultivar name). Other sources, including the Royal Horticultural Society, instead use a different font for selling names, e.g. Rosa 'KORbin'. See also Cultigen Cultivated plant taxonomy International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants International Cultivar Registration Authority Notes References Bibliography External links Adams, Denise (2000) "Language of Horticulture" Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, Ohio State University from Web Archive International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants Dutch version 1953 The International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) at Biocyclopedia PDF of 9th edition of ICNCP Botanical nomenclature Cultivars Plant taxonomy Nomenclature codes International classification systems

2787048

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Antarctica

East Antarctica

East Antarctica, also called Greater Antarctica, constitutes the majority (two-thirds) of the Antarctic continent, lying primarily in the Eastern Hemisphere south of the Indian Ocean, and separated from West Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains. It is generally greater in elevation than West Antarctica, and includes the Gamburtsev Mountain Range in the center. The geographic South Pole is located within East Antarctica. Apart from small areas of the coast, East Antarctica is permanently covered by ice and it has relatively low biodiversity, with only a small number of species of terrestrial plants, animals, algae, and lichens. The coasts are the breeding ground for various seabirds and penguins, and the leopard seal, Weddell seal, elephant seal, crabeater seal and Ross seal breed on the surrounding pack ice in summer. Location and description Almost completely covered in thick, permanent ice, East Antarctica comprises Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Kemp Land, Mac. Robertson Land, Princess Elizabeth Land, Wilhelm II Land, Queen Mary Land, Wilkes Land, Adélie Land, George V Land, Oates Land and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of this region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere, a fact that has suggested the name. The name has been in existence for more than 110 years (Balch, 1902; Nordenskjöld, 1904), but its greatest use followed the International Geophysical Year (1957–58) and explorations disclosing that the Transantarctic Mountains provide a useful regional separation of East Antarctica and West Antarctica. The name was approved in the United States by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in 1962. East Antarctica is generally higher than West Antarctica, and is considered the coldest place on Earth. The subglacial Gamburtsev Mountain Range, about the size of the European Alps, in the center of East Antarctica, are believed to have been the nucleation site for the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, just underneath Dome A. Flora and fauna Very little of East Antarctica is not covered with ice. The small areas that remain free of ice (Antarctic oasis), including the McMurdo Dry Valleys inland, constitute a tundra-type biodiversity region known as Maudlandia Antarctic desert, after Queen Maud Land. There are no trees or shrubs, as only very limited plant life can survive here; the flora consists of lichens, moss, and algae that are adapted to the cold and wind, and cling to rocks. The coasts are home to seabirds, penguins, and seals, which feed in the surrounding ocean, including the emperor penguin, which famously breeds in the cold, dark Antarctic winter. Seabirds of the coast include southern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides), the scavenging southern giant petrel (Macronectes giganteus), Cape petrel (Daption capense), snow petrel (Pagodroma nivea), the small Wilson's storm-petrel (Oceanites oceanicus), the large south polar skua (Catharacta maccormicki), and Antarctic petrel (Thalassoica antarctica). The seals of the Antarctic Ocean include leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii), the huge southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophagus) and Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii). There are no large land animals but bacteria, nematodes, springtails, mites, and midges live on the mosses and lichens. Threats and preservation The remote and extremely cold bulk of Antarctica remains almost entirely untouched by human intervention. The area is protected by the Antarctic Treaty System which bans industrial development, waste disposal and nuclear testing, while the Barwick Valley, one of the Dry Valleys, Mount Rittmann, and Cryptogam Ridge on Mount Melbourne are specially protected areas for their undisturbed plant life. See also East Antarctic craton Polar plateau References External links World Wildlife Fund, C. M. Hogan, S. Draggan. (2011) Marielandia Antarctic tundra. in C. J. Cleveland, ed., Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington, DC . Antarctic ecoregions Tundra Geography of Antarctica

2789534

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20AT4

2002 AT4

is a near-Earth object and potentially hazardous asteroid of the Amor group, approximately in diameter. It has an eccentric orbit that brings it sometimes close to Earth's orbit, and sometimes halfway between Mars and Jupiter. It is a dark D-type asteroid which means that it may be reddish in color. Due to its relatively low transfer cost of ~5.5 km/s, was under consideration by the European Space Agency as a candidate target for the Don Quijote mission to study the effects of impacting a spacecraft into an asteroid; however, it is no longer under consideration. orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.0–2.7 AU once every 2 years and 7 months (932 days; semi-major axis of 1.87 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.45 and an inclination of 1° with respect to the ecliptic. References External links MPEC 2002-A53, Minor Planet Electronic Circular List of the Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs), Minor Planet Center PHA Close Approaches To The Earth, Minor Planet Center List Of Amor Minor Planets (by designation), Minor Planet Center Minor planet object articles (unnumbered) D-type asteroids (SMASS) 20020108

2789564

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not%20Wanted%20on%20the%20Voyage

Not Wanted on the Voyage

Not Wanted on the Voyage is a novel by Canadian author Timothy Findley, which presents a magic realist post-modern re-telling of the Great Flood in the biblical Book of Genesis. It was first published by Viking Canada in the autumn of 1984, and was a shortlisted finalist for the Governor General's Award for English-language fiction at the 1984 Governor General's Awards. The novel has also been adapted for the stage by D. D. Kugler and Richard Rose. Plot summary The story centres around Dr. Noah Noyes, an authoritarian doctor and father whose obsession with God's law leads him to neglect his family; his wife, Mrs. Noyes, an alcoholic who talks to animals; and Mottyl, Mrs. Noyes's blind cat. Noah and Mrs. Noyes have three sons, Shem, Japeth, and Ham. Shem is married to Hannah, who spends a great deal of time with Dr. Noyes. Japeth is married to Emma, a young girl of about 11, who refuses to consummate their marriage. One day, an exhausted Yaweh visits Dr. Noyes. Yaweh is depressed to the point of wilfully allowing himself to die due to the treatment he has received from humanity. He tells Noyes that the people of the City threw offal, rotten fruit, and feces at his carriage and have assassinated him seven times. Yaweh remains depressed until he is inspired by a magic show Noah puts on to raise his spirits. Noah puts a penny under a glass bottle then fills the bottle with water. Due to refraction of the penny's image, the coin appears to vanish, but Yaweh becomes obsessed by the idea that the application of water can make things disappear. Soon Yaweh tells Noah to build an ark in preparation for the flood. Noah is resolutely obedient, but some in his family react negatively. Ham quickly marries Lucy, a mysterious seven-foot-tall woman with webbed fingers (a trait found only in angels, according to the novel) who is eventually revealed to be Lucifer in female form. As Yaweh leaves, Mottyl hears flies buzzing from within Yaweh's carriage and knows that Yaweh has resigned himself to death. Noah is adamant that Yaweh's edict must be followed to the letter and insists that there must be only two of every animal. Mrs. Noyes tries to bring Mottyl, who Noah has decreed must stay behind since he's chosen Yaweh's own two pet cats to represent felines on the ark. Noah sets fire to the house and barn, with Mottyl inside, offering all their additional animals as a giant sacrifice to Yaweh. Mrs. Noyes is enraged at the attempt to kill her cat and by the carnage in what is left of her home, and refuses to board the ark. Noah is concerned that if Mrs. Noyes does not come, the ark and its passengers will be doomed, as Yaweh's edict clearly states that Noah's wife must be aboard. Mrs. Noyes hides in Noah's orchard as the rain starts, but leaves when she notices Emma's sister Lotte, a "monkey child," trying to cross the river. Mrs. Noyes rescues Lotte and agrees to board only if Lotte can also come. Noah agrees to let Lotte on board, but has Japeth kill her shortly after. Mrs. Noyes again rebels, but ultimately agrees to board the ark and smuggles Mottyl aboard, hidden in her apron. As the voyage begins Noah quickly imposes his will on his family by drawing a line between the "rebellious" elements (Mrs. Noyes, Emma, Ham, and Lucy) and the rest (himself, Hannah, Japeth, and Shem). One day, dolphins swim by the ark, attempting to befriend the inhabitants. Noah decides that the dolphins must be pirates and has Japeth slaughter them. Mrs. Noyes attempts to stop him, and once the "pirates" have been defeated, Noah locks Mrs. Noyes, Lucy, Ham, and Emma in the lower levels of the ark, forcing them to care for the animals alone. Meanwhile, Noah, Hannah, Shem, and Japeth enjoy quarters on the deck of the ark and freedom from heavy chores. Noah notices that Japeth is becoming more preoccupied with sex and often eyes Hannah in a way that makes Noah wary. He decides that the solution is to force Emma to consummate their marriage. Noah has Emma brought to the deck and "inspects" her to see what the problem is. He decides that Emma's "tightness" is the reason why Japeth could not "gain entry" and requests that the Unicorn is brought to aid the problem. Noah uses the Unicorn to "open" Emma for Japeth, a process which traumatizes Emma and severely injures the Unicorn. When Japeth finds out what his father has done, he cuts off the Unicorn's horn. Emma is then forced to live on the top deck to be near her husband. Mrs. Noyes, Lucy, and Ham decide to rebel against Noah and the others. They formulate a plan to burn through the locked door using the two demons on board. They get the door open and plan to close the armoury, where Japeth sleeps, from the outside so as to neutralize Japeth. Unfortunately, Japeth is patrolling the deck and captures the escapees. He ties up Mrs. Noyes, Lucy, and Ham and throws the demons overboard, which enrages Lucy. She breaks free of her bonds and curses Japeth so that his wounds will never heal properly and he will always smell of the violence he has inflicted on others. Mrs. Noyes, Ham, and Lucy are locked below again, this time with boards and chains locking the door from the outside. Lucy plans another escape and has Crowe take a message to Emma to release them. Emma removes all the chains and bars while Noah and Hannah are preoccupied with praying, Shem is preoccupied with eating, and Japeth is preoccupied dressing his wounds. Mrs. Noyes, Lucy, and Ham bar the armoury and the chapel, locking in Noah, Hannah, and Japeth, but they are unable to find Shem. While locked in the chapel, Hannah's labour begins. She asks Noah to call for help, but he refuses to call for anyone until the baby is born. Noah knows that the baby is likely his and is worried that it will be a "monkey child" like Lotte, as Japeth's dead twin brother was also monkey-like. When the baby is born dead it is indeed revealed to be a "monkey child". Ham, hearing Hannah's cries of pain, opens the chapel door to help Hannah. He is quickly brained by Shem, but not before he sees Hannah's child. Hannah wraps it in blankets to hide its hairy arms and throws the baby overboard. A truce between the factions is tacitly called. The weather is sunny for the first time since the start of the rain, and Noah asks Emma to send a dove to look for land. When the dove does not return, they continue to send birds until Noah decides to send his own trained dove. Noah's dove returns with an olive branch, which Noah uses to prove Yaweh's edict. The other members of the ark remain unconvinced, as they know it is the same branch from the dove's cage. The novel ends with Mrs. Noyes sitting on deck with Mottyl, praying to the clouds for rain. Characters Dr. Noah Noyes – The tyrannical patriarch who is also Yaweh's best friend and confidant. It is believed that he is the one that encouraged Yaweh to cause the flood and destroy the human race through his magic trick. Noah is unwavering in his faith and domination of his family, often ignoring empirical evidence in favor of deeming something a "miracle". He loses his humanity completely over the course of the novel and his only aim is to obey the edict of Yahweh. Mrs. Noyes – The gin-drinking, piano-playing, subservient wife of Noah. As the book progresses she becomes more rebellious towards Noah's decrees. Mrs. Noyes has a strong affinity with animals, especially her cat, Mottyl but also with her sheep, Crowe and others. She even goes into a bear's cage to comfort it during a thunderstorm. Over the course of the novel she ceases to believe in prayer to Yahweh, preferring that the creatures of the Earth pray to each other and to the sky and the water. Yaweh – Old and irritable, Yaweh is angered and depressed at the state of humanity and seeks out Noah for hospitality. His depression results in the destruction of the world and Yaweh's own acceptance of death. Michael Archangelis – An Angel and Yaweh's bodyguard. He is Lucy's brother and ultimately her nemesis. He does not feel she has been satisfactorily defeated since she chose to leave heaven rather than being forced out. Japeth Noyes – The Noyes' youngest son. Sex deprived and stained blue from a traumatizing encounter with outcast ruffians while on his journey to the City, Japeth turns to violence as a way of overcoming his experience. There are suggestions that he was once a loving and trusting person but he has since become a symbol of violent death in the minds of those below deck. Ham Noyes – The Noyes' middle son, intellectual and enthusiastic about nature and science, he is unlike the rest of the Noyes family. Shem Noyes – The Noyes' eldest son, also known as the Ox, for his physical strength and dearth of thought. Hannah – The pregnant wife of Shem, who finds favor with both Noah and Yaweh due to her willingness to serve. Hannah is perceived as cold by the rest of the family. In the end, it is revealed that Noah was the one who got her pregnant, rather than Shem. Lucy – The seven-foot tall geisha who mysteriously appears in the forest and became Ham's wife. She is secretly a male, fallen angel who disguised himself as a woman to save himself from the flood. Unlike traditional stories of Lucifer's fall, Lucy is said to have fallen for simply asking, "why?" She is the instigator of a similar rebellion on board the ship. Emma – The young and reluctant wife of Japeth. Emma did not want to be his wife but had no choice in the matter. She and Mrs. Noyes had their differences but become allies in the end. Lotte – Emma's sister, an "ape-child". Has a "mental disability". Mottyl – Mrs. Noyes' loving blind calico cat, who was unfortunately the subject of many of Doctor Noyes' experiments. Mottyl undergoes an impressive degree of suffering in the novel. She is in heat at the beginning, gets pregnant and is thereby forced to raise her babies aboard ship where food is scarce, conditions are cramped and dirty and discovery would mean death since there are only supposed to be two cats aboard the ark. She learns to rely on her hearing and smell. Despite this she is a very compassionate animal. Her greatest fear is Dr. Noyes and later Japeth. Crowe – a female crow who is Mottyl's best friend and later savior. Sarah and Abraham – Yaweh's cats, who are chosen as the two cats to board the ark. Abraham was responsible for impregnating Mottyl. Canada Reads The novel was selected for inclusion in the 2008 edition of Canada Reads, where it was championed by actor Zaib Shaikh. Foreign adaptations In French, Not Wanted on the Voyage is called Passagers clandestins and was published in 2008 by Actes Sud. References 1984 Canadian novels Canadian magic realism novels Novels by Timothy Findley Viking Press books Novels about Noah's Ark Fiction about the Devil Fiction about God Novels about cats Fiction about suicide Lucifer Postmodern novels

