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2960822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsden%20square | Marsden square | Marsden square mapping or Marsden squares is a system that divides a world map with latitude-longitude gridlines (e.g. plate carrée projection, Mercator or other) between 80°N and 70°S latitudes (or 90°N and 80°S: refer chart at Ocean Teacher’s Ocean Geography page) into grid cells of 10° latitude by 10° longitude, each with a geocode, a unique numeric identifier. The method was devised by William Marsden (b. 1754, d. 1836), when first secretary of the British Admiralty, for collecting and combining geographically based information about the oceans.
Structure and design
On the plate carrée projection the grid cells appear square, although if the Mercator projection is used, the grid cells appear "stretched" vertically nearer the tops and bottoms of the map. On the actual surface of the globe, the cells are approximately "square" only adjacent to the equator, and become progressively narrower and tapered (also with curved northern and southern boundaries) as they approach the poles, and cells adjoining the poles are unique in possessing three faces rather than four. Each of the 540 10°x10° squares is allocated a unique number from 1 to 288 and from 300 to 551 (see image to the right), plus the sequence extends to 936 in higher latitudes; individual squares can also be subdivided into 100 one-degree squares numbered from 00 to 99 in order to improve precision.
Use
Marsden squares have mostly been used for identifying the geographic position of meteorological data, and are described further in various publications of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The 10°x10° square identifiers typically use a minimal number of characters (between 1 and 3 digits) which was/is an operational advantage for low bandwidth transmission systems.
However the rules for allocating numbers to squares do not follow a consistent pattern, so that reverse-engineering (decoding) the relevant square boundaries from any particular Marsden Square identifier is not particularly straightforward (a look-up table is probably the simplest in practice).
Slightly confusingly, an alternative (and more consistent), four-digit notation for global 10°x10° squares is actually known as World Meteorological Organization squares but does not seem to be actively promoted by the WMO itself.
Notes
Geocodes |
2961833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial%20reference%20system | Spatial reference system | A spatial reference system (SRS) or coordinate reference system (CRS) is a framework used to precisely measure locations on the surface of Earth as coordinates. It is thus the application of the abstract mathematics of coordinate systems and analytic geometry to geographic space. A particular SRS specification (for example, "Universal Transverse Mercator WGS 84 Zone 16N") comprises a choice of Earth ellipsoid, horizontal datum, map projection (except in the geographic coordinate system), origin point, and unit of measure. Thousands of coordinate systems have been specified for use around the world or in specific regions and for various purposes, necessitating transformations between different SRS.
Although they date to the Hellenic Period, spatial reference systems are now a crucial basis for the sciences and technologies of Geoinformatics, including cartography, geographic information systems, surveying, remote sensing, and civil engineering. This has led to their standardization in international specifications such as the EPSG codes and ISO 19111:2019 Geographic information—Spatial referencing by coordinates, prepared by ISO/TC 211, also published by the Open Geospatial Consortium as Abstract Specification, Topic 2: Spatial referencing by coordinate.
Types of systems
The thousands of spatial reference systems used today are based on a few general strategies, which have been defined in the EPSG, ISO, and OGC standards:
Geographic coordinate system (or geodetic)
A spherical coordinate system measuring locations directly on the Earth (modeled as a sphere or ellipsoid) using latitude (degrees north or south of the equator) and longitude (degrees west or east of a prime meridian).
Geocentric coordinate system (or Earth-centered Earth-fixed)
A three-dimensional cartesian coordinate system that models the Earth as a three-dimensional object, measuring locations from a center point, usually the center of mass of the Earth, along x, y, and z axes aligned with the equator and the prime meridian. This system is commonly used to track the orbits of satellites, because they are based on the center of mass. Thus, this is the internal coordinate system used by Satellite navigation systems such as GPS to compute locations using multilateration.
Projected coordinate system (or planar, grid)
A standardized cartesian coordinate system that models the Earth (or more commonly, a large region thereof) as a plane, measuring locations from an arbitrary origin point along x and y axes more or less aligned with the cardinal directions. Each of these systems is based on a particular Map projection to create a planar surface from the curved Earth surface. These are generally defined and used strategically to minimize the distortions inherent to projections. Common examples include the Universal transverse mercator (UTM) and national systems such as the British National Grid, and State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS).
Engineering coordinate system (or local, custom)
A cartesian coordinate system (2-D or 3-D) that is created bespoke for a small area, often a single engineering project, over which the curvature of the Earth can be safely approximated as flat without significant distortion. Locations are typically measured directly from an arbitrary origin point using surveying techniques. These may or may not be aligned with a standard projected coordinate system. Local tangent plane coordinates are a type of local coordinate system used in aviation and marine vehicles.
These standards acknowledge that standard reference systems also exist for measuring elevation using vertical datums and time (e.g. ISO 8601), which may be combined with a spatial reference system to form a compound coordinate system for representing three-dimensional and/or spatio-temporal locations. There are also internal systems for measuring location within the context of an object, such as the rows and columns of pixels in a raster image, Linear referencing measurements along linear features (e.g., highway mileposts), and systems for specifying location within moving objects such as ships. The latter two are often classified as subcategories of engineering coordinate systems.
Components
The goal of any spatial reference system is to create a common reference frame in which locations can be measured precisely and consistently as coordinates, which can then be shared unambiguously, so that any recipient can identify the same location that was originally intended by the originator. To accomplish this, any coordinate reference system definition needs to be composed of several specifications:
A coordinate system, an abstract framework for measuring locations. Like any mathematical coordinate system, its definition consists of a measurable space (whether a plane, a three-dimension void, or the surface of an object such as the Earth), an origin point, a set of axis vectors emanating from the origin, and a unit of measure.
A horizontal datum, which binds the abstract coordinate system to the real space of the Earth. A horizontal datum can be defined as a precise reference framework for measuring geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude). Examples include the World Geodetic System and the 1927 and 1983 North American Datum. A datum generally consists of an estimate of the shape of the Earth (usually an ellipsoid), and one or more anchor points or control points, established locations (often marked by physical monuments) for which the measurement is documented.
A definition for a projected CRS must also include a choice of map projection to convert the spherical coordinates specified by the datum into cartesian coordinates on a planar surface.
Thus, a CRS definition will typically consist of a "stack" of dependent specifications, as exemplified in the following table:
Examples by continent
Examples of systems around the world are:
Asia
Chinese Global Navigation Grid Code, China
Israeli Cassini Soldner, Israel
Israeli Transverse Mercator, Israel
Jordan Transverse Mercator, Jordan
Europe
British national grid reference system, Britain
Lambert-93 (fr), the official projection in Metropolitan France
Hellenic Geodetic Reference System 1987, Greece
Irish grid reference system, Ireland
Irish Transverse Mercator, Ireland
SWEREF 99 (sv), Sweden
North America
United States National Grid, US
Worldwide
Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system
Lambert conformal conic projection
International mapcode system
Military Grid Reference System
Identifiers
A Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID) is a unique value used to unambiguously identify projected, unprojected, and local spatial coordinate system definitions. These coordinate systems form the heart of all GIS applications.
Virtually all major spatial vendors have created their own SRID implementation or refer to those of an authority, such as the EPSG Geodetic Parameter Dataset.
SRIDs are the primary key for the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) spatial_ref_sys metadata table for the Simple Features for SQL Specification, Versions 1.1 and 1.2, which is defined as follows:
CREATE TABLE SPATIAL_REF_SYS
(
SRID INTEGER NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
AUTH_NAME CHARACTER VARYING(256),
AUTH_SRID INTEGER,
SRTEXT CHARACTER VARYING(2048)
)
In spatially enabled databases (such as IBM Db2, IBM Informix, Ingres, Microsoft SQL Server, MonetDB, MySQL, Oracle RDBMS, Teradata, PostGIS, SQL Anywhere and Vertica), SRIDs are used to uniquely identify the coordinate systems used to define columns of spatial data or individual spatial objects in a spatial column (depending on the spatial implementation). SRIDs are typically associated with a well-known text (WKT) string definition of the coordinate system (SRTEXT, above).
Here are two common coordinate systems with their EPSG SRID value followed by their WKT:
UTM, Zone 17N, NAD27 — SRID 2029:
PROJCS["NAD27(76) / UTM zone 17N",
GEOGCS["NAD27(76)",
DATUM["North_American_Datum_1927_1976",
SPHEROID["Clarke 1866",6378206.4,294.9786982138982,
AUTHORITY["EPSG","7008"]],
AUTHORITY["EPSG","6608"]],
PRIMEM["Greenwich",0,
AUTHORITY["EPSG","8901"]],
UNIT["degree",0.01745329251994328,
AUTHORITY["EPSG","9122"]],
AUTHORITY["EPSG","4608"]],
UNIT["metre",1,
AUTHORITY["EPSG","9001"]],
PROJECTION["Transverse_Mercator"],
PARAMETER["latitude_of_origin",0],
PARAMETER["central_meridian",-81],
PARAMETER["scale_factor",0.9996],
PARAMETER["false_easting",500000],
PARAMETER["false_northing",0],
AUTHORITY["EPSG","2029"],
AXIS["Easting",EAST],
AXIS["Northing",NORTH]]
WGS84 — SRID 4326
GEOGCS["WGS 84",
DATUM["WGS_1984",
SPHEROID["WGS 84",6378137,298.257223563,
AUTHORITY["EPSG","7030"]],
AUTHORITY["EPSG","6326"]],
PRIMEM["Greenwich",0,
AUTHORITY["EPSG","8901"]],
UNIT["degree",0.01745329251994328,
AUTHORITY["EPSG","9122"]],
AUTHORITY["EPSG","4326"]]
SRID values associated with spatial data can be used to constrain spatial operations — for instance, spatial operations cannot be performed between spatial objects with differing SRIDs in some systems, or trigger coordinate system transformations between spatial objects in others.
See also
Engineering datum
Geodesy
Geodetic datum
Georeferencing
Geographic coordinate systems
Geographic information system (GIS).
Grid reference
Linear referencing
List of National Coordinate Reference Systems
References
External links
spatialreference.org – A website that defines spatial reference systems, in a variety of formats.
OpenGIS Specifications (Standards)
OpenGIS Simple Features Specification for CORBA (99-054)
OpenGIS Simple Features Specification for OLE/COM (99-050)
OpenGIS Simple Features Specification for SQL (99-054, 05-134, 06-104r3)
OGR — library implementing relevant OGC standards
EPSG Geodetic Parameter Registry - search engine for EPSG defined reference systems
EPSG.io/ - Full text search indexing over 6000 coordinate systems
Galdos Systems INdicio CRS Registry
Geographic coordinate systems
Geographic information systems
Geodesy
ISO/TC 211
Open Geospatial Consortium
GIS file formats |
2965655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudumalai%20National%20Park | Mudumalai National Park | Mudumalai National Park is a national park in the Nilgiri Mountains in Tamil Nadu in southern India. It covers at an elevation range of in the Nilgiri District and shares boundaries with the states of Karnataka and Kerala. A part of this area has been protected since 1940. The national park has been part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve since 1986 and was declared a tiger reserve together with a buffer zone of in 2007.
It receives an annual rainfall of about and harbours tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests with 498 plant species, at least 266 bird species, 18 carnivore and 10 herbivore species. It is drained by the Moyar River and several tributaries, which harbour 38 fish species.
Traffic on three public roads passing through the national park has caused significant roadkills of mammals, reptiles and amphibians. The park's northern part has been affected by several wildfires since 1999.
History
The word Mudumalai is a Tamil word with 'mutu' meaning old, ancient, original; and 'mudhukadu' meaning ancient forest. The word 'malai' means hill or mountain.
The name 'Mudumalai forest' was already in use when the British Government rented the forest in 1857 for logging purposes from the Raja of Neelambur.
In 1914, large forest tracts on the Sigur Plateau were declared as reserve forest for systematic logging. An area of about was established as Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary in 1940. The sanctuary was enlarged in 1977 and incorporated into Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in 1986.
It was declared as a Tiger Reserve under Project Tiger in April 2007 and notified as 'Critical Tiger Habitat' in December 2007. At the time, 1947 people lived in 28 hamlets inside the reserve; they kept about 1,060 cattle. In 2010, it was proposed to resettle them. This notification was criticised by activists and conservationists as having been intransparent and undemocratic.
In 2010, the National Tiger Conservation Authority approved the release of funds to Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in the frame of Project Tiger. In 2020, Project Tiger has been extended until 2021 with funding of 114.1 million borne by the Government of India and the Government of Tamil Nadu.
Geography
Mudumalai National Park covers in the eastern hills of the Western Ghats at an elevation range of ; it is bordered in the west by Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, in the north by Bandipur National Park and in the east by Sigur Reserve Forest. In the south, it is bordered by Singara Reserve Forest. The Moyar River enters the national park in the south and is joined by five tributaries. Together they drain this area, and several artificial waterholes provide drinking water for wildlife during dry seasons.
The original national park area together with a surrounding buffer zone of was designated as the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve.
The elevation range of in the Western Ghats is characterised by evergreen forest with dipterocarp species prevailing.
Its undulating hills consist mostly of hornblendite and biotite gneiss with black sandy loam; red heavy loam prevails in the southern part.
It is part of the ecoregion South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests.
Mudumalai National Park and the adjacent Sigur Reserve Forest form an important wildlife corridor within the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and provide the highest landscape connectivity for the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population in the region.
Climate
Mudumalai National Park receives about rainfall annually, most of it during the southwest monsoon season from June to September. The temperature drops during the cool season from December to January, but rises during April to June, which are the hottest months.
Annual precipitation ranges from in the south and west to in the east.
Flora
Mudumalai National Park harbours tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests. The floral diversity comprises 498 plant species including 154 tree, 77 shrub, 214 herb and 53 vine species.
Teak (Tectona grandis) and axlewood (Anogeissus latifolia) are the dominant tree species with a density of more than .
Prominent tree species include flame-of-the-forest (Butea monosperma), Indian laurel (Terminalia elliptica), kusum tree (Schleichera oleosa), weaver's beam tree (Schrebera swietenioides), Malabar kino tree (Pterocarpus marsupium), Indian rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), Malabar plum (Syzygium cumini), silk-cotton tree (Bombax ceiba) and Indian beech (Millettia pinnata); moist deciduous forest is interspersed with giant thorny bamboo (Bambusa bambos). Mango (Mangifera indica) and persimmon (Diospyros) grow along river courses. Climbers include orange climber (Zanthoxylum asiaticum), Wattakaka volubilis, frangipani vine (Chonemorpha fragrans), trellis-vine (Pergularia daemia), purple morning glory (Argyreia cuneata), striped cucumber (Diplocyclos palmatus) and several jasmine species.
Ceylon satinwood (Chloroxylon swietenia), red cedar (Erythroxylum monogynum) and catechu (Senegalia catechu) are the dominant plants in shrubland patches.
Lantana camara is an invasive species that negatively affects the dispersal of the native Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) and Kydia calycina, but does not affect growth and dispersal of other shrubs. A study on nesting behaviour of birds revealed that red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) and red-whiskered bulbul (P. jocosus) prefer its top canopy level for building nests in spring.
An exceptionally large arjun tree (Terminalia arjuna) with a height of and a girth of was detected in the Moyar River valley in 2019; it was used by white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis), brown fish owl (Ketupa zeylonensis), spot-bellied eagle-owl (Bubo nipalensis), crested honey buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus), changeable hawk-eagle (Nisaetus cirrhatus) and shikra (Accipiter badius) for roosting.
Fauna
During the major flowering season, 394 nests of the giant honey bee (Apis dorsata) were detected in the park between January and June 2007; bee colonies comprised an average of 19 nests, mostly built in large trees.
Mammals
A survey carried out between November 2008 and February 2009 revealed that about 29 Indian leopards (Panthera pardus fusca) and 19 Bengal tigers (P. tigris tigris) lived in the park's core area of . As of 2018, the tiger population in the wider Mudumalai Tiger Reserve was estimated to comprise 103 resident individuals.
Jungle cat (Felis chaus), rusty-spotted cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus) and leopard cat (P. bengalensis) were recorded during camera trap surveys in 2010–2011 and 2018.
Two dhole (Cuon alpinus) packs were monitored during 1989–1993 and had home ranges of ; packs comprised between four and 25 individuals during this period.
Golden jackal (Canis aureus), and Nilgiri marten (Martes gwatkinsii) were also recorded in 2018.
Scat of sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) collected along forest roads and animal trails contained remains of 18 plant species with golden shower (Cassia fistula), Indian plum (Zizyphus mauritiana) and clammy cherry (Cordia obliqua) forming the bulk of its diet apart from fungus-growing termites (Odontotermes), fire ants and honey bees.
Small Indian civet (Viverricula indica), Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and brown palm civet (P. jerdoni) live in both deciduous and semi-evergreen forest patches; ruddy mongoose (Urva smithii) lives foremost in deciduous forest, whereas stripe-necked mongoose (U. vitticollis) frequents riverine areas, and Indian grey mongoose U. edwardsii open habitats. The mongooses forage foremost for pill millipedes, dung beetles, fruits, small rodents, birds and reptiles.
Smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) groups were observed along the Moyar River in 2010 and 2011. Their habitat preference was studied between 2015 and 2017; the groups preferred rocky areas near fast flowing water with loose sand and little vegetation cover.
The Asian elephant is the largest mammal in the park with an estimated 536–1,001 individuals in 25 herds in 2000. Herds comprise up to 22 individuals. The gaur (Bos gaurus) is the largest ungulate in the park, with herds of up to 42 individuals that frequent foremost grasslands in the vicinity of water sources.
The sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) forms smaller groups of up to five individuals, but also congregates in groups of up to 45 individuals in the wet season. The chital (Axis axis) forms large groups of at least 35 individuals, with some herds increasing to more than 100 members in the wet season.
Chital, Indian spotted chevrotain (Moschiola indica) and Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) have been recorded eating fallen fruit of the Indian gooseberry in a forest monitoring plot; they are therefore considered to be the primary seed dispersers in the park. Present are also four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis), blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), wild boar (Sus scrofa), Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) and Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica).
Four bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) troops were studied in 1997, which ranged in size from 28 to 35 members and lived in sympatry with gray langur (Semnopithecus entellus) troops.
A troop in the Moyar River valley foraged on leaves, flowers and fruits of several tree and shrub species including tamarind (Tamarindus indica), banyan fig (Ficus benghalensis), wild jujube (Ziziphus oenoplia), neem (Azadirachta indica), kaayam (Memecylon edule) and indigoberry (Randia malabarica), but also consumed herbs, crickets and grasshoppers.
The range of the Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica) is continuous in the national park's moist deciduous forest; in the drier eastern part, it inhabits foremost riverine habitat with contiguous canopy. It builds nests in trees with a mean canopy height of and feeds on 25 plant species including teak, Indian laurel and Grewia tiliifolia.
The Indian giant flying squirrel (Petaurista philippensis) inhabits foremost moist deciduous forest with old trees of a mean height, a mean density of and a canopy height of at least .
In 2013, a painted bat (Kerivoula picta) was sighted in the eastern part of the tiger reserve.
Birds
Birds observed from 1994 to 1996 comprised 266 species; the 213 resident ones include Malabar grey hornbill (Ocyceros griseus), Indian grey hornbill (O. birostris), Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus), Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata), crested serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela), black eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis), besra (Accipiter virgatus) and crested goshawk (A. trivirgatus), white-rumped shama (Copsychus malabaricus), Indian roller (Coracias benghalensis), greater flameback (Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus) and white-naped woodpecker (C. festivus), black-rumped flameback (Dinopium benghalense), white-bellied woodpecker (Dryocopus javensis), heart-spotted woodpecker (Hemicircus canente), rufous woodpecker (Micropternus brachyurus), greater racket-tailed drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus), grey-bellied cuckoo (Cacomantis passerinus) and Indian cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus), coppersmith barbet (Psilopogon haemacephalus), white-cheeked barbet (P. viridis) and brown-headed barbet (P. zeylanicus), grey francolin (Ortygornis pondicerianus), speckled piculet (Picumnus innominatus), Indian pond heron (Ardeola grayii), white-throated kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis), blue-winged parakeet (Psittacula columboides), Nilgiri wood pigeon (Columba elphinstonii), common emerald dove (Chalcophaps indica), yellow-footed pigeon (Treron phoenicoptera), red spurfowl (Galloperdix spadicea) and grey junglefowl (Gallus sonneratii), painted bush quail (Perdicula erythrorhyncha), crimson-backed sunbird (Leptocoma minima), Loten's sunbird (Cinnyris lotenius), forest wagtail (Dendronanthus indicus), white-browed wagtail (Motacilla maderaspatensis) black-and-orange flycatcher (Ficedula nigrorufa), Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus) and black-hooded oriole (O. xanthornus).
In 2004, pin-striped tit-babblers (Mixornis gularis) were observed in a dry stream bed outside the protected area.
December to March is the breeding season of yellow-crowned woodpecker (Leiopicus mahrattensis), streak-throated woodpecker (Picus xanthopygaeus), yellow-throated sparrow (Gymnoris xanthocollis), blue-bearded bee-eater (Nyctyornis atherton), Indian robin (Saxicoloides fulicatus), scaly-breasted munia (Lonchura punctulata) and white-rumped munia (L. striata).
Spot-bellied eagle-owl, Oriental scops owl (Otus sunia), brown boobook (Ninox scutulata) and jungle owlet (Glaucidium radiatum) are known night birds in the region.
A juvenile cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) was recorded in spring 2019. The vulture populations in Moyar River valley were surveyed in March 2019. About 200 white-rumped vultures and about 30 active white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) nests were observed; Indian vultures (G. indicus) and red-headed vultures (Sarcogyps calvus) were sighted at several locations.
Sightings of migrating birds include booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus), rufous-bellied eagle (Lophotriorchis kienerii), Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), common buzzard (Buteo buteo), western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) and pallid harrier (C. macrourus), cotton pygmy goose (Nettapus coromandelianus), knob-billed duck (Sarkidiornis melanotos), northern pintail (Anas acuta) and rosy starling (Pastor roseus).
White storks (Ciconia ciconia) were observed in December 2013 and February 2014.
Reptiles
In 1992, six Indian star tortoises (Geochelone elegans) were sighted in scrubland at elevations of .
An ornate flying snake (Chrysopelea ornata) was observed in 2006.
The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) population in Moyar River was thought to encompass about 100 individuals as of 2009.
Small reptiles recorded in Mudumalai National Park comprise striped coral snake (Calliophis nigrescens), Elliot's forest lizard (Monilesaurus ellioti), Jerdon's day gecko (Cnemaspis jerdonii), Goan day gecko (C. indraneildasii) and Beddome's ground skink (Kaestlea beddomii).
A dead Bibron's coral snake (Calliophis bibroni) was discovered on the road in the Theppakadu area at an elevation of in August 2013, the first record since 1874.
A Bengal monitor (Varanus bengalensis) was recorded in 2018.
The Indian rock python (Python molurus) was studied in the frame of a telemetry project in the Moyar River valley from 2017 to 2020. In February 2019, a long female Indian rock python was observed mating with two smaller males measuring .
Fish
The Moyar River and tributaries harbour 38 fish species, including Nilgiri mystus (Hemibagrus punctatus), Puntius mudumalaiensis, Puntius melanostigma, reba carp (Cirrhinus reba), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Deccan mahseer (Tor khudree), Malabar baril (Barilius gatensis), mullya garra (Garra mullya), zig-zag eel (Mastacembelus armatus) and bullseye snakehead (Channa marulius).
Threats
From 1979 to 2011, remains of 148 dead Asian elephants were found in the park; 50 individuals were killed by poachers.
Traffic on three public roads cutting through Mudumalai National Park pose a significant threat to the park's wildlife; between December 1998 and March 1999 alone, 180 animals belonging to 40 species were killed by drivers. Between December 2006 and November 2007, 101 amphibians and 78 reptiles became roadkills on a stretch of the national highway passing through the park including Indirana frogs, Indian skipper frog (Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis), bronzed frog (Indosylvirana temporalis), pigmy wrinkled frog (Nyctibatrachus beddomii), Asian common toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus), common green forest lizard (Calotes calotes), Blanford's rock agama (Psammophilus blanfordanus), Mysore day gecko (Cnemaspis mysoriensis), bronze grass skink (Eutropis macularia), green keelback (Rhabdophis plumbicolor), trinket snake (Coelognathus helena), Russell's viper (Daboia russelii), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and hump-nosed viper (Hypnale hypnale). Between January 2014 and December 2016, 497 Indian palm squirrels (Funambulus palmarum) were found killed in traffic collisions on a long stretch of a state highway passing through the park. A long roadkilled Bibron's coral snake was found in September 2016.
Proliferating tourism resorts and increasing demand for firewood at the national park's periphery are also considered threats to its ecosystem. In 1995, the annual firewood need was estimated at per person living in the periphery of the national park.
Between 1999 and 2013, six forest fires affected dry deciduous forest patches ranging in size from to in the northern part of the national park; the plant diversity in burned patches needs more than 15 years to recover.
See also
Wildlife of Tamil Nadu
List of birds of Tamil Nadu
List of endemic plants in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
2019 Bandipur forest fires
References
External links
Tiger reserves of India
National parks in Tamil Nadu
Protected areas established in 1940
1940 establishments in India
Nilgiris district
South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests |
2965765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1761%20Edmondson | 1761 Edmondson | 1761 Edmondson, provisional designation , is a dark background asteroid from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 21 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 30 March 1952, by the Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory, United States. It was named after astronomer Frank Edmondson.
Orbit and classification
Edmondson is a background asteroid, located near the region occupied by the Themis family, a dynamical family of outer-belt asteroids with nearly coplanar ecliptical orbits. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.4–3.9 AU once every 5 years and 8 months (2,068 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.23 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic.
It was first identified as at Konkoly Observatory in 1940. The body's observation arc begins with its identification as at McDonald Observatory in 1950, or 2 years prior to its official discovery observation at Goethe Link.
Physical characteristics
Edmondson has been characterized as a carbonaceous C-type asteroid.
Rotation period
In November 2012, a rotational lightcurve of Edmondson was obtained from photometric observations at the Etscorn Campus Observatory () in New Mexico, United States. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 4.208 hours with a brightness variation of 0.29 magnitude ().
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite, Edmondson measures 21.94 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.102, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a more typical albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.08 and calculates a diameter of 20.51 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.8.
Naming
This minor planet was named for astronomer Frank K. Edmondson (1912–2008) of Indiana University, the program's founder and director. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1971 ().
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
001761
001761
Named minor planets
19520330 |
2972597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4349%20Tib%C3%BArcio | 4349 Tibúrcio | 4349 Tibúrcio, provisional designation , is a dark asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 29 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 5 June 1989, by German astronomer Werner Landgraf at ESO's La Silla Observatory in northern Chile.
With 53.5°, it had been the asteroid with the smallest angular distance from the Sun ever discovered. It was later named after Brazilian amateur astronomer Júlio Tibúrcio.
Orbit and classification
Tibúrcio orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.0–3.3 AU once every 4 years and 3 months (1,550 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.24 and an inclination of 11° with respect to the ecliptic.
One day before its first identification as , a precovery was taken at Lowell Observatory in 1931, extending the body's observation arc by 58 years prior to its official discovery at La Silla.
Physical characteristics
The asteroid has been characterized as an X-type asteroid by Pan-STARRS large-scale photometric survey.
Rotation period
A rotational lightcurve of Tibúrcio was obtained from photometric observations by astronomer David Higgins at the Australian Hunters Hill Observatory () in October 2010. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 16.284 hours with a brightness variation of 0.40 magnitude ().
Diameter and albedo
According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its NEOWISE mission, Tibúrcio measures between 24.9 and 30.23 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has a low albedo between 0.034 and 0.061.
Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.049 and calculates a diameter of 26.1 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.8.
Naming
This minor planet was named after Brazilian amateur astronomer and student of information science, Júlio César dos Santos Tibúrcio. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 8 June 1990 ().
Notes
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
004349
Discoveries by Werner Landgraf
Named minor planets
19890605 |
2973761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMC-3 | AMC-3 | AMC-3 (formerly GE-3) is a commercial broadcast communications satellite owned by SES World Skies, part of SES S.A. (and formerly GE Americom, then SES Americom). Launched on 4 September 1997, from Cape Canaveral, Florida, AMC-3 is a hybrid C-band / Ku-band satellite. It provides coverage to Canada, United States, Mexico, Caribbean. Located in a geostationary orbit parallel to the Yucatán Peninsula and Great Lakes, AMC-3 provides service to commercial and government customers, with programming distribution, satellite news gathering and broadcast internet capabilities.
Eagle-1
In January 2017, the AMC-3 Ku-band payload was sold to Global Eagle Entertainment (GEE), a provider of satellite-based connectivity and media to mobility markets, such as passenger aircraft. GEE purchased all the capacity on the satellite to support aeronautical customers, in particular Southwest Airlines, the company's largest customer, and rebranded the satellite as Eagle-1. The satellite remains under the control of SES S.A.
References
External links
AMC-3 at SES.com
Global Eagle Entertainment website
Communications satellites in geostationary orbit
Satellite television
Spacecraft launched in 1997
SES satellites
AMC-03 |
2976335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Dicks | David Dicks | David Griffiths Dicks, OAM, CitWA, (born 6 October 1978) is an Australian sailor. He became the youngest person to sail non-stop and solo around the world. In February 1996, at the age of 17, he set out from Fremantle, Western Australia in his family's 10m S&S 34 sloop named 'Seaflight'. During his 9-month circumnavigation, he faced many challenges such as numerous knockdowns, bad weather, equipment failure, and food poisoning. Because of accepting a bolt to fix his rig near the Falkland Islands, his circumnavigation was not considered unassisted. He returned safely to Fremantle in November 1996 amid great fanfare, including a ticker-tape parade and being given the 'keys' to Perth City.
In 1999 he was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM). David held the youngest (assisted) solo circumnavigation record for 13 years, from 1996 to 2009. By some accounts he still holds the unofficial record for the youngest solo non-stop assisted circumnavigation. Jessica Watson captured the unofficial youngest age record in May 2010 with an unassisted solo circumnavigation, but her course did not meet the minimum orthodromic distance requirement of 21,600 nautical miles set by the WSSRC. Jesse Martin completed a solo non-stop unassisted circumnavigation in 1999, he was 24 days older than Dicks at the completion of Dicks' voyage.
See also
Circumnavigation
List of youth solo sailing circumnavigations
References
1978 births
Living people
Australian sailors
Sportspeople from Perth, Western Australia
Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Australia
Teenage single-handed circumnavigating sailors
Single-handed circumnavigating sailors |
2982683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bissextus | Bissextus | Bissext, or bissextus () is the 'leap day' which is added to the Julian calendar and the Gregorian calendar every fourth year to compensate for the six-hour difference in length between the common 365-day year and the actual length of the solar year. (The Gregorian calendar omits this leap day in years evenly divisible by 100, unless they are divisible by 400.)
