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25-21 | Autism
Section::::History.:Terminology and distinction from schizophrenia.
As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; while in 2007 it was believed to be one of the most heritable psychiatric conditions. Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have affected how ASD is viewed, parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively, and many primary care physicians and medical specialists express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.
It took until 1980 for the DSM-III to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987, the DSM-III-R provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013, the DSM-5 was released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders, including PDD-NOS, autism, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, and CDD, has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The two categories that exist are impaired social communication and/or interaction, and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors.
The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely. Societal and cultural aspects of autism have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being.
section:histori :historiterminolog terminologdistinct distinctschizophrenia schizophrenialate latemid-1970 mid-1970littl littlevid evidgenet genetrole roleautism autism2007 2007believ believone oneherit heritpsychiatr psychiatrcondit conditalthough althoughrise riseparent parentorgan organdestigmat destigmatchildhood childhoodasd asdaffect affectasd asdview viewparent parentcontinu continufeel feelsocial socialstigma stigmasituat situatchild child's 'sautist autistbehavior behaviorperceiv perceivnegat negatmani maniprimari primaricare carephysician physicianmedic medicspecialist specialistexpress expressbelief beliefconsist consistoutdat outdatautism autismresearch researchtook took1980 1980dsm-iii dsm-iiidifferenti differentiautism autismchildhood childhoodschizophrenia schizophrenia1987 1987dsm-iii-r dsm-iii-rprovid providchecklist checklistdiagnos diagnosautism autismmay may2013 2013dsm-5 dsm-5releas releasupdat updatclassif classifpervas pervasdevelopment developmentdisord disordgroup groupdisord disordinclud includpdd-nos pdd-nosautism autismasperg aspergsyndrom syndromrett rettsyndrom syndromcdd cddremov removreplac replacgeneral generalterm termautism autismspectrum spectrumdisord disordtwo twocategori categoriexist existimpair impairsocial socialcommunic communicand/or and/orinteract interactrestrict restrictand/or and/orrepetit repetitbehavior behaviorinternet internethelp helpautist autistindividu individubypass bypassnonverb nonverbcue cueemot emotshare sharefind finddifficult difficultdeal dealgiven givenway wayform formonlin onlincommuniti communitiwork workremot remotsociet societcultur culturaspect aspectautism autismdevelop developcommuniti communitiseek seekcure cureother otherbeliev believautism autismsimpli simplianoth anothway | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-22 | Autism
Section::::Society and culture.
An autistic culture has emerged, accompanied by the autistic rights and neurodiversity movements. Events include World Autism Awareness Day, Autism Sunday, Autistic Pride Day, Autreat, and others. Organizations dedicated to promoting awareness of autism include Autism Speaks, Autism National Committee, and Autism Society of America. Social-science scholars study those with autism in hopes to learn more about "autism as a culture, transcultural comparisons... and research on social movements." While most autistic individuals do not have savant skills, many have been successful in their fields.
section:societi :societicultur culturautist autistcultur culturemerg emergaccompani accompaniautist autistright rightneurodivers neurodiversmovement movementevent eventinclud includworld worldautism autismawar awarday dayautism autismsunday sundayautist autistpride prideday dayautreat autreatother otherorgan organdedic dedicpromot promotawar awarautism autisminclud includautism autismspeak speakautism autismnation nationcommitte committeautism autismsocieti societiamerica americasocial-sci social-scischolar scholarstudi studiautism autismhope hopelearn learn`` ``autism autismcultur culturtranscultur transculturcomparison comparison... ...research researchsocial socialmovement movement'' ''autist autistindividu individusavant savantskill skillmani manisuccess successfield | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-23 | Autism
Section::::Society and culture.:Autism rights movement.
The autism rights movement is a social movement within the context of disability rights that emphasizes the concept of neurodiversity, viewing the autism spectrum as a result of natural variations in the human brain rather than a disorder to be cured. The autism rights movement advocates for including greater acceptance of autistic behaviors; therapies that focus on coping skills rather than imitating the behaviors those without autism; and the recognition of the autistic community as a minority group. Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should be accepted as a natural expression of the human genome. This perspective is distinct from two other likewise distinct views: the medical perspective, that autism is caused by a genetic defect and should be addressed by targeting the autism gene(s), and fringe theories that autism is caused by environmental factors such as vaccines. A common criticism against autistic activists is that the majority of them are "high-functioning" or have Asperger syndrome and do not represent the views of "low-functioning" autistic people.
section:societi :societicultur culturautism autismright rightmovement movementautism autismright rightmovement movementsocial socialmovement movementwithin withincontext contextdisabl disablright rightemphas emphasconcept conceptneurodivers neurodiversview viewautism autismspectrum spectrumresult resultnatur naturvariat variathuman humanbrain brainrather ratherdisord disordcure cureautism autismright rightmovement movementadvoc advocinclud includgreater greateraccept acceptautist autistbehavior behaviortherapi therapifocus focuscope copeskill skillrather ratherimit imitbehavior behaviorwithout withoutautism autismrecognit recognitautist autistcommuniti communitiminor minorgroup groupautism autismright rightneurodivers neurodiversadvoc advocbeliev believautism autismspectrum spectrumgenet genetaccept acceptnatur naturexpress expresshuman humangenom genomperspect perspectdistinct distincttwo twolikewis likewisdistinct distinctview viewmedic medicperspect perspectautism autismcaus causgenet genetdefect defectaddress addresstarget targetautism autismgene genefring fringtheori theoriautism autismcaus causenvironment environmentfactor factorvaccin vaccincommon commoncritic criticautist autistactivist activistmajor major`` ``high-funct high-funct'' ''asperg aspergsyndrom syndromrepres represview view`` ``low-funct low-funct'' ''autist autistpeopl | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-24 | Autism
Section::::Society and culture.:Employment.
About half of autistics are unemployed, and one third of those with graduate degrees may be unemployed. Among autistics who find work, most are employed in sheltered settings working for wages below the national minimum. While employers state hiring concerns about productivity and supervision, experienced employers of autistics give positive reports of above average memory and detail orientation as well as a high regard for rules and procedure in autistic employees. A majority of the economic burden of autism if caused by decreased earnings in the job market. Some studies also find decreased earning among parents who care for autistic children.
section:societi :societiculture. culture.employ employhalf halfautist autistunemploy unemployone onethird thirdgraduat graduatdegre degremay mayunemploy unemployamong amongautist autistfind findwork workemploy employshelter shelterset setwork workwage wagenation nationminimum minimumemploy employstate statehire hireconcern concernproduct productsupervis supervisexperienc experiencemploy employautist autistgive giveposit positreport reportaverag averagmemori memoridetail detailorient orientwell wellhigh highregard regardrule ruleprocedur procedurautist autistemploye employemajor majoreconom economburden burdenautism autismcaus causdecreas decreasearn earnjob jobmarket marketstudi studialso alsofind finddecreas decreasearn earnamong amongparent parentcare careautist autistchildren | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
359-1 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
This is a list of characters in Ayn Rand's novel "Atlas Shrugged."
listcharact charactayn aynrand rand's 'snovel novel`` ``atlas atlasshrug shrug'' | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-2 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.
The following are major characters from the novel.
section:major :majorcharact charactfollow followmajor majorcharact charactnovel | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-3 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.
section:major :majorcharact charactprotagonist | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-4 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:Dagny Taggart.
Dagny Taggart is the protagonist of the novel. She is Vice-President in Charge of Operations for Taggart Transcontinental, under her brother, James Taggart. Given James' incompetence, Dagny is responsible for all the workings of the railroad.
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.protagonist protagonistdagni dagnitaggart taggartdagni dagnitaggart taggartprotagonist protagonistnovel novelvice-presid vice-presidcharg chargoper opertaggart taggarttranscontinent transcontinentbrother brotherjame jametaggart taggartgiven givenjame jameincompet incompetdagni dagnirespons responswork workrailroad | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-5 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:Francisco d'Anconia.
Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters in "Atlas Shrugged", an owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining operation. He is a childhood friend, and the first love, of Dagny Taggart. A child prodigy of exceptional talents, Francisco was dubbed the "climax" of the d'Anconia line, an already prestigious family of skilled industrialists. He was a classmate of John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld and student of both Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. He began working while still in school, proving that he could have made a fortune without the aid of his family's wealth and power. Later, Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business to put it out of others' reach. His full name is given as "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastián d'Anconia".
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.protagonist protagonistfrancisco franciscod'anconia d'anconiafrancisco franciscod'anconia d'anconiaone onecentral centralcharact charact`` ``atlas atlasshrug shrug'' ''owner ownerinherit inheritworld world's 'slargest largestcopper coppermine mineoper operchildhood childhoodfriend friendfirst firstlove lovedagni dagnitaggart taggartchild childprodigi prodigiexcept excepttalent talentfrancisco franciscodub dub`` ``climax climax'' ''d'anconia d'anconialine linealreadi alreadiprestigi prestigifamili familiskill skillindustrialist industrialistclassmat classmatjohn johngalt galtragnar ragnardanneskjöld danneskjöldstudent studenthugh hughakston akstonrobert robertstadler stadlerbegan beganwork workstill stillschool schoolprove provecould couldmade madefortun fortunwithout withoutaid aidfamili famili's 'swealth wealthpower powerlater laterfrancisco franciscobankrupt bankruptd'anconia d'anconiabusi busiput putother otherreach reachfull fullname namegiven given`` ``francisco franciscodomingo domingocarlo carloandr andrsebastián sebastiánd'anconia d'anconia'' | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-6 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:John Galt.
John Galt is the primary male hero of "Atlas Shrugged". He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental, who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employees' cafeteria, and leads Eddie to reveal important information about Dagny Taggart and Taggart Transcontinental. Only Eddie's side of their conversations is given in the novel. Later in the novel, the reader discovers this worker's true identity.
Before working for Taggart Transcontinental, Galt worked as an engineer for the Twentieth Century Motor Company, where he secretly invented a generator of usable electric energy from ambient static electricity, but abandoned his prototype, and his employment, when dissatisfied by an easily corrupted novel system of payment. This prototype was found by Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden. Galt himself remains concealed throughout much of the novel, working a job and living by himself, where he unites the most skillful inventors and business leaders under his leadership. Much of the book's third division is given to his broadcast speech, which presents the author's philosophy of Objectivism.
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.protagonist protagonistjohn johngalt galtjohn johngalt galtprimari primarimale malehero hero`` ``atlas atlasshrug shrug'' ''initi initiappear appearunnam unnammenial menialworker workertaggart taggarttranscontinent transcontinentoften oftendine dineeddi eddiwiller willeremploye employecafeteria cafeterialead leadeddi eddireveal revealimport importinform informdagni dagnitaggart taggarttaggart taggarttranscontinent transcontinenteddi eddi's 'sside sideconvers conversgiven givennovel novellater laternovel novelreader readerdiscov discovworker worker's 'strue trueident identwork worktaggart taggarttranscontinent transcontinentgalt galtwork workengin engintwentieth twentiethcenturi centurimotor motorcompani companisecret secretinvent inventgenerat generatusabl usablelectr electrenergi energiambient ambientstatic staticelectr electrabandon abandonprototyp prototypemploy employdissatisfi dissatisfieasili easilicorrupt corruptnovel novelsystem systempayment paymentprototyp prototypfound founddagni dagnitaggart taggarthank hankrearden reardengalt galtremain remainconceal concealthroughout throughoutmuch muchnovel novelwork workjob joblive liveunit unitskill skillinventor inventorbusi busileader leaderleadership leadershipmuch muchbook book's 'sthird thirddivis divisgiven givenbroadcast broadcastspeech speechpresent presentauthor author's 'sphilosophi philosophiobjectiv | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-7 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:Henry "Hank" Rearden.
Henry (known as "Hank") Rearden is one of the central characters in "Atlas Shrugged". He owns the most important steel company in the United States, and invents Rearden Metal, an alloy stronger than steel (with similar properties to stainless steel). He lives in Philadelphia with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and his elderly mother. Rearden represents a type of self-made man or prototypical hero, and illustrates Rand's theory of sex in so far as he accepts the traditional view of sexual congress as a subhuman instinct, but responds sexually to Dagny Taggart. Rearden eventually divorces Lillian, abandons his steel mills following a bloody assault by government-planted workers, and joins John Galt's strike.
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.protagonist protagonisthenri henri`` ``hank hank'' ''rearden reardenhenri henriknown known`` ``hank hank'' ''rearden reardenone onecentral centralcharact charact`` ``atlas atlasshrug shrug'' ''own ownimport importsteel steelcompani companiunit unitstate stateinvent inventrearden reardenmetal metalalloy alloystronger strongersteel steelsimilar similarproperti propertistainless stainlesssteel steellive livephiladelphia philadelphiawife wifelillian lillianbrother brotherphilip philipelder eldermother motherrearden reardenrepres represtype typeself-mad self-madman manprototyp prototyphero heroillustr illustrrand rand's 'stheori theorisex sexfar faraccept accepttradit traditview viewsexual sexualcongress congresssubhuman subhumaninstinct instinctrespond respondsexual sexualdagni dagnitaggart taggartrearden reardeneventu eventudivorc divorclillian lillianabandon abandonsteel steelmill millfollow followbloodi bloodiassault assaultgovernment-pl government-plworker workerjoin joinjohn johngalt galt's 'sstrike | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-8 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:Eddie Willers.
Edwin "Eddie" Willers is the Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operations at Taggart Transcontinental. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and himself likewise. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. Willers does not possess the creative ability of Galt's associates, but matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. After Dagny shifts her attention and loyalty to saving the captive Galt, Willers maintains the railroad until its collapse.
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.protagonist protagonisteddi eddiwiller willeredwin edwin`` ``eddi eddi'' ''willer willerspecial specialassist assistvice-presid vice-presidcharg chargoper opertaggart taggarttranscontinent transcontinentfather fathergrandfath grandfathwork worktaggart taggartlikewis likewiscomplet completloyal loyaldagni dagnitaggart taggarttranscontinent transcontinentwiller willerpossess possesscreativ creativabil abilgalt galt's 'sassoci associmatch matchmoral moralcourag couragcapabl capablappreci apprecimake makeuse usecreation creationdagni dagnishift shiftattent attentloyalti loyaltisave savecaptiv captivgalt galtwiller willermaintain maintainrailroad railroadcollaps | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-9 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:Ragnar Danneskjöld.
One of Galt's first followers, and world-famous as a pirate, who seizes relief ships sent from the United States to the People's States of Europe. He works to ensure that once those espousing Galt's philosophy are restored to their rightful place in society, they have enough capital to rebuild the world. Kept in the background for much of the book, Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance to encourage Rearden to persevere in his increasingly difficult situation, and gives him a bar of gold as compensation for the income taxes he has paid over the last several years. Danneskjöld is married to the actress Kay Ludlow; their relationship is kept hidden from the outside world, which only knows of Ludlow as a retired film star. Considered a misfit by Galt's other adherents, he views his actions as a means to speed the world along in understanding Galt's perspective.
According to Barbara Branden, who was closely associated with Rand at the time the book was written, there were sections written describing Danneskjöld's adventures at sea, cut from the final published text. In a 1974 comment at a lecture, Ayn Rand admitted that Danneskjöld's name was a tribute to Victor Hugo's novel, , wherein the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the published book, Danneskjöld is always seen through the eyes of others (Dagny Taggart or Hank Rearden), except for a brief paragraph in the very last chapter.
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.protagonist protagonistragnar ragnardanneskjöld danneskjöldone onegalt galt's 'sfirst firstfollow followworld-fam world-fampirat piratseiz seizrelief reliefship shipsent sentunit unitstate statepeopl peopl's 'sstate stateeurop europwork workensur ensurespous espousgalt galt's 'sphilosophi philosophirestor restorright rightplace placesocieti societienough enoughcapit capitrebuild rebuildworld worldkept keptbackground backgroundmuch muchbook bookdanneskjöld danneskjöldmake makeperson personappear appearencourag encouragrearden reardenpersever perseverincreas increasdifficult difficultsituat situatgive givebar bargold goldcompens compensincom incomtax taxpaid paidlast lastsever severyear yeardanneskjöld danneskjöldmarri marriactress actresskay kayludlow ludlowrelationship relationshipkept kepthidden hiddenoutsid outsidworld worldknow knowludlow ludlowretir retirfilm filmstar starconsid considmisfit misfitgalt galt's 'sadher adherview viewaction actionmean meanspeed speedworld worldalong alongunderstand understandgalt galt's 'sperspect perspectaccord accordbarbara barbarabranden brandenclose closeassoci associrand randtime timebook bookwritten writtensection sectionwritten writtendescrib describdanneskjöld danneskjöld's 'sadventur adventursea seacut cutfinal finalpublish publishtext text1974 1974comment commentlectur lecturayn aynrand randadmit admitdanneskjöld danneskjöld's 'sname nametribut tributvictor victorhugo hugo's 'snovel novelwherein whereinhero herobecom becomfirst firstcount countdanneskjöld danneskjöldpublish publishbook bookdanneskjöld danneskjöldalway alwayseen seeneye eyeother otherdagni dagnitaggart taggarthank hankrearden reardenexcept exceptbrief briefparagraph paragraphlast lastchapter | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-10 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.
section:major :majorcharact charactantagonist | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-11 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.:James Taggart.
The President of Taggart Transcontinental and the book's most important antagonist. Taggart is an expert influence peddler but incapable of making operational decisions on his own. He relies on his sister, Dagny Taggart, to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor because of his various anti-capitalist moral and political beliefs. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to overcome those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. In the final chapters of the novel, he suffers a complete mental breakdown upon realizing that he can no longer deceive himself in this respect.
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.antagonist antagonistjame jametaggart taggartpresid presidtaggart taggarttranscontinent transcontinentbook book's 'simport importantagonist antagonisttaggart taggartexpert expertinfluenc influencpeddler peddlerincap incapmake makeoper operdecis decisreli relisister sisterdagni dagnitaggart taggartactual actualrun runrailroad railroadnonetheless nonethelessoppos opposalmost almosteveri everiendeavor endeavorvarious variousanti-capitalist anti-capitalistmoral moralpolit politbelief beliefsens sensantithesi antithesidagni dagnicontradict contradictlead leadrecur recurabsurd absurdlife lifedesir desirovercom overcomlife lifedepend dependhorror horrorsucceed succeedfinal finalchapter chapternovel novelsuffer suffercomplet completmental mentalbreakdown breakdownupon uponrealiz realizlonger longerdeceiv deceivrespect | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-12 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.:Lillian Rearden.
The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden, who dislikes his habits and (secretly at first) seeks to ruin Rearden to prove her own value. Lillian achieves this, when she passes information to James Taggart about her husband's affair with his sister. This information is used to persuade Rearden to sign a Gift Certificate which delivers all the property rights of Rearden Metal to others. Lillian thereafter uses James Taggart for sexual satisfaction, until Hank abandons her.
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.antagonist antagonistlillian lillianrearden reardenunsupport unsupportwife wifehank hankrearden reardendislik dislikhabit habitsecret secretfirst firstseek seekruin ruinrearden reardenprove provevalu valulillian lillianachiev achievpass passinform informjame jametaggart taggarthusband husband's 'saffair affairsister sisterinform informuse usepersuad persuadrearden reardensign signgift giftcertif certifdeliv delivproperti propertiright rightrearden reardenmetal metalother otherlillian lillianthereaft thereaftuse usejame jametaggart taggartsexual sexualsatisfact satisfacthank hankabandon | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-13 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.:Dr. Floyd Ferris.
Ferris is a biologist who works as "co-ordinator" at the State Science Institute. He uses his position there to deride reason and productive achievement, and publishes a book entitled "Why Do You Think You Think?" He clashes on several occasions with Hank Rearden, and twice attempts to blackmail Rearden into giving up Rearden Metal. He is also one of the group of looters who tries to get Rearden to agree to the Steel Unification Plan. Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon, and is the creator of the Ferris Persuader, a torture machine. When John Galt is captured by the looters, Ferris uses the device on Galt, but it breaks down before extracting the information Ferris wants from Galt. Ferris represents the group which uses brute force on the heroes to achieve the ends of the looters.
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.antagonists. antagonists.dr drfloyd floydferri ferriferri ferribiologist biologistwork work`` ``co-ordin co-ordin'' ''state statescienc sciencinstitut institutuse useposit positderid deridreason reasonproduct productachiev achievpublish publishbook bookentitl entitl`` ``think thinkthink think'' ''clash clashsever severoccas occashank hankrearden reardentwice twiceattempt attemptblackmail blackmailrearden reardengive giverearden reardenmetal metalalso alsoone onegroup grouplooter lootertri triget getrearden reardenagre agresteel steelunif unifplan planferri ferrihost hostdemonstr demonstrproject projectx xweapon weaponcreator creatorferri ferripersuad persuadtortur torturmachin machinjohn johngalt galtcaptur capturlooter looterferri ferriuse usedevic devicgalt galtbreak breakextract extractinform informferri ferriwant wantgalt galtferri ferrirepres represgroup groupuse usebrute bruteforc forchero heroachiev achievend endlooter | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-14 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.:Dr. Robert Stadler.
A former professor at Patrick Henry University, and along with colleague Hugh Akston, mentor to Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including a sound-based weapon known as Project X (Xylophone). He is killed when Cuffy Meigs (see below) drunkenly overloads the circuits of Project X, causing it to destroy itself and every structure and living thing in a 100-mile radius. The character was, in part, modeled on J. Robert Oppenheimer, whom Rand had interviewed for an earlier project, and his part in the creation of nuclear weapons. To his former student Galt, Stadler represents the epitome of human evil, as the "man who knew better" but chose not to act for the good.
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.antagonists. antagonists.dr drrobert robertstadler stadlerformer formerprofessor professorpatrick patrickhenri henriunivers universalong alongcolleagu colleaguhugh hughakston akstonmentor mentorfrancisco franciscod'anconia d'anconiajohn johngalt galtragnar ragnardanneskjöld danneskjöldsinc sincbecom becomsell-out sell-outone onegreat greatpromis promissquander squandersocial socialapprov approvdetriment detrimentfree freework workstate statescienc sciencinstitut institutinvent inventpervert pervertuse usemilitari militariinclud includsound-bas sound-basweapon weaponknown knownproject projectx xxylophon xylophonkill killcuffi cuffimeig meigsee seedrunken drunkenoverload overloadcircuit circuitproject projectx xcaus causdestroy destroyeveri everistructur structurlive livething thing100-mile 100-mileradius radiuscharact charactpart partmodel modelj. j.robert robertoppenheim oppenheimrand randinterview interviewearlier earlierproject projectpart partcreation creationnuclear nuclearweapon weaponformer formerstudent studentgalt galtstadler stadlerrepres represepitom epitomhuman humanevil evil`` ``man manknew knewbetter better'' ''chose choseact actgood | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-15 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.:Wesley Mouch.
The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in Washington, who rises to prominence and authority throughout the novel through trading favours and disloyalty. In return for betraying Hank by helping broker the Equalization of Opportunity Bill (which, by restricting the number of businesses each person may own to one, forces Hank to divest most of his companies), he is given a senior position at the Bureau of Economic Planning and National Resources. Later in the novel he becomes its Top Co-ordinator, a position that eventually becomes Economic Dictator of the country.
section:major :majorcharacters. characters.antagonist antagonistwesley wesleymouch mouchincompet incompettreacher treacherlobbyist lobbyisthank hankrearden reardenreluct reluctemploy employwashington washingtonrise risepromin prominauthor authorthroughout throughoutnovel noveltrade tradefavour favourdisloyalti disloyaltireturn returnbetray betrayhank hankhelp helpbroker brokerequal equalopportun opportunbill billrestrict restrictnumber numberbusi busiperson personmay mayone oneforc forchank hankdivest divestcompani companigiven givensenior seniorposit positbureau bureaueconom economplan plannation nationresourc resourclater laternovel novelbecom becomtop topco-ordin co-ordinposit positeventu eventubecom becomeconom economdictat dictatcountri | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-16 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::Secondary characters.