2792708

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20physics

Solar physics

Solar physics is the branch of astrophysics that specializes in the study of the Sun. It deals with detailed measurements that are possible only for our closest star. It intersects with many disciplines of pure physics, astrophysics, and computer science, including fluid dynamics, plasma physics including magnetohydrodynamics, seismology, particle physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, stellar evolution, space physics, spectroscopy, radiative transfer, applied optics, signal processing, computer vision, computational physics, stellar physics and solar astronomy. Because the Sun is uniquely situated for close-range observing (other stars cannot be resolved with anything like the spatial or temporal resolution that the Sun can), there is a split between the related discipline of observational astrophysics (of distant stars) and observational solar physics. The study of solar physics is also important as it provides a "physical laboratory" for the study of plasma physics. History Ancient times Babylonians were keeping a record of solar eclipses, with the oldest record originating from the ancient city of Ugarit, in modern-day Syria. This record dates to about 1300 BC. Ancient Chinese astronomers were also observing solar phenomena (such as solar eclipses and visible sunspots) with the purpose of keeping track of calendars, which were based on lunar and solar cycles. Unfortunately, records kept before 720 BC are very vague and offer no useful information. However, after 720 BC, 37 solar eclipses were noted over the course of 240 years. Medieval times Astronomical knowledge flourished in the Islamic world during medieval times. Many observatories were built in cities from Damascus to Baghdad, where detailed astronomical observations were taken. Particularly, a few solar parameters were measured and detailed observations of the Sun were taken. Solar observations were taken with the purpose of navigation, but mostly for timekeeping. Islam requires its followers to pray five times a day, at specific position of the Sun in the sky. As such, accurate observations of the Sun and its trajectory on the sky were needed. In the late 10th century, Iranian astronomer Abu-Mahmud Khojandi built a massive observatory near Tehran. There, he took accurate measurements of a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which he later used to calculate the obliquity of the ecliptic. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Western Europe was cut from all sources of ancient scientific knowledge, especially those written in Greek. This, plus de-urbanisation and diseases such as the Black Death led to a decline in scientific knowledge in Medieval Europe, especially in the early Middle Ages. During this period, observations of the Sun were taken either in relation to the zodiac, or to assist in building places of worship such as churches and cathedrals. Renaissance period In astronomy, the renaissance period started with the work of Nicolaus Copernicus. He proposed that planets revolve around the Sun and not around the Earth, as it was believed at the time. This model is known as the heliocentric model. His work was later expanded by Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei. Particularly, Galilei used his new telescope to look at the Sun. In 1610, he discovered sunspots on its surface. In the autumn of 1611, Johannes Fabricius wrote the first book on sunspots, De Maculis in Sole Observatis ("On the spots observed in the Sun"). Modern times Modern day solar physics is focused towards understanding the many phenomena observed with the help of modern telescopes and satellites. Of particular interest are the structure of the solar photosphere, the coronal heat problem and sunspots. Research The Solar Physics Division of the American Astronomical Society boasts 555 members (as of May 2007), compared to several thousand in the parent organization. A major thrust of current (2009) effort in the field of solar physics is integrated understanding of the entire Solar System including the Sun and its effects throughout interplanetary space within the heliosphere and on planets and planetary atmospheres. Studies of phenomena that affect multiple systems in the heliosphere, or that are considered to fit within a heliospheric context, are called heliophysics, a new coinage that entered usage in the early years of the current millennium. Space based Helios Helios-A and Helios-B are a pair of spacecraft launched in December 1974 and January 1976 from Cape Canaveral, as a joint venture between the German Aerospace Center and NASA. Their orbits approach the Sun closer than Mercury. They included instruments to measure the solar wind, magnetic fields, cosmic rays, and interplanetary dust. Helios-A continued to transmit data until 1986. SOHO The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, SOHO, is a joint project between NASA and ESA that was launched in December 1995. It was launched to probe the interior of the Sun, make observations of the solar wind and phenomena associated with it and investigate the outer layers of the Sun. HINODE A publicly funded mission led by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, the HINODE satellite, launched in 2006, consists of a coordinated set of optical, extreme ultraviolet and X-ray instruments. These investigate the interaction between the solar corona and the Sun's magnetic field. SDO The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) was launched by NASA in February 2010 from Cape Canaveral. The main goals of the mission are understanding how solar activity arises and how it affects life on Earth by determining how the Sun's magnetic field is generated and structured and how the stored magnetic energy is converted and released into space. PSP The Parker Solar Probe (PSP) was launched in 2018 with the mission of making detailed observations of the outer solar corona. It has made the closest approaches to the Sun of any artificial object. Ground based ATST The Advanced Technology Solar Telescope (ATST) is a solar telescope facility that is under construction in Maui. Twenty-two institutions are collaborating on the ATST project, with the main funding agency being the National Science Foundation. SSO Sunspot Solar Observatory (SSO) operates the Richard B. Dunn Solar Telescope (DST) on behalf of the NSF. Big Bear The Big Bear Solar Observatory in California houses several telescopes including the New Solar Telescope(NTS) which is a 1.6 meter, clear-aperture, off-axis Gregorian telescope. The NTS saw first light in December 2008. Until the ATST comes on line, the NTS remains the largest solar telescope in the world. The Big Bear Observatory is one of several facilities operated by the Center for Solar-Terrestrial Research at New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT). Other EUNIS The Extreme Ultraviolet Normal Incidence Spectrograph (EUNIS) is a two channel imaging spectrograph that first flew in 2006. It observes the solar corona with high spectral resolution. So far, it has provided information on the nature of coronal bright points, cool transients and coronal loop arcades. Data from it also helped calibrating SOHO and a few other telescopes. See also Aeronomy Helioseismography Introduction to heliophysics Institute for Solar Physics (in La Palma in the Canary Islands) Further reading References External links Living Reviews in Solar Physics NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center Solar Physics Page NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Solar Physics Laboratory MPS Solar Physics Group SUPARCO Solar physics Page Center for Solar-Terrestrial Research Sun Space science

2795914

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valanginian

Valanginian

In the geologic timescale, the Valanginian is an age or stage of the Early or Lower Cretaceous. It spans between 139.8 ± 3.0 Ma and 132.6 ± 2.0 Ma (million years ago). The Valanginian Stage succeeds the Berriasian Stage of the Lower Cretaceous and precedes the Hauterivian Stage of the Lower Cretaceous. Stratigraphic definitions The Valanginian was first described and named by Édouard Desor in 1853. It is named after Valangin, a small town north of Neuchâtel in the Jura Mountains of Switzerland. The base of the Valanginian is at the first appearance of calpionellid species Calpionellites darderi in the stratigraphic column. A global reference section (a GSSP) had in 2009 not yet been appointed. The top of the Valanginian (the base of the Hauterivian) is at the first appearance of the ammonite genus Acanthodiscus. Subdivision The Valanginian is often subdivided in Lower and Upper substages. The Upper substage begins at the first appearance of ammonite species Saynoceras verrucosum and the major marine transgression Va3. In the Tethys domain, the Valanginian stage contains five ammonite biozones: zone of Criosarasinella furcillata zone of Neocomites peregrinus zone of Saynoceras verrucosum zone of Busnardoites campylotoxus zone of Tirnovella pertransiens Flora The oldest fossils that can definitely be attributed to the clade Angiospermae (flowering plants) are dated to the Late Valanginian. References Notes Literature ; (2004): A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press. External links GeoWhen Database - Valanginian Mid-Cretaceous timescale and ühttp://stratigraphy.science.purdue.edu/charts/Timeslices/5_JurCret.pdf Jurassic-Cretaceous timescale], at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS Stratigraphic chart of the Lower Cretaceous, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy 02 Geological ages Cretaceous geochronology

2795967

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastrichtian

Maastrichtian

The Maastrichtian ( ) is, in the ICS geologic timescale, the latest age (uppermost stage) of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or Upper Cretaceous Series, the Cretaceous Period or System, and of the Mesozoic Era or Erathem. It spanned the interval from . The Maastrichtian was preceded by the Campanian and succeeded by the Danian (part of the Paleogene and Paleocene). The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (formerly known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event) occurred at the end of this age. In this mass extinction, many commonly recognized groups such as non-avian dinosaurs, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs, as well as many other lesser-known groups, died out. The cause of the extinction is most commonly linked to an asteroid about wide colliding with Earth, ending the Cretaceous. Stratigraphic definitions Definition The Maastrichtian was introduced into scientific literature by Belgian geologist André Hubert Dumont in 1849, after studying rock strata of the Chalk Group close to the Dutch city of Maastricht. These strata are now classified as the Maastricht Formation - both formation and stage derive their names from the city. The Maastricht Formation is known for its fossils from this age, most notably those of the giant sea reptile Mosasaurus, which in turn derives its name from the nearby river Maas (mosa being Latin for the river Maas). The base of the Maastrichtian Stage is at the first appearance of ammonite species Pachydiscus neubergicus. At the original type locality near Maastricht, the stratigraphic record was later found to be incomplete. A reference profile for the base was then appointed in a section along the Ardour river called Grande Carrière, close to the village of Tercis-les-Bains in southwestern France. The top of the Maastrichtian Stage is defined to be at the iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), which is also characterised by the extinction of many groups of life. Subdivision The Maastrichtian is commonly subdivided into two substages (Upper and Lower) and three ammonite biozones. The biozones are (from young to old): zone of Anapachydiscus terminus zone of Anapachydiscus fresvillensis zone of Pachydiscus neubergicus till Pachydiscus epiplectus The Maastrichtian is roughly coeval with the Lancian North American Land Mammal Age. Palaeogeography and paleoclimate The breakup of Pangaea was nearly complete in the Maastrichtian, with Australia beginning to break away from Antarctica and Madagascar breaking away from India. However, Arabia had not yet rifted away from Africa. North America was separated from Europe by rift basins, but sea floor spreading had not yet commenced between the two continents. The Pacific Plate was rapidly growing in size as the surrounding oceanic plates were consumed by subduction, and the Pacific-Izanagi Ridge was rapidly approaching Asia. Eruption of the Deccan Traps large igneous province began during the Maastrichtian, at around 67 million years ago. This is thought to be a consequence of India drifting over the Réunion hotspot. During the Maastrichtian, the global climate began to shift from the warm and humid climate of the Mesozoic to the colder and more arid climate of the Cenozoic. Variation of climate with latitude also became greater. This was likely caused by a major reorganization of oceanic circulation that took place at the boundary between the early and late Maastrichtian. This reorganization was triggered by the breach of tectonic barriers in the South Atlantic, permitting deep ocean water to begin circulating from the nascent North Atlantic to the south. This initiated thermohaline circulation similar to that of the modern oceans. At the same time, the Laramide orogeny drained the Western Interior Seaway of North America, further contributing to global cooling. Paleontology Dinosaurs remained the dominant large terrestrial animals throughout the Maasastrichtian, though mammals with internal organs similar to modern mammals were also present. Both ammonites and pterosaurs were in serious decline during the Maastrichtian. Dinosaurs Birds Several archaic clades of birds, such as Enantiornithes, Ichthyornithes, and Hesperornithes, persisted to the latest Maastrichtian but became extinct during the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event. Pterosaurs Traditionally, pterosaur faunas of the Maastrichtian were assumed to be dominated by azhdarchids, with other pterosaur groups having become extinct earlier on. However, more recent findings suggest a fairly composite pterosaur diversity: at least six ("Nyctosaurus" lamegoi, a Mexican humerus, a Jordan humerus and several taxa from Morocco) nyctosaurs date to this period, as do a few pteranodontids, and Navajodactylus, tentatively assigned to Azhdarchidae, lacks any synapomorphies of the group. This seems to underscore a higher diversity of terminal Cretaceous pterosaurs than previously thought. Flora The radiation of angiosperms (flowering plants) was well under way in the Maastrichtian. From 50% to 80% of all genera of land plants were angiosperms, though gymnosperms and ferns still covered larger areas of the land surface. Notes References External links GeoWhen Database - Maastrichtian ghK Classification - Maastrichtian Late Cretaceous timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS Stratigraphic chart of the Late Cretaceous, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy Maastrichtian Microfossils: 60+ images of Foraminifera 06 Geological ages Cretaceous geochronology Maastricht

2797553

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%20Apodis

R Apodis

R Apodis (R Aps) is a star in the constellation Apus. R Apodis is an orange K-type giant with an apparent magnitude of +5.34. It is approximately 386 light years from Earth. It was earlier suspected to be a variable star and given the variable star designation R Apodis. Now it is confirmed as a non-variable. R Apodis has exhausted its core hydrogen fuel and left the main sequence. It has a mass 10% higher than the Sun's, and it has cooled to and expanded to 23 times the radius of the Sun. Despite being cooler than the sun, its large size means it emits 229 times more electromagnetic radiation. References 131109 Apus K-type giants Apodis, R 5540 073223 CD-76 688 J14575300-7639454 IRAS catalogue objects

2801765

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun%20outage

Sun outage

A Sun outage, Sun transit, or Sun fade is an interruption in or distortion of geostationary satellite signals caused by interference (background noise) of the Sun when it falls directly behind a satellite which an Earth station is trying to receive data from or transmit data to. It usually occurs briefly to such satellites twice per year and such Earth stations install temporary or permanent guards to their receiving systems to prevent equipment damage. Sun outages occur before the March equinox (in February and March) and after the September equinox (in September and October) for the Northern Hemisphere, and occur after the March equinox and before the September equinox for the Southern Hemisphere. At these times, the apparent path of the Sun across the sky takes it directly behind the line of sight between an Earth station and a satellite. The Sun radiates strongly across the entire spectrum, including the microwave frequencies used to communicate with satellites (C band, Ku band, and Ka band), so the Sun swamps the signal from the satellite. The effects of a Sun outage range from partial degradation (increase in the error rate) to the total destruction of the signal. The effect sweeps from north to south from approximately 20 February to 20 April, and from south to north from approximately 20 August to 20 October, affecting any specific location for less than 12 minutes a day for a few consecutive days. Effect on Indian stock exchanges In India, the BSE (Bombay Stock Exchange) and NSE (National Stock Exchange) use VSATs (Very Small Aperture Terminals) for members (e.g. stockbrokers) to connect to their trading systems. VSATs depend upon satellites for connectivity between the terminals/systems. Hence, these exchanges are, with considerable predictability, affected by the annual Sun outages. Both typically close from 11:45 to 12:30 during "Sun outages" — times vary depending on the Earth's orbit and satellites' exact locations. The interference to satellites' signals has been shown to disturb smooth transmission of data of online transactions so, for fairness, these share markets are closed for these short times each year. Trading is normally extended the same day to compensate for the lost time. Other locations Saint Helena suffers from island-wide loss of Internet and telecommunications connections during Sun outages because all telecommunications traffic to and from the island is carried on a single satellite link. Sun outage times are published in local newspapers. As the majority of rural Alaska is served by satellite, population centers like Utqiaġvik, Kotzebue, and Nome suffer from this as well. Nome is the terminus of the annual Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, and due to its timing, announcements of the finishers are often delayed during these Sun outages. See also Satellite warfare Solar transit References External links What is Sun Transit Sun Interference Prediction Sun Outage Calculator Sun Outage calculator for geostationary satellites Satellite broadcasting Solar phenomena Spring equinox Autumn equinox

2803219

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabrian%20%28stage%29

Calabrian (stage)

Calabrian is a subdivision of the Pleistocene Epoch of the geologic time scale, defined as 1.8 Ma—774,000 years ago ± 5,000 years, a period of ~. The end of the stage is defined by the last magnetic pole reversal (781 ± 5 Ka) and plunge into an ice age and global drying possibly colder and drier than the late Miocene (Messinian) through early Pliocene (Zanclean) cold period. Originally the Calabrian was a European faunal stage primarily based on mollusk fossils. It has become the second geologic age in the Early Pleistocene. History of the definition of the Calabrian Because sea shells are much more abundant as fossils, 19th- and early-20th-century geo-scientists used the plentiful and well-differentiable Mollusca (mollusks) and Brachiopods to identify stratigraphic boundaries. Thus the Calabrian was originally defined as an assemblage of mollusk fossils, most brachiopods being extinct by then. Efforts were then made to find the best representation of that assemblage in a stratigraphic section. By 1948 scientists used the initial appearance of cool-water (northern) invertebrate faunas in Mediterranean marine sediments as the beginning marker for the Calabrian. The 18th International Geological Congress in London (1948) placed the base of the Pleistocene at the base of the marine strata of the Calabrian Faunal Stage and denominated a type section in southern Italy. However, it was discovered that the original type section was discontinuous at that point and that the base of the Calabrian Stage as defined by fauna assemblages extended to earlier levels within the Pleistocene. A new type section was chosen, several miles from the original one, at Vrica, 4 km south of Crotone in Calabria, southern Italy. Analysis of strontium and oxygen isotopes as well as of planktonic foraminifera has confirmed the viability of the current type section. The 27th International Geological Congress in Moscow in 1984 formally ratified the type section. The starting date was originally thought to be about 1.65 million years ago, but has been recalculated as 1.806 Mya. Present formal definition The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point, GSSP, for the former start of the Pleistocene is in a reference section at Vrica, 4 km south of Crotone in Calabria, Southern Italy, a location whose exact dating has recently been confirmed by analysis of strontium and oxygen isotopes as well as by planktonic foraminifera. The beginning of the Calabrian hence is defined as: Just above top of magnetic polarity chronozone C2n (Olduvai) and the extinction level of calcareous nannofossil Discoaster brouweri (base Zone CN13). Above the boundary are the lowest occurrence of calcareous nannofossil medium Gephyrocapsa spp. and the extinction level of the planktonic foraminifer Globigerinoides extremus. The end of the Calabrian is defined as the Brunhes–Matuyama magnetic reversal event. See also Eburonian Villafranchian Notes References Pleistocene geochronology Geological ages Pleistocene Europe Quaternary geochronology