In the Julian calendar, 24 February i.e. the 6th day before the calends (1st) of March, counting backwards inclusively in the Roman style (1/3, 28/2, 27/2, 26/2, 25/2, 24/2) was doubled in a leap year. Consequently the , or sixth before the calends, the or "second sixth," was also 24 February. In modern usage, with the exception of some ecclesiastical calendars, this intercalary day is added for convenience at the end of the month of February, as 29 February, and years in which February has 29 days are called "bissextile," or leap years.
Replacement (by 29 February) of the awkward practice of having two days with the same date appears to have evolved by custom and practice. In the course of the fifteenth century, "29 February" appears increasingly often in legal documents although the records of the proceedings of the House of Commons of England continued to use the old system until the middle of the sixteenth century. It was not until passage of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 that 29 February was formally recognised in British law.
Bisextile
Section II of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 uses the word "bissextile" as a term for leap years.
Notes
References
Further reading
Julian calendar |
2982864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicennia | Avicennia | Avicennia is a genus of flowering plants currently placed in the bear's breeches family, Acanthaceae. It contains mangrove trees, which occur in the intertidal zones of estuarine areas and are characterized by its "pencil roots", which are aerial roots. They are also commonly known as api api, which in the Malay language means "fires", a reference to the fact that fireflies often congregate on these trees. Species of Avicennia occur worldwide south of the Tropic of Cancer.
The taxonomic placement of Avicennia is contentious. In some classifications, it has been placed in the family Verbenaceae, but more recently has been placed by some botanists in the monogeneric family Avicenniaceae. Recent phylogenetic studies have suggested that Avicennia is derived from within Acanthaceae, and the genus is included in that family in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system.
Designation of species is made difficult by the great variations in form of Avicennia marina. Between eight and 10 species are usually recognised, with A. marina further divided into a number of subspecies.
The generic name honours Persian physician Avicenna (980-1037).
Description
Members of the genus are among the most salt-tolerant mangroves and are often the first to colonise new deposits of sediment. The sap is salty, and excess salt is secreted through the leaves. The spreading root system provides stability in shifting substrates. Vertical roots called pneumatophores project from the mud, thus the term "pencil roots". These are used in gas exchange as very little oxygen is available in the mud. The flowers are fragrant and rich in nectar, and are pollinated by insects. The embryos exhibit cryptovivipary, a process where they start to develop before the seed is shed, but do not break through the outside of the fruit capsule.
List of species
Eight species are currently accepted:
Avicennia alba Blume
Avicennia balanophora Stapf & Moldenke
Avicennia bicolor Standl.
Avicennia germinans (L.) L.
Avicennia integra N.C.Duke
Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.
A. m. subsp. australasica (Walp.) J.Everett
A. m. subsp. eucalyptifolia (Valeton) J.Everett
A. m. subsp. marina
A. m. var. rumphiana (Hallier f.) Bakh. (syn Avicennia lanata and Avicennia rumphiana
Avicennia officinalis L.
Avicennia schaueriana Stapf & Leechm. ex Moldenke
References
Further reading
.
External links
Avicennia in BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database
Acanthaceae genera
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Taxa named by Peter Forsskål
Avicenna |
2983093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimmerwald%20Observatory | Zimmerwald Observatory | The Zimmerwald Observatory () is an astronomical observatory owned and operated by the AIUB, the Astronomical Institute of the University of Bern. Built in 1956, it is located at Zimmerwald, 10 kilometers south of Bern, Switzerland.
Numerous comets and asteroids have been discovered by Paul Wild (1925–2014) at Zimmerwald Observatory, most notably comet 81P/Wild, which was visited by NASA's Stardust space probe in 2004. The main belt asteroid 1775 Zimmerwald has been named after the location of the observatory.
The 1-meter aperture ZIMLAT telescope was inaugurated in 1997.
See also
List of largest optical reflecting telescopes
Swiss Space Office
References
External links
Zimmerwald Observatory
Astronomical observatories in Switzerland
Space Situational Awareness Programme |
2983302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicennia%20marina | Avicennia marina | Avicennia marina, commonly known as grey mangrove or white mangrove, is a species of mangrove tree classified in the plant family Acanthaceae (formerly in the Verbenaceae or Avicenniaceae). As with other mangroves, it occurs in the intertidal zones of estuarine areas.
Description
Grey mangroves grow as a shrub or tree to a height of , or up to in tropical regions. The habit is a gnarled arrangement of multiple branches. It has smooth light-grey bark made up of thin, stiff, brittle flakes. This may be whitish, a characteristic described in the common name. The leaves are thick, long, a bright, glossy green on the upper surface, and silvery-white, or grey, with very small matted hairs on the surface below. As with other Avicennia species, it has aerial roots (pneumatophores); these grow to a height of about , and a diameter of . These allow the plant to absorb oxygen, which is deficient in its habitat. These roots also anchor the plant during the frequent inundation of seawater in the soft substrate of tidal systems. The flowers range from white to a golden yellow colour, are less than across, and occur in clusters of three to five. The fruit contains large cotyledons that surround the new stem of a seedling. This produces a large, fleshy seed, often germinating on the tree and falling as a seedling. The grey mangrove can experience stunted growth in water conditions that are too saline, but thrive to their full height in waters where both salt and fresh water are present. The species can tolerate high salinity by excreting salts through its leaves.
The grey mangrove is a highly variable tree, with a number of ecotypes, and in forms closely resembling other species. It has been reported to tolerate extreme weather conditions, high winds, and various pests and diseases. It is a pioneer in muddy soil conditions with a pH value of 6.5 to 8.0, but is intolerant of shade.
Subdivision
A number of botanists have proposed division of the species, but currently three subspecies and one variety are recognised:
A. m. subsp. australasica (Walp.) J.Everett
A. m. subsp. eucalyptifolia (Valeton) J.Everett
A. m. subsp. marina
A. m. var. rumphiana (Hallier f.) Bakh., syn. Avicennia lanata Ridl., Avicennia rumphiana Hallier f.
Distribution
It is distributed along Africa's east coast, south-west, south and south-east Asia, Australia, and northern parts of New Zealand. It is one of the few mangroves found in the arid regions of the coastal Arabian Peninsula, mainly in sabkha environments in the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Oman, as well as in similar environments on both side of the Red Sea (in Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Eritrea, and Sudan), and Qatar and southern Iran along the Persian Gulf coast. It is a characteristic species of the Southern Africa mangroves ecoregion, and is one of three species present in Africa's southernmost mangroves, in the estuary of South Africa's Nahoon River at 32°56′S. The species is also found in Somalia.
Australia
In Australia it occurs in every mainland state and extends much farther south than other mangroves, with its southern most limit at Corner Inlet (38 degrees south) near Wilson's Promontory in Victoria. Its distribution is disjunct in Western Australia; the population of the Abrolhos Islands is further south than the nearest population of Shark Bay. Another mangrove system is found even further south () at Bunbury. This colonisation of southerly climes may have occurred relatively recently, perhaps several thousand years ago, when they were transferred by the Leeuwin Current. The most inland occurrence of mangroves in Australia is a stand of grey mangroves in the Mandora Marsh, some from the coast. In South Australia along the Barker Inlet and Port River in Gulf St Vincent, as well as in sheltered bays in Spencer Gulf and the west coast of Eyre Peninsula, A. marina forests form hatcheries for much of the state's fish and shellfish commercial and recreational fisheries.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, Avicennia marina is the only mangrove species. It grows in the top half of the North Island, between 34 and 38 degrees south. Avicennia marina was known in New Zealand as Avicennia resinifera until recently; its Māori name is mānawa.
References
Further reading
.
External links
marina
Mangroves
Afrotropical realm flora
Australasian realm flora
Indomalayan realm flora
Central Indo-Pacific flora
Western Indo-Pacific flora
Flora of East Tropical Africa
Flora of Northeast Tropical Africa
Flora of the Arabian Peninsula
Flora of the Western Indian Ocean
Flora of Egypt
Flora of Mozambique
Flora of tropical Asia
Trees of Australia
Trees of New Zealand
Trees of South Africa
Trees of the Pacific
Eudicots of Western Australia
Lamiales of Australia
Natural history of Balochistan, Pakistan
Taxa named by Peter Forsskål
Plants described in 1775 |
2983455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Panama | Coat of arms of Panama | The Panamanian coat of arms is a heraldic symbol for Panama. These arms were adopted provisionally and then definitively by the same laws that adopted the Panamanian flag.
The harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja), the Panamanian national bird, is the species of eagle on this coat of arms.
Description
The center section contains the Isthmus of Panama. The chief or top part of the coat of arms comprises two quarters. The top left over a field of silver a sword and a rifle. In 1904, the arms were made official by Law 64 of 4 June 1904 signed by the President of Assembly Genaro Ortega, and sanctioned by the President the Republic, Manuel Amador Guerrero.
The official description of the heraldic design is as follows:
"It rests on a green field, symbol of the vegetation; it is of pointed form and it is intervened as far as the division. The center shows the Isthmus with its seas and sky, in which the moon begins to rise above the waves and the sun begins to hide behind the mountain, marking thereby the solemn hour of the declaration of our independence. The head is divided in two quarters: in the one of the right hand, in the silver field, a sword and a gun are hung meant as abandonment for always to the civil wars, causes of our ruin; in the one of the left-hand side, and on field of gules, a crossed shovel and a grub hoe are shown shining, to symbolize the work."
"The end of the coat of arms also is divided in two quarters: the one of the right-hand side, in blue field, shows a cornucopia, emblem of the wealth; and the one of the left-hand side, in field of silver, the winged wheel, symbol of the progress. Behind the shield and covering it with his opened wings, is the eagle, emblem of the sovereignty, the head turned towards the left, and takes in the tip a silver tape, which hangs from right to left. On the tape the following motto is printed "Pro Mundi Beneficio."
"On the eagle, in arc form, ten gold stars go in representation of the provinces in which the Republic is divided. Like decorative accessories, to each side of the coat of arms two gathered national flags go on the other hand below."
For thirty-seven years the coat of arms of the Republic of Panama was not changed until the Constitution of 1941 was promulgated. The National Assembly dictated in March of that year Law 28 on the coat of arms, in which the following reforms were introduced: the saber and the gun are meant as "attitude of alert in defense of our sovereignty" in place of "abandonment to mean goodbye to the civil wars". 311 projects appeared to change the motto and the Jury named to make the selection decided in favor of: "Solo Dios sobre Nosotros" (Only God Above Us). Nevertheless, the National Assembly when approving the Law 28 already referred to, rejected it and preferred the one of "Justice, Honor and Freedom". Five years later, in 1946, Panama returned to the old symbol with the well-known motto of "Pro Mundi Beneficio".
The formal adoption and regulation of the use of the national flag, anthem and coat of arms were decreed by law 34 of 1949.
Harpy Eagle Law
Law 34 of 1949 stated, as noted above, that an eagle was to be on the top of the coat of arms. However, it did not specify what species of eagle, even though in most schools the harpy eagle was the eagle species on top of the coat of arms.
Law 18 of 2002 made the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) the national bird; and to specify what species of eagle was to be on the coat of arms, on May 17, 2006, law 50 was approved by the national Assembly to modify law 18 of 2002, and add that the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) was the species of eagle that appears on the coat of arms of the Republic of Panama.
See also
Flag of Panama
References
External links
Panama
National symbols of Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama |
2983857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20Land%20Observation%20Satellite | Advanced Land Observation Satellite | Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS), also called Daichi (a Japanese word meaning "land"), was a 3810 kg Japanese satellite launched in 2006. After five years of service, the satellite lost power and ceased communication with Earth, but remains in orbit.
Launch
ALOS was launched from Tanegashima, Japan, on 24 January 2006 by H-IIA No. 8. The launch had been delayed three times by weather and sensor problems.
Mission
The satellite contained three sensors that were used for cartography and disaster monitoring of Asia and the Pacific Ocean. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) initially hoped to be able to launch the successor to ALOS during 2011, but this plan did not materialize.
In 2008, it was announced that the images generated by ALOS were too blurry to be of any use for map making. Only 52 of 4,300 images of Japan could be updated based on data from ALOS. Then, JAXA announced the problem was solved.
ALOS was used to analyze several disaster sites. Images of the devastated Japanese coast following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami were among the last major contributions from ALOS.
Decommissioning
In April 2011, the satellite was found to have switched itself into power-saving mode due to deterioration of its solar arrays. Technicians could no longer confirm that any power was being generated. It was suggested that meteoroids may have struck ALOS, creating the anomaly which eventually led to its shutdown.
On 12 May 2011, JAXA sent a command to the satellite to power down its batteries and declared it dead in orbit.
See also
2006 in spaceflight
ADEOS I, JERS-1 (predecessor spacecraft)
ALOS-2
Japan Coast Guard
References
External links
Paper on ALOS
Earth observation satellites of Japan
JAXA
Synthetic aperture radar satellites
Japan Coast Guard
2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
Derelict satellites orbiting Earth
Spacecraft launched by H-II rockets
Spacecraft launched in 2006 |
2984167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-satellite%20service | Fixed-satellite service | Fixed-satellite service (short: FSS | also: fixed-satellite radiocommunication service) is – according to article 1.21 of the International Telecommunication Union's (ITU) Radio Regulations (RR) – defined as A radiocommunication service between earth stations at given positions, when one or more satellites are used; the given position may be a specified fixed point or any fixed point within specified areas; in some cases this service includes satellite-to-satellite links, which may also be operated in the inter-satellite service; the fixed-satellite service may also include feeder links for other space radiocommunication services.
Classification
This radiocommunication service is classified in accordance with ITU Radio Regulations (article 1) as follows:
Fixed service (article 1.20)
Fixed-satellite service (article 1.21)
Inter-satellite service (article 1.22)
Earth exploration-satellite service (article 1.51)
Meteorological-satellite service (article 1.52)
Frequency allocation
The allocation of radio frequencies is provided according to Article 5 of the ITU Radio Regulations (most recent version, Edition of 2020).
In order to improve harmonisation in spectrum utilisation, the majority of service-allocations stipulated in this document were incorporated in national Tables of Frequency Allocations and Utilisations which is within the responsibility of the appropriate national administration. The allocation might be primary, secondary, exclusive, and shared.
primary allocation: is indicated by writing in capital letters (see example below)
secondary allocation: is indicated by small letters
exclusive or shared utilization: is within the responsibility of administrations
Example of frequency allocation
Use in North America
FSS – is as well the official classification (used chiefly in North America) for geostationary communications satellites that provide broadcast feeds to television stations, radio stations and broadcast networks. FSSs also transmit information for telephony, telecommunications, and data communications.
References
Radiocommunication services ITU
Satellite broadcasting |
2988140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monitor-E | Monitor-E | Monitor-E was the first Russian satellite of a fleet of newly designed, small Earth observing satellites. It was launched 26 August 2005 at 18:34 UTC from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, and placed in a Sun-synchronous orbit of .
The satellite was decommissioned 21 January 2008 and decayed from orbit 22 September 2020.
Design
Monitor-E had a set of remote sensing devices. They were intended to make maps of the Earth's surface to be used for ecological monitoring and charting geological features. It was built by the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center.
A mock-up of Monitor-E (COSPAR 2003-031A) was launched 30 June 2003 aboard Rokot rocket.
Specifications
Sensors
8 m panchromatic (0.51-0.85 µm), swath width of not less 90 km
20–40 m multispectral (0.54-0.59/0.63-0.68/0.79-0.90 µm), swath width of not less than 160 km
Onboard storage
2 × 200 gigabit capacity
Data communications
Transmission speeds of 15.36/61.44/122.88 Mbit/s
Orbit
Altitude: - 97.6 degree Sun-synchronous inclination
Spacecraft
Planned active life: 5 years
Orientation precision: 0.1 degrees
Stabilization precision: 0.001 degrees/s
Average daily power consumption: 450 W
Mass:
Communications problems
After launch, communications with Monitor-E was initially difficult to establish, but a few hours later it was successfully contacted and control was established. On 19 October 2005 new problems developed and no communication was possible since then. Later on communications were restored and photographs from both cameras were published on 30 November 2005.
References
External links
Monitor-E site by NTs OMZ
Reconnaissance satellites of Russia
Derelict satellites orbiting Earth
Satellites using the Yakhta bus
Spacecraft launched by Rokot rockets
Spacecraft launched in 2005
Roscosmos |
2990123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serravallian | Serravallian | The Serravallian is, in the geologic timescale, an age or a stage in the middle Miocene Epoch/Series, which spans the time between 13.82 Ma and 11.63 Ma (million years ago). The Serravallian follows the Langhian and is followed by the Tortonian.
It overlaps with the middle of the Astaracian European Land Mammal Mega Zone, the upper Barstovian and lower Clarendonian North American Land Mammal Ages and the Laventan and lower Mayoan South American Land Mammal Ages. It is also coeval with the Sarmatian and upper Badenian Stages of the Paratethys time scale of Central and eastern Europe.
Definition
The Serravallian Stage was introduced in stratigraphy by the Italian geologist Lorenzo Pareto in 1865. It was named after the town of Serravalle Scrivia in northern Italy.
The base of the Serravallian is at the first occurrence of fossils of the nanoplankton species Sphenolithus heteromorphus and is located in the chronozone C5ABr. The official Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the Serravallian is in the 'Ras il-Pellegrin' section, located at the 'Ras il-Pellegrin' headland in the vicinity of 'Fomm ir-Rih' Bay, SW Malta.The base of the Serravallian is represented in the field as the formation boundary between the Globigerina Limestone formation and the Blue Clay formation. The base of the Serravallian is related to the Mi3b oxygen isotope excursion marking the onset of the Middle Miocene Cooling step.
The top of the Serravallian (the base of the Tortonian Stage) is at the last common appearance of calcareous nanoplanktons Discoaster kugleri and planktonic foram Globigerinoides subquadratus. It is also associated with the short normal-polarized chronozone C5r.2n.
Paleontology
Cartilaginous fish
Lamniformes
Otodontidae: †Otodus
Birds
Anseriformes
Anatidae: Clangula sp.
Mammals
Primates
Hominidae: †Anoiapithecus
Reptiles
Squamata
Agamidae: Pogona and Diporiphora diverged from their last common ancestor during the Serravallian.
Crocodylomorpha
The last known sebecid, Barinasuchus, goes extinct about 11.8 mya. Thus ending the lineage of the notosuchians.
References
Notes
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 1865: Note sur la subdivision que l'on pourrait etablir dans les terrains de l'Apennin septentrional, Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 2(22), p. 210-277.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Serravallian
Neogene timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Neogene timescale at the website of the Norwegian network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
04
Miocene geochronology
Geological ages |
2990125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langhian | Langhian | The Langhian is, in the ICS geologic timescale, an age or stage in the middle Miocene Epoch/Series. It spans the time between 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma and 13.65 ± 0.05 Ma (million years ago) during the Middle Miocene.
The Langhian was a continuing warming period defined by Lorenzo Pareto in 1865, it was originally established in the Langhe area north of Ceva in northern Italy, hence the name. The Langhian is preceded by the Burdigalian and followed by the Serravallian Stage.
Stratigraphic definition
The base of the Langhian is defined by the first appearance of foraminifer species Praeorbulina glomerosa and is also coeval with the top of magnetic chronozone C5Cn.1n. A GSSP for the Langhian Stage was not yet established in 2009.
The top of the Langhian Stage (the base of the Serravallian Stage) is at the first occurrence of fossils of the nanoplankton species Sphenolithus heteromorphus and is located in magnetic chronozone C5ABr.
The Langhian is coeval with the Orleanian and Astaracian European Land Mammal Mega Zones (more precisely: with biozones MN5 and MN6, MN6 starts just below the Langhian-Serravallian boundary), with the upper Hemingfordian to mid-Barstovian North American Land Mammal Ages, with mid-Relizian to Luisian Californian regional stages (the Luisian extends barely into the early Serravallian), with the early-mid Badenian Paratethys stage of Central and eastern Europe, with the Tozawan stage in Japan (which runs barely into the early Serravallian), with the late Batesfordian through Balcombian to early Bairnsdalian Australian stages and with the mid-Cliffdenian to mid-Lillburnian New Zealand stages.
Paleontology
Reptiles
Turtles: Meiolania brevicollis
Cartilaginous fish
Sharks, rays, skates and relatives
Chlamydoselachidae: †Chlamydoselachus tobleri
Hexanchidae: Hexanchus griseus (includes "H. andersoni" and "H. gigas"), Hexanchus nakamurai (includes "H. vitulus"), Notorynchus cepedianus (includes "N. kempi" and "N. primigenius")
Mammals
Perissodactyla
Rhinocerotidae: †Dicerorhinus sansaniensis
Rodentia
Cricetidae: †Karydomys
Sciuridae: †Palaeosciurus, ?Ratufa
Climate
In August 2021, the 6th IPCC report indicated that global temperature was 4°C– 10°C warmer during the Miocene Climatic Optimum (16.9-14.7 Ma ago) than 1850-1900.
See also
Middle Miocene disruption
Nördlinger Ries impact crater
References
Footnotes
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 1865: Note sur les subdivisions que l'on pourrait établir dans les terrains tertaires de l'Apennin septentrional, Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 2(22), p. 210-277. PDF
External links
GeoWhen Database - Langhian
Neogene timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Neogene timescale at the website of the Norwegian network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
03
Miocene geochronology
Geological ages |
2990128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortonian | Tortonian | The Tortonian is in the geologic time scale an age or stage of the late Miocene that spans the time between 11.608 ± 0.005 Ma and 7.246 ± 0.005 Ma (million years ago). It follows the Serravallian and is followed by the Messinian.
The Tortonian roughly overlaps with the regional Pannonian Stage of the Paratethys timescale of Central Europe. It also overlaps the upper Astaracian, Vallesian and lower Turolian European land mammal ages, the upper Clarendonian and lower Hemphillian North American land mammal ages and the upper Chasicoan and lower Huayquerian South American land mammal ages.
Definition
The Tortonian was introduced by Swiss stratigrapher Karl Mayer-Eymar in 1858. It was named after the Italian city of Tortona in the region Piedmont.
The base of the Tortonian Stage is at the last common appearance of calcareous nanoplankton Discoaster kugleri and planktonic foram Globigerinoides subquadratus. It is also associated with the short normal polarized magnetic chronozone C5r.2n. A GSSP for the Tortonian has been established in the Monte dei Corvi section near Ancona (Italy).
The top of the Tortonian (the base of the Messinian) is at the first appearance of the planktonic foram species Globorotalia conomiozea and is stratigraphically in the middle of magnetic chronozone C3Br.1r.
Geologic history
In 2020, geologists reported two newly-identified supervolcano eruptions associated with the Yellowstone hotspot track, including the region's largest and most cataclysmic event – the Grey's Landing super-eruption – which had a volume of at least 2,800 km3 and occurred around 8.72 Ma.
References
Notes
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 2005: The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Tortonian Stage (Upper Miocene) at Monte Dei Corvi, Episodes 28, p. 6-17.
; 1858: Versuch einer neuen Klassifikation der Tertiär-Gebilde Europa’s, Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Jahresversammlung 1857, p. 70–71 & 165–199.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Tortonian
Neogene timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Neogene timescale at the website of the Norwegian network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
05
Miocene geochronology
Geological ages |
2991789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Stranger%20%281973%20film%29 | The Stranger (1973 film) | The Stranger is a 1973 made-for-television film pilot for a new television series, but it was never picked up by a network. It was directed by Lee H. Katzin.
Film Ventures International, an independent film production and distribution company, re-issued The Stranger to syndication under the title Stranded in Space. As with other films re-released under the FVI banner, The Stranger'''s new opening credits featured footage from an entirely unrelated film, in this case the 1983 low-budget science fiction film Prisoners of the Lost Universe.
Plot
While on a space mission, NASA astronaut Neil Stryker (Glenn Corbett) crashes and is hospitalized in quarantine for a long period of time. He is uninjured, although his two fellow astronauts were apparently killed in the crash.
Stryker becomes suspicious when he tries to ask why he is being held for so long and can’t seem to get any reasonable explanation. It turns out that he is being closely observed by Dr. Revere (Tim O'Connor) and government agent Benedict (Cameron Mitchell), while being interrogated in his sleep after being given powerful drugs. The drugs reveal that Stryker is from another planet (Earth), and his society is one where there is freedom of thought and speech. Dr. Revere is clearly concerned by the strain of the drugs on Stryker, but is caught between the concern for the patient and his responsibility to the government.
Stryker eventually escapes the hospital after almost being shot and killed by the security forces. When trying to make a call to Cape Kennedy at a telephone booth, he is shocked to find that the operator has never heard of it, or even the state of Florida. He hitches a ride and begins to realize that he is not on planet Earth, after seeing subtle differences such as three moons in the sky and discovering that the inhabitants of this planet are all left-handed.
Stryker soon visits a book store, where he researches the planet. The twin planet, which is on the far side of the sun and unknown to Earth, is known to its inhabitants as Terra. It has a system of government and citizen comradeship that is alien to Stryker - The Perfect Order. The enforcement of the order is facilitated by a hierarchy of officials who scrutinize their subordinates extremely closely, and by inspirational messages, "pep" talks to remind citizens of the great family they're part of, and electronic monitoring through technology including telephones, televisions and car radios.
The Perfect Order has only been around for about 35 to 40 years, after a terrible war. The order was instituted to foster a sense of family among every person on Terra, to help each other and think of each other and the good of the whole. People with incompatible ideas are removed and reconditioned, and if resistant, executed. Culture has been heavily excised (no concerts in the park), religion outlawed, and alcoholic drinks are viewed as a future target to eliminate. Among its accomplishments, the Perfect Order has eliminated suffering and poverty and has a vibrant space program. The hospital has a "Ward E" where people are apparently lobotomized, and can no longer leave and join society. Benedict and his superiors are terrified that Stryker, being an extra-terrestrial and from a society that espouses freedom of thought, will influence people on Terra to rebel against the Perfect Order, and they have resolved to kill him before he can "infect" the population.
Stryker eventually encounters and befriends Dr. Bettina Cooke (Sharon Acker) and her colleague, Prof. Dylan MacAuley (Lew Ayres). Although Bettina is attracted to him, she is torn between Stryker and her loyalty to the Perfect Order, and she informs Benedict of Stryker's whereabouts. Benedict sends a helicopter to kill Stryker, who has commandeered Bettina's car and is attempting to escape, but the chopper collides with a windmill and crashes. Stryker and Dylan determine to get Stryker aboard a Terran spacecraft about to be launched, with Stryker intending to replace its astronaut and pilot the ship back to Earth.
Meanwhile, Benedict tracks down Bettina, uses crude violence in his interrogation of her, and conditions her to help lead him to Stryker. Benedict and his people arrive at the space complex in sufficient time to stop him before the rocket can launch with him aboard. Stryker leads them on a chase through the complex, and the authorities have him cornered while he is close to the liquid oxygen tanks, where nobody dares use guns.
Stryker jumps into the ocean while firing at the LOX tanks, setting off a fire. Benedict's lieutenant, Henry Maitland (Steve Franken), feels sure Stryker could not have survived, but Benedict will settle for nothing less than proof. Meanwhile, Stryker wades ashore north along the coast, right where the Nelson family is camping. He gives an alias, says his boat capsized, and is welcomed by Tom Nelson to join them for their pleasure trip north. Before following the family to their van, he turns to regard the three alien moons, and remembers Dylan telling him it wasn't impossible that he should get home.
Cast
In order of appearance
Glenn Corbett as Neil Stryker
Jerry Douglas as Steve (astronaut)
Arch Whiting as Mike (astronaut)
Tim O'Connor as Dr. Revere
Cameron Mitchell as Benedict
H. M. Wynant as Eric Stoner
Sharon Acker as Dr. Bettina Cooke
William Bryant as Truck Driver
Steve Franken as Henry Maitland
George Coulouris as the Bookseller
Lew Ayres as Prof. Dylan MacAuley
Dean Jagger as Carl Webster
Virginia Gregg as Ward E Administrator
Steven Marlo as Guard
Ben Wright as space complex doctor
Buck Young as Tom Nelson
Production
The project was produced by Bing Crosby Productions.
The idea of an astronaut landing on a twin planet orbiting the Sun exactly opposite Earth was used in the film Doppelgänger (also known as Journey to the Far Side of the Sun), produced four years earlier, in 1969.
Chrysler Corporation is listed in the credits at the end of the film for providing the automobiles. A Chevy Van was used toward the beginning of the film, and the bowtie on the grille was accordingly disguised. Bettina Cooke drives a 1972 Plymouth Fury III 4 door hardtop, and Dylan drives a 1972 Dodge Dart Demon.
MST3K appearance
In June 1991, the film was presented in its Film Ventures International iteration as part of an episode of the movie-mocking television series Mystery Science Theater 3000.
See also
1973 in television
Orwellian
The Prisoner''-British TV series similar in content
References
External links
Official MST3K treatment on Shout! TV
1973 television films
1973 films
1970s science fiction films
American science fiction television films
Counter-Earths
Films about astronauts
Films about extraterrestrial life
Films directed by Lee H. Katzin
Films set on fictional planets
Television films as pilots
Television pilots not picked up as a series
1970s American films |
2991940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20461%20Dioretsa | 20461 Dioretsa | 20461 Dioretsa is a centaur and damocloid on a retrograde, cometary-like orbit from the outer Solar System. It was discovered on 8 June 1999, by members of the LINEAR team at the Lincoln Laboratory Experimental Test Site near Socorro, New Mexico, United States. The highly eccentric unusual object measures approximately in diameter. It was named Dioretsa, the word "asteroid" spelled backwards.
Classification and orbit
Dioretsa is a member of the damocloids, with a retrograde orbit and a negative TJupiter of −1.547. It is also a centaur, as its orbit has a semi-major axis in between that of Jupiter (5.5 AU) Neptune (30.1 AU). The Minor Planet Center lists it as a critical object and (other) unusual minor planet due to an orbital eccentricity of more than 0.5.
It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4–45.4 AU once every 116 years and 10 months (42,686 days; semi-major axis of 23.9 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.90 and an inclination of 160° with respect to the ecliptic. Its observation arc begins 12 months prior to its official discovery observation, with a precovery taken by Spacewatch at Steward Observatory in June 1998. , it was last observed in 2000 and its orbit still has an uncertainty of 2.
Retrograde orbit
An inclination of greater than 90° means that a body moves in a retrograde orbit. Dioretsas orbit is otherwise similar to that of a comet. This has led to speculation that Dioretsa was originally an object from the Oort cloud.
Naming
The minor planet's name "Dioretsa" is the word "asteroid" spelled backwards, and is the first numbered of currently 136 known (see Data Base Search of the Minor Planet Center) minor planets with a retrograde motion in the Solar System. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 May 2003 ().
Physical characteristics
According to observations made with the 10-meter Keck Telescope, Dioretsa measures 14 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a low albedo of 0.03. It has an absolute magnitude of 13.8. As of 2018, Dioretsas spectral type as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown.
References
External links
20461 Dioretsa, Small Bodies Data Ferret
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (20001)-(25000) – Minor Planet Center
Centaurs (small Solar System bodies)
020461
020461
020461
Named minor planets
19990608
Minor planets with a retrograde orbit |
2993409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poya | Poya | Poya is the name given to the Lunar monthly Buddhist holiday of Uposatha in Sri Lanka, where it is a civil and bank holiday.