The following secondary characters also appear in the novel.
BULLET::::- Hugh Akston is identified as "One of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University, where he taught Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He was, along with Robert Stadler, a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. He now works as a cook in a roadside diner, and proves extremely skillful at the job. When Dagny tracks him down, and before she discovers his true identity, he rejects her enthusiastic offer to manage the dining car services for Taggart Transcontinental. He is based on Aristotle.
BULLET::::- Jeff Allen is a tramp who stows away on a Taggart train during one of Dagny's cross-country trips. Instead of throwing him out, she allows him to ride as her guest. It is from Allen that she learns the full story behind the collapse of the Twentieth Century Motor Company (Rand's extensive metaphor for the inherent flaws of communism), as well as a hint of John Galt's true background.
BULLET::::- Calvin Atwood is owner of Atwood Light and Power Company and joins Galt's strike.
BULLET::::- Mayor Bascom is the mayor of Rome, Wisconsin, who reveals part of the history of the Twentieth Century Motor Company.
BULLET::::- Dr. Blodgett is the scientist who pulls the lever to demonstrate Project X.
BULLET::::- Orren Boyle is the head of Associated Steel, antithesis of Hank Rearden and a friend of James Taggart. He is an investor in the San Sebastián Mines. He disappears from the story after having a nervous breakdown following the failed 'unification' of the steel industry.
BULLET::::- Laura Bradford is an actress and Kip Chalmers' mistress. She is one of the passengers on his train, and dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster.
BULLET::::- Bill Brent is the chief dispatcher for the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental, who tries to prevent the Taggart Tunnel disaster.
BULLET::::- Cherryl Brooks is a dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was falsely deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. Cherryl is at first harsh towards Dagny, having believed Jim Taggart's descriptions of his sister, until she questions employees of the railroad. Upon learning that her scorn had been misdirected, Cherryl puts off apologizing to Dagny out of shame, but eventually admits to Dagny that when she married Jim, she thought he had the heroic qualities that she had looked up to - she thought she was marrying someone like Dagny. Shortly after making this admission, she commits suicide by jumping over a street guardrail to her death, unable to live with her worthless husband and seeing no way to escape him.
BULLET::::- Millie Bush was "a mean, ugly little eight-year-old" girl voted to receive gold braces to straighten her teeth by the Marxist "family" committee who determined how pay was allocated at The Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her teeth are later knocked out by a man denied an allowance by the committee to purchase the things he valued.
BULLET::::- Emma Chalmers, Kip Chalmers' mother, gains some influence after his death. Known as "Kip's Ma," she starts a soybean-growing project in Louisiana and commandeers thousands of railroad freight cars to move the harvest. As a result, the year's wheat crop from Minnesota never reaches the rest of the country, but instead rots in storage; also, the soybean crop is lost, having been reaped too early.
BULLET::::- Kip Chalmers is a Washington man who has decided to run for election as Legislator from California. On the way to a campaign rally, the Taggart Transcontinental train that is carrying him encounters a split rail, resulting in the destruction of its diesel engine. His demands lead to a coal-burning steam engine being attached to his train in its stead and used to pull it through an eight-mile tunnel. The result is the suffocation of all passengers and the destruction of the Taggart Tunnel.
BULLET::::- Dan Conway is the middle-aged president of the Phoenix-Durango railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is used to drive his business out of Colorado, he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing.
BULLET::::- Ken Danagger owns Danagger Coal in Pennsylvania. He helps Hank Rearden illegally make Rearden Metal, then later decides to quit and join Galt's strike moments before Dagny arrives to try to persuade him otherwise.
BULLET::::- Quentin Daniels is an enterprising engineer hired by Dagny Taggart to reconstruct John Galt's motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to Galt's Gulch.
BULLET::::- Sebastian d'Anconia was the 16th (or 17th) Century founder of the d'Anconia dynasty. Escaped from Spain because of expressing his opinions too freely and coming in conflict with the Inquisition, leaving behind a palace and his beloved. Started a small mine in South America, which became the beginning of a mining empire and a new fortune (and a new palace). Eventually sent for his beloved who had waited for him many years. He is the role model which Francisco d'Anconia looks to, as Dagny Taggart looks to Nathaniel Taggart. Francisco remarks that their respective ancestors would have liked each other.
BULLET::::- Balph Eubank is called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that no book he has written has sold more than 3,000 copies. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to 10,000 copies. He is a misogynist who thinks it disgusting that Dagny Taggart is a railroad vice-president.
BULLET::::- The Fishwife is one of the strikers, who earns her living by providing the fish for Hammond's grocery market; she is described as having "dark, disheveled hair and large eyes", and is a writer. Galt says she "wouldn't be published outside. She believes that when one deals with words, one deals with the mind." According to Barbara Branden in her book "The Passion of Ayn Rand", "The Fishwife is Ayn's Hitchcock-like appearance in "Atlas Shrugged"." So says too Leonard Peikoff.
BULLET::::- Lawrence Hammond runs Hammond Cars in Colorado, one of the few companies in existence that still produces top-quality vehicles. He eventually quits and joins the strike.
BULLET::::- Richard Halley is Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24, his opera "Phaethon" was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. After 19 years, "Phaethon" was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. It is later revealed that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch.
BULLET::::- Mrs. William Hastings is the widow of the chief engineer at the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her husband quit shortly after Galt did and joined the strike some years later. Her lead allows Dagny to find Hugh Akston.
BULLET::::- Dr. Thomas Hendricks is a famous brain surgeon who developed a new method of preventing strokes. He joined Galt's strike when the American medical system was put under government control.
BULLET::::- Tinky Holloway is one of the "looters" and is frequently referred to and quoted by other characters in the story, but he has only one major appearance: during the Washington meeting with Hank Rearden.
BULLET::::- Lee Hunsacker is in charge of a company called Amalgamated Service when takes over the Twentieth Century Motor Company. He files a lawsuit that eventually leads to Midas Mulligan and Judge Narragansett joining the strike. A failed businessman, he laments constantly that no-one ever gave him a chance.
BULLET::::- Gwen Ives is Hank Rearden's secretary, described as being in her late twenties and remaining calm and professional despite the chaos that threatens his business. When Rearden abandons his mills and joins Galt's strike, she and many other employees do the same.
BULLET::::- Gilbert Keith-Worthing is a British novelist of erstwhile fame, now neglected but still considered a "walking classic," and a proponent of the idea that freedom is an illusion. Kip Chalmers brings him along on the train to California, "for no reason that either of them could discover"; he dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster.
BULLET::::- Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in New York. He catches Dagny Taggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division, she decides to make him its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. Owen Kellogg eventually reaches, and settles in, Galt's Gulch.
BULLET::::- Fred Kinnan is a labor leader and member of the looter cabal. Unlike the others, however, Kinnan is straightforward and honest about his purpose. Kinnan is the only one to openly state the true motivations of himself and his fellow conspirators. At the end of Galt's three-hour speech, he expresses admiration for the man, as he says what he means. Despite this, Kinnan admits that he is one of the people Galt is out to destroy.
BULLET::::- Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family. He meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them.
BULLET::::- Eugene Lawson heads the Community Bank of Madison, then gets a job with the government when it his bank goes bankrupt. One of the looter's cabal, he is a collectivist who abhors production and money-making.
BULLET::::- Mort Liddy is a hack composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies to which no one listens. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of Lillian Rearden's friends and a member of the cultural elite.
BULLET::::- Clifton Locey is a friend of Jim Taggart who takes the position of vice-president of operation when Dagny Taggart quits.
BULLET::::- Pat Logan is the engineer on the first run of the John Galt Line. He later strikes.
BULLET::::- Kay Ludlow is a beautiful actress and the wife of Ragnar Danneskjöld.
BULLET::::- Dick McNamara is a contractor who finished the San Sebastian Line. Dagny Taggart plans to hire him to lay the new Rearden Metal track for the Rio Norte Line, but before she does so, he mysteriously disappears. She later discovers that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch.
BULLET::::- Cuffy Meigs is the Director of Unification for the railroad business. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, and he dresses in a military uniform, and has been described as "impervious to thought". Meigs seizes control of Project X and accidentally destroys it, demolishing the country's last railroad bridge across the Mississippi River and killing himself, his men, and Dr. Stadler.
BULLET::::- Dave Mitchum is a state-hired superintendent of the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental. He is partially responsible for the Taggart Tunnel disaster.
BULLET::::- Chick Morrison holds the position of "Morale Conditioner" in the government. He quits when society begins to collapse and flees to a stronghold in Tennessee. His fellow looters consider it unlikely that he will survive.
BULLET::::- Horace Bussby Mowen is the president of the Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc. of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. Dagny Taggart hires Mowen to produce switches made of Rearden Metal. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be cajoled into accepting the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source.
BULLET::::- Midas Mulligan is a wealthy banker who mysteriously disappeared in protest after he was given a court order to lend money to an incompetent applicant. When the order came down, he liquidated his entire business, paid off his depositors, and joined Galt's strike. He is the legal owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. Mulligan's birth name was Michael, but he had it legally changed after a news article called him "Midas" in a derogatory fashion, which Mulligan took as a compliment.
BULLET::::- Judge Narragansett is an American jurist who ruled in favor of Midas Mulligan during the case brought against him by the incompetent loan applicant. When Narragansett's ruling was reversed on appeal, he retired and joined the strike. At the end of the novel, he is seen editing the United States Constitution, crossing out the contradicting amendments of it and adding an amendment to prohibit Congress from passing laws that restrain freedom of trade.
BULLET::::- Ben Nealy is a railroad contractor whom Dagny Taggart hires to replace the track on the Rio Norte Line with Rearden Metal. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement. He relies on Dagny and Ellis Wyatt to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around.
BULLET::::- Ted Nielsen is the head of Nielsen Motors. He eventually goes on strike, along with most of the other industrialist "producer" types, by closing his motor factory. Dagny later finds him when she visits Galt's Gulch for the first time.
BULLET::::- Betty Pope is a wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with James Taggart. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position.
BULLET::::- Dr. Potter holds some undefined position with the State Science Institute. He is sent to try to obtain the rights to Rearden Metal.
BULLET::::- Dr. Simon Pritchett is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He believes that man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, reason is a superstition, it is futile to seek meaning in life, and the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood.
BULLET::::- Rearden's mother, whose name is not mentioned, lives with Rearden at his home in Philadelphia. She is involved in charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She dotes on her weak son Philip Rearden.
BULLET::::- Philip Rearden is the younger brother of Hank Rearden. He lives in his brother's home in Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him. He is resentful of his brother's charity.
BULLET::::- Dwight Sanders owns Sanders Aircraft, a producer of high-quality airplanes, and joins the strike.
BULLET::::- Bertram Scudder is an editorial writer for the magazine "The Future". He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on Hank Rearden called "The Octopus". He is also vocal in support of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Scudder claims that the most important thing in life is "brother love" but seems to have nothing but hatred for those around him. He loses his job after Dagny Taggart reveals her affair with Hank Rearden over air on his radio show.
BULLET::::- Claude Slagenhop is president of political organization Friends of Global Progress and one of Lillian Rearden's friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. Global Progress is a sponsor of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill.
BULLET::::- Gerald and Ivy Starnes are the two surviving children of Jed Starnes, the founder of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Together with their since-deceased brother Eric, they instituted a communistic payment-and-benefits program that drove the company into bankruptcy. Gerald, a dying alcoholic, and Ivy, a pseudo-Buddhist ascetic, continue to insist that the plan was perfect and that the failure of their father's company was entirely due to the workers. Eric was a weak, attention-seeking man with a pathological desire to be loved. He committed suicide after the woman he loved married another man. Gerald claims that he always acted for the good of the employees, but he was vain and incompetent and often threw lavish parties using company funds. Ivy, on the other hand, is described as a sadist who relishes seeing others in poverty, but who has no desire for wealth of her own.
BULLET::::- Andrew Stockton runs the Stockton Foundry in Stockton, Colorado. When he joins the strike, he opens a foundry in Galt's Gulch.
BULLET::::- Nathaniel "Nat" Taggart was the founder of Taggart Transcontinental. He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit. He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country. He never earned money by force or fraud (except for bribing government officials and throwing an opponent down a flight of stairs), and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful. He was one of the most hated men of his time. Dagny is often inspired by looking at a statue of Nat Taggart at the railroad headquarters, and draws a dollar sign on its base as a signal to Francisco when she is ready to join Galt's strike. It is suspected that he is modeled after James Jerome Hill, builder of the Great Northern Railroad.
BULLET::::- Mr. Thompson is the "Head of the State" for the United States. He is not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modeled him on President Harry S. Truman, and that she deliberately decided not to call him "President of the United States" as this title has "honorable connotations" which the character does not deserve.
BULLET::::- Lester Tuck is the campaign manager for Kip Chalmers and one of his guests on the train trip to California. He dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster.
BULLET::::- Clem Weatherby is a government representative on the board of directors of Taggart Transcontinental. Dagny considers him the least bad of the government representatives, since he does have some real knowledge on the running of trains. She notices, however, that he is the least appreciated by his own bosses.
BULLET::::- The Wet Nurse (Tony) is a young bureaucrat sent by the government to watch over Rearden's mills. Though he starts out as a cynical follower of the looters' code, his experience at the mills transforms him, and he comes to respect and admire the producers. He is shot attempting to inform Hank Rearden about a government plot, but does succeed in warning Rearden just before he dies.
BULLET::::- Ellis Wyatt is the head of Wyatt Oil. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a new process for extracting more oil from what were thought to be exhausted oil wells. When first introduced, he is aggressive towards Dagny, whom he does not yet know and whom he blames for what are, in fact, her brother's policies which directly threaten his business. When the government passes laws and decrees which make it impossible for him to continue, he sets all his oil wells on fire, leaving a jeering note: "I am leaving it as I found it. Take over. It's yours." One particular burning well that resists all efforts to extinguish it becomes known as "Wyatt's Torch". Later Dagny meets him in Galt's Gulch.
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constantno-on no-onever evergave gavechanc chancbullet bullet:- :-gwen gwenive ivehank hankrearden rearden's 'ssecretari secretaridescrib describlate latetwenti twentiremain remaincalm calmprofession professiondespit despitchao chaothreaten threatenbusi busirearden reardenabandon abandonmill milljoin joingalt galt's 'sstrike strikemani maniemploye employebullet bullet:- :-gilbert gilbertkeith-worth keith-worthbritish britishnovelist novelisterstwhil erstwhilfame fameneglect neglectstill stillconsid consid`` ``walk walkclassic classic'' ''propon proponidea ideafreedom freedomillus illuskip kipchalmer chalmerbring bringalong alongtrain traincalifornia california`` ``reason reasoneither eithercould coulddiscov discov'' ''die dietaggart taggarttunnel tunneldisast disastbullet bullet:- :-owen owenkellogg kelloggassist assistmanag managtaggart taggarttermin terminnew newyork yorkcatch catchdagni dagnitaggart taggart's 'seye eyeone onecompet competmen menstaff staffsee seesorri sorristate stateohio ohiodivis divisdecid decidmake makenew newsuperintend superintendhowev howevsoon soonreturn returnnew newyork yorkkellogg kellogginform informquit quitjob jobowen owenkellogg kelloggeventu eventureach reachsettl settlgalt galt's 'sgulch gulchbullet bullet:- :-fred fredkinnan kinnanlabor laborleader leadermember memberlooter lootercabal cabalunlik unlikother otherhowev howevkinnan kinnanstraightforward straightforwardhonest honestpurpos purposkinnan kinnanone oneopen openstate statetrue truemotiv motivfellow fellowconspir conspirend endgalt galt's 'sthree-hour three-hourspeech speechexpress expressadmir admirman mansay saymean meandespit despitkinnan kinnanadmit admitone onepeopl peoplgalt galtdestroy destroybullet bullet:- :-paul paullarkin larkinunsuccess unsuccessmiddle-ag middle-agbusinessman businessmanfriend friendrearden reardenfamili familimeet meetlooter looterwork workplan planbring bringrearden reardenjame jametaggart taggartknow knowfriend friendhank hankrearden reardenchalleng challengloyalti loyaltilarkin larkinassur assurtaggart taggartgo goalong alongbullet bullet:- :-eugen eugenlawson lawsonhead headcommuniti communitibank bankmadison madisonget getjob jobgovern governbank bankgoe goebankrupt bankruptone onelooter looter's 'scabal cabalcollectivist collectivistabhor abhorproduct productmoney-mak money-makbullet bullet:- :-mort mortliddi liddihack hackcompos composwrite writetrite tritescore scoremovi movimodern modernsymphoni symphonione onelisten listenbeliev believmelodi melodiprimit primitvulgar vulgarone onelillian lillianrearden rearden's 'sfriend friendmember membercultur culturelit elitbullet bullet:- :-clifton cliftonlocey loceyfriend friendjim jimtaggart taggarttake takeposit positvice-presid vice-presidoper operdagni dagnitaggart taggartquit quitbullet bullet:- :-pat patlogan loganengin enginfirst firstrun runjohn johngalt galtline linelater laterstrike strikebullet bullet:- :-kay kayludlow ludlowbeauti beautiactress actresswife wiferagnar ragnardanneskjöld danneskjöldbullet bullet:- :-dick dickmcnamara mcnamaracontractor contractorfinish finishsan sansebastian sebastianline linedagni dagnitaggart taggartplan planhire hirelay laynew newrearden reardenmetal metaltrack trackrio rionort nortline linemysteri mysteridisappear disappearlater laterdiscov discovjoin joinstrike strikesettl settlgalt galt's 'sgulch gulchbullet bullet:- :-cuffi cuffimeig meigdirector directorunif unifrailroad railroadbusi busicarri carripistol pistollucki luckirabbit rabbit's 'sfoot footdress dressmilitari militariuniform uniformdescrib describ`` ``impervi impervithought thought'' ''meig meigseiz seizcontrol controlproject projectx xaccident accidentdestroy destroydemolish demolishcountri countri's 'slast lastrailroad railroadbridg bridgacross acrossmississippi mississippiriver riverkill killmen mendr. dr.stadler stadlerbullet bullet:- :-dave davemitchum mitchumstate-hir state-hirsuperintend superintendcolorado coloradodivis divistaggart taggarttranscontinent transcontinentpartial partialrespons responstaggart taggarttunnel tunneldisast disastbullet bullet:- :-chick chickmorrison morrisonhold holdposit posit`` ``moral moralcondition condition'' ''govern governquit quitsocieti societibegin begincollaps collapsflee fleestronghold strongholdtennesse tennessefellow fellowlooter looterconsid considunlik unliksurviv survivbullet bullet:- :-horac horacbussbi bussbimowen mowenpresid presidamalgam amalgamswitch switchsignal signalcompani companiinc. inc.connecticut connecticutbusinessman businessmansee seenoth nothwrong wrongmoral moralcode codedestroy destroysocieti societiwould wouldnever neverdream dreamsay saybusi busireason reasongood goodsocieti societidagni dagnitaggart taggarthire hiremowen mowenproduc producswitch switchmade maderearden reardenmetal metalreluct reluctbuild buildanyth anythunproven unproventechnolog technologcajol cajolaccept acceptcontract contractpressur pressurpublic publicopinion opiniondiscontinu discontinuproduct productswitch switchforc forcdagni dagnifind findaltern alternsourc sourcbullet bullet:- :-mida midamulligan mulliganwealthi wealthibanker bankermysteri mysteridisappear disappearprotest protestgiven givencourt courtorder orderlend lendmoney moneyincompet incompetapplic applicorder ordercame cameliquid liquidentir entirbusi busipaid paiddepositor depositorjoin joingalt galt's 'sstrike strikelegal legalowner ownerland landgalt galt's 'sgulch gulchlocat locatmulligan mulligan's 'sbirth birthname namemichael michaellegal legalchang changnews newsarticl articlcall call`` ``mida mida'' ''derogatori derogatorifashion fashionmulligan mulligantook tookcompliment complimentbullet bullet:- :-judg judgnarragansett narragansettamerican americanjurist juristrule rulefavor favormida midamulligan mulligancase casebrought broughtincompet incompetloan loanapplic applicnarragansett narragansett's 'srule rulerevers reversappeal appealretir retirjoin joinstrike strikeend endnovel novelseen seenedit editunit unitstate stateconstitut constitutcross crosscontradict contradictamend amendad adamend amendprohibit prohibitcongress congresspass passlaw lawrestrain restrainfreedom freedomtrade tradebullet bullet:- :-ben benneali nealirailroad railroadcontractor contractordagni dagnitaggart taggarthire hirereplac replactrack trackrio rionort nortline linerearden reardenmetal metalneali nealiincompet incompetdagni dagnifind findone onebetter bettercountri countrineali nealibeliev believanyth anythget getdone doneenough enoughmuscl musclpower powersee seerole roleintellig intellighuman humanachiev achievreli relidagni dagnielli elliwyatt wyattrun runthing thingresent resentappear appearlike likeboss bosspeopl peoplaround aroundbullet bullet:- :-ted tednielsen nielsenhead headnielsen nielsenmotor motoreventu eventugoe goestrike strikealong alongindustrialist industrialist`` ``produc produc'' ''type typeclose closemotor motorfactori factoridagni dagnilater laterfind findvisit visitgalt galt's 'sgulch gulchfirst firsttime timebullet bullet:- :-betti bettipope popewealthi wealthisocialit socialitmeaningless meaninglesssexual sexualaffair affairjame jametaggart taggartdeliber delibercrude crudeway waycast castridicul ridiculhigh highsocial socialposit positbullet bullet:- :-dr. dr.potter potterhold holdundefin undefinposit positstate statescienc sciencinstitut institutsent senttri triobtain obtainright rightrearden reardenmetal metalbullet bullet:- :-dr. dr.simon simonpritchett pritchettprestigi prestigihead headdepart departphilosophi philosophipatrick patrickhenri henriunivers universconsid considlead leadphilosoph philosophage agebeliev believman mannoth nothcollect collectchemic chemicreason reasonsuperstit superstitfutil futilseek seekmean meanlife lifeduti dutiphilosoph philosophshow shownoth nothunderstood understoodbullet bullet:- :-rearden rearden's 'smother motherwhose whosename namemention mentionlive liverearden reardenhome homephiladelphia philadelphiainvolv involvchariti charitiwork workberat beratrearden reardenwhenev whenevdote doteweak weakson sonphilip philiprearden reardenbullet bullet:- :-philip philiprearden reardenyounger youngerbrother brotherhank hankrearden reardenlive livebrother brother's 'shome homephiladelphia philadelphiacomplet completdepend dependresent resentbrother brother's 'schariti charitibullet bullet:- :-dwight dwightsander sanderown ownsander sanderaircraft aircraftproduc produchigh-qual high-qualairplan airplanjoin joinstrike strikebullet bullet:- :-bertram bertramscudder scuddereditori editoriwriter writermagazin magazin`` ``futur futur'' ''typic typicbash bashbusi busibusinessmen businessmennever neversay sayanyth anythspecif specifarticl articlreli reliinnuendo innuendosneer sneerdenunci denunciwrote wrotehatchet hatchetjob jobhank hankrearden reardencall call`` ``octopus octopus'' ''also alsovocal vocalsupport supportequal equalopportun opportunbill billscudder scudderclaim claimimport importthing thinglife life`` ``brother brotherlove love'' ''seem seemnoth nothhatr hatraround aroundlose losejob jobdagni dagnitaggart taggartreveal revealaffair affairhank hankrearden reardenair airradio radioshow showbullet bullet:- :-claud claudslagenhop slagenhoppresid presidpolit politorgan organfriend friendglobal globalprogress progressone onelillian lillianrearden rearden's 'sfriend friendbeliev believidea ideaair airtime timetalk talkaction actionglobal globalprogress progresssponsor sponsorequal equalopportun opportunbill billbullet bullet:- :-gerald geraldivi ivistarn starntwo twosurviv survivchildren childrenjed jedstarn starnfounder foundertwentieth twentiethcenturi centurimotor motorcompani companitogeth togethsince-deceas since-deceasbrother brothereric ericinstitut institutcommunist communistpayment-and-benefit payment-and-benefitprogram programdrove drovecompani companibankruptci bankruptcigerald geralddie diealcohol alcoholivi ivipseudo-buddhist pseudo-buddhistascet ascetcontinu continuinsist insistplan planperfect perfectfailur failurfather father's 'scompani companientir entirdue dueworker workereric ericweak weakattention-seek attention-seekman manpatholog pathologdesir desirlove lovecommit commitsuicid suicidwoman womanlove lovemarri marrianoth anothman mangerald geraldclaim claimalway alwayact actgood goodemploye employevain vainincompet incompetoften oftenthrew threwlavish lavishparti partiuse usecompani companifund fundivi ivihand handdescrib describsadist sadistrelish relishsee seeother otherpoverti povertidesir desirwealth wealthbullet bullet:- :-andrew andrewstockton stocktonrun runstockton stocktonfoundri foundristockton stocktoncolorado coloradojoin joinstrike strikeopen openfoundri foundrigalt galt's 'sgulch gulchbullet bullet:- :-nathaniel nathaniel`` ``nat nat'' ''taggart taggartfounder foundertaggart taggarttranscontinent transcontinentbuilt builtrailroad railroadwithout withoutgovern governhandout handoutran ranbusi busireason reasonturn turnprofit profitbegan beganpenniless pennilessadventur adventurend endone onewealthiest wealthiestmen mencountri countrinever neverearn earnmoney moneyforc forcfraud fraudexcept exceptbribe bribegovern governoffici officithrow throwoppon opponflight flightstair stairnever neverapolog apologbecom becomwealthi wealthisuccess successone onehate hatemen mentime timedagni dagnioften ofteninspir inspirlook lookstatu statunat nattaggart taggartrailroad railroadheadquart headquartdraw drawdollar dollarsign signbase basesignal signalfrancisco franciscoreadi readijoin joingalt galt's 'sstrike strikesuspect suspectmodel modeljame jamejerom jeromhill hillbuilder buildergreat greatnorthern northernrailroad railroadbullet bullet:- :-mr. mr.thompson thompson`` ``head headstate state'' ''unit unitstate stateparticular particularintellig intelligundistinguish undistinguishlook lookknow knowpolit polithowev howevmaster masterpublic publicrelat relatback-room back-roomdeal dealrand rand's 'snote noteindic indicmodel modelpresid presidharri harris. s.truman trumandeliber deliberdecid decidcall call`` ``presid presidunit unitstate state'' ''titl titl`` ``honor honorconnot connot'' ''charact charactdeserv deservbullet bullet:- :-lester lestertuck tuckcampaign campaignmanag managkip kipchalmer chalmerone oneguest guesttrain traintrip tripcalifornia californiadie dietaggart taggarttunnel tunneldisast disastbullet bullet:- :-clem clemweatherbi weatherbigovern governrepres represboard boarddirector directortaggart taggarttranscontinent transcontinentdagni dagniconsid considleast leastbad badgovern governrepres repressinc sincreal realknowledg knowledgrun runtrain trainnotic notichowev howevleast leastappreci appreciboss bossbullet bullet:- :-wet wetnurs nurstoni toniyoung youngbureaucrat bureaucratsent sentgovern governwatch watchrearden rearden's 'smill millthough thoughstart startcynic cynicfollow followlooter lootercode codeexperi experimill milltransform transformcome comerespect respectadmir admirproduc producshot shotattempt attemptinform informhank hankrearden reardengovern governplot plotsucceed succeedwarn warnrearden reardendie diebullet bullet:- :-elli elliwyatt wyatthead headwyatt wyattoil oilalmost almostsingle-hand single-handreviv reviveconomi economicolorado coloradodiscov discovnew newprocess processextract extractoil oilthought thoughtexhaust exhaustoil oilwell wellfirst firstintroduc introducaggress aggresstoward towarddagni dagniyet yetknow knowblame blamefact factbrother brother's 'spolici policidirect directthreaten threatenbusi busigovern governpass passlaw lawdecre decremake makeimposs imposscontinu continuset setoil oilwell wellfire fireleav leavjeer jeernote note`` ``leav leavfound foundtake take's 's'' ''one oneparticular particularburn burnwell wellresist resisteffort effortextinguish extinguishbecom becomknown known`` ``wyatt wyatt's 'storch torch'' ''later laterdagni dagnimeet meetgalt galt's 'sgulch | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
359-17 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Website with comprehensive list of individuals mentioned in Atlas Shrugged
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-websit websitcomprehens comprehenslist listindividu individumention mentionatlas atlasshrug | 359 | List of Atlas Shrugged characters | Lists of literary characters,Fictional socialites,Atlas Shrugged characters |
579-1 | Alien
Alien primarily refers to:
BULLET::::- Extraterrestrial life, life which does not originate from Earth
BULLET::::- Specifically, intelligent extraterrestrial beings; see List of alleged extraterrestrial beings
BULLET::::- Alien (law), a person in a country who is not a national of that country
Alien(s), or The Alien(s) may also refer to:
alienprimarili primarilirefer referbullet bullet:- :-extraterrestri extraterrestrilife lifelife lifeorigin originearth earthbullet bullet:- :-specif specifintellig intelligextraterrestri extraterrestribe besee seelist listalleg allegextraterrestri extraterrestribe bebullet bullet:- :-alien alienlaw lawperson personcountri countrination nationcountri countrialien alienalien alienmay mayalso alsorefer | 579 | Alien | |
579-2 | Alien
Section::::Science and technology.