2803252

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chibanian

Chibanian

The Chibanian, widely known as the Middle Pleistocene, is an age in the international geologic timescale or a stage in chronostratigraphy, being a division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. The Chibanian name was officially ratified in January 2020. It is currently estimated to span the time between 0.770 Ma (770,000 years ago) and 0.126 Ma (126,000 years ago), also expressed as 770–126 ka. It includes the transition in palaeoanthropology from the Lower to the Middle Paleolithic over 300 ka. The Chibanian is preceded by the Calabrian and succeeded by the proposed Tarantian. The beginning of the Chibanian is the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal, when the Earth's magnetic field last underwent reversal. It ends with the onset of the Eemian interglacial period (Marine Isotope Stage 5). The term Middle Pleistocene was in use as a provisional or "quasi-formal" designation by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). While the three lowest ages of the Pleistocene, the Gelasian, Calabrian and Chibanian have been officially defined, the Late Pleistocene has yet to be formally defined, along with consideration of a proposed Anthropocene sub-division of the Holocene. Definition process The International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) had previously proposed replacement of the Middle Pleistocene by an Ionian Age based on strata found in Italy. In November 2017, however, the Chibanian (based on strata at a site in Chiba Prefecture, Japan) replaced the Ionian as the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy's preferred GSSP proposal for the age that should replace the Middle Pleistocene sub-epoch. The "Chibanian" name was ratified by the IUGS in January 2020. Palaeoanthropology The Chibanian includes the transition in palaeoanthropology from the Lower to the Middle Paleolithic: i.e., the emergence of Homo sapiens sapiens between 300 ka and 400 ka. The oldest known human DNA dates to the Middle Pleistocene, around 430,000 years ago. This is the oldest found, . Chronology See also Mid-Pleistocene Transition 100,000-year problem Pleistocene megafauna References 02 Geological ages Pleistocene geochronology Cenozoic geochronology

2803279

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late%20Pleistocene

Late Pleistocene

The Late Pleistocene is an unofficial age in the international geologic timescale in chronostratigraphy, also known as Upper Pleistocene from a stratigraphic perspective. It is intended to be the fourth division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. It is currently defined as the time between c. 129,000 and c. 11,700 years ago. The Late Pleistocene equates to the proposed Tarantian Age of the geologic time scale, preceded by the officially ratified Chibanian (commonly known as Middle Pleistocene) and succeeded by the officially ratified Greenlandian. The estimated beginning of the Tarantian is the start of the Eemian interglacial period (Marine Isotope Stage 5). It is held to end with the termination of the Younger Dryas, some 11,700 years ago when the Holocene Epoch began. The term Upper Pleistocene is currently in use as a provisional or "quasi-formal" designation by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Although the three oldest ages of the Pleistocene (the Gelasian, the Calabrian and the Chibanian) have been officially defined, the Late Pleistocene has yet to be formally defined, along with consideration of a proposed Anthropocene sub-division of the Holocene. The main feature of the Late Pleistocene was glaciation, for example the Würm glaciation in the Alps of Europe, to 14 ka, and the subsequent Younger Dryas. Many megafaunal animals became extinct during this age as part of the Quaternary extinction event, a trend that continued into the Holocene. In palaeoanthropology, the Late Pleistocene contains the Upper Palaeolithic stage of human development, including many of the early human migrations and the extinction of the last remaining archaic human species. Last Ice Age The proposed beginning of the Late Pleistocene is the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period (PGP) 126 ka when the Riß glaciation (Alpine) was being succeeded by the Eemian (Riß-Würm) interglacial period. The Riß-Würm ended 115 ka with the onset of the Last Glacial Period (LGP) which is known in Europe as the Würm (Alpine) or Devensian (Great Britain) or Weichselian glaciation (northern Europe); these are broadly equated with the Wisconsin glaciation (North America), though technically that began much later. The Last Glacial Maximum was reached during the later millennia of the Würm/Weichselian, estimated between 26 ka and 19 ka when deglaciation began in the Northern Hemisphere. The Würm/Weichselian endured until 16 ka with Northern Europe, including most of Great Britain, covered by an ice sheet. The glaciers reached the Great Lakes in North America. Sea levels fell and two land bridges were temporarily in existence that had significance for human migration: Doggerland, which connected Great Britain to mainland Europe; and the Bering land bridge which joined Alaska to Siberia. The Last Ice Age was followed by the Late Glacial Interstadial, a period of global warming to 12.9 ka, and the Younger Dryas, a return to glacial conditions until 11.7 ka. Palaeoclimatology holds that there was a sequence of stadials and interstadials from about 16 ka until the end of the Pleistocene. These were the Oldest Dryas (stadial), the Bølling oscillation (interstadial), the Older Dryas (stadial), the Allerød oscillation (interstadial) and finally the Younger Dryas. The end of the Younger Dryas marks the boundary between the Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs. Man in all parts of the world was still culturally and technologically in the Palaeolithic (Old Stone) Age. Tools and weapons were basic stone or wooden implements. Nomadic tribes followed moving herds. Non-nomadics acquired their food by gathering and hunting. Africa In Egypt, the Late (or Upper) Palaeolithic began sometime after 30,000 BC. People in North Africa had relocated to the Nile Valley as the Sahara was transformed from grassland to desert. The Nazlet Khater skeleton was found in 1980 and has been radiocarbon dated to between 30,360 and 35,100 years ago. Eurasia Neanderthal hominins (Homo neanderthalensis) inhabited Eurasia until becoming extinct between 40 and 30 ka. Towards the end of the Pleistocene and possibly into the early Holocene, several large mammalian species including the woolly rhinoceros, mammoth, mastodon and Irish elk became extinct. Cave paintings have been found at Lascaux in the Dordogne which may be more than 17,000 years old. These are mainly of buffalo, deer and other animals hunted by man. Later paintings occur in caves throughout the world with further examples at Altamira (Spain) and in India, Australia and the Sahara. Magdalenian hunter-gatherers were widespread in western Europe about 18,000 years ago until the end of the Pleistocene. They invented the earliest known harpoons using reindeer horn. The only domesticated animal in the Pleistocene was the dog, which evolved from the grey wolf into its many modern breeds. It is believed that the grey wolf became associated with hunter-gatherer tribes around 15 ka. The earliest remains of a true domestic dog have been dated to 14,200 years ago. Domestication first happened in Eurasia but could have been anywhere from Western Europe to East Asia. Domestication of other animals such as cattle, goats, pigs and sheep did not begin until the Holocene when settled farming communities became established in the Near East. The cat was probably not domesticated before at the earliest, again in the Near East. A butchered brown bear patella found in Alice and Gwendoline Cave in County Clare and dated to 10,860 to 10,641 BC indicates the first known human activity in Ireland. Far East The very first human habitation in the Japanese archipelago has been traced to prehistoric times between 40,000 BC and 30,000 BC. The earliest fossils are radiocarbon dated to c. 35,000 BC. Japan was once linked to the Asian mainland by land bridges via Hokkaido and Sakhalin Island to the north, but was unconnected at this time when the main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku were all separate entities. North America From about 28 ka, there were migrations across the Bering land bridge from Siberia to Alaska. The people became the Native Americans. It is believed that the original tribes subsequently moved down to Central and South America under pressure from later migrations. In the North American land mammal age scale, the Rancholabrean spans the time from c. 240,000 years ago to c. 11,000 years ago. It is named after the Rancho La Brea fossil site in California, characterised by extinct forms of bison in association with other Pleistocene species such as the mammoth. Bison occidentalis and Bison antiquus, an extinct subspecies of the smaller present-day bison, survived the Late Pleistocene period, between about 12 and 11 ka ago. Clovis peoples depended on these bison as their major food source. Earlier kills of camels, horses, and muskoxen found at Wally's beach were dated to 13.1–13.3 ka B.P. South America The South American land mammal age Lujanian corresponds with the Late Pleistocene. Oceania There is evidence of human habitation in mainland Australia, Indonesia, New Guinea and Tasmania from c. 45,000 BC. The finds include rock engravings, stone tools and evidence of cave habitation. References Bibliography Further reading Ehlers, J., and P.L. Gibbard, 2004a, Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology 2: Part II North America. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Ehlers, J., and P L. Gibbard, 2004b, Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology 3: Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica. Frison, George C., Prehistoric Human and Bison Relationships on the Plains of North America, August 2000, International Bison Conference, Edmonton, Alberta. Gillespie, A. R., S. C. Porter, and B. F. Atwater, 2004, The Quaternary Period in the United States. Developments in Quaternary Science no. 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Mangerud, J., J. Ehlers, and P. Gibbard, 2004, Quaternary Glaciations : Extent and Chronology 1: Part I Europe. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Sibrava, V., Bowen, D. Q., and Richmond, G. M., 1986, Quaternary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere, Quaternary Science Reviews. vol. 5, pp. 1–514. 03 Pleistocene geochronology Quaternary geochronology Geological ages

2807209

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20geologic%20time%20scale

New Zealand geologic time scale

While also using the international geologic time scale, many nations–especially those with isolated and therefore non-standard prehistories–use their own systems of dividing geologic time into epochs and faunal stages. In New Zealand, these epochs and stages use local place names (mainly Māori in origin) back to the Permian. Prior to this time, names mostly align to those in the Australian geologic time scale, and are not divided into epochs. In practice, these earlier terms are rarely used, as most New Zealand geology is of a more recent origin. In all cases, New Zealand uses the same periods as those used internationally; the renaming only applies to subdivisions of these periods. Very few epochs and stages cross international period boundaries, and the exceptions are almost all within the Cenozoic Era. New Zealand updates will always be behind any significant international updates in the International Geological Time Scale. Although the New Zealand geologic time scale has not been formally adopted, it has been widely used by earth scientists, geologists and palaeontologists in New Zealand since J. S. Crampton proposed it in 1995. The most recent calibrated update was in 2015. A standard abbreviation is used for these epochs and stages. These are usually in the form Xx, where the first letter is the initial letter of the epoch and the second (lower-case) letter is the initial letter of the stage. These are noted beside the stage names in the list below. Currently, from the New Zealand perspective we are in the Haweran stage of the Wanganui epoch which is within the internationally defined Holocene epoch of the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era. The Haweran, which started some 340,000 years ago, is named after the North Island town of Hawera. The New Zealand stages and epochs are not the same as internationally defined periods and epochs (e.g. the Wanganui epoch started at 5.33 Ma which is within the Neogene period and matches the start of the international Pliocene epoch, but contains also the international Holocene and Pleistocene epochs). List of New Zealand geologic time epochs and stages Times given indicate the start of the respective stages and epochs. Several of these stages are further divided into upper and lower or upper, middle, and lower, although this has not been noted below unless unique names have been given to these sub-stages. As with the international geologic scale, these epochs and stages are largely named for locales where rock dating from these time periods is in evidence, with stage names predominantly but not always named for locales close to their epoch's namesake site. Where known, these places are also linked in the list below. Cenozoic Era Mesozoic Era Cretaceous Period Jurassic Period Triassic Period Palaeozoic Era Permian Period Carboniferous Period Devonian Period Stages prior to the beginning of the Carboniferous Period use either international (Devonian/Silurian) or Australian (Ordovician/Cambrian) geologic stage names; very little New Zealand rock is known from these geologic periods. Silurian Period Ordovician Period Cambrian Period Proterozoic, Archaean and Hadaean Aeons {| class="wikitable" |width="250pt"|Name |width="50pt"|Abbreviation |width="100pt"|Start date (Ma) |-style="background:#bbcccc;" |(Not subdivided) |Z |~4600 |} Footnotes to time scale This stage is sometimes further divided into Mangaoran (lower) and Waikatoan (upper). These are named after Mangaora Inlet (an arm of Kawhia Harbour) and the Waikato River. This stage is sometimes further divided into Kiriteherean (lower) and Marokopan (upper). These are named after the Marokopa River and the nearby Kiritehere Stream. Until the late 1960s, the Flettian and Barettian stages were together known as the Braxtonian stage (see Waterhouse 1969). This was named for Braxton Burn, a stream near Mossburn. Where not subdivided usual reason is no stages recognised due to absent record See also Stratigraphy of New Zealand References Other References Bishop, D.G., and Turnbull, I.M. (compilers) (1996). Geology of the Dunedin Area. Lower Hutt, NZ: Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences. . Hollis, C.J., Beu, A.G., Crampton, J.S., Crundwell, M.P., Morgans, H.E.G., Raine, J.I., Jones, C.M., Boyes, A.F. (2010). Calibration of the New Zealand Cretaceous - Cenozoic Timescale to GTS2004, GNS Science Report, 2010/43, 20p. Waterhouse, J.B. (1969). "World correlations of New Zealand Permian stages," New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics,'' 12:4, pp. 713–737 External links Paleozoic Oceania Mesozoic Oceania Cenozoic Oceania Regional geologic time scales Stratigraphy

2811503

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta2%20Tauri

Delta2 Tauri

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Delta2 Tauri}} Delta2 Tauri (δ2 Tauri) is a solitary, white-hued star in the zodiac constellation of Taurus. Based upon an annual parallax shift of 20.21 mas as seen from Earth, it is located roughly 161 light years distant from the Sun. It is separated from δ1 Tauri by 0.3° on the sky and is faintly visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of +4.80. The star is considered a member of the Hyades cluster. At the estimated age of 449 million years, this is an A-type main-sequence star with a stellar classification of A2 Vs, where the 's' suffix indicates narrow (sharp) absorption lines. It has 1.8 times the mass of the Sun and about 1.8 times the Sun's radius. The star is radiating 27 times the Sun's luminosity from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 7,997 K. δ2 Tauri is a source of X-ray emission with a luminosity of . Since A-type stars are not normally a source of X-rays, this emission may be coming from an unknown companion or from a line of sight source. References A-type main-sequence stars Tauri, Delta Taurus (constellation) Durchmusterung objects Tauri, 064 027819 020542 1380

2811509

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta3%20Tauri

Delta3 Tauri

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Delta3 Tauri}} Delta3 Tauri (δ3 Tauri) is a binary star system in the zodiac constellation of Taurus. Based upon an annual parallax shift of 21.96 mas as seen from Earth, it is located roughly 149 light years distant from the Sun. It is visible to the naked eye with a combined apparent visual magnitude of +4.32. δ3 Tauri is separated from δ1 Tauri by 0.72° on the sky. This star also has the traditional Latin name Cleeia, from the Greek Kleeia (transliteration of Κλεεια), who was one of the Hyades sisters. It is considered a member of the Hyades cluster. In Chinese, (), meaning Net, refers to an asterism consisting δ3 Tauri, ε Tauri, δ1 Tauri, γ Tauri, Aldebaran, 71 Tauri and λ Tauri. Consequently, the Chinese name for δ3 Tauri itself is (), "the Second Star of Net". The magnitude 4.35 primary, component A, appears to be an A-type subgiant star with a stellar classification of A2 IV. It is a candidate blue straggler and shows characteristics of an Am star. Abt (1985) gave it a classification of A2kA3hA5m, indicating that the spectrum displays the calcium K-line of an A2 star, the hydrogen lines of an A3 star and the metal lines of an A5 star. It is deficient in scandium but has enhanced iron peak and heavy elements. Although suspected of variability in the past, Delta3 Tauri A was subsequently determined to be photometrically constant. The companion, component B, is a magnitude 8.37 star at an angular separation of 1.80 arc seconds along a position angle of 341°, as of 2010. At 77 arcseconds away (as of 2006) is a magnitude 11.12 visual companion, designated component C. References A-type subgiants Am stars Binary stars Hyades (star cluster) Tauri, Delta Taurus (constellation) Cleeia Durchmusterung objects Tauri, 068 027962 020648 1389