Full moon day is normally considered as the poya day in every month.
Poya
A Poya occurs every full moon. Uposatha is important to Buddhists all around the world, who have adopted the lunar calendar for their religious observances. Owing to the moon's fullness of size as well as its effulgence, the full moon day is treated as the most auspicious of the four lunar phases occurring once every lunar month (29.5 days) and thus marked by a holiday.
Every full moon day is known as a Poya in the Sinhala language; this is when a practicing Sri Lankan Buddhist visits a temple for religious observances. There are 13 or 14 Poyas per year. The term poya is derived from the Pali and Sanskrit word uposatha (from upa + vas "to fast"), primarily signifying "fast day". Generally shops and businesses are closed on Poya days, and the sale of alcohol and meat is forbidden.
The Poya Day in each month generally falls on the Gregorian date of the full moon but occasionally it falls a day on either side. The designated Poya Day is based on the phase of the moon at the Madhyahana time of day (the variant of Madhyahana which only covers two ghatikas).
If a month has two Poya days, the name of the second one will be preceded by "Adhi" ("extra" in Sinhala) as in "Adhi Vesak", "Adhi Poson", etc.
See also
List of Buddhist festivals
Mid-Autumn Festival, similar Chinese/Vietnamese Buddhist festival occurring on the day of the full moon.
Tshechu, similar concept in Bhutan however revolves around the tenth day of a lunar month.
Notes
Buddhist holidays
Observances held on the full moon
Lunar observation
January observances
February observances
March observances
April observances
May observances
September observances
October observances
November observances
December observances
Observances on non-Gregorian calendars
Public holidays in Sri Lanka |
2995826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor%20burst%20communications | Meteor burst communications | Meteor burst communications (MBC), also referred to as meteor scatter communications, is a radio propagation mode that exploits the ionized trails of meteors during atmospheric entry to establish brief communications paths between radio stations up to apart. There can be forward-scatter or back-scatter of the radio waves.
How it works
As the Earth moves along its orbital path, millions of particles known as meteoroids enter the Earth's atmosphere every day, a small fraction of which have properties useful for point-to-point communication. When these meteoroids begin to burn up, they create a glowing trail of ionized particles (called a meteor) in the E layer of the atmosphere that can persist for up to several seconds. The ionization trails can be very dense and thus used to reflect radio waves. The frequencies that can be reflected by any particular ion trail are determined by the intensity of the ionization created by the meteor, often a function of the initial size of the particle, and are generally between 30 MHz and 50 MHz.
The distance over which communications can be established is determined by the altitude at which the ionization is created, the location over the surface of the Earth where the meteoroid is falling, the angle of entry into the atmosphere, and the relative locations of the stations attempting to establish communications. Because these ionization trails only exist for fractions of a second to as long as a few seconds, they create only brief windows of opportunity for communications.
Development
The earliest direct observation of interaction between meteors and radio propagation was reported in 1929 by Hantaro Nagaoka of Japan. In 1931, Greenleaf Pickard noticed that bursts of long-distance propagation occurred at times of major meteor showers. At the same time, Bell Labs researcher A. M. Skellett was studying ways to improve night-time radio propagation, and suggested that the oddities that many researchers were seeing were due to meteors. The next year Schafer and Goodall noted that the atmosphere was disturbed during that year's Leonid meteor shower, prompting Skellett to postulate that the mechanism was reflection or scattering from electrons in meteor trails. In 1944, while researching a radar system that was "pointed up" to detect the V-2 missiles falling on London, James Stanley Hey confirmed that the meteor trails were in fact reflecting radio signals.
In 1946 the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) found a direct correlation between enhancements in VHF radio signals and individual meteors. Studies conducted in the early 1950s by the National Bureau of Standards and the Stanford Research Institute had limited success at actually using this as a medium.
The first serious effort to utilize this technique was carried out by the Canadian Defence Research Board in the early 1950s. Their project, "JANET" (named for Janus, who looked both ways), sent bursts of data pre-recorded on magnetic tape from their radar research station in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan to Toronto, a distance exceeding 2,000 km. A 90 MHz "carrier" signal was monitored for sudden increases in signal strength, signalling a meteor, which triggered a burst of data. The system was used operationally starting in 1952, and provided useful communications until the radar project was shut down around 1960.
Military use
One of the first major deployments was "COMET" (COmmunication by MEteor Trails), used for long-range communications with NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe headquarters. COMET became operational in 1965, with stations located in the Netherlands, France, Italy, West Germany, the United Kingdom, and Norway. COMET maintained an average throughput between 115 and 310 bits per second, depending on the time of year.
Meteor burst communications faded from interest with the increasing use of satellite communications systems starting in the late 1960s. In the late 1970s it became clear that the satellites were not as universally useful as originally thought, notably at high latitudes or where signal security was an issue. For these reasons, the U.S. Air Force installed the Alaska Air Command MBC system in the 1970s, although it is not publicly known whether this system is still operational.
A more recent study is the Advanced Meteor Burst Communications System (AMBCS), a testbed set up by SAIC under DARPA funding. Using phase-steerable antennas directed at the proper area of the sky for any given time of day, in the direction where the Earth is moving "forward", AMBCS was able to greatly improve the data rates, averaging 4 kilobits per second (kbit/s). While satellites may have a nominal throughput about 14 times as great, they are vastly more expensive to operate.
Additional gains in throughput are theoretically possible through the use of real-time steering. The basic concept is to use backscattered signals to pinpoint the exact location of the ion trail and direct the antenna to that spot, or in some cases, several trails simultaneously. This improves the gain, allowing much improved data rates. To date, this approach has not been tried experimentally, so far as is known.
Scientific use
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) used meteor scatter extensively in its SNOTEL system for over 40 years, but discontinued this use in 2023. Over 800 snow water content gauging stations in the Western United States were equipped with radio transmitters that relied upon meteor-scatter communications to send measurements to a data center.
Amateur radio use
Most meteor-scatter communication is conducted between radio stations that are engaged in a precise schedule of transmission and reception periods. Because the presence of a meteor trail at a suitable location between two stations cannot be predicted, stations attempting meteor-scatter communications must transmit the same information repeatedly until an acknowledgement of reception from the other station is received. Established protocols are employed to regulate the progress of information flow between stations. While a single meteor may create an ion trail that supports several steps of the communication protocol, often a complete exchange of information requires several meteors and a long period of time to complete.
Any form of communications mode can be used for meteor-scatter communications. Single sideband audio transmission has been popular among amateur radio operators in North America attempting to establish contact with other stations during meteor showers without planning a schedule in advance with the other station. The use of Morse code has been more popular in Europe, where amateur radio operators used modified tape recorders, and later computer programs, to send messages at transmission speeds as high as 800 words per minute. Stations receiving these bursts of information record the signal and play it back at a slower speed to copy the content of the transmission. Since 2000, several digital modes implemented by computer programs have replaced voice and Morse code communications in popularity. The most popular mode for amateur radio operations is MSK144, which is implemented in the WSJT-X software.
References
Further reading
External links
Meteor Burst Communications: An Additional Means of Long-Haul Communications
MeteorComm Meteor Burst Technology
Meteor burst communications tutorial
Listen to live meteor echoes at Livemeteors.com
Meteor scatter Databases
Meteor scatter Homemade
Radio detection of meteors, updated every minute, at the Lockyer Observatory and Planetarium.
Radio frequency propagation
Meteoroids |
2999955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpide%20belt | Alpide belt | The Alpide belt or Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, or more recently and rarely the Tethyan orogenic belt, is a seismic and orogenic belt that includes an array of mountain ranges extending for more than along the southern margin of Eurasia, stretching from Java and Sumatra, through the Indochinese Peninsula, the Himalayas and Transhimalayas, the mountains of Iran, Caucasus, Anatolia, the Mediterranean, and out into the Atlantic.
It includes, from west to east, the major ranges of the Atlas Mountains, the Alps, the Caucasus Mountains, Alborz, Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and the Himalayas. It is the second most seismically active region in the world, after the circum-Pacific belt (the Ring of Fire), with 17% of the world's largest earthquakes.
The belt is the result of Mesozoic-to-Cenozoic-to-recent closure of the Tethys Ocean and process of collision between the northward-moving African, Arabian, and Indian Plates with the Eurasian Plate. Each collision results in a convergent boundary, a topic covered in plate tectonics. The approximate alignment of so many convergent boundaries trending east to west, first noticed by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess, suggests that once many plates were one plate, and the collision formed one subduction zone, which was oceanic, subducting the floor of Tethys.
Suess called the single continent Gondwana, after some rock formations in India, then part of the supercontinent of Gondwana, which had earlier divided from another supercontinent, Laurasia, and was now pushing its way back. Eurasia descends from Laurasia, the Laurentia part having split away to the west to form the Atlantics. As Tethys closed, Gondwana pushed up ranges on the southern margin of Eurasia.
Brief history of the concept
The Alpide belt is a concept from modern historical geology, the study in geologic time of the events that shaped the surface of the Earth. The topic began suddenly in the mid-19th century with the evolutionary biologists. The early historical geologists, such as Charles Darwin and Charles Lyell, arranged fossils and layers of sedimentary rock containing them into time periods, of which the framework remains.
The late 19th century was a period of synthesis, in which geologists attempted to combine all the detail into the big picture. The first of his type, Eduard Suess, used the term "comparative orography" to refer to his method of comparing mountain ranges, parallel to "comparative anatomy" and "comparative philology.
His work preceded plate tectonics and continental drift. This pre-tectonic phase lasted until about 1950, when the drift theory won the field just as suddenly as had the evolutionist. The concepts and language of the comparative graphists were kept with some modification, but were explained in new ways.
Suess's subsidence theory
The author of the concept of a trans-Eurasian zone of subsidence, which he called Tethys, was Eduard Suess. He knew it had been a subsidence because it expressed deposits of the Mesozoic, now indurated into layers and raised into highlands by compressional force. Suess had discovered the zone during his early work on the Alps. He spent the better part of his career following the zone in detail, which he assembled in one ongoing work, das Antlitz der Erde, "The Face of the Earth." Like a human face, the Earth's face has lineaments. Suess's topic was the definition and classification of the lineaments of this zone, which he traced from one end of Eurasia to the other, ending on the east with the Malay Peninsula.
Suess looked, as did all geologists, at the strata and content of sedimentary rock, deposited as sediment in the oceanic basins, indurated under the pressure of the depths, and raised later under horizontal pressure into folds of mountain chains. What he added to the field is the study of what he called the “trend-lines” or directions of mountains chains. These were to be discovered by examining their strikes, or intersections with the surface. He soon discovered what are known today as convergent plate borders, are chains of mountains raised by the compression or subduction of one plate under another, but knowledge was not in such a state that he could recognize them as that. He concerned himself instead with the patterns.
Main ranges (from west to east)
Cantabrian Mountains (incl. the Basque Mountains), Sistema Central, Sistema Ibérico, Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Balkan Mountains (Balkanides), Rila-Rhodope massifs, Thracian Sea islands, Crimean Mountains – entirely in Europe
Atlas and Rif Mountains in Northern Africa, Baetic System (Sierra Nevada and Balearic Islands), Apennine Mountains, Dinaric Alps, Pindus (Hellenides), and Mount Ida;
Caucasus Mountains (on the limits between Asia and Europe), Kopet Mountains, Pamir, Alay Mountains, Tian Shan, Altai Mountains, Sayan Mountains;
Pontic Mountains, Armenian Highlands, Alborz, Hindu Kush, Kunlun Mountains, Hengduan Mountains, Annamite Range, Titiwangsa Mountains, Barisan Mountains – entirely in Asia;
Taurus Mountains, Troodos Mountains, Zagros Mountains, Makran Highland, Sulaiman Mountains, Karakoram, Himalayas, Transhimalaya, Patkai, Chin Hills, Arakan Mountains, Andaman and Nicobar Islands – entirely in Asia.
Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the northeastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands (Bali, Flores, and Timor). The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake just off the coast of Sumatra was located within the Alpide belt.
Citations
General and cited references
External links
Historic Earthquakes & Earthquake Statistics – USGS
"Ring of Fire", Plate Tectonics, Sea-Floor Spreading, Subduction Zones, "Hot Spots" – USGS
Geographic areas of seismological interest
Plate tectonics
Volcanism
Belt regions |
3000353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishtar%20Hotel | Ishtar Hotel | The Ishtar Hotel is a hotel in Baghdad, Iraq located on Firdos Square. At 99 meters tall, it is the tallest building in Baghdad and the tallest structure in Iraq after the Baghdad Tower.
History
Named after the ancient goddess Ishtar, the hotel opened in 1982 as the Ishtar Sheraton Hotel & Casino (Arabic, فندق شيراتون عشتار). It was one of the most popular western-run hotels in Baghdad. When the Gulf War began in 1991, Sheraton Hotels severed their management contract with the Iraqi government, which built and owned the property. The hotel continued to use the Sheraton name without permission for the following 22 years.
While the hotel was briefly popular with foreign journalists and contractors after the 2003 invasion of Iraq, its occupancy level soon dropped sharply. The hotel, an obvious and imposing target, was periodically hit with mortar or rocket fire during the early years of the post-Saddam era. The structure was seriously damaged during a bomb attack in October 2005 and was closed for more than a year afterward. Thirty-seven were killed in a car bomb attack outside of the hotel on January 25, 2010.
This hotel was renovated in 2011, along with five other of the biggest hotels in Baghdad, in preparation for the 2012 Arab League summit. The renovations were done by a Turkish company. During the Arab League summit, officials from various countries stayed at the hotel, along with journalists. The hotel was renamed Cristal Grand Ishtar Hotel in March 2013.
The lobby features a marble statue of Isthar, standing on a fountain in the shape of the Star of Ishtar and the Star of Shamash.
Gallery
See also
Baghdad Hotel
Palestine Hotel
Al Rasheed Hotel
Basra International Hotel
References
External links
Hotels in Iraq
Buildings and structures in Baghdad
1982 establishments in Iraq
Hotels established in 1982
Hotel buildings completed in 1982 |
3004818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danian | Danian | The Danian is the oldest age or lowest stage of the Paleocene Epoch or Series, of the Paleogene Period or System, and of the Cenozoic Era or Erathem. The beginning of the Danian (and the end of the preceding Maastrichtian) is at the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event . The age ended , being followed by the Selandian.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Danian was introduced in scientific literature by German-Swiss geologist Pierre Jean Édouard Desor in 1847 following a study of fossils found in France and Denmark. He identified this stage in deposits from Faxe and Møns Klint and named it after the Latin name for Denmark. The Montian Stage from Belgian stratigraphy (named after the city of Mons) is now known to be roughly equivalent to the Upper Danian and is considered a junior synonym and is no longer in use.
The base of the Danian is defined at the iridium anomaly which characterized the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary) in stratigraphic sections worldwide. A section in El Kef, Tunisia was appointed as a reference profile (GSSP) for this important boundary. The Danian is the oldest age of the Paleocene, defined at its base by the K-Pg boundary. It is very important because the readily recognized iridium anomaly and primitive Danian planktonic foraminifers define the base of the Danian. Danian foraminiferans repopulated the Paleocene seas after the Cretaceous mass extinction (Olsson et al., 1996). The first replacement foraminiferan of the Paleogene is the Globigerina eugubina, which is used to define the base of the Danian Age (Stainforth et al., 1975). This foraminiferan replaced the Cretaceous genus Globotruncana.
The top of the Danian Stage (the base of the Selandian) is close to the boundary between biozones NP4 and NP5 from marine biostratigraphy. It is slightly after the first appearances of many new species of the calcareous nanoplankton genus Fasciculithus (F. ulii, F. billii, F. janii, F. involutus, F. tympaniformis and F. pileatus) and close to the first appearance of calcareous nanoplankton species Neochiastozygus perfectus.
The Danian Stage overlaps the Puercan and Torrejonian North American land mammal ages and the Shanghuan and lowest part of the Nongshanian Asian land mammal ages. It includes the oldest Mammal Paleogene zones, all included in the 1 - 5 group.
Paleontology
Though the non-avian dinosaurs were gone, the mammals and other land animals remained small, most not even bigger than a sheep; however; a few (like Ankalagon saurognathus) reached the size of a medium-sized bear. Numerous lineages of modern birds also survived, particularly in the area around Australia but also elsewhere, e.g. Scaniornis of the North Sea region. The oceans remained much the same as the Late Cretaceous seas, only that there was less life, few remaining marine reptiles (mostly turtles, choristodera and crocodiles), and other lesser-known animals.
There are controversial reports of ammonites (mainly of the Scaphitidae class in Turkmenistan) still being around at this time, although they did not survive the Danian age.
Latest Danian Event
Close to the end of the Danian, around 62.2 Ma, occurred a hyperthermal, similar to but smaller in magnitude compared to the more famous Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), known as the Latest Danian Event (LDE). The event, which took place over a 170-230 kyr time interval, is evidenced in the geologic record by two negative carbon isotope excursions and is believed to have led to a 2–3 °C warming of both deep and surface seawater. This hyperthermal also led to a shallowing of the oceanic lysocline, as evidenced by the significant decrease in calcium carbonate preservation.
References
Literature
; 1847: Sur le terrain Danien, nouvel étage de la craie, Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, série 2, 3, pp. 179–181, .
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 2006: The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Danian Stage (Paleocene, Paleogene, "Tertiary", Cenozoic) at El Kef, Tunisia: original definition and revision, Episodes 29(4), pp. 263–273, .
; 1996:The Cretaceous-Tertiary catastrophe event at Millers Ferry, Alabama in Ryder, G., Fastovsky, D., and Gartner, S., eds., The Cretaceous-Tertiary Event and other catastrophes in Earth history: Geological Society of America Special Paper 307, pp. 263–277.
; 1975: Cenozoic planktonic foraminifera zonation and characteristics of index forms: The University of Kansas Paleontological Institute, Article 62, 425 p.
External links
GeoWhen Database – Danian
Paleogene timescale (2008), at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Paleogene (2006), at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
Paleocene geochronology
Geological ages |
3004834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selandian | Selandian | The Selandian is a stage in the Paleocene. It spans the time between . It is preceded by the Danian and followed by the Thanetian. Sometimes the Paleocene is subdivided in subepochs, in which the Selandian forms the "middle Paleocene".
Stratigraphic definition
The Selandian was introduced in scientific literature by Danish geologist Alfred Rosenkrantz in 1924. It is named after the Danish island of Zealand (Danish: Sjælland) given its prevalence there.
The base of the Selandian is close to the boundary between biozones NP4 and NP5. It is slightly after the first appearances of many new species of the calcareous nanoplankton genus Fasciculithus (F. ulii, F. billii, F. janii, F. involutus, F. tympaniformis and F. pileatus) and close to the first appearance of calcareous nanoplankton species Neochiastozygus perfectus. At the original type location in Denmark the base of the Selandian is an unconformity. The official GSSP was established in the Zumaia section (43° 18'N, 2° 16'W) at the beach of Itzurun in the Basque Country, northern Spain.
The top of the Selandian (the base of the Thanetian) is laid at the base of magnetic chronozone C26n.
The Selandian Stage overlaps with the lower part of the Tiffanian North American Land Mammal Age, the Peligran, Tiupampan and lower Itaboraian South American Land Mammal Ages and part of the Nongshanian Asian Land Mammal Age. It is coeval with the lower part of the Wangerripian Stage from the Australian regional timescale.
The start of the Selandian represents a sharp depositional change in the North Sea Basin, where there is a shift to siliciclastic deposition due to the uplift and erosion of the Scotland-Shetland area after nearly 40 million years of calcium carbonate deposition. This change occurs at the same time as the onset of a foreland basin formation in Spitsbergen due to compression between Greenland and Svalbard, suggesting a common tectonic cause that altered the relative motions of the Greenland Plate and the Eurasian Plate. This plate reorganisation event is also manifest as a change in seafloor spreading direction in the Labrador Sea around this time.
Fauna and Flora
The fauna of the Selandian consisted of giant snakes (Titanoboa), crocodiles, champsosaurs, Gastornithiformes, owls; and a few archaic forms of mammals, such as Mesonychids, Pantodonts, primate relatives Plesiadapids, and Multiberculates.
The flora was composed of cacti, ferns, and palm trees.
References
Further reading
External links
GeoWhen Database - Selandian
Paleogene timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Paleogene, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
Paleocene geochronology
Geological ages |
3004843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanetian | Thanetian | The Thanetian is, in the ICS Geologic timescale, the latest age or uppermost stratigraphic stage of the Paleocene Epoch or Series. It spans the time between . The Thanetian is preceded by the Selandian Age and followed by the Ypresian Age (part of the Eocene). The Thanetian is sometimes referred to as the Late Paleocene.
Stratigraphic definition
The Thanetian was established by Swiss geologist Eugène Renevier in 1873. The Thanetian is named after the Thanet Formation, the oldest Cenozoic deposit of the London Basin, which was first identified in the area of Kent (southern England) known as the Isle of Thanet.
The base of the Thanetian Stage is laid at the base of magnetic chronozone C26n. The references profile (Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point) is in the Zumaia section (43° 18'N, 2° 16'W) at the beach of Itzurun, Pais Vasco, northern Spain. Fossils of the unicellular planktonic marine coccolithophore Areoligeria gippingensis make their first appearance at the base of the Thanetian, and help define its lowest stratigraphic boundary.
The top of the Thanetian Stage (the base of the Ypresian) is defined at a strong negative anomaly in δ13C values at the global thermal maximum at the Paleocene-Eocene boundary.
The Thanetian Stage is coeval the lower Neustrian European land mammal age (it spans the Mammal Paleogene zone 6 and part of zones 1 through 5.), the upper Tiffanian and Clarkforkian North American land mammal ages, the Riochican and part of the Itaboraian South American land mammal ages and the upper Nongshanian and Gashatan Asian land mammal ages. The Thanetian is contemporary with the middle Wangerripian regional stage of Australia and the upper Ynezian regional stage of California. It overlaps the obsolete regional stages Landenian and Heersian of Belgium.
Palaeontology
The Sézanne flora is a fossil assemblage preserved in freshwater limestone deposits at Sézanne, laid down during the Thanetian Age, when Europe enjoyed a tropical climate. In the lagerstätte, leaves, entire flowers and seeds are minutely preserved. Also, the first representatives of Proboscidea appeared, Eritherium.
Climate
This period was characterized by temperatures warmer than those of today.
See also
Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
References
Literature
; 2007: Closing the Mid-Palaeocene gap: Toward a complete astronomically tuned Palaeocene Epoch and Selandian and Thanetian GSSPs at Zumaia (Basque Basin, W. Pyrenees), Earth and Planetary Science Letters 262: pp 450–467.
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 1873: Tableau des terrains sédimentaires formés pendant les époques de la phase organique du globe terrestre, Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles (Lausanne) 12: pp 218–252.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Thanetian
Paleogene timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Paleogene, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
Paleocene geochronology
Geological ages |
3004866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ypresian | Ypresian | In the geologic timescale the Ypresian is the oldest age or lowest stratigraphic stage of the Eocene. It spans the time between , is preceded by the Thanetian Age (part of the Paleocene) and is followed by the Eocene Lutetian Age. The Ypresian is consistent with the lower Eocene.
Events
The Ypresian Age begins during the throes of the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). The Fur Formation in Denmark, the Messel shales in Germany, the Oise amber of France and Cambay amber of India are of this age. The Eocene Okanagan Highlands are an uplands subtropical to temperate series of lakes from the Ypresian.
The Ypresian is additionally marked by another warming event called the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO). The EECO is the longest sustained warming event in the Cenozoic record, lasting about 2–3 million years between 53 and 50 Ma. The interval is characterized by low oxygen 18 isotopes, high levels of atmospheric pCO2, and low meridional thermal gradients. Biodiversity has been reported to have been significantly impacted by the conditions prevalent during the EECO. For instance, there were biotic turnovers among marine producers such as calcerous nannofossil among others etc.
Stratigraphic definition
The Ypresian Stage was introduced in scientific literature by Belgian geologist André Hubert Dumont in 1850. The Ypresian is named after the Flemish city of Ypres in Belgium (spelled Ieper in Dutch). The definitions of the original stage were totally different from the modern ones. The Ypresian shares its name with the Belgian Ieper Group (French: Groupe d'Ypres), which has an Ypresian age.
The base of the Ypresian Stage is defined at a strong negative anomaly in δ13C values at the PETM. The official reference profile (GSSP) for the base of the Ypresian is the Dababiya profile near the Egyptian city of Luxor. Its original type section was located in the vicinity of Ieper.
The top of the Ypresian (the base of the Lutetian) is identified by the first appearance of the foraminifera genus Hantkenina in the fossil record.
The Ypresian Stage overlaps the upper Neustrian and most of the Grauvian European Land Mammal Mega Zones (it spans the Mammal Paleogene zones 7 through 10.), the Wasatchian and lower and middle Bridgerian North American Land Mammal Ages, the Casamayoran South American Land Mammal Age and the Bumbanian and most of the Arshantan Asian Land Mammal Ages. It is also coeval with the upper Wangerripian and lowest Johannian regional stages of Australia and the Bulitian, Penutian, and Ulatisian regional stages of California.
References
Literature
Dumont, A. H.; 1850: Rapport sur la carte géologique du Royaume, Bulletins de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique 16 (2), pp. 351–373.
Dupuis, C.; Aubry, M.; Steurbaut, É; Berggren, W. A.; Ouda, K.; Magioncalda, R.; Cramer, B. S.; Kent, D. V.; Speijer, R. P. & Heilmann-Clausen, C.; 2003: The Dababiya Quarry Section: Lithostratigraphy, clay mineralogy, geochemistry and paleontology, Micropaleontology 49 (1), pp. 41–59, .
Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G. & Smith, A. G.; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
Steurbaut, É.; 2006: Ypresian , Geologica Belgica 9 (1–2), pp. 73–93.
External links
GeoWhen Database – Ypresian
Paleogene timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Paleogene, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
Eocene geochronology
Geological ages |
3004871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutetian | Lutetian | The Lutetian is, in the geologic timescale, a stage or age in the Eocene. It spans the time between . The Lutetian is preceded by the Ypresian and is followed by the Bartonian. Together with the Bartonian it is sometimes referred to as the Middle Eocene Subepoch.
Stratigraphic definition
The Lutetian was named after Lutetia, the Latin name for the city of Paris. The Lutetian Stage was introduced in scientific literature by French geologist Albert de Lapparent in 1883 and revised by A. Blondeau in 1981.
The base of the Lutetian Stage is at the first appearance of the nanofossil Blackites inflatus, according to an official reference profile (GSSP) established in 2011. Of two candidates located in Spain, the Gorrondatxe section was chosen.
The top of the Lutetian (the base of the Bartonian) is at the first appearance of calcareous nanoplankton species Reticulofenestra reticulata.
The Lutetian overlaps with the Geiseltalian and lower Robiacian European Land Mammal Mega Zones (The Lutetian Stage spans the Mammal Paleogene zones 11 through 15.), the upper Bridgerian and Uintan North American Land Mammal Ages, the upper Arshantan and Irdinmanhan Asian Land Mammal Ages, and the Mustersan and lower Divisaderan South American Land Mammal Ages. It is also coeval with the middle Johannian regional stage of Australia and the upper Ulatisian and lower Nanzian regional stages of California.
References
External links
GeoWhen Database - Lutetian
Paleogene timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Paleogene, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
Eocene geochronology
Geological ages |
3004895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priabonian | Priabonian | The Priabonian is, in the ICS's geologic timescale, the latest age or the upper stage of the Eocene Epoch or Series. It spans the time between . The Priabonian is preceded by the Bartonian and is followed by the Rupelian, the lowest stage of the Oligocene.
Stratigraphic definition
The Priabonian Stage was introduced in scientific literature by Ernest Munier-Chalmas and Albert de Lapparent in 1893. The stage is named after the small hamlet of Priabona in the community of Monte di Malo, in the Veneto region of northern Italy.
The base of the Priabonian Stage is at the first appearance of calcareous nannoplankton species Chiasmolithus oamaruensis (which forms the base of nanoplankton biozone NP18). An official GSSP was ratified in 2020, and was placed in the Alano di Piave section in Alano di Piave, Belluno, Italy.
The top of the Priabonian Stage (the base of the Rupelian Stage and Oligocene Series) is at the extinction of foram genus Hantkenina.
Sometimes local rock strata cannot be correlated in sufficient detail with the ICS timescale, and stratigraphers often use regional timescales as alternatives to the ICS timescale. The Priabonian overlaps for example the upper Johannian and lowers Aldingan stages of the Australian timescale or the upper Nanzian and lower Refugian stages of the Californian timescale. Other regional stages which are more or less coeval with the Priabonian include the Jacksonian of the southeastern US and Runangan of New Zealand.
In biostratigraphy, the Priabonian Stage is coeval with the Chadronian North American Land Mammal Age, the Headonian European Land Mammal Mega Zone (in more detail: with the Mammal Paleogene zones 17A through 20), parts of the Barrancan and Mustersan South American Land Mammal Ages and the Ulangochuian and Ergilian Asian Land Mammal Ages.
References
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 1893: Note sur la nomenclature des terrains sédimentaires, Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 3(21), p. 479-480.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Priabonian
Paleogene timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Paleogene, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
Eocene geochronology
Geological ages |
3004938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupelian | Rupelian | The Rupelian is, in the geologic timescale, the older of two ages or the lower of two stages of the Oligocene Epoch/Series. It spans the time between . It is preceded by the Priabonian Stage (part of the Eocene) and is followed by the Chattian Stage.
Name
The stage is named after the small river Rupel in Belgium, a tributary to the Scheldt. The Belgian Rupel Group derives its name from the same source. The name Rupelian was introduced in scientific literature by Belgian geologist André Hubert Dumont in 1850. The separation between the group and the stage was made in the second half of the 20th century, when stratigraphers saw the need to distinguish between lithostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic names.
Stratigraphic definition
The base of the Rupelian Stage (which is also the base of the Oligocene Series) is at the extinction of the foraminiferan genus Hantkenina. An official GSSP for the base of the Rupelian has been assigned in 1992 (Massignano, Italy). The transition with the Chattian has also been marked with a GSSP in August 2017 (Monte Conero, Italy).
The top of the Rupelian Stage (the base of the Chattian) is at the extinction of the foram genus Chiloguembelina (which is also the base of foram biozone P21b).
The Rupelian overlaps the Orellan, Whitneyan and lower Arikareean North American Land Mammal Ages, the upper Mustersan and Tinguirirican South American Land Mammal Ages, the uppermost Headonian, Suevian and lower Arvernian European Land Mammal Mega Zones (the Rupelian spans the Mammal Paleogene zones 21 through 24 and part of 25), and the lower Hsandgolian Asian Land Mammal Age. It is also coeval with the only regionally used upper Aldingan and lower Janjukian stages of Australia, the upper Refugian and lower Zemorrian stages of California and the lower Kiscellian Paratethys stage of Central and eastern Europe. Other regionally used alternatives include the Stampian, Tongrian, Latdorfian and Vicksburgian.
References
Literature
; 1850: Rapport sur la carte géologique du Royaume, Bulletins de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique 16(2), p. 351-373.
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Rupelian
Neogene timescale (including the upper Paleogene) and Paleogene timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Paleogene, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
Oligocene geochronology
Geological ages |
3004950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chattian | Chattian | The Chattian is, in the geologic timescale, the younger of two ages or upper of two stages of the Oligocene Epoch/Series. It spans the time between . The Chattian is preceded by the Rupelian and is followed by the Aquitanian (the lowest stage of the Miocene).
Stratigraphic definition
The Chattian was introduced by Austrian palaeontologist Theodor Fuchs in 1894. Fuchs named the stage after the Chatti, a Germanic tribe. The original type locality was near the German city of Kassel.
The base of the Chattian is at the extinction of the foram genus Chiloguembelina (which is also the base of foram biozone P21b). An official GSSP for the Chattian Stage was ratified in October of 2016.
The top of the Chattian Stage (which is the base of the Aquitanian Stage, Miocene Series and Neogene System) is at the first appearance of foram species Paragloborotalia kugleri, the extinction of calcareous nanoplankton species Reticulofenestra bisecta (which forms the base of nanoplankton biozone NN1), and the base of magnetic C6Cn.2n.
The Chattian is coeval with regionally used stages or zones such as the upper Avernian European mammal zone (it spans the Mammal Paleogene zones 30 through 26 and part of 25); the upper Geringian and lower Arikareean mammal zones of North America; most of the Deseadan mammal zone of South America; the upper Hsandgolian and whole Tabenbulakian mammal zone of Asia; the upper Kiscellian and lower Egerian Paratethys stages of Central and eastern Europe; the upper Janjukian and lower Longfordian Australian regional stages; the Otaian, Waitakian, and Duntroonian stages of the New Zealand geologic time scale; and part of the Zemorrian Californian stage and Chickasawhayan regional stage of the eastern US.
Volcanic event
During the Chattian the largest known single-event volcanic eruption occurred: the Fish Canyon eruption of La Garita with a magnitude of 9.2 and VEI of 8. It has been dated to ago.
References
Literature
; 1894: Tertiaerfossilien aus den kohlenführenden Miocaenablagerungen der Umgebung von Krapina und Radaboj und über die Stellung der sogenannten "Aquitanischen Stufe", Königlich- Ungarische Geologische Anstalt, Mittheilungen und Jahrbuch 10, p. 163-175.
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 2001: Precise K–Ar, 40Ar/39Ar, Rb–Sr and U/Pb mineral ages from the 27.5 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff reference standard, Chemical Geology 175(3–4), pp 653–671.
; 2004: The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth, Bulletin of Volcanology 66(8), pp 735–748.
External links
Stratigraphy.org: GeoWhen Database for Chattian Age
Purdue.edu: ICS subcommission for stratigraphic information − Neogene timescale (including the upper Paleogene) — by subcommission of International Commission on Stratigraphy− ICS.
NorgesNetwork.no: Stratigraphic chart of the Paleogene Period — Norwegian records of offshore geology and stratigraphy.
Oligocene geochronology
Geological ages |
3005272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSSTA | MSSTA | The Multi-spectral solar telescope array, or MSSTA, was a sounding rocket payload built by Professor A.B.C. Walker, Jr. at Stanford University in the 1990s to test EUV/XUV imaging of the Sun using normal incidence EUV-reflective multilayer optics. MSSTA contained a large number of individual telescopes (> 10), all trained on the Sun and all sensitive to slightly different wavelengths of ultraviolet light. Like all sounding rockets, MSSTA flew for approximately 14 minutes per mission, about 5 minutes of which were in space—just enough time to test a new technology or yield "first results" science. MSSTA is one of the last solar observing instruments to use photographic film rather than a digital camera system such as a CCD. MSSTA used film instead of a CCD in order to achieve the highest possible spatial resolution and to avoid the electronics difficulty presented by the large number of detectors that would have been required for its many telescopes.
MSSTA and its sister rocket, NIXT, were prototypes for normal incidence EUV imaging telescopes that are in use today, as well as the historic EIT instrument aboard the SOHO spacecraft, and the TRACE spacecraft. MSSTA flew three times: once in 1991 (NASA Sounding Rocket flight 36.049), once in 1994 (flight 36.091), and once in 2002 (flight 36.194). While Dr. Walker's 1991 telescope was the first in the series to carry the MSSTA moniker, the precursor to the MSSTA, the Stanford/MSFC Rocket Spectroheliograph (NASA Sounding Rocket flight 27.092), which carried two EUV telescopes in 1987, was the first mission to successfully obtain high-resolution, full-disk solar images utilizing normal incidence EUV optics
. The MSSTA I flown in 1991 carried 14 telescopes; the MSSTA II flown in 1994 carried 19 telescopes; and the MSSTA III flown in 2002 carried 11 telescopes.
Several Stanford Ph.D. degrees in Physics resulted from the MSSTA program. These include those earned by Dr. Joakim Lindblom, Dr. Maxwell J. Allen, Dr. Ray H. O'Neal, Dr. Craig E. DeForest, Dr. Charles C. Kankelborg, Dr. Hakeem Oluseyi, Dr. Dennis S. Martinez-Galarce, and Dr. Paul F.X. Boerner.
References
See also
Rapid Acquisition Imaging Spectrograph Experiment
NIXT
Spacecraft instruments
Ultraviolet telescopes
Solar telescopes
Sounding rockets |
3006528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish%20name%20day%20list%20of%202001 | Swedish name day list of 2001 | This is the current Swedish name day calendar, adopted in 2001 by a work group led by the Swedish Academy. The new list has no official status, but is nevertheless used by most publishers. Several name day lists existed after 1972, when the old name day calendar lost its official status. The new list will be updated every 15 years. Some of the names below are linked to the original saints or martyrs from which they originate.
January
Nyårsdagen (New Year's Day, no name)
Svea
Alfred, Alfrida
Rut
Hanna, Hannele
Kasper, Melker, Baltsar
August, Augusta
Erland
Gunnar, Gunder
Sigurd, Sigbritt
Jan, Jannike
Frideborg, Fridolf
Knut
Felix, Felicia
Laura, Lorentz
Hjalmar, Helmer
Anton, Tony
Hilda, Hildur
Henrik
Fabian, Sebastian
Agnes, Agneta
Vincent, Viktor
Frej, Freja
Erika
Paul, Pål
Bodil, Boel
Göte, Göta
Karl (*), Karla
Diana
Gunilla, Gunhild
Ivar, Joar
February
Max, Maximilian
Kyndelsmässodagen (Candlemas, no name)
Disa, Hjördis
Ansgar, Anselm
Agata, Agda
Dorotea, Doris
Rikard, Dick
Berta, Bert
Fanny, Franciska
Iris
Yngve, Inge
Evelina, Evy
Agne, Ove
Valentin
Sigfrid
Julia, Julius
Alexandra, Sandra
Frida, Fritiof
Gabriella, Ella
Vivianne
Hilding
Pia
Torsten, Torun
Mattias, Mats
Sigvard, Sivert
Torgny, Torkel
Lage
Maria
Leap Day (no name)
March
Albin, Elvira
Ernst, Erna
Gunborg, Gunvor
Adrian, Adriana
Tora, Tove
Ebba, Ebbe
Camilla
Siv, Saga ( 2018 )
Torbjörn, Torleif
Edla, Ada
Edvin, Egon
Viktoria, Victoria (*)
Greger
Matilda, Maud
Kristoffer, Christel
Herbert, Gilbert
Gertrud
Edvard, Edmund
Josef, Josefina
Joakim, Kim
Bengt
Kennet, Kent
Gerda, Gerd
Gabriel, Rafael
Marie bebådelsedag (Annunciation to Mary, no name)
Emanuel
Rudolf, Ralf
Malkolm, Morgan
Jonas, Jens
Holger, Holmfrid
Ester
April
Harald, Hervor
Gudmund, Ingemund
Ferdinand, Nanna
Marianne, Marlene
Irene, Irja
Vilhelm, William ( 2011 )
Irma, Irmelin
Nadja, Tanja
Otto, Ottilia
Ingvar, Ingvor
Ulf, Ylva
Liv
Artur, Douglas
Tiburtius
Olivia, Oliver
Patrik, Patricia
Elias, Elis
Valdemar, Volmar
Olaus, Ola
Amalia, Amelie
Anneli, Annika
Allan, Glenn
Georg, Göran
Vega
Markus
Teresia, Terese
Engelbrekt
Ture, Tyra
Tyko
Mariana
May
Valborg
Filip, Phillip (*) Filippa
John, Jane
Monika, Mona
Gotthard Erhard
Marit, Rita
Carina, Carita
Åke
Reidar, Reidun
Esbjörn, Styrbjörn
Märta, Märit
Charlotta, Lotta
Linnea, Linn
Halvard, Halvar
Sofia, Sonja
Ronald, Ronny
Rebecka, Ruben
Erik
Maj, Majken
Karolina, Carola
Konstantin, Conny
Hemming, Henning
Desideria, Desirée
Ivan, Vanja
Urban
Vilhelmina, Vilma
Beda, Blenda
Ingeborg, Borghild
Yvonne, Jeanette
Vera, Veronika
Petronella, Pernilla
June
Gun, Gunnel
Rutger, Roger
Ingemar, Gudmar
Solbritt, Solveig
Bo
Gustav, Gösta
Robert, Robin
Eivor, Majvor
Börje, Birger
Svante, Boris
Bertil, Berthold
Eskil
Aina, Aino
Håkan, Hakon
Margit, Margot
Axel, Axelina
Torborg, Torvald
Björn, Bjarne
Germund, Görel
Linda
Alf, Alvar
Paulina, Paula
Adolf, Alice
Johannes Döparens dag (John the Baptist's Day, no name)
David, Salomon
Rakel, Lea
Selma, Fingal
Leo
Peter, Petra
Elof, Leif
July
Aron, Mirjam
Rosa, Rosita
Aurora
Ulrika, Ulla
Laila, Ritva
Esaias, Jessika
Klas
Kjell
Jörgen, Örjan
André, Andrea
Eleonora, Ellinor, Leonore (*)
Herman, Hermine
Joel, Judit
Folke
Ragnhild, Ragnvald
Reinhold, Reine
Bruno
Fredrik, Fritz
Sara
Margareta, Greta
Johanna
Magdalena, Madeleine (*)
Emma, Emmy ( 2015 )
Kristina, Kerstin
Jakob
Jesper, Jasmin ( 2015 )
Marta
Botvid, Seved
Olof, Olle
Algot
Helena, Elin
August
Per
Karin, Kajsa
Tage
Arne, Arnold
Ulrik, Alrik
Alfons, Inez
Dennis, Denise
Silvia (*), Sylvia
Roland
Lars
Saint Tiburtius and Saint Susanna
Klara
Kaj
Uno
Stella, Estelle {*}
Brynolf
Verner, Valter
Ellen, Lena
Magnus, Måns
Bernhard, Bernt
Jon, Jonna
Henrietta, Henrika
Signe, Signhild
Bartolomeus
Lovisa, Louise
Östen
Rolf, Raoul
Fatima, Leila ( 2011 )
Hans, Hampus
Albert, Albertina
Arvid, Vidar
September
Samuel, Sam ( 2011 )
Justus, Justina
Alfhild, Alva
Gisela
Adela, Heidi
Lilian (*), Lilly
Kevin, Roy ( 2011 )
Alma, Hulda
Anita, Annette
Tord, Turid
Dagny, Helny
Åsa, Åslög
Sture
Ida, Ronja ( 2018 )
Sigrid, Siri
Dag, Daga
Hildegard, Magnhild
Orvar
Fredrika
Elise, Lisa, James
Matteus
Maurits, Moritz
Tekla, Tea
Gerhard, Gert
Tryggve
Enar, Einar
Dagmar, Rigmor
Lennart, Leonard
Mikael, Mikaela
Helge
October
Ragnar, Ragna
Ludvig, Love
Evald, Osvald
Frans, Frank
Bror
Jenny, Jennifer
Birgitta (*), Britta
Nils
Ingrid, Inger
Harry, Harriet
Erling, Jarl
Valfrid, Manfred
Berit, Birgit
Stellan
Hedvig, Hillevi
Finn
Antonia, Toini
Lukas
Tore, Tor
Sibylla
Ursula, Yrsa
Marika, Marita
Severin, Sören
Evert, Eilert
Inga, Ingalill
Amanda, Rasmus
Sabina
Simon, Simone
Viola
Elsa, Isabella
Edit, Edgar
November
Allhelgonadagen (All Saints' Day, no name)
Tobias
Hubert, Hugo
Sverker
Eugen, Eugenia
Gustav Adolf
Ingegerd, Ingela
Vendela
Teodor, Teodora
Martin, Martina
Mårten
Konrad, Kurt
Kristian, Krister
Emil, Emilia
Leopold
Vibeke, Viveka
Naemi, Naima
Lillemor, Moa
Elisabet, Lisbet
Pontus, Marina
Helga, Olga
Cecilia, Sissela
Klemens
Gudrun, Rune
Katarina, Katja
Linus
Astrid, Asta
Malte
Sune
Andreas, Anders
December
Oskar, Ossian
Beata, Beatrice
Lydia, Cornelia
Barbara, Barbro
Sven
Nikolaus, Niklas, Nicolas
Angela, Angelika
Virginia
Anna
Malin, Malena
Daniel, Daniela
Alexander, Alexis
Lucia
Sten, Sixten
Gottfrid
Assar
Stig
Abraham
Isak
Israel, Moses
Tomas
Natanael, Jonatan
Adam
Eva
Juldagen (Christmas Day, no name)
Stefan, Staffan
Johannes, Johan
Benjamin (also Värnlösa barns dag)
Natalia, Natalie
Abel, Set
Sylvester
References
Culture of Sweden
Sweden
Saints' days
Swedish given names |
3010932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinasat-1 | Vinasat-1 | Vinasat-1 is a satellite launched by Vietnam, marking a significant achievement for the nation. The launch took place on April 18, 2008, at 22:17 GMT, using an Ariane 5 ECA rocket from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana, facilitated by Arianespace. Vinasat is the national satellite program of Vietnam, aimed to facilitate telecommunications links in the country.
Vietnam hopes to achieve various economic benefits due to the improved telecommunications links that the satellite will provide. Vietnam also hopes to provide radio, television, and telephone access throughout the country.
Vinasat-1’s launch was postponed from its original plan in 2005. This was due to its frequency coordination procedures' complexity, which required adherence to the Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
Satellite operations for Vinasat-1 were under the management of Lockheed Martin Commercial Space Systems (LMCSS), as per the delivery-in-orbit contract signed in Hanoi on May 12, 2006. The satellite utilizes the Lockheed Martin A2100's advanced features, which includes 12 Ku band transponders and 8 C band transponders.
See also
Vinasat-2
References
External links
VINASAT:Thanh Nien News Vietnam's first satellite launch delayed until 2008
Vinasat 1 Satellite Vinasat 1 Launch Video.
Communications satellites in geostationary orbit
Telecommunications in Vietnam
2008 in Vietnam
Spacecraft launched in 2008
First artificial satellites of a country
Satellites of Vietnam
Satellites using the A2100 bus |
3012467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugyals | Bugyals | Bugyals are alpine pasture lands, or meadows, in higher elevation range between and of the Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, where they are called "nature’s own gardens". The topography of the terrain is either flat or sloped. The surface of these bugyals is covered with natural green grass and seasonal flowers. They are used by tribal herdsmen to graze their cattle. During the winter season the alpine meadows remain snow-covered. During summer months, the Bugyals present a riot of beautiful flowers and grass. As bugyals constitute very fragile ecosystems, particular attention needs to be given for their conservation.
Some of the notable bugyals are: Auli near Joshimath, Garsi, Kwanri, Gulabi Kantha, Bedni, Panwali Kantha and Kush Kalyan, Dayara, Gidara, Bagji Bugyal and Munsiyari.
List of Bugyals
Conservation issues
Bugyal is a fragile ecosystem and it is essential to maintain a balance between ecology and environment. In this context a court case was filed by the public objecting to erection of the prefab houses and by introducing non-biodegradable matter in the upper meadows of the bugyals by the tourism departments. It was averred that the peace and tranquility of the bugyals was getting affected. The court had ordered that the polluter must pay for the damage to environment based on absolute liability principle, which covered payment of damages to the affected people but also to compensate for all costs for restoration of the degraded environments.
See also
Meadow
Grassland
Shola
References
Bibliography
Pandey, Abhimanyu, Nawraj Pradhan, Swapnil Chaudhari, and Rucha Ghate. "Withering of traditional institutions? An institutional analysis of the decline of migratory pastoralism in the rangelands of the Kailash Sacred Landscape, western Himalayas." Environmental Sociology 3, no. 1 (2017): 87–100.
Montane grasslands and shrublands
Ecoregions of India
Geography of Uttarakhand
Grasslands of India |
3012682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheic%20Ocean | Rheic Ocean | The Rheic Ocean was an ocean which separated two major palaeocontinents, Gondwana and Laurussia (Laurentia-Baltica-Avalonia). One of the principal oceans of the Palaeozoic, its sutures today stretch from Mexico to Turkey and its closure resulted in the assembly of the supercontinent Pangaea and the formation of the Variscan–Alleghenian–Ouachita orogenies.
Etymology
The ocean located between Gondwana and Laurentia in the Early Cambrian was named for Iapetus, in Greek mythology the father of Atlas (from which source the Atlantic Ocean ultimately gets its name), just as the Iapetus Ocean was the predecessor of the Atlantic Ocean. The ocean between Gondwana and Laurussia (Laurentia–Baltica–Avalonia) that existed from the Early Ordovician to the Early Carboniferous was named the Rheic Ocean after Rhea, sister of Iapetus.
Geodynamic evolution
At the beginning of the Paleozoic Era, about 540 million years ago, most of the continental mass on Earth was clustered around the south pole as the paleocontinent Gondwana. The exception was formed by a number of smaller continents, such as Laurentia and Baltica. The Paleozoic ocean between Gondwana, Laurentia and Baltica is called the Iapetus Ocean. The northern edge of Gondwana had been dominated by the Cadomian orogeny during the Ediacaran period. This orogeny formed a cordillera-type volcanic arc where oceanic crust subducted below Gondwana. When a mid-oceanic ridge subducted at an oblique angle, extensional basins developed along the northern margin of Gondwana. During the late Cambrian to Early Ordovician these extensional basins had evolved a rift running along the northern edge of Gondwana. The rift in its turn evolved into a mid-oceanic ridge that separated small continental fragments such as Avalonia and Carolina from the main Gondwanan land mass, leading to the formation of the Rheic Ocean in the Early Ordovician.
As Avalonia-Carolina drifted north from Gondwana, the Rheic Ocean grew and reached its maximum width () in the Silurian. In this process, the Iapetus Ocean closed as Avalonia-Carolina collided with Laurentia and the Appalachian orogeny formed.
The closure of the Rheic began in the Early Devonian and was completed in the Mississippian when Gondwana and Laurentia collided to form Pangaea. This closure resulted in the largest collisional orogen of the Palaeozoic: the Variscan and Alleghanian orogens between Gondwana's West African margin and southern Baltica and eastern Laurentia and the Ouachita orogeny between the Amazonian margin of Gondwana and southern Laurentia.
Effects on life
The Prague Basin, which was an archipelago of humid volcanic islands in the Rheic Ocean on the outer edges of what was then the Gondwanan shelf during the Silurian, was a major hotspot of plant biodiversity during the early stages of the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution. The geologically rapid environmental changes associated with the formation and erosion of volcanic islands and high rates of endemism associated with island ecosystems likely played an important role in driving the rapid early diversification of vascular plants.
It is believed that the closure of the Rheic, alongside the simultaneous onset of the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age, may have sparked the Carboniferous-Earliest Permian Biodiversification Event, an evolutionary radiation of marine life dominated by increase in species richness of fusulinids and brachiopods.
See also
Sources
References
Bibliography
External links
Website of the PALEOMAP Project
Middle Silurian paleoglobe showing the expanding Rheic Ocean
Early Carboniferous paleoglobe showing the almost disappeared Rheic Ocean
Historical oceans
Cambrian paleogeography
Ordovician paleogeography
Silurian bodies of water
Devonian paleogeography
Carboniferous paleogeography |
3013918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIS%20Tower | CIS Tower | The CIS Tower is a high-rise office building on Miller Street in Manchester, England. Designed for the Co-operative Insurance Society (CIS) by architects Gordon Tait and G. S. Hay, the building was completed in 1962 and rises to in height. As of 2023, the Grade II listed building is Greater Manchester's 11th-tallest building and the tallest office building in the United Kingdom outside London. The tower remained as built for over 40 years, until maintenance issues on the service tower required an extensive renovation, which included covering its façade in photovoltaic panels.
Location
The tower is situated on Miller Street, which forms the Manchester Inner Ring Road, and stands adjacent to New Century House, a high-rise office building also designed by Gordon Tait and G. S. Hay and constructed concurrently for the CIS's parent company, the Co-operative Wholesale Society (CWS). The plot on which the building stands had been heavily bombed during World War II and subsequently cleared. The site chosen for CIS Tower and New Century House was one of two areas of land offered by the local authority; the other site was in Piccadilly, but this came with the condition that any development scheme had to include shops and a hotel. Not wishing to compromise their autonomy, the CIS board chose the Miller Street site.
Opposite the tower sits One Angel Square, which opened in 2013 and serves as the headquarters of the Co-operative Group (the successor to the CWS). The complex of buildings form NOMA (a portmanteau of 'North Manchester'), a area of land previously known as the Co-operative Estate. The area was developed by the Co-operative Group in a joint venture with Hermes Investment Management. In 2017, the Co-operative Group sold its stake in NOMA to Hermes Investment Management in order to focus on its core retail business, however, it remains a tenant in several buildings. More than 6,500 people work in the neighbourhood.
Design
Form
The office tower building rises above a five-storey podium block. Each of the podium floors is , providing floor space per storey. Each office floor in the tower is , creating floor space per storey. The tower element consists of the steel-framed main office building and a windowless reinforced concrete service tower. The service tower rises higher than the main office block and houses lifts and stairwells.
The building has a symmetrical plan, with the main tower rising up from the north-eastern end of the podium block and projecting at the front over the first two floors and the main entrance. The service tower is attached to the centre of the main tower's south-west side, forming a squat T-shape. In total, the building has of floor area, with clear open spaces on the office floors.
Façade
Both the office tower and podium feature glass curtain walls with metal window frames. Black vitreous enamel panels demarcate the floor levels. The building materials, glass, enamelled steel and aluminium, were chosen so that the building could remain clean in the polluted Manchester atmosphere.
The tower's concrete service shaft, which rises above the office tower, has two bands of vents at the top and was clad in a mosaic made up of 14 million centimetre-square grey tesserae. designed to shimmer and sparkle.
Interiors
A green bronze-like, abstract mural sculpted by William Mitchell made from fibreglass covers the entrance hall's rear wall. Interiors were designed by Misha Black of the Design Research Unit. The executive areas are delineated by the use of teak and cherry wood veneers.
Development
Planning
The CIS board of directors decided that a new headquarters was needed to accommodate its 2,500 staff, who were dispersed in 10 different buildings across Manchester. In January 1953, CIS General Manager Robert Dinnage told his board to begin planning a new head office and that year entered into initial discussions with Manchester Corporation (now Manchester City Council). The design brief for the building, devised by Dinnage, was threefold: to convey the prestige of the CIS and the co-operative movement; to improve the appearance of Manchester in which the Society was one of the largest financial organisations; and to provide first-class accommodation for the staff.
The CIS board formed a chief office premises sub-committee to oversee the project. A deputation of appointed architects, designers and directors travelled to Italy, the United States and Canada to examine contemporary office design. The tower's design was influenced by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill's Inland Steel Building in Chicago after a visit by the architects in 1958. Having viewed the Inland Steel Building, the project team decided to aim for clear unbroken floors unobstructed by lift shafts and toilets to provide maximum flexibility.
In 1958, the company proposed building an office tower block, designed by G.S. Hay, chief architect of the CWS with Gordon Tait of Sir John Burnet, Tait and Partners.
Construction
Construction began in September 1959 and was completed in 1962 at a cost of £3.98 million (equivalent to approximately £86.8 million in 2020). The main contractors for the CIS Tower were John Laing Construction Ltd, with A.E. Beer as the structural engineering consultant, and O. Castick, Chief Engineer of CWS as the engineering services consultant.
The CIS Tower was officially opened by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh on 22 October 1962. At , the tower overtook the Shell Centre as the tallest building in the United Kingdom, a title it retained for a year until it was replaced by the Millbank Tower in London. It remained the tallest building in Greater Manchester until it was surpassed by the Beetham Tower in 2006.
Renovation
Within six months of construction, some of the mosaic tiles on the service tower became detached owing to cement failure and lack of expansion joints in the concrete. Although the tower was granted listed building status in 1995, falling tiles were an ongoing problem. English Heritage had to be consulted as alterations could change the building's appearance.
In 2004, CIS consulted Solarcentury with a view to replacing the deteriorating mosaic with 575.5 kW of blue building-integrated photovoltaic (PV) cells which would generate approximately 180,000 kWh (average of 20 kW) of electricity per year. The work was completed by Arup and at that time was the largest commercial solar façade in Europe. The PV cells made by Sharp Electronics began feeding electricity to the National Grid in November 2005.
The project, which cost £5.5 million, was partly funded by the Northwest Regional Development Agency which granted £885,000 and the Energy Savings Trust at the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) contributed £175,000. The solar power project was chosen by the DTI as one of the "10 best green energy projects" of 2005.
Critical reception and listed status
Upon its completion, the tower was praised by the architectural press and was awarded the bronze medal by the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1962. In the 1990s, it was granted Grade II listed building status by English Heritage. The tower, described as "the best of the Manchester 1960s office blocks", was listed for its "discipline and consistency".
See also
Listed buildings in Manchester-M60
Building-integrated photovoltaics
List of tallest buildings and structures in Greater Manchester
References
References
Bibliography
Photovoltaics
Office buildings completed in 1962
The Co-operative Group
Office buildings in Manchester
Grade II listed buildings in Manchester
Office buildings in England
Modernist architecture in England
International style architecture in England |
3020167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How%20to%20Stuff%20a%20Wild%20Bikini | How to Stuff a Wild Bikini | How to Stuff a Wild Bikini is a 1965 Pathécolor beach party film from American International Pictures. The sixth entry in a seven-film series, the movie features Mickey Rooney, Annette Funicello, Dwayne Hickman, Brian Donlevy, and Beverly Adams. The film features a brief appearance by Frankie Avalon and includes Buster Keaton in one of his last roles.
Plot
Frankie (Avalon) goes to Tahiti on Naval Reserve duty. While cavorting with local girls, Frankie realizes that Dee Dee (Annette Funicello) might be unfaithful to him. When Frankie seeks help from a witch doctor (Buster Keaton), the witch doctor sends a sea beauty, Cassandra (Beverly Adams), to lure Ricky (Dwayne Hickman), an advertising executive, away from Dee Dee.
Upon Cassandra's arrival, the beach turns upside down, as all the surfers fall for her, an executive wants to make her a model, and Eric Von Zipper (Harvey Lembeck) and his motorcycle gang add to the trouble.
Cast
Annette Funicello as Dee Dee
Dwayne Hickman as Ricky
Brian Donlevy as B. D. (Big Deal) McPherson
Harvey Lembeck as Eric Von Zipper
Beverly Adams as Cassandra
John Ashley as Johnny
Jody McCrea as Bonehead
Marianne Gaba as Animal
Len Lesser as North Dakota Pete
Irene Tsu as Native Girl
Arthur Julian as Dr. Melamed
Bobbi Shaw as Khola Koku
The Kingsmen as Themselves
Alberta Nelson as Puss
Buster Keaton as Bwana
Mickey Rooney as Peachy (J. Peachmont) Keane
Frankie Avalon as Frankie
Michele Carey as Michele
Elizabeth Montgomery as Bwana's daughter
Production
How to Stuff a Wild Bikini was the last "beach party" film to feature Frankie Avalon and Annette Funicello. Avalon appeared on-screen for about six minutes and interacted only very briefly with Funicello. His small role was attributed to the fact that he was filming another AIP production, 1965's Sergeant Deadhead.
Dwayne Hickman played the male lead, a man trying to woo Funicello's character away from her absent boyfriend. Tommy Kirk was originally announced as the male lead, but shortly before filming, he was arrested for possession of marijuana, so he was dropped and replaced by Hickman. Mickey Rooney agreed to play a supporting role at $5,000 for one week's work to pay off some tax debts.
Filming started April 12, 1965, and took 15 days. It was the only film in the series where John Ashley sang lead male vocals.
Funicello was pregnant during shooting and was shot mostly wearing blousy tunics or with a prop in front of her (e.g., a bowl of popcorn, a bucket of Kentucky Fried Chicken). She wrote in her memoirs that her pregnancy and Avalon's absence made this one of her least-favorite beach-party movies. The film featured the only big-screen appearance by The Kingsmen, who performed "Give Her Lovin' ".
Elizabeth Montgomery, who at the time was married to the film's director, William Asher, made a cameo appearance in the closing scenes as the witch doctor's daughter, a woman with her own magical powers. Montgomery was instantly recognizable during this period as the star of the hit TV sitcom Bewitched, also directed by Asher, so this small film role was a parody of her TV role.
The opening credits were done using clay animation done by Art Clokey, the creator of Gumby.
Reception
Variety called it a "lightweight affair lacking the breeziness and substance of earlier entries." The critic from the Los Angeles Times called the movie a "breezy number". The New York Times said it was "the answer to a moron's prayer."
Soundtrack
How To Stuff A Wild Bikini, the soundtrack for the film, was released in 1965. Most of the songs are performed by various cast members, with two numbers by The Kingsmen. The album was released in both mono (WDM 671) and stereo (WDS 671) versions, with the latter being very scarce. The stereo release was reissued on CD by Real Gone Music in July 2014.
Track listing
All songs written by Guy Hemric & Jerry Styner except "Give Her Lovin' " by Lynn Easton. Songs are in slightly different order from the movie.
Production credits
Producer: American International
Publisher: DiJon Music
Liner notes: Joe Bogart and Frank Costa (WMCA Music Department)
Home media
In 2001, How to Stuff a Wild Bikini was released by MGM on Region 1 DVD. Since its initial DVD release, the film has been included in two box sets, Frankie & Annette MGM Movie Legends Collection and Midnite Movies Double Feature, along with selected Beach Party films.
Olive Films released a Blu-Ray of How to Stuff a Wild Bikini on June 25, 2019.
See also
List of American films of 1965
References
External links
Soundtrack album at Beach Party Movie Music
How to Stuff a Wild Bikini at Brian's Drive-In Theatre
Record World album review, September 4, 1965 issue.
1965 films
1965 musical comedy films
1965 romantic comedy films
1960s teen films
American International Pictures films
American musical comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American romantic musical films
American sequel films
Beach party films
Bikinis
Columbia Pictures films
1960s English-language films
Films directed by William Asher
Films scored by Les Baxter
Films set in French Polynesia
Teensploitation
1960s American films
Films about witch doctors |
3023755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20eclipses%20on%20Jupiter | Solar eclipses on Jupiter | Solar eclipses on Jupiter occur when any of the natural satellites of Jupiter pass in front of the Sun as seen from the planet Jupiter.
For bodies which appear smaller in angular diameter than the Sun, the proper term would be a transit. For bodies which are larger than the apparent size of the Sun, the proper term would be an occultation.
There are five satellites capable of completely occulting the Sun: Amalthea, Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. All of the others are too small or too distant to be able to completely occult the Sun, so can only transit the Sun. Most of the more distant satellites also have orbits that are strongly inclined to the plane of Jupiter's orbit, and would rarely be seen to transit.
When the four largest satellites of Jupiter, the Galilean satellites, occult the Sun, a shadow transit can be seen on the surface of Jupiter which can be observed from Earth in telescopes.
Eclipses of the Sun from Jupiter are not particularly rare, since Jupiter is very large and its axial tilt (which is related to the plane of the orbits of its satellites) is relatively small—indeed, the vast majority of the orbits of all five of the objects capable of occulting the Sun will result in a solar occultation visible from somewhere on Jupiter.
The related phenomenon of satellite eclipses in the shadow of Jupiter has been observed since the time of Giovanni Cassini and Ole Rømer in the mid Seventeenth Century. It was soon noticed that predicted times differed from observed times in a regular way, varying from up to ten minutes early to up to ten minutes late. Rømer correctly realized that the variations were caused by the varying distance between Earth and Jupiter as the two planets moved in their orbits around the Sun. Later, in 1678, Christiaan Huygens used these errors to make the first accurate determination of the speed of light.
Spacecraft can be used to observe the solar eclipses on Jupiter; these include Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 (1973 and 1974), Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 (1979), Galileo orbiter (1995–2003), Cassini–Huygens (2000), New Horizons (2007), and Juno (2016-present) observed the transits of their moons and its shadows.
Visibility from Jupiter
The mean angular diameter of the Sun as viewed from Jupiter is 372 arc-seconds, or 6' 12" (about that of the Sun as viewed from Earth), varying slightly from 381" at perihelion to 357" at aphelion. Unlike the near coincidence of the apparent sizes of the Moon and Sun as viewed from Earth, this perspective exaggerates the apparent diameters of all the Galilean moons in comparison to the Sun. Even distant Callisto is over 50% larger, and Io is nearly six times as large. This disparity in angular size makes the moons' shadows on Jupiter more defined than the lunar shadow on Earth during a total solar eclipse, as it narrows the penumbra for a given distance.
Gallery
References
External links
- includes shadows only from Europa and distant Callisto
Brufau, Rainer. (2021). Triple shadow phenomena on Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus from 1000 CE to 3000 CE (Version 0) [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5515898
Solar eclipses by planet
Jupiter |
3025906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauterivian | Hauterivian | The Hauterivian is, in the geologic timescale, an age in the Early Cretaceous Epoch or a stage in the Lower Cretaceous Series. It spans the time between 132.6 ± 2 Ma and 125.77 (million years ago). The Hauterivian is preceded by the Valanginian and succeeded by the Barremian.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Hauterivian was introduced in scientific literature by Swiss geologist Eugène Renevier in 1873. It is named after the Swiss town of Hauterive at the shore of Lake Neuchâtel.
The base of the Hauterivian is defined as the place in the stratigraphic column where the ammonite genus Acanthodiscus first appears. A reference profile for the base (a GSSP) was officially ratified by the International Union of Geological Sciences in December of 2019, and is placed in La Charce, France. The top of the Hauterivian (the base of the Barremian) is at the first appearance of ammonite species Spitidiscus hugii.
In the ammonite biostratigraphy of the Tethys domain, the Hauterivian contains seven ammonite biozones:
zone of Pseudothurmannia ohmi
zone of Balearites balearis
zone of Plesiospitidiscus ligatus
zone of Subsaynella sayni
zone of Lyticoceras nodosoplicatus
zone of Crioceratites loryi
zone of Acanthodiscus radiatus
Climate
Some palaeoclimatological studies indicate that a brief ice age, known as the Hauterivian cold snap, occurred during this age. The Hauterivian cold snap appears to be associated with permafrost at high elevations and large ice sheets that potentially stretched as far south as the modern Iberian Peninsula, based on the existence of Hauterivian ice-rafted dropstones in Iberia. Cold conditions are also known to have existed in the Southern Hemisphere during the same time period, based on records from Australia. Similar cold periods with associated glaciations are also known from the earlier Valanginian and the later Aptian & early Albian periods, all contrasting with the typical image of the Cretaceous as a greenhouse period.
References
Notes
Literature
; (2004): A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Hauterivian
Mid-Cretaceous timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Lower Cretaceous, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
Hauterivian Microfossils: 25+ images of Foraminifera
03
Geological ages
Cretaceous geochronology |
3025914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenomanian | Cenomanian | The Cenomanian is, in the ICS' geological timescale, the oldest or earliest age of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or the lowest stage of the Upper Cretaceous Series. An age is a unit of geochronology; it is a unit of time; the stage is a unit in the stratigraphic column deposited during the corresponding age. Both age and stage bear the same name.
As a unit of geologic time measure, the Cenomanian Age spans the time between 100.5 and 93.9 million years ago (Mya). In the geologic timescale, it is preceded by the Albian and is followed by the Turonian. The Upper Cenomanian starts around at 95 Mya.
The Cenomanian is coeval with the Woodbinian of the regional timescale of the Gulf of Mexico and the early part of the Eaglefordian of the regional timescale of the East Coast of the United States.
At the end of the Cenomanian, an anoxic event took place, called the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event or the "Bonarelli event", that is associated with a minor extinction event for marine species.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Cenomanian was introduced in scientific literature by French palaeontologist Alcide d'Orbigny in 1847. Its name comes from the Neo-Latin name of the French city of Le Mans (département Sarthe), Cenomanum.
The base of the Cenomanian Stage (which is also the base of the Upper Cretaceous Series) is placed at the first appearance of foram species Rotalipora globotruncanoides in the stratigraphic record. An official reference profile for the base of the Cenomanian (a GSSP) is located in an outcrop at the western flank of Mont Risou, near the village of Rosans in the French Alps (département Hautes-Alpes, coordinates: 44°23'33"N, 5°30'43"E). The base is, in the reference profile, located 36 meters below the top of the Marnes Bleues Formation.
The top of the Cenomanian (the base of the Turonian) is at the first appearance of ammonite species Watinoceras devonense.
Important index fossils for the Cenomanian are the ammonites Calycoceras naviculare, Acanthoceras rhotomagense, and Mantelliceras mantelli.
Sequence stratigraphy and palaeoclimatology
The late Cenomanian represents the highest mean sea level observed in the Phanerozoic eon, the past 600 million years (about 150 meters above present-day sea levels). A corollary is that the highlands were at all time lows, so the landscape on Earth was one of warm broad shallow seas inundating low-lying land areas on the precursors to today's continents. What few lands rose above the waves were made of old mountains and hills, upland plateaus, all much weathered. Tectonic mountain building was minimal and most continents were isolated by large stretches of water. Without highlands to break winds, the climate would have been windy and waves large, adding to the weathering and fast rate of sediment deposition.
References
Further reading
Gradstein, F.M.; Ogg, J.G. & Smith, A.G.; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
Kennedy, W.J.; Gale, A.S.; Lees, J.A. & Caron, M.; 2004: The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Cenomanian Stage, Mont Risou, Hautes-Alpes, France, Episodes 27, pp. 21–32.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Cenomanian
Late Cretaceous timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Lower Cretaceous (including the Cenomanian), at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
Cenomanian Microfossils: 20+ images of Foraminifera
01
Geological ages
Cretaceous geochronology |
3025919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turonian | Turonian | The Turonian is, in the ICS' geologic timescale, the second age in the Late Cretaceous Epoch, or a stage in the Upper Cretaceous Series. It spans the time between 93.9 ± 0.8 Ma and 89.8 ± 1 Ma (million years ago). The Turonian is preceded by the Cenomanian Stage and underlies the Coniacian Stage.
At the beginning of the Turonian an oceanic anoxic event (OAE 2) took place, also referred to as the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event or the "Bonarelli Event".
Stratigraphic definition
The Turonian (French: Turonien) was defined by the French paleontologist Alcide d'Orbigny (1802–1857) in 1842. Orbigny named it after the French city of Tours in the region of Touraine (department Indre-et-Loire), which is the original type locality.
The base of the Turonian Stage is defined as the place where the ammonite species Watinoceras devonense first appears in the stratigraphic column. The official reference profile (the GSSP) for the base of the Turonian is located in the Rock Canyon anticline near Pueblo, Colorado (United States, coordinates: 38° 16' 56" N, 104° 43' 39" W).
The top of the Turonian Stage (the base of the Coniacian) is defined as the place in the stratigraphic column where the inoceramid bivalve species Cremnoceramus rotundatus first appears.
Subdivision
The Turonian is sometimes subdivided in Lower/Early, Middle and Upper/Late substages or subages. In the Tethys domain, it contains the following ammonite biozones:
zone of Subprionocyclus neptuni (in the Upper Turonian)
zone of Collignoniceras woollgari (in the Middle Turonian)
zone of Mammites nodosoides
zone of Watinoceras coloradoense or Watinoceras devonense (last two both in the Lower Turonian)
Other important index fossils are species of the inoceramid genus Inoceramus (I. schloenbachi, I. lamarcki and I. labiatus). Inoceramids are bivalve Mollusca related to today's mussels.
References
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 2005: The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Turonian Stage of the Cretaceous: Pueblo, Colorado, U.S.A., Episodes 28(2): pp 93–104.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Turonian
Late Cretaceous timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic charts of the Cretaceous: and , at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
Turonian Microfossils: 48 images of Foraminifera
02
Geological ages
Cretaceous geochronology |
3025925 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coniacian | Coniacian | The Coniacian is an age or stage in the geologic timescale. It is a subdivision of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or Upper Cretaceous Series and spans the time between 89.8 ± 1 Ma and 86.3 ± 0.7 Ma (million years ago). The Coniacian is preceded by the Turonian and followed by the Santonian.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Coniacian is named after the city of Cognac in the French region of Saintonge. It was first defined by French geologist Henri Coquand in 1857.
The base of the Coniacian Stage is at the first appearance of the inoceramid bivalve species Cremnoceramus deformis erectus. The official reference profile for the base (a GSSP) is located in Salzgitter-Salder, Lower Saxony, Germany.
The top of the Coniacian (the base of the Santonian Stage) is defined by the appearance of the inoceramid bivalve Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus.
The Coniacian overlaps the regional Emscherian Stage of Germany, which is roughly coeval with the Coniacian and Santonian Stages. In magnetostratigraphy, the Coniacian is part of magnetic chronozone C34, the so-called Cretaceous Magnetic Quiet Zone, a relatively long period with normal polarity.
Sequence stratigraphy and geochemistry
After a maximum of the global sea level during the early Turonian, the Coniacian was characterized by a gradual fall of the sea level. This cycle is in sequence stratigraphy seen as a first order cycle. During the middle Coniacian a shorter, second order cycle, caused a temporary rise of the sea level (and global transgressions) on top of the longer first order trend. The following regression (Co1, at 87,0 Ma) separates the Middle from the Upper Coniacian Substage. An even shorter third order cycle caused a new transgression during the Late Coniacian.
Beginning in the Middle Coniacian, an anoxic event (OAE-3) occurred in the Atlantic Ocean, causing large scale deposition of black shales in the Atlantic domain. The anoxic event lasted till the Middle Santonian (from 87.3 to 84.6 Ma) and is the longest and last such event during the Cretaceous period.
Subdivision
The Coniacian is often subdivided into Lower, Middle and Upper Substages. It encompasses three ammonite biozones in the Tethys domain:
zone of Paratexanites serratomarginatus
zone of Gauthiericeras margae
zone of Peroniceras tridorsatum
In the boreal domain the Coniacian overlaps just one ammonite biozone: that of Forresteria petrocoriensis
References
Notes
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 2006: Origins and accumulation of organic matter in expanded Albian to Santonian black shale sequences on the Demerara Rise, South American margin, Organic Geochemistry 37, pp 1816–1830.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Coniacian
Late Cretaceous timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Late Cretaceous, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
03
Geological ages
Cretaceous geochronology |
3025931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santonian | Santonian | The Santonian is an age in the geologic timescale or a chronostratigraphic stage. It is a subdivision of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or Upper Cretaceous Series. It spans the time between 86.3 ± 0.7 mya (million years ago) and 83.6 ± 0.7 mya. The Santonian is preceded by the Coniacian and is followed by the Campanian.
Stratigraphic definition
The Santonian Stage was established by French geologist Henri Coquand in 1857. It is named after the city of Saintes in the region of Saintonge, where the original type locality is located.
The base of the Santonian Stage is defined by the appearance of the inoceramid bivalve Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus. The GSSP (official reference profile) for the base of the Santonian Stage is located near Olazagutia, Spain; it was ratified by the Subcommission on Cretaceous Stratigraphy in 2012. The Santonian's top (the base of the Campanian Stage) is informally marked by the extinction of the crinoid Marsupites testudinarius. A GSSP for the top of the Santonian was ratified in October 2022 in Bottaccione, Gubbio, Italy.
Subdivision
The Santonian is sometimes subdivided into Lower, Middle and Upper Substages. In the Tethys domain the Santonian is coeval with a single ammonite biozone: that of Placenticeras polyopsis. Biostratigraphy based on inoceramids, nanoplankton or forams is more detailed.
References
Notes
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Santonian
Late Cretaceous timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Late Cretaceous, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
04
Geological ages
Cretaceous geochronology |
3025944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hettangian | Hettangian | The Hettangian is the earliest age and lowest stage of the Jurassic Period of the geologic timescale. It spans the time between 201.3 ± 0.2 Ma and 199.3 ± 0.3 Ma (million years ago). The Hettangian follows the Rhaetian (part of the Triassic Period) and is followed by the Sinemurian.
In European stratigraphy the Hettangian is a part of the time span in which the Lias was deposited. An example is the British Blue Lias, which has an upper Rhaetian to Sinemurian age. Another example is the lower Lias from the Northern Limestone Alps where well-preserved but very rare ammonites, including Alsatites, have been found.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Hettangian was introduced in the literature by Swiss palaeontologist, Eugène Renevier, in 1864. The stage takes its name from Hettange-Grande, a town in north-eastern France, just south of the border with Luxembourg on the main road from Luxembourg City to Metz.
The base of the Hettangian Stage (which is also the base of the Lower Jurassic Series and the entire Jurassic System) is defined as the place in the stratigraphic column where fossils of the ammonite genus Psiloceras first appear. A global reference profile (a GSSP) for the base was defined 2010 for an exposure of the Kendlbach Formation at the Kuhjoch section in the Karwendel Mountains of western Austria. The top of the Hettangian Stage (the base of the Sinemurian) is at the first appearances of ammonite genera Vermiceras and Metophioceras.
Biostratigraphy
The Hettangian contains three ammonite biozones in the Tethys domain:
zone of Schlotheimia angulata
zone of Alsatites liasicus
zone of Psiloceras planorbis
See also
Triassic-Jurassic extinction event
Komlosaurus carbonis
References
Notes
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
: Notices géologiques et paléontologiques sur les Alpes Vaudoises, et les régions environnantes. I. Infralias et Zone à Avicula contorta (Étage Rhaetien) des Alpes Vaudoises Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles 8, p. 39-97.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Hettangian
Lower Jurassic timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Lower Jurassic, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
01
Geological ages |
3025949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinemurian | Sinemurian | In the geologic timescale, the Sinemurian is an age and stage in the Early or Lower Jurassic Epoch or Series. It spans the time between 199.5 ±0.3 Ma and 192.9 ±0.3 Ma (million years ago). The Sinemurian is preceded by the Hettangian and is followed by the Pliensbachian.
In Europe the Sinemurian age, together with the Hettangian age, saw the deposition of the lower Lias, in Great Britain known as the Blue Lias.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Sinemurian Stage was defined and introduced into scientific literature by French palaeontologist Alcide d'Orbigny in 1842. It takes its name from the French town of Semur-en-Auxois, near Dijon. The calcareous soil formed from the Jurassic limestone of the region is in part responsible for the character of the classic Sancerre wines.
The base of the Sinemurian Stage is at the first appearance of the ammonite genera Vermiceras and Metophioceras in the stratigraphic record. A global reference profile (GSSP or golden spike) for the Sinemurian Stage is located in a cliff north of the hamlet of East Quantoxhead, east of Watchet, Somerset, England.
The top of the Sinemurian (the base of the Pliensbachian) is at the first appearances of the ammonite species Bifericeras donovani and ammonite genus Apoderoceras.
The Sinemurian contains six ammonite biozones in the Tethys domain:
zone of Echioceras raricostatum
zone of Oxynoticeras oxynotum
zone of Asteroceras obtusum
zone of Caenisites turneri
zone of Arnioceras semicostatum
zone of Arietites bucklandi
References
Sources
; 2001: Global Stratotype Section and Point for base of the Sinemurian Stage (Lower Jurassic), Episodes 25(1), pp. 22–28, PDF
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 1842: Paléontologie française. 1. Terrains oolitiques ou jurassiques, Bertrand, Paris.
See also
Komlosaurus carbonis
External links
GeoWhen Database - Sinemurian
Lower Jurassic timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Lower Jurassic, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
02
Geological ages |
3025952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliensbachian | Pliensbachian | The Pliensbachian is an age of the geologic timescale and stage in the stratigraphic column. It is part of the Early or Lower Jurassic Epoch or Series and spans the time between 192.9 ±0.3 Ma and 184.2 ±0.3 Ma (million years ago). The Pliensbachian is preceded by the Sinemurian and followed by the Toarcian.
The Pliensbachian ended with the extinction event called the Toarcian turnover. During the Pliensbachian, the middle part of the Lias was deposited in Europe. The Pliensbachian is roughly coeval with the Charmouthian regional stage of North America.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Pliensbachian takes its name from the hamlet of Pliensbach in the community of Zell unter Aichelberg in the Swabian Alb, some 30 km east of Stuttgart in Germany. The name was introduced into scientific literature by German palaeontologist Albert Oppel in 1858.
The base of the Pliensbachian is at the first appearances of the ammonite species Bifericeras donovani and genera Apoderoceras and Gleviceras. The Wine Haven profile near Robin Hood's Bay (Yorkshire, England) has been appointed as global reference profile for the base (GSSP).
The top of the Pliensbachian (the base of the Toarcian Stage) is at the first appearance of ammonite genus Eodactylites.
Biostratigraphy
The Pliensbachian contains five ammonite biozones in the boreal domain:
zone of Pleuroceras spinatum
zone of Amaltheus margaritatus
zone of Prodactylioceras davoei
zone of Tragophylloceras ibex
zone of Uptonia jamesoni
In the Tethys domain, the Pliensbachian contains six biozones:
zone of Emaciaticeras emaciatum
zone of Arieticeras algovianum
zone of Fuciniceras lavinianum
zone of Prodactylioceras davoei
zone of Tragophylloceras ibex
zone of Uptonia jamesoni
References
Notes
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 2002: The Lower Lias of Robin Hood's Bay, Yorkshire, and the work of Leslie Bairstow, Bulletin of the Natural History Museum. Geology Series 58, p. 81–152, Cambridge University Press, The Natural History Museum, (abstract)
; 2006: The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Pliensbachian Stage (Lower Jurassic), Wine Haven, Yorkshire, UK, Episodes 29(2), pp. 93–106.
; 1856-1858: Die Juraformation Englands, Frankreichs und des südwestlichen Deutschlands: nach ihren einzelnen Gliedern engetheilt und verglichen, 857 pp., Ebner & Seubert, Stuttgart.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Pliensbachian
Lower Jurassic timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Lower Jurassic, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
03
Geological ages |
3025956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordian%20%28stage%29 | Oxfordian (stage) | The Oxfordian is, in the ICS' geologic timescale, the earliest age of the Late Jurassic Epoch, or the lowest stage of the Upper Jurassic Series. It spans the time between 161.5 ± 1.0 Ma and 154.8 ± 0.8 Ma (million years ago). The Oxfordian is preceded by the Callovian and is followed by the Kimmeridgian.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Oxfordian Stage was called "Clunch Clay and Shale" by William Smith (1815–1816); in 1818 W. Buckland described them under the unwieldy title "Oxford, Forest or Fen Clay". The term Oxfordian was introduced by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1844. The name is derived from the English city of Oxford, where the beds are well developed, but they crop out almost continuously from Dorset to the coast of Yorkshire, generally forming low, broad valleys. They are well exposed at Weymouth, Oxford, Bedford, Peterborough, and in the cliffs at Scarborough, Red Cliff and Gristhorpe Bay. Rocks of this age are found also in Uig and Skye.
The base of the Oxfordian Stage is defined as the point in the stratigraphic record where the ammonite species Brightia thuouxensis first appears. A global reference profile for the base (a GSSP) had in 2009 not yet been assigned. The top of the Oxfordian Stage (the base of the Kimmeridgian) is at the first appearance of ammonite species Pictonia baylei.
In the Tethys domain, the Oxfordian contains six ammonite biozones:
zone of Epipeltoceras bimammatum
zone of Perishinctes bifurcatus
zone of Gregoryceras transversarium
zone of Perisphinctes plicatilis
zone of Cardioceras cordatum
zone of Quenstedtoceras mariae
References
Notes
Literature
; 1829: Tableau théorique de la succession et de la disposition la plus générale on Europa, des terrains et roches, qui composent l'écorce de la terre, Paris.
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Oxfordian
Jurassic-Cretaceous timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Upper Jurassic, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
01
Geological ages
1827 introductions
Culture in Oxford |
3025960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimmeridgian | Kimmeridgian | In the geologic timescale, the Kimmeridgian is an age in the Late Jurassic Epoch and a stage in the Upper Jurassic Series. It spans the time between 154.8 ±0.8 Ma and 149.2 ±0.7 Ma (million years ago). The Kimmeridgian follows the Oxfordian and precedes the Tithonian.
Stratigraphic definition
The Kimmeridgian Stage takes its name from the village of Kimmeridge on the Dorset coast, England. The name was introduced into the literature by French geologist Alcide d'Orbigny in 1842. The Kimmeridge Clay Formation takes its name from the same type location (although this formation extends from the Kimmeridgian stage of the Upper Jurassic into the Lower Cretaceous). It is the source for about 95% of the petroleum in the North Sea.
Historically, the term Kimmeridgian has been used in two different ways. The base of the interval is the same but the top was defined by British stratigraphers as the base of the Portlandian (sensu anglico) whereas in France the top was defined as the base of the Tithonian (sensu gallico). The differences have not yet been fully resolved; Tithonian is the uppermost stage of the Jurassic in the timescale of the ICS.
The base of the Kimmeridgian is at the first appearance of ammonite species Pictonia baylei in the stratigraphic column. The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Kimmeridgian is the Flodigarry section at Staffin Bay on the Isle of Skye, Scotland, which was ratified in 2021. The boundary is defined by the first appearance of ammonites marking the boreal Bauhini Zone and the subboreal Baylei Zone. The top of the Kimmeridgian (the base of the Tithonian) is at the first appearance of ammonite species Hybonoticeras hybonotum. It also coincides with the top of magnetic anomaly M22An.
Subdivision
The Kimmeridgian is sometimes subdivided into Upper and Lower substages. In the Tethys domain, the Kimmeridgian contains seven ammonite biozones:
zone of Hybonoticeras beckeri
zone of Aulacostephanus eudoxus
zone of Aspidoceras acanthicum
zone of Crussoliceras divisum
zone of Ataxioceras hypselocyclum
zone of Sutneria platynota
zone of Idoceras planula
References
Notes
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 1832: Sur Les Soulèvemens Jurassiques Du Porrentruy: Description Géognostique de la Série Jurassique et Théorie Orographique du Soulèvement, Mémoires de la Société d'histoire naturelle de Strasbourg 1: pp 1–84, F. G. Levrault, Paris.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Kimmeridgian
Jurassic-Cretaceous timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Stratigraphic chart of the Upper Jurassic, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
02
Geological ages |
3026049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sina-1 | Sina-1 | Sina-1 () is the first Iranian artificial satellite, launched at 6:52 UTC October 28, 2005 on board a Cosmos-3M Russian launch vehicle from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome. The rocket was also carrying a Russian military Mozhayets-5 satellite, a Chinese China-DMC, a British TopSat, a European Space Agency SSETI Express (Student Space Exploration and Technology Initiative-Express), a Norwegian nCube, a German UWE-1, and a Japanese XI-V. Sina-1 Satellite Catalog Number or USSPACECOM object number is 28893 .
In 2003, then-Defense Minister Admiral Ali Shamkhani announced that Iran would launch its first satellite on a locally produced launch vehicle within eighteen months. The plan was to develop a booster based on the Shahab-3 medium-range ballistic missile.
When difficulties arose with indigenous booster development, the Iranian Institute of Applied Research turned to the Omsk-based Russian company Polyot. Polyot provided the launch services aboard the Kosmos-3M rocket and also built the satellite itself. The cost of the satellite was US$15 million.
The satellite
The Iranian Space Agency had for many years said they were on the verge of sending their first satellite into orbit, finally leading to the launch of Sina-1, a satellite for telecommunications and Earth-imaging research purposes.
The miniaturized 170-kilogram reconnaissance satellite was put into a sun-synchronous near-polar orbit and will image the surface with a 50 m (pan) with 50 km swath and 250 m resolution of MSS with 500 km swath resolution.
The future
Iran has plans for the construction of five more Iranian satellites of which three are scheduled to be launched over the next three years. In July 2005, Iran's Deputy Telecom Minister Ahmad Talebzadeh said that Iran's next satellite, Mesbah, is ready for launch.
Mesbah, similar to Sina-1, is a reconnaissance satellite which will be used to monitor natural phenomena on Iran's territory. This satellite will most likely be launched on an indigenous rocket.
Iranian officials were originally going to use the recently cancelled Shahab-4 missile to carry out the process of launching satellites into space. Instead, IRIS, an advanced model of the Ghadr-110 IRBM missile, will be used.
In January 2005, Iran and a Russian firm sealed a $132 million deal to build a telecommunication satellite called Zohreh (Venus). The launch of Zohreh is planned in the next two years.
See also
Al-Ta'ir
Omid, Iranian satellite launched in February 2009 by an Iranian rocket Safir.
Iranian Space Agency
Safir
Sources
Iran's No Longer Moscow's Satellite - Kommersant
References
External links
Real Time Tracking of Sina-1
Reconnaissance satellites of Iran
Satellites orbiting Earth
Spacecraft launched in 2005
First artificial satellites of a country |
3026503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changhsingian | Changhsingian | In the geologic time scale, the Changhsingian or Changxingian is the latest age or uppermost stage of the Permian. It is also the upper or latest of two subdivisions of the Lopingian Epoch or Series. The Changhsingian lasted from to 251.9 Ma ago. It is preceded by the Wuchiapingian age/stage and is followed by the Induan age/stage (Early Triassic epoch).
The greatest mass extinction in the Phanerozoic eon, the Permian–Triassic extinction event, occurred during this age.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Changhsingian is named after Changxing () in northern Zhejiang, China. The stage was named for the Changhsing Limestone. The name was first used for a stage in 1970 and was anchored in the international timescale in 1981.
The base of the Changhsingian Stage is at the first appearance of the conodont species Clarkina wangi. The global reference profile is profile D at Meishan, in the type area in Changxing. The top of the Changhsingian (the base of the Induan Stage and the Triassic System is at the first appearance of the conodont species Hindeodus parvus.
The Changhsingian stage contains only one ammonite biozone: that of the genus Iranites.
Changhsingian life
The Changhsingian ended with the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction event of the Phanerozoic Era, when both global biodiversity and alpha diversity (community-level diversity) were devastated.
Among fishes, the bobasatraniiforms Bobasatrania and Ebenaqua are known from Changhsingian deposits of Greenland and Australia, respectively. Another deep-bodied fish, Sinoplatysomus, is known from Zhejiang province of China, along with the elongate saurichthyiform Eosaurichthys. Several fish genera were described from Changhsingian deposits of Russia and South Africa. The Hambast Formation of Iran yielded chondrichthyan faunas of Wuchiapingian to Changhsingian age.
Changhsingian aged beds of the Tesero Member of the Werfen Formation produced fossils of a crown group echinoid, Eotiaris teseroensis and other taxa.
The Paratirolites Limestone near Julfa (Azerbaijan, Iran) contains a diverse pre-extinction ammonoid fauna, including the genera Neoaganides, Pseudogastrioceras, Dzhulfites, Paratirolites, Julfotirolites, Alibashites, Abichites, Stoyanowites and Arasella
The Bellerophon Formation in northern Italy documents a pre-extinction bivalve community with 26 species adapted to stressful conditions (high temperatures, high salinity, shallow water depths, low oxygen and high terrigenous input).
Notable formations
Ali Bashi Formation (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran)
Bellerophon Formation (Italy)
Changxing Formation (Zhejiang, China)
Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone* (South Africa)
Hambast Formation (Iran)
Hopeman Sandstone Formation (Scotland)
Moradi Formation (Niger)
Quartermaster Formation (Texas, USA)
Rangal Coal Measures* (Queensland, Australia)
Schuchert Dal Formation (Greenland)
Tesero Member of the Werfen Formation (Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy)
Usili Formation* (Tanzania)
Lower part of Wordie Creek Formation (Greenland)
* Tentatively assigned to the Changhsingian; age estimated primarily via terrestrial tetrapod biostratigraphy
References
External links
GeoWhen Database - Changhsingian
Upper Paleozoic stratigraphic chart at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Permian geochronology
Geological ages |
3027821 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteronomic%20Code | Deuteronomic Code | The Deuteronomic Code is the name given by academics to the law code set out in chapters 12 to 26 of the Book of Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible. The code outlines a special relationship between the Israelites and Yahweh and provides instructions covering "a variety of topics including religious ceremonies and ritual purity, civil and criminal law, and the conduct of war". They are similar to other collections of laws found in the Torah (the first five books of the Tanakh) such as the Covenant Code at Exodus 20–23, except for the portion discussing the Ethical Decalogue, which is usually treated separately. This separate treatment stems not from any concern over authorship, but merely because the Ethical Decalogue is treated academically as a subject in its own right.
Almost the entirety of Deuteronomy is presented as the last few speeches of Moses, beginning with an historical introduction as well as a second introduction which expands on the Ethical Decalogue, and ending with hortatory speeches and final words of encouragement. Between these is found the law code, at Deuteronomy 12–26. In critical scholarship, this portion, as well as the majority of the remainder of Deuteronomy, was written by the Deuteronomist.
Dating and authorship
It is difficult to date the laws found in the Deuteronomic Code. There are many laws unique to Deuteronomy, such as the prohibition of sacrifice outside "the place which the Lord your God will choose" (Deuteronomy 12:5) and having a national Passover sacrifice in a national shrine (Deuteronomy 16:1–8). In contrast, other books in the Pentateuch refer to altars throughout Israel without condemnation. Both of these laws were observed for the first time under King Josiah, giving credence to the theory that Deuteronomy was written around that time. Many of the other laws can be found elsewhere in the Torah, and it is likely the Deuteronomistic author(s) were influenced by such laws. Biblical scholar Michael Coogan notes two examples, the Covenant Code and the Ritual Decalogue found in Exodus 20:22–23:33 and Exodus 34 respectively.
Characteristics
It is characteristic of the discourses of the Deuteronomic Code that the writer's aim is throughout parenetic, making passing allusions to history, for example at Deuteronomy 13:4–5, and 24:9, for the sake of the lessons that the writer believes deducible from it. In the treatment of the laws, they are not merely collected, or a series of legal enactments repeated, but developed with reference to the moral and religious purposes which they can subserve, and to the motives from which it is perceived that the Israelite is ought to obey them.
The Deuteronomic Code reflects particular social concerns, more specifically in dealing with the poor and underprivileged. The Deuteronomic Code places special emphasis on the lower class and marginalized. For example, women and children, widows, foreigners and the poor. Deuteronomy 15:12–15 illustrates one example in which a former slave is to receive gifts. The law code seems methodically to provide legal compensation for those who are victimised by the inequities and brutalities that may otherwise inhere in the social system. Duties involving directly the application of a moral principle are especially insisted on, particularly justice, integrity, equity, philanthropy, and generosity; for example insisting on strict impartiality and judges being appointed in every city, as well as insisting that fathers are not to be condemned judicially for the sins of their children, nor vice versa, in stark contrast to some other passages. Nevertheless, despite this general philanthropic nature, breaches of the moral code are punished severely: death is the penalty not only for murder, but also for unchastity, and even for disrespectful behaviour by a son.
The style of the Deuteronomic discourses is very marked, being particularly distinct when compared with the style of the rest of the torah. Not only do particular words and expressions, embodying often the writer's characteristic thoughts, recur with remarkable frequency, giving a distinctive colouring to every part of his work, but the long and rolling clauses in which the author expresses himself are a new feature in Hebrew literature. Nowhere else in the Old Testament does there breathe such an atmosphere of generous devotion or of benevolence, neither is there such strong eloquence when duties are elsewhere set forward.
Comparison to other Torah law codes
According to textual criticism, Deuteronomy is only remotely related to the Priestly Code and there are certainly no verbal parallels. Some of the institutions and observances codified in the Priestly Code are indeed mentioned, mainly burnt-offerings, peace offerings, heave-offerings, the distinction between "clean" and "unclean", and rules about leprosy. However, they are destitute of the central significance with which they are placed in the Priestly Code.
Conversely, the distinction between priests and other Levites, the Levite cities, the jubilee year, the offering of cereal crops, sin offerings, and Yom Kippur, which are fundamental institutions in the Priestly code, are not mentioned at all in the Deuteronomic Code. In the laws which do touch common ground, there are frequently large discrepancies, which in some cases are regarded irreconcilable by critical scholarship. In the documentary hypothesis, this large variation is explained, by the Code being identified as the work of a group of priests, centred at Shiloh, who were rival to the Aaronid group to whom the Priestly Code is assigned.
Unlike the Priestly Code, with the laws contained in the Holiness Code, the Deuteronomic Code has some parallels, chiefly moral injunctions. Nevertheless, although in such cases the substance is often similar, the expression is nearly always different, for example the commandment concerning mourning at Deuteronomy 14:1 reflects Leviticus 19:28, and likewise the commandments of mixing kinds, at Leviticus 19:15 is reflected at Deuteronomy 16:19–20, but both occur in quite different phrasing. Thus it can not be said that the legislation of Deuteronomy is in any sense an expansion or development of the Holiness Code itself, although the underlying laws appear to have a greater affinity.
As far as critical scholarship is concerned, the Covenant Code, and the Ritual Decalogue which partially repeats it, can be seen to form the foundation of the Deuteronomic legislation. This is evident partly from the numerous verbal coincidences, whole clauses, and sometimes even an entire law, being repeated verbatim, and partly from the fact that frequently a law in Deuteronomy consists of an expansion, or application to particular cases, of a principle laid down more briefly in the Covenant Code or Ritual Decalogue. This can, for example, be seen in Deuteronomy 16:1–17, concerning the three annual feasts, which are described very basically in the Covenant Code, at Exodus 23:14–17. The civil and social enactments which are new to Deuteronomy make provision chiefly for cases likely to arise in a more highly organised community than is contemplated in the legislation of the Covenant Code, and therefore critical scholarship regards the Deuteronomic Code as a development of the Covenant Code reflecting the increased organisation of society in the time between the two.
Repeatedly and pointedly the older laws of the Covenant Code are restated in Deuteronomy in terms which inescapably suggest the influence of Amos, Hosea and Isaiah. The difference between the two codes may be summarised as further tempering law on behalf of the offender, and providing a still more merciful view with respect to the weak, and powerless. It is a matter of dispute whether the author knew the Covenant Code and Ritual Decalogue as separate works, or after they had been united into JE, as rather than copying, the laws of the Deuteronomic Code are variously free modification or enlargement of them. Consequently, amongst critical scholarship, some think it to be simply an enlarged edition of the old code, whereas others feel it to have been intended as a replacement.
In the Deuteronomic Code, it is strictly laid down that sacrifice is to be offered at a single central sanctuary. However, in the Tanakh, from the Book of Joshua to the Books of Kings (I Kings 6), sacrifices are frequently described as offered in various parts of the land, without any suggestion, by either the characters present in the narrative, or the narrator themselves, that any law, such as that of Deuteronomy, is being broken. Other laws appear to more specifically point to a terminus post quem, after which the code must have been composed. The law concerning the king, and the prohibitions against "multiplying horses", "multiplying wives", and "multiplying silver and gold", at Deuteronomy 17:14–20, appears to be coloured by reminiscences of Solomon (c. 950 BCE), and the forms of idolatry referred to, especially worship of the "host of heaven", as described at Deuteronomy 17:3, appear to refer to behaviour during the reign of Ahaz (c. 730 BCE).
The Deuteronomic Code is composed of several mitzvot or commandments, approximately one third of the mitzvot in the Torah, and is therefore a major constituent of Jewish Law. While several of the laws are repetitions of those present elsewhere in the Torah, many have notable variations, and there are additionally many further laws which are unique to the code.
Laws similar to those elsewhere in the Torah
Laws of religious observance
Against worshipping other gods and committing human sacrifice, at Deuteronomy 12:29–31
Prohibiting deliberate disfigurement as an act of mourning, at Deuteronomy 14:1–2
Concerning clean and unclean animals, at Deuteronomy 14:3–20
Prohibiting the consumption of animals who have not been killed by mankind, at Deuteronomy 14:21
Against Asherah groves and ritual pillars, at Deuteronomy 16:21–22
Against blemished sacrifices, at Deuteronomy 17:1
Laws concerning officials
Ordering impartiality of judges, at Deuteronomy 16:19–20
Criminal law
Concerning witnesses, at 19:15–21
Concerning adultery and seduction, at Deuteronomy 22:22–29
Against kidnap, at Deuteronomy 24:7
Ordering just weights and measures, at Deuteronomy 25:13–16
Civil law
Ordering the restoration of lost property once found, at Deuteronomy 22:1–4
Prohibition of mixing kinds, at Deuteronomy 22:9–11
Concerning tzitzit, at Deuteronomy 22:12
Against marrying a step-mother, at Deuteronomy 22:30
Against usury, at Deuteronomy 23:19–20
Concerning vows, at Deuteronomy 23:21–23
Concerning pledges, at Deuteronomy 24:6, and 24:10–13
Concerning leprosy, at Deuteronomy 24:8–9
Concerning the wages of a hired servant, at Deuteronomy 24:14–15
Ordering justice towards strangers, widows, and orphans, at Deuteronomy 24:17–18
Concerning the scraps of crops, at Deuteronomy 24:19–22
Laws differing from those elsewhere in the Torah
Laws of religious observance
Prohibiting offerings and vows outside a single central sanctuary, at Deuteronomy 12:1–28
Concerning the tithe, at Deuteronomy 14:22–29
Concerning relief of debt in the seventh year, at Deuteronomy 15:1–11
Ordering the offering to Yahweh of the firstborn males, at Deuteronomy 15:19–23
Concerning the three annual feasts, at Deuteronomy 16:1–17
Criminal law
Concerning manslaughter and murder, at Deuteronomy 19:1–13
Civil laws
Concerning slavery, at Deuteronomy 15:12–18
Concerning cleanliness in the camp, at Deuteronomy 23:9–14
Laws unique, within the Torah
Laws of religious observance
Against false prophets, at Deuteronomy 13
Ordering idolaters to be stoned to death, at Deuteronomy 17:2–7
Laws concerning officials
Ordering judges to be appointed in every city, at Deuteronomy 16:18
Ordering there to be a supreme central tribunal, at Deuteronomy 17:8–13
Restrictions on the king, at Deuteronomy 17:14–20
Concerning the rights, and revenue, of the Levites, at Deuteronomy 18:1–8
Concerning the future (unspecified) prophet, at Deuteronomy 18:9–22
Restrictions on admittance to the priesthood, at Deuteronomy 23:1–8
Military law
Concerning behaviour during war, at Deuteronomy 20, and 21:10–14
Criminal law
Ordering a ritual atonement by the people for untraced murder, at Deuteronomy 21:1–9
Concerning the corpse of a criminal, at Deuteronomy 21:22–23
Civil laws
Against the removal of boundary markers, at Deuteronomy 19:14
Concerning primogeniture, at Deuteronomy 21:15–17
Ordering undutiful sons to be stoned to death, at Deuteronomy 21:18–21
Against crossdressing, at Deuteronomy 22:5
Prohibiting taking a mother bird at the same time as its nest, at Deuteronomy 22:6–7
Ordering roofs to be constructed with parapets, at Deuteronomy 22:8
Prohibiting newly married women from being slandered, at Deuteronomy 22:13–21
Concerning escaped slaves, at Deuteronomy 23:15–16
Against religious prostitution, at Deuteronomy 23:17–18
Concerning the crops of a neighbour, at Deuteronomy 23:24–25
Concerning divorce, at Deuteronomy 24:1–4
Against punishing the family of a criminal, at Deuteronomy 24:16
Limiting the number of lashes, at Deuteronomy 25:1–3
Against muzzling oxen during threshing, at Deuteronomy 25:4
Concerning levirate marriage, at Deuteronomy 25:5–10
Ordering women to be modest, at Deuteronomy 25:11–12
Ritual
The ritual of the firstfruits and of the tithe, including a prayer, at Deuteronomy 26:1–15
References
Sources
Book of Deuteronomy
Documentary hypothesis
Legal codes |
3029043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early%20Triassic | Early Triassic | The Early Triassic is the first of three epochs of the Triassic Period of the geologic timescale. It spans the time between 251.9 Ma and Ma (million years ago). Rocks from this epoch are collectively known as the Lower Triassic Series, which is a unit in chronostratigraphy.
The Early Triassic is the oldest epoch of the Mesozoic Era. It is preceded by the Lopingian Epoch (late Permian, Paleozoic Era) and followed by the Middle Triassic Epoch. The Early Triassic is divided into the Induan and Olenekian ages. The Induan is subdivided into the Griesbachian and Dienerian subages and the Olenekian is subdivided into the Smithian and Spathian subages.
The Lower Triassic series is coeval with the Scythian Stage, which is today not included in the official timescales but can be found in older literature. In Europe, most of the Lower Triassic is composed of Buntsandstein, a lithostratigraphic unit of continental red beds.
The Early Triassic and partly also the Middle Triassic span the interval of biotic recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction event, the most severe mass extinction event in Earth's history. A second extinction event, the Smithian-Spathian boundary event, occurred during the Olenekian. A third extinction event occurred at the Olenekian-Anisian boundary, marking the end of the Early Triassic epoch.
Early Triassic climate
The climate during the Early Triassic Epoch (especially in the interior of the supercontinent Pangaea) was generally arid, rainless and dry and deserts were widespread; however the poles possessed a temperate climate. The pole-to-equator temperature gradient was temporally flat during the Early Triassic and may have allowed tropical species to extend their distribution poleward. This is evidenced by the global distribution of ammonoids.
The mostly hot climate of the Early Triassic may have been caused by late volcanic eruptions of the Siberian Traps, which had probably triggered the Permian-Triassic extinction event and accelerated the rate of global warming into the Triassic. Studies suggest that Early Triassic climate was very volatile, punctuated by a number of relatively rapid global temperature changes, marine anoxic events, and carbon cycle disturbances, which led to subsequent extinction events in the aftermath of the Permian-Triassic extinction event. On the other hand, an alternative hypothesis proposes these Early Triassic climatic perturbations and biotic upheavals that inhibited the recovery of life following the P-T mass extinction to have been linked to forcing driven by changes in the Earth's obliquity defined by a roughly 32.8 thousand year periodicity with strong 1.2 million year modulations. According to proponents of this hypothesis, radiometric dating indicates that major activity from the Siberian Traps ended very shortly after the end-Permian extinction and did not span the entire Early Triassic epoch, thus not being the primary culprit for the climatic changes throughout this epoch.
Early Triassic life
Fauna and flora
The Triassic Period opened with the Permian–Triassic extinction event. The massive extinctions that ended the Permian Period and Paleozoic Era caused extreme hardships for the surviving species.
The Early Triassic Epoch saw the recovery of life after the biggest mass extinction event of the past, which took millions of years due to the severity of the event and the harsh Early Triassic climate. Many types of corals, brachiopods, molluscs, echinoderms, and other invertebrates had disappeared. The Permian vegetation dominated by Glossopteris in the Southern Hemisphere ceased to exist. Other groups, such as Actinopterygii, appear to have been less affected by this extinction event and body size was not a selective factor during the extinction event. Animals that were most successful in the Early Triassic were those with high metabolisms. Different patterns of recovery are evident on land and in the sea. Early Triassic faunas lacked biodiversity and were relatively homogeneous due to the effects of the extinction. The ecological recovery on land took 30 million years, well into the Late Triassic. Two Early Triassic lagerstätten stand out due to their exceptionally high biodiversity, the Dienerian aged Guiyang biota and the earliest Spathian aged Paris biota.
Terrestrial biota
The most common land vertebrate was the small herbivorous synapsid Lystrosaurus. Often interpreted as a disaster taxon (although this view was questioned), Lystrosaurus had a wide range across Pangea. In the southern part of the supercontinent, it co-occurred with the non-mammalian cynodonts Galesaurus and Thrinaxodon, early relatives of mammals. First archosauriforms appeared, such as Erythrosuchus (Olenekian-Ladinian). This group includes the ancestors of crocodiles and dinosaurs (including birds). Fossilized foot prints of dinosauromorphs are known from the Olenekian.
The flora was gymnosperm-dominated at the onset of the Triassic, but changed rapidly and became lycopod-dominated (e.g. Pleuromeia) during the Griesbachian-Dienerian ecological crisis. This change coincided with the extinction of the Permian Glossopteris flora. In the Spathian subage, the flora changed back to gymnosperm and pteridophyte dominated. These shifts reflect global changes in precipitation and temperature. Floral diversity was overall very low during the Early Triassic, as plant life had yet to fully recover from the Permian-Triassic extinction.
Microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) are common in the fossil record of North China in the immediate aftermath of the Permian-Triassic extinction, indicating that microbial mats dominated local terrestrial ecosystems following the Permian-Triassic boundary. The regional prevalence of MISS is attributable to a decrease in bioturbation and grazing pressure as a result of aridification and temperature increase. MISS have also been reported from Early Triassic fossil deposits in Arctic Canada. The disappearance of MISS later in the Early Triassic has been interpreted as a signal of increased bioturbation and recovery of terrestrial ecosystems.
Aquatic biota
In the oceans, the most common Early Triassic hard-shelled marine invertebrates were bivalves, gastropods, ammonites, echinoids, and a few articulate brachiopods. Conodonts experienced a revival in diversity following a nadir during the Permian. The first oysters appeared in the Early Triassic. They grew on the shells of living ammonoids as epizoans. Microbial reefs were common, possibly due to lack of competition with metazoan reef builders as a result of the extinction. However, transient metazoan reefs reoccurred during the Olenekian wherever permitted by environmental conditions. Ammonoids show blooms followed by extinctions during the Early Triassic.
Aquatic vertebrates diversified after the extinction.
Fishes: Typical Triassic ray-finned fishes, such as Australosomus, Birgeria, Bobasatrania, Boreosomus, Pteronisculus, Parasemionotidae and Saurichthys appeared close to the Permian-Triassic boundary, whereas neopterygians diversified later during the Triassic. Many species of fish had a global distribution during the Early Triassic. Coelacanths show a peak in their diversity and new modes of life (Rebellatrix). Chondrichthyes are represented by Hybodontiformes like Palaeobates, Omanoselache, Lissodus, some Neoselachii, as well as last survivors of Eugeneodontida (Caseodus, Fadenia).
Amphibians: Relatively large, marine temnospondyl amphibians, such as Aphaneramma or Wantzosaurus, were geographically widespread during the Induan and Olenekian ages. The fossils of these crocodile-shaped amphibians were found in Greenland, Spitsbergen, Pakistan and Madagascar.
Reptiles: In the oceans, first marine reptiles appeared during the Early Triassic. Their descendants ruled the oceans during the Mesozoic. Hupehsuchia, Ichthyopterygia and sauropterygians are among the first marine reptiles to enter the scene in the Olenekian (e.g. Cartorhynchus, Chaohusaurus, Utatsusaurus, Hupehsuchus, Grippia, Omphalosaurus, Corosaurus). Other marine reptiles such as Tanystropheus, Helveticosaurus, Atopodentatus, placodonts or the thalattosaurs followed later in the Middle Triassic. The Anisian aged ichthyosaur Thalattoarchon was one of the first marine macropredators capable of eating prey that was similar in size to itself, an ecological role that can be compared to that of modern orcas.
Fossil gallery
See also
Geologic time scale
Triassic
Mass extinction
References
Further reading
External links
GeoWhen Database – Early Triassic
Palaeos (archived 2 January 2006)
scotese
01
Geological epochs
01
de:Buntsandstein |
3029047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olenekian | Olenekian | In the geologic timescale, the Olenekian is an age in the Early Triassic epoch; in chronostratigraphy, it is a stage in the Lower Triassic series. It spans the time between Ma and Ma (million years ago). The Olenekian is sometimes divided into the Smithian and the Spathian subages or substages. The Olenekian follows the Induan and is followed by the Anisian (Middle Triassic).
The Olenekian saw the deposition of a large part of the Buntsandstein in Europe. The Olenekian is roughly coeval with the regional Yongningzhenian Stage used in China.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Olenekian Stage was introduced into scientific literature by Russian stratigraphers in 1956. The stage is named after Olenëk in Siberia. Before the subdivision in Olenekian and Induan became established, both stages formed the Scythian Stage, which has since disappeared from the official timescale.
The base of the Olenekian is at the lowest occurrence of the ammonoids Hedenstroemia or Meekoceras gracilitatis, and of the conodont Neospathodus waageni. It is defined as ending near the lowest occurrences of genera Japonites, Paradanubites, and Paracrochordiceras; and of the conodont Chiosella timorensis. A GSSP (global reference profile for the base) has not been established as of December 2020.
In the 1960s, English paleontologist Edward T. Tozer (sometimes collaborating with American geologist Norman J. Silberling) crafted Triassic timescales based on North American ammonoid zones, further refining it in the following decades. Tozer's nomenclature was largely derived from Mojsisovics's work, who coined most of the Triassic stages and substages, but he redefined them using North American sites. He recommended the Lower Triassic series be divided into the Griesbachian, Dienerian, Smithian, and Spathian. The latter two roughly correspond with the Olenekian. Tozer's timescale became popular in the Americas. He named the Smithian after Smith Creek on Ellesmere Island, Canada (the creek itself is named after geologist J. P. Smith). The Smithian is defined by the Arctoceras bloomstrandi ammonoid zone (contains Euflemingites romunderi and Juvenites crassus) and the overlying Meekoceras gracilitatis and Wasatchites tardus subzones. He named the Spathian after Spath Creek on Ellesmere Island (this creek is named after geologist L. F. Spath), and defined it by the Procolumbites subrobustus ammonoid zone.
Olenekian life
Life was still recovering from the severe end-Permian mass extinction. During the Olenekian, the flora changed from lycopod dominated (e.g. Pleuromeia) to gymnosperm and pteridophyte dominated. These vegetation changes are due to global changes in temperature and precipitation. Conifers (gymnosperms) were the dominant plants during most of the Mesozoic. Among land vertebrates, the archosaurs - a group of diapsid reptiles encompassing crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs, and ultimately birds - first evolved from archosauriform ancestors during the Olenekian. This group includes ferocious predators like Erythrosuchus.
In the oceans, microbial reefs were common during the Early Triassic, possibly due to lack of competition with metazoan reef builders as a result of the extinction. However, transient metazoan reefs reoccurred during the Olenekian wherever permitted by environmental conditions. Ammonoids and conodonts diversified, but both suffered losses during the Smithian-Spathian boundary extinction at the end of the Smithian subage.
Ray-finned fishes largely remained unaffected by the Permian-Triassic extinction event. Many genera show a cosmopolitan (worldwide) distribution during the Induan and Olenekian (e.g. Australosomus, Birgeria, Parasemionotidae, Pteronisculus, Ptycholepidae, Saurichthys). This is well exemplified in the Griesbachian (early Induan) aged fish assemblages of the Wordie Creek Formation (East Greenland), the Dienerian (late Induan) aged assemblages of the Sakamena Formation (Madagascar), Candelaria Formation (Nevada, United States), and Mikin Formation (Himachal Pradesh, India), and the Smithian aged assemblages of the Vikinghøgda Formation (Spitsbergen, Norway), Thaynes Formation (western United States), and Helongshan Formation (Anhui, China). Ray-finned fishes diversified during the Triassic and reached peak diversity during the Middle Triassic. This diversification is, however, obscured by a taphonomic megabias during the late Olenekian and early middle Anisian.
Marine temnospondyl amphibians, such as the superficially crocodile-shaped trematosaurids Aphaneramma and Wantzosaurus, show wide geographic ranges during the Induan and Olenekian ages. Their fossils are found in Greenland, Spitsbergen, Pakistan and Madagascar. Others, such as Trematosaurus, inhabited freshwater environments and were less widespread.
The first marine reptiles appeared during the Olenekian. Hupehsuchia, Ichthyopterygia and Sauropterygia are among the first marine reptiles to enter the scene (e.g. Cartorhynchus, Chaohusaurus, Utatsusaurus, Hupehsuchus, Grippia, Omphalosaurus, Corosaurus). Sauropterygians and ichthyosaurs ruled the oceans during the Mesozoic Era.
An example of an exceptionally diverse Early Triassic assemblage is the Paris biota, fossils of which were discovered near Paris, Idaho and other nearby sites in Idaho and Nevada. The Paris Biota was deposited in the wake of the SSBM and it features at least 7 phyla and 20 distinct metazoan orders, including leptomitid protomonaxonid sponges (previously only known from the Paleozoic), thylacocephalans, crustaceans, nautiloids, ammonoids, coleoids, ophiuroids, crinoids, and vertebrates. Such diverse assemblages show that organisms diversified wherever and whenever climatic an environmental conditions ameliorated.
Smithian–Spathian boundary event
An important extinction event occurred during the Olenekian age of the Early Triassic, near the Smithian and Spathian subage boundary. The main victims of this Smithian–Spathian boundary event, often called the Smithian–Spathian extinction, were 'disaster taxa': Palaeozoic species that survived the Permian–Triassic extinction event and flourished in the immediate aftermath of the extinction; ammonoids, conodonts, and radiolarians in particular suffered drastic biodiversity losses. Marine reptiles, such as ichthyopterygians and sauropterygians, diversified after the extinction.
The flora was also affected significantly. It changed from lycopod dominated (e.g. Pleuromeia) during the Dienerian and Smithian subages to gymnosperm and pteridophyte dominated in the Spathian. These vegetation changes are due to global changes in temperature and precipitation. Conifers (gymnosperms) were the dominant plants during most of the Mesozoic. Until recently the existence of this extinction event about 249.4 Ma ago was not recognised.
The Smithian–Spathian boundary extinction was linked to late eruptions of the Siberian Traps, which released warming greenhouse gases, resulting in climate change and in acidification, both on land and in the ocean. A large spike in mercury concentrations relative to total organic carbon, much like during the Permian-Triassic extinction, has been suggested as another contributor to the extinction, although this is controversial and has been disputed by other research that suggests elevated mercury levels already existed by the middle Spathian. Prior to the Smithian-Spathian Boundary extinction event, a flat gradient of latitudinal species richness is observed, suggesting that warmer temperatures extended into higher latitudes, allowing extension of geographic ranges of species adapted to warmer temperatures, and displacement or extinctions of species adapted to cooler temperatures. Oxygen isotope studies on conodonts have revealed that temperatures rose in the first 2 million years of the Triassic, ultimately reaching sea surface temperatures of up to in the tropics during the Smithian. The extinction itself occurred during a subsequent drop in global temperatures (ca. 8°C over a geologically short period) in the latest Smithian; however, temperature alone cannot account for the Smithian-Spathian boundary extinction, because several factors were at play. An alternative explanation for the extinction event hypothesises the biotic crisis took place not at the Smithian-Spathian boundary but shortly before, during the Late Smithian Thermal Maximum (LSTM), with the Smithian-Spathian boundary itself being associated with cessation of intrusive magmatic activity of the Siberian Traps, along with significant global cooling, after which a gradual biotic recovery took place over the early and middle Spathian, along with a decline in continental weathering and a rejuvenation of ocean circulation.
In the ocean, many large and mobile species moved away from the tropics, but large fish remained, and amongst the immobile species such as molluscs, only the ones that could cope with the heat survived; half the bivalves disappeared. Conodonts decreased in average size as a result of the extinction. On land, the tropics were nearly devoid of life, with exceptionally arid conditions recorded in Iberia and other parts of Europe then at low latitude. Many big, active animals returned to the tropics, and plants recolonised on land, only when temperatures returned to normal.
There is evidence that life had recovered rapidly, at least locally. This is indicated by sites that show exceptionally high biodiversity (e.g. the earliest Spathian Paris Biota), which suggest that food webs were complex and comprised several trophic levels.
Notable formations
Middle Buntsandstein (Germany)
Cynognathus Assemblage Zone / Burgersdorp Formation (subzones A-B)* (South Africa)
Lower Ermaying Formation* (Shaanxi and Shanxi, China)
Upper Fremouw Formation* (Antarctica)
Jialingjiang Formation (South China)
Moenkopi Formation (Torrey and Wutapki members)* (SW USA)
Nanlinghu Formation (Anhui, China)
Rybinskian Gorizont* (European Russia)
Sanga do Cabral Formation* (Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil)
Sludkian Gorizont* (European Russia)
Sulphur Mountain Formation (British Columbia, Canada)
Thaynes Group/Limestone (western USA)
Ustmylian Gorizont* (European Russia)
Virgin Formation (Utah, USA)
Vikinghøgda Formation (Lusitaniadalen and Vendomdalen members) (Svalbard, Norway)
Yarenskian Gorizont* (European Russia)
* Tentatively assigned to the Olenekian; age estimated primarily via terrestrial tetrapod biostratigraphy (see Triassic land vertebrate faunachrons)
References
Notes
Literature
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 1956: Расчленение нижнего отдела триасовой системы на ярусы (Subdivision of the lower series of the Triassic System into stages), Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 109(4), pp 842–845 .
External links
GeoWhen Database - Olenekian
Lower Triassic timescale at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Lower Triassic timescale at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy.
02
Geological ages
Triassic geochronology
Geology of Siberia
Olenyok basin |
3029063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20Triassic | Middle Triassic | In the geologic timescale, the Middle Triassic is the second of three epochs of the Triassic period or the middle of three series in which the Triassic system is divided in chronostratigraphy. The Middle Triassic spans the time between Ma and Ma (million years ago). It is preceded by the Early Triassic Epoch and followed by the Late Triassic Epoch. The Middle Triassic is divided into the Anisian and Ladinian ages or stages.
Formerly the middle series in the Triassic was also known as Muschelkalk. This name is now only used for a specific unit of rock strata with approximately Middle Triassic age, found in western Europe.
Middle Triassic fauna
Following the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the most devastating of all mass-extinctions, life recovered slowly. In the Middle Triassic, many groups of organisms reached higher diversity again, such as the marine reptiles (e.g. ichthyosaurs, sauropterygians, thallatosaurs), ray-finned fish and many invertebrate groups like molluscs (ammonoids, bivalves, gastropods).
During the Middle Triassic, there were no flowering plants, but instead there were ferns and mosses. Small dinosauriforms began to appear, like Nyasasaurus and the ichnogenus Iranosauripus.
References
GeoWhen Database - Middle Triassic
02
Geological epochs
02 |
3029097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late%20Triassic | Late Triassic | The Late Triassic is the third and final epoch of the Triassic Period in the geologic time scale, spanning the time between Ma and Ma (million years ago). It is preceded by the Middle Triassic Epoch and followed by the Early Jurassic Epoch. The corresponding series of rock beds is known as the Upper Triassic. The Late Triassic is divided into the Carnian, Norian and Rhaetian ages.
Many of the first dinosaurs evolved during the Late Triassic, including Plateosaurus, Coelophysis, Herrerasaurus, and Eoraptor. The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event began during this epoch and is one of the five major mass extinction events of the Earth.
Etymology
The Triassic was named in 1834 by Friedrich von Alberti, after a succession of three distinct rock layers (Greek meaning 'triad') that are widespread in southern Germany: the lower Buntsandstein (colourful sandstone), the middle Muschelkalk (shell-bearing limestone) and the upper Keuper (coloured clay). The Late Triassic Series corresponds approximately to the middle and upper Keuper.
Dating and subdivisions
On the geologic time scale, the Late Triassic is usually divided into the Carnian, Norian, and Rhaetian ages, and the corresponding rocks are referred to as the Carnian, Norian, and Rhaetian stages.
Triassic chronostratigraphy was originally based on ammonite fossils, beginning with the work of Edmund von Mojsisovics in the 1860s. The base of the Late Triassic (which is also the base of the Carnian) is set at the first appearance of an ammonite, Daxatina canadensis. In the 1990s, conodonts became increasingly important in the Triassic timescale, and the base of the Rhaetian is now set at the first appearance of a conodont, Misikella posthernsteini. , the base of the Norian has not yet been established, but will likely be based on conodonts.
The late Triassic is also divided into land-vertebrate faunachrons. These are, from oldest to youngest, the Berdyankian, Otischalkian, Adamanian, Revueltian and Apachean.
Carnian Age
The Carnian is the first age of the Late Triassic, covering the time interval from 237 to 227 million years ago. The earliest true dinosaurs likely appeared during the Carnian and rapidly diversified.
They emerged in a world dominated by crurotarsan archosaurs (ancestors of crocodiles), predatory phytosaurs, herbivorous armored aetosaurs, and giant carnivorous rauisuchians, which the dinosaurs gradually began to displace.
The emergence of the first dinosaurs came at about the same time as the Carnian pluvial episode, at 234 to 232 Ma. This was a humid interval in the generally arid Triassic. It was marked by high extinction rates in marine organisms, but may have opened niches for the radiation of the dinosaurs.
Norian Age
The Norian is the second age of the Late Triassic, covering the time interval from about 227 to 208.5 million years ago. During this age, herbiverous sauropodomorphs diversified and began to displace the large herbivorous therapsids, perhaps because they were better able to adapt to the increasingly arid climate. However crurotarsans continued to occupy more ecological niches than dinosaurs. In the oceans, neopterygian fish proliferated at the expense of ceratitid ammonites.
The Manicouagan impact event occurred 214 million years ago. However, no extinction event is associated with this impact.
Rhaetian Age
The Rhaetian Age was the final age of the Late Triassic, following the Norian Age, and it included the last major disruption of life until the end-Cretaceous mass extinction. This age of the Triassic is known for its extinction of marine reptiles, such as nothosaurs and shastasaurs with the ichthyosaurs, similar to today's dolphin. This age was concluded with the disappearance of many species that removed types of plankton from the ocean, as well as some organisms known for reef-building, and the pelagic conodonts. In addition to these species that became extinct, the straight-shelled nautiloids, placodonts, bivalves, and many types of reptiles did not survive through this age.
Climate and environment during the Triassic Period
During the beginning of the Triassic Period, the earth consisted of a giant landmass known as Pangea, which covered about a quarter of earth's surface. Towards the end of the period, continental drift occurred which separated Pangea. At this time, polar ice was not present because of the large differences between the equator and the poles. A single, large landmass similar to Pangea would be expected to have extreme seasons; however, evidence offers contradictions. Evidence suggests that there is arid climate as well as proof of strong precipitation. The planet's atmosphere and temperature components were mainly warm and dry, with other seasonal changes in certain ranges.
The Middle Triassic was known to have consistent intervals of high levels of humidity. The circulation and movement of these humidity patterns, geographically, are not known however. The major Carnian Pluvial Event stands as one focus point of many studies. Different hypotheses of the events occurrence include eruptions, monsoonal effects, and changes caused by plate tectonics. Continental deposits also support certain ideas relative to the Triassic Period. Sediments that include red beds, which are sandstones and shales of color, may suggest seasonal precipitation. Rocks also included dinosaur tracks, mudcracks, and fossils of crustaceans and fish, which provide climate evidence, since animals and plants can only live during periods of which they can survive through.
Evidence of environmental disruption and climate change
The Late Triassic is described as semiarid. Semiarid is characterized by light rainfall, having up to 10–20 inches of precipitation a year. The epoch had a fluctuating, warm climate in which it was occasionally marked by instances of powerful heat. Different basins in certain areas of Europe provided evidence of the emergence of the "Middle Carnian Pluvial Event." For example, the Western Tethys and German Basin was defined by the theory of a middle Carnian wet climate phase. This event stands as the most distinctive climate change within the Triassic Period. Propositions for its cause include:
Different behaviors of atmospheric or oceanic circulation forced by plate tectonics that may have participated in modifying the carbon cycle and other scientific factors.
heavy rains due to shifting of the earth
sparked by eruptions, typically originating from an accumulation of igneous rocks, which could have included liquid rock or volcanic rock formations
Theories and concepts are supported universally, due to extensive areal proof of Carnian siliciclastic sediments. The physical positions as well as comparisons of that location to surrounding sediments and layers stood as basis for recording data. Multiple resourced and recurring patterns in results of evaluations allowed for the satisfactory clarification of facts and common conceptions on the Late Triassic. Conclusions summarized that the correlation of these sediments led to the modified version of the new map of Central Eastern Pangea, as well as that the sediment's relation to the "Carnian Pluvial Event" is greater than expected.
High interest concerning the Triassic Period has fueled the need to uncover more information about the period's climate. The Late Triassic Epoch is classified as a phase entirely flooded with phases of monsoonal events. A monsoon affects large regions and brings heavy rains along with powerful winds. Field studies confirm the impact and occurrence of strong monsoonal circulation during this time frame. However, hesitations concerning climatic variability remains. Upgrading knowledge on the climate of a period is a difficult task to assess. Understanding of and assumptions of temporal and spatial patterns of the Triassic Period's climate variability still need revision. Diverse proxies hindered the flow of palaeontological evidence. Studies in certain zones are missing and could be benefited by collaborating the already existing but uncompared records of Triassic palaeoclimate.
A specific physical piece of evidence was found. A fire scar on the trunk of a tree, found in southeast Utah, dates back to the Late Triassic. The feature was evaluated and paved the path to the conclusion of one fire's history. It was categorized through comparison of other modern tree scars. The scar stood as evidence of Late Triassic wildfire, an old climatic event.
Triassic–Jurassic extinction event
The extinction event that began during the Late Triassic resulted in the disappearance of about 76% of all terrestrial and marine life species, as well as almost 20% of taxonomic families. Although the Late Triassic Epoch did not prove to be as destructive as the preceding Permian Period, which took place approximately 50 million years earlier and destroyed about 70% of land species, 57% of insect families as well as 95% of marine life, it resulted in great decreases in population sizes of many living organism populations.
The environment of the Late Triassic had negative effects on the conodonts and ammonoid groups. These groups once served as vital index fossils, which made it possible to identify feasible life span to multiple strata of the Triassic strata. These groups were severely affected during the epoch, and conodonts became extinct soon after (in the earliest Jurassic). Despite the large populations that withered away with the coming of the Late Triassic, many families, such as the pterosaurs, crocodiles, mammals and fish were very minimally affected. However, such families as the bivalves, gastropods, marine reptiles and brachiopods were greatly affected and many species became extinct during this time.
Causes of the extinction
Most of the evidence suggests the increase of volcanic activity was the main cause of the extinction. As a result of the rifting of the super continent Pangea, there was an increase in widespread volcanic activity which released large amounts of carbon dioxide. At the end of the Triassic Period, massive eruptions occurred along the rift zone, known as the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, for about 500,000 years. These intense eruptions were classified as flood basalt eruptions, which are a type of large scale volcanic activity that releases a huge volume of lava in addition to sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The sudden increase in carbon dioxide levels is believed to have enhanced the greenhouse effect, which acidified the oceans and raised average air temperature. As a result of the change in biological conditions in the oceans, 22% of marine families became extinct. In addition, 53% of marine genera and about 76–86% of all species became extinct, which vacated ecological niches; thus, enabling dinosaurs to become the dominant presence in the Jurassic Period. While the majority of the scientists agree that volcanic activity was the main cause of the extinction, other theories suggest the extinction was triggered by the impact of an asteroid, climate change, or rising sea levels.
Biological impact
The impacts that the Late Triassic had on surrounding environments and organisms were wildfire destruction of habitats and prevention of photosynthesis. Climatic cooling also occurred due to the soot in the atmosphere. Studies also show that 103 families of marine invertebrates became extinct at the end of the Triassic, but another 175 families lived on into the Jurassic. Marine and extant species were hit fairly hard by extinctions during this epoch. Almost 20% of 300 extant families became extinct; bivalves, cephalopods, and brachiopods suffered greatly. 92% of bivalves were wiped out episodically throughout the Triassic.
The end of the Triassic also brought about the decline of corals and reef builders during what is called a "reef gap". The changes in sea levels brought this decline upon corals, particularly the calcisponges and scleractinian corals. However, some corals would make a resurgence during the Jurassic Period. 17 brachiopod species were also wiped out by the end of the Triassic. Furthermore, conulariids became extinct.
References
Sources
Further reading
GeoWhen Database – Late Triassic
03
Geological epochs
03 |
3029149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induan | Induan | The Induan is the first age of the Early Triassic epoch in the geologic timescale, or the lowest stage of the Lower Triassic series in chronostratigraphy. It spans the time between 251.9 Ma and Ma (million years ago). The Induan is sometimes divided into the Griesbachian and the Dienerian subages or substages. The Induan is preceded by the Changhsingian (latest Permian) and is followed by the Olenekian.
The Induan is roughly coeval with the regional Feixianguanian Stage of China.
Geology
Stratigraphy
The Triassic is the first period of the Mesozoic era. It is subdivided into the Lower, Middle, and Upper Triassic series, which are further subdivided into stages. The Induan is the first stage of the Lower Triassic, from 251.9 million to 251.2 million years ago, spanning the first 700,000 years after the Permian–Triassic extinction event.
Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) ratifies global stages based on a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) from a single formation (a stratotype) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. The GSSP for the Induan is defined as the bottom of Bed 27c of the Meishan Section, China, , with the appearance of the conodont Hindeodus parvus as its primary marker (biostratigraphy), and minimum zones (negative anomalies) of 13C and 18O (corresponding to the extinction event) as its secondary marker. Bed 27c comprises a medium-bedded section of limestone, overlain by clay and a medium-bedded section of dolomitic, argillaceous calcimicrite. Calcimicrite is a type of limestone that contains more micrite than allochem, and the diameter of any particle measures less than 20 microns.
The Induan is succeeded by the Olenekian, whose GSSP is defined at the bottom of Bed A-2 of the Mikin Formation near Mud village, Spiti, India, with the appearance of the conodont Neospathodus waageni and a 13C peak.
History
There have been several propositions for the organization of the Triassic timescale. Most of the Triassic stages and sub-stages, which are still used today, were coined in an 1895 publication by Austro-Hungarian geologist Johann August Georg Edmund Mojsisovics von Mojsvar, Austrian geologist Carl Diener, and German geologist Wilhelm Heinrich Waagen. They were defined using ammonite research conducted in large part by Mojsisovics and Diener in primarily Austria, Italy, and Bosnia; as well as Waagen's work in the Pakistani Salt Range. They divided the Triassic into four series (from lowest to highest): the Scythian, Dinaric, Tyrolean, and Bavarian. The Scythian was divided (from lowest to highest) into the Brahmanian and Jakutian stages. The Brahmanian's lower boundary was defined by the appearance of the ammonite Otoceras woodwardi in the Himalayas (Austrian paleontologist Carl Ludolf Griesbach had already proposed this ammonite demarcate the beginning of the Triassic in 1880), and its upper boundary by a section of sandstone in the Salt Range characterized by ceratite ammonites.
In 1956, Soviet paleontologists Lubov D. Kiparisova and Yurij N. Popov decided to divide the Lower Triassic series into, what they coined, the Induan and Olenekian stages. The Induan honors the Indus River, as they also bounded it using the same criteria and sites as Mojsisovics' Brahmanian in the Indus region, though they resided in Siberia at the time. That is, the Induan is synonymous with the Brahmanian.
In the 1960s, English paleontologist Edward T. Tozer (sometimes collaborating with American geologist Norman J. Silberling) crafted Triassic timescales based on North American ammonoid zones (further refining it in the following decades), based on the works of Frank McLearn in British Columbia and Siemon Muller in Nevada who pieced together the ammonoid fossil record of the North American Cordillera. Tozer's nomenclature was largely derived from Mojsisovics's work, but he redefined them using North American sites. He recommended the Lower Triassic series be divided into the: Griesbachian, Dienerian, Smithian, and Spathian. The former two roughly correspond with the Induan. Tozer's timescale became popular in the Americas. He named the Griesbachian after Griesbach Creek on Axel Heiberg Island, Canada, and further split it into the Gangetian and Ellesmarian substages; the former he defined by the ammonite zones of O. concavum and O. boreale, and the latter by Ophicera commune and Proptychites striatus. He named the Dienerian after Diener Creek on Ellesmere Island, Canada, and defined it by the ammonite zones P. candus and Vavilovites sverdrupi.
In the 1970s, the ICS was founded to globally standardize stratigraphy. They erected the Subcommission on Triassic Stratigraphy (STS), which published its first timescale to Triassic stratigraphy in 1985. They divided it into the Lower, Middle, and Upper series; the Lower Triassic divided into the Induan and Olenekian stages; and the Induan further divided into the Griesbachian and Dienerian substages. In a revised 1991 timescale, they dropped several more of Tozer's considerations, and likewise did away with Induan substages entirely, though Tozer's original definition of them are still in use in ammonoid research.
By the 1990s, most geologists had moved away from ammonite zones, preferring conodonts. Consequently, in 1996, the STS moved the Induan's GSSP to Meishan, China, with the appearance of H. parvus. It was the first GSSP approved by the STS.
Coal gap
Coal is formed when plant matter decays into peat, which is then buried and subjected to heat and pressure over a long time. Following the Permian extinction, there is a conspicuous lack of coal seams dating to the Early Triassic, and only a few thin ones have been identified dating to the Middle Triassic. The apparent marginalization of peat-producing plants has variously been explained to be a consequence of: high global elevation, excess acidity due to volcanic sulfur dioxide emissions or nitrous oxides from bolide (meteor) impact, the transition from an icehouse to a greenhouse Earth (the melting of the poles and surging global temperatures), excess plant predation by herbivores (insects or tetrapods) which evolved more efficient eating strategies (though they were quite diverse before even the Permian), or mass die-off of peat-producing plants.
Paleogeography
During the Induan, all major landmasses had already amalgamated into the supercontinent Pangea, the northern portion referred to as Laurentia, and the southern portion Gondwana. At this point in time, the South Pole was near but not on Antarctica. Eastern Gondwana lay south of the 60°S, and the western part north.
A major rifting zone existed on Madagascar, which was wedged in between the African and the Indian Plate, gradually pushing them apart. This action would eventually expand the newly forming Neo-Tethys Ocean at the expense of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. Behind the burgeoning Neo-Tethys lay a major rift pushing India away from western Australia, which promulgated volcanoes across the area. During the Permian extinction, this volcanic activity created the Panjal Traps. In eastern Australia, the Hunter-Bowen orogeny and related magmatic activity was shutting down. The fold belts from this event, as well as the first phase of those at Cape Fold Belt in what is now the South African coast, were being degraded by the Gondwanide orogeny.
Induan life
The Induan followed the Permian–Triassic extinction event, and historically, it was thought recovery was delayed by as much as five million years to the Middle Triassic. The 21st century discoveries of diverse arrays of conodonts, ammonoids, bivalves, benthic foraminifera, and other ichnotaxa serve to suggest that recovery instead took under 1.5 million years.
The Induan age followed the mass extinction event at the end of the Permian period. Both global biodiversity and community-level (alpha) diversity remained low through much of this stage of the Triassic. Marine black shale deposits are common especially in the Dienerian substage of the Induan. These point to low oxygenation in the ocean.
Much of the supercontinent Pangea remained almost lifeless, deserted, hot, and dry. In higher latitudes, the flora during the Griesbachian was gymnosperm dominated but became lycopod dominated (e.g. Pleuromeia) in the Dienerian. This change reflects a shift in global climate from cool and dry in the Griesbachian to hot and humid in the Dienerian and points to an extinction event during the Induan, 500,000 years after the end-Permian mass extinction event. It led to the extinction of the Permian Glossopteris flora.
The lystrosaurids and the proterosuchids were the only groups of land animals to dominate during the Induan Stage. Other animals, such as the ammonoids, insects, and the tetrapods (cynodonts, amphibians, reptiles, etc.) remained rare and terrestrial ecosystems did not recover for some 30 million years. Both the seas and much of the freshwater during the Induan were anoxic, predominantly during the Dienerian subage. Microbial reefs were common, possibly due to lack of competition with metazoan reef builders as a result of the extinction.
Ray-finned fishes largely remained unaffected by the Permian-Triassic extinction event. Many genera show a cosmopolitan (worldwide) distribution during the Induan and Olenekian (e.g. Australosomus, Birgeria, Parasemionotidae, Pteronisculus, Ptycholepidae, Saurichthys). This is well exemplified in the Griesbachian aged fish assemblages of the Wordie Creek Formation (East Greenland), the Dienerian aged assemblages of the Sakamena Formation (Madagascar), Candelaria Formation (Nevada, United States), and Mikin Formation (Himachal Pradesh, India), and the Smithian (Olenekian) aged assemblages of the Vikinghøgda Formation (Spitsbergen, Norway), Thaynes Formation (western United States), and Helongshan Formation (Anhui, China). Induan Chondrichthyans include hybodonts, neoselachians and a few surviving lineages of eugeneodontid holocephalians, a mainly Palaeozoic group. Cartilaginous fishes were seemingly rare during the Induan.
The discovery of the Guiyang biota shows that at least some locations hosted reasonably complex ecosystems.
Crocodile-shaped, marine temnospondyl amphibians (e.g. Aphaneramma, Wantzosaurus) were geographically widespread during the Induan and Olenekian ages. Their fossils are found in Greenland, Spitsbergen, Pakistan and Madagascar.
The bivalve Claraia was widespread and common in the Panthalassa and Tethys oceans. The geologically oldest oysters (Liostrea) are known from the Induan. They grew on the shells of living ammonoids.
Notable formations
Arcadia Formation* (Queensland, Australia)
Candelaria Formation (Nevada, USA)
Daye Formation (Guizhou, China)
Dinwoody Formation (western USA)
lower Fremouw Formation* (Antarctica)
upper Guodikeng Formation (Xinjiang, China)
lower Jiucaiyuan Formation (Xinjiang, China)
Knocklofty Formation* (Tasmania, Australia)
Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone* (South Africa)
Panchet Formation* (India)
middle Sakamena Formation (Madagascar)
Vardebukta Formation (Svalbard, Norway)
Vokhmian Gorizont / Kopanskaya Svita* (Russia)
Werfen Formation (Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy)
Wordie Creek Formation (Greenland)
* Tentatively assigned to the Induan; age estimated primarily via terrestrial tetrapod biostratigraphy (see Triassic land vertebrate faunachrons)
See also
References
Sources
; 2005: The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Ladinian Stage (Middle Triassic) at Bagolino (Southern Alps, Northern Italy) and its implications for the Triassic time scale, Episodes 28(4), pp. 233–244.
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
; 1956: Расчленение нижнего отдела триасовой системы на ярусы (Subdivision of the lower series of the Triassic System into stages), Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 109(4), pp 842–845 .
External links
GeoWhen Database - Induan
Lower Triassic timescale at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Lower Triassic timescale at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy.
01
Geological ages
Triassic geochronology |
3029165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladinian | Ladinian | The Ladinian is a stage and age in the Middle Triassic series or epoch. It spans the time between Ma and ~237 Ma (million years ago). The Ladinian was preceded by the Anisian and succeeded by the Carnian (part of the Upper or Late Triassic).
The Ladinian is coeval with the Falangian regional stage used in China.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Ladinian was established by Austrian geologist Alexander Bittner in 1892. Its name comes from the Ladin people that live in the Italian Alps (in the Dolomites, then part of Austria-Hungary).
The base of the Ladinian Stage is defined as the place in the stratigraphic record where the ammonite species Eoprotrachyceras curionii first appears or the first appearance of the conodont Budurovignathus praehungaricus. The global reference profile for the base (the GSSP) is at an outcrop in the river bed of the Caffaro river at Bagolino, in the province of Brescia, northern Italy. The top of the Ladinian (the base of the Carnian) is at the first appearance of ammonite species Daxatina canadensis.
The Ladinian is sometimes subdivided into two subages or substages, the Fassanian (early or lower) and the Longobardian (late or upper). The Ladinian contains four ammonite biozones, which are evenly distributed among the two substages:
zone of Frechites regoledanus
zone of Protrachyceras archelaus
zone of Protrachyceras gredleri
zone of Eoprotrachyceras curionii
Ladinian life
Notable formations
Upper Besano Formation (Switzerland and Italy)
Bukobay Svita* (Russia)
Erfurt Formation / Lower Keuper (Germany)
Jilh Formation (Saudi Arabia)
Meride Limestone (Switzerland and Italy)
Upper Muschelkalk (central Europe)
Perledo-Varenna Formation (Italy)
Prosanto Formation (Switzerland)
Lower Santa Maria Formation* (late Ladinian - early Carnian) (Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil)
Zhuganpo Formation / Zhuganpo Member of the Falang Formation (late Ladinian - early Carnian) (Guizhou and Yunnan, China)
* Tentatively assigned to the Ladinian; age estimated primarily via terrestrial tetrapod biostratigraphy (see Triassic land vertebrate faunachrons)
References
Notes
Literature
; 2005: The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Ladinian Stage (Middle Triassic) at Bagolino (Southern Alps, Northern Italy) and its implications for the Triassic time scale, Episodes 28(4), pp. 233–244.
; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
External links
GeoWhen Database - Ladinian
Upper Triassic and Lower Triassic timescales, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy: Stratigraphic charts for the Triassic, and
02
Geological ages
Triassic geochronology |
3029524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UWE-1 | UWE-1 | UWE-1 (Universität Würzburg's Experimentalsatellit-1) was one of three CubeSats built by students of the University of Würzburg, launched on 27 October 2005 as part of the European Space Agency's SSETI Express mission from Plesetsk in Russia, orbiting Earth in a circular orbit. The cube-shaped satellite weighs about 1 kg and has an edge length of 10 cm, which corresponds to the CubeSat standard.
Mission
The primary mission of UWE-1 was to conduct telecommunication experiments. Among other things, it was about the data transmission on the Internet under space conditions: It was necessary to adapt the common Internet protocols to the difficult conditions in space environment on Earth, the transport of data on the Web works very reliable, but in space can increasingly delays and disruptions occur. Furthermore, UWE-1 also served as a test laboratory for highly efficient solar cells, whose performance and durability should be investigated.
Downlink/uplink frequency was 437.505 MHz, modulation was 9600 baud AFSK. The amateur radio sign of UWE-1 was DPØUWE.
End of mission
The last contact with the satellite took place on 17 November 2005. An identical UWE test model was made available to the Deutsches Museum in Munich in 2012, where it is exhibited together with a test model of the successor UWE-2 in the space department. UWE-1 was followed by the later UWE-2 launched into space on 23 September 2009.
UWE-1 still circles around the Earth today but fell silent after conducting the Internet experiments in 2005. Due to the friction with the rest of the atmosphere, UWE-1 continues braking until it will burn up completely in about 30 years.
See also
List of CubeSats
References
External links
About SSETI Express
The PICO-satellite UWE-1 and IP based telecommunication experiments
Satellites orbiting Earth
Spacecraft launched in 2005
CubeSats |
3029843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small%20stellated%20dodecahedron | Small stellated dodecahedron | In geometry, the small stellated dodecahedron is a Kepler-Poinsot polyhedron, named by Arthur Cayley, and with Schläfli symbol {,5}. It is one of four nonconvex regular polyhedra. It is composed of 12 pentagrammic faces, with five pentagrams meeting at each vertex.
It shares the same vertex arrangement as the convex regular icosahedron. It also shares the same edge arrangement with the great icosahedron, with which it forms a degenerate uniform compound figure.
It is the second of four stellations of the dodecahedron (including the original dodecahedron itself).
The small stellated dodecahedron can be constructed analogously to the pentagram, its two-dimensional analogue, via the extension of the edges (1-faces) of the core polytope until a point is reached where they intersect.
Topology
If the pentagrammic faces are considered as 5 triangular faces, it shares the same surface topology as the pentakis dodecahedron, but with much taller isosceles triangle faces, with the height of the pentagonal pyramids adjusted so that the five triangles in the pentagram become coplanar. The critical angle is atan(2) above the dodecahedron face.
If we regard it as having 12 pentagrams as faces, with these pentagrams meeting at 30 edges and 12 vertices, we can compute its genus using Euler's formula
and conclude that the small stellated dodecahedron has genus 4. This observation, made by Louis Poinsot, was initially confusing, but Felix Klein showed in 1877 that the small stellated dodecahedron could be seen as a branched covering of the Riemann sphere by a Riemann surface of genus 4, with branch points at the center of each pentagram. In fact this Riemann surface, called Bring's curve, has the greatest number of symmetries of any Riemann surface of genus 4: the symmetric group acts as automorphisms
Images
In art
A small stellated dodecahedron can be seen in a floor mosaic in St Mark's Basilica, Venice by Paolo Uccello circa 1430. The same shape is central to two lithographs by M. C. Escher: Contrast (Order and Chaos) (1950) and Gravitation (1952).
Related polyhedra
Its convex hull is the regular convex icosahedron. It also shares its edges with the great icosahedron; the compound with both is the great complex icosidodecahedron.
There are four related uniform polyhedra, constructed as degrees of truncation. The dual is a great dodecahedron. The dodecadodecahedron is a rectification, where edges are truncated down to points.
The truncated small stellated dodecahedron can be considered a degenerate uniform polyhedron since edges and vertices coincide, but it is included for completeness. Visually, it looks like a regular dodecahedron on the surface, but it has 24 faces in overlapping pairs. The spikes are truncated until they reach the plane of the pentagram beneath them. The 24 faces are 12 pentagons from the truncated vertices and 12 decagons taking the form of doubly-wound pentagons overlapping the first 12 pentagons. The latter faces are formed by truncating the original pentagrams. When an -gon is truncated, it becomes a -gon. For example, a truncated pentagon becomes a decagon , so truncating a pentagram becomes a doubly-wound pentagon (the common factor between 10 and 2 mean we visit each vertex twice to complete the polygon).
See also
Compound of small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron
References
Further reading
External links
Polyhedral stellation
Regular polyhedra
Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra |
3029878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20stellated%20dodecahedron | Great stellated dodecahedron | In geometry, the great stellated dodecahedron is a Kepler–Poinsot polyhedron, with Schläfli symbol {,3}. It is one of four nonconvex regular polyhedra.
It is composed of 12 intersecting pentagrammic faces, with three pentagrams meeting at each vertex.
It shares its vertex arrangement, although not its vertex figure or vertex configuration, with the regular dodecahedron, as well as being a stellation of a (smaller) dodecahedron. It is the only dodecahedral stellation with this property, apart from the dodecahedron itself. Its dual, the great icosahedron, is related in a similar fashion to the icosahedron.
Shaving the triangular pyramids off results in an icosahedron.
If the pentagrammic faces are broken into triangles, it is topologically related to the triakis icosahedron, with the same face connectivity, but much taller isosceles triangle faces. If the triangles are instead made to invert themselves and excavate the central icosahedron, the result is a great dodecahedron.
The great stellated dodecahedron can be constructed analogously to the pentagram, its two-dimensional analogue, by attempting to stellate the n-dimensional pentagonal polytope which has pentagonal polytope faces and simplex vertex figures until it can no longer be stellated; that is, it is its final stellation.
Images
Related polyhedra
A truncation process applied to the great stellated dodecahedron produces a series of uniform polyhedra. Truncating edges down to points produces the great icosidodecahedron as a rectified great stellated dodecahedron. The process completes as a birectification, reducing the original faces down to points, and producing the great icosahedron.
The truncated great stellated dodecahedron is a degenerate polyhedron, with 20 triangular faces from the truncated vertices, and 12 (hidden) pentagonal faces as truncations of the original pentagram faces, the latter forming a great dodecahedron inscribed within and sharing the edges of the icosahedron.
References
External links
Uniform polyhedra and duals
Polyhedral stellation
Regular polyhedra
Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra |
3029898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20icosahedron | Great icosahedron | In geometry, the great icosahedron is one of four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra (nonconvex regular polyhedra), with Schläfli symbol and Coxeter-Dynkin diagram of . It is composed of 20 intersecting triangular faces, having five triangles meeting at each vertex in a pentagrammic sequence.
The great icosahedron can be constructed analogously to the pentagram, its two-dimensional analogue, via the extension of the -dimensional simplex faces of the core -polytope (equilateral triangles for the great icosahedron, and line segments for the pentagram) until the figure regains regular faces. The grand 600-cell can be seen as its four-dimensional analogue using the same process.
Construction
The Great Icosahedron edge length is times the original icosahedron edge length.
Images
As a snub
The great icosahedron can be constructed as a uniform snub, with different colored faces and only tetrahedral symmetry: . This construction can be called a retrosnub tetrahedron or retrosnub tetratetrahedron, similar to the snub tetrahedron symmetry of the icosahedron, as a partial faceting of the truncated octahedron (or omnitruncated tetrahedron): . It can also be constructed with 2 colors of triangles and pyritohedral symmetry as, or , and is called a retrosnub octahedron.
Related polyhedra
It shares the same vertex arrangement as the regular convex icosahedron. It also shares the same edge arrangement as the small stellated dodecahedron.
A truncation operation, repeatedly applied to the great icosahedron, produces a sequence of uniform polyhedra. Truncating edges down to points produces the great icosidodecahedron as a rectified great icosahedron. The process completes as a birectification, reducing the original faces down to points, and producing the great stellated dodecahedron.
The truncated great stellated dodecahedron is a degenerate polyhedron, with 20 triangular faces from the truncated vertices, and 12 (hidden) doubled up pentagonal faces ({10/2}) as truncations of the original pentagram faces, the latter forming two great dodecahedra inscribed within and sharing the edges of the icosahedron.
References
(1st Edn University of Toronto (1938))
H.S.M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, (3rd edition, 1973), Dover edition, , 3.6 6.2 Stellating the Platonic solids, pp. 96–104
External links
Uniform polyhedra and duals
Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra
Regular polyhedra
Polyhedral stellation
Deltahedra |
3030122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1743%20Schmidt | 1743 Schmidt | 1743 Schmidt, provisional designation , is a dark background asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately in diameter. It was discovered during the Palomar–Leiden survey on 24 September 1960, by astronomers Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten at Leiden, on photographic plates taken by Tom Gehrels at Palomar Observatory in California. The C-type asteroid has a rotation period of 17.5 hours. It was named for the optician Bernhard Schmidt.
Orbit and classification
Schmidt is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. As it is located in the dynamical region of the Vesta family, the asteroid is potentially a Vestian interloper due to its completely different spectral type. It orbits the Sun in the inner asteroid belt at a distance of 2.1–2.8 AU once every 3 years and 11 months (1,421 days; semi-major axis of 2.47 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.13 and an inclination of 6° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with its first observation as at the Lowell Observatory in January 1931, more than 29 years prior to its official discovery observation at Palomar Observatory.
Palomar–Leiden survey
The survey designation "P-L" stands for "Palomar–Leiden", named after the Palomar and Leiden Observatory, which collaborated on the fruitful Palomar–Leiden survey in the 1960s. Gehrels used Palomar's Samuel Oschin telescope (also known as the 48-inch Schmidt Telescope), and shipped the photographic plates to Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten at Leiden Observatory where astrometry was carried out. The trio are credited with the discovery of several thousand asteroid discoveries.
Naming
This minor planet was named after Estonian-German optician and astronomer Bernhard Schmidt (1879–1935), who invented the Schmidt camera, a telescope design with a spherical primary mirror and an aspherical correcting lens, providing a wide field of view with little optical aberrations. Proposed by Paul Herget, the asteroid's official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 15 August 1970 ().
Physical characteristics
Schmidt is a common carbonaceous C-type asteroid as determined during the first phase of the Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey.
Rotation period and poles
In September 1983, a rotational lightcurve of Schmidt was obtained from photometric observations by Richard Binzel. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.36 magnitude (). A modeled lightcurve using photometric data from the Lowell Photometric Database was published in 2016. It gave a concurring period of hours, as well as two spin axes at (69.0°, −62.0°) and (261.0°, −53.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β).
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Schmidt measures between 17.00 and 20.78 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.042 and 0.0603.
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.0603 and a diameter of 17.28 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.48.
References
External links
Biography – Bernhard Schmidt
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
001743
Discoveries by Cornelis Johannes van Houten
Discoveries by Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld
Discoveries by Tom Gehrels
4109
Named minor planets
19600924 |
3031010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongasat | Tongasat | Tongasat is the licensed agent of the Kingdom of Tonga responsible for making and coordinating Tonga's satellite filings to the International Telecommunication Union and then licensing those satellite filings to international satellite operators for their commercial use, in effect a flag of convenience for space. Tonga was the sixth-largest claimant of orbital slots due to Tongasat's efforts. In 2002, Tongasat launched the Esiafi 1 satellite; as of 2015, a satellite in its spot was still in operation.
History
Matt Nilson, the founder of Tongasat, had previously started a satellite company, Advanced Business Communications Inc, and got approval to launch two satellites; the project, however, soon failed. He launched Tongasat after moving to Tonga from San Diego originally to retire in 1987.
Through personal connections, Nilson communicated his idea to Princess Salote Pilolevu Tuita, who then informed her father, King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV, of the idea. Tāufaāhau Tupou, intrigued partially because of Tonga's poor communication systems, set up a formal meeting with Nilson in November 1987. Nilson convinced the king to secure orbital slots from the International Telecommunication Union along with other Oceanic nations. In April 1988, the Tongan government authorized the company, officially established as the Friendly Islands Satellite Communications Inc and registered on 13 February 1989.
Tongasat's goal was to both profit commercially from the slots and to create a regional network in the Pacific to promote satellite operation. While the Government would not have to fund operations, it would receive half of the profit. The company began with a loan by Nilson of $1,000,000. Tongasat planned to lease each spot for $2,000,000 a year, which could have resulted in a 20% increase in Tonga's national budget. Tongasat, by commercializing orbital slots, created a market for space that previously had not existed. Tongasat ended up charging around $700,000 per transponder. In September 1994, Tongasat's market capitalization was valued at $45 million. After years of opaque finances supporting Salote Pilolevu Tuita, in 2009 the company paid back its debts to the Tongan government. In August 2018, Tongasat was convicted of transferring money from a Chinese venture to Salote Pelolevu Tuita instead of the government. Tongasat appealed, which was rejected by the Supreme Court.
Nilson's application for sixteen out of a total of 180 orbital slots on 23 March 1990 - the last useful unclaimed ones - from the ITU sparked widespread outrage. Intelsat, which had a near monopoly on Earth's satellite slots, had forgotten to claim the spots. Intelsat and foreign governments (such as the United States) thought the claim to be utterly ridiculous, and others concluded it was a money-making scheme. Both were particularly displeased as it uprooted a "gentlemen's agreement" whereby core countries controlled the orbital slots, while Tongasat would create a commercial market for those slots. According to Jonathon Ezor, "Tonga could have become a key player in the world telecommunications community" with its claim. After Nilson asked for six slots instead of sixteen, the ITU acquiesced in March 1991. Tongasat acquired a seventh slot soon after and eventually two more for a total of nine. Tonga's nine slots included slots at 14.0 degrees East, 70.0 degrees East, 83.3 degrees East, 130.0 degrees East, 134.0 degrees East, 138,0 degrees East, 142.5 degrees East, 170.75 degrees East, and 257.0 degrees East.
In October 1991, Unicom Satellite Corporation licensed two orbital slots from Tongasat, but failed to obtain the necessary funds to start operations. In April 1992, however, Rimsat Ltd. licensed slots and succeeded in launching three satellites. Tongasat also licensed one position to APT Satellite Company and negotiated with Informkosmos for another slot. Informkosmos, in partnership with Rimsat, launched a Russian satellite renamed into Tonga's 134.0 degrees East slot in August 1993. On 18 November that year, Rimsat One was launched, and on 20 May 1994 Rimsat Two was launched to the 142.5 degree East position. Afterwards, Rimsat filed for bankruptcy in 1995. The Russian government then decided to confiscate the two satellites left and ignored American court rulings and pleas from the American government to return them to Rimsat. By 1997, Tonga had five satellites in space, which soon dwindled to two.
In February 1994, Nilson was fired from Tongasat after an audit uncovered his ownership of Rimsat shares, a clear conflict of interest. In 1996, Tongasat ended its agreement with Rimsat and re-organized internally, hiring an all-Tongan staff.
The United States, China, Asianet, and PT Pasifik Satelit Nusantara all claimed or occupied slots from Tongasat against its wishes. PT Pasifik Satelit Nusantara and the Indonesian government had a long-lived dispute with Tongasat; after multiple summits, they came to a conclusion to share the slot.
On 15 April 2002 Tongasat started its own telecommunications industry when it obtained the satellite, previously named Parallax and before that Comstar 4d (launched in 1981), that was moved to Tonga's own geostationary point at 70° East. The satellite was originally launched by NASA on 21 February 1981. This was partially because unused slots automatically expire. In 2003, Tongasat entered into a partnership with General Dynamics to maintain the satellite.
Global influence
Tongasat inspired comparisons with The Mouse That Roared, as both provoked a much larger country with imaginary creations. Other small countries have followed Tonga's lead in claiming unneeded slots, including Gibraltar, Papua New Guinea and Bermuda. The company also influenced Tonga's foreign relations, leading the country to recognize China instead of Taiwan.
See also
Satellite Communications
Société Européenne des Satellites
GE Americom
References
External links
Tongasat Website
Communications in Tonga
Telecommunications companies established in 1989
Communications satellite operators |
3032125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/478%20Tergeste | 478 Tergeste | Tergeste (minor planet designation: 478 Tergeste) is a rare-type stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 78 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 21 September 1901, by Italian astronomer Luigi Carnera at Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany. It was named after the Italian city of Trieste.
Classification and orbit
Tergeste orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.8–3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months (1,915 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 13° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with its first used observation at Koenigsberg Observatory, 2 days after its official discovery at Heidelberg.
Physical characteristics
Tergeste is a stony S-type asteroid, which belongs to the small group of 41 bodies classified as rare L-subtype in the SMASS taxonomy.
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Tergeste measures between 77.3 and 85.6 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.155 and 0.191. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with the revised WISE results and takes an albedo of 0.1914, an absolute magnitude of 7.96 and a diameter of 77.1 kilometers.
Lightcurves
In July 2005, a rotational lightcurve of Tergeste was obtained by several photometrists including Laurent Bernasconi, Reiner Stoss, Petra Korlević and Raoul Behrend. The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.23 in magnitude (), superseding a period of hours from the 1980s ().
In January 2013, another lightcurve was obtained during a photometric survey by predominantly Polish and Japanese observatories. It gave a similar period of hours with an amplitude of 0.30 magnitude ().
Naming
This minor planet is named for the northeastern Italian city of Trieste (also known by its pre-Roman name "Tergeste"). It is the birthplace of the discoverer, who also worked there as director of the Trieste Observatory for many years.
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Background asteroids
Tergeste
Tergeste
S-type asteroids (Tholen)
L-type asteroids (SMASS)
19010921 |
3032131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/479%20Caprera | 479 Caprera | Caprera (minor planet designation: 479 Caprera) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of 479 Caprera, Palmer Divide Observatory, B. D. Warner (2010)
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Background asteroids
Caprera
Caprera
C-type asteroids (SMASS)
19011112 |
3032140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/480%20Hansa | 480 Hansa | Hansa (minor planet designation: 480 Hansa), provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and the namesake of the Hansa family located in the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 21 May 1901, by astronomers Max Wolf and Luigi Carnera at the Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany. The S-type asteroid has a rotation period of 16.19 hours and possibly an elongated shape. It was named after the Hanseatic League, a medieval European trade association.
Orbit and classification
Hansa is the namesake and parent body of the stony Hansa family (), a high-inclination family with more than a thousand known members. Hansa and the asteroid 925 Alphonsina are the two largest member of this family.
It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 2.5–2.8 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,570 days; semi-major axis of 2.64 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.05 and an inclination of 21° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at Heidelberg, the night after its official discovery observation in May 1901.
Physical characteristics
In the Tholen classification, Hansa is a common, stony S-type asteroid. The near infrared spectra suggests the surface has a primary component of low-Ca pyroxene with lower amounts of olivine.
Rotation period
Several rotational lightcurves of Hansa were obtained from photometric observations since the 1990s (). Analysis of the two best-rated lightcurves gave a rotation period of 16.19 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.58 and 0.44 magnitude, respectively (). A high brightness variation typically indicates an elongated shape.
A modeled lightcurve using photometric data from large collaboration network was published in 2016. It gave a concurring period of 16.1894 hours, as well as two spin axes at (352.0°, −18.0°) and (173.0°, −32.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β).
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Hansa measures between 55.94 and 65.67 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.162 and 0.254.
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is an albedo of 0.2485 and a diameter of 56.22 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 8.38.
Naming
This minor planet was named after the Hanseatic League (), a medieval confederation of merchant guilds and market towns in Northern Europe and the Baltic region. On the height of its expansion during the 14th and 15th century, the league included cities that are now located in Germany, Poland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, the Netherlands and Russia. The official naming citation was mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 (). The name was proposed by astronomer Heinrich Kreutz in 1906, who was an editor of the journal Astronomische Nachrichten based in the German city of Kiel, which was a member town of the Hanse League.
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
000480
Discoveries by Max Wolf
Discoveries by Luigi Carnera
Named minor planets
000480
19010521 |
3032143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/481%20Emita | 481 Emita | Emita (minor planet designation: 481 Emita) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun that was discovered by the Italian astronomer Luigi Carnera on February 12, 1902. The meaning of the asteroid's proper name remains unknown.
References
External links
Background asteroids
Emita
Emita
C-type asteroids (Tholen)
Ch-type asteroids (SMASS)
19020212 |
3032145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/482%20Petrina | 482 Petrina | Petrina (minor planet designation: 482 Petrina) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
Attempts to produce a light curve for this object have yielded differing synodic rotation periods, perhaps in part because the period is close to half an Earth day. Observations suggest that the pole of rotation is near the orbital plane, yielding only small light variations during certain parts of each orbit. Attempts to observe the asteroid photometrically during an optimal viewing period of the object's orbit gave a rotation period of 11.7922 ± 0.0001 h with an amplitude variation of 0.53 ± 0.05 in magnitude.
References
External links
Background asteroids
Petrina
Petrina
S-type asteroids (Tholen)
19020303 |
3032150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/483%20Seppina | 483 Seppina | Seppina (minor planet designation: 483 Seppina) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
References
External links
Cybele asteroids
Seppina
Seppina
S-type asteroids (Tholen)
19020304 |
3032154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/484%20Pittsburghia | 484 Pittsburghia | Pittsburghia (minor planet designation: Pittsburghia) is an asteroid that is in orbit around the Sun 150 million miles from Earth. It is named in honor of the city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and its scientific and industrial heritage that produced some of the finest astronomy equipment of the time .
References
External links
Background asteroids
Pittsburghia
Pittsburghia
S-type asteroids (SMASS)
19020429 |
3032157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/485%20Genua | 485 Genua | Genua (minor planet designation: 485 Genua) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
References
External links
Background asteroids
Genua
Genua
S-type asteroids (SMASS)
19020507 |
3032162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486%20Cremona | 486 Cremona | Cremona (minor planet designation: 486 Cremona) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of 486 Cremona, Palmer Divide Observatory, B. D. Warner (2006)
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Background asteroids
Cremona
Cremona
19020511 |
3032179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/487%20Venetia | 487 Venetia | Venetia (minor planet designation: 487 Venetia), provisional designation , is a rare-type stony asteroid from the middle regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 63 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 9 July 1902, by Italian astronomer Luigi Carnera at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany. It was later named for the Italian Veneto region where the city of Venice is located.
Orbit and classification
Venetia orbits the Sun in the middle main-belt at a distance of 2.4–2.9 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,593 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 10° with respect to the ecliptic.
The body's observation arc begins in 1913, at the Collegio Romano Observatory () in Italy, approximately 17 months after its official discovery observation at Heidelberg.
Physical characteristics
On the taxonomic scheme, Venetia is a common, featureless S-type asteroid. More recently, polarimetric observations refined its classification to a rare K-type asteroid.
Rotation period
In March 2014, the so-far best rated rotational lightcurve was obtained by Italian astronomer Andrea Ferrero at the Bigmuskie Observatory () in Mombercelli, Italy. It gave a well-defined rotation period of 13.34 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 magnitude (). The result supersedes previously measured periods of 10.62 to 18 hours.
Spin axis
In two separate studies, groups of German, Russian and Swedish astronomers also modeled Venetias lightcurve from various data sources in 2000 and 2002. They found two spin axes of (259.0°, −30.0°) and (268.0°, −24.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β), as well as a concurring rotation period of 13.33170 and 13.34153 hours, respectively ().
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Venetia measures between 59.046 and 66.13 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.228 and 0.328. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.2457 and a diameter of 63.15 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 8.14.
Naming
This minor planet was named for the region of Veneto with its capital and largest city Venice. The region is located in northeast Italy between the Po River and the Alps. Naming was proposed by Italian astronomer Elia Millosevich.
Naming citation was first mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 () and amended by Lutz Schmadel for the Dictionary of Minor Planet Names based on a private communication with astronomer Piero Sicoli.
References
External links
CCD photometry of asteroid , A. William Neely, NF/ Observatory, 1992
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Background asteroids
Venetia
Venetia
S-type asteroids (Tholen)
19020709 |
3032183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/488%20Kreusa | 488 Kreusa | Kreusa (minor planet designation: 488 Kreusa) is a C-type asteroid orbiting the Sun in the asteroid belt, with the type indicating a surface with a low albedo and high carbonaceous content. The spectra of the asteroid displays evidence of aqueous alteration.
In 2002, Kreusa was detected by radar from the Arecibo Observatory at a distance of 1.67 AU. The resulting data yielded an effective diameter of .
References
External links
Background asteroids
Kreusa
Kreusa
Kreusa
C-type asteroids (Tholen)
19020626 |
3032186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/489%20Comacina | 489 Comacina | Comacina (minor planet designation: 489 Comacina) is a minor planet located in the asteroid belt. It is named after Isola Comacina, an island in Lake Como, Italy.
References
External links
Background asteroids
Comacina
Comacina
C-type asteroids (Tholen)
19020902 |
3032190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/490%20Veritas | 490 Veritas | Veritas, minor planet designation 490 Veritas, is a carbonaceous Veritasian asteroid, which may have been involved in one of the more massive asteroid-asteroid collisions of the past 100 million years. It was discovered by German astronomer Max Wolf at Heidelberg Observatory on 3 September 1902.
Description
With an diameter of more than 100 kilometers, Veritas is the largest member and namesake of the Veritas family, a mid-sized asteroid family of carbonaceous asteroids in the outer main-belt, that formed recently approximately million years ago. David Nesvorný of the Southwest Research Institute in Boulder traced the orbits of these bodies back in time, and calculated that they formed in a collision of a body at least 150 km in diameter with a smaller asteroid. Veritas and Undina would have been the largest fragments of that collision which caused a "late Miocene dust shower". The family consists of more than a thousand known members including 1086 Nata, 2428 Kamenyar and 2934 Aristophanes.
Late Miocene dust shower
Substantiating Nesvorný's estimate, Kenneth Farley et al. found evidence in sea-floor sediments of a fourfold increase in the amount of cosmic dust reaching Earth's surface, which began 8.2 million years ago and tapered off over the next million and a half years. This is one of the largest increases in dust deposits of the past 100 million years.
The suspected Veritas collision would have been too far from Jupiter for the fragments to have been slung into a collision course with Earth. However, solar radiation would have caused the resulting dust to drift inward to Earth orbit over a time span consistent with the record of dust in the ocean sediment.
Today continuing collisions among Veritas-family asteroids are estimated to send five thousand tons of cosmic dust to Earth each year, 15% of the total.
References
External links
The Asteroid Veritas: An intruder in a family named after it?
Lightcurve plot of (490) Veritas , Antelope Hills Observatory
"Asteroid Smashup Yields Dust Shower on Earth" from SkyandTelescope.com, Jan. 20, 2006.
Veritas asteroids
Veritas
Veritas
C-type asteroids (Tholen)
Ch-type asteroids (SMASS)
19020903 |
3032209 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/491%20Carina | 491 Carina | Carina (minor planet designation: 491 Carina) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
References
External links
Background asteroids
Carina
Carina
C-type asteroids (SMASS)
19020903 |
3032210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/492%20Gismonda | 492 Gismonda | Gismonda (minor planet designation: 492 Gismonda) is a Themistian asteroid discovered by Max Wolf. Gismonda is named after the daughter of Tancred, prince of Salerno, from Giovanni Boccaccio's work, The Decameron.
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of (492) Gismonda, Antelope Hills Observatory
000492
Discoveries by Max Wolf
Named minor planets
19020903 |
3032216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/493%20Griseldis | 493 Griseldis | Griseldis (minor planet designation: 493 Griseldis) is a fairly dark main-belt asteroid 46 km in diameter.
Overview
Griseldis is suspected of having been impacted by another asteroid in March 2015. Other asteroids suspected of an asteroid-on-asteroid impact include P/2010 A2 and 596 Scheila which also showed extended features (tails).
The asteroid was observed with the Subaru telescope (8m), the Magellan Telescopes (6.5), and also the University of Hawaii 2.2 m telescope in early 2015. The activity was detected on the Subaru in late March, and confirmed on the Magellan telescope a few days later (which is in Chile), but no activity was seen by April. Also, no activity was seen in archived images from 2010 or 2012 according to a University of Hawaii press release.
See also
354P/LINEAR
596 Scheila
P/2016 G1 (PanSTARRS)
References
External links
Background asteroids
Active asteroids
Griseldis
19020907
Griseldis
Small-asteroids collision
20150315 |
3032218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/494%20Virtus | 494 Virtus | Virtus (minor planet designation: 494 Virtus) is an 86 km minor planet orbiting the Sun. It was discovered by Max Wolf on October 7, 1902. Its provisional name was 1902 JV.
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of 494 Virtus, Palmer Divide Observatory, B. D. Warner (2005)
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Background asteroids
Virtus
Virtus
C-type asteroids (Tholen)
Ch-type asteroids (SMASS)
19021007 |
3032221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/495%20Eulalia | 495 Eulalia | Eulalia (minor planet designation: 495 Eulalia) is a minor planet, specifically an asteroid orbiting in the asteroid belt. Eulalia is very near the 3:1 Jupiter orbital resonance.
It is possible that the disruption of Eulalia's parent body resulted in a mass bombardment of the Earth and Moon 800 million years ago, forming the Copernicus crater on the Moon and involving about 50 times the amount of material of the Chicxulub impact on Earth at the beginning of the Cryogenian geological period.
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of 495 Eulalia, Palmer Divide Observatory, B. D. Warner (2012)
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Background asteroids
Eulalia
Eulalia
19021025 |
3032223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/496%20Gryphia | 496 Gryphia | Gryphia (minor planet designation: 496 Gryphia) is an S-type asteroid belonging to the Flora family in the Main Belt. Its diameter is about 15 km and it has an albedo of 0.168.
This object has a very low rate of spin, requiring to complete a full rotation.
References
External links
Flora asteroids
Gryphia
Gryphia
Slow rotating minor planets
S-type asteroids (Tholen)
S-type asteroids (SMASS)
19021025 |
3032224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/497%20Iva | 497 Iva | Iva (minor planet designation: 497 Iva) is a main-belt asteroid orbiting the Sun, not to be confused with 1627 Ivar. It was discovered by American astronomer R. S. Dugan on 4 November 1902, and was named for Iva Shores, the young daughter of the family where he was staying in Heidelberg. This object is orbiting at a distance of with a period of and an eccentricity of 0.3. The orbital plane is inclined at an angle of 4.8° to the plane of the ecliptic.
This asteroid is classified as an M-type asteroid and is considered anhydrous but oxidized. Further analysis of the spectra suggests the "presence of either an olivine or high-Ca pyroxene phase
in addition to orthopyroxene ± Type B clinopyroxene". Analysis of light curves based on photometric data show a rotation period of with a brightness variation of in magnitude.
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of 497 Iva, Palmer Divide Observatory, B. D. Warner (2009)
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Background asteroids
Iva
Iva
M-type asteroids (Tholen)
19021104 |
3032225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/498%20Tokio | 498 Tokio | Tokio (minor planet designation: 498 Tokio) (1902 KU) is a main-belt asteroid discovered on 2 December 1902 by Auguste Charlois at the Nice Observatory.
Attribution to Astronomer Shin Hirayama of the Azabu Observatory, Tokyo, Japan for the 1900 discovery and naming of Tokio as cited in the 1947 Monthly Newsletter of the Royal Astronomical Society Vol 107, page 45.
References
Attribution to Astronomer Shin Hirayama of the Azabu Observatory, Tokyo, Japan for the 1900 discovery and naming of Tokio as cited in the 1947 Monthly Newsletter of the Royal Astronomical Society Vol 107, page 45.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/seri/MNRAS/0107//0000045.000.html
External links
Background asteroids
Tokio
Tokio
Tokio
M-type asteroids (Tholen)
19021202 |
3032227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/499%20Venusia | 499 Venusia | Venusia (minor planet designation: 499 Venusia) is an asteroid in the outer asteroid belt, discovered by Max Wolf in 1902. Its diameter is 81 km (50.6 miles). It is a dark P-type asteroid. It has an average distance from the Sun of .
References
External links
Hilda asteroids
Venusia
Venusia
P-type asteroids (Tholen)
19021224 |
3032228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/500%20Selinur | 500 Selinur | Selinur (minor planet designation: 500 Selinur) is a minor planet, specifically an asteroid orbiting in the asteroid belt. Like 501 Urhixidur and 502 Sigune, it is named after a character in Friedrich Theodor Vischer's then-bestseller satirical novel Auch Einer.
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of 500 Selinur, Palmer Divide Observatory, B. D. Warner (2009)
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
000500
Discoveries by Max Wolf
Named minor planets
19030116 |
3032259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/502%20Sigune | 502 Sigune | Sigune (minor planet designation: 502 Sigune) is a minor planet, specifically an asteroid orbiting primarily in the asteroid belt. Like 501 Urhixidur and 500 Selinur, it is named after a character in Friedrich Theodor Vischer's then-bestseller satirical novel Auch Einer.
References
External links
000502
Discoveries by Max Wolf
Named minor planets
000502
19030119 |
3032261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/503%20Evelyn | 503 Evelyn | Evelyn (minor planet designation: 503 Evelyn) is a main belt asteroid discovered by Raymond Smith Dugan on 19 January 1903. The asteroid was named after Evelyn Smith Dugan, mother of the discoverer.
References
External links
Background asteroids
Evelyn
Evelyn
XC-type asteroids (Tholen)
Ch-type asteroids (SMASS)
19030119 |
3032264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/504%20Cora | 504 Cora | Cora (minor planet designation: 504 Cora), provisional designation , is a metallic asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt, approximately 30 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered by American astronomer Solon Bailey at Harvard's Boyden Station in Arequipa, Peru, on 30 June 1902. It was later named after Cora, a figure in Inca mythology.
Classification and orbit
Cora orbits the Sun in the middle main-belt at a distance of 2.1–3.3 AU once every 4 years and 6 months (1,640 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.22 and an inclination of 13° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins 4 years after its discovery with the first used observation made at Heidelberg in 1906.
Physical characteristics
Spectral type
On the Tholen taxonomic scheme, as well as by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), Cora is classified as a metallic M-type asteroid.
Mineralogic observations in the near-infrared with the NASA IRTF telescope using its SpeX spectrograph, showed that its surface is that of an X-type asteroid, with absorption features indicating the presence of pyroxene minerals. In 2004, the body's spectrum was also obtained in the SMASSII survey at the U.S. MDM Observatory, Kitt Peak, Arizona.
Rotation period
Several rotational lightcurves of Cora were obtained for this asteroid by astronomers Maria A. Barucci, David Higgins, Axel Martin, and the Palomar Transient Factory. With one exception, they all gave a rotation period close to 7.59 hours. Among these, David Higgins observation made in September 2010, at the Hunters Hill Observatory () in Ngunnawal, Australia – gave the best rated lightcurve with a period of hours and a brightness variation of 0.20 magnitude ().
Diameter and albedo
According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's WISE telescope with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Coras surface has a high albedo between 0.239 and 0.341. Combined with their respective absolute magnitudes, this results in a diameter estimate of 27.2 to 35.0 kilometers. In contrast, the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives a much lower albedo of 0.19 and a diameter of 29.1 kilometers, based on an absolute magnitude of 10.1.
Naming
This minor planet was named after Cora, a figure in Inca mythology ().
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
000504
Discoveries by Solon Irving Bailey
Named minor planets
000504
19020630 |
3032266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/505%20Cava | 505 Cava | Cava (minor planet designation: 505 Cava) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
In 2001, the asteroid was detected by radar from the Arecibo Observatory at a distance of 1.18 AU. The resulting data yielded an effective diameter of .
References
External links
Background asteroids
Cava
Cava
FC-type asteroids (Tholen)
19020821 |
3032274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/506%20Marion | 506 Marion | Marion (minor planet designation: 506 Marion) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun. It was discovered by Raymond Smith Dugan in February 1903, and was later named after a cousin of his. It is designated as a C-type asteroid with a size of approximately .
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of 506 Marion, Palmer Divide Observatory, B. D. Warner (2009)
Lightcurves 506 Marion, tripod.com
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Background asteroids
Marion
Marion
XC-type asteroids (Tholen)
19030217 |
3032277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/507%20Laodica | 507 Laodica | Laodica (minor planet designation: 507 Laodica) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of 507 Laodica, Palmer Divide Observatory, B. D. Warner (2001)
Lightcurves 507 Laodica, tripod.com
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Laodica asteroids
Background asteroids
Laodica
Laodica
X-type asteroids (SMASS)
19030219 |
3032280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/508%20Princetonia | 508 Princetonia | Princetonia (minor planet designation: 508 Princetonia) is a large asteroid, a type of minor planet, orbiting in the asteroid belt. It was discovered by Raymond Smith Dugan at Heidelberg, Germany in 1903 and named "Princetonia" for Princeton University in New Jersey in the United States.
Dugan found it during his time at Königstuhl Observatory with Max Wolf in Heidelberg, Germany. At the time he was working on his PhD from Heidelberg University. The asteroid is located in the outer areas of the main asteroid belt and is about in diameter according to data from IRAS, an infrared space observatory in the 1980s.
See also
List of Solar System objects by size
References
Further reading
External links
Background asteroids
Princetonia
Princetonia
Princeton University
C-type asteroids (Tholen)
19030420 |
3032283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/509%20Iolanda | 509 Iolanda | Iolanda (minor planet designation: 509 Iolanda) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of (509) Iolanda, Antelope Hills Observatory
Data and Model of Iolanda at Database of Asteroid Models from Inversion Techniques
Background asteroids
Iolanda
Iolanda
S-type asteroids (Tholen)
S-type asteroids (SMASS)
19030428 |
3032284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/510%20Mabella | 510 Mabella | Mabella (minor planet designation: 510 Mabella) is a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
References
External links
Background asteroids
Mabella
Mabella
PD-type asteroids (Tholen)
19030520 |
3032288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/512%20Taurinensis | 512 Taurinensis | Taurinensis (minor planet designation: 512 Taurinensis), provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and large Mars-crosser on an eccentric orbit from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 20 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 23 June 1903, by astronomer Max Wolf at the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory in southwest Germany. The asteroid was named after the Italian city of Turin. It is the 4th-largest Mars-crossing asteroid.
Orbit and classification
Taurinensis is a Mars-crossing asteroid, a dynamically unstable group between the main belt and the near-Earth populations, crossing the orbit of Mars at 1.666 AU. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.6–2.7 AU once every 3 years and 3 months (1,183 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.25 and an inclination of 9° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with its identification as at Heidelberg in April 1909, almost 6 years prior to its official discovery observation.
Physical characteristics
Taurinensis is a common, stony S-type asteroid in both the Tholen and SMASS classification.
Rotation period
In 1982, the asteroid was observed using photometry from the La Silla Observatory to generate a composite light curve. The resulting data showed a rotation period of 0.2326 days (5.58 h) with a brightness variation of 0.2 in magnitude.
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Taurinensis measures between 18.70 and 23.09 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.1772 and 0.270. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.1772 and a diameter of 23.09 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.72.
With a mean-diameter of 20 kilometers, Taurinensis is the 4th-largest Mars-crossing asteroids, just behind 132 Aethra (43 km), 323 Brucia (36 km) and 2204 Lyyli (25 km), and larger than 1508 Kemi (17 km), 1474 Beira (15 km) and 1310 Villigera (14 km).
Naming
This minor planet was named after "Taurinensis", the Latin name of the city of Turin, located in northern Italy. It was named in 1905, by astronomers of the Observatory of Turin with the discoverer's endorsement (). The official naming citation was mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 ().
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
000512
Discoveries by Max Wolf
Named minor planets
000512
000512
19030623 |
3032291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/513%20Centesima | 513 Centesima | Centesima (minor planet designation: 513 Centesima) is a 50 km Main-belt asteroid orbiting the Sun. It is one of the core members of the Eos family of asteroids. Relatively little is known about this tiny asteroid. It is not known to possess any natural satellites, so its mass is unknown. However, its brief rotation period of just over 5 hours implies that the body must be exceptionally dense, for its gravity is able counteract the centrifugal force. It was discovered 24 August 1903 by late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century astronomer Max Wolf. It was his 100th asteroid discovery, hence the name, which in Latin, means "hundredth".
References
External links
Eos asteroids
Centesima
Centesima
S-type asteroids (Tholen)
K-type asteroids (SMASS)
19030824 |
3032298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/514%20Armida | 514 Armida | 514 Armida is a minor planet orbiting the Sun. According to the Catalogue of Minor Planet Names and Discovery Circumstances, it is "named for the beautiful legendary sorceress in Torquato Tasso’s (1544–1595) Jerusalem Delivered. She is the leading character in the opera Armida (composed 1777) by Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787)." (Numerous other composers have written "Armida" operas; see Armida.)
References
External links
Lightcurve plot of (514) Armida, Antelope Hills Observatory
000514
Discoveries by Max Wolf
Named minor planets
000514
19030824 |