BULLET::::- Introduced species, a species not native to its environment
BULLET::::- Alien (file converter), a Linux program
BULLET::::- AliEn (ALICE Environment), a grid framework
BULLET::::- Alien Technology, a manufacturer of RFID technology
section:scienc :scienctechnolog technologbullet bullet:- :-introduc introducspeci specispeci specinativ nativenviron environbullet bullet:- :-alien alienfile fileconvert convertlinux linuxprogram programbullet bullet:- :-alien alienalic alicenviron environgrid gridframework frameworkbullet bullet:- :-alien alientechnolog technologmanufactur manufacturrfid rfidtechnolog | 579 | Alien | |
579-3 | Alien
Section::::Arts and entertainment.
BULLET::::- "Alien" (franchise), a media franchise
BULLET::::- Alien (creature in "Alien" franchise)
section:art :artentertain entertainbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''franchis franchismedia mediafranchis franchisbullet bullet:- :-alien aliencreatur creatur`` ``alien alien'' ''franchis | 579 | Alien | |
579-4 | Alien
Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Films.
BULLET::::- "Alien" (film), a 1979 film by Ridley Scott
BULLET::::- "Aliens" (film), the 1986 sequel by James Cameron
BULLET::::- "Alien 3", third film in the series from 1992 by David Fincher
BULLET::::- "", a 1980 unofficial sequel of the 1979 "Alien" film
BULLET::::- "The Alien" (unproduced film), an incomplete 1960s IndianAmerican film
BULLET::::- "The Alien" (2016 film), a 2016 Mexican film
section:art :artentertainment. entertainment.film filmbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''film film1979 1979film filmridley ridleyscott scottbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''film film1986 1986sequel sequeljame jamecameron cameronbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien3 3'' ''third thirdfilm filmseri seri1992 1992david davidfincher fincherbullet bullet:- :-`` ``'' ''1980 1980unoffici unofficisequel sequel1979 1979`` ``alien alien'' ''film filmbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''unproduc unproducfilm filmincomplet incomplet1960s 1960sindianamerican indianamericanfilm filmbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''2016 2016film film2016 2016mexican mexicanfilm | 579 | Alien | |
579-5 | Alien
Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Literature.
BULLET::::- "Aliens" (Tappan Wright novel), a 1902 novel by Mary Tappan Wright
BULLET::::- "The Aliens" (play), a 2010 play by Annie Baker
BULLET::::- "The Alien" (Animorphs), the eighth book in the "Animorphs" series
BULLET::::- "Alien" novels, an extension of the "Alien" franchise
section:art :artentertainment. entertainment.literatur literaturbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''tappan tappanwright wrightnovel novel1902 1902novel novelmari maritappan tappanwright wrightbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''play play2010 2010play playanni annibaker bakerbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''animorph animorpheighth eighthbook book`` ``animorph animorph'' ''seri seribullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''novel novelextens extens`` ``alien alien'' ''franchis | 579 | Alien | |
579-6 | Alien
Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Music.
section:art :artentertain entertainmusic | 579 | Alien | |
579-7 | Alien
Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Music.:Performers.
BULLET::::- Alien (band), a 1980s Swedish rock group
BULLET::::- The Aliens (Australian band), a 1970s new wave group
BULLET::::- The Aliens (Scottish band), a 2005–2008 rock group
section:art :artentertainment. entertainment.music. music.perform performbullet bullet:- :-alien alienband band1980s 1980sswedish swedishrock rockgroup groupbullet bullet:- :-alien alienaustralian australianband band1970s 1970snew newwave wavegroup groupbullet bullet:- :-alien alienscottish scottishband band2005–2008 2005–2008rock rockgroup | 579 | Alien | |
579-8 | Alien
Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Music.:Albums.
BULLET::::- "Alien" (Northlane album)
BULLET::::- "Alien" (Strapping Young Lad album)
BULLET::::- "Alien" (Tankard album)
BULLET::::- "Alien" (soundtrack)
BULLET::::- "Aliens" (soundtrack)
section:art :artentertainment. entertainment.music. music.album albumbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''northlan northlanalbum albumbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''strap strapyoung younglad ladalbum albumbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''tankard tankardalbum albumbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''soundtrack soundtrackbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''soundtrack | 579 | Alien | |
579-9 | Alien
Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Music.:Songs.
BULLET::::- "Alien" (Britney Spears song)
BULLET::::- "Alien" (Jonas Blue and Sabrina Carpenter song)
BULLET::::- "Alien" (Pennywise song)
BULLET::::- "Alien" (Third Day song)
BULLET::::- "Aliens" (Coldplay song)
BULLET::::- "My Alien", a song by Simple Plan on the album "No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls"
BULLET::::- "Alien", a song by Bush on the album "Sixteen Stone"
BULLET::::- "Alien", a song by Erasure on the album "Loveboat"
BULLET::::- "Alien", a song by Japan on the album "Quiet Life"
BULLET::::- "Alien", a song by Lamb on the album "Fear of Fours"
BULLET::::- "Alien", a song by Nerina Pallot on the album "Dear Frustrated Superstar"
BULLET::::- "Alien", a song by P-Model on the album "Landsale"
BULLET::::- "Alien", a song by Thriving Ivory on their self-titled album
BULLET::::- "Alien", a song by Tokio Hotel on the album "Humanoid". Also, fans of the band call themselves Aliens
BULLET::::- "The Aliens", a song by Warlord
section:art :artentertainment. entertainment.music. music.song songbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''britney britneyspear spearsong songbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''jona jonablue bluesabrina sabrinacarpent carpentsong songbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''pennywis pennywissong songbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''third thirdday daysong songbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''coldplay coldplaysong songbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''song songsimpl simplplan planalbum album`` ``pad padhelmet helmet... ...ball ball'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''song songbush bushalbum album`` ``sixteen sixteenstone stone'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''song songerasur erasuralbum album`` ``loveboat loveboat'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''song songjapan japanalbum album`` ``quiet quietlife life'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''song songlamb lambalbum album`` ``fear fearfour four'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''song songnerina nerinapallot pallotalbum album`` ``dear dearfrustrat frustratsuperstar superstar'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''song songp-model p-modelalbum album`` ``landsal landsal'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''song songthrive thriveivori ivoriself-titl self-titlalbum albumbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''song songtokio tokiohotel hotelalbum album`` ``humanoid humanoid'' ''also alsofan fanband bandcall callalien alienbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''song songwarlord | 579 | Alien | |
579-10 | Alien
Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Video games.
BULLET::::- "Aliens" (1982 video game), a text-only clone of "Space Invaders" written for the CP/M operating system on the Kaypro computer
BULLET::::- "Alien" (Atari 2600), a 1982 maze game based on the 1979 film
BULLET::::- "Alien" (1984 video game), based on the film
BULLET::::- "Aliens" (1990 video game), a game by Konami, based on the sequel of the film
BULLET::::- "", a 2014 video game based on the "Alien" science fiction horror film series
section:art :artentertain entertainvideo videogame gamebullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''1982 1982video videogame gametext-on text-onclone clone`` ``space spaceinvad invad'' ''written writtencp/m cp/moper opersystem systemkaypro kayprocomput computbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''atari atari2600 26001982 1982maze mazegame gamebase base1979 1979film filmbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''1984 1984video videogame gamebase basefilm filmbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''1990 1990video videogame gamegame gamekonami konamibase basesequel sequelfilm filmbullet bullet:- :-`` ``'' ''2014 2014video videogame gamebase base`` ``alien alien'' ''scienc sciencfiction fictionhorror horrorfilm filmseri | 579 | Alien | |
579-11 | Alien
Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Other media.
BULLET::::- "Alien" (Armenian TV series), a 2017 melodrama series
BULLET::::- "The Aliens" (TV series), 2016 British sci-fi television series
BULLET::::- "Alien" (sculpture), a 2012 work by David Breuer-Weil, in Mottisfont, Hampshire, England
BULLET::::- "Aliens" (Dark Horse Comics line)
section:art :artentertain entertainmedia mediabullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''armenian armeniantv tvseri seri2017 2017melodrama melodramaseri seribullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''tv tvseri seri2016 2016british britishsci-fi sci-fitelevis televisseri seribullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''sculptur sculptur2012 2012work workdavid davidbreuer-weil breuer-weilmottisfont mottisfonthampshir hampshirengland englandbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''dark darkhors horscomic comicline | 579 | Alien | |
579-12 | Alien
Section::::Other uses.
BULLET::::- Alien (shipping company), a Russian company
BULLET::::- Alien Sun (born 1974), Singaporean actress
BULLET::::- "Alien", a perfume by Thierry Mugler
section:other :otheruse usebullet bullet:- :-alien alienship shipcompani companirussian russiancompani companibullet bullet:- :-alien aliensun sunborn born1974 1974singaporean singaporeanactress actressbullet bullet:- :-`` ``alien alien'' ''perfum perfumthierri thierrimugler | 579 | Alien | |
579-13 | Alien
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Astrobiology, the study of hypothetical alien life
BULLET::::- Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)
BULLET::::- Alians, an Islamic order
BULLET::::- "ATLiens", a 1996 album by OutKast
BULLET::::- Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)
BULLET::::- UFO (disambiguation)
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-astrobiolog astrobiologstudi studihypothet hypothetalien alienlife lifebullet bullet:- :-alien alienvs vspredat predatdisambigu disambigubullet bullet:- :-alian alianislam islamorder orderbullet bullet:- :-`` ``atlien atlien'' ''1996 1996album albumoutkast outkastbullet bullet:- :-unidentifi unidentififli fliobject objectdisambigu disambigubullet bullet:- :-ufo ufodisambigu | 579 | Alien | |
572-1 | Agricultural science
Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. (Veterinary science, but not animal science, is often excluded from the definition.)
agriculturscienc sciencbroad broadmultidisciplinari multidisciplinarifield fieldbiolog biologencompass encompasspart partexact exactnatur natureconom economsocial socialscienc sciencuse usepractic practicunderstand understandagricultur agriculturveterinari veterinariscienc sciencanim animscienc sciencoften oftenexclud excluddefinit | 572 | Agricultural science | Agronomy |
572-2 | Agricultural science
Section::::Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy.
The three terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts:
BULLET::::- Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research.
BULLET::::- Agronomy is research and development related to studying and improving plant-based crops.
Agricultural sciences include research and development on:
BULLET::::- Plant Breeding and Genetics
BULLET::::- Plant Pathology
BULLET::::- Horticulture
BULLET::::- Soil Science
BULLET::::- Entomology
BULLET::::- Production techniques (e.g., irrigation management, recommended nitrogen inputs)
BULLET::::- Improving agricultural productivity in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of drought-resistant crops and animals, development of new pesticides, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro cell culture techniques)
BULLET::::- Minimizing the effects of pests (weeds, insects, pathogens, nematodes) on crop or animal production systems.
BULLET::::- Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of dairy products)
BULLET::::- Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., soil degradation, waste management, bioremediation)
BULLET::::- Theoretical production ecology, relating to crop production modeling
BULLET::::- Traditional agricultural systems, sometimes termed subsistence agriculture, which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological systems greater than that of industrial agriculture, which may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems.
BULLET::::- Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the US and the EU.
BULLET::::- Various sciences relating to agricultural resources and the environment (e.g. soil science, agroclimatology); biology of agricultural crops and animals (e.g. crop science, animal science and their included sciences, e.g. ruminant nutrition, farm animal welfare); such fields as agricultural economics and rural sociology; various disciplines encompassed in agricultural engineering.
section:agricultur :agriculturagricultur agriculturscienc sciencagronomi agronomithree threeterm termoften oftenconfus confushowev howevcover coverdiffer differconcept conceptbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturset setactiv activtransform transformenviron environproduct productanim animplant planthuman humanuse useagricultur agriculturconcern concerntechniqu techniquinclud includapplic applicagronom agronomresearch researchbullet bullet:- :-agronomi agronomiresearch researchdevelop developrelat relatstudi studiimprov improvplant-bas plant-bascrop cropagricultur agriculturscienc sciencinclud includresearch researchdevelop developbullet bullet:- :-plant plantbreed breedgenet genetbullet bullet:- :-plant plantpatholog pathologbullet bullet:- :-horticultur horticulturbullet bullet:- :-soil soilscienc sciencbullet bullet:- :-entomolog entomologbullet bullet:- :-product producttechniqu technique.g. e.g.irrig irrigmanag managrecommend recommendnitrogen nitrogeninput inputbullet bullet:- :-improv improvagricultur agriculturproduct productterm termquantiti quantitiqualiti qualitie.g. e.g.select selectdrought-resist drought-resistcrop cropanim animdevelop developnew newpesticid pesticidyield-sens yield-senstechnolog technologsimul simulmodel modelcrop cropgrowth growthin-vitro in-vitrocell cellcultur culturtechniqu techniqubullet bullet:- :-minim minimeffect effectpest pestweed weedinsect insectpathogen pathogennematod nematodcrop cropanim animproduct productsystem systembullet bullet:- :-transform transformprimari primariproduct productend-consum end-consumproduct producte.g. e.g.product productpreserv preservpackag packagdairi dairiproduct productbullet bullet:- :-prevent preventcorrect correctadvers adversenvironment environmenteffect effecte.g. e.g.soil soildegrad degradwast wastmanag managbioremedi bioremedibullet bullet:- :-theoret theoretproduct productecolog ecologrelat relatcrop cropproduct productmodel modelbullet bullet:- :-tradit traditagricultur agricultursystem systemsometim sometimterm termsubsist subsistagricultur agriculturfeed feedpoorest poorestpeopl peoplworld worldsystem systeminterest interestsometim sometimretain retainlevel levelintegr integrnatur naturecolog ecologsystem systemgreater greaterindustri industriagricultur agriculturmay maysustain sustainmodern modernagricultur agricultursystem systembullet bullet:- :-food foodproduct productdemand demandglobal globalbasi basispecial specialattent attentpaid paidmajor majorproduc producchina chinaindia indiabrazil brazilus useu eubullet bullet:- :-various variousscienc sciencrelat relatagricultur agriculturresourc resourcenviron environe.g e.gsoil soilscienc sciencagroclimatolog agroclimatologbiolog biologagricultur agriculturcrop cropanim anime.g e.gcrop cropscienc sciencanim animscienc sciencinclud includscienc science.g e.grumin ruminnutrit nutritfarm farmanim animwelfar welfarfield fieldagricultur agricultureconom economrural ruralsociolog sociologvarious variousdisciplin disciplinencompass encompassagricultur agriculturengin | 572 | Agricultural science | Agronomy |
572-3 | Agricultural science
Section::::Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy.:Agricultural biotechnology.
Agricultural biotechnology is a specific area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms.
section:agricultur :agriculturagricultur agriculturscienc sciencagronomi agronomiagricultur agriculturbiotechnolog biotechnologagricultur agriculturbiotechnolog biotechnologspecif specifarea areaagricultur agriculturscienc sciencinvolv involvuse usescientif scientiftool tooltechniqu techniquinclud includgenet genetengin enginmolecular molecularmarker markermolecular moleculardiagnost diagnostvaccin vaccintissu tissucultur culturmodifi modifilive liveorgan organplant plantanim animmicroorgan | 572 | Agricultural science | Agronomy |
572-4 | Agricultural science
Section::::Fertilizer.
One of the most common yield reducers is because of fertilizer not being applied in slightly higher quantities during transition period, the time it takes the soil to rebuild its aggregates and organic matter. Yields will decrease temporarily because of nitrogen being immobilized in the crop residue, which can take a few months to several years to decompose, depending on the crop's C to N ratio and the local environment.
section:fertil :fertilone onecommon commonyield yieldreduc reducfertil fertilappli applislight slighthigher higherquantiti quantititransit transitperiod periodtime timetake takesoil soilrebuild rebuildaggreg aggregorgan organmatter matteryield yielddecreas decreastemporarili temporarilinitrogen nitrogenimmobil immobilcrop cropresidu residutake takemonth monthsever severyear yeardecompos decomposdepend dependcrop crop's 'sc cn nratio ratiolocal localenviron | 572 | Agricultural science | Agronomy |
572-5 | Agricultural science
Section::::History.
In the 18th century, Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) as a fertilizer.
In 1843, John Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in England; some of them are still running.
In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887, which used the term "agricultural science". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built. After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years.
section:histori :histori18th 18thcenturi centurijohann johannfriedrich friedrichmayer mayerconduct conductexperi experiuse usegypsum gypsumhydrat hydratcalcium calciumsulphat sulphatfertil fertil1843 1843john johnlaw lawjoseph josephhenri henrigilbert gilbertbegan beganset setlong-term long-termfield fieldexperi experirothamst rothamstresearch researchstation stationengland englandstill stillrun rununit unitstate statescientif scientifrevolut revolutagricultur agriculturbegan beganhatch hatchact act1887 1887use useterm term`` ``agricultur agriculturscienc scienc'' ''hatch hatchact actdriven drivenfarmer farmerinterest interestknow knowconstitu constituearli earliartifici artificifertil fertilsmith-hugh smith-hughact act1917 1917shift shiftagricultur agricultureduc educback backvocat vocatroot rootscientif scientiffoundat foundatbuilt built1906 1906public publicexpenditur expendituragricultur agriculturresearch researchus usexceed exceedprivat privatexpenditur expenditurnext next44 44year | 572 | Agricultural science | Agronomy |
572-6 | Agricultural science
Section::::Prominent agricultural scientists.
BULLET::::- Robert Bakewell
BULLET::::- Norman Borlaug
BULLET::::- Luther Burbank
BULLET::::- George Washington Carver
BULLET::::- Carl Henry Clerk
BULLET::::- George C. Clerk
BULLET::::- René Dumont
BULLET::::- Sir Albert Howard
BULLET::::- Kailas Nath Kaul
BULLET::::- Justus von Liebig
BULLET::::- Jay Lush
BULLET::::- Gregor Mendel
BULLET::::- Louis Pasteur
BULLET::::- M. S. Swaminathan
BULLET::::- Jethro Tull
BULLET::::- Artturi Ilmari Virtanen
BULLET::::- Eli Whitney
BULLET::::- Sewall Wright
BULLET::::- Wilbur Olin Atwater
section:promin :prominagricultur agriculturscientist scientistbullet bullet:- :-robert robertbakewel bakewelbullet bullet:- :-norman normanborlaug borlaugbullet bullet:- :-luther lutherburbank burbankbullet bullet:- :-georg georgwashington washingtoncarver carverbullet bullet:- :-carl carlhenri henriclerk clerkbullet bullet:- :-georg georgc. c.clerk clerkbullet bullet:- :-rené renédumont dumontbullet bullet:- :-sir siralbert alberthoward howardbullet bullet:- :-kaila kailanath nathkaul kaulbullet bullet:- :-justus justusvon vonliebig liebigbullet bullet:- :-jay jaylush lushbullet bullet:- :-gregor gregormendel mendelbullet bullet:- :-loui louipasteur pasteurbullet bullet:- :-m. m.s. s.swaminathan swaminathanbullet bullet:- :-jethro jethrotull tullbullet bullet:- :-artturi artturiilmari ilmarivirtanen virtanenbullet bullet:- :-eli eliwhitney whitneybullet bullet:- :-sewal sewalwright wrightbullet bullet:- :-wilbur wilburolin olinatwat | 572 | Agricultural science | Agronomy |
572-7 | Agricultural science
Section::::Fields or related disciplines.