2813048

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic%20Bridge

Arctic Bridge

The Arctic Bridge or Arctic Sea Bridge is a seasonal sea route approximately long linking Russia to Canada, specifically the Russian port of Murmansk to the Hudson Bay port of Churchill, Manitoba. Description Churchill is the only principal seaport on Canada's northern coast and has no road connections to the rest of Canada. It is the northern terminus of the Hudson Bay Railway and is a useful link in the export of grain from the Canadian Prairies to European markets. The Russian gauge Murmansk Railway links the port of Murmansk on the ice-free Kola Bay to Saint Petersburg and the rest of Europe and to the rest of Russia by the M18 Kola Motorway. Russia has shown a keen interest in developing the Arctic Bridge route and hopes to develop the link as part of its plan to build a "geostrategic bridge between Europe, Asia and North America". To this end, Russia is building railways and roads to link cities like Paris, Berlin, Tokyo and Beijing. If developed (along with the Northwest Passage) it could serve as a major trade route between Europe and North America. According to the Russian Federation's Ottawa press attaché, Sergey Khuduiakov, the retreat of Arctic ice has enabled the opening of the trade route. Currently, the route is only easily navigable about four months of the year. History The concept of an "Arctic Bridge", with a hub in Churchill, was proposed by Canadians in the early 1990s. In 1997 the port of Churchill was sold to Denver-based OmniTRAX, a major railroad operator. In 2004, OmniTRAX entered into talks with the Murmansk Shipping Company to promote the Arctic Bridge concept. While the Canadian Wheat Board (CWB) had been able to keep Churchill a viable port, exporting nearly 400,000 tons (15 million bushels) of wheat each year, OmniTRAX has had difficulty in landing imports at Churchill. On October 17, 2007, the first shipment of fertilizer from Murmansk arrived at the Port of Churchill. Two separate 9000 tonne imports of Russian fertilizer arrived in 2008, purchased by the Farmers of North America cooperative of Saskatoon from Kaliningrad. The port of Churchill exported 710,000 tonnes of grain in 1977, 621,000 tonnes in 2007, and 529,000 tonnes in 2009. The CWB was sold off to Saudi Company, G3 Global Grain Group in 2015 and the Churchill Port suffered as grain shipments were slowly ceased. Omnitrax then closed the rail-line and port, citing a lack of profitability of the operations. They then entered into initial talks to sell the port and rail-line to a local indigenous consortium of Manitoba First Nations, Missinippi Rail Consortium. See also Northwest Passage Northern Sea Route also known as the Northeast Passage Northern East West Freight Corridor Arctic Gateway Group References Further reading International Herald Tribune: “Arctic riches coming out of the cold” by Clifford Krauss, Steven Lee Myers, Andrew C. Revkin and Simon Romero, The New York Times, Monday, October 10, 2005; The Globe and Mail (Toronto) 18 October 2007 "Russian ship crosses 'Arctic bridge' to Manitoba, Arrival of the Kapitan Sviridov at the port in Churchill marks historic first step in the construction of a new trade route, officials say" External links Manitoba Government Newsrelease February 15, 2002 "Premier Signs Letter of Intent to Further Develop Arctic Bridge" Arctic Bridge Churchill Manitoba Key to Northern Development Arctic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Maritime history of Canada Sea lanes Churchill, Manitoba Murmansk Kaliningrad Transport in the Arctic

2817118

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videosphere

Videosphere

The Videosphere is a JVC CRT television that was shaped in the form of a space helmet. It was first introduced in 1970 and was sold up until the early 1980s. It was popular for its modern design; the alarm clock base was an option, most units have a plain base. Videospheres were produced in large quantities in white, red, black and orange in the seventies with a grey colored model also released in the 1980s. Videospheres may come in a variety of different colors, but their screen remains in a simple black and white, with dials to adjust volume, brightness, and contrast. To operate the television, there is a main dial at the top of the sphere to control wave frequencies. Color televisions were being produced at this time, but they were costly. Therefore, the Videosphere screen most likely did not come in color because making a television that small would have been too expensive. The television screen is a rectangular shape, despite being encased in a circular shell. The Videosphere also has a chain handle on its top, allowing it to come off its stand and be hung from a wall or ceiling to be seen from anywhere in a room. One reason the television was so innovative was that it was designed to be portable. All Videospheres came with a battery pack that is rechargeable and allows it to be played outside of a traditional home setting. Videospheres could also be powered from a voltage of electricity as low as a cigarette lighter in a car. The design of the Videosphere is said to have been inspired by the film 2001: A Space Odyssey, though its shape in itself remains as one of the most iconic examples of the early 1970s design ethos. The Videosphere was also said to be influenced by the Moon landing in 1969. After this took place, American culture shifted greatly to all things space themed. The sci-fi look of the TV saw a red model appear as a background prop in the 1999 film The Matrix, though they have appeared in sci-fi films since the early 70s. Soylent Green had a red model on screen as a prop. The 1972 film Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, a black Videosphere was shown with a color capable tube and a slot that allowed a cassette tape capable of playing video. Humorously, the color image on the Videosphere goes from being rectangular in one scene to round in another scene. Later history Today, Videospheres can still be purchased, although they stopped being manufactured in the early 1980s. They are tricky to find, and sell for a price of about $300 USD. While finding one may be a challenge, getting it up and running is also not an easy task, as parts to fix and replace on it are scarce. With spare parts becoming an issue for restorers of Videospheres, is not uncommon to see spare parts sold on online auctions. Replacement visor screens are particularly sought after. If one is found in operating condition, Videospheres can still be used. While operating a Videosphere is still possible, because interfaces such as HDMI were not invented when they were at the height of their usage, a converter box that gives the desired inputs would also need to be purchased. Video artist Nam June Paik used a white videosphere for his installation TV Buddha in 1974. References JVCKenwood Television sets Products introduced in 1970

2820700

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysnomia%20%28moon%29

Dysnomia (moon)

Dysnomia (formally (136199) Eris I Dysnomia) is the only known moon of the dwarf planet Eris and is the second-largest known moon of a dwarf planet, after Pluto I Charon. It was discovered in September 2005 by Mike Brown and the Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics (LGSAO) team at the W. M. Keck Observatory. It carried the provisional designation of until it was officially named Dysnomia (from the Ancient Greek word meaning anarchy/lawlessness) in September 2006, after the daughter of the Greek goddess Eris. With an estimated diameter of , Dysnomia spans 24% to 29% of Eris's diameter. It is significantly less massive than Eris, with a density consistent with it being mainly composed of ice. In stark contrast to Eris's highly-reflective icy surface, Dysnomia has a very dark surface that reflects 5% of incoming visible light, resembling typical trans-Neptunian objects around Dysnomia's size. These physical properties indicate Dysnomia likely formed from a large impact on Eris, in a similar manner to other binary dwarf planet systems like Pluto and , and as well as the Earth–Moon system. Discovery During 2005, the adaptive optics team at the Keck telescopes in Hawaii carried out observations of the four brightest Kuiper belt objects (Pluto, , , and ), using the newly commissioned laser guide star adaptive optics system. Observations taken on 10 September 2005, revealed a moon in orbit around Eris, provisionally designated . In keeping with the Xena nickname that was already in use for Eris, the moon was nicknamed "Gabrielle" by its discoverers, after Xena's sidekick. Physical characteristics Submillimeter-wavelength observations of the Eris–Dysnomia system's thermal emissions by the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) in 2015 first showed that Dysnomia had a large diameter and a very low albedo, with the initial estimate being . Further observations by ALMA in 2018 refined Dysnomia's diameter to (24% to 29% of Eris's diameter) and an albedo of . Of the known moons of dwarf planets, only Charon is larger, making Dysnomia the second-largest moon of a dwarf planet. Dysnomia's low albedo significantly contrasts with Eris's extremely high albedo of 0.96; its surface has been described to be darker than coal, which is a typical characteristic seen in trans-Neptunian objects around Dysnomia's size. Eris and Dysnomia are mutually tidally locked. Astrometric observations of the Eris–Dysnomia system by ALMA show that Dysnomia does not induce detectable barycentric wobbling in Eris's position, implying its mass must be less than (mass ratio ). This is below the estimated mass range of (mass ratio 0.01–0.03) that would normally allow Eris to be tidally locked within the range of the Solar System, suggesting that Eris must therefore be unusually dissipative. ALMA's upper-limit mass estimate for Dysnomia corresponds to an upper-limit density of , implying a mostly icy composition. The shape of Dysnomia is not known, but its low density suggests that it should not be in hydrostatic equilibrium. The brightness difference between Dysnomia and Eris decreases with longer and redder wavelengths; Hubble Space Telescope observations show that Dysnomia is 500 times fainter than Eris (6.70-magnitude difference) in visible light, whereas near-infrared Keck telescope observations show that Dysnomia is ~60 times fainter (4.43-magnitude difference) than Eris. This indicates Dysnomia has a very different spectrum and redder color than Eris, indicating a significantly darker surface, something that has been proven by submillimeter observations. Orbit Combining Keck and Hubble observations, the orbit of Dysnomia was used to determine the mass of Eris through Kepler's third law of planetary motion. Dysnomia's average orbital distance from Eris is approximately , with a calculated orbital period of 15.786 days, or approximately half a month. This shows that the mass of Eris is 1.27 times that of Pluto. Extensive observations by Hubble indicate that Dysnomia has a nearly circular orbit around Eris, with a low orbital eccentricity of . Over the course of Dysnomia's orbit, its distance from Eris varies by due to its slightly eccentric orbit. Dynamical simulations of Dysnomia suggest that its orbit should have completely circularized through mutual tidal interactions with Eris within timescales of 5–17 million years, regardless of the moon's density. A non-zero eccentricity would thus mean that Dysnomia's orbit is being perturbed, possibly due to the presence of an additional inner satellite of Eris. However, it is possible that the measured eccentricity is not real, but due to interference of the measurements by albedo features, or to systematic errors. From Hubble observations from 2005 to 2018, the inclination of Dysnomia's orbit with respect to Eris's heliocentric orbit is calculated to be approximately 78°. Since the inclination is less than 90°, Dysnomia's orbit is therefore prograde relative to Eris's orbit. In 2239, Eris and Dysnomia will enter a period of mutual events in which Dysnomia's orbital plane is aligned edge-on to the Sun, allowing for Eris and Dysnomia to take turns eclipsing each other. Formation Astronomers now know that the eight of the ten largest trans-Neptunian objects have satellites. Among the fainter members of the trans-Neptunian population, only about 10% are known to have satellites. This is thought to imply that collisions between large KBOs have been frequent in the past. Impacts between bodies of the order of across would throw off large amounts of material that would coalesce into a moon. A similar mechanism is thought to have led to the formation of the Moon when Earth was struck by a giant impactor early in the history of the Solar System. Name Mike Brown, the moon's discoverer, chose the name Dysnomia for the moon. As the daughter of Eris, the mythological Dysnomia fit the established pattern of naming moons after gods associated with the primary body (hence, Jupiter's largest moons are named after lovers of Jupiter, while Saturn's are named after his fellow Titans). Also, the English translation of "Dysnomia", "lawlessness", echoes Lucy Lawless, the actress who played Xena in Xena: Warrior Princess on television. Before receiving their official names, Eris and Dysnomia had been nicknamed "Xena" and "Gabrielle", though Brown states that the connection was accidental. A primary reason for the name was its similarity to the name of Brown's wife, Diane, following a pattern established with Pluto. Pluto owes its name in part to its first two letters, which form the initials of Percival Lowell, the founder of the observatory where its discoverer, Clyde Tombaugh, was working, and the person who inspired the search for "Planet X". James Christy, who discovered Charon, did something similar by adding the Greek ending -on to Char, the nickname of his wife Charlene. (Christy wasn't aware that the resulting 'Charon' was a figure in Greek mythology.) "Dysnomia", similarly, has the same first letter as Brown's wife, Diane. Notes References External links Moons of dwarf planets Eris (dwarf planet) Discoveries by Michael E. Brown 20050910 Discoveries by Chad Trujillo Discoveries by David L. Rabinowitz

2821141

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20Chart%20of%20the%20World

Digital Chart of the World

The Digital Chart of the World (DCW) is a comprehensive digital map of Earth. It is the most comprehensive geographical information system (GIS) global database that is freely available as of 2006, although it has not been updated since 1992. Origin The primary source for this database is the United States Defense Mapping Agency's (DMA) operational navigation chart (ONC) 1:1,000,000 scale paper map series produced by the US, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom. These charts were designed to meet the needs of pilots and air crews in medium-and low-altitude en route navigation and to support military operational planning, intelligence briefings, and other needs. Data structure The data is divided into 2,094 tiles that represent 5 × 5-degree areas of the globe, except data obtained from Penn State which is broken up by pre-1992 national boundaries, and data from the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) which is broken into just five tiles. The data currency varies from place to place, ranging from the mid-1960s to the early 1990s. The thematic layers of the Digital Chart of the World are: Political/ocean (country boundaries) Populated places (urbanized areas and points) Roads Railroads Aeronautical structures Utilities (electrical, telephone, pipelines) Drainage system Hypsographic data Land cover Ocean features Physiography Cultural landmarks Transportation structure Vegetation Data location See also Vector map (VMAP0 and VMAP1 data) Digital elevation model Digital terrain model External links Digital Chart of the World specification (PDF) Digital Chart of the World Data Quality Project Digital Chart of the World (Countries) at WorldMap, Harvard University Geographic information systems World maps