BULLET::::- Agricultural biotechnology
BULLET::::- Agricultural chemistry
BULLET::::- Agricultural diversification
BULLET::::- Agricultural education
BULLET::::- Agricultural economics
BULLET::::- Agricultural engineering
BULLET::::- Agricultural geography
BULLET::::- Agricultural philosophy
BULLET::::- Agricultural marketing
BULLET::::- Agricultural soil science
BULLET::::- Agroecology
BULLET::::- Agrophysics
BULLET::::- Animal science
BULLET::::- Animal breeding
BULLET::::- Animal husbandry
BULLET::::- Animal nutrition
BULLET::::- Farm management
BULLET::::- Agronomy
BULLET::::- Botany
BULLET::::- Theoretical production ecology
BULLET::::- Horticulture
BULLET::::- Plant breeding
BULLET::::- Plant fertilization
BULLET::::- Aquaculture
BULLET::::- Biological engineering
BULLET::::- Genetic engineering
BULLET::::- Nematology
BULLET::::- Microbiology
BULLET::::- Plant pathology
BULLET::::- Range management
BULLET::::- Environmental science
BULLET::::- Entomology
BULLET::::- Food science
BULLET::::- Human nutrition
BULLET::::- Irrigation and water management
BULLET::::- Soil science
BULLET::::- Agrology
BULLET::::- Waste management
BULLET::::- Weed science
section:field :fieldrelat relatdisciplin disciplinbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturbiotechnolog biotechnologbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturchemistri chemistribullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturdiversif diversifbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agricultureduc educbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agricultureconom econombullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturengin enginbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturgeographi geographibullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturphilosophi philosophibullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturmarket marketbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agricultursoil soilscienc sciencbullet bullet:- :-agroecolog agroecologbullet bullet:- :-agrophys agrophysbullet bullet:- :-anim animscienc sciencbullet bullet:- :-anim animbreed breedbullet bullet:- :-anim animhusbandri husbandribullet bullet:- :-anim animnutrit nutritbullet bullet:- :-farm farmmanag managbullet bullet:- :-agronomi agronomibullet bullet:- :-botani botanibullet bullet:- :-theoret theoretproduct productecolog ecologbullet bullet:- :-horticultur horticulturbullet bullet:- :-plant plantbreed breedbullet bullet:- :-plant plantfertil fertilbullet bullet:- :-aquacultur aquaculturbullet bullet:- :-biolog biologengin enginbullet bullet:- :-genet genetengin enginbullet bullet:- :-nematolog nematologbullet bullet:- :-microbiolog microbiologbullet bullet:- :-plant plantpatholog pathologbullet bullet:- :-rang rangmanag managbullet bullet:- :-environment environmentscienc sciencbullet bullet:- :-entomolog entomologbullet bullet:- :-food foodscienc sciencbullet bullet:- :-human humannutrit nutritbullet bullet:- :-irrig irrigwater watermanag managbullet bullet:- :-soil soilscienc sciencbullet bullet:- :-agrolog agrologbullet bullet:- :-wast wastmanag managbullet bullet:- :-weed weedscienc | 572 | Agricultural science | Agronomy |
572-8 | Agricultural science
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Agricultural Research Council
BULLET::::- Agricultural sciences basic topics
BULLET::::- Agriculture ministry
BULLET::::- Agroecology
BULLET::::- American Society of Agronomy
BULLET::::- Genomics of domestication
BULLET::::- History of agricultural science
BULLET::::- Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences
BULLET::::- International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development
BULLET::::- International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI
BULLET::::- List of agriculture topics
BULLET::::- National FFA Organization
BULLET::::- Research Institute of Crop Production (RICP) (in the Czech Republic)
BULLET::::- University of Agricultural Sciences
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturresearch researchcouncil councilbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturscienc sciencbasic basictopic topicbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturministri ministribullet bullet:- :-agroecolog agroecologbullet bullet:- :-american americansocieti societiagronomi agronomibullet bullet:- :-genom genomdomest domestbullet bullet:- :-histori historiagricultur agriculturscienc sciencbullet bullet:- :-institut institutfood foodagricultur agriculturscienc sciencbullet bullet:- :-intern internassess assessagricultur agriculturscienc scienctechnolog technologdevelop developbullet bullet:- :-intern internfood foodpolici policiresearch researchinstitut institutifpri ifpribullet bullet:- :-list listagricultur agriculturtopic topicbullet bullet:- :-nation nationffa ffaorgan organbullet bullet:- :-research researchinstitut institutcrop cropproduct productricp ricpczech czechrepubl republbullet bullet:- :-univers universagricultur agriculturscienc | 572 | Agricultural science | Agronomy |
572-9 | Agricultural science
Section::::Further reading.
BULLET::::- Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press Food Policy Report
BULLET::::- Claude Bourguignon, "Regenerating the Soil: From Agronomy to Agrology", Other India Press, 2005
BULLET::::- Pimentel David, Pimentel Marcia, "Computer les kilocalories", Cérès, n. 59, sept-oct. 1977
BULLET::::- Russell E. Walter, "Soil conditions and plant growth", Longman group, London, New York 1973
BULLET::::- Salamini Francesco, Oezkan Hakan, Brandolini Andrea, Schaefer-Pregl Ralf, Martin William, "Genetics and geography of wild cereal domestication in the Near East", in Nature, vol. 3, ju. 2002
BULLET::::- Saltini Antonio, "Storia delle scienze agrarie", 4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, , , ,
BULLET::::- Vavilov Nicolai I. (Starr Chester K. editor), "The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants. Selected Writings", in Chronica botanica, 13: 1-6, Waltham, Mass., 1949–50
BULLET::::- Vavilov Nicolai I., "World Resources of Cereals, Leguminous Seed Crops and Flax," Academy of Sciences of Urss, National Science Foundation, Washington, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem 1960
BULLET::::- Winogradsky Serge, "Microbiologie du sol. Problèmes et methodes. Cinquante ans de recherches," Masson & c.ie, Paris 1949
section:further :furtherread readbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturresearch researchlivelihood livelihoodpoverti povertistudi studieconom economsocial socialimpact impactsix sixcountri countriedit editmichell michelladato adatoruth ruthmeinzen-dick meinzen-dick2007 2007john johnhopkin hopkinunivers universpress pressfood foodpolici policireport reportbullet bullet:- :-claud claudbourguignon bourguignon`` ``regener regenersoil soilagronomi agronomiagrolog agrolog'' ''india indiapress press2005 2005bullet bullet:- :-pimentel pimenteldavid davidpimentel pimentelmarcia marcia`` ``comput computles leskilocalori kilocalori'' ''cérès cérèsn. n.59 59sept-oct. sept-oct.1977 1977bullet bullet:- :-russel russele. e.walter walter`` ``soil soilcondit conditplant plantgrowth growth'' ''longman longmangroup grouplondon londonnew newyork york1973 1973bullet bullet:- :-salamini salaminifrancesco francescooezkan oezkanhakan hakanbrandolini brandoliniandrea andreaschaefer-pregl schaefer-preglralf ralfmartin martinwilliam william`` ``genet genetgeographi geographiwild wildcereal cerealdomest domestnear neareast east'' ''natur naturvol vol3 3ju ju2002 2002bullet bullet:- :-saltini saltiniantonio antonio`` ``storia storiadell dellscienz scienzagrari agrari'' ''4 4vol volbologna bologna1984-89 1984-89bullet bullet:- :-vavilov vavilovnicolai nicolaistarr starrchester chesterk. k.editor editor`` ``origin originvariat variatimmun immunbreed breedcultiv cultivplant plantselect selectwrite write'' ''chronica chronicabotanica botanica13 131-6 1-6waltham walthammass. mass.1949–50 1949–50bullet bullet:- :-vavilov vavilovnicolai nicolaii. i.`` ``world worldresourc resourccereal cereallegumin leguminseed seedcrop cropflax flax'' ''academi academiscienc sciencurss urssnation nationscienc sciencfoundat foundatwashington washingtonisrael israelprogram programscientif scientiftranslat translatjerusalem jerusalem1960 1960bullet bullet:- :-winogradski winogradskiserg serg`` ``microbiologi microbiologidu dusol solproblèm problèmet etmethod methodcinquant cinquantan ande derecherch recherch'' ''masson massonc.ie c.iepari pari1949 | 572 | Agricultural science | Agronomy |
572-10 | Agricultural science
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
BULLET::::- Agricultural Research Service
BULLET::::- Indian Council of Agricultural Research
BULLET::::- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
BULLET::::- International Livestock Research Institute
BULLET::::- The National Agricultural Library (NAL) - The most comprehensive agricultural library in the world.
BULLET::::- Crop Science Society of America
BULLET::::- American Society of Agronomy
BULLET::::- Soil Science Society of America
BULLET::::- Agricultural Science Researchers, Jobs and Discussions
BULLET::::- Information System for Agriculture and Food Research
BULLET::::- South Dakota Agricultural Laboratories
BULLET::::- NMSU Department of Entomology Plant Pathology and Weed Science
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-consult consultgroup groupintern internagricultur agriculturresearch researchcgiar cgiarbullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturresearch researchservic servicbullet bullet:- :-indian indiancouncil councilagricultur agriculturresearch researchbullet bullet:- :-intern interninstitut instituttropic tropicagricultur agriculturbullet bullet:- :-intern internlivestock livestockresearch researchinstitut institutbullet bullet:- :-nation nationagricultur agriculturlibrari librarinal nalcomprehens comprehensagricultur agriculturlibrari librariworld worldbullet bullet:- :-crop cropscienc sciencsocieti societiamerica americabullet bullet:- :-american americansocieti societiagronomi agronomibullet bullet:- :-soil soilscienc sciencsocieti societiamerica americabullet bullet:- :-agricultur agriculturscienc sciencresearch researchjob jobdiscuss discussbullet bullet:- :-inform informsystem systemagricultur agriculturfood foodresearch researchbullet bullet:- :-south southdakota dakotaagricultur agriculturlaboratori laboratoribullet bullet:- :-nmsu nmsudepart departentomolog entomologplant plantpatholog pathologweed weedscienc | 572 | Agricultural science | Agronomy |
590-1 | Austin (disambiguation)
Austin is the capital of Texas in the United States.
Austin may also refer to:
austincapit capittexa texaunit unitstate stateaustin austinmay mayalso alsorefer | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-2 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::People names.
BULLET::::- Austin (name) - a short form of Augustin, or Augustine
BULLET::::- Augustin (disambiguation)
BULLET::::- Augustine (disambiguation)
BULLET::::- August (disambiguation)
section:peopl :peoplname namebullet bullet:- :-austin austinname nameshort shortform formaugustin augustinaugustin augustinbullet bullet:- :-augustin augustindisambigu disambigubullet bullet:- :-augustin augustindisambigu disambigubullet bullet:- :-august augustdisambigu | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-3 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::Geographical locations.
section:geograph :geographlocat | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-4 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::Geographical locations.:Australia.
BULLET::::- Austin, Western Australia
section:geograph :geographlocations. locations.australia australiabullet bullet:- :-austin austinwestern westernaustralia | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-5 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::Geographical locations.:Canada.
BULLET::::- Austin, Manitoba
BULLET::::- Austin, Ontario
BULLET::::- Austin, Quebec
BULLET::::- Austin Island, Nunavut
section:geograph :geographlocations. locations.canada canadabullet bullet:- :-austin austinmanitoba manitobabullet bullet:- :-austin austinontario ontariobullet bullet:- :-austin austinquebec quebecbullet bullet:- :-austin austinisland islandnunavut | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-6 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::Geographical locations.:France.
BULLET::::- Saint-Austin, hamlet at la Neuville-Chant-d'Oisel, Normandy
section:geograph :geographlocations. locations.franc francbullet bullet:- :-saint-austin saint-austinhamlet hamletla laneuville-chant-d'oisel neuville-chant-d'oiselnormandi | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-7 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::Geographical locations.:United States of America.
BULLET::::- Austin, Arkansas
BULLET::::- Austin, Colorado
BULLET::::- Austin, Illinois:
BULLET::::- Austin Township, Macon County, Illinois
BULLET::::- Austin, Chicago, Cook County, Illinois
BULLET::::- Austin, Indiana
BULLET::::- Austin, Kentucky
BULLET::::- Austin, Minnesota
BULLET::::- Austin, Missouri
BULLET::::- Austin, Nevada
BULLET::::- Austin, Ohio
BULLET::::- Austin, Oregon
BULLET::::- Austin, Texas
BULLET::::- Austin County, Texas (note that the city of Austin, Texas is located in Travis County)
section:geograph :geographlocat locatunit unitstate stateamerica americabullet bullet:- :-austin austinarkansa arkansabullet bullet:- :-austin austincolorado coloradobullet bullet:- :-austin austinillinoi illinoibullet bullet:- :-austin austintownship townshipmacon maconcounti countiillinoi illinoibullet bullet:- :-austin austinchicago chicagocook cookcounti countiillinoi illinoibullet bullet:- :-austin austinindiana indianabullet bullet:- :-austin austinkentucki kentuckibullet bullet:- :-austin austinminnesota minnesotabullet bullet:- :-austin austinmissouri missouribullet bullet:- :-austin austinnevada nevadabullet bullet:- :-austin austinohio ohiobullet bullet:- :-austin austinoregon oregonbullet bullet:- :-austin austintexa texabullet bullet:- :-austin austincounti countitexa texanote noteciti citiaustin austintexa texalocat locattravi travicounti | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-8 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::Schools.
BULLET::::- Austin College, Sherman, Texas
BULLET::::- University of Texas at Austin, flagship institution of the University of Texas System
BULLET::::- Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee
section:school :schoolbullet bullet:- :-austin austincolleg collegsherman shermantexa texabullet bullet:- :-univers universtexa texaaustin austinflagship flagshipinstitut institutunivers universtexa texasystem systembullet bullet:- :-austin austinpeay peaystate stateunivers universclarksvill clarksvilltennesse | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-9 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::Religion.
BULLET::::- Augustine of Hippo or Augustine of Canterbury
BULLET::::- An adjective for the Augustinians
section:religion :religionbullet bullet:- :-augustin augustinhippo hippoaugustin augustincanterburi canterburibullet bullet:- :-adject adjectaugustinian | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-10 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::Business.
BULLET::::- Austin Automobile Company, short-lived American automobile company
BULLET::::- Austin (brand), a brand owned by the Kellogg Company
BULLET::::- Austin Motor Company, British car manufacturer
BULLET::::- American Austin Car Company, short-lived American automobile maker
section:busi :busibullet bullet:- :-austin austinautomobil automobilcompani companishort-liv short-livamerican americanautomobil automobilcompani companibullet bullet:- :-austin austinbrand brandbrand brandown ownkellogg kelloggcompani companibullet bullet:- :-austin austinmotor motorcompani companibritish britishcar carmanufactur manufacturbullet bullet:- :-american americanaustin austincar carcompani companishort-liv short-livamerican americanautomobil automobilmaker | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-11 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::Entertainment.
BULLET::::- "Austin" (song), a single by Blake Shelton
BULLET::::- Austin, a kangaroo Beanie Baby produced by Ty, Inc.
BULLET::::- Austin the kangaroo from the children's television series "The Backyardigans"
BULLET::::- Austin Moon, titular character in the television show "Austin & Ally"
section:entertain :entertainbullet bullet:- :-`` ``austin austin'' ''song songsingl singlblake blakeshelton sheltonbullet bullet:- :-austin austinkangaroo kangaroobeani beanibabi babiproduc producty tyinc. inc.bullet bullet:- :-austin austinkangaroo kangaroochildren children's 'stelevis televisseri seri`` ``backyardigan backyardigan'' ''bullet bullet:- :-austin austinmoon moontitular titularcharact characttelevis televisshow show`` ``austin austinalli alli'' | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-12 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::Other uses.
BULLET::::- USS "Austin", three ships
BULLET::::- Austin station (disambiguation), various public transportation stations
BULLET::::- "Austin" (building), a building designed by artist Ellsworth Kelly under construction in Austin, Texas
BULLET::::- Austin Allegro, a small family car that was manufactured by the Austin-Morris division of British Leyland from 1973 until 1982
section:other :otheruse usebullet bullet:- :-uss uss`` ``austin austin'' ''three threeship shipbullet bullet:- :-austin austinstation stationdisambigu disambiguvarious variouspublic publictransport transportstation stationbullet bullet:- :-`` ``austin austin'' ''build buildbuild builddesign designartist artistellsworth ellsworthkelli kelliconstruct constructaustin austintexa texabullet bullet:- :-austin austinallegro allegrosmall smallfamili familicar carmanufactur manufacturaustin-morri austin-morridivis divisbritish britishleyland leyland1973 19731982 | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
590-13 | Austin (disambiguation)
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Austen (disambiguation)
BULLET::::- Augustine (disambiguation)
BULLET::::- Justice Austin (disambiguation)
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-austen austendisambigu disambigubullet bullet:- :-augustin augustindisambigu disambigubullet bullet:- :-justic justicaustin austindisambigu | 590 | Austin (disambiguation) | |
336-1 | Altruism
Altruism is the principle and moral practice of concern for happiness of other human beings and/or animals, resulting in a quality of life both material and spiritual. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular worldviews, though the concept of "others" toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. In an extreme case, altruism may become a synonym of selflessness which is the opposite of selfishness.
The word "altruism" was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as "altruisme", for an antonym of egoism. He derived it from the Italian "altrui", which in turn was derived from Latin "alteri", meaning "other people" or "somebody else".
Altruism in biological observations in field populations of the day organisms is an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another third-party individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is "intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards". In one sense, the opposite of altruism is spite; a spiteful action harms another with no self-benefit.
Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty, in that whilst the latter is predicated upon social relationships, altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether ""true"" altruism is possible in human psychology. The theory of psychological egoism suggests that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal gratification. The validity of this argument depends on whether intrinsic rewards qualify as "benefits".
The term "altruism" may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with egoism, which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first.
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336-2 | Altruism
Section::::The notion of altruism.
The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, and has become a major topic for psychologists (especially evolutionary psychology researchers), evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them.
section:the :thenotion notionaltruism altruismconcept conceptlong longhistori historiphilosoph philosophethic ethicthought thoughtterm termorigin origincoin coin19th 19thcenturi centurifound foundsociologist sociologistphilosoph philosophscienc sciencaugust augustcomt comtbecom becommajor majortopic topicpsychologist psychologistespeci especievolutionari evolutionaripsycholog psychologresearch researchevolutionari evolutionaribiologist biologistethologist ethologistwhilst whilstidea ideaaltruism altruismone onefield fieldaffect affectfield fielddiffer differmethod methodfocus focusfield fieldalway alwaylead leaddiffer differperspect perspectaltruism altruismsimpl simplterm termaltruism altruismcare carewelfar welfarpeopl peoplact acthelp | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-3 | Altruism
Section::::Scientific viewpoints.
section:scientif :scientifviewpoint | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-4 | Altruism
Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Anthropology.
Marcel Mauss's book "The Gift" contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes:
Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.
BULLET::::- Compare Altruism (ethics) – perception of altruism as self-sacrifice.
BULLET::::- Compare explanation of alms in various scriptures.
section:scientif :scientifviewpoints. viewpoints.anthropolog anthropologmarcel marcelmauss mauss's 'sbook book`` ``gift gift'' ''contain containpassag passagcall call`` ``note notealm alm'' ''note notedescrib describevolut evolutnotion notionalm almextens extensaltruism altruismnotion notionsacrific sacrificwrite writealm almfruit fruitmoral moralnotion notiongift giftfortun fortunone onehand handnotion notionsacrific sacrificgeneros generosoblig oblignemesi nemesiaveng avengpoor poorgod godsuperabund superabundhappi happiwealth wealthcertain certainpeopl peoplrid ridancient ancientmoral moralgift giftbecom becomprincipl principljustic justicgod godspirit spiritaccept acceptshare sharewealth wealthhappi happioffer offerhitherto hithertodestroy destroyuseless uselesssacrific sacrificserv servpoor poorchildren childrenbullet bullet:- :-compar comparaltruism altruismethic ethic– –percept perceptaltruism altruismself-sacrific self-sacrificbullet bullet:- :-compar comparexplan explanalm almvarious variousscriptur | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-5 | Altruism
Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Evolutionary explanations.
In the science of ethology (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. In evolutionary psychology this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, tipping, courtship gifts, production of public goods, and environmentalism.
Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from evolutionary game theory a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies.
Some of the proposed mechanisms are:
BULLET::::- Kin selection. That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, and this has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was especially strong for firstborns, who are typically close to their families.
BULLET::::- Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies, and similar social ingroups suffer or even disappear. Helping such group members may therefore eventually benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile outgroup threatens to kill the entire ingroup.
BULLET::::- Reciprocal altruism. See also Reciprocity (evolution).
BULLET::::- Direct reciprocity. Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they can and will reciprocate the help. The effective tit for tat strategy is one game theoretic example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return.
BULLET::::- One consequence is that people are more cooperative if it is more likely that individuals will interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others and this effect tend to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness such as calling it a "Community Game" instead of a "Wall Street Game."
BULLET::::- A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people will feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping thereby to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize so people become more helpful toward others in general after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.
BULLET::::- People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better assessments of cooperativeness or due to exchange of promises. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust, instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger scale competitions such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.
BULLET::::- Indirect reciprocity. The avoidance of poor reciprocators and cheaters causes a person's reputation to become very important. A person with a good reputation for reciprocity have a higher chance of receiving help even from persons they have had no direct interactions with previously.
BULLET::::- Strong reciprocity. A form of reciprocity where some individuals seem to spend more resources on cooperating and punishing than would be most beneficial as predicted by several established theories of altruism. A number of theories have been proposed as explanations as well as criticisms regarding its existence.
BULLET::::- Pseudo-reciprocity. An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist.
BULLET::::- Costly signaling and the handicap principle. Since altruism takes away resources from the altruist it can be an "honest signal" of resource availability and the abilities needed to gather resources. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also be a signal of interactive and cooperative intentions since those not interacting further in the future gain nothing from the costly signaling. It is unclear if costly signaling can indicate a long-term cooperative personality but people have increased trust for those who help. Costly signaling is pointless if everyone has the same traits, resources, and cooperative intentions but become a potentially more important signal if the population increasingly varies on these characteristics.
BULLET::::- Group selection. It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as David Sloan Wilson that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group even if these adaptions are detrimental at the individual level. Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while there may instead prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (See also in-group favoritism). Group selection theory has been criticized by many other evolutionary scientists.
Such explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their inclusive fitness when they are doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote altruistic behaviors.
Every single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness; altruistic behaviors would have been selected for if such behaviors on average increased inclusive fitness in the ancestral environment. This need not imply that on average 50% or more of altruistic acts were beneficial for the altruist in the ancestral environment; if the benefits from helping the right person were very high it would be beneficial to err on the side of caution and usually be altruistic even if in most cases there were no benefits.
The benefits for the altruist may be increased and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than to strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than to competitors, and to members ingroups than to members of outgroup.
The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's development of the Price equation, which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular slime moulds, such as "Dictyostelium mucoroides." These protists live as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.
Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved in order to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.
Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics such by the Russian zoologist and anarchist Peter Kropotkin in his 1902 book "" and Peter Singer in his book "A Darwinian Left."
section:scientif :scientifviewpoint viewpointevolutionari evolutionariexplan explanscienc sciencetholog ethologstudi studianim animbehaviour behaviourgeneral generalstudi studisocial socialevolut evolutaltruism altruismrefer referbehaviour behaviourindividu individuincreas increasfit fitanoth anothindividu individudecreas decreasfit fitactor actorevolutionari evolutionaripsycholog psychologmay mayappli appliwide widerang ranghuman humanbehavior behaviorchariti charitiemerg emergaid aidhelp helpcoalit coalitpartner partnertip tipcourtship courtshipgift giftproduct productpublic publicgood goodenvironment environmenttheori theoriappar apparaltruist altruistbehavior behavioracceler accelerneed needproduc productheori theoricompat compatevolutionari evolutionariorigin origintwo tworelat relatstrand strandresearch researchaltruism altruismemerg emergtradit traditevolutionari evolutionarianalys analysevolutionari evolutionarigame gametheori theorimathemat mathematmodel modelanalysi analysibehaviour behaviourstrategi strategipropos proposmechan mechanbullet bullet:- :-kin kinselect selectanim animhuman humanaltruist altruisttoward towardclose closekin kindistant distantkin kinnon-kin non-kinconfirm confirmnumer numerstudi studiacross acrossmani manidiffer differcultur cultureven evensubtl subtlcue cueindic indickinship kinshipmay mayunconsci unconsciincreas increasaltruist altruistbehavior behaviorone onekinship kinshipcue cuefacial facialresembl resemblone onestudi studifound foundslight slightalter alterphotograph photographclose closeresembl resemblface facestudi studiparticip participincreas increastrust trustparticip participexpress expressregard regarddepict depictperson personanoth anothcue cuefamili familiname nameespeci especirare rarefound foundincreas increashelp helpbehavior behavioranoth anothstudi studifound foundcooper cooperbehavior behaviorgreater greaternumber numberperceiv perceivkin kingroup groupuse usekinship kinshipterm termpolit politspeech speechincreas increasaudienc audiencagreement agreementspeaker speakerone onestudi studieffect effectespeci especistrong strongfirstborn firstborntypic typicclose closefamili familibullet bullet:- :-vest vestinterest interestpeopl peopllike likesuffer sufferfriend friendalli allisimilar similarsocial socialingroup ingroupsuffer suffereven evendisappear disappearhelp helpgroup groupmember membermay maytherefor thereforeventu eventubenefit benefitaltruist altruistmake makeingroup ingroupmembership membershipnotic noticincreas increascooper cooperextrem extremself-sacrific self-sacrifictoward towardingroup ingroupmay mayadapt adapthostil hostiloutgroup outgroupthreaten threatenkill killentir entiringroup ingroupbullet bullet:- :-reciproc reciprocaltruism altruismsee seealso alsoreciproc reciprocevolut evolutbullet bullet:- :-direct directreciproc reciprocresearch researchshow showbenefici beneficihelp helpother otherchanc chancreciproc reciprochelp helpeffect effecttit tittat tatstrategi strategione onegame gametheoret theoretexampl examplmani manipeopl peoplseem seemfollow followsimilar similarstrategi strategicooper cooperother othercooper cooperreturn returnbullet bullet:- :-one oneconsequ consequpeopl peoplcooper cooperlike likeindividu individuinteract interactfutur futurpeopl peopltend tendless lesscooper cooperperceiv perceivfrequenc frequenchelper helperpopul popullower lowertend tendhelp helpless lesssee seenon-coop non-coopother othereffect effecttend tendstronger strongeropposit oppositeffect effectsee seecooper cooperbehavior behaviorsimpli simplichang changcooper cooperframe framepropos proposmay mayincreas increascooper coopercall call`` ``communiti communitigame game'' ''instead instead`` ``wall wallstreet streetgame game'' ''bullet bullet:- :-tendenc tendenctoward towardreciproc reciprocimpli implipeopl peoplfeel feeloblig obligrespond respondsomeon someonhelp helpuse usechariti charitigive givesmall smallgift giftpotenti potentidonor donorhope hopetherebi therebiinduc inducreciproc reciprocanoth anothmethod methodannounc announcpublic publicsomeon someongiven givenlarg largdonat donattendenc tendencreciproc reciproceven evengeneral generalpeopl peoplbecom becomhelp helptoward towardother othergeneral generalhelp helphand handpeopl peoplavoid avoideven evenretali retaliperceiv perceivcooper cooperpeopl peoplsometim sometimmistaken mistakenfail failhelp helpintend intendhelp helpmay maynotic noticmay maycaus causunintend unintendconflict conflictmay mayoptim optimstrategi strategislight slightforgiv forgivslight slightgenerous generousinterpret interpretnon-cooper non-cooperbullet bullet:- :-peopl peopllike likecooper coopertask taskcommunic communicone oneanoth anothfirst firstmay maydue duebetter betterassess assesscooper cooperdue dueexchang exchangpromis promiscooper coopergradual gradualbuild buildtrust trustinstead insteadask askgive giveextens extenshelp helpimmedi immedidirect directreciproc reciproccooper coopergroup groupincreas increaschang changfocus focusincent incentintra-group intra-groupcompetit competitlarger largerscale scalecompetit competitgroup groupgeneral generalpopul populthus thusgive givegrade gradepromot promotbase baseindividu individu's 'sperform performrelat relatsmall smalllocal localgroup groupcommon commonmay mayreduc reduccooper cooperbehavior behaviorgroup groupbullet bullet:- :-indirect indirectreciproc reciprocavoid avoidpoor poorreciproc reciproccheater cheatercaus causperson person's 'sreput reputbecom becomimport importperson persongood goodreput reputreciproc reciprochigher higherchanc chancreceiv receivhelp helpeven evenperson persondirect directinteract interactprevious previousbullet bullet:- :-strong strongreciproc reciprocform formreciproc reciprocindividu individuseem seemspend spendresourc resourccooper cooperpunish punishwould wouldbenefici beneficipredict predictsever severestablish establishtheori theorialtruism altruismnumber numbertheori theoripropos proposexplan explanwell wellcritic criticregard regardexist existbullet bullet:- :-pseudo-reciproc pseudo-reciprocorgan organbehav behavaltruist altruistrecipi recipireciproc reciprocincreas increaschanc chancact actway wayselfish selfishalso alsobyproduct byproductbenefit benefitaltruist altruistbullet bullet:- :-cost costsignal signalhandicap handicapprincipl principlsinc sincaltruism altruismtake takeaway awayresourc resourcaltruist altruist`` ``honest honestsignal signal'' ''resourc resourcavail availabil abilneed needgather gatherresourc resourcmay maysignal signalother otheraltruist altruistvaluabl valuablpotenti potentipartner partnermay mayalso alsosignal signalinteract interactcooper cooperintent intentsinc sincinteract interactfutur futurgain gainnoth nothcost costsignal signalunclear unclearcost costsignal signalindic indiclong-term long-termcooper cooperperson personpeopl peoplincreas increastrust trusthelp helpcost costsignal signalpointless pointlesseveryon everyontrait traitresourc resourccooper cooperintent intentbecom becompotenti potentiimport importsignal signalpopul populincreas increasvari varicharacterist characteristbullet bullet:- :-group groupselect selectcontroversi controversiargu arguevolutionari evolutionariscientist scientistdavid davidsloan sloanwilson wilsonnatur naturselect selectact actlevel levelnon-kin non-kingroup groupproduc producadapt adaptbenefit benefitnon-kin non-kingroup groupeven evenadapt adaptdetriment detrimentindividu individulevel levelthus thusaltruist altruistperson personmay maycircumst circumstoutcompet outcompetless lessaltruist altruistperson personindividu individulevel levelaccord accordgroup groupselect selecttheori theoriopposit oppositmay mayoccur occurgroup grouplevel levelgroup groupconsist consistaltruist altruistperson personmay mayoutcompet outcompetgroup groupconsist consistless lessaltruist altruistperson personaltruism altruismmay mayextend extendingroup ingroupmember membermay mayinstead insteadprejudic prejudicantagon antagonoutgroup outgroupmember membersee seealso alsoin-group in-groupfavorit favoritgroup groupselect selecttheori theoricritic criticmani manievolutionari evolutionariscientist scientistexplan explanimpli implihuman humanalway alwayconscious consciouscalcul calculincreas increasinclus inclusfit fitaltruist altruistact actinstead insteadevolut evolutshape shapepsycholog psychologmechan mechanemot emotpromot promotaltruist altruistbehavior behavioreveri everisingl singlinstanc instancaltruist altruistbehavior behaviorneed needalway alwayincreas increasinclus inclusfit fitaltruist altruistbehavior behaviorwould wouldselect selectbehavior behavioraverag averagincreas increasinclus inclusfit fitancestr ancestrenviron environneed needimpli impliaverag averag50 50altruist altruistact actbenefici beneficialtruist altruistancestr ancestrenviron environbenefit benefithelp helpright rightperson personhigh highwould wouldbenefici beneficierr errside sidecaution cautionusual usualaltruist altruisteven evencase casebenefit benefitbenefit benefitaltruist altruistmay mayincreas increascost costreduc reducaltruist altruisttoward towardcertain certaingroup groupresearch researchfound foundpeopl peoplaltruist altruistkin kinno-kin no-kinfriend friendstranger strangerattract attractunattract unattractnon-competitor non-competitorcompetitor competitormember memberingroup ingroupmember memberoutgroup outgroupstudi studialtruism altruisminiti initiimpetus impetusbehind behindgeorg georgr. r.price price's 'sdevelop developprice priceequat equatmathemat mathematequat equatuse usestudi studigenet genetevolut evolutinterest interestexampl examplaltruism altruismfound foundcellular cellularslime slimemould mould`` ``dictyostelium dictyosteliummucoroid mucoroid'' ''protist protistlive liveindividu individuamoeba amoebastarv starvpoint pointaggreg aggregform formmulticellular multicellularfruit fruitbodi bodicell cellsacrific sacrificpromot promotsurviv survivcell cellfruit fruitbodi bodiselect selectinvest investtheori theoripropos proposclose closesocial socialbond bondassoci associemot emotcognit cognitneurohormon neurohormonmechan mechanevolv evolvorder orderfacilit facilitlong-term long-termhigh-cost high-costaltruism altruismclose closedepend dependone oneanoth anothsurviv survivreproduct reproductsuccess successcooper cooperbehavior behaviorsometim sometimseen seenargument argumentleft-w left-wpolit politrussian russianzoologist zoologistanarchist anarchistpeter peterkropotkin kropotkin1902 1902book book`` ``'' ''peter petersinger singerbook book`` ``darwinian darwinianleft left'' | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-6 | Altruism
Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Neurobiology.
Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the National Institutes of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In their research, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA in October 2006, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable. One brain region, the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain, contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait empathy. The same study has shown a connection between giving to charity and the promotion of social bonding.
In fact, in an experiment published in March 2007 at the University of Southern California neuroscientist Antonio R. Damasio and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex lack the ability to empathically feel their way to moral answers, and that when confronted with moral dilemmas, these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with "end-justifies-the-means" answers, leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions, but that when they were confronted by a difficult issue — in this case as whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city — these patients appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with normally functioning brains. According to Adrian Raine, a clinical neuroscientist also at the University of Southern California, one of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people: "Psychopaths often feel no empathy or remorse. Without that awareness, people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort their way through moral thickets. Does that mean they should be held to different standards of accountability?"
In another study, in the 1990s, Dr. Bill Harbaugh, a University of Oregon economist, concluded people are motivated to give for reasons of personal prestige and in a similar fMRI scanner test in 2007 with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions of Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in cause in charity, such as a person's environment and values.
section:scientif :scientifviewpoints. viewpoints.neurobiolog neurobiologjorg jorgmoll molljordan jordangrafman grafmanneuroscientist neuroscientistnation nationinstitut instituthealth healthlabs-d'or labs-d'orhospit hospitnetwork networkj.m j.mprovid providfirst firstevid evidneural neuralbase basealtruist altruistgive givenormal normalhealthi healthivolunt voluntuse usefunction functionmagnet magnetreson resonimag imagresearch researchpublish publishproceed proceednation nationacademi academiscienc sciencusa usaoctob octob2006 2006show showpure puremonetari monetarireward rewardcharit charitdonat donatactiv activmesolimb mesolimbreward rewardpathway pathwayprimit primitpart partbrain brainusual usualrespond respondfood foodsex sexhowev howevvolunt voluntgenerous generousplace placeinterest interestother othermake makecharit charitdonat donatanoth anothbrain braincircuit circuitselect selectactiv activsubgenu subgenucortex/sept cortex/septregion regionstructur structurintim intimrelat relatsocial socialattach attachbond bondspeci specialtruism altruismexperi experisuggest suggestsuperior superiormoral moralfaculti facultisuppress suppressbasic basicselfish selfishurg urgrather ratherbasic basicbrain brainhard-wir hard-wirpleasur pleasurone onebrain brainregion regionsubgenu subgenuanterior anteriorcingul cingulcortex/bas cortex/basforebrain forebraincontribut contributlearn learnaltruist altruistbehavior behaviorespeci especitrait traitempathi empathistudi studishown shownconnect connectgive givechariti charitipromot promotsocial socialbond bondfact factexperi experipublish publishmarch march2007 2007univers universsouthern southerncalifornia californianeuroscientist neuroscientistantonio antonior. r.damasio damasiocolleagu colleagushow showsubject subjectdamag damagventromedi ventromediprefront prefrontcortex cortexlack lackabil abilempath empathfeel feelway waymoral moralanswer answerconfront confrontmoral moraldilemma dilemmabrain-damag brain-damagpatient patientcold coldcame came`` ``end-justifies-the-mean end-justifies-the-mean'' ''answer answerlead leaddamasio damasioconclud concludpoint pointreach reachimmor immorconclus conclusconfront confrontdifficult difficultissu issu— —case casewhether whethershoot shootpasseng passengplane planehijack hijackterrorist terroristhit hitmajor majorciti citi— —patient patientappear appearreach reachdecis deciswithout withoutanguish anguishafflict afflictnormal normalfunction functionbrain brainaccord accordadrian adrianrain rainclinic clinicneuroscientist neuroscientistalso alsounivers universsouthern southerncalifornia californiaone onestudi studi's 'simplic implicsocieti societimay mayrethink rethinkjudg judgimmor immorpeopl peopl`` ``psychopath psychopathoften oftenfeel feelempathi empathiremors remorswithout withoutawar awarpeopl peoplreli reliexclus exclusreason reasonseem seemfind findharder hardersort sortway waymoral moralthicket thicketmean meanheld helddiffer differstandard standardaccount account'' ''anoth anothstudi studi1990s 1990sdr. dr.bill billharbaugh harbaughunivers universoregon oregoneconomist economistconclud concludpeopl peoplmotiv motivgive givereason reasonperson personprestig prestigsimilar similarfmri fmriscanner scannertest test2007 2007psychologist psychologistcolleagu colleagudr. dr.ulrich ulrichmayr mayrreach reachconclus conclusjorg jorgmoll molljordan jordangrafman grafmangive givechariti charitialthough althoughabl abldivid dividstudi studigroup grouptwo twogroup group`` ``egoist egoist'' ''`` ``altruist altruist'' ''one onediscoveri discoverithough thoughrare rareeven evenconsid consid`` ``egoist egoist'' ''sometim sometimgave gaveexpect expectwould wouldhelp helpother otherlead leadconclus conclusfactor factorcaus causchariti charitiperson person's 'senviron environvalu | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-7 | Altruism
Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Psychology.
The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines "psychological altruism" as "a motivational state with the goal of increasing another’s welfare." Psychological altruism is contrasted with "psychological egoism," which refers to the motivation to increase one's own welfare.
There has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of psychological altruism. Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors. However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The social exchange theory postulates that altruism only exists when benefits to the self outweigh costs to the self. Daniel Batson is a psychologist who examined this question and argues against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives for altruism: altruism to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle (principlism). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless. The "empathy-altruism hypothesis" basically states that psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering. Helping behavior is seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of understanding subtle emotional cues.
In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping, comforting, sharing, cooperation, philanthropy, and community service. Research has found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the "Bystander effect"). Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility. However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.
Many studies have observed the effects of volunteerism (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health and well-being. In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and lower in depression, anxiety, and somatization. Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health, but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages. One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one. A study on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality. Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness. It is important to note that, while research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies have found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy affective states.
Studies have also been careful to note that feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health and happiness. For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant). Additionally, while generous acts make people feel good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed that "a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional support, sleep quality, and well-being.".
section:scientif :scientifviewpoints. viewpoints.psycholog psychologintern internencyclopedia encyclopediasocial socialscienc sciencdefin defin`` ``psycholog psychologaltruism altruism'' ''`` ``motiv motivstate stategoal goalincreas increasanoth anoth’ ’welfar welfar'' ''psycholog psychologaltruism altruismcontrast contrast`` ``psycholog psychologegoism egoism'' ''refer refermotiv motivincreas increasone one's 'swelfar welfardebat debatwhether whetherhuman humantruli trulicapabl capablpsycholog psychologaltruism altruismdefinit definitspecifi specifiself-sacrifici self-sacrificinatur naturaltruism altruismlack lackextern externreward rewardaltruist altruistbehavior behaviorhowev howevaltruism altruismultim ultimbenefit benefitself selfmani manicase caseselfless selflessaltruist altruistact actbrought broughtquestion questionsocial socialexchang exchangtheori theoripostul postulaltruism altruismexist existbenefit benefitself selfoutweigh outweighcost costself selfdaniel danielbatson batsonpsychologist psychologistexamin examinquestion questionargu argusocial socialexchang exchangtheori theoriidentifi identififour fourmajor majormotiv motivaltruism altruismaltruism altruismultim ultimbenefit benefitself selfegoism egoismultim ultimbenefit benefitperson personaltruism altruismbenefit benefitgroup groupcollectiv collectivuphold upholdmoral moralprincipl principlprincipl principlaltruism altruismultim ultimserv servselfish selfishgain gainthus thusdifferenti differentiselfless selflessaltruism altruismgeneral generalconclus conclusempathy-induc empathy-inducaltruism altruismgenuin genuinselfless selfless`` ``empathy-altru empathy-altruhypothesi hypothesi'' ''basic basicstate statepsycholog psychologaltruism altruismexist existevok evokempath empathdesir desirhelp helpsomeon someonsuffer sufferfeel feelempath empathconcern concerncontrast contrastfeel feelperson persondistress distresscompel compelpeopl peoplreduc reducunpleas unpleasemot emotpeopl peoplempath empathconcern concernhelp helpother otherdistress distresseven evenexposur exposursituat situatcould couldeasili easiliavoid avoidwherea wherealack lackempath empathconcern concernavoid avoidhelp helpunless unlessdifficult difficultimposs impossavoid avoidexposur exposuranoth anoth's 'ssuffer sufferhelp helpbehavior behaviorseen seenhuman humantwo twoyear yearold oldtoddler toddlercapabl capablunderstand understandsubtl subtlemot emotcue cuepsycholog psychologresearch researchaltruism altruismstudi studioften oftenobserv observaltruism altruismdemonstr demonstrprosoci prosocibehavior behaviorhelp helpcomfort comfortshare sharecooper cooperphilanthropi philanthropicommuniti communitiservic servicresearch researchfound foundpeopl peopllike likehelp helprecogn recognperson personneed needfeel feelperson personrespons responsreduc reducperson person's 'sdistress distressresearch researchalso alsosuggest suggestnumber numberbystand bystandwit witdistress distresssuffer sufferaffect affectlikelihood likelihoodhelp help`` ``bystand bystandeffect effect'' ''greater greaternumber numberbystand bystanddecreas decreasindividu individufeel feelrespons responshowev howevwit withigh highlevel levelempath empathconcern concernlike likeassum assumperson personrespons responsentir entirregardless regardlessnumber numberbystand bystandmani manistudi studiobserv observeffect effectvolunteer volunteerform formaltruism altruismhappi happihealth healthconsist consistfound foundstrong strongconnect connectvolunteer volunteercurrent currentfutur futurhealth healthwell-b well-bstudi studiolder olderadult adultvolunt volunthigher higherlife lifesatisfact satisfactlive livelower lowerdepress depressanxieti anxietisomat somatvolunteer volunteerhelp helpbehavior behaviorshown shownimprov improvmental mentalhealth healthphysic physichealth healthlongev longevwell wellattribut attributactiv activsocial socialintegr integrencourag encouragone onestudi studiexamin examinphysic physichealth healthmother mothervolunt volunt30-year 30-yearperiod periodfound found52 52belong belongvolunt voluntorgan organexperienc experiencmajor majorill ill36 36volunt voluntexperienc experiencone onestudi studiadult adultage age55+ 55+found foundfour-year four-yearstudi studiperiod periodpeopl peoplvolunt volunttwo twoorgan organ63 63lower lowerlikelihood likelihooddie diecontrol controlprior priorhealth healthstatus statusdetermin determinvolunteer volunteeraccount account44 44reduct reductmortal mortalmere mereawar awarkind kindoneself oneselfother otheralso alsoassoci associgreater greaterwell-b well-bstudi studiask askparticip participcount countact actkind kindperform performone oneweek weeksignific significenhanc enhancsubject subjecthappi happiimport importnote noteresearch researchsupport supportidea ideaaltruist altruistact actbring bringhappi happialso alsofound foundwork workopposit oppositdirection—that direction—thathappier happierpeopl peoplalso alsokinder kinderrelationship relationshipaltruist altruistbehavior behaviorhappi happibidirect bidirectstudi studifound foundgeneros generosincreas increaslinear linearsad sadhappi happiaffect affectstate statestudi studialso alsocare carenote notefeel feelover-tax over-taxneed needother otherconvers conversnegat negateffect effecthealth healthhappi happiexampl examplone onestudi studivolunteer volunteerfound foundfeel feeloverwhelm overwhelmother otherdemand demandeven evenstronger strongernegat negateffect effectmental mentalhealth healthhelp helpposit positone onealthough althoughposit positeffect effectstill stillsignific significaddit additgenerous generousact actmake makepeopl peoplfeel feelgood goodalso alsoimport importpeopl peoplappreci apprecikind kindreceiv receivother otherstudi studisuggest suggestgratitud gratitudgoe goehand-in-hand hand-in-handkind kindalso alsoimport importwell-b well-bstudi studirelationship relationshiphappi happivarious variouscharact charactstrength strengthshow show`` ``conscious consciousfocus focusgratitud gratitudled ledreduct reductnegat negataffect affectincreas increasoptimist optimistapprais appraisposit positaffect affectoffer offeremot emotsupport supportsleep sleepqualiti qualitiwell-b well-b`` | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-8 | Altruism
Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Sociology.
"Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity". American Sociological Association.). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the common good is a largely researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges public sociology saying, "The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity" ASA). This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and "build the good society". The motivation of altruism is also the focus of study; some publications link the occurrence of moral outrage to the punishment of perpetrators and compensation of victims.
section:scientif :scientifviewpoints. viewpoints.sociolog sociolog`` ``sociologist sociologistlong longconcern concernbuild buildgood goodsocieti societi'' ''`` ``altruism altruismmoral moralsocial socialsolidar solidar'' ''american americansociolog sociologassociation. association.structur structursocieti societiindividu individucome comeexhibit exhibitcharit charitphilanthrop philanthroppro-soci pro-socialtruist altruistaction actioncommon commongood goodlarg largresearch researchtopic topicwithin withinfield fieldamerican americansociolog sociologassoci associasa asaacknowledg acknowledgpublic publicsociolog sociologsay say`` ``intrins intrinsscientif scientifpolici policipublic publicrelev relevfield fieldinvestig investighelp helpconstruct constructgood goodsocieti societiunquestion unquestion'' ''`` ``altruism altruismmoral moralsocial socialsolidar solidar'' ''asa asatype typesociolog sociologseek seekcontribut contributaid aidgrassroot grassroottheoret theoretunderstand understandmotiv motivaltruism altruismorgan organpromot promotaltruist altruistfocus focusorder orderbenefit benefitworld worldpeopl peoplstudi studialtruism altruismframe frameorgan organcarri carrimotiv motivgroup grouplevel levelarea areafocus focussociologist sociologistseek seekinvestig investigorder ordercontribut contributback backgroup groupstudi studi`` ``build buildgood goodsocieti societi'' ''motiv motivaltruism altruismalso alsofocus focusstudi studipublic publiclink linkoccurr occurrmoral moraloutrag outragpunish punishperpetr perpetrcompens compensvictim | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
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Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Pathological altruism.