2823596

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SINPO%20code

SINPO code

SINPO, an acronym for Signal, Interference, Noise, Propagation, and Overall, is a Signal Reporting Code used to describe the quality of broadcast and radiotelegraph transmissions. SINPFEMO, an acronym for Signal, Interference, Noise, Propagation, frequency of Fading, dEpth, Modulation, and Overall is used to describe the quality of radiotelephony transmissions. SINPFEMO code consists of the SINPO code plus the addition of three letters to describe additional features of radiotelephony transmissions. These codes are defined by Recommendation ITU-R Sm.1135, SINPO and SINPFEMO codes. SINPO code is most frequently used in reception reports written by shortwave listeners. Each letter of the code stands for a specific factor of the signal, and each item is graded on a 1 to 5 scale (where 1 stands for nearly undetectable/severe/unusable and 5 for excellent/nil/extremely strong). The code originated with the CCIR (a predecessor to the ITU-R) in 1951, and was widely used by BBC shortwave listeners to submit signal reports, with many going so far as to mail audio recordings to the BBC's offices. SINPO and SINPFEMO are the official signal reporting codes for international civil aviation and ITU-R. The use of the SINPO code can be subjective and may vary from person to person. Not all shortwave listeners are conversant with the SINPO code and prefer using plain language instead. SINPO code explained S (Signal strength) The relative strength of the transmission. I (Interference) Interference from other stations on the same or adjacent frequencies. N (Noise) The amount of atmospheric or man-made noise. P (Propagation) Whether the signal is steady or fades from time to time. O (Overall merit) An overall score for the listening experience under these conditions. Each category is rated from 1 to 5 with 1 being 'unusable' or 'severe' and 5 being 'perfect' or 'nil'. Many raters misunderstand the code and will rate everything either 55555 or 11111 when in reality both extremes are unusual in the extreme. '55555' essentially means 'perfect reception akin to a local station' while that is occasionally possible, when talking about long-distance short-wave reception, it is almost never the case. Another common mistake in rating is presenting an 'O' higher than any previously rated element. By definition, a station cannot present 'perfect' reception if there is any Noise or Interference or Fading present. In other words, it is NOT 'perfect local quality' reception if any of those things are present. SINPFEMO code An extension of SINPO code, for use in radiotelephony (voice over radio) communications, SINPFEMO is an acronym for Signal, Interference, Noise, Propagation, frequency of Fading, dEpth, Modulation, and Overall. Examples of SINPO code applied In responding to a shortwave reception, the SINPO indicates to the transmitting station the overall quality of the reception. The SINPO code in normal use consists of the 5 rating numbers listed without the letters, as in the examples below: 54554 – This indicates a relatively clear reception, with only slight interference; however, nothing that would significantly degrade the listening experience. 33433 – This indicates a signal which is moderately strong, but has more interference, and therefore deterioration of the received signal. Generally, a SINPO with a code number starting with a 2 or lower would not be worth reporting, unless there is no noise, interference or loss of propagation, since it would be likely the signal would be unintelligible. Although the original SINPO code established technical specifications for each number (i.e., a number 3 in the P column meant a fixed number of fades per minute), these are rarely adhered to by reporters. The 'S' meter displays the relative strength of the received RF signal in decibels; however, this should not be used as the sole indication of signal strength, as no two S meters are calibrated exactly alike, and many lower-priced receivers omit the S meter altogether. References to a "SINFO" code may also be found in some literature. In this case, the 'F' stands for Fading, instead of 'P' for Propagation, but the two codes are interchangeable. It was presumed that the average listener would be more familiar with the meaning of "fading" than "propagation". A simple way to ensure the rating applied is useful is to rate the "O" column first based on the intelligibility of the station. If you can understand everything easily, the station will rate a 4 or higher. If you have to work hard, but can understand everything '3' is the appropriate rating. If you cannot understand everything although you put great effort into it, a '2' is appropriate, and if you cannot understand the programming at all '1' is the appropriate rating. Some listeners may not know how to distinguish between the 'I' which indicates interference from adjacent stations, and the 'N' which describes natural atmospheric or man-made noise; also for some listeners, the rating for 'Propagation' may not be completely understood. As a result of this confusion, many stations suggest the SIO code – a simpler code which makes the limitations noted above not relevant. Despite this, some books and periodicals maintain the SINPO code is the best for DX reporters. History SINPO is said to have evolved from the BBC's RAISO format (full version: RAFISBEMVO, which measured: See also Plain language radio checks QSA and QRK code (for Morse code only) R-S-T system (for Amateur radio only) Signal strength and readability report Circuit Merit (for wired and wireless telephone circuits only, not radiotelephony) QSL card References External links itu.int: SM.1135 - Sinpo and sinpfemo codes - ITU Operating signals International broadcasting

2824171

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20World%20of%20Difference%20%28novel%29

A World of Difference (novel)

A World of Difference is a 1990 science fiction novel by American writer Harry Turtledove. The book begins with a space voyage that departed Earth in an alternate 1989. In the universe of the book, the fourth planet from the Sun, in the orbit occupied by Mars in our reality, is named Minerva, which is similar in size and makeup to Earth. The book contrasts Earth's culture during the ongoing Cold War with Minerva's feudal culture which resembles the European culture of the Late Middle Ages. Mercantilism is just emerging in Minerva during the events of the book. Plot summary When the Viking 1 space probe lands on Minerva in 1976 it takes a picture of a native Minervan wielding a primitive tool, thus proving the existence of intelligent life on other worlds. The main action of the story involves separate American and Soviet missions, who both pay lip service to non-interference with Minervan society, but in the course of their research, the teams' respective political ideologies inevitably come to the fore. This leads the teams and their commanders back home to use the Minervans in a transparent analogy to Third World/Cold War proxy conflicts on Earth. One of the Americans saves the life of a female Minervan after she gives birth. Eventually Minervans get their hands on high tech items like steel hatchets, rubber rafts, and finally AK-74s, which severely disrupt their way of life. The planet Minerva Minerva has an atmosphere similar to Earth's and breathable by humans, and liquid water exists in significant quantities on the surface. The planet's mean atmospheric temperature is lower than Earth's due to the greater distance from the sun, although the greenhouse effect of its thicker atmosphere means that it is not as cold as our universe's Mars. The ancient astronomers of the novel name the bright blue/gray planet Minerva after the goddess of wisdom. Minervan biology and society Minervan animals (including the sentient Minervans) are hexameristically radially symmetrical. This means that they have six eyes spaced equally all around, see in all directions and have no "back" where somebody could sneak on them unnoticed. The different way that Minervans perceive their environment, and its major influence on their culture and way of life, is a significant plot element – especially important in the battle scenes towards the end. Females (referred to as "mates" by the Minervans) give birth to litters that consist of one male and five females, and the "mates" always die after reproducing because of torrential bleeding from the places where the six fetuses were attached; this gives a population multiplication of 5 per generation if all females live to adolescence and reproduce. Females reach puberty while still hardly out of childhood, and typically experience sex only once in the lifetime – leading to pregnancy and death at birth-giving. Thus, in Minervan society male dominance seems truly determined by a biological imperative – though it takes different forms in various Minervan societies: in some females are considered expendable and traded as property, in other they are cherished and their tragic fate mourned – but still their dependant status is taken for granted. The American women arriving on Minerva and discovering this situation consider it intolerable; a major plot element is their efforts, using the resources of Earth medical science, to find a way of saving the Minervan females and let them survive birth-giving. At the end, they do manage to save a particularly sympathetic Minervan female – potentially opening the way for a complete upheaval in Minervan society. Technically, the Minervans can be said to be living in a neolithic society, since they use stone tools. However, though using no metals, their society is actually feudal and comparable to Europe during the Late Middle Ages, and actually one of the Minervan societies depicted – the one contacted by the Soviets – shows the beginnings of mercantile capitalism (which is directly related to its being the more aggressive and predatory one). It is this nascent capitalist society which the Soviets decide to support in its effort to invade and conquer its feudal rival. This raises some eyebrows among the cosmonauts; however, as the resident ideologue explains to his bemused comrades, it is quite sound Marxist doctrine, based on Marx's theory of history: Capitalism is more progressive than Feudalism; therefore, helping it win will help prepare Minervan society to get to Socialism some centuries hence. Earth In addition to the existence of Minerva the book alludes to a variety of subtle differences between its history and ours. The fact that the fourth planet was blue rather than red as in our universe, and named for a different deity of the Classical pantheon, did not significantly change life on Earth. Galileo is mentioned as having seen Minerva in his telescope and made the first drawing of its surface; this did not, however, make his general career significantly different from in our timeline. However, fundamental differences seem to have started to develop since the mid-1970s. Following the discovery of intelligent life on Minerva, both superpowers engaged energetically on efforts to launch a crewed spacecraft there. This evidently had an effect of exacerbating tensions on Earth, with American and Soviet planes engaging three times in direct aerial combat over Beirut – presumably drawn, after the Israeli Invasion of Lebanon in 1982, into a far deeper involvement than in our history. An escalation into all-out nuclear war was avoided only with difficulty, and though things have calmed down a bit by 1989 when the plot takes place, the Cold War is still very much on, and the Soviet Union is still very much a police state keeping its citizens (even cosmonauts millions of miles from home) on a short leash. Mikhail Gorbachev had led for only nine months, and barely got started on Glasnost, before dying from a stroke (though there are rumors of a secret assassination, which Soviet characters prudently avoid discussing too loudly). Allusions to other works The Georgian member of the Soviet crew, who has some frictions with his Russian crewmates due to cultural differences, is named "Shota Rustaveli" after the 12th century poet Shota Rustaveli. Publication history A World of Difference has been published in hardcover in Great Britain by Hodder & Stoughton. Translations Italian: (Mission to Minerva) (transl. by Carlo Borriello) Fanucci Editore, 2000. Russian: (A Space Battle) (transl. by G.A. Il'insky) Rusich, 1997, . See also Barsoom The Sky People In the Courts of the Crimson Kings Old Mars Hard to Be a God Kepler 186f, an exoplanet discovered in 2014 with a size and temperature very similar to Minerva References 1990 American novels Novels set during the Cold War Novels set on fictional planets Novels set on Mars Novels by Harry Turtledove 1990 science fiction novels Planetary romances American alternate history novels American science fiction novels Del Rey books Fiction set in 1989 Novels set in the 1980s Fiction set in the Late Middle Ages Cultural depictions of Galileo Galilei Cultural depictions of Mikhail Gorbachev

2824202

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Code%20of%20Nomenclature%20of%20Prokaryotes

International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes

The International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (ICNP) formerly the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB) or Bacteriological Code (BC) governs the scientific names for Bacteria and Archaea. It denotes the rules for naming taxa of bacteria, according to their relative rank. As such it is one of the nomenclature codes of biology. Originally the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature dealt with bacteria, and this kept references to bacteria until these were eliminated at the 1975 International Botanical Congress. An early Code for the nomenclature of bacteria was approved at the 4th International Congress for Microbiology in 1947, but was later discarded. The latest version to be printed in book form is the 1990 Revision, but the book does not represent the current rules. The 2008 Revision has been published in the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology (IJSEM). Rules are maintained by the International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes (ICSP; formerly the International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology, ICSB). The baseline for bacterial names is the Approved Lists with a starting point of 1980. New bacterial names are reviewed by the ICSP as being in conformity with the Rules of Nomenclature and published in the IJSEM. Cyanobacteria Since 1975, most bacteria were covered under the bacteriological code. However, cyanobacteria were still covered by the botanical code. Starting in 1999, cyanobacteria were covered by both the botanical and bacteriological codes. This situation has caused nomenclatural problems for the cyanobacteria. By 2020, there were three proposals for how to resolve the situation: Exclude cyanobacteria from the bacteriological code. Apply the bacteriological code to all cyanobacteria. Treat valid publication under the botanical code as valid publication under the bacteriological code. In 2021, the ICSP held a formal vote on the three proposals and the third option was chosen. Type strain Since 2001, when a new bacterial or archaeal species is described, a type strain must be designated. The type strain is a living culture to which the scientific name of that organism is formally attached. For a new species name to be validly published, the type strain must be deposited in a public culture collection in at least two different countries. Before 2001, a species could also be typified using a description, a preserved specimen, or an illustration. There is a single type strain for each prokaryotic species, but different culture collections may designate a unique name for the same strain. For example, the type strain of E. coli (originally strain U5/41) is called ATCC 11775 by the American Type Culture Collection, DSM 30083 by the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, JCM 1649 by the Japan Collection of Microorganisms, and LMG 2092 by the Belgian Coordinated Collections of Microorganisms. When a prokaryotic species cannot be cultivated in the laboratory (and therefore cannot be deposited in a culture collection), it may be given a provisional candidatus name, but is not considered validly published. Starting in 2022, prokaryotic species and subspecies can also be given a name (considered validly published) under the Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes Described from Sequence Data (SeqCode) using high-quality genome sequences as type. Versions Buchanan, R. E., and Ralph St. John-Brooks. (1947, June) (Editors). Proposed Bacteriological Code of Nomenclature. Developed from proposals approved by International Committee on Bacteriological Nomenclature at the Meeting of the Third International Congress for Microbiology. Publication authorized in Plenary Session, pp. 61. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. U.S.A. Hathi Trust. Reprinted 1949, Journal of General Microbiology 3, 444–462. International Committee on Bacteriological Nomenclature. (1958, June). International code of nomenclature of bacteria and viruses. Ames, Iowa State College Press. BHL. Lapage, S.P., Sneath, P.H.A., Lessel, E.F., Skerman, V.B.D., Seeliger, H.P.R. & Clark, W.A. (1975). International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria. 1975 Revision. American Society of Microbiology, Washington, D.C Lapage, S.P., Sneath, P.H.A., Lessel, E.F., Skerman, V.B.D., Seeliger, H.P.R. & Clark, W.A. (1992). International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria. Bacteriological Code. 1990 Revision. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. link. Parker, C.T., Tindall, B.J. & Garrity, G.M., eds. (2019). International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes. Prokaryotic Code (2008 Revision). International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 69(1A): S1–S111. doi: 10.1099/ijsem.0.000778 See also Glossary of scientific naming International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses Microbiology Society References External links International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology Online List of Prokaryotic Names with Standing in Nomenclature Search of Prokaryotic Nomenclature provided by NamesforLife International standards Bacterial nomenclature Nomenclature codes International classification systems

2826583

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2810302%29%201989%20ML

(10302) 1989 ML

(10302) 1989 ML is an as yet unnamed near-Earth asteroid. It is approximately 0.6 km in diameter. An Amor asteroid, it orbits between Earth and Mars. It is an X-type asteroid, so its surface composition is yet unknown. It was discovered by Eleanor F. Helin and Jeff T. Alu at Palomar Observatory on 29 June 1989. Targeting by spacecraft The delta-v ('effort') required to reach 1989 ML from a low-Earth orbit is only 4.8 km/s, ranking fifth (as of March 2007) amongst the near-Earth asteroids with well-established orbits. 1989 ML is thus particularly 'easy' (and 'cheap') to reach by spacecraft. 1989 ML was considered as a target of the Japanese spacecraft Hayabusa (then Muses-C) but had to be given up due to technical reasons. It was also considered by the European Space Agency as a candidate target for the Don Quijote mission to study the effects of impacting a spacecraft into an asteroid; however, they too changed to other targets. See also List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft References External links Near-Earth asteroid Delta-v ranking, 1989 ML ranks fourth among the numbered asteroids 010302 Discoveries by Eleanor F. Helin Discoveries by Jeff T. Alu 010302 19890629

2826835

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altar%20Stone%20%28Stonehenge%29

Altar Stone (Stonehenge)

The Altar Stone is a recumbent central megalith at Stonehenge in England, dating to Stonehenge phase 3i, around 2600 BCE. It is identified as Stone 80 in scholarly articles. Its name probably comes from a comment by Inigo Jones who wrote: ‘... whether it might be an Altar or no I leave to the judgment of others’. Composition, origin, and situation The Altar Stone is made of a purplish-green micaceous sandstone and is thought to have originated from outcrops of the Senni Beds formation of the Old Red Sandstone in Wales, though this has not been fully established. Stone 55 (a sarsen megalith) lies on top of Stone 80 (Altar Stone) perpendicularly, and is thought to have fallen across it. The Altar Stone weighs approximately six tons and (if it ever was upright) would have stood nearly two metres tall. Some believe that it always was recumbent It is sometimes classed as a bluestone, because it does not have a local provenance. Stone 80 was most recently excavated in the 1950s, but no written records of the excavation survive, and there are no samples available for examination that are established as having come from the monolith. References Stonehenge

2826958

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEOnet%20Names%20Server

GEOnet Names Server

The GEOnet Names Server (GNS), sometimes also referred to in official documentation as Geographic Names Data or geonames in domain and email addresses, is a service that provides access to the United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency's (NGA) and the US Board on Geographic Names's (BGN) database of geographic feature names and locations for locations outside the US. The database is the official repository for the US Federal Government on foreign place-name decisions approved by the BGN. Approximately 20,000 of the database's features are updated monthly. Names are not deleted from the database, "except in cases of obvious duplication". The database contains search aids such as spelling variations and non-Roman script spellings in addition to its primary information about location, administrative division, and quality. The accuracy of the database had been criticised. Accuracy A 2008 survey of South Korea toponyms on GNS found that roughly 1% of them were actually Japanese names that had never been in common usage, even during the period of Japanese colonial rule in Korea, and had come from a 1946 US military map that had apparently been compiled with Japanese assistance. In addition to the Japanese toponyms, the same study noted that "There are many spelling errors and simple mis-understanding of the place names with similar characters" amongst South Korea toponyms on GNS, as well extraneous names of Chinese and English origin. See also Geographic Names Information System (GNIS), a similar database for locations within the United States References External links GEOnet Names Server (Archived at the Internet Archive) GeoNet Designations: Codes and Definitions Country files download page (broken link; Archived at the Internet Archive) Place names Public domain databases Geocodes National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency Geographical databases Gazetteers

2830083

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huronian%20glaciation

Huronian glaciation

The Huronian glaciation (or Makganyene glaciation) was a period where several ice ages occurred during the deposition of the Huronian Supergroup, rather than a single continuous event as it is commonly misrepresented to be. The deposition of this group extended from 2.5 billion years ago (Gya) to 2.2 Gya, during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era. This led to the deposition of several diamictites. Most of the deposits of the Huronian are typical passive margin deposits in a marine setting. The diamictites within the Huronian are on par in thickness with Quaternary analogs. Evidence comes from glacial deposits identified within the stratigraphic record of the Huronian Supergroup. Within it are three distinct formations of diamictite, from the oldest to youngest, the Ramsay, Bruce, and Gowganda Formations. Although there are other glacial deposits recognized throughout the world, the Huronian is restricted to the North American Midwest. Other similar deposits are known from South Africa. The Huronian glaciation broadly coincides with the Great Oxygenation Event (GOE), a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane. The oxygen reacted with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water, both much weaker greenhouse gases than methane, greatly reducing the efficacy of the greenhouse effect, especially as water vapor readily precipitated out of the air with dropping temperature. This caused an icehouse effect and, possibly compounded by the low solar irradiation at the time as well as reduced geothermal activities, the combination of increasing free oxygen (which causes oxidative damage to organic compounds) and climatic stresses likely caused an extinction event, the first and longest lasting in the Earth's history, which wiped out most of the anaerobe-dominated microbial mats both on the Earth's surface and in shallow seas. Discovery and name In 1907, Arthur Philemon Coleman first inferred a "lower Huronian ice age" from analysis of a geological formation near Lake Huron in North America. This formation consists of two non-glacial sediment deposits found between three horizons of glacial deposits of the Huronian Supergroup, deposited between 2.5 and 2.2 Gya. Despite the name, the Huronian glaciation does not in fact represent a single glaciation. The confusion of the terms glaciation and ice age has led to the more recent impression that the entire time period represents a single glacial event. The term Huronian is used to describe a lithostratigraphic supergroup and should not be used to describe glacial cycles, according to The North American Stratigraphic Code, which defines the proper naming of geologic physical and chrono units. Diachronic or geochronometric units should be used. Geology and climate The Gondwana Formation (2.3 Gya) contains "the most widespread and most convincing glaciogenic deposits of this era", according to Eyles and Young. Similar deposits are found in Michigan (2.23–2.15 Gya), the Black Hills (2.6–1.6 Gya), Chibougamau, Canadian Northern Territories (2.1 Gya) and Wyoming. Similar age deposits occur in the Griquatown Basin (2.3 Gya), India (1.8 Gya) and Australia (2.5—2.0 Gya). The tectonic setting was one of a rifting continental margin. New continental crust would have resulted in chemical weathering. This weathering would pull CO2 out of the atmosphere, cooling the planet through the reduction in greenhouse effect. Popular perception is that one or more of the glaciations may have been snowball earth events, when all or almost all of the earth was covered in ice, or even that the entire period of deposition was one snowall earth event. However the palaeomagnetic evidence that suggests ice sheets were present at low latitudes is contested, and the glacial sediments (diamictites) are discontinuous, alternating with carbonate rocks and other sediments indicating temperate climates, providing scant evidence for global glaciation. Implications of the Huronian Before the Huronian Ice Age, most organisms were anaerobic, relying on chemosynthesis and retinal-based anoxygenic photosynthesis for production of biological energy and biocompounds. But around this time, cyanobacteria evolved porphyrin-based oxygenic photosynthesis, which produced dioxygen as a waste product. At first, most of this oxygen was dissolved in the ocean, and afterwards absorbed through the reduction by surface ferrous compounds, atmospheric methane and hydrogen sulfide. However, as the cyanobacterial photosynthesis continued, the cumulative oxygen oversaturated the reductive reservoir of the Earth's surface and spilt out as free oxygen that "polluted" the atmosphere, leading to a permanent change to the atmospheric chemistry known as the Great Oxygenation Event. The once-reducing atmosphere, now an oxidizing one, was highly reactive and toxic to the then-anaerobic biosphere. Further more, atmospheric methane was depleted by oxygen and reduced to trace gas levels, and replaced by much less powerful greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapor, the latter of which was also readily precipitated out of the air at low temperatures. Earth's surface temperature dropped significantly, partly because of the reduced greenhouse effect and partly because solar luminosity and/or geothermal activities were also lower at that time, leading to an icehouse Earth. After the combined impact of oxidization and climate change devastated the anaerobic biosphere (then likely dominated by archaeal microbial mats), aerobic organisms capable of oxygen respiration were able to proliferate rapidly and exploit the ecological niches vacated by anaerobes in most environments. The surviving anaerobe colonies were forced to adapt a symbiotic living among aerobes, with the anaerobes contributing the organic materials that aerobes needed, and the aerobes consuming and "detoxing" the surrounding of oxygen molecules lethal to the anaerobes. This might have also caused some anaerobic archaea to begin invaginating their cell membranes into endomembranes in order to shield and protect the cytoplasmic nucleic acids, allowing endosymbiosis with aerobic eubacteria (which eventually became ATP-producing mitochondria), and this symbiogenesis contributed to the evolution of eukaryotic organisms during the Proterozoic. See also Timeline of glaciation References Paleoproterozoic geology Precambrian geochronology Glaciology Ice ages Extinction events Proterozoic North America

2830318

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard%20Moitessier

Bernard Moitessier

Bernard Moitessier (April 10, 1925 – June 16, 1994) was a French sailor, most notable for his participation in the 1968 Sunday Times Golden Globe Race, the first non-stop, singlehanded, round the world yacht race. With the fastest circumnavigation time towards the end of the race, Moitessier was the likely winner for the fastest voyage, but he elected to continue on to Tahiti and not return to the start line in England, rejecting the idea of the commercialization of long distance sailing. He was a French national born and raised in Vietnam, then part of French Indochina. Vagabond of the South Seas Moitessier grew up next to the sea in Indochina, at the time a French colony which included Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. He left Indochina at the beginning of the Vietnam War as a crew member of sailing trade junks. In Indonesia he purchased the dilapidated junk Marie-Thérèse in 1952 to travel slowly to France by singlehanded sailing. On the first leg to Seychelles he had to stop her from leaking in the middle of the Indian Ocean by diving underneath the boat at sea. After 85 days of sailing through monsoon weather he ran aground on Diego Garcia. He did not have modern navigational instruments, and was aware of his latitude via sextant observation but was estimating longitude and, as he tells it in "Sailing to the Reefs", neglected a three-knot ocean current, leading to the grounding. He was provided a berth on a supply ship travelling to and from Mauritius island, as Diego Garcia at the time was run by a private company based in Mauritius, and once in Mauritius he worked three years before he could sail again in a boat he had built himself. This he sailed via stops in South Africa and St. Helena to the West Indies, but on a trip from Trinidad to St. Lucia he once again was shipwrecked due to physical exhaustion. Picked up and taken back to Trinidad by friends, he decided to go to France directly, as it seemed the only place he could earn enough to build himself a seaworthy boat. He was able to get work on a cargo ship which got him to France, via Hamburg, where he found work with a medical company whilst writing a book (Vagabond des Mers du Sud) about his experience. He then moved to the south of France, where he married Françoise de Cazalet, the daughter of family friends, with whom he would later sail the world. With the money from his book, he commissioned a 39-foot steel ketch which he named Joshua, in honour of Joshua Slocum, the first person to sail around the world solo. Finally he and Françoise left Marseille in October 1963, leaving her three children in boarding schools. After wintering in Casablanca they sailed first to the Canaries, then to Trinidad, and through the Panama Canal to the Galapagos Islands. After two years of spending time in each of these places they arrived at Tahiti, but realised that they were running out of time and had just eight months left to return to their children. So Moitessier proposed sailing Joshua home not via the Indian Ocean and Suez Canal, as originally planned, but eastward, via the quickest route, including a passage about the much feared Cape Horn. Upon their arrival in France, at Easter, 1966, they had, without intending it, completed the longest nonstop passage by a yacht in history—14216 nautical miles, over 126 days, a world record which brought him immediate recognition throughout the world yachting community. Solo around the world Discussions between Moitessier and his friends Bill King and Loïck Fougeron about a solo non-stop trip around the world came to the notice of Robin Knox-Johnston who also started preparations before the Sunday Times offered their Golden Globe award for the first to circumnavigate alone, nonstop, and unassisted, and for the fastest elapsed time. Somewhat reluctantly, Moitessier decided to sail Joshua to Plymouth to meet the criterion for the race of leaving from an English port, but left months after several smaller and therefore slower boats. He departed Plymouth on August 23, 1968 and, after a quick passage south, he was off the Cape of Good Hope by October 20, 1968. In the process of transferring a canister of film and reports for the Sunday Times to a freighter, he allowed the bow of Joshua to be drawn into the stern of the ship, bending the bowsprit, which he was able to fix with winches on board. A couple of days later Joshua was knocked flat by a breaking wave but he was able to recover the damage. A succession of gales and calm periods characterised his trip through the Southern Ocean till he passed Cape Horn on 5 Feb 1969. In all this time he got no feedback on the progress of other competitors from local radio stations. After the period of calms in the Indian Ocean, where Moitessier became depressed and discovered yoga as a means of controlling his moods, he started to think of not returning to Europe, which he saw as a cause of many of his worries. The idea of continuing his voyage on again to the Galapagos Islands strengthened as he passed through the Pacific, though he was still determined to complete the circumnavigation first. Finally, having passed Cape Horn, he had a crisis when a south-easterly gale started blowing him north again, and his account of his thought processes before he turned for the Cape of Good Hope reflects inner turmoil. However, the manner of his resignation, as he tells the story, is a key part of his reputation. By firing a note using a slingshot onto the deck of a passing ship, he was able to get a message to his London Times correspondent, stating: "parce que je suis heureux en mer et peut-être pour sauver mon âme" ("because I am happy at sea and perhaps to save my soul"). The decision to abandon is instructive of Moitessier's character. Although driven and competitive, he passed up a chance at instant fame and a world record, and sailed on for three more months. Sir Robin Knox-Johnston went on both to win the race, as its only legitimate finisher, and to become the first man to circumnavigate the globe alone without stopping. Although he abandoned the race, Moitessier still circumnavigated the globe, crossing around the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and then sailing almost two-thirds of the way around a second time, all non-stop and mostly in the roaring forties, setting another record for the longest nonstop passage by a yacht, with a total of 37,455 nautical miles in 10 months. Despite heavy weather and a couple of severe knockdowns, he even contemplated rounding the Horn again. However, he decided that he and Joshua had had enough and, on June 21, 1969, put in at Tahiti, from where he and his wife had set out for Alicante, Spain, a decade earlier. He thus had completed his second personal circumnavigation of the world, including the previous voyage with his wife. It is impossible to say whether Moitessier would have won if he had completed the race, as he would have been sailing in different weather conditions than Knox-Johnston. Based on the fact that his time, from the start to Cape Horn, was around 77% of that of Knox-Johnston, it would have been an extremely close race. However Moitessier is on record as stating that he would not have won. Moitessier's book of the experience, The Long Way, tells the story of his voyage as a spiritual journey as much as a sailing adventure and is still regarded as a classic of sailing and adventuring literature. Subsequent life It took Moitessier two years to finish the book about his trip to Tahiti, during which time he met Ileana Draghici with whom he had a son, Stephan. They moved to the atoll of Ahe, where Moitessier attempted to cultivate fruit and vegetables. Ileana encouraged him to move to America to complete films about his sailing but he left, after two years, in his boat Joshua. Wreck of the 'Joshua' In December 1982 Moitessier was offered a yacht charter by film actor Klaus Kinski as Kinski was to star in a sailing film and wanted some experience. They sailed from San Francisco to Cabo San Lucas, Mexico and anchored off the beach. In a freak onshore storm Joshua dragged her anchor, was hit and dis-masted by another yacht, Frieling, and then beached along with 25 other yachts. Joshua lay on the beach, damaged and filled with sand. Moitessier and crews from other yachts spent days digging a trench but the salvage costs were too great so he sold the wreck to Reto Filli (Swiss) and Jo Daubenberger (USA) for $20. On a full moon high tide, a trawler towed and a bulldozer pushed the yacht back into the sea and she floated free. Later Paul Clements and Johanna Slee bought the yacht and she ended up in Port Townsend, Washington. In 1990 Joshua was sold by Slee and is now restored and berthed at the Maritime Museum in La Rochelle, France. After further travels, Moitessier returned to Paris to write his autobiography, Tamata and the Alliance. Moitessier was an environmental activist who protested against nuclear weapons in the South Pacific and against overdevelopment of the Papeete waterfront in Tahiti. Death Moitessier died of prostate cancer on June 16, 1994 and is buried in an informal corner of the main cemetery in Bono, Brittany, France. Visitors to his grave leave thematic gifts such as slingshots, creating some elements of a shrine. Partial list of works Un Vagabond des mers du sud 1960. Translated by Rene Hague as Sailing to the Reefs. Cap Horn à la voile: 14216 milles sans escale 1967. Translated by Inge Moore as Cape Horn: The Logical Route., Adlard Coles Nautical (30 Jun. 2003), La Longue route; seul entre mers et ciels 1971. Translated as The Long Way by William Rodarmor, 1973, Tamata et l'alliance 1993. Translated as Tamata and the Alliance by William Rodarmor, 1995, Voile, Mers Lointaines, Iles et Lagons 1995. Translated as A Sea Vagabond's World by William Rodarmor, 1998, References 1925 births 1994 deaths Deaths from cancer in France French male sailors (sport) French non-fiction outdoors writers Single-handed circumnavigating sailors Maritime writers French male writers Deaths from prostate cancer 20th-century French male writers

2830876

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini-TES

Mini-TES

The Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES) is an infrared spectrometer used for detecting the composition of a material (typically rocks) from a distance. By making its measurements in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum, it has the ability to penetrate through the dust coatings common to the Martian surface which is usually problematic for remote sensing observations. There is one on each of the two Mars Exploration Rovers. Development The Mini-TES was originally developed by Raytheon for the Department of Geological Sciences at Arizona State University. The Mini-TES is a miniaturized version of Raytheon's Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) TES, built by Arizona State University and Raytheon SAS’ Santa Barbara Remote Sensing. The MGS TES data helped scientists choose landing sites for the Spirit and Opportunity Mars explorer rovers. Martian soil The Mini-TES is used for identifying promising rocks and soils for closer examination, and to determine the processes that formed Martian rocks. It measures the infrared radiation that the target rock or object emits in 167 different wavelengths, providing information about the target's composition. One particular goal is to search for minerals that were formed by the action of water, such as carbonates and clays. The instrument can also look skyward to provide temperature profiles of the Martian atmosphere and detect the abundance of dust and water vapor. The instrument is located inside the warm electronics box in the body of the rover - the mirror redirects radiation into the aperture from above. The Mini-TES instruments aboard the MERs Opportunity and Spirit were never expected to survive the cold Martian winter even if the rovers themselves survived. It was thought that a small potassium bromide (KBr) beamsplitter which was housed in an aluminium fitting would crack due to the mismatched coefficient of thermal expansion. This never happened however and the miniTES instrument on both rovers has survived several Martian winters, and the Spirit rover continues to periodically use the Mini-TES for remote sensing. (The miniTES on the Opportunity rover is not currently being used because of accumulated dust on the mirror following the 2007 dust storm). There are two other types of spectrometers mounted on the rover's arm which provide additional information about the composition when the rover is close enough to touch the object. Mini-Tes can work with Pancams to analyze surroundings. The Mini-TES weighs 2.1 kg (4.6 lb) of the total 185 kg (408 lb) for the whole rover. See also Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package (included an infrared radiometer) References External links NASA JPL web-page stating purpose of Mini-TES Technical academic publication on Mini-TES for Mars Exploration Rover Web-page regarding information recorded by Mini-TES Slide show of Mini-TES operational details Mars Exploration Rover mission Spectrometers Spacecraft instruments

2835261

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupes%20Altai

Rupes Altai

Rupes Altai is an escarpment in the lunar surface that is located in the southeastern quadrant of the Moon's near side. It is named for the Altai Mountains in Asia, and is the most prominent lunar escarpment. The selenographic coordinates of this feature are , and it has a length of about 427 km. The southeastern end of the cliff terminates along the western edge of the crater Piccolomini. It then arcs irregularly towards the north, climbing to heights of nearly a kilometer. The northern end of the arc is an irregular region with no clearly defined terminus, where it brackets the prominent craters Theophilus, Cyrillus, and Catharina. This cliff forms the southwestern rim of the Nectaris impact basin. This feature is difficult to locate during the full moon when the sunlight is nearly overhead. It appears as a bright, winding line about five days after the new moon, and casts a long, irregular shadow about four days after the full moon, when the sunset terminator is nearby and the sunlight is arriving at a low angle. References External links Lunar Orbiter 4 image showing most of Rupes Altai (Lunar and Planetary Institute) Escarpments on the Moon

2839286

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aoghairean

Aoghairean

The Aoghairean of the Hebrides, Scotland, according to Thomas Pennant, were farm servants who had the charge of cultivating a certain portion of land, and of overseeing the cattle it supported. They had grass for two milch cows and six sheep, and also had one tenth sheaf of the produce of the said ground, and as many potatoes as they chose to plant. The term is plural; its singular form would be aoghair. References (Aoghairean) See also Half-foot Crofting Davoch Quarterland Agriculture in Scotland Land tenure

2839326

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar%20front

Polar front

In meteorology, the polar front is the weather front boundary between the polar cell and the Ferrel cell around the 60° latitude, near the polar regions, in both hemispheres. At this boundary a sharp gradient in temperature occurs between these two air masses, each at very different temperatures. The polar front arises as a result of cold polar air meeting warm tropical air. It is a stationary front as the air masses are not moving against each other and stays stable. Off the coast of eastern North America, especially in winter, there is a sharp temperature gradient between the snow-covered land and the warm offshore currents. The polar front theory says that mid-latitude extratropical cyclones form on boundaries between warm and cold air. In winter, the polar front shifts towards the Equator, whereas high pressure systems dominate more in the summer. See also Polar vortex Horse latitudes Intertropical Convergence Zone References Atmospheric dynamics Weather fronts

2839526

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiufen

Qiufen

The traditional Chinese lunisolar calendar divides a year into 24 solar terms. Qiūfēn, Shūbun, Chubun, or Thu phân is the 16th solar term. It begins when the Sun reaches the celestial longitude of 180° and ends when it reaches the longitude of 195°. It more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the celestial longitude of 180°. In the Gregorian calendar, it usually begins around September 23 and ends around October 8. Pentads 雷始收聲, 'Thunder begins to soften' 蟄蟲培戶, 'Insects make nests' 水始涸, 'Water begins to solidify' Date and time See also Equinox References Autumn 16 Autumn equinox

2839592

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiazhi

Xiazhi

Xiàzhì is the 10th solar term, and marks the summer solstice, in the traditional Chinese lunisolar calendar dividing a year into 24 solar terms. It begins when the Sun reaches the celestial longitude of 90° and ends when it reaches the longitude of 105°. The word xiazhi most often refers specifically to the day when the Sun is exactly at the celestial longitude of 90°. In the Gregorian calendar, this is around 21 June, and the Xiazhi period ends with the beginning of the next solar term, Xiaoshu, around 7 July. Xiazhi is considered the middle of the summer and the beginning of the hottest part of summer. Although it was once celebrated with traditional customs, these customs have mostly died out, and Xiazhi is not observed much anymore. Pentads Each solar term can be divided into three pentads () of about five days each: the first pentad (初候), second pentad (次候), and last pentad (末候). Xiazhi's ones are: First pentad: – deer antlers come off Second pentad: – cicadas begin to chirp Last pentad: – midsummer comes, or Pinellia ternata grows Separately from the pentads, the 15 days of Xiazhi were historically divided into three periods in a different way: a three-day initial period, a five-day middle period, and a seven-day final period. If it rained at the end of any of these periods, this was considered to be a bad sign for the year's harvest. If it did not rain at all during the 15-day Xiazhi period, this was considered a good sign for the harvest; if rain did fall, the most auspicious days for it to fall on were the first, fourth, fifth, ninth and tenth days of the period. History and traditional customs Xiazhi is an ancient festival; records of its observance date back to the Han dynasty. People celebrated Xiazhi simply by taking a few days off for eating and drinking. Government officials in particular were able to rest for these days, while farmers still had work that needed to be done. In ancient China, Xiazhi was not as important a date as Dongzhi (the winter solstice, celebrated with the Dongzhi Festival), and its celebrations were less elaborate. In the Song dynasty, according to the historian and government official , Xiazhi was a three-day holiday; this is in contrast to Dongzhi, which was a weeklong holiday at the time. The Liang dynasty scholar wrote that on Xiazhi farmers should burn chrysanthemum leaves and sprinkle the ashes on their wheat plants as a form of natural disinfectant to prevent plant diseases or pests. The Xiazhi "" (), dating back at least to the Song dynasty, has multiple variations, one of which goes as follows: One nine, two nines, the fan doesn't leave your hand; Three nines, twenty-seven, drinking water is as sweet as honey; Four nines, thirty-six, wiping away sweat is like coming out of a bath; Five nines, forty-five, yellow leaves dance above; Six nines, fifty-four, cool off in a Buddhist temple; Seven nines, sixty-three, look for the sheets at the bedside; Eight nines, seventy-two, think about using a blanket; Nine nines, eighty-one, every household makes charcoal; Get ready for winter. 一九二九扇子不离手； 三九二十七，饮水甜如蜜； 四九三十六，拭汗如出浴； 五九四十五，头带黄叶舞； 六九五十四，乘凉入佛寺； 七九六十三，床头寻被单； 八九七十二，思量盖夹被； 九九八十一，家家打炭基； 准备过冬了。 In the mid-20th century, the American sociologist Wolfram Eberhard wrote that "the ordinary citizen is hardly even aware of "Xiazhi celebrations, but that in the past, government officials did make sacrifices on this day. According to Eberhard, it was formerly prohibited to light large fires or smelt iron on this day. In modern times, these traditional customs have largely been lost, and Xiazhi is generally ignored. This is in contrast to the winter solstice festival, Dongzhi, which continues to be actively observed in modern times. Food In much of China, it is traditional to eat noodles on Xiazhi; a popular saying says "jiaozi on Dongzhi; noodles on Xiazhi" (冬至饺子夏至面). An alternative saying about Xiazhi foods goes "Dumplings for the first nine days, noodles for the second nine days, and pancake with eggs for the third nine days" (头伏饺子二伏面，三伏烙饼摊鸡蛋). Other Xiazhi foods vary by region: for instance in Taizhou, Zhejiang, it is traditional to eat (; a kind of spring roll), yanggao (; a kind of small sticky cake), and dumplings. Date and time Solstice The solstices (as well as the equinoxes) mark the middle of the seasons in traditional East Asian calendars. Here, the Chinese character 至 / zhì (in pinyin) means "extreme", so the term "xiazhi", for the summer solstice, directly signifies the "zenith of summer". See also Lixia (45°) midsummer solstice References 10 Summer solstice zh:夏至

2839627

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongzhi%20%28solar%20term%29

Dongzhi (solar term)

The traditional Chinese calendar divides a year into 24 solar terms. Dōngzhì, Tōji, Dongji, Tunji (in Okinawan), or Đông chí (in Vietnamese) is the 22nd solar term, and marks the winter solstice. It begins when the Sun reaches the celestial longitude of 270° and ends when it reaches the longitude of 285°. It more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the celestial longitude of 270°. In the Gregorian calendar, it usually begins around 21 December (22 December East Asia time) and ends around 5 January. Along with equinoxes, solstices () mark the middle of Traditional Chinese calendar seasons. Thus, in "", the Chinese character "至" means "extreme", which implies "solstices", and therefore the term for the winter solstice directly signifies the summit of winter, as "midwinter" is used in English. Culture China In China, Dongzhi was originally celebrated as an end-of-harvest festival. Today, it is observed with a family reunion over the long night, when pink and white tangyuan are eaten in southern China in sweet broth to symbolise family unity and prosperity. Whereas in Northern China, the traditional Dongzhi food would be the jiaozi. Korea In Korea, the winter solstice is also called the "Small Seol," and there is a custom of celebrating the day. People make porridge with red beans known as patjuk () and round rice cakes ( ) with sticky rice. In the past, red bean porridge soup was sprayed on walls or doors because it was said to ward off bad ghosts. In addition, there was a custom in the early days of the Goryeo and Joseon Period in which people in financial difficulty settled all their debts and enjoyed the day. Japan In Japan, Tōji is also one of the 24 solar terms. On this day, it is customary to drink grapefruit hot water and eat pumpkin in certain places. The とうじ‐カボチャ【冬至カボチャ】.The habit of eating pumpkin during the winter solstice is because it makes sense to provide products for the festival during the winter when vegetables are lacking. とうじ‐ばい【冬至梅】is a variety of plum. White flowers begin to bloom around the winter solstice. とうじ It is still a surname in Japan and has a long history. Pentads 蚯蚓結, 'Earthworms form knots', referring to the hibernation of earthworms. 麋角解, 'Deer shed their antlers' 水泉動, 'Spring water moves' Date and time See also Dongzhi Festival Winter solstice References 22 Winter time Winter solstice ja:冬至

2839957

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20Electric%20Light%20Fund

Solar Electric Light Fund

The Solar Electric Light Fund (SELF) is a non-profit organization whose mission is to design, fund and implement solar energy solutions to benefit those in poor rural communities without access to an electrical grid. This allows students to study at night and brings computers and Internet into schools. It makes it possible to bring in water for irrigation without having to hand-carry it long distances, allowing women to spend their time on money-earning enterprises. Access to electricity and water improves health care. SELF has completed several projects in more than 20 countries including a solar powered drip irrigation in Benin, a health care centre in Haiti, telemedicine in the Amazon rainforest, online learning platform in South Africa, and a microenterprise development in Nigeria. Methodology SELF employs a Whole Village Development Model using a mix of solar energy solutions to improve the lives of the 1.5 billion people who don't have access to electricity around the world. It seeks to provide benefits in: Education: powering lights, computers and wireless internet services. Health: powering facility lights, labs, diagnostic equipment and vaccine refrigerators. Water & Agriculture: powering water wells and pumps for clean drinking water and year-round crop irrigation. Enterprise: powering centers for small businesses and providing electricity for machinery and equipment. Community: electrifying homes, community centers and street lighting. History Founding SELF was founded in 1990 by Neville Williams, a journalist and author, who had experience actively promoting solar power as a consultant to the U.S. Department of Energy during the Carter administration. For much of the 1990s, SELF's primary mission was to deliver solar home systems – 50-watt units installed at the household level that could generate enough power to run a few compact fluorescent lights, a radio, and a small black and white television for four or five hours each evening. The electricity generated by the solar panel is stored in a battery, which then provides power at night and during rainy weather. In its early projects, SELF used funds donated by private philanthropies to buy home-size photovoltaic systems in bulk on the open market, usually enough for one small village at a time. SELF then sold the systems to villagers in developing areas, in partnership, where possible, with in-country nonprofit agencies. Each participating household made a 20 percent down payment on a solar energy system and paid off the balance – usually between $300 and $400 – over several years. The buyers' payments were pooled in a local revolving loan fund from which their neighbors could borrow to buy their own solar power gear. SELF used a portion of the proceeds on the equipment to establish a local dealership and train residents as solar installers and technicians. The revolving loan funds made it possible for villagers to finance the continued dissemination of solar systems in their areas. Focusing on the Home & Creating SELCO Over time, SELF began to evolve more elaborate project structures. In a joint venture with local partners in India, SELF formed a for-profit subsidiary using India's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy to tap World Bank funds set aside specifically for photovoltaic installations. In part, the company used the money to finance rural co-ops' bulk purchase of solar-energy systems for their members, to install the systems, and to train local technicians. The company then repaid the World Bank's loan from funds collected from the co-ops. In 1997, SELF decided to launch a for-profit affiliate, the Solar Electric Light Company, or SELCO, based in Bangalore, India, whose goal would be to sell solar home systems in the states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Neville Williams stepped down from his role with SELF to run SELCO, and SELF's board of directors appointed Robert A. Freling as the new executive director. Since 1995, SELCO has sold, serviced, and financed over 115,000 solar systems. Expanding Services Beginning in 2000, SELF embarked on its next generation of projects that would seek to harness solar energy for things such as advancing water pumping and purification, purveying electrification to rural schools and health clinics, providing power to small businesses and micro-enterprises, and facilitating communication access. The first opportunity to fulfill this expanded vision was found in South Africa, where SELF had been working on a project to install solar home systems in the Valley of a Thousand Hills, in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. SELF installed a 1.5-kilowatt solar array, which generated enough electricity to power approximately 20 PCs donated by Dell Computers and a small satellite dish that delivered Internet access to Myeka High School. This was the first solar-powered computer lab built in South Africa, and the pass rate at Myeka High School jumped from 30 percent to 70 percent within a year and a half of installation. Whole Village Development Model In 2003, SELF found the opportunity to implement a "Whole-Village" approach when the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) invited SELF to carry out a solar electrification project in Nigeria. With support from the DOE, SELF equipped three villages in Jigawa State, in northern Nigeria, with solar power systems for a community water-pumping system, a health clinic, a primary school, street lighting, a portable irrigation pump, and a micro-enterprise center. Since then, SELF has continued to implement this model in other project countries. Past Projects SELF has worked in over 20 countries, using solar energy to power health clinics, schools, community centers, water pumps, mosques, drip irrigation, streetlights, and micro-enterprise centers. In addition to its current project sites, SELF has worked in Bhutan, Brazil, Burundi, China, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Lesotho, the Navajo Nation, Nepal, Nigeria, Rwanda, the Solomon Islands, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Uganda, Vietnam, and Zimbabwe. Current Projects Benin In partnership with the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and Association pour le Developpement Economique Social et Culturel de Kalalé (ADESCA), SELF has installed a total of eleven of its Solar Market Gardens™ (SMG), an innovative, unique solar-powered drip irrigation system, for women farming collectives in Dunkassa and Bessassi, two villages in the arid, northern part of the country. A two-year study conducted by Stanford University's Program on Food Security and the Environment department appearing in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that SELF's SMGs, "significantly augments both household income and nutritional intake, particularly during the dry season, and is cost effective compared to alternative technologies." In addition to the SMGs, SELF has also installed three community water wells, streetlights, and solar systems to power two schools and a health center. In 2014, SELF finished the installation of a solar micro-grid that will power a micro-enterprise center in Bessassi, and construction of a second micro-enterprise center in Dunkassa is nearing completion. SELF's future plans include replicating the potable water pumping stations in two more villages, assessing the potential for vaccine refrigerators at solar-electrified clinics, preparing for a pilot internet café, and planning a solar home lantern program. Haiti After the 2010 earthquake, SELF and Partners In Health teamed to develop the Rebuilding Haiti Initiative to fully power eight health centers. SELF has also installed 100 solar powered streetlights in tent camps to increase safety, and in collaboration with NRG Energy, Inc. and the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund, SELF has completed the Sun Lights the Way: Brightening Boucan-Carré project by installing solar systems to power a fish farm, 20 schools, a Solar Market Garden™, and a microenterprise center. The success of this project has increased the quality of education for students in remote areas and has contributed to ensuring year-round food security. In 2013, SELF solarized an additional seven schools to serve nearly 2,000 students, and also installed 20 solar-powered streetlights around Boucan-Carré in dangerous areas. Currently, SELF is installing two solar micro-grids that will provide electricity to 15,000 people in Port-à-Piment, Côteaux, Roche-à-Bateaux, and Fe-Yo-Bien, to be completed in 2015. Colombia With support from Acción Social (a governmental agency in Colombia) and Microsoft, SELF conducted a week-long site assessment and determined that deploying solar electric systems for the indigenous Arhuaco, Kogi and Wiwa communities in the Sierra Nevada mountains of northern Colombia is feasible. The project, a part of the Cordon Ambiental y Tradicional de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta initiative led by Acción Social, is intended to power the health and educational facilities in the villages, along with community lighting systems at select locations. SELF was selected as a Grand Challenges Explorations winner, an initiative funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, for groundbreaking research in solar powered direct-drive freezers to support global health and development. To support immunization efforts at two remote village health posts in the mountains of Colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, SELF successfully field-tested three solar powered direct-drive vaccine refrigerators and the first commercially available direct-drive, battery-free vaccine icepack freezer. Following the tests, the fridge and freezer were donated to the village of Sabana Crespo. SELF is also working on plans to install a solar energy based microgrid in the village of Sabana Crespo to power coffee facilities, the village general store, a health care clinic which includes a new laboratory, and the village's school and cafeteria. Partnerships In alphabetical order Alstom Foundation Clinton Bush Haiti Fund Dell Computers South Africa ExxonMobil Guadalcanal Rural Electrification Agency (GREA) Habitat for Humanity International Inter-American Development Bank International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) Jane Goodall Institute Jigawa State government National Renewable Energy Laboratory NRG Energy, Inc. Partners In Health Royal Society for Protection of Nature, Bhutan SolarWorld Stanford University, Institute for Food Security and the Environment SunPower Foundation United Nations Environment Programme U.S. Department of Energy Vietnam Women's Union (VWU) Village Health Works Awards 2011- Energy Institute Award for Best Community Initiative 2008- King Hussein Leadership Prize, Presented to Robert Freling 2008- Named a Tech Awards Laureate by the Tech Museum of Innovation 2006- World Bank Development Marketplace Winner 2005- Chevron Conservation Award 2002- Tech Museum of Innovation Awards Finalist 1999- Templeton Award, Presented to SELF Board Member, Freeman Dyson 1998- Global Green Environmental Award Articles Wood, Elisa. "Doing Good by Doing Solar." Renewable Energy World Magazine, 12 July 2013. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/07/doing-good-by-doing-solar Butler, Erin. "In India, SELCO Brings Solar Power to the People." The Christian Science Monitor, 15 Jan. 2013. http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Making-a-difference/Change-Agent/2013/0115/In-India-SELCO-brings-solar-power-to-the-people Taylor, Darren. "Solar Energy Illuminates Darkest Parts of Africa." Voice of America, 24 Aug. 2012. http://www.voanews.com/content/solar-energy-illuminates-darkest-parts-of-africa/1495451.html Fox, Zoe. "SELF Taps the Sun to Break the Cycle of Poverty." Mashable, 23 April 2012. http://mashable.com/2012/04/13/solar-electric-light-fund/ Eaton, Joe. "Solar Energy Brings Food, Water, and Light to West Africa." National Geographic, 13 March 2012. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2012/03/120314-solar-drip-irrigation-in-benin-africa/ Daniel, Trenton. "Haiti Bringing Electricity to Business-starved Projects." The Denver Post, 29 Feb. 2012. http://www.denverpost.com/nationworld/ci_20066574#ixzz1oSrH5NJp Duda, Steve. "Solar Brings Better Medical Care in Haiti." Earth Techling, 11 Nov. 2011. http://www.earthtechling.com/2011/11/solar-powers-better-medical-care-in-haiti/ References External links Official site Development charities based in the United States Solar power Appropriate technology organizations

2840042

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallis%20Planck

Vallis Planck

Vallis Planck is a long, linear valley located on the far side of the Moon. It is oriented radially to the huge Schrödinger basin, and was most likely formed by that impact. The selenographic coordinates of this feature are , and it has a length of 451 km. This cleft in the surface crosses the western part of the huge walled plain Planck, and it was named after that feature (which has an eponym of Max Planck). The southern edge closest to Schrödinger begins near the northeastern outer rampart of the crater Grotrian. It then continues to the north-northwest, where it suffers a disruption where it crosses the crater Fechner. The remainder of the feature continues to the northwestern outer rim of the walled plain Planck, until terminating near Pikel'ner K. References http://www.planetenkunde.de/p012/p01204/p01204180008.htm Planck, Vallis

2843112

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20solar%20eclipses%20visible%20from%20China

List of solar eclipses visible from China

This list of solar eclipses seen from China describes precise visibility information for solar eclipses and major cities in China. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby obscuring Earth's view of the Sun. Eclipses can be total, annular, or partial. The zone of a total eclipse where the sky appears dark is often just a few miles wide. This is known as the path of totality. An eclipse that is "visible from Asia" in general terms might not be visible at all at a specific location. E.g., parts of Sri Lanka may fall into darkness for a few seconds, people in Indonesia, India, and Pakistan enjoy the partial eclipse, and Beijing may be too far away to fall under the Moon's shadow. Occasionally a major city lies in the direct path of an annular or total eclipse, which is of great interest to astronomy buffs – some people make travel arrangements years in advance to observe eclipses. Nearly two-thirds of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans, thus a total eclipse at a major metropolitan area where hotels and amenities are available is an event of considerable interest. Eclipses between 1801 and 2200 1801-1900 1802 Aug 28 (annular) (total) 1816 Nov 19 (total) (total) 1824 Jun 27 (total) (annular) (annular) (annular) 1842 Jul 08 (total) (annular) (total) (annular) 1869 Aug 08 (total) (annular) (annular) 1875 Apr 06 (total) 1882 May 17 (total) (annular) 1887 Aug 19 (total) (hybrid) 1898 Jan 22 (total) 1901-2000 1903 Mar 29 (annular) 1907 Jan 14 (total) 1911 Oct 22 (annular) 1936 Jun 19 (total) 1941 Sep 21 (total) 1943 Feb 05 (total) 1948 May 09 (annular) 1955 Dec 14 (annular) 1958 Apr 19 (annular) 1965 Nov 23 (annular) 1966 May 20 (annular) 1968 Sep 22 (total) 1976 Apr 29 (annular) 1980 Feb 16 (total) 1987 Sep 23 (annular) 1997 Mar 09 (total) 2001-2100 2008 Aug 01 (total) 2009 Jul 22 (total) 2010 Jan 15 (annular) 2012 May 21 (annular) 2020 Jun 21 (annular) 2030 Jun 01 (annular) 2034 Mar 20 (total) 2035 Sep 02 (total) 2041 Oct 25 (annular) 2057 Jul 02 (annular) 2060 Apr 30 (total) 2063 Aug 24 (total) 2064 Feb 17 (annular) 2070 Apr 11 (total) 2074 Jan 27 (annular) 2085 Jun 22 (annular) 2088 Apr 21 (total) 2089 Oct 04 (total) 2095 Nov 27 (annular) 2101-2200 2115 May 24 (total) 2117 Sep 26 (total) 2118 Mar 22 (annular) 2124 May 14 (total) 2126 Oct 16 (total) 2128 Mar 01 (annular) 2129 Aug 15 (annular) 2139 Jul 26 (annular) 2142 May 25 (total) 2149 Dec 30 (annular) 2155 Apr 02 (annular) 2157 Aug 05 (annular) 2158 Jan 30 (annular) 2162 Nov 07 (total) 2168 Jan 10 (annular) 2169 Jun 25 (total) 2171 Oct 29 (total) 2180 Nov 17 (total) 2182 Apr 03 (hybrid) 2187 Jul 06 (total) Last and next eclipses for major cities Eclipses between 1001 and 3000 for major cities Beijing 1005 Jan 13 03:09 UTC (total) 1189 Feb 17 03:37 UTC (annular) 1277 Oct 28 05:19 UTC (total) 1292 Jan 21 05:28 UTC (annular) 1561 Feb 14 09:25 UTC (annular) 1665 Jan 16 08:41 UTC (annular) 1802 Aug 28 07:46 UTC (annular) 2035 Sep 02 00:33 UTC (total) 2118 Mar 22 07:33 UTC (annular) 2187 Jul 06 09:11 UTC (total) 2609 Apr 26 07:46 UTC (total) 2636 May 26 21:11 UTC (total) 2686 Sep 09 23:13 UTC (annular) 2739 Apr 30 00:42 UTC (annular) 2762 Aug 12 01:42 UTC (total) 2894 Dec 18 06:36 UTC (annular) Shanghai 1069 Jul 21 00:05 UTC (annular) 1080 Dec 14 02:39 UTC (annular) 1107 Dec 16 07:49 UTC (annular) 02:13 UTC (total) 1575 May 10 06:37 UTC (total) 1731 Dec 28 23:34 UTC (annular) 1802 Aug 28 08:09 UTC (annular) 1987 Sep 23 02:06 UTC (annular) 2009 Jul 22 01:39 UTC (total) 2309 Jun 09 06:01 UTC (total) 2312 Apr 07 21:53 UTC (annular) 2357 May 19 23:32 UTC (annular) 2440 Nov 24 23:32 UTC (annular) Tianjin 1189 Feb 17 03:37 UTC (annular) 1277 Oct 28 05:21 UTC (total) 1292 Jan 21 05:30 UTC (annular) 1665 Jan 16 08:42 UTC (annular) 1802 Aug 28 07:48 UTC (annular) 2118 Mar 22 07:33 UTC (annular) 2187 Jul 06 09:13 UTC (total) 2415 Apr 10 02:49 UTC (total) 2439 Jun 11 23:52 UTC (annular) 2636 May 26 21:09 UTC (total) 2686 Sep 09 23:12 UTC (annular) 2739 Apr 30 00:41 UTC (annular) 2762 Aug 12 01:43 UTC (total) 2894 Dec 18 06:38 UTC (annular) Chongqing 1135 Jan 16 03:05 UTC (annular) 1397 May 26 22:23 UTC (total) 1824 Jun 26 22:10 UTC (total) 2009 Jul 22 01:15 UTC (total) 2010 Jan 15 08:50 UTC (annular) 2241 Aug 08 06:20 UTC (total) 2429 Jul 02 01:33 UTC (annular) 2533 May 25 10:42 UTC (annular) 2610 Oct 09 00:11 UTC (annular) 2642 Jul 19 00:17 UTC (annular) 2656 Oct 10 03:55 UTC (total) 2840 Nov 15 06:27 UTC (annular) 2902 Jul 26 07:45 UTC (total) Last and next eclipses for Hong Kong 0030 Nov 14 (total) 0060 Oct 13 (annular) 0073 Jul 23 (total) 0168 Dec 17 (annular) 0327 Jun 06 (total) 0392 Jul 07 (annular) 0438 Dec 03 (total) 0888 Apr 15 (annular) 1040 Dec 02 (hybrid) 1265 Jan 19 (annular) 1444 Nov 10 (hybrid) 1610 Dec 15 (annular) 1658 Jun 01 (annular) 1742 Mar 03 (total) 1785 Aug 05 (annular) 1789 Nov 17 (hybrid) (total) 1955 Dec 14 (annular) 1958 Apr 19 (annular) 2012 May 20 (annular) 2320 May 9 (annular) 2685 Mar 27 (annular) 2867 Dec 17 (annular) 2881 Mar 21 (total) 2888 May 2 (annular) 2907 Oct 28 (annular) 2910 Aug 26 (hybrid) 2935 Apr 24 (total) Last and next eclipses for Macau -1012 Nov 14 (annular) -0979 Feb 19 (annular) -0665 Mar 27 (total) -0624 Jul 19 (annular) -0143 Sep 08 (annular) -0122 Jan 23 (annular) 0030 Nov 14 (total) 0060 Oct 13 (annular) 0168 Dec 17 (annular) 0327 Jun 06 (total) 0438 Dec 03 (total) 0888 Apr 15 (annular) 1040 Feb 15 (hybrid) 1265 Jan 19 (annular) 1610 Dec 15 (annular) 1658 Jan 01 (annular) 1742 Jun 03 (total) 1785 Aug 05 (annular) (total) 2012 May 20 (annular) 2685 Mar 27 (annular) 2867 Dec 17 (annular) 2881 Mar 21 (total) 2888 May 2 (annular) 2907 Oct 28 (annular) 2910 Aug 26 (hybrid) 2935 Apr 24 (total) Lists of events in China China Historical events in China

2843199

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladon%20%28mythology%29

Ladon (mythology)

Ladon (; Ancient Greek: Λάδων; gen.: Λάδωνος Ladonos) was a monster in Greek mythology, the dragon that guarded the golden apples in the Garden of the Hesperides. Family According to Hesiod's Theogony, Ladon was the last of the progeny of Phorcys and Ceto. A scholion on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica, however, cites Hesiod as calling him the son of Typhon, and the same scholion on Apollonius of Rhodes claims that one "Peisandros" called Ladon born of the earth. The mythographer Apollodorus calls Ladon the offspring of the monstrous Typhon and Echidna, a parentage repeated by Hyginus and Pherecydes; similarly, Ladon is called the son of Typhon in Tzetzes' Chiliades. According to Ptolemy Hephaestion's New History, as recorded by Photius in his Bibliotheca, Ladon was the brother of the Nemean lion. Mythology Ladon was the serpent-like dragon that twined and twisted around the tree in the Garden of the Hesperides and guarded the golden apples. In pursuance of his eleventh labour, Heracles killed Ladon with a bow and arrow and carried the apples away. The following day, Jason and the Argonauts passed by on their chthonic return journey from Colchis, hearing the lament of "shining" Aegle, one of the four Hesperides, and viewing the still-twitching Ladon. In an alternate version of the myth, Ladon is never slain, and Heracles instead gets the Titan god Atlas to retrieve the apples. At the same time, Heracles takes Atlas’ place, holding up the sky. The dragon (Ladon) image coiled around the tree, originally adopted by the Hellenes from Near Eastern and Minoan sources, is familiar from surviving Greek vase-painting. In the 2nd century CE, Pausanias saw among the treasuries at Olympia an archaic cult image in cedar-wood of Heracles and the apple-tree of the Hesperides with the snake coiled around it. Diodorus Siculus gives an euhemerist interpretation of Ladon, as a human shepherd guarding a flock of golden-fleeced sheep, adding, "But with regards to such matters it will be every man's privilege to form such opinions as accord with his own belief." According to the Astronomy attributed to Hyginus, Ladon is the constellation Draco which was placed among the stars by Zeus. Ladon is the Greek version of the West Semitic serpent Lotan, or the Hurrian serpent Illuyanka. He might be given multiple heads, a hundred in Aristophanes' The Frogs (a passing remark in line 475), which might speak with different voices. See also Lernaean Hydra, a similar monster who was also slain by Heracles. Notes References Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Apollonius of Rhodes, Apollonius Rhodius: the Argonautica, translated by Robert Cooper Seaton, W. Heinemann, 1912. Internet Archive. Diodorus Siculus, Diodorus Siculus: The Library of History. translated by C. H. Oldfather, twelve volumes, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Online version by Bill Thayer. Fowler, R. L. (2000), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2000. . Google Books. Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004. . Google Books. Harry, René, Photius: Bibliothèque. Tome III: Codices 186-222, Collection Budé, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1962. . Hesiod, Theogony, in Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, Testimonia, edited and translated by Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library No. 57, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, De Astronomica, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in Apollodorus' Library and Hyginus' Fabulae: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology, translated, with Introductions by R. Scott Smith and Stephen M. Trzaskoma, Hackett Publishing, 2007. . Google Books. Merkelbach, R., and M. L. West, Fragmenta Hesiodea, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1967. . Ogden, Daniel, Drakōn: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Oxford University Press, 2013. . Google Books. Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Tzetzes, John, Chiliades, edited by Gottlieb Kiessling, Leipzig, F. C. G. Vogel, 1826. Google Books. Wendel, Carl, Scholia in Apollonium Rhodium vetera'', Hildesheim, Weidmann, 1999. . Greek dragons Legendary serpents Mythical many-headed creatures Deeds of Zeus Mythology of Heracles