Pathological altruism is when altruism is taken to an unhealthy extreme, and either harms the altruistic person, or well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good.
The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book "Pathological Altruism".
Examples include depression and burnout seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.
section:scientif :scientifviewpoint viewpointpatholog pathologaltruism altruismpatholog pathologaltruism altruismaltruism altruismtaken takenunhealthi unhealthiextrem extremeither eitherharm harmaltruist altruistperson personwell-intent well-intentaction actioncaus causharm harmgood goodterm term`` ``patholog pathologaltruism altruism'' ''popularis popularisbook book`` ``patholog pathologaltruism altruism'' ''exampl examplinclud includdepress depressburnout burnoutseen seenhealthcar healthcarprofession professionunhealthi unhealthifocus focusother otherdetriment detrimentone one's 'sneed needhoard hoardanim animineffect ineffectphilanthrop philanthropsocial socialprogram programultim ultimworsen worsensituat situatmeant meantaid | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
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Section::::Religious viewpoints.
Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, and Sikhism, etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality.
section:religi :religiviewpoint viewpointworld world's 'sreligion religionpromot promotaltruism altruismimport importmoral moralvalu valubuddhism buddhismchristian christianhinduism hinduismislam islamjainism jainismjudaism judaismsikhism sikhismetc. etc.place placeparticular particularemphasi emphasialtruist altruistmoral | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-11 | Altruism
Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Buddhism.
Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. "Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being" (Dalai Lama).
Still, the notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama).
In the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment, Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy) consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based on moral judgment, but from the law of karma, which functions like a natural law of cause and effect. A simple illustration of such cause and effect is the case of experiencing the effects of what one causes: if one causes suffering, then as a natural consequence one would experience suffering; if one causes happiness, then as a natural consequence one would experience happiness.
section:religi :religiviewpoints. viewpoints.buddhism buddhismaltruism altruismfigur figurpromin prominbuddhism buddhismlove lovecompass compasscompon componform formbuddhism buddhismfocus focusbe beequal equallove lovewish wishbe behappi happicompass compasswish wishbe befree freesuffer suffer`` ``mani maniill illcure cureone onemedicin medicinlove lovecompass compassqualiti qualitiultim ultimsourc sourchuman humanhappi happineed needlie liecore core'' ''dalai dalailama lamastill stillnotion notionaltruism altruismmodifi modifiworld-view world-viewsinc sincbelief beliefpractic practicpromot promothappi happi`` ``care carehappi happiother othergreater greatersens senswell-b well-bbecom becom'' ''dalai dalailama lamacontext contextlarger largerethic ethicdiscuss discussmoral moralaction actionjudgment judgmentbuddhism buddhismcharacter characterbelief beliefnegat negatunhappi unhappiconsequ consequaction actionderiv derivpunish punishcorrect correctbase basemoral moraljudgment judgmentlaw lawkarma karmafunction functionlike likenatur naturlaw lawcaus causeffect effectsimpl simplillustr illustrcaus causeffect effectcase caseexperienc experienceffect effectone onecaus causone onecaus caussuffer suffernatur naturconsequ consequone onewould wouldexperi experisuffer sufferone onecaus caushappi happinatur naturconsequ consequone onewould wouldexperi experihappi | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
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Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Jainism.
The fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of "Ahimsa" – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to be equal. The first Tirthankara, Rishabhdev, introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence and compassion for all living things.
Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceit by straightforwardness and greed by contentment.
Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks. They are:
BULLET::::1. Non-violence (Ahimsa);
BULLET::::2. Truthfulness (Satya);
BULLET::::3. Non-stealing (Asteya);
BULLET::::4. Celibacy (Brahmacharya);
BULLET::::5. Non-possession or non-materialism (Aparigraha);
The "great vows" (Mahavrata) are prescribed for monks and "limited vows" (Anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. The house-holders are encouraged to practice the above-mentioned five vows. The monks have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual progress.
The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become "Siddha" (God in Jainism). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders.
section:religi :religiviewpoints. viewpoints.jainism jainismfundament fundamentprincipl principljainism jainismrevolv revolvaround aroundconcept conceptaltruism altruismhuman humansentient sentientbe bejainism jainismpreach preachview view`` ``ahimsa ahimsa'' ''– –live livelet letlive livetherebi therebiharm harmsentient sentientbe bei.e i.euncompromis uncompromisrever reverlife lifealso alsoconsid considlive livething thingequal equalfirst firsttirthankara tirthankararishabhdev rishabhdevintroduc introducconcept conceptaltruism altruismlive livebe beextend extendknowledg knowledgexperi experiother otherdonat donatgive giveoneself oneselfother othernon-viol non-violcompass compasslive livething thingjainism jainismprescrib prescribpath pathnon-viol non-violprogress progresssoul soulultim ultimgoal goalmajor majorcharacterist characteristjain jainbelief beliefemphasi emphasiconsequ consequphysic physicalso alsomental mentalbehavior behaviorone one's 'sunconqu unconqumind mindanger angerpride prideego egodeceit deceitgreed greeduncontrol uncontrolsens sensorgan organpower powerenemi enemihuman humananger angerspoil spoilgood goodrelat relatpride pridedestroy destroyhumil humildeceit deceitdestroy destroypeac peacgreed greeddestroy destroyeveryth everythjainism jainismrecommend recommendconquer conqueranger angerforgiv forgivpride pridehumil humildeceit deceitstraightforward straightforwardgreed greedcontent contentjain jainbeliev believattain attainenlighten enlightenultim ultimliber liberone onemust mustpractic practicfollow followethic ethicprincipl principlmajor majorvow vowthought thoughtspeech speechaction actiondegre degreprincipl principlpractic practicdiffer differhousehold householdmonk monkbullet bullet:1 :1non-viol non-violahimsa ahimsabullet bullet:2 :2truth truthsatya satyabullet bullet:3 :3non-steal non-stealasteya asteyabullet bullet:4 :4celibaci celibacibrahmacharya brahmacharyabullet bullet:5 :5non-possess non-possessnon-materi non-materiaparigraha aparigraha`` ``great greatvow vow'' ''mahavrata mahavrataprescrib prescribmonk monk`` ``limit limitvow vow'' ''anuvrata anuvrataprescrib prescribhousehold householdhouse-hold house-holdencourag encouragpractic practicabove-ment above-mentfive fivevow vowmonk monkobserv observstrict strictconsist consistpractic practicpossibl possiblovercom overcomlimit limitgradual gradualacceler accelerspiritu spirituprogress progressprincipl principlnon-viol non-violseek seekminim minimkarma karmalimit limitcapabl capablsoul souljainism jainismview vieweveri everisoul soulworthi worthirespect respectpotenti potentibecom becom`` ``siddha siddha'' ''god godjainism jainismlive livebe bepossess possesssoul soulgreat greatcare careawar awaressenti essentione one's 'saction actionjainism jainismemphas emphasequal equallife lifeadvoc advocharmless harmlesstoward towardwhether whethercreatur creaturgreat greatsmall smallpolici policiextend extendeven evenmicroscop microscoporgan organjainism jainismacknowledg acknowledgeveri everiperson persondiffer differcapabl capablcapac capacpractic practictherefor thereforaccept acceptdiffer differlevel levelcomplianc compliancascet ascethousehold | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
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Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Christianity.
Altruism is central to the teachings of Jesus found in the Gospel, especially in the Sermon on the Mount and the Sermon on the Plain. From biblical to medieval Christian traditions, tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of "disinterested love", as in the Pauline phrase "love seeks not its own interests." In his book "Indoctrination and Self-deception," Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting love for the few with love for the many. Love confirms others in their freedom, shuns propaganda and masks, assures others of its presence, and is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the presence and meaning of love becomes validated and grasped not by words and reflections alone, but in the making of the connection.
St Thomas Aquinas interprets 'You should love your neighbour as yourself' as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others. Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship" and quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves," he concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the common good, the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thinks we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude: a more desirable thing than bodily well being. In coining the word Altruism, as stated above, Comte was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism.
Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as hatred of God. Thomas Jay Oord has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being.
German philosopher Max Scheler distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one’s own life and existence". Another way is merely "one of the many modern substitutes for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people’s business." At its worst, Scheler says, "love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."
section:religi :religiviewpoints. viewpoints.christian christianaltruism altruismcentral centralteach teachjesus jesusfound foundgospel gospelespeci especisermon sermonmount mountsermon sermonplain plainbiblic biblicmediev medievchristian christiantradit tradittension tensionself-affirm self-affirmother-regard other-regardsometim sometimdiscuss discusshead head`` ``disinterest disinterestlove love'' ''paulin paulinphrase phrase`` ``love loveseek seekinterest interest'' ''book book`` ``indoctrin indoctrinself-decept self-decept'' ''roderick roderickhinderi hinderitri trished shedlight lighttension tensioncontrast contrastimpostor impostorauthent authentself-affirm self-affirmaltruism altruismanalysi analysiother-regard other-regardwithin withincreativ creativindividu individuself selfcontrast contrastlove lovelove lovemani manilove loveconfirm confirmother otherfreedom freedomshun shunpropaganda propagandamask maskassur assurother otherpresenc presencultim ultimconfirm confirmmere meredeclar declarother otherperson person's 'sexperi experipractic practicwithin withinpractic practicart artpresenc presencmean meanlove lovebecom becomvalid validgrasp graspword wordreflect reflectalon alonmake makeconnect connectst stthoma thomaaquina aquinainterpret interpretyou youlove loveneighbour neighbourmean meanlove loveexemplar exemplarlove loveother otherconsid consid`` ``love loveman manlove loveform formroot rootfriendship friendship'' ''quot quotaristotl aristotl`` ``origin originfriend friendrelat relatother otherlie lierelat relat'' ''conclud concludthough thoughbound boundlove loveother othernatur naturseek seekcommon commongood goodgood goodwhole wholeprivat privatgood goodgood goodpart parthowev howevthink thinklove lovegod godneighbour neighbourbodili bodililife—sinc life—sincultim ultimpurpos purposlove loveneighbour neighbourshare shareetern eternbeatitud beatituddesir desirthing thingbodili bodiliwell wellcoin coinword wordaltruism altruismstate statecomt comtprobabl probabloppos opposthomist thomistdoctrin doctrinpresent presenttheolog theologschool schoolwithin withincatholic catholicmani manibiblic biblicauthor authordraw drawstrong strongconnect connectlove loveother otherlove lovegod god1 1john john4 4state stateone onelove lovegod godone onemust mustlove lovefellowman fellowmanhatr hatrone one's 'sfellowman fellowmanhatr hatrgod godthoma thomajay jayoord oordargu argusever severbook bookaltruism altruismone onepossibl possiblform formlove lovealtruist altruistaction actionalway alwaylove loveaction actionoord oorddefin definaltruism altruismact act's 'sgood goodagre agrefeminist feministnote notesometim sometimlove loverequir requiract actone one's 'sgood good's 'sdemand demandundermin underminoveral overalwell-b well-bgerman germanphilosoph philosophmax maxscheler schelerdistinguish distinguishtwo twoway waystrong stronghelp helpweak weakone oneway waysincer sincerexpress expresschristian christianlove love`` ``motiv motivpower powerfeel feelsecur securstrength strengthinner innersalvat salvatinvinc invincfull fullone one’ ’life lifeexist exist'' ''anoth anothway waymere mere`` ``one onemani manimodern modernsubstitut substitutlove love... ...noth nothurg urgturn turnaway awayoneself oneselflose loseoneself oneselfpeopl peopl’ ’busi busi'' ''worst worstscheler schelersay say`` ``love lovesmall smallpoor poorweak weakoppress oppressrealli reallidisguis disguishatr hatrrepress repressenvi enviimpuls impulsdetract detractetc. etc.direct directopposit oppositphenomena phenomenawealth wealthstrength strengthpower powerlargess largess'' | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
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Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Islam.
In Islam, the concept 'ithaar' (إيثار) (altruism) is the notion of 'preferring others to oneself'. For Sufis, this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is rooted to be a demand made by ALLAH on the human body, considered to be property of ALLAH alone. The importance lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; Islam considers those practicing Eyaar as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.
This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike that European concept, in i'thar attention is focused on everything in existence. A constant concern for ALLAH (i.e. God) results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.
This concept was emphasized by Sufis of Islam like Rabia al-Adawiyya who paid attention to the difference between dedication to ALLAH (i.e. God) and dedication to people. Thirteenth-century Turkish Sufi poet Yunus Emre explained this philosophy as "Yaratılanı severiz, Yaratandan ötürü" or "We love the creature, because of The Creator." For many Muslims, i'thar must be practiced as a religious obligation during specific Islamic holidays. However, i'thar is also still an Islamic ideal to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times.
section:religi :religiviewpoints. viewpoints.islam islamislam islamconcept conceptithaar ithaarإيثار إيثارaltruism altruismnotion notionprefer preferother otheroneself oneselfsufi sufimean meandevot devotother othercomplet completforget forgetone one's 'sconcern concernconcern concernother otherroot rootdemand demandmade madeallah allahhuman humanbodi bodiconsid considproperti propertiallah allahalon alonimport importlie liesacrific sacrificsake sakegreater greatergood goodislam islamconsid considpractic practiceyaar eyaarabid abidhighest highestdegre degrenobil nobilsimilar similarnotion notionchivalri chivalriunlik unlikeuropean europeanconcept concepti'thar i'tharattent attentfocus focuseveryth everythexist existconstant constantconcern concernallah allahi.e i.egod godresult resultcare careattitud attitudtoward towardpeopl peoplanim animthing thingworld worldconcept conceptemphas emphassufi sufiislam islamlike likerabia rabiaal-adawiyya al-adawiyyapaid paidattent attentdiffer differdedic dedicallah allahi.e i.egod goddedic dedicpeopl peoplthirteenth-centuri thirteenth-centuriturkish turkishsufi sufipoet poetyunus yunusemr emrexplain explainphilosophi philosophi`` ``yaratılanı yaratılanıseveriz severizyaratandan yaratandanötürü ötürü'' ''`` ``love lovecreatur creaturcreator creator'' ''mani manimuslim muslimi'thar i'tharmust mustpractic practicreligi religioblig obligspecif specifislam islamholiday holidayhowev howevi'thar i'tharalso alsostill stillislam islamideal idealmuslim muslimstrive striveadher adhertime | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
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Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Judaism.
Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity. This is defined as bestowal, or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. Kabbalah defines God as the force of giving in existence. Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto in particular focused on the 'purpose of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this upper force.
Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, in his writings about the future generation, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework. Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to divinity.
section:religi :religiviewpoints. viewpoints.judaism judaismjudaism judaismdefin definaltruism altruismdesir desirgoal goalcreation creationfamous famousrabbi rabbiabraham abrahamisaac isaackook kookstate statelove loveimport importattribut attributhuman humandefin definbestow bestowgive giveintent intentaltruism altruismaltruism altruismtoward towardhuman humanlead leadaltruism altruismtoward towardcreator creatorgod godkabbalah kabbalahdefin defingod godforc forcgive giveexist existrabbi rabbimosh moshchaim chaimluzzatto luzzattoparticular particularfocus focuspurpos purposcreation creationgod godbring bringcreation creationperfect perfectadhes adhesupper upperforc forcmodern modernkabbalah kabbalahdevelop developrabbi rabbiyehuda yehudaashlag ashlagwrite writefutur futurgenerat generatfocus focussocieti societicould couldachiev achievaltruist altruistsocial socialframework frameworkashlag ashlagpropos proposframework frameworkpurpos purposcreation creationeveryth everythhappen happenrais raishuman humanlevel levelaltruism altruismlove loveone oneanoth anothashlag ashlagfocus focussocieti societirelat relatdivin | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-16 | Altruism
Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Sikhism.
Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities like love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, truthfulness. The concept of "seva," or selfless service to the community for its own sake is an important concept in Sikhism.
The fifth Nanak, Guru Arjun Dev, sacrificed his life to uphold 22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity, the Guru Granth. The ninth Guru, Tegh Bahadur, sacrificed his head to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity. In the late seventeenth century, Guru Gobind Singh Ji (the tenth guru in Sikhism), was in war with the Mughal rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, Bhai Kanhaiya, attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh Ji, and complained of his action that they considered counter-productive to their struggle on the battlefield."What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them," replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru."
It was under the tutelage of the Guru that Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism. This volunteer corps still to date is engaged in doing good to others and trains new volunteering recruits for doing the same.
section:religi :religiviewpoints. viewpoints.sikhism sikhismaltruism altruismessenti essentisikh sikhreligion religioncentral centralfaith faithsikhism sikhismgreatest greatestdeed deedone oneimbib imbiblive livegod godqualiti qualitilike likelove loveaffect affectsacrific sacrificpatienc patiencharmoni harmonitruth truthconcept concept`` ``seva seva'' ''selfless selflessservic serviccommuniti communitisake sakeimport importconcept conceptsikhism sikhismfifth fifthnanak nanakguru guruarjun arjundev devsacrif sacriflife lifeuphold uphold22 22carat caratpure puretruth truthgreatest greatestgift gifthuman humanguru gurugranth granthninth ninthguru gurutegh teghbahadur bahadursacrif sacrifhead headprotect protectweak weakdefenseless defenselesspeopl peoplatroc atroclate lateseventeenth seventeenthcenturi centuriguru gurugobind gobindsingh singhji jitenth tenthguru gurusikhism sikhismwar warmughal mughalruler rulerprotect protectpeopl peopldiffer differfaith faithfellow fellowsikh sikhbhai bhaikanhaiya kanhaiyaattend attendtroop troopenemi enemigave gavewater waterfriend friendfoe foewound woundbattlefield battlefieldenemi enemibegan beganfight fightsikh sikhwarrior warriorannoy annoybhai bhaikanhaiya kanhaiyahelp helpenemi enemisikh sikhsoldier soldierbrought broughtbhai bhaikanhaiya kanhaiyaguru gurugobind gobindsingh singhji jicomplain complainaction actionconsid considcounter-product counter-productstruggl strugglbattlefield battlefield`` ``'' ''ask askguru guru`` ``give givewater waterwound woundsaw sawface face'' ''repli replibhai bhaikanhaiya kanhaiyaguru gururespond respond`` ``also alsogive giveointment ointmentheal healwound woundpractic practiccoach coachhous housguru guru'' ''tutelag tutelagguru gurubhai bhaikanhaiya kanhaiyasubsequ subsequfound foundvolunt voluntcorp corpaltruism altruismvolunt voluntcorp corpstill stilldate dateengag engaggood goodother othertrain trainnew newvolunt voluntrecruit | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-17 | Altruism
Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Hinduism.
In Hinduism Selflessness (Atmatyag), Love (Prema), Kindness (Daya) and Forgiveness (Kshama) are considered as the highest acts of humanity or "Manushyattva". Giving alms to the beggers or poor people is considered as a divine act or "Punya" and Hindus believe it will free their souls from guilt or "Paapa" and will led them to heaven or "Swarga" in afterlife. Altruism is also the central act of various Hindu mythology and religious poems and songs.
Swami Vivekananda, the legendary Hindu monk, has said -"Jive prem kare jeijon, Seijon sebiche Iswar" (Whoever loves any living being, is serving god.). Mass donation of clothes to poor people (Vastraseva), or blood donation camp or mass food donation (Annaseva) for poor people is common in various Hindu religious ceremonies.
Swami Sivananda, an Advaita scholar, reiterates the views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the Brahma Sutras, a Vedantic text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that karma generates apurva or punya, which gives fruit. Since apurva is non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment.
However the very well known and popular text, the Bhagavad Gita supports the doctrine of karma yoga (achieving oneness with God through action) & "nishkaama karma" or action without expectation / desire for personal gain which can be said to encompass altruism. Altruistic acts are generally celebrated and very well received in Hindu literature and is central to Hindu morality.
section:religi :religiviewpoints. viewpoints.hinduism hinduismhinduism hinduismselfless selflessatmatyag atmatyaglove loveprema premakind kinddaya dayaforgiv forgivkshama kshamaconsid considhighest highestact acthuman human`` ``manushyattva manushyattva'' ''give givealm almbegger beggerpoor poorpeopl peoplconsid considdivin divinact act`` ``punya punya'' ''hindus hindusbeliev believfree freesoul soulguilt guilt`` ``paapa paapa'' ''led ledheaven heaven`` ``swarga swarga'' ''afterlif afterlifaltruism altruismalso alsocentral centralact actvarious varioushindu hindumytholog mythologreligi religipoem poemsong songswami swamivivekananda vivekanandalegendari legendarihindu hindumonk monksaid said'' ''jive jiveprem premkare karejeijon jeijonseijon seijonsebich sebichiswar iswar'' ''whoever whoeverlove lovelive liveserv servgod. god.mass massdonat donatcloth clothpoor poorpeopl peoplvastraseva vastrasevablood blooddonat donatcamp campmass massfood fooddonat donatannaseva annasevapoor poorpeopl peoplcommon commonvarious varioushindu hindureligi religiceremoni ceremoniswami swamisivananda sivanandaadvaita advaitascholar scholarreiter reiterview viewcommentari commentarisynthesis synthesisvedanta vedantaview viewbrahma brahmasutra sutravedant vedanttext textcommentari commentarichapter chapter3 3brahma brahmasutra sutrasivananda sivanandanote notekarma karmainsenti insentishort-liv short-livceas ceasexist existsoon soondeed deedexecut executhenc henckarma karmabestow bestowfruit fruitaction actionfutur futurdate dateaccord accordone one's 'smerit meritfurthermor furthermorone oneargu argukarma karmagenerat generatapurva apurvapunya punyagive givefruit fruitsinc sincapurva apurvanon-senti non-sentiact actunless unlessmove moveintellig intelliggod godindepend independbestow bestowreward rewardpunish punishhowev howevwell wellknown knownpopular populartext textbhagavad bhagavadgita gitasupport supportdoctrin doctrinkarma karmayoga yogaachiev achievone onegod godaction action`` ``nishkaama nishkaamakarma karma'' ''action actionwithout withoutexpect expectdesir desirperson persongain gainsaid saidencompass encompassaltruism altruismaltruist altruistact actgeneral generalcelebr celebrwell wellreceiv receivhindu hinduliteratur literaturcentral centralhindu hindumoral | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-18 | Altruism
Section::::Philosophy.
There exists a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of ethical altruism maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is ethical egoism, which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with utilitarianism, which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants.
A related concept in descriptive ethics is psychological egoism, the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. Rational egoism is the view that rationality consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations).
section:philosophi :philosophiexist existwide widerang rangphilosoph philosophview viewhuman humanoblig obligmotiv motivact actaltruist altruistpropon proponethic ethicaltruism altruismmaintain maintainindividu individumoral moraloblig obligact actaltruist altruistoppos opposview viewethic ethicegoism egoismmaintain maintainmoral moralagent agentalway alwayact actself-interest self-interestethic ethicaltruism altruismethic ethicegoism egoismcontrast contrastutilitarian utilitarianmaintain maintainagent agentact actorder ordermaximis maximisefficaci efficacifunction functionbenefit benefitco-inhabit co-inhabitrelat relatconcept conceptdescript descriptethic ethicpsycholog psychologegoism egoismthesi thesihuman humanalway alwayact actself-interest self-interesttrue truealtruism altruismimposs impossration rationegoism egoismview viewration rationconsist consistact actone one's 'sself-interest self-interestwithout withoutspecifi specifiaffect affectone one's 'smoral moraloblig | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-19 | Altruism
Section::::Genetics.
The genes OXTR, CD38, COMT, DRD4, DRD5, IGF2, GABRB2 have been found to be candidate genes for altruism.
section:genet :genetgene geneoxtr oxtrcd38 cd38comt comtdrd4 drd4drd5 drd5igf2 igf2gabrb2 gabrb2found foundcandid candidgene genealtruism | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-20 | Altruism
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Altruria
BULLET::::- Charity (practice)
BULLET::::- Charitable organization
BULLET::::- Comedy of the commons
BULLET::::- Consideration
BULLET::::- Earning to give
BULLET::::- Effective altruism
BULLET::::- Egotism
BULLET::::- Empathy
BULLET::::- Empathy-altruism
BULLET::::- Family economics
BULLET::::- Gene-centered view of evolution
BULLET::::- Giving Pledge, pledge by Gates, Buffett and others to donate to charity at least half of their wealth
BULLET::::- Inclusive fitness
BULLET::::- Group selection
BULLET::::- Humanity (virtue)
BULLET::::- Kin selection
BULLET::::- Misanthropy
BULLET::::- Mutual aid
BULLET::::- Non nobis solum
BULLET::::- Philanthropy
BULLET::::- Prisoner's dilemma
BULLET::::- Prosocial behavior
BULLET::::- Random act of kindness
BULLET::::- Reciprocal altruism
BULLET::::- Selfishness
BULLET::::- Social psychology
BULLET::::- Solidarity (sociology)
BULLET::::- Spite
BULLET::::- Tit for tat
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-altruria altruriabullet bullet:- :-chariti charitipractic practicbullet bullet:- :-charit charitorgan organbullet bullet:- :-comedi comedicommon commonbullet bullet:- :-consider considerbullet bullet:- :-earn earngive givebullet bullet:- :-effect effectaltruism altruismbullet bullet:- :-egot egotbullet bullet:- :-empathi empathibullet bullet:- :-empathy-altru empathy-altrubullet bullet:- :-famili familieconom econombullet bullet:- :-gene-cent gene-centview viewevolut evolutbullet bullet:- :-give givepledg pledgpledg pledggate gatebuffett buffettother otherdonat donatchariti charitileast leasthalf halfwealth wealthbullet bullet:- :-inclus inclusfit fitbullet bullet:- :-group groupselect selectbullet bullet:- :-human humanvirtu virtubullet bullet:- :-kin kinselect selectbullet bullet:- :-misanthropi misanthropibullet bullet:- :-mutual mutualaid aidbullet bullet:- :-non nonnobi nobisolum solumbullet bullet:- :-philanthropi philanthropibullet bullet:- :-prison prison's 'sdilemma dilemmabullet bullet:- :-prosoci prosocibehavior behaviorbullet bullet:- :-random randomact actkind kindbullet bullet:- :-reciproc reciprocaltruism altruismbullet bullet:- :-selfish selfishbullet bullet:- :-social socialpsycholog psychologbullet bullet:- :-solidar solidarsociolog sociologbullet bullet:- :-spite spitebullet bullet:- :-tit tittat | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-21 | Altruism
Section::::References.
BULLET::::- Comte, Auguste, "Catechisme positiviste" (1852) or "Catechism of Positivism", tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891)
BULLET::::- Kropotkin, Peter, "" (1902)
BULLET::::- Nietzsche, Friedrich, "Beyond Good and Evil"
BULLET::::- Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, "The Philosophy of Poverty" (1847)
BULLET::::- Lysander Spooner, "Natural Law"
BULLET::::- Matt Ridley, "The Origins of Virtue"
BULLET::::- Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995.
section:refer :referbullet bullet:- :-comt comtaugust august`` ``catechism catechismpositivist positivist'' ''1852 1852`` ``catech catechpositiv positiv'' ''tr trr. r.congrev congrevlondon londonkegan keganpaul paul1891 1891bullet bullet:- :-kropotkin kropotkinpeter peter`` ``'' ''1902 1902bullet bullet:- :-nietzsch nietzschfriedrich friedrich`` ``beyond beyondgood goodevil evil'' ''bullet bullet:- :-pierre-joseph pierre-josephproudhon proudhon`` ``philosophi philosophipoverti poverti'' ''1847 1847bullet bullet:- :-lysand lysandspooner spooner`` ``natur naturlaw law'' ''bullet bullet:- :-matt mattridley ridley`` ``origin originvirtu virtu'' ''bullet bullet:- :-olin olinsamuel samuelp. p.pearl pearlm. m.toward towardcare caresocieti societiidea ideaaction actionwest westport portct ctpraeger praeger1995 | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
336-22 | Altruism
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Richard Kraut (2016) Altruism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-richard richardkraut kraut2016 2016altruism altruismstanford stanfordencyclopedia encyclopediaphilosophi | 336 | Altruism | Social philosophy,Morality,Altruism,Philanthropy,Evolutionary psychology,Defence mechanisms,Moral psychology,Interpersonal relationships,Auguste Comte |
580-1 | Astronomer
An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets, and galaxies – in either observational (by analyzing the data) or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. Related but distinct subjects like physical cosmology, which studies the Universe as a whole.
Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use these data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work.
Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy, or physical cosmology.
astronomscientist scientistfield fieldastronomi astronomifocus focusstudi studispecif specifquestion questionfield fieldoutsid outsidscope scopeearth earthobserv observastronom astronomobject objectstar starplanet planetmoon mooncomet cometgalaxi galaxi– –either eitherobserv observanalyz analyzdata datatheoret theoretastronomi astronomiexampl exampltopic topicfield fieldastronom astronomstudi studiinclud includplanetari planetariscienc sciencsolar solarastronomi astronomiorigin originevolut evolutstar starformat formatgalaxi galaxirelat relatdistinct distinctsubject subjectlike likephysic physiccosmolog cosmologstudi studiunivers universwhole wholeastronom astronomusual usualfall falleither eithertwo twomain maintype typeobserv observtheoret theoretobserv observastronom astronommake makedirect directobserv observcelesti celestiobject objectanalyz analyzdata datacontrast contrasttheoret theoretastronom astronomcreat creatinvestig investigmodel modelthing thingobserv observtake takemillion millionbillion billionyear yearsystem systemstar stargalaxi galaxicomplet completlife lifecycl cyclastronom astronommust mustobserv observsnapshot snapshotdiffer differsystem systemuniqu uniqupoint pointevolut evolutdetermin determinform formevolv evolvdie dieuse usedata datacreat creatmodel modelsimul simultheoriz theorizdiffer differcelesti celestiobject objectwork worksubcategori subcategoritwo twomain mainbranch branchastronomi astronomiinclud includplanetari planetariastronomi astronomigalact galactastronomi astronomiphysic physiccosmolog | 580 | Astronomer | Astronomers,Astronomy |
580-2 | Astronomer
Section::::Academic.
Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms "astronomer" and "astrophysicist" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a Ph.D. in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory.
The number of professional astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The American Astronomical Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the Ph.D. level and beyond.
Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over time. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers' time.
Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field.
Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in maths, sciences and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable. In college/university most astronomers get a Ph.D. in astronomy or physics.
section:academ :academhistor historastronomi astronomiconcern concernclassif classifdescript descriptphenomena phenomenasky skyastrophys astrophysattempt attemptexplain explainphenomena phenomenadiffer differuse usephysic physiclaw lawtoday todaydistinct distinctmost mostdisappear disappearterm term`` ``astronom astronom'' ''`` ``astrophysicist astrophysicist'' ''interchang interchangprofession professionastronom astronomhigh higheduc educindividu individutypic typicph.d. ph.d.physic physicastronomi astronomiemploy employresearch researchinstitut institutunivers universspend spendmajor majortime timework workresearch researchalthough althoughquit quitoften oftenduti dutiteach teachbuild buildinstrument instrumentaid aidoper operobservatori observatorinumber numberprofession professionastronom astronomunit unitstate stateactual actualquit quitsmall smallamerican americanastronom astronomsocieti societimajor majororgan organprofession professionastronom astronomnorth northamerica americaapproxim approxim7,000 7,000member membernumber numberinclud includscientist scientistfield fieldphysic physicgeolog geologengin enginwhose whoseresearch researchinterest interestclose closerelat relatastronomi astronomiintern internastronom astronomunion unioncompris comprisalmost almost10,145 10,145member member70 70differ differcountri countriinvolv involvastronom astronomresearch researchph.d. ph.d.level levelbeyond beyondcontrari contrariclassic classicimag imagold oldastronom astronompeer peertelescop telescopdark darkhour hournight nightfar farcommon commonuse usecharge-coupl charge-coupldevic devicccd ccdcamera camerarecord recordlong longdeep deepexposur exposurallow allowsensit sensitimag imagcreat creatlight lightad adtime timeccds ccdsphotograph photographplate platecommon commonmethod methodobserv observmodern modernastronom astronomspend spendrelat relatlittl littltime timetelescop telescopusual usualweek weekper peryear yearanalysi analysiobserv observphenomena phenomenaalong alongmake makepredict predictcaus causobserv observtake takemajor majorobserv observastronom astronomtime timeastronom astronomserv servfaculti facultispend spendmuch muchtime timeteach teachundergradu undergradugraduat graduatclass classunivers universalso alsooutreach outreachprogram programinclud includpublic publictelescop telescoptime timesometim sometimplanetarium planetariumpublic publicservic servicencourag encouraginterest interestfield fieldbecom becomastronom astronomusual usualbroad broadbackground backgroundmath mathscienc scienccomput computhigh highschool schooltake takecours coursteach teachresearch researchwrite writepresent presentpaper paperalso alsoinvalu invalucollege/univers college/universastronom astronomget getph.d. ph.d.astronomi astronomiphysic | 580 | Astronomer | Astronomers,Astronomy |
580-3 | Astronomer
Section::::Amateur astronomers.
While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers, the field is popular among amateurs. Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host star parties. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations. Like any hobby, most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to stargazing and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from so-called "armchair astronomers" to the very ambitious, who own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research.
section:amateur :amateurastronom astronomrelat relatlow lownumber numberprofession professionastronom astronomfield fieldpopular popularamong amongamateur amateurciti citiamateur amateurastronomi astronomiclub clubmeet meetregular regularbasi basioften oftenhost hoststar starparti partiastronom astronomsocieti societipacif paciflargest largestgeneral generalastronom astronomsocieti societiworld worldcompris comprisprofession professionamateur amateurastronom astronomwell welleduc educ70 70differ differnation nationlike likehobbi hobbipeopl peoplthink thinkamateur amateurastronom astronommay maydevot devothour hourmonth monthstargaz stargazread readlatest latestdevelop developresearch researchhowev howevamateur amateurspan spanrang rangso-cal so-cal`` ``armchair armchairastronom astronom'' ''ambiti ambitiscience-grad science-gradtelescop telescopinstrument instrumentabl ablmake makediscoveri discoveriassist assistprofession professionastronom astronomresearch | 580 | Astronomer | Astronomers,Astronomy |
580-4 | Astronomer
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- List of astronomers
BULLET::::- List of women astronomers
BULLET::::- List of Muslim astronomers
BULLET::::- List of French astronomers
BULLET::::- List of Hungarian astronomers
BULLET::::- List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists
BULLET::::- List of Slovenian astronomers
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-list listastronom astronombullet bullet:- :-list listwomen womenastronom astronombullet bullet:- :-list listmuslim muslimastronom astronombullet bullet:- :-list listfrench frenchastronom astronombullet bullet:- :-list listhungarian hungarianastronom astronombullet bullet:- :-list listrussian russianastronom astronomastrophysicist astrophysicistbullet bullet:- :-list listslovenian slovenianastronom | 580 | Astronomer | Astronomers,Astronomy |
580-5 | Astronomer
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- American Astronomical Society
BULLET::::- European Astronomical Society
BULLET::::- International Astronomical Union
BULLET::::- Astronomical Society of the Pacific
BULLET::::- Space's astronomy news
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-american americanastronom astronomsocieti societibullet bullet:- :-european europeanastronom astronomsocieti societibullet bullet:- :-intern internastronom astronomunion unionbullet bullet:- :-astronom astronomsocieti societipacif pacifbullet bullet:- :-space space's 'sastronomi astronominews | 580 | Astronomer | Astronomers,Astronomy |
324-1 | Academy Awards
The Academy Awards, also officially and popularly known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit in the film industry. Given annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), the awards are an international recognition of excellence in cinematic achievements as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette, officially called the "Academy Award of Merit", although more commonly referred to by its nickname "Oscar". The statuette depicts a knight rendered in Art Deco style.
The award was originally sculpted by George Stanley from a design sketch by Cedric Gibbons. AMPAS first presented it in 1929 at a private dinner hosted by Douglas Fairbanks in the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. The Academy Awards ceremony was first broadcast on radio in 1930 and televised for the first time in 1953. It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and is now seen live worldwide. Its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music – are modeled after the Academy Awards.
The 91st Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2018, was held on February 24, 2019, at the Dolby Theatre, in Los Angeles, California. The ceremony was broadcast on ABC. A total of 3,096 Oscar statuettes have been awarded from the inception of the award through the 91st ceremony. It was the first ceremony since 1989 without a host.
academiaward awardalso alsooffici officipopular popularknown knownoscar oscaraward awardartist artisttechnic technicmerit meritfilm filmindustri industrigiven givenannual annualacademi academimotion motionpictur picturart artscienc sciencampa ampaaward awardintern internrecognit recognitexcel excelcinemat cinematachiev achievassess assessacademi academi's 'svote votemembership membershipvarious variouscategori categoriwinner winneraward awardcopi copigolden goldenstatuett statuettoffici officicall call`` ``academi academiaward awardmerit merit'' ''although althoughcommon commonrefer refernicknam nicknam`` ``oscar oscar'' ''statuett statuettdepict depictknight knightrender renderart artdeco decostyle styleaward awardorigin originsculpt sculptgeorg georgstanley stanleydesign designsketch sketchcedric cedricgibbon gibbonampa ampafirst firstpresent present1929 1929privat privatdinner dinnerhost hostdougla douglafairbank fairbankhollywood hollywoodroosevelt roosevelthotel hotelacademi academiaward awardceremoni ceremonifirst firstbroadcast broadcastradio radio1930 1930televis televisfirst firsttime time1953 1953oldest oldestworldwid worldwidentertain entertainaward awardceremoni ceremoniseen seenlive liveworldwid worldwidequival equival– –emmi emmiaward awardtelevis televistoni toniaward awardtheater theatergrammi grammiaward awardmusic music– –model modelacademi academiaward award91st 91stacademi academiaward awardceremoni ceremonihonor honorbest bestfilm film2018 2018held heldfebruari februari24 242019 2019dolbi dolbitheatr theatrlos losangel angelcalifornia californiaceremoni ceremonibroadcast broadcastabc abctotal total3,096 3,096oscar oscarstatuett statuettaward awardincept inceptaward award91st 91stceremoni ceremonifirst firstceremoni ceremonisinc sinc1989 1989without withouthost | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-2 | Academy Awards
Section::::History.
The first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner function at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people.
The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel. The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5 ($ in dollars). Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time, for their works during the 1927–28 period. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes.
Winners were announced to media three months earlier. That was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00 pm on the night of the awards. This method was used until an occasion when the "Los Angeles Times" announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has, since 1941, used a sealed envelope to reveal the name of the winners.
section:histori :historifirst firstacademi academiaward awardpresent presentheld heldmay may16 161929 1929privat privatdinner dinnerfunction functionhollywood hollywoodroosevelt roosevelthotel hotelaudienc audienc270 270peopl peoplpost-award post-awardparti partiheld heldmayfair mayfairhotel hotelcost costguest guestticket ticketnight night's 'sceremoni ceremoni5 5dollar dollarfifteen fifteenstatuett statuettaward awardhonor honorartist artistdirector directorparticip participfilm-mak film-makindustri industritime timework work1927–28 1927–28period periodceremoni ceremoniran ran15 15minut minutwinner winnerannounc announcmedia mediathree threemonth monthearlier earlierchang changsecond secondceremoni ceremoni1930 1930sinc sincrest restfirst firstdecad decadresult resultgiven givennewspap newspappublic public11:00 11:00pm pmnight nightaward awardmethod methoduse useoccas occas`` ``los losangel angeltime time'' ''announc announcwinner winnerceremoni ceremonibegan beganresult resultacademi academisinc sinc1941 1941use useseal sealenvelop envelopreveal revealname namewinner | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-3 | Academy Awards
Section::::History.:Institutions.
The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in "The Last Command" and "The Way of All Flesh". He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. At that time, the winners were recognized for all of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period, and Janet Gaynor later won a single Oscar for performances in three films. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years.
At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27, 1957, the Best Foreign Language Film category was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award.
The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.
Since 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the Academy Award for Best Picture.
Traditionally, the previous year's winner for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor present the awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, while the previous year's winner for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress present the awards for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor.
section:history. :history.institut institutfirst firstbest bestactor actoraward awardemil emiljan janperform perform`` ``last lastcommand command'' ''`` ``way wayflesh flesh'' ''return returneurop europceremoni ceremoniacademi academiagre agregive giveprize prizeearlier earliermade madefirst firstacademi academiaward awardwinner winnerhistori historitime timewinner winnerrecogn recognwork workdone donecertain certaincategori categoriqualifi qualifiperiod periodexampl exampljan janreceiv receivaward awardtwo twomovi movistar starperiod periodjanet janetgaynor gaynorlater latersingl singloscar oscarperform performthree threefilm filmfourth fourthceremoni ceremonihowev howevsystem systemchang changprofession professionhonor honorspecif specifperform performsingl singlfilm filmfirst firstsix sixceremoni ceremonielig eligperiod periodspan spantwo twocalendar calendaryear year29th 29thceremoni ceremoniheld heldmarch march27 271957 1957best bestforeign foreignlanguag languagfilm filmcategori categoriintroduc introducforeign-languag foreign-languagfilm filmhonor honorspecial specialachiev achievaward award74th 74thacademi academiaward awardheld held2002 2002present presentfirst firstacademi academiaward awardbest bestanim animfeatur featursinc sinc1973 1973academi academiaward awardceremoni ceremoniend endacademi academiaward awardbest bestpictur picturtradit traditprevious previousyear year's 'swinner winnerbest bestactor actorbest bestsupport supportactor actorpresent presentaward awardbest bestactress actressbest bestsupport supportactress actressprevious previousyear year's 'swinner winnerbest bestactress actressbest bestsupport supportactress actresspresent presentaward awardbest bestactor actorbest bestsupport supportactor | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-4 | Academy Awards
Section::::Oscar statuette.
section:oscar :oscarstatuett | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-5 | Academy Awards
Section::::Oscar statuette.:Academy Award of Merit (Oscar statuette).
The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated bronze on a black metal base, it is 13.5 in (34.3 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lb (3.856 kg), and depicts a knight rendered in Art Deco style holding a crusader's sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians.
The model for the statuette is said to be Mexican actor Emilio "El Indio" Fernández. Sculptor George Stanley (who also did the Muse Fountain at the Hollywood Bowl) sculpted Cedric Gibbons' design. The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years, the bronze was abandoned in favor of Britannia metal, a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold. Due to a metal shortage during World War II, Oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. Following the war, the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold-plated metal ones. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W. Shumway & Sons Foundry in Batavia, Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the Vince Lombardi Trophy and Emmy Award's statuettes. From 1983 to 2015, approximately 50 Oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer R.S. Owens & Company. It would take between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes. In 2016, the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to Walden, New York-based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry. While based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from 3D-printed ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by Brooklyn, New York–based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly three months. R.S. Owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the Academy and service existing Oscars that need replating.
section:oscar :oscarstatuett statuettacademi academiaward awardmerit meritoscar oscarstatuett statuettbest bestknown knownaward awardacademi academiaward awardmerit meritpopular popularknown knownoscar oscarstatuett statuettmade madegold-plat gold-platbronz bronzblack blackmetal metalbase base13.5 13.534.3 34.3cm cmtall tallweigh weigh8.5 8.5lb lb3.856 3.856kg kgdepict depictknight knightrender renderart artdeco decostyle stylehold holdcrusad crusad's 'ssword swordstand standreel reelfilm filmfive fivespoke spokefive fivespoke spokerepres represorigin originbranch branchacademi academiactor actorwriter writerdirector directorproduc productechnician technicianmodel modelstatuett statuettsaid saidmexican mexicanactor actoremilio emilio`` ``el elindio indio'' ''fernández fernándezsculptor sculptorgeorg georgstanley stanleyalso alsomuse musefountain fountainhollywood hollywoodbowl bowlsculpt sculptcedric cedricgibbon gibbondesign designstatuett statuettpresent presentiniti initiceremoni ceremonigold-plat gold-platsolid solidbronz bronzwithin withinyear yearbronz bronzabandon abandonfavor favorbritannia britanniametal metalpewter-lik pewter-likalloy alloyplate platecopper coppernickel nickelsilver silverfinal final24-karat 24-karatgold golddue duemetal metalshortag shortagworld worldwar warii iioscar oscarmade madepaint paintplaster plasterthree threeyear yearfollow followwar waracademi academiinvit invitrecipi recipiredeem redeemplaster plasterfigur figurgold-plat gold-platmetal metalone oneaddit additoscar oscarsinc sinccreat creatminor minorstreamlin streamlinbase baseorigin originoscar oscarmold moldcast cast1928 1928c.w c.wshumway shumwayson sonfoundri foundribatavia bataviaillinoi illinoialso alsocontribut contributcast castmold moldvinc vinclombardi lombarditrophi trophiemmi emmiaward award's 'sstatuett statuett1983 19832015 2015approxim approxim50 50oscar oscartin tinalloy alloygold goldplate platemade madeyear yearchicago chicagoillinoi illinoimanufactur manufacturr.s r.sowen owencompani companiwould wouldtake takethree threefour fourweek weekmanufactur manufactur50 50statuett statuett2016 2016academi academireturn returnbronz bronzcore coremetal metalstatuett statuetthand handmanufactur manufacturduti dutiwalden waldennew newyork-bas york-baspolich polichtallix tallixfine fineart artfoundri foundribase basedigit digitscan scanorigin origin1929 1929oscar oscarstatuett statuettretain retainmodern-era modern-eradimens dimensblack blackpedest pedestcast castliquid liquidbronz bronz3d-print 3d-printceram cerammold moldpolish polishelectropl electropl24-karat 24-karatgold goldbrooklyn brooklynnew newyork–bas york–basepner epnertechnolog technologtime timerequir requirproduc produc50 50statuett statuettrough roughthree threemonth monthr.s r.sowen owenexpect expectcontinu continuproduc producaward awardacademi academiservic servicexist existoscar oscarneed needreplat | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-6 | Academy Awards
Section::::Oscar statuette.:Naming.
The origin of the name "Oscar" is disputed. The Academy officially adopted the name "Oscar" for the trophies in 1939.
One biography of Bette Davis, who was a president of the Academy in 1941, claims she named the award after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson. A frequently-mentioned originator is Margaret Herrick, the Academy executive secretary, who, when she first saw the award in 1931, said the statuette reminded her of "Uncle Oscar", a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce.
Columnist Sidney Skolsky, who was present during Herrick's naming in 1931, wrote that "Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar.'" The Academy credits Skolsky with "the first confirmed newspaper reference" to "Oscar" in his column on March 16, 1934, which was about that year's 6th Academy Awards. The 1934 awards appeared again in another early media mention of "Oscar": a "Time" magazine story. In the ceremonies that year, Walter Elias Disney thanked the Academy for his "Oscar".
section:oscar :oscarstatuette. statuette.name nameorigin originname name`` ``oscar oscar'' ''disput disputacademi academioffici officiadopt adoptname name`` ``oscar oscar'' ''trophi trophi1939 1939one onebiographi biographibett bettdavi davipresid presidacademi academi1941 1941claim claimname nameaward awardfirst firsthusband husbandband bandleader leaderharmon harmonoscar oscarnelson nelsonfrequently-ment frequently-mentorigin originmargaret margaretherrick herrickacademi academiexecut executsecretari secretarifirst firstsaw sawaward award1931 1931said saidstatuett statuettremind remind`` ``uncl uncloscar oscar'' ''nicknam nicknamcousin cousinoscar oscarpierc pierccolumnist columnistsidney sidneyskolski skolskipresent presentherrick herrick's 'sname name1931 1931wrote wrote`` ``employe employeaffection affectiondub dubfamous famousstatuett statuettoscar oscar'' ''academi academicredit creditskolski skolski`` ``first firstconfirm confirmnewspap newspaprefer refer'' ''`` ``oscar oscar'' ''column columnmarch march16 161934 1934year year's 's6th 6thacademi academiaward award1934 1934award awardappear appearanoth anothearli earlimedia mediamention mention`` ``oscar oscar'' ''`` ``time time'' ''magazin magazinstori storiceremoni ceremoniyear yearwalter walterelia eliadisney disneythank thankacademi academi`` ``oscar oscar'' | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-7 | Academy Awards
Section::::Oscar statuette.:Engraving.
To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners returned their statuettes to the Academy, and had to wait several weeks to have their names inscribed on their respective Oscars. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made before the ceremony, bearing the name of every potential winner. The nameplates for the non-winning nominees are later recycled.
section:oscar :oscarstatuette. statuette.engrav engravprevent preventinform informidentifi identifioscar oscarwinner winnerleak leakahead aheadceremoni ceremonioscar oscarstatuett statuettpresent presentceremoni ceremoniblank blankbasepl basepl2010 2010winner winnerreturn returnstatuett statuettacademi academiwait waitsever severweek weekname nameinscrib inscribrespect respectoscar oscarsinc sinc2010 2010winner winneroption optionengrav engravnamepl nameplappli applistatuett statuettinscription-process inscription-processstation stationgovernor governor's 'sball ballparti partiheld heldimmedi immedioscar oscarceremoni ceremonir.s r.sowen owencompani companiengrav engravnamepl nameplmade madeceremoni ceremonibear bearname nameeveri everipotenti potentiwinner winnernamepl nameplnon-win non-winnomine nominelater laterrecycl | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-8 | Academy Awards
Section::::Oscar statuette.:Ownership of Oscar statuettes.
Since 1950, the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that neither winners nor their heirs may sell the statuettes without first offering to sell them back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards not protected by this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums. In December 2011, Orson Welles' 1941 Oscar for "Citizen Kane" (Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy. On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542.
In 1992, Harold Russell needed money for his wife's medical expenses. In a controversial decision, he consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for "The Best Years of Our Lives" to Herman Darvick Autograph Auctions, and on August 6, 1992, in New York City, the Oscar sold to a private collector for $60,500. Since he won the award before 1950, he was not required to offer it to the Academy first. Russell defended his decision, saying, "I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here, even if Oscar isn't." Harold Russell is the only Academy Award-winning actor to ever sell an Oscar.
While the Oscar is owned by the recipient, it is essentially not on the open market. Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Oscar statuette to a movie prop collector in 1989, but the Academy won the legal battle by getting a permanent injunction. Although some Oscar sales transactions have been successful, some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.
section:oscar :oscarstatuett statuettownership ownershiposcar oscarstatuett statuettsinc sinc1950 1950statuett statuettlegal legalencumb encumbrequir requirneither neitherwinner winnerheir heirmay maysell sellstatuett statuettwithout withoutfirst firstoffer offersell sellback backacademi academius us1 1winner winnerrefus refusagre agrestipul stipulacademi academikeep keepstatuett statuettacademi academiaward awardprotect protectagreement agreementsold soldpublic publicauction auctionprivat privatdeal dealsix-figur six-figursum sumdecemb decemb2011 2011orson orsonwell well1941 1941oscar oscar`` ``citizen citizenkane kane'' ''academi academiaward awardbest bestorigin originscreenplay screenplayput putauction auctionheir heir2004 2004court courtdecis deciscontend contendwell wellsign signagreement agreementreturn returnstatu statuacademi academidecemb decemb20 202011 2011sold soldonlin onlinauction auctionus us861,542 861,5421992 1992harold haroldrussel russelneed needmoney moneywife wife's 'smedic medicexpens expenscontroversi controversidecis decisconsign consign1946 1946oscar oscarbest bestsupport supportactor actor`` ``best bestyear yearlive live'' ''herman hermandarvick darvickautograph autographauction auctionaugust august6 61992 1992new newyork yorkciti citioscar oscarsold soldprivat privatcollector collector60,500 60,500sinc sincaward award1950 1950requir requiroffer offeracademi academifirst firstrussel russeldefend defenddecis decissay say`` ``n't n'tknow knowanybodi anybodiwould wouldcritic criticwife wife's 'shealth healthmuch muchimport importsentiment sentimentreason reasonmovi movieven evenoscar oscarn't n't'' ''harold haroldrussel russelacademi academiaward-win award-winactor actorever eversell selloscar oscaroscar oscarown ownrecipi recipiessenti essentiopen openmarket marketmichael michaeltodd todd's 'sgrandson grandsontri trisell selltodd todd's 'soscar oscarstatuett statuettmovi moviprop propcollector collector1989 1989academi academilegal legalbattl battlget getperman permaninjunct injunctalthough althoughoscar oscarsale saletransact transactsuccess successbuyer buyersubsequ subsequreturn returnstatuett statuettacademi academikeep keeptreasuri | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-9 | Academy Awards
Section::::Oscar statuette.:Other awards presented by the Academy.
In addition to the Academy Award of Merit (Oscar award), there are nine honorary (non-competitive) awards presented by the Academy from time to time (except for the Academy Honorary Award, the Technical Achievement Award, and the Student Academy Awards, which are presented annually):
BULLET::::- Governors Awards:
BULLET::::- The Academy Honorary Award (annual) (which may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette);
BULLET::::- The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (since 1938) (in the form of a bust of Thalberg);
BULLET::::- The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (since 1957) (in the form of an Oscar statuette);
BULLET::::- The Academy Scientific and Technical Awards:
BULLET::::- Academy Award of Merit (non-competitive) (in the form of an Oscar statuette);
BULLET::::- Scientific and Engineering Award (in the form of a bronze tablet);
BULLET::::- Technical Achievement Award (annual) (in the form of a certificate);
BULLET::::- The John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation (since 1978) (in the form of a medal);
BULLET::::- The Gordon E. Sawyer Award (since 1982); and
BULLET::::- The Academy Student Academy Awards (annual).
The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting.
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324-10 | Academy Awards
Section::::Nomination.
Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in mid-January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February.
section:nomin :nominsinc sinc2004 2004academi academiaward awardnomin nominresult resultannounc announcpublic publicmid-januari mid-januariprior priorresult resultannounc announcearli earlifebruari | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-11 | Academy Awards
Section::::Nomination.:Voters.
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of over 8,000 .
Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers (and its predecessor Price Waterhouse) for the past 83 annual awards ceremonies. The firm mails the ballots of eligible nominees to members of the Academy in December to reflect the previous eligible year with a due date sometime in January of the next year, then tabulates the votes in a process that takes thousands of hours.
All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contributions to the field of motion pictures.
New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then.
In 2012, the results of a study conducted by the "Los Angeles Times" were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%).
In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting would be implemented in 2013.
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324-12 | Academy Awards
Section::::Nomination.:Rules.
According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in Los Angeles County, California, and play for seven consecutive days, to qualify (except for the Best Foreign Language Film, Best Documentary Feature, and Best Documentary Short Subject).
The Best Foreign Language Film award does not require a U.S. release. It requires the film to be submitted as its country's official selection.
The Best Documentary Feature award requires either week-long releases in both Los Angeles County and New York City during the previous calendar year, or a qualifying award at a competitive film festival from the Documentary Feature Qualifying Festival list (regardless of any public exhibition or distribution), or a submission in the Foreign Language Film category as its country's official selection.
The Best Documentary Short Subject award has noticeably different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards. First, the qualifying period for release does not coincide with a calendar year, instead covering a one-year period starting on September 1 and ending on August 31 of the calendar year before the ceremony. Second, there are multiple methods of qualification. The main method is a week-long theatrical release in "either" Los Angeles County "or" New York City during the eligibility period. Films also can qualify by winning specified awards at one of a number of competitive film festivals designated by the Academy. Finally, a film that is selected as a gold, silver, or bronze medal winner in the Documentary category of the immediately previous Student Academy Awards is also eligible.
For example, the 2009 Best Picture winner, "The Hurt Locker", was actually first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the 2008 awards, as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the 2009 awards. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film per year.
Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40 minutes, except for short-subject awards, and it must exist either on a 35 mm or 70 mm film print or in 24 frame/s or 48 frame/s progressive scan digital cinema format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 by 1080 pixels. Effective with the 90th Academy Awards, presented in 2018, multi-part and limited series will be ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award. This followed the win of "", an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast in five parts on ABC and ESPN, in that category in 2017. The Academy's announcement of the new rule made no direct mention of that film.
Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases.
In late December, ballots and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6,000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. In all major categories, a variant of the single transferable vote is used, with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees (ten for Best Picture) ranked preferentially. In certain categories, including Foreign Film, Documentary and Animated Feature, nominees are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches.
In most categories, the winner is selected from among the nominees by plurality voting of all members. Since 2009, the Best Picture winner has been chosen by instant runoff voting. Since 2013, re-weighted range voting has been used to select the nominees for the Best Visual Effects.
Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on marketing to awards voters for a movie in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards conferred in Oscar season. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members so as to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders. For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee "The Hurt Locker" was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as the front-runner ("The Hurt Locker" eventually won).
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hurtlocker locker'' ''eventu | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-13 | Academy Awards
Section::::Awards ceremonies.
section:award :awardceremoni | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-14 | Academy Awards
Section::::Awards ceremonies.:Telecast.
The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. Black tie dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a bow-tie, and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast.)
The Academy Awards is the world's longest running awards show televised live in all U.S. time zones (excluding territories outside mainland North America), Canada, and the United Kingdom, and gathers billions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world. The Oscars were first televised in 1953 by NBC, which continued to broadcast the event until 1960, when ABC took over, televising the festivities (including the first color broadcast of the event in 1966) through 1970. NBC regained the rights for five years then ABC resumed broadcast duties in 1976 and its current contract with the Academy runs through 2028. The Academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets (especially those outside of the Americas) in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970, but only two South American countries, Chile and Brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time, the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. A decade later, the rights were already being sold to 60 countries, and by 1984, the TV rights to the Awards were licensed in 76 countries.
The ceremonies were moved up from late March/early April to late February, since 2004, to help disrupt and shorten the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with Oscar season in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success coinciding with the NCAA Basketball Tournament, which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. (In 1976 and 1977, ABC's regained Oscars were moved from Tuesday to Monday and went directly opposite NBC's NCAA title game.) The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February sweeps period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into first Sunday of March in order to avoid clash with the Winter Olympic Games. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is also to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of Passover and Easter, which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The production of the Academy Awards telecast currently holds the distinction of winning the most Emmys in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations overall since that award's own launch in 1949.
After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00 pm Eastern/6:00 p.m Pacific, since the 1999 ceremonies, it was moved to Sundays at 8:30 pm ET/5:30 pm PT. The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier. For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. In 2010, the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Furthermore, a January ceremony on Sunday would clash with National Football League playoff games. In 2018, the Academy announced that the ceremony would be moved from late February to mid February beginning with the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020.
Originally scheduled for April 8, 1968, the 40th Academy Awards ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.. On March 30, 1981, the 53rd Academy Awards was postponed for one day, after the shooting of President Ronald Reagan and others in Washington, D.C.
In 1993, an "In Memoriam" segment was introduced, honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members. This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. Criticism was also levied for many years regarding another aspect, with the segment having a "popularity contest" feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead.
In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15 minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes. In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced winners' acceptance speeches must not run past 45 seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing on the show" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion. In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen ticker. During the 2018 ceremony, host Jimmy Kimmel acknowledged how long the ceremony had become, by announcing that he would give a brand-new jet ski to whoever gave the shortest speech of the night (a reward won by Mark Bridges when accepting his Best Costume Design award for "Phantom Thread"). The "Wall Street Journal" analyzed the average minutes spent across the 2014–2018 telecasts as follows: 14 on song performances; 25 on the hosts' speeches; 38 on prerecorded clips; and 78 on the awards themselves, broken into 24 on the introduction and announcement, 24 on winners walking to the stage, and 30 on their acceptance speeches.
Although still dominant in ratings, the viewership of the Academy Awards have steadily dropped; the 88th Academy Awards were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18–49 viewership), while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show, "Variety" reported that ABC was, in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars, seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally, AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast, including the choice of production staff and hosting, although ABC is allowed to have some input on their decisions. In August 2016, AMPAS extended its contract with ABC through 2028: the contract neither contains any notable changes, nor gives ABC any further creative control over the telecast.
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195nomin nominoveral overalsinc sincaward award's 'slaunch launch1949 1949mani maniyear yearheld heldmonday monday9:00 9:00pm pmeastern/6:00 eastern/6:00p.m p.mpacif pacifsinc sinc1999 1999ceremoni ceremonimove movesunday sunday8:30 8:30pm pmet/5:30 et/5:30pm pmpt ptreason reasongiven givenmove moveviewer viewerwould wouldtune tunesunday sundaylos losangel angelrush-hour rush-hourtraffic trafficjam jamcould couldavoid avoidearlier earlierstart starttime timewould wouldallow allowviewer viewereast eastcoast coastgo gobed bedearlier earliermani maniyear yearfilm filmindustri industrioppos oppossunday sundaybroadcast broadcastwould wouldcut cutweekend weekendbox boxoffic offic2010 2010academi academicontempl contemplmove moveceremoni ceremonieven evenback backjanuari januaricite citetv tvviewer viewerfatigu fatigufilm filmindustri industri's 'slong longaward awardseason seasonhowev howevacceler accelerschedul schedulwould woulddramat dramatdecreas decreasvote voteperiod periodmember memberpoint pointvoter voterwould wouldtime timeview viewcontend contendfilm filmstream streamcomput computoppos oppostradit traditreceiv receivfilm filmballot ballotmail mailfurthermor furthermorjanuari januariceremoni ceremonisunday sundaywould wouldclash clashnation nationfootbal footballeagu leaguplayoff playoffgame game2018 2018academi academiannounc announcceremoni ceremoniwould wouldmove movelate latefebruari februarimid midfebruari februaribegin begin92nd 92ndacademi academiaward award2020 2020origin originschedul schedulapril april8 81968 196840th 40thacademi academiaward awardceremoni ceremonipostpon postpontwo twoday dayassassin assassindr. dr.martin martinluther lutherking kingjr jr.. ..march march30 301981 198153rd 53rdacademi academiaward awardpostpon postponone oneday dayshoot shootpresid presidronald ronaldreagan reaganother otherwashington washingtond.c d.c1993 1993`` ``memoriam memoriam'' ''segment segmentintroduc introduchonor honormade madesignific significcontribut contributcinema cinemadie diepreced preced12 12month monthselect selectcompil compilsmall smallcommitte committeacademi academimember membersegment segmentdrawn drawncritic criticyear yearomiss omissname namecritic criticalso alsolevi levimani maniyear yearregard regardanoth anothaspect aspectsegment segment`` ``popular popularcontest contest'' ''feel feelaudienc audiencvari variapplaus applausdie diesubject subject's 'scultur culturimpact impactapplaus applaussinc sincmute mutetelecast telecastaudienc audiencdiscourag discouragclap clapsegment segmentgive givesilent silentreflect reflectinstead insteadterm termbroadcast broadcastlength lengthceremoni ceremonigeneral generalaverag averagthree threehalf halfhour hourfirst firstoscar oscar1929 1929last last15 15minut minutend endspectrum spectrum2002 2002ceremoni ceremonilast lastfour fourhour hourtwenty-thre twenty-threminut minut2010 2010organ organacademi academiaward awardannounc announcwinner winneraccept acceptspeech speechmust mustrun runpast past45 45second secondaccord accordorgan organbill billmechan mechanensur ensurelimin eliminterm term`` ``singl singlhate hatething thingshow show'' ''– –over overlong longembarrass embarrassdisplay displayemot emot2016 2016effort effortstreamlin streamlinspeech speechwinner winnerdedic dedicdisplay displayon-screen on-screenticker ticker2018 2018ceremoni ceremonihost hostjimmi jimmikimmel kimmelacknowledg acknowledglong longceremoni ceremonibecom becomannounc announcwould wouldgive givebrand-new brand-newjet jetski skiwhoever whoevergave gaveshortest shortestspeech speechnight nightreward rewardmark markbridg bridgaccept acceptbest bestcostum costumdesign designaward award`` ``phantom phantomthread thread'' ''`` ``wall wallstreet streetjournal journal'' ''analyz analyzaverag averagminut minutspent spentacross across2014–2018 2014–2018telecast telecastfollow follow14 14song songperform perform25 25host hostspeech speech38 38prerecord prerecordclip clip78 78award awardbroken broken24 24introduct introductannounc announc24 24winner winnerwalk walkstage stage30 30accept acceptspeech speechalthough althoughstill stilldomin dominrate rateviewership viewershipacademi academiaward awardsteadili steadilidrop drop88th 88thacademi academiaward awardlowest-r lowest-rpast pasteight eightyear yearalthough althoughincreas increasmale male18–49 18–49viewership viewershipshow showalso alsoface facemix mixrecept receptfollow followshow show`` ``varieti varieti'' ''report reportabc abcnegoti negotiextens extenscontract contractbroadcast broadcastoscar oscarseek seekcreativ creativcontrol controlbroadcast broadcastcurrent currentnomin nominampa amparespons responsaspect aspecttelecast telecastinclud includchoic choicproduct productstaff staffhost hostalthough althoughabc abcallow allowinput inputdecis decisaugust august2016 2016ampa ampaextend extendcontract contractabc abc2028 2028contract contractneither neithercontain containnotabl notablchang changgive giveabc abccreativ creativcontrol controltelecast | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-15 | Academy Awards
Section::::Awards ceremonies.:TV ratings.
Historically, the "Oscarcast" has pulled in a bigger haul when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture trophy. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the 70th Academy Awards in 1998, the year of "Titanic", which generated close to US$500 million at the North American box office and 1.2 billion dollars worldwide pre-Oscars, with the final box office haul during its initial 1997–98 run being 600.8 million US$ in the US and 1.84 billion US$ worldwide, both sky-high box office records back then (they were only supassed 12 years later in 2010). The 76th Academy Awards ceremony, in which "" (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture, drew 43.56 million viewers. The most watched ceremony based on Nielsen ratings to date, however, was the 42nd Academy Awards (Best Picture "Midnight Cowboy") which drew a 43.4% household rating on April 7, 1970.
By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings. The 78th Academy Awards which awarded low-budgeted, independent film "Crash" (with a pre-Oscar gross of US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%. In 2008, the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest rated and least watched ceremony at the time, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards. The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independently financed film ("No Country for Old Men").
section:award :awardceremoni ceremonitv tvrate ratehistor histor`` ``oscarcast oscarcast'' ''pull pullbigger biggerhaul haulbox-offic box-offichit hitfavor favorwin winbest bestpictur picturtrophi trophi57.25 57.25million millionviewer viewertune tunetelecast telecast70th 70thacademi academiaward award1998 1998year year`` ``titan titan'' ''generat generatclose closeus us500 500million millionnorth northamerican americanbox boxoffic offic1.2 1.2billion billiondollar dollarworldwid worldwidpre-oscar pre-oscarfinal finalbox boxoffic offichaul hauliniti initi1997–98 1997–98run run600.8 600.8million millionus usus us1.84 1.84billion billionus usworldwid worldwidsky-high sky-highbox boxoffic officrecord recordback backsupass supass12 12year yearlater later2010 201076th 76thacademi academiaward awardceremoni ceremoni`` ``'' ''pre-telecast pre-telecastbox boxoffic officearn earnus us368 368million millionreceiv receiv11 11award awardinclud includbest bestpictur picturdrew drew43.56 43.56million millionviewer viewerwatch watchceremoni ceremonibase basenielsen nielsenrate ratedate datehowev howev42nd 42ndacademi academiaward awardbest bestpictur pictur`` ``midnight midnightcowboy cowboy'' ''drew drew43.4 43.4household householdrate rateapril april7 71970 1970contrast contrastceremoni ceremonihonor honorfilm filmperform performwell wellbox boxoffic offictend tendshow showweaker weakerrate rate78th 78thacademi academiaward awardaward awardlow-budget low-budgetindepend independfilm film`` ``crash crash'' ''pre-oscar pre-oscargross grossus us53.4 53.4million milliongenerat generataudienc audienc38.64 38.64million millionhousehold householdrate rate22.91 22.912008 200880th 80thacademi academiaward awardtelecast telecastwatch watch31.76 31.76million millionviewer vieweraverag averag18.66 18.66household householdrate ratelowest lowestrate rateleast leastwatch watchceremoni ceremonitime timespite spitecelebr celebr80 80year yearacademi academiaward awardbest bestpictur picturwinner winnerparticular particularceremoni ceremonianoth anothindepend independfinanc financfilm film`` ``countri countriold oldmen men'' | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-16 | Academy Awards
Section::::Venues.
In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the Ambassador Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard and the Biltmore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles.
Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The 21st Academy Awards in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theatre at what was the Academy's headquarters on Melrose Avenue in Hollywood.
From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's Pantages Theatre. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the NBC International Theatre (1953) and then at the NBC Century Theatre, after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica, California in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Los Angeles, this time to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion at the Los Angeles County Music Center. Some years, the ceremony were at Shriners auditorium by USC.
In 2002, the Dolby Theatre (previously known as the Kodak Theatre) became the presentation's current venue.
section:venu :venu1929 1929first firstacademi academiaward awardpresent presentbanquet banquetdinner dinnerhollywood hollywoodroosevelt roosevelthotel hotel1930 19301943 1943ceremoni ceremonialtern alterntwo twovenu venuambassador ambassadorhotel hotelwilshir wilshirboulevard boulevardbiltmor biltmorhotel hoteldowntown downtownlos losangel angelgrauman grauman's 'schines chinestheatr theatrhollywood hollywoodhost hostaward award1944 19441946 1946follow followshrine shrineauditorium auditoriumlos losangel angel1947 19471948 194821st 21stacademi academiaward award1949 1949held heldacademi academiaward awardtheatr theatracademi academi's 'sheadquart headquartmelros melrosavenu avenuhollywood hollywood1950 19501960 1960award awardpresent presenthollywood hollywood's 'spantag pantagtheatr theatradvent adventtelevis televisaward award1953 19531957 1957took tookplace placesimultan simultanhollywood hollywoodnew newyork yorkfirst firstnbc nbcintern interntheatr theatr1953 1953nbc nbccenturi centuritheatr theatrceremoni ceremonitook tookplace placesole solelos losangel angeloscar oscarmove movesanta santamonica monicacivic civicauditorium auditoriumsanta santamonica monicacalifornia california1961 19611969 1969academi academidecid decidmove moveceremoni ceremoniback backlos losangel angeltime timedorothi dorothichandler chandlerpavilion pavilionlos losangel angelcounti countimusic musiccenter centeryear yearceremoni ceremonishriner shrinerauditorium auditoriumusc usc2002 2002dolbi dolbitheatr theatrprevious previousknown knownkodak kodaktheatr theatrbecam becampresent present's 'scurrent currentvenu | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |