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324-17 | Academy Awards
Section::::Awards of Merit categories.
section:award :awardmerit meritcategori | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-18 | Academy Awards
Section::::Awards of Merit categories.:Current categories.
In the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup.
In August 2018, the Academy announced that several categories would not be televised live, but rather be recorded during commercial breaks and aired later in the ceremony.
Following dissent from Academy members, they announced that they would indeed air all 24 categories live. This followed a number of proposals (including introducing a Popular Film category) that the Academy had announced but did not implement.
section:award :awardmerit meritcategori categoricurrent currentcategori categorifirst firstyear yearaward awardbest bestdirect directaward awardsplit splittwo twocategori categoridrama dramacomedi comeditime timebest bestorigin originscore scoreaward awardalso alsosplit splitsepar separcategori categoridrama dramacomedy/mus comedy/mus1930s 1930s1960s 1960sart artdirect directproduct productdesign designcinematographi cinematographicostum costumdesign designaward awardlikewis likewissplit splittwo twocategori categoriblack-and-whit black-and-whitfilm filmcolor colorfilm filmprior prior2012 2012product productdesign designaward awardcall callart artdirect directmakeup makeuphairstyl hairstylaward awardcall callmakeup makeupaugust august2018 2018academi academiannounc announcsever severcategori categoriwould wouldtelevis televislive liverather ratherrecord recordcommerci commercibreak breakair airlater laterceremoni ceremonifollow followdissent dissentacademi academimember memberannounc announcwould wouldinde indeair air24 24categori categorilive livefollow follownumber numberpropos proposinclud includintroduc introducpopular popularfilm filmcategori categoriacademi academiannounc announcimplement | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-19 | Academy Awards
Section::::Awards of Merit categories.:Proposed categories.
The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following categories have been proposed:
BULLET::::- Best Casting: rejected in 1999
BULLET::::- Best Popular Film: proposed in 2018 for presentation at the 2019 ceremony; postponed until the 2020 ceremony at the earliest
BULLET::::- Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012
BULLET::::- Best Title Design: rejected in 1999
section:award :awardmerit meritcategori categoripropos proposcategori categoriboard boardgovernor governormeet meetyear yearconsid considnew newaward awardcategori categoridate datefollow followcategori categoripropos proposbullet bullet:- :-best bestcast castreject reject1999 1999bullet bullet:- :-best bestpopular popularfilm filmpropos propos2018 2018present present2019 2019ceremoni ceremonipostpon postpon2020 2020ceremoni ceremoniearliest earliestbullet bullet:- :-best beststunt stuntcoordin coordinreject rejecteveri everiyear year1991 19912012 2012bullet bullet:- :-best besttitl titldesign designreject reject1999 | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-20 | Academy Awards
Section::::Special categories.
The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on a consistent annual basis.
section:special :specialcategori categorispecial specialacademi academiaward awardvote votespecial specialcommitte committerather ratheracademi academimembership membershipwhole wholealway alwaypresent presentconsist consistannual annualbasi | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-21 | Academy Awards
Section::::Special categories.:Current special categories.
BULLET::::- Academy Honorary Award: since 1929
BULLET::::- Academy Scientific and Technical Award (three different awards): since 1931
BULLET::::- Gordon E. Sawyer Award: since 1981
BULLET::::- Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award: since 1957
BULLET::::- Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award: since 1938
BULLET::::- Academy Special Achievement Award: from 1972 to 1995, and again for 2017
section:special :specialcategori categoricurrent currentspecial specialcategori categoribullet bullet:- :-academi academihonorari honorariaward awardsinc sinc1929 1929bullet bullet:- :-academi academiscientif scientiftechnic technicaward awardthree threediffer differaward awardsinc sinc1931 1931bullet bullet:- :-gordon gordone. e.sawyer sawyeraward awardsinc sinc1981 1981bullet bullet:- :-jean jeanhersholt hersholthumanitarian humanitarianaward awardsinc sinc1957 1957bullet bullet:- :-irv irvg. g.thalberg thalbergmemori memoriaward awardsinc sinc1938 1938bullet bullet:- :-academi academispecial specialachiev achievaward award1972 19721995 19952017 | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-22 | Academy Awards
Section::::Special categories.:Discontinued special categories.
BULLET::::- Academy Juvenile Award: 1934 to 1960
section:special :specialcategori categoridiscontinu discontinuspecial specialcategori categoribullet bullet:- :-academi academijuvenil juvenilaward award1934 19341960 | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-23 | Academy Awards
Section::::Criticism.
section:critic | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-24 | Academy Awards
Section::::Criticism.:Accusations of commercialism.
Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, many studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "Oscar season". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than quality. William Friedkin, an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself".
Tim Dirks, editor of AMC's filmsite.org, has written of the Academy Awards,
A recent technique that has been claimed to be used during the Oscar season is the Whisper campaign. These campaigns are intended to spread negative perceptions of other movies nominated and are believed to be perpetrated by those that were involved in creating the movie. Examples of whisper campaigns include the allegations against "Zero Dark Thirty" suggesting that it justifies torture and the claim that "Lincoln" distorts history.
section:critic :criticaccus accuscommerci commercidue dueposit positexposur exposurprestig prestigacademi academiaward awardmani manistudio studiospend spendmillion milliondollar dollarhire hirepublicist publicistspecif specifpromot promotfilm filmtypic typiccall call`` ``oscar oscarseason season'' ''generat generataccus accusacademi academiaward awardinfluenc influencmarket marketqualiti qualitiwilliam williamfriedkin friedkinacademi academiaward-win award-winfilm filmdirector directorformer formerproduc producceremoni ceremoniexpress expresssentiment sentimentconfer confernew newyork york2009 2009describ describ`` ``greatest greatestpromot promotscheme schemeindustri industriever everdevis devis'' ''tim timdirk dirkeditor editoramc amc's 'sfilmsite.org filmsite.orgwritten writtenacademi academiaward awardrecent recenttechniqu techniquclaim claimuse useoscar oscarseason seasonwhisper whispercampaign campaigncampaign campaignintend intendspread spreadnegat negatpercept perceptmovi movinomin nominbeliev believperpetr perpetrinvolv involvcreat creatmovi moviexampl examplwhisper whispercampaign campaigninclud includalleg alleg`` ``zero zerodark darkthirti thirti'' ''suggest suggestjustifi justifitortur torturclaim claim`` ``lincoln lincoln'' ''distort distorthistori | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-25 | Academy Awards
Section::::Criticism.:Accusations of bias.
Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. This has led to the coining of the term 'Oscar bait', describing such movies. This has led at times to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g., by favoring 'Oscar bait' over audience favorites, or favoring historical melodramas over critically-acclaimed movies that depict current life issues.
section:critic :criticaccus accusbias biastypic typiccritic criticacademi academiaward awardbest bestpictur picturamong amongwinner winnernomine nomineover-represent over-representromant romanthistor historepic epicbiograph biographdrama dramaromant romantdramedi dramedifamili familimelodrama melodramareleas releasu.s. u.s.last lastthree threemonth monthcalendar calendaryear yearoscar oscarinfam infamknown knownselect selectspecif specifgenr genrmovi moviaward awardled ledcoin cointerm termoscar oscarbait baitdescrib describmovi moviled ledtime timespecif specifcritic criticacademi academidisconnect disconnectaudienc audience.g. e.g.favor favoroscar oscarbait baitaudienc audiencfavorit favoritfavor favorhistor histormelodrama melodramacritically-acclaim critically-acclaimmovi movidepict depictcurrent currentlife lifeissu | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-26 | Academy Awards
Section::::Criticism.:Allegations of a lack of diversity.
The Academy Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees. This criticism is based on the statistics from every Academy Awards since 1929, which shows us that only 6.4% of academy award nominees have been non-white and since 1991, 11.2% of nominees have been non-white, with the rate of winners being even more polarizing. More white actresses have won Oscars for yellowface portrayals of Asian characters than actual Asian actresses. The 88th awards ceremony became the target of a boycott, popularized on social media by the #OscarsSoWhite, based on critics' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated "historic" changes in membership by the year 2020.
section:critic :criticalleg alleglack lackdivers diversacademi academiaward awardlong longreceiv receivcritic criticlack lackdivers diversamong amongnomine nominecritic criticbase basestatist statisteveri everiacademi academiaward awardsinc sinc1929 1929show showus us6.4 6.4academi academiaward awardnomine nominenon-whit non-whitsinc sinc1991 199111.2 11.2nomine nominenon-whit non-whitrate ratewinner winnereven evenpolar polarwhite whiteactress actressoscar oscaryellowfac yellowfacportray portrayasian asiancharact charactactual actualasian asianactress actress88th 88thaward awardceremoni ceremonibecam becamtarget targetboycott boycottpopular popularsocial socialmedia mediaoscarssowhit oscarssowhitbase basecritic criticpercept perceptall-whit all-whitact actnomine nominelist listreflect reflectbias biasrespons responsacademi academiiniti initi`` ``histor histor'' ''chang changmembership membershipyear year2020 | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-27 | Academy Awards
Section::::Criticism.:Symbolism or sentimentalization.
Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for personal popularity, to make up for a "snub" for a performance/work that proved in time to be more popular and/or renowned than the one actually awarded, or presented as a "career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.
section:critic :criticsymbol symbolsentiment sentimentact actprize prizecertain certainyear yearcritic criticrecogn recognsuperior superiorperform performmuch muchaward awardperson personpopular popularmake make`` ``snub snub'' ''performance/work performance/workprove provetime timepopular popularand/or and/orrenown renownone oneactual actualaward awardpresent present`` ``career careerhonor honor'' ''recogn recogndistinguish distinguishnomine nomine's 'sentir entirbodi bodiwork | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-28 | Academy Awards
Section::::Criticism.:Recognition of streaming media film.
Following the 91st Academy Awards in February 2019 in which the Netflix-broadcast film "Roma" had been nominated for ten awards including the Best Picture category, Steven Spielberg and other members of the Academy discussed changing the requirements through the Board of Governors for films as to exclude those from Netflix and other media streaming services. Spielberg had been concerned that Netflix as a movie production and distribution studio could spend much more than typical Oscar-winning films and have much wider and earlier distribution than other Best Picture-nominated films, while still being able to meet the minimal theatrical-run status to qualify for an Oscar. The United States Department of Justice, having heard of this potential rule change, wrote a letter to the Academy in March 2019, cautioning them that placing additional restrictions on films that originate from streaming media services without proper justification could raise anti-trust concerns against the Academy. Following its April 2019 board meeting, the Academy Board of Governors agreed to retain the current rules that allow for streaming media films to be eligible for Oscars as long as they enjoy limited theatrical runs.
section:critic :criticrecognit recognitstream streammedia mediafilm filmfollow follow91st 91stacademi academiaward awardfebruari februari2019 2019netflix-broadcast netflix-broadcastfilm film`` ``roma roma'' ''nomin nominten tenaward awardinclud includbest bestpictur picturcategori categoristeven stevenspielberg spielbergmember memberacademi academidiscuss discusschang changrequir requirboard boardgovernor governorfilm filmexclud excludnetflix netflixmedia mediastream streamservic servicspielberg spielbergconcern concernnetflix netflixmovi moviproduct productdistribut distributstudio studiocould couldspend spendmuch muchtypic typicoscar-win oscar-winfilm filmmuch muchwider widerearlier earlierdistribut distributbest bestpicture-nomin picture-nominfilm filmstill stillabl ablmeet meetminim minimtheatrical-run theatrical-runstatus statusqualifi qualifioscar oscarunit unitstate statedepart departjustic justicheard heardpotenti potentirule rulechang changwrote wroteletter letteracademi academimarch march2019 2019caution cautionplace placeaddit additrestrict restrictfilm filmorigin originstream streammedia mediaservic servicwithout withoutproper properjustif justifcould couldrais raisanti-trust anti-trustconcern concernacademi academifollow followapril april2019 2019board boardmeet meetacademi academiboard boardgovernor governoragre agreretain retaincurrent currentrule ruleallow allowstream streammedia mediafilm filmelig eligoscar oscarlong longenjoy enjoylimit limittheatric theatricrun | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-29 | Academy Awards
Section::::Criticism.:Refusing the award.
Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was screenwriter Dudley Nichols (Best Writing in 1935 for "The Informer"). Nichols boycotted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild. Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later, at the 1938 ceremony. Nichols was nominated for three further Academy Awards during his career.
George C. Scott became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for "Patton") at the 43rd Academy Awards ceremony. Scott described it as a "meat parade", saying, "I don't want any part of it."
The third person to refuse the award was Marlon Brando, who refused his award (Best Actor for 1972's "The Godfather"), citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of Native Americans. At the 45th Academy Awards ceremony, Brando sent actress and civil rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather to read a 15-page speech, detailing his criticisms, which was booed by the audience.
section:critic :criticrefus refusaward awardwinner winnercritic criticacademi academiaward awardboycot boycotceremoni ceremonirefus refusaccept acceptoscar oscarfirst firstscreenwrit screenwritdudley dudleynichol nicholbest bestwrite write1935 1935`` ``inform inform'' ''nichol nicholboycot boycot8th 8thacademi academiaward awardceremoni ceremoniconflict conflictacademi academiwriter writerguild guildnichol nicholeventu eventuaccept accept1935 1935award awardthree threeyear yearlater later1938 1938ceremoni ceremoninichol nicholnomin nominthree threeacademi academiaward awardcareer careergeorg georgc. c.scott scottbecam becamsecond secondperson personrefus refusaward awardbest bestactor actor1970 1970`` ``patton patton'' ''43rd 43rdacademi academiaward awardceremoni ceremoniscott scottdescrib describ`` ``meat meatparad parad'' ''say say`` ``n't n'twant wantpart part'' ''third thirdperson personrefus refusaward awardmarlon marlonbrando brandorefus refusaward awardbest bestactor actor1972 1972's 's`` ``godfath godfath'' ''cite citefilm filmindustri industri's 'sdiscrimin discriminmistreat mistreatnativ nativamerican american45th 45thacademi academiaward awardceremoni ceremonibrando brandosent sentactress actresscivil civilright rightactivist activistsacheen sacheenlittlefeath littlefeathread read15-page 15-pagespeech speechdetail detailcritic criticboo booaudienc | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-30 | Academy Awards
Section::::Criticism.:Incidents.
At the 89th Academy Awards ceremony, Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway mistakenly announced "La La Land" as the recipient of the Best Picture award, instead of "Moonlight", the actual winner. Beatty had been given the wrong envelope and after hesitating during the announcement, handed the envelope to Dunaway, which listed Emma Stone as Best Actress for "La La Land" and led to the confusion. The proper winner was announced after the acceptance speeches by "La La Land" producers Fred Berger, Jordan Horowitz and Marc Platt.
The following year, Beatty and Dunaway were invited back as presenters of the Best Picture award, which they accomplished without error.
section:criticism. :criticism.incid incid89th 89thacademi academiaward awardceremoni ceremoniwarren warrenbeatti beattifay faydunaway dunawaymistaken mistakenannounc announc`` ``la lala laland land'' ''recipi recipibest bestpictur picturaward awardinstead instead`` ``moonlight moonlight'' ''actual actualwinner winnerbeatti beattigiven givenwrong wrongenvelop envelophesit hesitannounc announchand handenvelop envelopdunaway dunawaylist listemma emmastone stonebest bestactress actress`` ``la lala laland land'' ''led ledconfus confusproper properwinner winnerannounc announcaccept acceptspeech speech`` ``la lala laland land'' ''produc producfred fredberger bergerjordan jordanhorowitz horowitzmarc marcplatt plattfollow followyear yearbeatti beattidunaway dunawayinvit invitback backpresent presentbest bestpictur picturaward awardaccomplish accomplishwithout withouterror | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-31 | Academy Awards
Section::::Criticism.:Plagiarism controversies.
BULLET::::- Up to now, no movies have been disqualified for plagiarism.
BULLET::::- "Zootopia": On March 21, 2017, a copyright infringement lawsuit was filed against Disney by Esplanade Productions, a company owned by Gary L. Goldman, the co-screenwriter of "Total Recall". The lawsuit claims that Goldman (in 2000 and 2009) pitched a concept to Disney for a live-action film titled "Looney", which was about a socially awkward animator who creates a self-inspired TV cartoon called "Zootopia". Disney twice rejected the pitch, but Goldman accused the company of copying the name, themes, settings and character tropes. Filed with the lawsuit was a graphic of early concept artwork of characters that are claimed to appear similar to major characters from the film, including Nick Wilde, Judy Hopps, Flash and Chief Bogo. A Disney spokesperson described the lawsuit as being "ridden with patently false allegations." U.S. District Judge Michael W. Fitzgerald dismissed the infringement claims on November 8, 2017.
BULLET::::- "The Shape of Water": In February 2018, the estate of Paul Zindel initiated a lawsuit in United States District Court for the Central District of California against director Guillermo del Toro and associate producer Daniel Kraus, alleging that "The Shape of Water" "brazenly copies the story, elements, characters, and themes" of Zindel's 1969 work "Let Me Hear You Whisper", which depicts a cleaning lady bonding with a dolphin and attempting to rescue it from a secret research laboratory's nefarious uses. In July 2018, Judge Percy Anderson dismissed the suit.
section:critic :criticplagiar plagiarcontroversi controversibullet bullet:- :-movi movidisqualifi disqualifiplagiar plagiarbullet bullet:- :-`` ``zootopia zootopia'' ''march march21 212017 2017copyright copyrightinfring infringlawsuit lawsuitfile filedisney disneyesplanad esplanadproduct productcompani companiown owngari garil. l.goldman goldmanco-screenwrit co-screenwrit`` ``total totalrecal recal'' ''lawsuit lawsuitclaim claimgoldman goldman2000 20002009 2009pitch pitchconcept conceptdisney disneylive-act live-actfilm filmtitl titl`` ``looney looney'' ''social socialawkward awkwardanim animcreat creatself-inspir self-inspirtv tvcartoon cartooncall call`` ``zootopia zootopia'' ''disney disneytwice twicereject rejectpitch pitchgoldman goldmanaccus accuscompani companicopi copiname nametheme themeset setcharact characttrope tropefile filelawsuit lawsuitgraphic graphicearli earliconcept conceptartwork artworkcharact charactclaim claimappear appearsimilar similarmajor majorcharact charactfilm filminclud includnick nickwild wildjudi judihopp hoppflash flashchief chiefbogo bogodisney disneyspokesperson spokespersondescrib describlawsuit lawsuit`` ``ridden riddenpatent patentfals falsalleg alleg'' ''u.s. u.s.district districtjudg judgmichael michaelw. w.fitzgerald fitzgeralddismiss dismissinfring infringclaim claimnovemb novemb8 82017 2017bullet bullet:- :-`` ``shape shapewater water'' ''februari februari2018 2018estat estatpaul paulzindel zindeliniti initilawsuit lawsuitunit unitstate statedistrict districtcourt courtcentral centraldistrict districtcalifornia californiadirector directorguillermo guillermodel deltoro toroassoci associproduc producdaniel danielkraus krausalleg alleg`` ``shape shapewater water'' ''`` ``brazen brazencopi copistori storielement elementcharact characttheme theme'' ''zindel zindel's 's1969 1969work work`` ``let lethear hearwhisper whisper'' ''depict depictclean cleanladi ladibond bonddolphin dolphinattempt attemptrescu rescusecret secretresearch researchlaboratori laboratori's 'snefari nefariuse usejuli juli2018 2018judg judgperci percianderson andersondismiss dismisssuit | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-32 | Academy Awards
Section::::Criticism.:Disqualification.
Seven films have been disqualified before an official award ceremony because they violated the regulations.
BULLET::::- "The Circus" (1928) – The film was removed by the Academy from competitive categories, in order to award Charlie Chaplin a special award.
BULLET::::- "Hondo" (1953)
BULLET::::- "High Society" (1955) – Withdrawn from screenwriting ballot after being mistaken for the 1956 movie of the same title.
BULLET::::- "The Godfather" (1972) – Initially nominated for eleven awards, its nomination for Best Original Score was revoked after it was discovered that its main theme was very similar to music that the score's composer had written for an earlier film. None of its other nominations were revoked, and it received three Oscars, including Best Picture.
BULLET::::- "A Place in the World"
BULLET::::- "Tuba Atlantic"
BULLET::::- "Alone yet Not Alone"
One film was disqualified after winning the award, and had the winner return the Oscar.
BULLET::::- "Young Americans" (1969)
section:criticism. :criticism.disqualif disqualifseven sevenfilm filmdisqualifi disqualifioffici officiaward awardceremoni ceremoniviolat violatregul regulbullet bullet:- :-`` ``circus circus'' ''1928 1928– –film filmremov removacademi academicompetit competitcategori categoriorder orderaward awardcharli charlichaplin chaplinspecial specialaward awardbullet bullet:- :-`` ``hondo hondo'' ''1953 1953bullet bullet:- :-`` ``high highsocieti societi'' ''1955 1955– –withdrawn withdrawnscreenwrit screenwritballot ballotmistaken mistaken1956 1956movi movititl titlbullet bullet:- :-`` ``godfath godfath'' ''1972 1972– –initi initinomin nomineleven elevenaward awardnomin nominbest bestorigin originscore scorerevok revokdiscov discovmain maintheme themesimilar similarmusic musicscore score's 'scompos composwritten writtenearlier earlierfilm filmnone nonenomin nominrevok revokreceiv receivthree threeoscar oscarinclud includbest bestpictur picturbullet bullet:- :-`` ``place placeworld world'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``tuba tubaatlant atlant'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``alon alonyet yetalon alon'' ''one onefilm filmdisqualifi disqualifiwin winaward awardwinner winnerreturn returnoscar oscarbullet bullet:- :-`` ``young youngamerican american'' ''1969 | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-33 | Academy Awards
Section::::Associated events.
The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards:
BULLET::::- César Awards
BULLET::::- Nominees luncheon
BULLET::::- Governors Awards
BULLET::::- The 25th Independent Spirit Awards (2010), usually held in Santa Monica, California the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to L.A. Live
BULLET::::- The annual "Night Before", traditionally held at the Beverly Hills Hotel, begun in 2002 and generally known as "the "party of the season, benefits the Motion Picture & Television Fund, which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the San Fernando Valley
BULLET::::- Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party airs the awards live at the nearby Pacific Design Center
BULLET::::- The Governors Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue
BULLET::::- The "Vanity Fair" after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, has been at the Sunset Tower since 2009
section:associ :associevent eventfollow followevent eventclose closeassoci associannual annualacademi academiaward awardbullet bullet:- :-césar césaraward awardbullet bullet:- :-nomine nomineluncheon luncheonbullet bullet:- :-governor governoraward awardbullet bullet:- :-25th 25thindepend independspirit spiritaward award2010 2010usual usualheld heldsanta santamonica monicacalifornia californiasaturday saturdayoscar oscarmark markfirst firsttime timemove movefriday fridaychang changvenu venul.a. l.a.live livebullet bullet:- :-annual annual`` ``night night'' ''tradit traditheld heldbever beverhill hillhotel hotelbegun begun2002 2002general generalknown known`` ```` ``parti partiseason seasonbenefit benefitmotion motionpictur picturtelevis televisfund fundoper operretir retirhome homesag sagactor actorsan sanfernando fernandovalley valleybullet bullet:- :-elton eltonjohn johnaid aidfoundat foundatacademi academiaward awardparti partiair airaward awardlive livenearbi nearbipacif pacifdesign designcenter centerbullet bullet:- :-governor governorball ballacademi academi's 'soffici officiafter-parti after-partiinclud includdinner dinner2011 2011adjac adjacawards-present awards-presentvenu venubullet bullet:- :-`` ``vaniti vanitifair fair'' ''after-parti after-partihistor historformer formermorton morton's 'srestaur restaursunset sunsettower towersinc sinc2009 | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-34 | Academy Awards
Section::::Presenter and performer gifts.
It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years, these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners. The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014, the value was reported to be as high as US$80,000. The value has risen to the point where the U.S. Internal Revenue Service issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status.
Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, videophones, a four-night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing and weight-loss gummie candy. Some of the gifts have even had a "risque" element to them; in 2014, the adult products retailer Adam & Eve had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included Judith Hoag, Carolyn Hennesy, Kate Linder, Chris Mulkey, Jim O'Heir, and NBA player John Salley.
section:present :presentperform performgift giftbecom becomtradit traditgive givegift giftbag bagpresent presentperform performoscar oscarrecent recentyear yeargift giftalso alsoextend extendaward awardnomine nominewinner winnervalu valugift giftbag bagreach reachten tenthousand thousanddollar dollar2014 2014valu valureport reporthigh highus us80,000 80,000valu valurisen risenpoint pointu.s. u.s.intern internrevenu revenuservic servicissu issustatement statementregard regardgift gifttaxabl taxablstatus statusoscar oscargift giftbag baginclud includvacat vacatpackag packaghawaii hawaiimexico mexicojapan japanprivat privatdinner dinnerparti partirecipi recipifriend friendrestaur restaurvideophon videophonfour-night four-nightstay stayhotel hotelwatch watchbracelet braceletspa spatreatment treatmentbottl bottlvodka vodkamapl maplsalad saladdress dressweight-loss weight-lossgummi gummicandi candigift gifteven even`` ``risqu risqu'' ''element element2014 2014adult adultproduct productretail retailadam adameve eve`` ``secret secretroom roomgift giftsuit suit'' ''celebr celebrvisit visitgift giftsuit suitinclud includjudith judithhoag hoagcarolyn carolynhennesi hennesikate katelinder linderchris chrismulkey mulkeyjim jimo'heir o'heirnba nbaplayer playerjohn johnsalley | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-35 | Academy Awards
Section::::Television ratings and advertisement prices.
From 2006 onwards, results are Live+SD; all previous years are live viewing.
section:televis :televisrate rateadvertis advertisprice price2006 2006onward onwardresult resultlive+sd live+sdprevious previousyear yearlive liveview | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-36 | Academy Awards
Section::::Trademark.
The term "Oscar" is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the Italian language, it is used generically to refer to any award or award ceremony, regardless of which field.
section:trademark :trademarkterm term`` ``oscar oscar'' ''regist registtrademark trademarkampa ampahowev howevitalian italianlanguag languaguse usegeneric genericrefer referaward awardaward awardceremoni ceremoniregardless regardlessfield | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-37 | Academy Awards
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- List of film awards
BULLET::::- List of Academy Award records
BULLET::::- List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees
BULLET::::- List of actors with Academy Award nominations
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-list listfilm filmaward awardbullet bullet:- :-list listacademi academiaward awardrecord recordbullet bullet:- :-list listsuperl superlacademi academiaward awardwinner winnernomine nominebullet bullet:- :-list listactor actoracademi academiaward awardnomin | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-38 | Academy Awards
Section::::Further reading.
BULLET::::- Brokaw, Lauren (2010). "Wanna see an Academy Awards invite? We got it along with all the major annual events surrounding the Oscars". Los Angeles: The Daily Truffle.
BULLET::::- Wright, Jon (2007). "The Lunacy of Oscar: The Problems with Hollywood's Biggest Night". Thomas Publishing, Inc.
section:further :furtherread readbullet bullet:- :-brokaw brokawlauren lauren2010 2010`` ``wan wanna nasee seeacademi academiaward awardinvit invitgot gotalong alongmajor majorannual annualevent eventsurround surroundoscar oscar'' ''los losangel angeldaili dailitruffl trufflbullet bullet:- :-wright wrightjon jon2007 2007`` ``lunaci lunacioscar oscarproblem problemhollywood hollywood's 'sbiggest biggestnight night'' ''thoma thomapublish publishinc | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
324-39 | Academy Awards
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
BULLET::::- Official Academy Awards Database (searchable)
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-academi academimotion motionpictur picturart artscienc sciencbullet bullet:- :-offici officiacademi academiaward awarddatabas databassearchabl | 324 | Academy Awards | Performing arts trophies,American film awards,American annual television specials,Cinema of Southern California,Academy Awards,1929 establishments in California,Events in Los Angeles,Annual events in Los Angeles County, California,Awards established in 1929,Hollywood history and culture |
12-1 | Anarchism
Anarchism is an anti-authoritarian political philosophy that rejects hierarchies deemed unjust and advocates their replacement with self-managed, self-governed societies based on voluntary, cooperative institutions. These institutions are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as distinct institutions based on non-hierarchical or free associations. Anarchism's central disagreement with other ideologies is that it holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful.
Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum, and much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian interpretations of communism, collectivism, syndicalism, mutualism, or participatory economics. As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of social and individualist anarchism, or similar dual classifications.
anarchanti-authoritarian anti-authoritarianpolit politphilosophi philosophireject rejecthierarchi hierarchideem deemunjust unjustadvoc advocreplac replacself-manag self-managself-govern self-governsocieti societibase basevoluntari voluntaricooper cooperinstitut institutinstitut institutoften oftendescrib describstateless statelesssocieti societialthough althoughsever severauthor authordefin definspecif specifdistinct distinctinstitut institutbase basenon-hierarch non-hierarchfree freeassoci associanarch anarch's 'scentral centraldisagr disagrideolog ideologhold holdstate stateundesir undesirunnecessari unnecessariharm harmanarch anarchusual usualplace placefar-left far-leftpolit politspectrum spectrummuch mucheconom economlegal legalphilosophi philosophireflect reflectanti-authoritarian anti-authoritarianinterpret interpretcommunism communismcollectiv collectivsyndic syndicmutual mutualparticipatori participatorieconom economanarch anarchoffer offerfix fixbodi bodidoctrin doctrinsingl singlparticular particularworldview worldviewmani manianarchist anarchisttype typetradit traditexist existvarieti varietianarchi anarchidiverg divergwide wideanarchist anarchistschool schoolthought thoughtdiffer differfundament fundamentsupport supportanyth anythextrem extremindividu individucomplet completcollectiv collectivstrain strainanarch anarchoften oftendivid dividcategori categorisocial socialindividualist individualistanarch anarchsimilar similardual dualclassif | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-2 | Anarchism
Section::::Etymology, terminology and definition.
The etymological origin of the word "anarchism" is from the ancient Greek word "anarkhia", meaning "without a ruler", comprised of the prefix "a-" (i.e. "without") and the word "arkhos" (i.e. leader or ruler). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. The word "anarchism" appears in English from 1642 as "Anarchisme" the word "anarchy" from 1539. Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as "anarchists" - few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century, such as William Godwin (1756-1836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808-1871), would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation, but they did not use the word "anarchist" or "anarchism" in describing themselves or their beliefs.
The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist () was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, the term "libertarianism" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. On the other hand, some use "libertarianism" to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as "libertarian anarchism".
While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task as there is a lot of talk among scholars and anarchists on the matter and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Hence it might be true to say that anarchism is a cluster of political philosophies opposing authority and hierarchical organization (including the state, capitalism, nationalism and all associated institutions) in the conduct of all human relations in favour of a society based on voluntary association, on freedom and on decentralisation - but this definition has the same shortcomings as the definition based on etymology (which is simply a negation of a ruler), or based on anti-statism (anarchism is much more than that) or even the anti-authoritarian (which is an "a posteriori" conclusion). Major elements of the definition of anarchism include:
BULLET::::1. the will for a non-coercive society
BULLET::::2. the rejection of the state apparatus
BULLET::::3. belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society; and
BULLET::::4. a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy
section:etymolog :etymologterminolog terminologdefinit definitetymolog etymologorigin originword word`` ``anarch anarch'' ''ancient ancientgreek greekword word`` ``anarkhia anarkhia'' ''mean mean`` ``without withoutruler ruler'' ''compris comprisprefix prefix`` ``a- a-'' ''i.e i.e`` ``without without'' ''word word`` ``arkho arkho'' ''i.e i.eleader leaderruler rulersuffix suffix-ism -ismdenot denotideolog ideologcurrent currentfavour favouranarchi anarchiword word`` ``anarch anarch'' ''appear appearenglish english1642 1642`` ``anarchism anarchism'' ''word word`` ``anarchi anarchi'' ''1539 1539various variousfaction factionwithin withinfrench frenchrevolut revolutlabel labeloppon oppon`` ``anarchist anarchist'' ''accus accusshare sharemani maniview viewlater lateranarchist anarchistmani manirevolutionari revolutionari19th 19thcenturi centuriwilliam williamgodwin godwin1756-1836 1756-1836wilhelm wilhelmweitl weitl1808-1871 1808-1871would wouldcontribut contributanarchist anarchistdoctrin doctrinnext nextgenerat generatuse useword word`` ``anarchist anarchist'' ''`` ``anarch anarch'' ''describ describbelief belieffirst firstpolit politphilosoph philosophcall callanarchist anarchistpierre-joseph pierre-josephproudhon proudhon1809-1865 1809-1865mark markformal formalbirth birthanarch anarchmid-19th mid-19thcenturi centurisinc sinc1890s 1890sbegin beginfranc francterm term`` ``libertarian libertarian'' ''often oftenuse usesynonym synonymanarch anarchuse usesynonym synonymstill stillcommon commonoutsid outsidunit unitstate statehand handuse use`` ``libertarian libertarian'' ''refer referindividualist individualistfree-market free-marketphilosophi philosophirefer referfree-market free-marketanarch anarch`` ``libertarian libertariananarch anarch'' ''opposit oppositstate statecentral centralanarchist anarchistthought thoughtdefin definanarch anarcheasi easitask tasklot lottalk talkamong amongscholar scholaranarchist anarchistmatter mattervarious variouscurrent currentperceiv perceivanarch anarchslight slightdiffer differhenc hencmight mighttrue truesay sayanarch anarchcluster clusterpolit politphilosophi philosophioppos opposauthor authorhierarch hierarchorgan organinclud includstate statecapit capitnation nationassoci associinstitut institutconduct conducthuman humanrelat relatfavour favoursocieti societibase basevoluntari voluntariassoci associfreedom freedomdecentralis decentralisdefinit definitshortcom shortcomdefinit definitbase baseetymolog etymologsimpli simplinegat negatruler rulerbase baseanti-stat anti-statanarch anarchmuch mucheven evenanti-authoritarian anti-authoritarian`` ``posteriori posteriori'' ''conclus conclusmajor majorelement elementdefinit definitanarch anarchinclud includbullet bullet:1. :1.non-coerc non-coercsocieti societibullet bullet:2. :2.reject rejectstate stateapparatus apparatusbullet bullet:3. :3.belief beliefhuman humannatur naturallow allowhuman humanexist existprogress progresstoward towardnon-coerc non-coercsocieti societibullet bullet:4. :4.suggest suggestact actpursu pursuideal idealanarchi | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-3 | Anarchism
Section::::History.
section:histori | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-4 | Anarchism
Section::::History.:Prehistoric and ancient world.
During the prehistoric era of mankind, an established authority did not exist. It was after the creation of towns and cities that hierarchy was invented and anarchistic ideas espoused as a reaction. Most notable examples of anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism, meaning peaceful delegitimizing of the state, was delineated by Taoist philosophers (i.e. Zhuangzi and Lao Tzu). Likewise in Greece, anarchist attitudes were articulated by tragedians and philosophers. Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between rules set by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted to the right of individual freedom of consciousness. Cynics dismissed human law ("Nomos") and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature ("physis"). Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state.
During the Middle Ages, there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements in the Islamic world or in Christian Europe. This kind of tradition later gave birth to religious anarchism. In Persia, a Zoroastrian Prophet known as Mazdak was calling for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, but he soon found himself executed by the king. In Basra, religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Those currents were the precursor of religious anarchism in the centuries to come. It was in the Renaissance and with the spread of reasoning and humanism through Europe that libertarian ideas emerged. Writers were outlining in their novels ideal societies that were based not on coercion but voluntarism. The Enlightenment further pushed towards anarchism with the optimism for social progress.
section:histori :historiprehistor prehistorancient ancientworld worldprehistor prehistorera eramankind mankindestablish establishauthor authorexist existcreation creationtown townciti citihierarchi hierarchiinvent inventanarchist anarchistidea ideaespous espousreaction reactionnotabl notablexampl examplanarch anarchancient ancientworld worldchina chinagreec greecchina chinaphilosoph philosophanarch anarchmean meanpeac peacdelegitim delegitimstate statedelin delintaoist taoistphilosoph philosophi.e i.ezhuangzi zhuangzilao laotzu tzulikewis likewisgreec greecanarchist anarchistattitud attitudarticul articultragedian tragedianphilosoph philosophaeschylus aeschylussophocl sophocluse usemyth mythantigon antigonillustr illustrconflict conflictrule ruleset setstate stateperson personautonomi autonomisocrat socratquestion questionathenian athenianauthor authorconstant constantinsist insistright rightindividu individufreedom freedomconscious consciouscynic cynicdismiss dismisshuman humanlaw law`` ``nomo nomo'' ''associ associauthor authortri trilive liveaccord accordnatur natur`` ``physi physi'' ''stoic stoicsupport supportsocieti societibase baseunoffici unofficifriend friendrelat relatamong amongcitizen citizenwithout withoutpresenc presencstate statemiddl middlage ageanarchist anarchistactiv activexcept exceptascet ascetreligi religimovement movementislam islamworld worldchristian christianeurop europkind kindtradit traditlater latergave gavebirth birthreligi religianarch anarchpersia persiazoroastrian zoroastrianprophet prophetknown knownmazdak mazdakcall callegalitarian egalitariansocieti societiabolit abolitmonarchi monarchisoon soonfound foundexecut executking kingbasra basrareligi religisect sectpreach preachstate stateeurop europvarious varioussect sectdevelop developanti-st anti-stlibertarian libertariantendenc tendenccurrent currentprecursor precursorreligi religianarch anarchcenturi centuricome comerenaiss renaissspread spreadreason reasonhuman humaneurop europlibertarian libertarianidea ideaemerg emergwriter writeroutlin outlinnovel novelideal idealsocieti societibase basecoercion coercionvoluntar voluntarenlighten enlightenpush pushtoward towardanarch anarchoptim optimsocial socialprogress | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-5 | Anarchism
Section::::History.:Classical anarchism.
The turning point towards anarchism was the French Revolution in which the anti-state and federalist sentiments began to take a form, mostly by Enragés and "sans-culottes". Some prominent figures of anarchism begun developing the first anarchist currents. That is the era of classical anarchism that lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War of 1936 and was the golden age of anarchism. William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England morally delegitimizing the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France.
Michael Bakunin took mutualism and extended it to collectivist anarchism. Bakunin's current (Jura Federation) entered the class worker union called the International Workingmen's Association (IWA), later known as the First International, formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organisation. Karl Marx became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the mutualists, opposed Marx's state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. Bakunin's followers entered a bitter dispute with Karl Marx which ended with the split of the workers movement that officially took place in the Fifth Congress of the IWA in the Hague, 1872. The major reason lay in fundamentally different approaches on how the workers would emancipate themselves. Marx was advocating for the creation of a political party to take part in electoral struggles whereas Bakunin thought that the whole set of Marx's thinking was very authoritarian. Bakunin is famous for predicting that if such a party would gain power by Marxist's terms, it would end up to be the new tyrant of workers. After being expelled from the IWA, anarchists formed the St. Imier International. Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin, a Russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped collectivism. Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 Paris Commune, advocated for free federation and distribution of goods according to one needs. The major argument of anarcho-communism was that Bakunian perspective would lead to antagonism among collectives.
At the turning of the century, anarchism had spread all over the world. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from countries of the far east, pouring into Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, São Paulo was a stronghold, and anarchosyndicalism was the most prominent left-wing ideology. During that time, a minority of anarchists embarked into utilizing of violence in order to achieve their political ends. This kind of strategy is named as propaganda of the deed. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from those terrorist acts, anarchists were persecuted and were given bad fame. Illegalism, stealing the possessions of the rich because capitalists were not their rightful owners, was another strategy some anarchist adopted during the same years.
Anarchists took part enthusiastically in the Russian Revolution. During the revolution, anarchists had concerns, but they opted for the revolution rather than supporting the Whites. However, they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government was stabilized. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. Anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow instead fled to Ukraine. The Kronstadt rebellion and Nestor Makhno's struggle in the Free Territory were the most notable examples. With the anarchists being crashed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. Platformists sought to create a coherent group that would push for the revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw the Bolshevik success as setting an example and communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of the major syndicalist movements of the General Confederation of Labour and Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) left the organisations and joined the Communist International.
In the Spanish Civil War, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. Spain had a long anarchist tradition and anarchists played an important role in the Civil War. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they collectivised the land. The Soviet Union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the Civil War, but as Joseph Stalin tried to seize control of the Republicans the result was a bitter fight among communists and anarchists (i.e. at a series of events named May Days).
section:histori :historiclassic classicanarch anarchturn turnpoint pointtoward towardanarch anarchfrench frenchrevolut revolutanti-st anti-stfederalist federalistsentiment sentimentbegan begantake takeform formmost mostenragé enragé`` ``sans-culott sans-culott'' ''promin prominfigur figuranarch anarchbegun begundevelop developfirst firstanarchist anarchistcurrent currentera eraclassic classicanarch anarchlast lastend endspanish spanishcivil civilwar war1936 1936golden goldenage ageanarch anarchwilliam williamgodwin godwinespous espousphilosoph philosophanarch anarchengland englandmoral moraldelegitim delegitimstate statemax maxstirner stirner's 'sthink thinkpave paveway wayindividu individupierre-joseph pierre-josephproudhon proudhon's 'stheori theorimutual mutualfound foundfertil fertilsoil soilfranc francmichael michaelbakunin bakunintook tookmutual mutualextend extendcollectivist collectivistanarch anarchbakunin bakunin's 'scurrent currentjura jurafeder federenter enterclass classworker workerunion unioncall callintern internworkingmen workingmen's 'sassoci associiwa iwalater laterknown knownfirst firstintern internform form1864 1864unit unitdivers diversrevolutionari revolutionaricurrent currentdue duelink linkactiv activworker workermovement movementintern internbecam becamsignific significorganis organiskarl karlmarx marxbecam becamlead leadfigur figurintern internmember membergeneral generalcouncil councilproudhon proudhon's 'sfollow followmutualist mutualistoppos opposmarx marx's 'sstate statesocial socialadvoc advocpolit politabstention abstentionsmall smallproperti propertihold holdbakunin bakunin's 'sfollow followenter enterbitter bitterdisput disputkarl karlmarx marxend endsplit splitworker workermovement movementoffici officitook tookplace placefifth fifthcongress congressiwa iwahagu hagu1872 1872major majorreason reasonlay layfundament fundamentdiffer differapproach approachworker workerwould wouldemancip emancipmarx marxadvoc advoccreation creationpolit politparti partitake takepart partelector electorstruggl strugglwherea whereabakunin bakuninthought thoughtwhole wholeset setmarx marx's 'sthink thinkauthoritarian authoritarianbakunin bakuninfamous famouspredict predictparti partiwould wouldgain gainpower powermarxist marxist's 'sterm termwould wouldend endnew newtyrant tyrantworker workerexpel expeliwa iwaanarchist anarchistform formst. st.imier imierintern interninfluenc influencpeter peterkropotkin kropotkinrussian russianphilosoph philosophscientist scientistanarcho-commun anarcho-communoverlap overlapcollectiv collectivanarcho-communist anarcho-communistdrew drewinspir inspir1871 1871pari paricommune communeadvoc advocfree freefeder federdistribut distributgood goodaccord accordone oneneed needmajor majorargument argumentanarcho-commun anarcho-communbakunian bakunianperspect perspectwould wouldlead leadantagon antagonamong amongcollect collectturn turncenturi centurianarch anarchspread spreadworld worldchina chinasmall smallgroup groupstudent studentimport importhumanist humanistpro-scienc pro-sciencversion versionanarcho-commun anarcho-communtokyo tokyohotspot hotspotrebelli rebelliyouth youthcountri countrifar fareast eastpour pourjapanes japanescapit capitstudi studilatin latinamerica americasão sãopaulo paulostronghold strongholdanarchosynd anarchosyndpromin prominleft-w left-wideolog ideologtime timeminor minoranarchist anarchistembark embarkutil utilviolenc violencorder orderachiev achievpolit politend endkind kindstrategi strateginame namepropaganda propagandadeed deeddismember dismemberfrench frenchsocialist socialistmovement movementmani manigroup groupexecut executexil exilmani manicommunard communardpenal penalcoloni colonifollow followsuppress suppresspari paricommune communefavour favourindividualist individualistpolit politexpress expressact acteven eventhough thoughmani manianarchist anarchistdistanc distancterrorist terroristact actanarchist anarchistpersecut persecutgiven givenbad badfame fameilleg illegsteal stealpossess possessrich richcapitalist capitalistright rightowner owneranoth anothstrategi strategianarchist anarchistadopt adoptyear yearanarchist anarchisttook tookpart partenthusiast enthusiastrussian russianrevolut revolutrevolut revolutanarchist anarchistconcern concernopt optrevolut revolutrather rathersupport supportwhite whitehowev howevmet metharsh harshsuppress suppressbolshevik bolshevikgovern governstabil stabilanarchist anarchistcentral centralrussia russiaeither eitherimprison imprisondriven drivenunderground undergroundjoin joinvictori victoribolshevik bolshevikanarchist anarchistpetrograd petrogradmoscow moscowinstead insteadfled fledukrain ukrainkronstadt kronstadtrebellion rebellionnestor nestormakhno makhno's 'sstruggl strugglfree freeterritori territorinotabl notablexampl examplanarchist anarchistcrash crashrussia russiatwo twonew newantithet antithetcurrent currentemerg emergname nameplatform platformsynthesi synthesianarch anarchplatformist platformistsought soughtcreat creatcoher cohergroup groupwould wouldpush pushrevolut revolutlatter latteranyth anythwould wouldresembl resemblpolit politparti partivictori victoribolshevik bolshevikoctob octobrevolut revolutresult resultrussian russiancivil civilwar warserious seriousdamag damaganarchist anarchistmovement movementintern internmani maniworker workeractivist activistsaw sawbolshevik bolsheviksuccess successset setexampl examplcommunist communistparti partigrew grewexpens expensanarch anarchsocialist socialistmovement movementfranc francunit unitstate statemember membermajor majorsyndicalist syndicalistmovement movementgeneral generalconfeder confederlabour labourindustri industriworker workerworld worldiww iwwleft leftorganis organisjoin joincommunist communistintern internspanish spanishcivil civilwar waranarchist anarchistsyndicalist syndicalistcnt cntfai faialli allivarious variouscurrent currentleftist leftistspain spainlong longanarchist anarchisttradit traditanarchist anarchistplay playimport importrole rolecivil civilwar warrespons responsarmi armirebellion rebellionanarchist-inspir anarchist-inspirmovement movementpeasant peasantworker workersupport supportarm armmilitia militiatook tookcontrol controlbarcelona barcelonalarg largarea arearural ruralspain spaincollectivis collectivisland landsoviet sovietunion unionprovid providlimit limitassist assistbegin begincivil civilwar warjoseph josephstalin stalintri triseiz seizcontrol controlrepublican republicanresult resultbitter bitterfight fightamong amongcommunist communistanarchist anarchisti.e i.eseri serievent eventname namemay mayday | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-6 | Anarchism
Section::::History.:Post-World War II anarchism.
In the first years after World War II, the anarchist movement was severely damaged. However, the 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism. The main causes of such a revival may have been the perceived failure of Marxism–Leninism and the tension build by the Cold War. During this era, anarchism was mostly part of other movements critical to both the state and capitalism such as the anti-nuclear, environmental and pacifist movements, the New Left, or the counterculture of the 1960s. Anarchism was also associated with the punk rock movement as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols. Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of anarcha-feminism, they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s.
Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the World Trade Organization (WTO), Group of Eight (G8) and the World Economic Forum (WEF). Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. These actions were precipitated by "ad hoc", leaderless, anonymous cadres known as black blocs—other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include security culture, affinity groups and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the WTO conference in Seattle in 1999. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Zapatistas in Chiapas, Mexico, and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava, a "de facto" autonomous region in northern Syria.
section:histori :historipost-world post-worldwar warii iianarch anarchfirst firstyear yearworld worldwar warii iianarchist anarchistmovement movementsever severdamag damaghowev howev1960s 1960swit witreviv revivanarch anarchmain maincaus causreviv revivmay mayperceiv perceivfailur failurmarxism–lenin marxism–lenintension tensionbuild buildcold coldwar warera eraanarch anarchmost mostpart partmovement movementcritic criticstate statecapit capitanti-nuclear anti-nuclearenvironment environmentpacifist pacifistmovement movementnew newleft leftcountercultur countercultur1960s 1960sanarch anarchalso alsoassoci associpunk punkrock rockmovement movementexemplifi exemplifiband bandcrass crasssex sexpistol pistolalthough althoughfeminist feministtendenc tendencalway alwaypart partanarchist anarchistmovement movementform formanarcha-femin anarcha-feminreturn returnvigour vigoursecond secondwave wavefemin femin1960s 1960saround aroundturn turn21st 21stcenturi centurianarch anarchgrew grewpopular popularinfluenc influencpart partanti-war anti-waranti-capitalist anti-capitalistanti-globalis anti-globalismovement movementanarchist anarchistbecam becamknown knowninvolv involvprotest protestmeet meetworld worldtrade tradeorgan organwto wtogroup groupeight eightg8 g8world worldeconom economforum forumwef wefanarchist anarchistfaction factionprotest protestengag engagriot riotproperti propertidestruct destructviolent violentconfront confrontpolic policaction actionprecipit precipit`` ``ad adhoc hoc'' ''leaderless leaderlessanonym anonymcadr cadrknown knownblack blackblocs—oth blocs—othorganis organistactic tacticpioneer pioneertime timeinclud includsecur securcultur culturaffin affingroup groupuse usedecentralis decentralistechnolog technologinternet internetsignific significevent eventperiod periodconfront confrontwto wtoconfer conferseattl seattl1999 1999anarchist anarchistidea ideainfluenti influentidevelop developzapatista zapatistachiapa chiapamexico mexicodemocrat democratfeder federnorthern northernsyria syriacommon commonknown knownrojava rojava`` ``de defacto facto'' ''autonom autonomregion regionnorthern northernsyria | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.
Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions (individualist anarchism and social anarchism) which have some different origins, values and evolution. The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises negative liberty (opposition to state or social control over the individual) while those in the social wing emphasise positive liberty to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfil, "recognising equality of entitlement". In a chronological and theoretical sense, there are classical—those created throughout the 19th century—and post-classical anarchist schools—those created since the mid-20th century and after.
Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is philosophical anarchism which the theoretical stance that the state lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a minimal state as unfortunate and usually temporary, necessary evil, but argue that citizens do not have a moral obligation to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives, a call for toleration first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-, communist-, mutualist- and individualist-anarchism), it sought to emphasise the anti-authoritarian beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought. The various anarchist schools of thought or currents are not distinct entities, but intermingle with each other.
section:anarchist :anarchistschool schoolthought thoughtanarchist anarchistschool schoolthought thoughtgeneral generalgroup grouptwo twomain mainhistor histortradit traditindividualist individualistanarch anarchsocial socialanarch anarchdiffer differorigin originvalu valuevolut evolutindividualist individualistwing winganarch anarchemphasis emphasisnegat negatliberti libertiopposit oppositstate statesocial socialcontrol controlindividu individusocial socialwing wingemphasis emphasisposit positliberti libertiachiev achievone one's 'spotenti potentiargu arguhuman humanneed needsocieti societiought oughtfulfil fulfil`` ``recognis recognisequal equalentitl entitl'' ''chronolog chronologtheoret theoretsens sensclassical—thos classical—thoscreat creatthroughout throughout19th 19thcentury—and century—andpost-class post-classanarchist anarchistschools—thos schools—thoscreat creatsinc sincmid-20th mid-20thcenturi centuribeyond beyondspecif speciffaction factionanarchist anarchistthought thoughtphilosoph philosophanarch anarchtheoret theoretstanc stancstate statelack lackmoral morallegitimaci legitimaciwithout withoutaccept acceptimper imperrevolut revolutelimin elimincompon componespeci especiindividualist individualistanarch anarchphilosoph philosophanarch anarchmay mayaccept acceptexist existminim minimstate stateunfortun unfortunusual usualtemporari temporarinecessari necessarievil evilargu argucitizen citizenmoral moraloblig obligobey obeystate statelaw lawconflict conflictindividu individuautonomi autonomione onereaction reactionsectarian sectarianwithin withinanarchist anarchistmilieu milieuanarch anarchwithout withoutadject adjectcall calltoler tolerfirst firstadopt adoptfernando fernandotarrida tarridadel delmármol mármol1889 1889respons responsbitter bitterdebat debatanarchist anarchisttheori theoritime timeabandon abandonhyphen hyphenanarch anarchi.e i.ecollectivist- collectivist-communist- communist-mutualist- mutualist-individualist-anarch individualist-anarchsought soughtemphasis emphasisanti-authoritarian anti-authoritarianbelief beliefcommon commonanarchist anarchistschool schoolthought thoughtvarious variousanarchist anarchistschool schoolthought thoughtcurrent currentdistinct distinctentiti entitiintermingl | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.
Collectivist and communist anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism are all considered to be forms of social anarchism. Mutualism and individualism were the other notable anarchist currents through the 19th and early 20th century. Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality (while retaining respect for personal property) and emphasises cooperation and mutual aid.
section:anarchist :anarchistschool schoolthought. thought.classic classiccollectivist collectivistcommunist communistanarch anarchanarcho-synd anarcho-syndconsid considform formsocial socialanarch anarchmutual mutualindividu individunotabl notablanarchist anarchistcurrent current19th 19thearli earli20th 20thcenturi centurisocial socialanarch anarchreject rejectprivat privatproperti propertisee seesourc sourcsocial socialinequ inequretain retainrespect respectperson personproperti propertiemphasis emphasiscooper coopermutual mutualaid | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Mutualism.
Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States. Proudhon proposed spontaneous order, whereby organisation emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only what he wishes" and where "business transactions alone produce the social order".
Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical governance. For this reason, much in contrast to some of his theoretical statements concerning ultimate spontaneous self-governance, Proudhon was heavily involved in French parliamentary politics and allied himself with the socialist factions of the workers movement. During his life of public service, he began advocating state-protected charters for worker-owned cooperatives and promoting certain nationalisation schemes.
Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and credit and currency reform. According to the American mutualist William Batchelder Greene, each worker in the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount". Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property [which] we call LIBERTY".
section:anarchist :anarchistschool schoolthought. thought.classical. classical.mutual mutualmutual mutualbegan began18th-centuri 18th-centurienglish englishfrench frenchlabour labourmovement movementtake takeanarchist anarchistform formassoci associpierre-joseph pierre-josephproudhon proudhonfranc francother otherunit unitstate stateproudhon proudhonpropos proposspontan spontanorder orderwherebi wherebiorganis organisemerg emergwithout withoutcentral centralauthor author`` ``posit positanarchi anarchi'' ''order orderaris ariseverybodi everybodi`` ``wish wishwish wish'' ''`` ``busi busitransact transactalon alonproduc producsocial socialorder order'' ''proudhon proudhondistinguish distinguishideal idealpolit politpossibl possiblpractic practicgovern governreason reasonmuch muchcontrast contrasttheoret theoretstatement statementconcern concernultim ultimspontan spontanself-govern self-governproudhon proudhonheavili heaviliinvolv involvfrench frenchparliamentari parliamentaripolit politalli allisocialist socialistfaction factionworker workermovement movementlife lifepublic publicservic servicbegan beganadvoc advocstate-protect state-protectcharter charterworker-own worker-owncooper cooperpromot promotcertain certainnationalis nationalisscheme schememutualist mutualistanarch anarchconcern concernreciproc reciprocfree freeassoci associvoluntari voluntaricontract contractfeder federcredit creditcurrenc currencreform reformaccord accordamerican americanmutualist mutualistwilliam williambatcheld batcheldgreen greenworker workermutualist mutualistsystem systemwould wouldreceiv receiv`` ``exact exactpay paywork workservic servicequival equivalcost costexchang exchangservic servicequival equivalcost costwithout withoutprofit profitdiscount discount'' ''mutual mutualretrospect retrospectcharacteris characterisideolog ideologsituat situatindividualist individualistcollectivist collectivistform formanarch anarchproudhon proudhonfirst firstcharacteris characterisgoal goal`` ``third thirdform formsocieti societisynthesi synthesicommunism communismproperti properticall callliberti liberti'' | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Collectivist anarchism.
Collectivist anarchism, also referred to as revolutionary socialism or a form of such, is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and Johann Most.
At the epicentre of collectivist anarchism lies the belief in the potential of humankind for goodness and solidarity which will flourish when oppressive governments are abolished. Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or propaganda by the deed, to inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production. However, collectivisation was not to be extended to the distribution of income as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed according to need as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by anarcho-communists as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system". Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism, but it opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.
Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not mutually exclusive—although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.
section:anarchist :anarchistschool schoolthought. thought.classic classiccollectivist collectivistanarch anarchcollectivist collectivistanarch anarchalso alsorefer referrevolutionari revolutionarisocial socialform formrevolutionari revolutionariform formanarch anarchcommon commonassoci associmikhail mikhailbakunin bakuninjohann johannepicentr epicentrcollectivist collectivistanarch anarchlie liebelief beliefpotenti potentihumankind humankindgood goodsolidar solidarflourish flourishoppress oppressgovern governabolish abolishcollectivist collectivistanarchist anarchistoppos opposprivat privatownership ownershipmean meanproduct productinstead insteadadvoc advocownership ownershipcollectivis collectivisachiev achievviolent violentrevolut revolutfirst firststart startsmall smallcohes cohesgroup groupact actviolenc violencpropaganda propagandadeed deedinspir inspirworker workerwhole wholerevolt revoltforcibl forciblcollectivis collectivismean meanproduct producthowev howevcollectivis collectivisextend extenddistribut distributincom incomworker workerwould wouldpaid paidaccord accordtime timework workrather ratherreceiv receivgood gooddistribut distributaccord accordneed needanarcho-commun anarcho-communposit positcriticis criticisanarcho-communist anarcho-communisteffect effect`` ``uphold upholding ingwage wagesystem system'' ''collectivist collectivistanarch anarcharos aroscontemporan contemporanmarxism marxismoppos opposmarxist marxistdictatorship dictatorshipproletariat proletariatdespit despitstate statemarxist marxistgoal goalcollectivist collectiviststateless statelesssocieti societianarchist anarchistcommunist communistcollectivist collectivistidea ideamutual mutualexclusive—although exclusive—althoughcollectivist collectivistanarchist anarchistadvoc advoccompens compenslabour labourheld heldpossibl possiblpost-revolutionari post-revolutionaritransit transitcommunist communistsystem systemdistribut distributaccord accordneed | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Anarcho-communism.
Anarcho-communism, also known as anarchist-communism, communist anarchism and libertarian communism, is a theory of anarchism that advocates abolition of the state, markets, money, private property (while retaining respect for personal property) and capitalism in favour of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need".
Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution, but it was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organisationalist and insurrectionary anti-organisationalist sections.
To date, the best known examples of an anarcho-communist society (i.e. established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon), are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution and the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution. Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War starting in 1936, anarcho-communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia as well as in the stronghold of Catalonia. Along with the Republicans, it was crushed by the combined forces of the Francisco Franco's Nationalists, Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini as well as repression by the Communist Party of Spain (backed by the Soviet Union) and economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself.
section:anarchist :anarchistschool schoolthought. thought.classical. classical.anarcho-commun anarcho-communanarcho-commun anarcho-communalso alsoknown knownanarchist-commun anarchist-communcommunist communistanarch anarchlibertarian libertariancommunism communismtheori theorianarch anarchadvoc advocabolit abolitstate statemarket marketmoney moneyprivat privatproperti propertiretain retainrespect respectperson personproperti properticapit capitfavour favourcommon commonownership ownershipmean meanproduct productdirect directdemocraci democracihorizont horizontnetwork networkvoluntari voluntariassoci associworker workercouncil councilproduct productconsumpt consumptbase baseguid guidprincipl principl`` ``accord accordabil abilaccord accordneed need'' ''anarcho-commun anarcho-commundevelop developradic radicsocialist socialistcurrent currentfrench frenchrevolut revolutfirst firstformul formulitalian italiansection sectionfirst firstintern interntheoret theoretwork workpeter peterkropotkin kropotkintook tookimport importlater laterexpand expanddevelop developpro-organisationalist pro-organisationalistinsurrectionari insurrectionarianti-organisationalist anti-organisationalistsection sectiondate datebest bestknown knownexampl examplanarcho-communist anarcho-communistsocieti societii.e i.eestablish establisharound aroundidea ideaexist existtoday todayachiev achievworldwid worldwidattent attentknowledg knowledghistor historcanon canonanarchist anarchistterritori territorispanish spanishrevolut revolutfree freeterritori territorirussian russianrevolut revoluteffort effortinfluenc influencspanish spanishanarchist anarchistspanish spanishrevolut revolutwithin withinspanish spanishcivil civilwar warstart start1936 1936anarcho-commun anarcho-communexist existaragon aragonpart partlevant levantandalusia andalusiawell wellstronghold strongholdcatalonia cataloniaalong alongrepublican republicancrush crushcombin combinforc forcfrancisco franciscofranco franco's 'snationalist nationalistadolf adolfhitler hitlerbenito benitomussolini mussoliniwell wellrepress represscommunist communistparti partispain spainback backsoviet sovietunion unioneconom economarmament armamentblockad blockadcapitalist capitalistcountri countrispanish spanishrepubl | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Anarcho-syndicalism.
Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that focuses on the labour movement.
Anarcho-syndicalists view labour unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are workers' solidarity, direct action and workers' self-management. Anarcho-syndicalists believe that only direct action—that is, action concentrated on directly attaining a goal as opposed to indirect action such as electing a representative to a government position—will allow workers to liberate themselves.
Moreover, anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organisations (the organisations that struggle against the wage system which in anarcho-syndicalist theory will eventually form the basis of a new society) should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or business agents—rather, the workers should be able to make all the decisions that affect them themselves. Rudolf Rocker was one of the most popular voices in the anarcho-syndicalist movement. He outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet "Anarcho-Syndicalism". The International Workers Association is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labour unions from different countries. The Spanish CNT played and still plays a major role in the Spanish labour movement. It was also an important force in the Spanish Civil War.
section:anarchist :anarchistschool schoolthought. thought.classical. classical.anarcho-synd anarcho-syndanarcho-synd anarcho-syndbranch branchanarch anarchfocus focuslabour labourmovement movementanarcho-syndicalist anarcho-syndicalistview viewlabour labourunion unionpotenti potentiforc forcrevolutionari revolutionarisocial socialchang changreplac replaccapit capitstate statenew newsocieti societidemocrat democratself-manag self-managworker workerbasic basicprincipl principlanarcho-synd anarcho-syndworker workersolidar solidardirect directaction actionworker workerself-manag self-managanarcho-syndicalist anarcho-syndicalistbeliev believdirect directaction—that action—thataction actionconcentr concentrdirect directattain attaingoal goaloppos opposindirect indirectaction actionelect electrepres represgovern governposition—wil position—wilallow allowworker workerliber libermoreov moreovanarcho-syndicalist anarcho-syndicalistbeliev believworker workerorganis organisorganis organisstruggl strugglwage wagesystem systemanarcho-syndicalist anarcho-syndicalisttheori theorieventu eventuform formbasi basinew newsocieti societiself-manag self-managboss bossbusi busiagents—rath agents—rathworker workerabl ablmake makedecis decisaffect affectrudolf rudolfrocker rockerone onepopular popularvoic voicanarcho-syndicalist anarcho-syndicalistmovement movementoutlin outlinview vieworigin originmovement movementsought soughtimport importfutur futurlabour labour1938 1938pamphlet pamphlet`` ``anarcho-synd anarcho-synd'' ''intern internworker workerassoci associintern internanarcho-syndicalist anarcho-syndicalistfeder federvarious variouslabour labourunion uniondiffer differcountri countrispanish spanishcnt cntplay playstill stillplay playmajor majorrole rolespanish spanishlabour labourmovement movementalso alsoimport importforc forcspanish spanishcivil civilwar | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Individualist anarchism.
Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy, but it instead refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict.
In 1793, William Godwin, who has often been cited as the first anarchist, wrote "Political Justice", which some consider the first expression of anarchism. Godwin was a philosophical anarchist and from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge. Godwin advocated individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.
An influential form of individualist anarchism called egoism, or egoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German Max Stirner. Stirner's "The Ego and Its Own", published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy. According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of individuals is their power to obtain what they desire without regard for God, state, or morality. To Stirner, rights were "spooks" in the mind and he held that society does not exist, but "the individuals are its reality". Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will, which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the state. Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals. "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and homosexual activist John Henry Mackay.
Josiah Warren was a pioneer American anarcho-individualist, who drew inspiration from Proudhon. Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his books "Walden", a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, as well as his essay, "Civil Disobedience", an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Benjamin Tucker later fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication "Liberty".
From these early influences, individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals, free love and birth control advocates (see anarchism and issues related to love and sex), individualist naturists and nudists (see anarcho-naturism), freethought and anti-clerical activists as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation (see European individualist anarchism and individualist anarchism in France). These authors and activists included Oscar Wilde, Emile Armand, Han Ryner, Henri Zisly, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Gimenez Igualada, Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi, among others.
section:anarchist :anarchistschool schoolthought. thought.classic classicindividualist individualistanarch anarchindividualist individualistanarch anarchrefer refersever severtradit traditthought thoughtwithin withinanarchist anarchistmovement movementemphasis emphasisindividu individukind kindextern externdetermin determingroup groupsocieti societitradit traditideolog ideologsystem systemindividualist individualistanarch anarchsingl singlphilosophi philosophiinstead insteadrefer refergroup groupindividualist individualistphilosophi philosophisometim sometimconflict conflict1793 1793william williamgodwin godwinoften oftencite citefirst firstanarchist anarchistwrote wrote`` ``polit politjustic justic'' ''consid considfirst firstexpress expressanarch anarchgodwin godwinphilosoph philosophanarchist anarchistrationalist rationalistutilitarian utilitarianbasi basioppos opposrevolutionari revolutionariaction actionsaw sawminim minimstate statepresent present`` ``necessari necessarievil evil'' ''would wouldbecom becomincreas increasirrelev irrelevpowerless powerlessgradual gradualspread spreadknowledg knowledggodwin godwinadvoc advocindividu individupropos proposcooper cooperlabour labourelimin eliminpremis premiswould wouldconduc conducgeneral generalgood goodinfluenti influentiform formindividualist individualistanarch anarchcall callegoism egoismegoist egoistanarch anarchexpound expoundone oneearliest earliestbest-known best-knownpropon proponindividualist individualistanarch anarchgerman germanmax maxstirner stirnerstirner stirner's 's`` ``ego ego'' ''publish publish1844 1844found foundtext textphilosophi philosophiaccord accordstirner stirnerlimit limitright rightindividu individupower powerobtain obtaindesir desirwithout withoutregard regardgod godstate statemoral moralstirner stirnerright right`` ``spook spook'' ''mind mindheld heldsocieti societiexist exist`` ``individu individurealiti realiti'' ''stirner stirneradvoc advocself-assert self-assertforesaw foresawunion unionegoist egoistnon-systemat non-systematassoci associcontinu continurenew renewparti partisupport supportact actstirner stirnerpropos proposform formorganis organisplace placestate stateegoist egoistanarchist anarchistargu arguegoism egoismfoster fostergenuin genuinspontan spontanunion unionindividu individu`` ``egoism egoism'' ''inspir inspirmani maniinterpret interpretstirner stirner's 'sphilosophi philosophire-discov re-discovpromot promotgerman germanphilosoph philosophanarchist anarchisthomosexu homosexuactivist activistjohn johnhenri henrimackay mackayjosiah josiahwarren warrenpioneer pioneeramerican americananarcho-individualist anarcho-individualistdrew drewinspir inspirproudhon proudhonhenri henridavid davidthoreau thoreau1817–1862 1817–1862import importearli earliinfluenc influencindividualist individualistanarchist anarchistthought thoughtunit unitstate stateeurop europthoreau thoreauamerican americanauthor authorpoet poetnaturalist naturalisttax taxresist resistdevelop developcritic criticsurveyor surveyorhistorian historianphilosoph philosophlead leadtranscendentalist transcendentalistbest bestknown knownbook book`` ``walden walden'' ''reflect reflectupon uponsimpl simpllive livenatur natursurround surroundwell wellessay essay`` ``civil civildisobedi disobedi'' ''argument argumentindividu individuresist resistcivil civilgovern governmoral moralopposit oppositunjust unjuststate statebenjamin benjamintucker tuckerlater laterfuse fusestirner stirner's 'segoism egoismeconom economwarren warrenproudhon proudhoneclect eclectinfluenti influentipublic public`` ``liberti liberti'' ''earli earliinfluenc influencindividualist individualistanarch anarchdiffer differcountri countriattract attractsmall smallyet yetdivers diversfollow followbohemian bohemianartist artistintellectu intellectufree freelove lovebirth birthcontrol controladvoc advocsee seeanarch anarchissu issurelat relatlove lovesex sexindividualist individualistnaturist naturistnudist nudistsee seeanarcho-natur anarcho-naturfreethought freethoughtanti-cler anti-cleractivist activistwell wellyoung younganarchist anarchistoutlaw outlawbecam becamknown knownilleg illegindividu individureclam reclamsee seeeuropean europeanindividualist individualistanarch anarchindividualist individualistanarch anarchfranc francauthor authoractivist activistinclud includoscar oscarwild wildemil emilarmand armandhan hanryner rynerhenri henrizisli zislirenzo renzonovator novatormiguel miguelgimenez gimenezigualada igualadaadolf adolfbrand brandlev levchernyi chernyiamong amongother | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Post-classical and contemporary.
Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalization movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence, though its publicity has also led more scholars to engage with the anarchist movement. Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and syncretic, combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches.
Anticapitalism stays prominent within contemporary anarchism, continuing the tradition of classical anarchism.
Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory, practice and tendency within the anarchist movement which emphasises insurrection within anarchist practice. Critical of formal organisations such as labour unions and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses, insurrectionary anarchists instead advocate informal organisation and small affinity group based organisation as well as putting value in attack, permanent class conflict and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies.
Green anarchism, or eco-anarchism, is a school of thought within anarchism that emphasises environmental issues, with an important precedent in anarcho-naturism and whose main contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and social ecology. Writing from a green anarchist perspective, John Zerzan attributes the ills of today's social degradation to technology and the birth of agricultural civilization. While Layla AbdelRahim argues that "the shift in human consciousness was also a shift in human subsistence strategies, whereby some human animals reinvented their narrative to center murder and predation and thereby institutionalize violence". According to AbdelRahim, civilization was the result of the human development of technologies and grammar for predatory economics. Language and literacy, she claims, are some of these technologies.
Anarcho-pacifism is a tendency that rejects violence in the struggle for social change (see non-violence). It developed mostly in the Netherlands, Britain and the United States before and during the Second World War. Christian anarchism is a movement in political theology that combines anarchism and Christianity. Its main proponents included Leo Tolstoy, Dorothy Day, Ammon Hennacy and Jacques Ellul.
Religious anarchism refers to a set of related anarchist ideologies that are inspired by the teachings of religions. While many anarchists have traditionally been sceptical of and opposed to organized religion, many different religions have served as inspiration for religious forms of anarchism, most notably Christianity as Christian anarchists believe that biblical teachings give credence to anarchist philosophy. Other examples include Buddhist anarchism, Jewish anarchism and most recently Neopaganism.
Synthesis anarchism is a form of anarchism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives. In the 1920s, this form found as its main proponents the anarcho-communists Voline and Sébastien Faure. It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of Anarchist Federations.
Platformism is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement based on the organisational theories in the tradition of Dielo Truda's "Organisational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)". The document was based on the experiences of Russian anarchists in the 1917 October Revolution which led eventually to the victory of the Bolsheviks over the anarchists and other groups. The "Platform" attempted to address and explain the anarchist movement's failures during the Russian Revolution.
Post-left anarchy is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchism's relationship to traditional left-wing politics. Some post-leftists seek to escape the confines of ideology in general also presenting a critique of organisations and morality. Influenced by the work of Max Stirner and by the Marxist Situationist International, post-left anarchy is marked by a focus on social insurrection and a rejection of leftist social organisation.
Post-anarchism is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought, drawing from diverse ideas including post-left anarchy, postmodernism, autonomism, postcolonialism and the Situationist International.
Queer anarchism is a form of socialism which suggests anarchism as a solution to the issues faced by the LGBT community, mainly heteronormativity, homophobia, transphobia and biphobia. It arose during the late 20th century based on the work of Michel Foucault's "The History of Sexuality" (1976).
Left-wing market anarchism strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self-ownership and free markets while maintaining that taken to their logical conclusions these ideas support strongly anti-capitalist, anti-corporatist, anti-hierarchical and pro-labour positions in economics; anti-imperialism in foreign policy; and thoroughly radical views regarding such cultural issues as gender, sexuality and race.
Anarcho-capitalism advocates the elimination of the state in favour of self-ownership in a free market. Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical American anti-state libertarianism and individualist anarchism, drawing from Austrian School economics, study of law and economics and public choice theory. There is a strong current within anarchism which believes that anarcho-capitalism cannot be considered a part of the anarchist movement due to the fact that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and for definitional reasons which see anarchism as incompatible with capitalist forms.
Anarcho-transhumanism is a recently new branch of anarchism that takes traditional and modern anarchism, typically drawing from anarcho-syndicalism, left-libertarianism, or libertarian socialism, and combines it with transhumanism and post-humanism. It can be described as a "liberal democratic revolution, at its core the idea that people are happiest when they have rational control over their lives. Reason, science, and technology provide one kind of control, slowly freeing us from ignorance, toil, pain, disease and limited lifespans (aging)". Some anarcho-transhumanists might also follow technogaianism.
section:anarchist :anarchistschool schoolthought thoughtpost-class post-classcontemporari contemporarianarchist anarchistprincipl principlundergird undergirdcontemporari contemporariradic radicsocial socialmovement movementleft leftinterest interestanarchist anarchistmovement movementdevelop developalongsid alongsidmomentum momentumanti-glob anti-globmovement movementwhose whoselead leadactivist activistnetwork networkanarchist anarchistorient orientmovement movementshape shape21st 21stcenturi centuriradic radicwider widerembrac embracanarchist anarchistprincipl principlsignal signalreviv revivinterest interestcontemporari contemporarinews newscoverag coveragemphas emphasblack blackbloc blocdemonstr demonstrreinforc reinforcanarch anarch's 'shistor historassoci associchao chaoviolenc violencthough thoughpublic publicalso alsoled ledscholar scholarengag engaganarchist anarchistmovement movementanarch anarchcontinu continugenerat generatmani maniphilosophi philosophimovement movementtime timeeclect eclectdraw drawupon uponvarious varioussourc sourcsyncret syncretcombin combindispar disparconcept conceptcreat creatnew newphilosoph philosophapproach approachanticapit anticapitstay staypromin prominwithin withincontemporari contemporarianarch anarchcontinu continutradit traditclassic classicanarch anarchinsurrectionari insurrectionarianarch anarchrevolutionari revolutionaritheori theoripractic practictendenc tendencwithin withinanarchist anarchistmovement movementemphasis emphasisinsurrect insurrectwithin withinanarchist anarchistpractic practiccritic criticformal formalorganis organislabour labourunion unionfeder federbase basepolit politprogramm programmperiod periodcongress congressinsurrectionari insurrectionarianarchist anarchistinstead insteadadvoc advocinform informorganis organissmall smallaffin affingroup groupbase baseorganis organiswell wellput putvalu valuattack attackperman permanclass classconflict conflictrefus refusnegoti negoticompromis compromisclass classenemi enemigreen greenanarch anarcheco-anarch eco-anarchschool schoolthought thoughtwithin withinanarch anarchemphasis emphasisenvironment environmentissu issuimport importpreced precedanarcho-natur anarcho-naturwhose whosemain maincontemporari contemporaricurrent currentanarcho-primitiv anarcho-primitivsocial socialecolog ecologwrite writegreen greenanarchist anarchistperspect perspectjohn johnzerzan zerzanattribut attributill illtoday today's 'ssocial socialdegrad degradtechnolog technologbirth birthagricultur agriculturcivil civillayla laylaabdelrahim abdelrahimargu argu`` ``shift shifthuman humanconscious consciousalso alsoshift shifthuman humansubsist subsiststrategi strategiwherebi wherebihuman humananim animreinvent reinventnarrat narratcenter centermurder murderpredat predattherebi therebiinstitution institutionviolenc violenc'' ''accord accordabdelrahim abdelrahimcivil civilresult resulthuman humandevelop developtechnolog technologgrammar grammarpredatori predatorieconom economlanguag languagliteraci literaciclaim claimtechnolog technologanarcho-pacif anarcho-paciftendenc tendencreject rejectviolenc violencstruggl strugglsocial socialchang changsee seenon-viol non-violdevelop developmost mostnetherland netherlandbritain britainunit unitstate statesecond secondworld worldwar warchristian christiananarch anarchmovement movementpolit polittheolog theologcombin combinanarch anarchchristian christianmain mainpropon proponinclud includleo leotolstoy tolstoydorothi dorothiday dayammon ammonhennaci hennacijacqu jacquellul ellulreligi religianarch anarchrefer referset setrelat relatanarchist anarchistideolog ideologinspir inspirteach teachreligion religionmani manianarchist anarchisttradit traditsceptic scepticoppos opposorgan organreligion religionmani manidiffer differreligion religionserv servinspir inspirreligi religiform formanarch anarchnotabl notablchristian christianchristian christiananarchist anarchistbeliev believbiblic biblicteach teachgive givecredenc credencanarchist anarchistphilosophi philosophiexampl examplinclud includbuddhist buddhistanarch anarchjewish jewishanarch anarchrecent recentneopagan neopagansynthesi synthesianarch anarchform formanarch anarchtri trijoin joinanarchist anarchistdiffer differtendenc tendencprincipl principlanarch anarchwithout withoutadject adject1920s 1920sform formfound foundmain mainpropon proponanarcho-communist anarcho-communistvolin volinsébastien sébastienfaur faurmain mainprincipl principlbehind behindanarchist anarchistfeder federgroup grouparound aroundcontemporari contemporariglobal globalintern internanarchist anarchistfeder federplatform platformtendenc tendencwithin withinwider wideranarchist anarchistmovement movementbase baseorganis organistheori theoritradit traditdielo dielotruda truda's 's`` ``organis organisplatform platformgeneral generalunion unionanarchist anarchistdraft draft'' ''document documentbase baseexperi experirussian russiananarchist anarchist1917 1917octob octobrevolut revolutled ledeventu eventuvictori victoribolshevik bolshevikanarchist anarchistgroup group`` ``platform platform'' ''attempt attemptaddress addressexplain explainanarchist anarchistmovement movement's 'sfailur failurrussian russianrevolut revolutpost-left post-leftanarchi anarchirecent recentcurrent currentanarchist anarchistthought thoughtpromot promotcritiqu critiquanarch anarch's 'srelationship relationshiptradit traditleft-w left-wpolit politpost-leftist post-leftistseek seekescap escapconfin confinideolog ideologgeneral generalalso alsopresent presentcritiqu critiquorganis organismoral moralinfluenc influencwork workmax maxstirner stirnermarxist marxistsituationist situationistintern internpost-left post-leftanarchi anarchimark markfocus focussocial socialinsurrect insurrectreject rejectleftist leftistsocial socialorganis organispost-anarch post-anarchtheoret theoretmove movetoward towardsynthesi synthesiclassic classicanarchist anarchisttheori theoripoststructuralist poststructuralistthought thoughtdraw drawdivers diversidea ideainclud includpost-left post-leftanarchi anarchipostmodern postmodernautonom autonompostcoloni postcolonisituationist situationistintern internqueer queeranarch anarchform formsocial socialsuggest suggestanarch anarchsolut solutissu issuface facelgbt lgbtcommuniti communitimain mainheteronorm heteronormhomophobia homophobiatransphobia transphobiabiphobia biphobiaaros aroslate late20th 20thcenturi centuribase basework workmichel michelfoucault foucault's 's`` ``histori historisexual sexual'' ''1976 1976left-w left-wmarket marketanarch anarchstrong strongaffirm affirmclassic classicliber liberidea ideaself-ownership self-ownershipfree freemarket marketmaintain maintaintaken takenlogic logicconclus conclusidea ideasupport supportstrong stronganti-capitalist anti-capitalistanti-corporatist anti-corporatistanti-hierarch anti-hierarchpro-labour pro-labourposit positeconom economanti-imperi anti-imperiforeign foreignpolici policithorough thoroughradic radicview viewregard regardcultur culturissu issugender gendersexual sexualrace raceanarcho-capit anarcho-capitadvoc advocelimin eliminstate statefavour favourself-ownership self-ownershipfree freemarket marketanarcho-capit anarcho-capitdevelop developradic radicamerican americananti-st anti-stlibertarian libertarianindividualist individualistanarch anarchdraw drawaustrian austrianschool schooleconom economstudi studilaw laweconom econompublic publicchoic choictheori theoristrong strongcurrent currentwithin withinanarch anarchbeliev believanarcho-capit anarcho-capitconsid considpart partanarchist anarchistmovement movementdue duefact factanarch anarchhistor historanti-capitalist anti-capitalistmovement movementdefinit definitreason reasonsee seeanarch anarchincompat incompatcapitalist capitalistform formanarcho-transhuman anarcho-transhumanrecent recentnew newbranch branchanarch anarchtake taketradit traditmodern modernanarch anarchtypic typicdraw drawanarcho-synd anarcho-syndleft-libertarian left-libertarianlibertarian libertariansocial socialcombin combintranshuman transhumanpost-human post-humandescrib describ`` ``liber liberdemocrat democratrevolut revolutcore coreidea ideapeopl peoplhappiest happiestration rationcontrol controllive livereason reasonscienc scienctechnolog technologprovid providone onekind kindcontrol controlslowli slowlifree freeus usignor ignortoil toilpain paindiseas diseaslimit limitlifespan lifespanage age'' ''anarcho-transhumanist anarcho-transhumanistmight mightalso alsofollow followtechnogaian | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Post-classical and contemporary.:Anarcha-feminism.
Anarcha-feminism, also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism, combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy that should be replaced by decentralised free association. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class struggle and the anarchist struggle against the state. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a necessary component of feminist struggle and vice versa. Anarcha-feminists espoused to a detailed analysis of patriarchy and claim that oppression has its roots to social norms.
Anarcha-feminism began with the late 19th-century writings of early feminist anarchists such as Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre. Mujeres Libres was an anarchist women's organisation in Spain that aimed to empower working class women, based on the idea of a double struggle for women's liberation and social revolution and argued that the two objectives were equally important and should be pursued in parallel. In order to gain mutual support, they created networks of women anarchists. The second wave of anarcha-feminism arose in the 1960s.
section:anarchist :anarchistschool schoolthought thoughtpost-class post-classcontemporary. contemporary.anarcha-femin anarcha-feminanarcha-femin anarcha-feminalso alsocall callanarchist anarchistfemin feminanarcho-femin anarcho-femincombin combinanarch anarchfemin femingeneral generalview viewpatriarchi patriarchimanifest manifestinvoluntari involuntaricoerciv coercivhierarchi hierarchireplac replacdecentralis decentralisfree freeassoci associanarcha-feminist anarcha-feministbeliev believstruggl strugglpatriarchi patriarchiessenti essentipart partclass classstruggl strugglanarchist anarchiststruggl strugglstate stateessenc essencphilosophi philosophisee seeanarchist anarchiststruggl strugglnecessari necessaricompon componfeminist feministstruggl strugglvice viceversa versaanarcha-feminist anarcha-feministespous espousdetail detailanalysi analysipatriarchi patriarchiclaim claimoppress oppressroot rootsocial socialnorm normanarcha-femin anarcha-feminbegan beganlate late19th-centuri 19th-centuriwrite writeearli earlifeminist feministanarchist anarchistemma emmagoldman goldmanvoltairin voltairinde decleyr cleyrmujer mujerlibr libranarchist anarchistwomen women's 'sorganis organisspain spainaim aimempow empowwork workclass classwomen womenbase baseidea ideadoubl doublstruggl strugglwomen women's 'sliber libersocial socialrevolut revolutargu argutwo twoobject objectequal equalimport importpursu pursuparallel parallelorder ordergain gainmutual mutualsupport supportcreat creatnetwork networkwomen womenanarchist anarchistsecond secondwave waveanarcha-femin anarcha-feminaros aros1960s | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Internal issues and debates.
As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought and as such disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common, its diversity has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has led to many definitional concerns in anarchist theory. For instance, the compatibility of capitalism, nationalism and religion with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as Marxism, communism, collectivism and trade unionism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism) and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. On a tactical level, propaganda of the deed was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the nihilist movement), with some contemporary anarchists espousing alternative direct action methods such as nonviolence, counter-economics and anti-state cryptography to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a global one while others do so by local ones.
section:intern :internissu issudebat debatanarch anarchphilosophi philosophiembodi embodimani manidivers diversattitud attitudtendenc tendencschool schoolthought thoughtdisagr disagrquestion questionvalu valuideolog ideologtactic tacticcommon commondivers diversled ledwide widediffer differuse useident identterm termamong amongdiffer differanarchist anarchisttradit traditled ledmani manidefinit definitconcern concernanarchist anarchisttheori theoriinstanc instanccompat compatcapit capitnation nationreligion religionanarch anarchwide widedisput disputsimilar similaranarch anarchenjoy enjoycomplex complexrelationship relationshipideolog ideologmarxism marxismcommunism communismcollectiv collectivtrade tradeunion unionanarchist anarchistmay maymotiv motivhuman humandivin divinauthor authorenlighten enlightenself-interest self-interestvegan vegannumber numberaltern alternethic ethicdoctrin doctrinphenomena phenomenacivilis civilistechnolog technologe.g e.gwithin withinanarcho-primitiv anarcho-primitivdemocrat democratprocess processmay maysharpli sharplicriticis criticiswithin withinanarchist anarchisttendenc tendencsimultan simultanlaud laudother othertactic tacticlevel levelpropaganda propagandadeed deedtactic tacticuse useanarchist anarchist19th 19thcenturi centurie.g e.gnihilist nihilistmovement movementcontemporari contemporarianarchist anarchistespous espousaltern alterndirect directaction actionmethod methodnonviol nonviolcounter-econom counter-economanti-st anti-stcryptographi cryptographibring bringanarchist anarchistsocieti societiscope scopeanarchist anarchistsocieti societianarchist anarchistadvoc advocglobal globalone oneother otherlocal localone | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-17 | Anarchism
Section::::Topics of interest.
Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought, certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist theory.
section:topic :topicinterest interestintersect intersectoverlap overlapvarious variousschool schoolthought thoughtcertain certaintopic topicinterest interestintern interndisput disputproven provenperenni perenniwithin withinanarchist anarchisttheori | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-18 | Anarchism
Section::::Topics of interest.:Anarchism and free love.
An important current within anarchism is free love. In Europe, the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was Emile Armand. He proposed the concept of "la camaraderie amoureuse" to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of polyamory. In Germany, the Stirnerists Adolf Brand and John Henry Mackay were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality. More recently, the British anarcho-pacifist Alex Comfort gained notoriety during the sexual revolution for writing the bestseller sex manual "The Joy of Sex". The issue of free love has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho-hedonist philosopher Michel Onfray in such works as "Théorie du corps amoureux. Pour une érotique solaire" (2000) and "L'invention du plaisir. Fragments cyréaniques" (2002).
section:topic :topicinterest interestanarch anarchfree freelove loveimport importcurrent currentwithin withinanarch anarchfree freelove loveeurop europmain mainpropagandist propagandistfree freelove lovewithin withinindividualist individualistanarch anarchemil emilarmand armandpropos proposconcept concept`` ``la lacamaraderi camaraderiamoureus amoureus'' ''speak speakfree freelove lovepossibl possiblvoluntari voluntarisexual sexualencount encountconsent consentadult adultalso alsoconsist consistpropon proponpolyamori polyamorigermani germanistirnerist stirneristadolf adolfbrand brandjohn johnhenri henrimackay mackaypioneer pioneercampaign campaignaccept acceptmale malebisexu bisexuhomosexu homosexurecent recentbritish britishanarcho-pacifist anarcho-pacifistalex alexcomfort comfortgain gainnotorieti notorietisexual sexualrevolut revolutwrite writebestsel bestselsex sexmanual manual`` ``joy joysex sex'' ''issu issufree freelove lovededic dedictreatment treatmentwork workfrench frenchanarcho-hedonist anarcho-hedonistphilosoph philosophmichel michelonfray onfraywork work`` ``théori théoridu ducorp corpamoureux amoureuxpour pourune uneérotiqu érotiqusolair solair'' ''2000 2000`` ``l'invent l'inventdu duplaisir plaisirfragment fragmentcyréaniqu cyréaniqu'' ''2002 | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-19 | Anarchism
Section::::Topics of interest.:Anarchism and education.
English anarchist William Godwin considered education an important aspect. He was against state education as he considered those schools as a way of the state to replicate privileges of the ruling class. Godwin thought that education was the way to change the world. In his "Political Justice", he criticises state sponsored schooling and advocates for child's protection from coercion. Max Stirner wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called "The False Principle of our Education" in which Stirner was advocating for child's autonomy.
In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia established modern or progressive schools in Barcelona in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both the state and church involvement in the educational process and gave pupils plenty of autonomy (i.e. on setting the curriculum). Ferrer was aiming to educate the working class. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later on arrested. Ferrer's ideas generally formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools in the United States,
Russian Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy established a school for peasant children on his estate. Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police. Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture. He thought that "[e]ducation is the tendency of one man to make another just like himself. [...] Education is culture under restraint, culture is free. [Education is] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and when then instruction is exclusive, that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator regards as necessary". For him, "without compulsion, education was transformed into culture".
A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of unschooling and the free school in which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany led to A. S. Neill founding what became Summerhill School in 1921. Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice. However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian, they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly political class struggle-approach. In addition to organising schools according to libertarian principles, anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The term deschooling was popularised by Ivan Illich, who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society instead.
section:topic :topicinterest interestanarch anarcheduc educenglish englishanarchist anarchistwilliam williamgodwin godwinconsid consideduc educimport importaspect aspectstate stateeduc educconsid considschool schoolway waystate statereplic replicprivileg privilegrule ruleclass classgodwin godwinthought thoughteduc educway waychang changworld world`` ``polit politjustic justic'' ''criticis criticisstate statesponsor sponsorschool schooladvoc advocchild child's 'sprotect protectcoercion coercionmax maxstirner stirnerwrote wrote1842 1842long longessay essayeduc educcall call`` ``fals falsprincipl principleduc educ'' ''stirner stirneradvoc advocchild child's 'sautonomi autonomi1901 1901catalan catalananarchist anarchistfree freethinker thinkerfrancesc francescferrer ferrerguàrdia guàrdiaestablish establishmodern modernprogress progressschool schoolbarcelona barcelonadefianc defianceduc educsystem systemcontrol controlcathol catholchurch churchferrer ferrer's 'sapproach approachsecular secularreject rejectstate statechurch churchinvolv involveduc educprocess processgave gavepupil pupilplenti plentiautonomi autonomii.e i.eset setcurriculum curriculumferrer ferreraim aimeduc educwork workclass classschool schoolclose closeconstant constantharass harassstate stateferrer ferrerlater laterarrest arrestferrer ferrer's 'sidea ideageneral generalform forminspir inspirseri serimodern modernschool schoolunit unitstate staterussian russianchristian christiananarchist anarchistleo leotolstoy tolstoyestablish establishschool schoolpeasant peasantchildren childrenestat estattolstoy tolstoy's 'seduc educexperi experishort-liv short-livdue dueharass harasstsarist tsaristsecret secretpolic polictolstoy tolstoyestablish establishconceptu conceptudiffer differeduc educcultur culturthought thought`` ``e educat ducattendenc tendencone oneman manmake makeanoth anothlike like... ...educ educcultur culturrestraint restraintcultur culturfree freeeduc educteach teachforc forcupon uponpupil pupilinstruct instructexclus exclussubject subjecttaught taughteduc educregard regardnecessari necessari'' ''`` ``without withoutcompuls compulseduc eductransform transformcultur cultur'' ''recent recentlibertarian libertariantradit traditeduc educunschool unschoolfree freeschool schoolchild-l child-lactiv activreplac replacpedagog pedagogapproach approachexperi experigermani germaniled leda. a.s. s.neill neillfound foundbecam becamsummerhil summerhilschool school1921 1921summerhil summerhiloften oftencite citeexampl examplanarch anarchpractic practichowev howevalthough althoughsummerhil summerhilfree freeschool schoolradic radiclibertarian libertariandiffer differprincipl principlferrer ferreradvoc advocovert overtpolit politclass classstruggle-approach struggle-approachaddit additorganis organisschool schoolaccord accordlibertarian libertarianprincipl principlanarchist anarchistalso alsoquestion questionconcept conceptschool schoolper perse seterm termdeschool deschoolpopularis popularisivan ivanillich illichargu arguschool schoolinstitut institutdysfunct dysfunctself-determin self-determinlearn learnserv servcreation creationconsum consumsocieti societiinstead | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
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Section::::Topics of interest.:Anarchism and the state.
Objection to the state and its institutions is "sine qua non" of anarchism. Anarchists consider the government as a tool of domination and it is illegitimate regardless of political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power regardless if it is open or transparent as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that some people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the argument that the state is the collective will of people as a fairy tale since the ruling class is distinct from the rest of the society.
section:topic :topicinterest interestanarch anarchstate stateobject objectstate stateinstitut institut`` ``sine sinequa quanon non'' ''anarch anarchanarchist anarchistconsid considgovern governtool tooldomin dominillegitim illegitimregardless regardlesspolit polittendenc tendencinstead insteadpeopl peoplabl ablcontrol controlaspect aspectlife lifemajor majordecis decistaken takensmall smallelit elitauthor authorultim ultimrest restsole solepower powerregardless regardlessopen opentranspar transparstill stillabil abilcoerc coercpeopl peoplanoth anothanarchist anarchistargument argumentstate statepeopl peoplconstitut constitutgovern governeven evenaltruist altruistamong amongoffici officiunavoid unavoidseek seekgain gainpower powerlead leadcorrupt corruptanarchist anarchistconsid considargument argumentstate statecollect collectpeopl peoplfairi fairitale talesinc sincrule ruleclass classdistinct distinctrest restsocieti | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-21 | Anarchism
Section::::Topics of interest.:Anarchism and violence.
Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been perplexed and controversial. On one hand, anarcho-pacifists point out the unity of means and ends. On the other hand, other groups of anarchist are for direct action that can include sabotage or even terrorism. Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, were arguing that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil. Peace activist and anarchist April Carter argues that violence is incompatible with anarchism because it is mostly associated with the state and authority as violence is immanent to the state. As the state's capability to exercise violence is colossal nowadays, a rebellion or civil war would probably end in another authoritarian institute.
section:topic :topicinterest interestanarch anarchviolenc violencanarchist anarchistperspect perspecttoward towardviolenc violencalway alwayperplex perplexcontroversi controversione onehand handanarcho-pacifist anarcho-pacifistpoint pointuniti unitimean meanend endhand handgroup groupanarchist anarchistdirect directaction actioninclud includsabotag sabotageven eventerror terroremma emmagoldman goldmanerrico erricomalatesta malatestapropon proponlimit limituse useviolenc violencargu arguviolenc violencmere merereaction reactionstate stateviolenc violencnecessari necessarievil evilpeac peacactivist activistanarchist anarchistapril aprilcarter carterargu arguviolenc violencincompat incompatanarch anarchmost mostassoci associstate stateauthor authorviolenc violencimman immanstate statestate state's 'scapabl capablexercis exercisviolenc violenccoloss colossnowaday nowadayrebellion rebellioncivil civilwar warwould wouldprobabl probablend endanoth anothauthoritarian authoritarianinstitut | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-22 | Anarchism
Section::::Anarchist strategies and tactics.
Anarchist tactics vary considerably. A broad categorization would be the preference of revolutionary tactics to destroy oppressive States and institutions or aiming to change society through evolutionary means. Revolutionary methods can take violent form as they did in past insurgencies (i.e., in Spain, Mexico, Russia) or during violent protests by militant protestors such as the black bloc, who are generally much less violent than revolutionary movements a century ago. Anarchists also commonly employ direct action, which can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchies, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counterinstitutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Often decision-making is handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism. Another aspect of anarchist tactics is their aim to strengthen social bonds through common actions.
Reclaiming public space by anarchists is another method of creating social spaces and creating squats in order to organise themselves. During important events such as protests, when spaces are being occupied, they are often called
"Temporary Autonomous Zones" (TAZ).
section:anarchist :anarchiststrategi strategitactic tacticanarchist anarchisttactic tacticvari variconsider considerbroad broadcategor categorwould wouldprefer preferrevolutionari revolutionaritactic tacticdestroy destroyoppress oppressstate stateinstitut institutaim aimchang changsocieti societievolutionari evolutionarimean meanrevolutionari revolutionarimethod methodtake takeviolent violentform formpast pastinsurg insurgi.e. i.e.spain spainmexico mexicorussia russiaviolent violentprotest protestmilit militprotestor protestorblack blackbloc blocgeneral generalmuch muchless lessviolent violentrevolutionari revolutionarimovement movementcenturi centuriago agoanarchist anarchistalso alsocommon commonemploy employdirect directaction actiontake takeform formdisrupt disruptprotest protestunjust unjusthierarchi hierarchiform formself-manag self-managlive livecreation creationcounterinstitut counterinstitutcommune communenon-hierarch non-hierarchcollect collectoften oftendecision-mak decision-makhandl handlanti-authoritarian anti-authoritarianway wayeveryon everyonequal equalsay saydecis decisapproach approachknown knownhorizont horizontanoth anothaspect aspectanarchist anarchisttactic tacticaim aimstrengthen strengthensocial socialbond bondcommon commonaction actionreclaim reclaimpublic publicspace spaceanarchist anarchistanoth anothmethod methodcreat creatsocial socialspace spacecreat creatsquat squatorder orderorganis organisimport importevent eventprotest protestspace spaceoccupi occupioften oftencall call'' ''temporari temporariautonom autonomzone zone'' ''taz | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-23 | Anarchism
Section::::Criticisms.
Moral and pragmatic criticism of anarchism includes allegations of utopianism, tacit authoritarianism and vandalism towards feats of civilization.
section:critic :criticmoral moralpragmat pragmatcritic criticanarch anarchinclud includalleg allegutopian utopiantacit tacitauthoritarian authoritarianvandal vandaltoward towardfeat featcivil | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-24 | Anarchism
Section::::Criticisms.:Allegation of utopianism.
Anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian by its critics, often in general and formal debate. European history professor Carl Landauer argued that social anarchism is unrealistic and that government is a "lesser evil" than a society without "repressive force". He also argued that "ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears" is an "absurdity". However, "An Anarchist FAQ" states the following: "Anarchy is not a utopia, [and] anarchists make no such claims about human perfection. [...] Remaining disputes would be solved by reasonable methods, for example, the use of juries, mutual third parties, or community and workplace assemblies". It also states that "some sort of 'court' system would still be necessary to deal with the remaining crimes and to adjudicate disputes between citizens".
section:critic :criticalleg allegutopian utopiananarch anarchevalu evaluunfeas unfeasutopian utopiancritic criticoften oftengeneral generalformal formaldebat debateuropean europeanhistori historiprofessor professorcarl carllandauer landauerargu argusocial socialanarch anarchunrealist unrealistgovern govern`` ``lesser lesserevil evil'' ''societi societiwithout without`` ``repress repressforc forc'' ''also alsoargu argu`` ``ill illintent intentceas ceasrepress repressforc forcdisappear disappear'' ''`` ``absurd absurd'' ''howev howev`` ``anarchist anarchistfaq faq'' ''state statefollow follow`` ``anarchi anarchiutopia utopiaanarchist anarchistmake makeclaim claimhuman humanperfect perfect... ...remain remaindisput disputwould wouldsolv solvreason reasonmethod methodexampl exampluse usejuri jurimutual mutualthird thirdparti particommuniti communitiworkplac workplacassembl assembl'' ''also alsostate state`` ``sort sortcourt courtsystem systemwould wouldstill stillnecessari necessarideal dealremain remaincrime crimeadjud adjuddisput disputcitizen citizen'' | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-25 | Anarchism
Section::::Criticisms.:Tacit authoritarianism.
The anarchist tendency known as platformism has been criticized by Situationists, insurrectionaries, synthesis anarchists and others of preserving tacitly statist, authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies.
section:critic :critictacit tacitauthoritarian authoritariananarchist anarchisttendenc tendencknown knownplatform platformcritic criticsituationist situationistinsurrectionari insurrectionarisynthesi synthesianarchist anarchistother otherpreserv preservtacit tacitstatist statistauthoritarian authoritarianbureaucrat bureaucrattendenc | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-26 | Anarchism
Section::::Criticisms.:Anarchism and civilization.
In his essay "On Authority", Friedrich Engels claimed that radical decentralization promoted by anarchists would destroy modern industrial civilization, citing an example of railways:
In the end, it is argued that authority in any form is a natural occurrence which should not be abolished.
section:critic :criticanarch anarchcivil civilessay essay`` ``author author'' ''friedrich friedrichengel engelclaim claimradic radicdecentr decentrpromot promotanarchist anarchistwould woulddestroy destroymodern modernindustri industricivil civilcite citeexampl examplrailway railwayend endargu arguauthor authorform formnatur naturoccurr occurrabolish | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-27 | Anarchism
Section::::List of anarchist societies.
BULLET::::- Federation of Neighborhood Councils-El Alto (Fejuve; 1979–present)
BULLET::::- Popular Indigenous Council of Oaxaca "Ricardo Flores Magón" (CIPO-RFM; 1980s–present)
BULLET::::- Barbacha (2001–present)
BULLET::::- Villa de Zaachila (2006–present)
BULLET::::- Cheran (2011–present)
BULLET::::- Democratic Federation of Northern Syria (Rojava; 2013–present)
section:list :listanarchist anarchistsocieti societibullet bullet:- :-feder federneighborhood neighborhoodcouncils-el councils-elalto altofejuv fejuv1979–present 1979–presentbullet bullet:- :-popular popularindigen indigencouncil counciloaxaca oaxaca`` ``ricardo ricardoflore floremagón magón'' ''cipo-rfm cipo-rfm1980s–present 1980s–presentbullet bullet:- :-barbacha barbacha2001–present 2001–presentbullet bullet:- :-villa villade dezaachila zaachila2006–present 2006–presentbullet bullet:- :-cheran cheran2011–present 2011–presentbullet bullet:- :-democrat democratfeder federnorthern northernsyria syriarojava rojava2013–present | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-28 | Anarchism
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Governance without government
BULLET::::- Libertarian socialism
BULLET::::- List of anarchist political ideologies
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-govern governwithout withoutgovern governbullet bullet:- :-libertarian libertariansocial socialbullet bullet:- :-list listanarchist anarchistpolit politideolog | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-29 | Anarchism
Section::::See also.:Foundational texts of anarchism.
BULLET::::- "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (1793)
BULLET::::- "What is Property? (1840)
BULLET::::- "The Ego and Its Own" (1844)
section:see :seealso alsofoundat foundattext textanarch anarchbullet bullet:- :-`` ``enquiri enquiriconcern concernpolit politjustic justic'' ''1793 1793bullet bullet:- :-`` ``properti properti1840 1840bullet bullet:- :-`` ``ego ego'' ''1844 | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-30 | Anarchism
Section::::Further reading.
BULLET::::- An utopian science fiction novel
BULLET::::- Scott, James C., (2012) "", Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
section:further :furtherread readbullet bullet:- :-utopian utopianscienc sciencfiction fictionnovel novelbullet bullet:- :-scott scottjame jamec. c.2012 2012`` ``'' ''princeton princetonnj njprinceton princetonunivers universpress | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
12-31 | Anarchism
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Anarchy Archives. Anarchy Archives is an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-anarchi anarchiarchiv archivanarchi anarchiarchiv archivonlin onlinresearch researchcenter centerhistori historitheori theorianarch | 12 | Anarchism | Anti-fascism,Libertarian socialism,Far-left politics,Political culture,Anarchism,Anti-capitalism,Political ideologies |
157629-1 | Swing
Swing or swinging may refer to:
swingswing swingmay mayrefer | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-2 | Swing
Section::::Apparatus.
BULLET::::- Swing (seat), a hanging seat that swings back and forth
BULLET::::- Russian swing, a swing-like circus apparatus
BULLET::::- Sex swing, a type of harness for sexual intercourse
BULLET::::- Swing ride, an amusement park ride consisting of suspended seats that rotate like a merry-go-round
section:apparatus :apparatusbullet bullet:- :-swing swingseat seathang hangseat seatswing swingback backforth forthbullet bullet:- :-russian russianswing swingswing-lik swing-likcircus circusapparatus apparatusbullet bullet:- :-sex sexswing swingtype typehar harsexual sexualintercours intercoursbullet bullet:- :-swing swingride rideamus amuspark parkride rideconsist consistsuspend suspendseat seatrotat rotatlike likemerry-go-round | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-3 | Swing
Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.
section:art :artentertain entertainmedia | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-4 | Swing
Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Films.
BULLET::::- "Swing" (1938 film), an American film directed by Oscar Micheaux
BULLET::::- "Swing" (1999 film), an American film by Nick Mead
BULLET::::- "Swing" (2002 film), a French film by Tony Gatlif
BULLET::::- "Swing" (2003 film), an American film by Martin Guigui
BULLET::::- "Swing" (2010 film), a Hindi short film
BULLET::::- "Swing" (2011 film), a Kuwaiti short film
section:art :artentertain entertainmedia. media.film filmbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''1938 1938film filmamerican americanfilm filmdirect directoscar oscarmicheaux micheauxbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''1999 1999film filmamerican americanfilm filmnick nickmead meadbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''2002 2002film filmfrench frenchfilm filmtoni tonigatlif gatlifbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''2003 2003film filmamerican americanfilm filmmartin martinguigui guiguibullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''2010 2010film filmhindi hindishort shortfilm filmbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''2011 2011film filmkuwaiti kuwaitishort shortfilm | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-5 | Swing
Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.
section:art :artentertain entertainmedia mediamusic | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-6 | Swing
Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.:Groups and labels.
BULLET::::- Swing (Canadian band), a Canadian néo-trad band
BULLET::::- Swing (Hong Kong band), a Hong Kong pop music group
BULLET::::- Swing Time Records, a record label
section:art :artentertain entertainmedia. media.music musicgroup grouplabel labelbullet bullet:- :-swing swingcanadian canadianband bandcanadian canadiannéo-trad néo-tradband bandbullet bullet:- :-swing swinghong hongkong kongband bandhong hongkong kongpop popmusic musicgroup groupbullet bullet:- :-swing swingtime timerecord recordrecord recordlabel | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-7 | Swing
Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.:Albums.
BULLET::::- "The Swing" (INXS album), a 1984 album by Australian rock band INXS
BULLET::::- "Swing" (The Manhattan Transfer album), 1997 album by The Manhattan Transfer
BULLET::::- "Swing" (Renée Geyer album), 2013 album by Renée Geyer
BULLET::::- "Swing" (EP), a 2014 album by South Korean-Chinese group, "Super Junior-M"
section:art :artentertain entertainmedia. media.music. music.album albumbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''inx inxalbum album1984 1984album albumaustralian australianrock rockband bandinx inxbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''manhattan manhattantransfer transferalbum album1997 1997album albummanhattan manhattantransfer transferbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''rené renégeyer geyeralbum album2013 2013album albumrené renégeyer geyerbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''ep ep2014 2014album albumsouth southkorean-chines korean-chinesgroup group`` ``super superjunior-m junior-m'' | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-8 | Swing
Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Songs.
BULLET::::- "Swing" (Trace Adkins song), 2006, by Trace Adkins
BULLET::::- "Swing" (AMO song), a 2012 song by Slovak hip hop band AMO
BULLET::::- "Swing" (Savage song), 2005, by New Zealand performer Savage, released again in 2008 featuring Soulja Boy
BULLET::::- "The Swing" (song), 1997, by American country music artist James Bonamy
BULLET::::- "Swing, Swing", 2003, by the All-American Rejects
BULLET::::- "Swing", 1980, by Japan from the album "Gentlemen Take Polaroids"
BULLET::::- "Swing", 2015, by Knuckle Puck from the album "Copacetic"
BULLET::::- "Swing", 2012, by Parkway Drive from the album "Atlas"
BULLET::::- "Swing", 2014, by Super Junior-M from the album "Swing"
BULLET::::- "Swing", 1983, by Yello
section:art :artentertain entertainmedia. media.song songbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''trace traceadkin adkinsong song2006 2006trace traceadkin adkinbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''amo amosong song2012 2012song songslovak slovakhip hiphop hopband bandamo amobullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''savag savagsong song2005 2005new newzealand zealandperform performsavag savagreleas releas2008 2008featur featursoulja souljaboy boybullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''song song1997 1997american americancountri countrimusic musicartist artistjame jamebonami bonamibullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swingswing swing'' ''2003 2003all-american all-americanreject rejectbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''1980 1980japan japanalbum album`` ``gentlemen gentlementake takepolaroid polaroid'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''2015 2015knuckl knucklpuck puckalbum album`` ``copacet copacet'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''2012 2012parkway parkwaydrive drivealbum album`` ``atlas atlas'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''2014 2014super superjunior-m junior-malbum album`` ``swing swing'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''1983 1983yello | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-9 | Swing
Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Songs.:Styles.
BULLET::::- Swing (jazz performance style), the sense of propulsive rhythmic "feel" or "groove" in jazz
BULLET::::- Swing music, a style of jazz popular during the 1930s–1950s
section:art :artentertain entertainmedia. media.songs. songs.style stylebullet bullet:- :-swing swingjazz jazzperform performstyle stylesens senspropuls propulsrhythmic rhythmic`` ``feel feel'' ''`` ``groov groov'' ''jazz jazzbullet bullet:- :-swing swingmusic musicstyle stylejazz jazzpopular popular1930s–1950s | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-10 | Swing
Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media.
BULLET::::- Swing (dance), a group of dances that correspond to swing style of jazz music
BULLET::::- "Swing" (musical), a 1999 Broadway musical
BULLET::::- "Swing" (video game), a 1997 video game for the PC and PlayStation
BULLET::::- Swing, an understudy in the musical theatre who prepares several roles
BULLET::::- "The Swing" (painting), a 1767 rococo painting by Jean-Honoré Fragonard
section:art :artentertain entertainmedia mediause useart artentertain entertainmedia mediabullet bullet:- :-swing swingdanc dancgroup groupdanc danccorrespond correspondswing swingstyle stylejazz jazzmusic musicbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''music music1999 1999broadway broadwaymusic musicbullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''video videogame game1997 1997video videogame gamepc pcplaystat playstatbullet bullet:- :-swing swingunderstudi understudimusic musictheatr theatrprepar preparsever severrole rolebullet bullet:- :-`` ``swing swing'' ''paint paint1767 1767rococo rococopaint paintjean-honoré jean-honoréfragonard | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-11 | Swing
Section::::Politics.
BULLET::::- Swing (politics), the extent of change in voter support
BULLET::::- Swing (Australian politics), refers to the extent of change in voter support, typically from one election or opinion poll to another
BULLET::::- Swing (United Kingdom), an indication of the scale of voter change between two political parties
BULLET::::- Captain Swing, a name appended to several threatening letters during the rural English Swing Riots of 1830
section:polit :politbullet bullet:- :-swing swingpolit politextent extentchang changvoter votersupport supportbullet bullet:- :-swing swingaustralian australianpolit politrefer referextent extentchang changvoter votersupport supporttypic typicone oneelect electopinion opinionpoll pollanoth anothbullet bullet:- :-swing swingunit unitkingdom kingdomindic indicscale scalevoter voterchang changtwo twopolit politparti partibullet bullet:- :-captain captainswing swingname nameappend appendsever severthreaten threatenletter letterrural ruralenglish englishswing swingriot riot1830 | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-12 | Swing
Section::::Sports.
BULLET::::- Swing (boxing), a type of punch
BULLET::::- Baseball swing, the process of hitting a ball with a bat in the game of baseball
BULLET::::- Golf swing or golf stroke mechanics, the means by which golfers analyze the execute their shots in the sport of golf
BULLET::::- Swing bowling, a subtype of fast bowling in cricket
section:sport :sportbullet bullet:- :-swing swingbox boxtype typepunch punchbullet bullet:- :-basebal basebalswing swingprocess processhit hitball ballbat batgame gamebasebal basebalbullet bullet:- :-golf golfswing swinggolf golfstroke strokemechan mechanmean meangolfer golferanalyz analyzexecut executshot shotsport sportgolf golfbullet bullet:- :-swing swingbowl bowlsubtyp subtypfast fastbowl bowlcricket | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-13 | Swing
Section::::Transportation.
BULLET::::- Aquilair Swing, a French ultralight trike aircraft design
BULLET::::- S-Wing Swing, light sport aircraft designed and built in the Czech Republic
BULLET::::- Swing Bike, a bicycle where both front and rear wheels are steerable
BULLET::::- Swing Flugsportgeräte, German aircraft manufacturer
section:transport :transportbullet bullet:- :-aquilair aquilairswing swingfrench frenchultralight ultralighttrike trikeaircraft aircraftdesign designbullet bullet:- :-s-wing s-wingswing swinglight lightsport sportaircraft aircraftdesign designbuilt builtczech czechrepubl republbullet bullet:- :-swing swingbike bikebicycl bicyclfront frontrear rearwheel wheelsteerabl steerablbullet bullet:- :-swing swingflugsportgerät flugsportgerätgerman germanaircraft aircraftmanufactur | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-14 | Swing
Section::::Other uses.
BULLET::::- Swing (Java), a GUI widget toolkit for the Java programming language
BULLET::::- Swing rifle, type of firearm
BULLET::::- Swing trading, when a tradable asset is held for one or more days to profit from price changes
BULLET::::- Swinging (sexual practice), when partners in a committed relationship engage in sexual activities with others
section:other :otheruse usebullet bullet:- :-swing swingjava javagui guiwidget widgettoolkit toolkitjava javaprogram programlanguag languagbullet bullet:- :-swing swingrifl rifltype typefirearm firearmbullet bullet:- :-swing swingtrade tradetradabl tradablasset assetheld heldone oneday dayprofit profitprice pricechang changbullet bullet:- :-swing swingsexual sexualpractic practicpartner partnercommit commitrelationship relationshipengag engagsexual sexualactiv activother | 157629 | Swing | |
157629-15 | Swing
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Swinger (disambiguation)
BULLET::::- Swingin' (disambiguation)
BULLET::::- Swings (disambiguation)
BULLET::::- The Swing (disambiguation)
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-swinger swingerdisambigu disambigubullet bullet:- :-swingin swingindisambigu disambigubullet bullet:- :-swing swingdisambigu disambigubullet bullet:- :-swing swingdisambigu | 157629 | Swing | |
305-1 | Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles or Achilleus ( ; , "Achilleus" ) was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and is the central character of Homer's "Iliad". He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, king of Phthia.
Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the "Iliad", other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with Statius' unfinished epic "Achilleid", written in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel because, when his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, she held him by one of his heels. Alluding to these legends, the term "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a point of weakness, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The Achilles tendon is also named after him due to these legends.
greekmytholog mythologachill achillachilleus achilleus`` ``achilleus achilleus'' ''hero herotrojan trojanwar wargreatest greatestgreek greekwarrior warriorcentral centralcharact characthomer homer's 's`` ``iliad iliad'' ''son sonnereid nereidtheti thetipeleus peleusking kingphthia phthiaachill achillnotabl notablfeat feattrojan trojanwar warslay slaytrojan trojanprinc princhector hectoroutsid outsidgate gatetroy troyalthough althoughdeath deathachill achillpresent present`` ``iliad iliad'' ''sourc sourcconcur concurkill killnear nearend endtrojan trojanwar warpari parishot shotheel heelarrow arrowlater laterlegend legendbegin beginstatius statiusunfinish unfinishepic epic`` ``achilleid achilleid'' ''written written1st 1stcenturi centuriad adstate stateachill achillinvulner invulnerbodi bodiexcept exceptheel heelmother mothertheti thetidip dipriver riverstyx styxinfant infantheld heldone oneheel heelallud alludlegend legendterm term`` ``achill achillheel heel'' ''come comemean meanpoint pointweak weakespeci especisomeon someonsometh somethotherwis otherwisstrong strongconstitut constitutachill achilltendon tendonalso alsoname namedue duelegend | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-2 | Achilles
Section::::Etymology.
Linear B tablets attest to the personal name "Achilleus" in the forms "a-ki-re-u" and "a-ki-re-we", the latter being the dative of the former. The name grew more popular, even becoming common soon after the seventh century BC and was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία ("Achilleía"), attested in Attica in the fourth century BC (IG II² 1617) and, in the form "Achillia", on a stele in Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting an "Amazon".
Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of (') "distress, pain, sorrow, grief" and (') "people, soldiers, nation", resulting in a proto-form "*Akhí-lāu̯os" "he who has the people distressed" or "he whose people have distress". The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the "Iliad" (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of "" ("glory", usually in war). Furthermore, "laós" has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean "a corps of soldiers", a muster. With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.
Another etymology relates the name to a Proto-Indo-European compound "*h₂eḱ-pṓds" "sharp foot" which first gave an Illyrian "*āk̂pediós", evolving through time into "*ākhpdeós" and then "*akhiddeús". The shift from "-dd-" to "-ll-" is then ascribed to the passing of the name into Greek via a Pre-Greek source. The first root part "*h₂eḱ-" "sharp, pointed" also gave Greek ἀκή ("akḗ" "point, silence, healing"), ἀκμή ("akmḗ" "point, edge, zenith") and ὀξύς ("oxús" "sharp, pointed, keen, quick, clever"), whereas ἄχος stems from the root "*h₂egʰ-" "to be upset, afraid". The whole expression would be comparable to the Latin "acupedius" "swift of foot". Compare also the Latin word family of "aciēs" "sharp edge or point, battle line, battle, engagement", "acus" "needle, pin, bodkin", and "acuō" "to make pointed, sharpen, whet; to exercise; to arouse" (whence "acute"). Some topical epitheta of Achilles in the "Iliad" point to this "swift-footedness", namely ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεὺς ("podárkēs dĩos Achilleús" "swift-footed divine Achilles") or, even more frequently, πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς ("pódas ōkús Achilleús" "quick-footed Achilles").
Some researchers deem the name a loan word, possibly from a Pre-Greek language. Achilles' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of river deities such as Acheron and Achelous have led to speculations about him being an old water divinity (see below Worship). Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of "-λλ-" and "-λ-" in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /l/ in the original language.
section:etymolog :etymologlinear linearb btablet tabletattest attestperson personname name`` ``achilleus achilleus'' ''form form`` ``a-ki-re-u a-ki-re-u'' ''`` ``a-ki-re-w a-ki-re-w'' ''latter latterdativ dativformer formername namegrew grewpopular populareven evenbecom becomcommon commonsoon soonseventh seventhcenturi centuribc bcalso alsoturn turnfemal femalform formἀχιλλεία ἀχιλλεία`` ``achilleía achilleía'' ''attest attestattica atticafourth fourthcenturi centuribc bcig igii² ii²1617 1617form form`` ``achillia achillia'' ''stele stelehalicarnassus halicarnassusname namefemal femalgladiat gladiatfight fight`` ``amazon amazon'' ''achill achillname nameanalyz analyzcombin combin`` ``distress distresspain painsorrow sorrowgrief grief'' ''`` ``peopl peoplsoldier soldiernation nation'' ''result resultproto-form proto-form`` ``akhí-lāu̯o akhí-lāu̯o'' ''`` ``peopl peopldistress distress'' ''`` ``whose whosepeopl peopldistress distress'' ''grief griefdistress distresspeopl peopltheme themerais raisnumer numertime time`` ``iliad iliad'' ''frequent frequentachill achillachill achillrole rolehero herogrief griefdistress distressform formiron ironjuxtaposit juxtapositconvent conventview viewhero hero`` ``'' ''`` ``glori glori'' ''usual usualwar warfurthermor furthermor`` ``laó laó'' ''constru construgregori gregorinagi nagifollow followleonard leonardpalmer palmermean mean`` ``corp corpsoldier soldier'' ''muster musterderiv derivname nameobtain obtaindoubl doublmean meanpoem poemhero herofunction functionright rightmen menbring bringdistress distressenemi enemiwrong wrongmen menget getgrief griefwar warpoem poempart partmisdirect misdirectanger angerpart partleadership leadershipanoth anothetymolog etymologrelat relatname nameproto-indo-european proto-indo-europeancompound compound`` ``h₂eḱ-pṓd h₂eḱ-pṓd'' ''`` ``sharp sharpfoot foot'' ''first firstgave gaveillyrian illyrian`` ``āk̂pedió āk̂pedió'' ''evolv evolvtime time`` ``ākhpdeó ākhpdeó'' ''`` ``akhiddeú akhiddeú'' ''shift shift`` ``-dd- -dd-'' ''`` ``-ll- -ll-'' ''ascrib ascribpass passname namegreek greekvia viapre-greek pre-greeksourc sourcfirst firstroot rootpart part`` ``h₂eḱ- h₂eḱ-'' ''`` ``sharp sharppoint point'' ''also alsogave gavegreek greekἀκή ἀκή`` ``akḗ akḗ'' ''`` ``point pointsilenc silencheal heal'' ''ἀκμή ἀκμή`` ``akmḗ akmḗ'' ''`` ``point pointedg edgzenith zenith'' ''ὀξύς ὀξύς`` ``oxú oxú'' ''`` ``sharp sharppoint pointkeen keenquick quickclever clever'' ''wherea whereaἄχος ἄχοςstem stemroot root`` ``h₂egʰ- h₂egʰ-'' ''`` ``upset upsetafraid afraid'' ''whole wholeexpress expresswould wouldcompar comparlatin latin`` ``acupedius acupedius'' ''`` ``swift swiftfoot foot'' ''compar comparalso alsolatin latinword wordfamili famili`` ``aciē aciē'' ''`` ``sharp sharpedg edgpoint pointbattl battlline linebattl battlengag engag'' ''`` ``acus acus'' ''`` ``needl needlpin pinbodkin bodkin'' ''`` ``acuō acuō'' ''`` ``make makepoint pointsharpen sharpenwhet whetexercis exercisarous arous'' ''whenc whenc`` ``acut acut'' ''topic topicepitheta epithetaachill achill`` ``iliad iliad'' ''point point`` ``swift-footed swift-footed'' ''name nameποδάρκης ποδάρκηςδῖος δῖοςἀχιλλεὺς ἀχιλλεὺς`` ``podárkē podárkēdĩos dĩosachilleú achilleú'' ''`` ``swift-foot swift-footdivin divinachill achill'' ''even evenfrequent frequentπόδας πόδαςὠκὺς ὠκὺςἀχιλλεύς ἀχιλλεύς`` ``pódas pódasōkús ōkúsachilleú achilleú'' ''`` ``quick-foot quick-footachill achill'' ''research researchdeem deemname nameloan loanword wordpossibl possiblpre-greek pre-greeklanguag languagachill achilldescent descentnereid nereidtheti thetisimilar similarname nameriver riverdeiti deitiacheron acheronachel achelled ledspecul speculold oldwater waterdivin divinsee seeworship worshiprobert roberts. s.p. p.beek beeksuggest suggestpre-greek pre-greekorigin originname namebase baseamong amongthing thingcoexist coexist`` ``-λλ- -λλ-'' ''`` ``-λ- -λ-'' ''epic epiclanguag languagmay mayaccount accountpalat palatphonem phonem/l/ /l/origin originlanguag | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-3 | Achilles
Section::::Birth and early years.
Achilles was the son of the Nereid Thetis and of Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until Prometheus, the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by Themis, goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus.
There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the "Argonautica" (4.760) Zeus' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus, was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal.
According to the "Achilleid", written by Statius in the 1st century AD, and to non-surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx. However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel (see Achilles' heel, Achilles' tendon). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage.
However, none of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the "Iliad" Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaeus, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He cast two spears at once, one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood".
Also, in the fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle in which one can find description of the hero's death (i.e. the "Cypria", the "Little Iliad" by Lesches of Pyrrha, the "Aithiopis" and "Iliou persis" by Arctinus of Miletus), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel; in the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his torso.
Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur, on Mount Pelion, to be reared. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan war. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia together with his companion Patroclus.
According to Photius, the sixth book of the "New History" by Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus; but when she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the Damysus, who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot.
section:birth :birthearli earliyear yearachill achillson sonnereid nereidtheti thetipeleus peleusking kingmyrmidon myrmidonzeus zeusposeidon poseidonrival rivalhand handtheti thetiprometheus prometheusfore-think fore-thinkwarn warnzeus zeuspropheci propheciorigin originutter utterthemi themigoddess goddessdivin divinlaw lawtheti thetiwould wouldbear bearson songreater greaterfather fatherreason reasontwo twogod godwithdrew withdrewpursuit pursuitwed wedpeleus peleustale taleoffer offeraltern alternversion versionevent event`` ``argonautica argonautica'' ''4.760 4.760zeus zeussister sisterwife wifehera heraallud alludtheti thetichast chastresist resistadvanc advanczeus zeuspoint pointtheti thetiloyal loyalhera hera's 'smarriag marriagbond bondcoolli coollireject rejectfather fathergod godtheti thetialthough althoughdaughter daughtersea-god sea-godnereus nereusalso alsobrought broughthera heraexplain explainresist resistadvanc advanczeus zeuszeus zeusfurious furiousdecre decrewould wouldnever nevermarri marriimmort immortaccord accord`` ``achilleid achilleid'' ''written writtenstatius statius1st 1stcenturi centuriad adnon-surviv non-survivprevious previoussourc sourcachill achillborn borntheti thetitri trimake makeimmort immortdip dipriver riverstyx styxhowev howevleft leftvulner vulnerpart partbodi bodiheld heldleft leftheel heelsee seeachill achillheel heelachill achilltendon tendonclear clearversion versionevent eventknown knownearlier earlieranoth anothversion versionstori storitheti thetianoint anointboy boyambrosia ambrosiaput puttop topfire fireorder orderburn burnaway awaymortal mortalpart partbodi bodiinterrupt interruptpeleus peleusabandon abandonfather fatherson sonrage ragehowev howevnone nonesourc sourcstatius statiusmake makerefer refergeneral generalinvulner invulnercontrari contrari`` ``iliad iliad'' ''homer homermention mentionachill achillwound woundbook book21 21paeonian paeonianhero heroasteropaeus asteropaeusson sonpelagon pelagonchalleng challengachill achillriver riverscamand scamandcast casttwo twospear spearone onegraze grazeachill achillelbow elbow`` ``draw drawspurt spurtblood blood'' ''also alsofragmentari fragmentaripoem poemepic epiccycl cyclone onefind finddescript descripthero hero's 'sdeath deathi.e i.e`` ``cypria cypria'' ''`` ``littl littliliad iliad'' ''lesch leschpyrrha pyrrha`` ``aithiopi aithiopi'' ''`` ``iliou ilioupersi persi'' ''arctinus arctinusmiletus miletustrace tracerefer refergeneral generalinvulner invulnerfamous famousweak weakheel heellater latervase vasepaint paintpresent presentdeath deathachill achillarrow arrowmani manicase casearrow arrowhit hittorso torsopeleus peleusentrust entrustachill achillchiron chironcentaur centaurmount mountpelion pelionrear reartheti thetiforetold foretoldson son's 'sfate fateeither eithergain gainglori gloridie dieyoung younglive livelong longunev unevlife lifeobscur obscurachill achillchose choseformer formerdecid decidtake takepart parttrojan trojanwar waraccord accordhomer homerachill achillgrew grewphthia phthiatogeth togethcompanion companionpatroclus patroclusaccord accordphotius photiussixth sixthbook book`` ``new newhistori histori'' ''ptolemi ptolemihephaest hephaestreport reporttheti thetiburn burnsecret secretplace placechildren childrenpeleus peleusachill achillpeleus peleusnotic notictore toreflame flameburnt burntfoot footconfid confidcentaur centaurchiron chironlater laterchiron chironexhum exhumbodi bodidamysus damysusfastest fastestgiant giantremov removankl anklincorpor incorporachill achillburnt burntfoot | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-4 | Achilles
Section::::Birth and early years.:Other names.
Among the appellations under which Achilles is generally known are the following:
BULLET::::- Pyrisous, "saved from the fire", his first name, which seems to favour the tradition in which his mortal parts were burned by his mother Thetis
BULLET::::- Aeacides, from his grandfather Aeacus
BULLET::::- Aemonius, from Aemonia, a country which afterwards acquired the name of Thessaly
BULLET::::- Aspetos, "inimitable" or "vast", his name at Epirus
BULLET::::- Larissaeus, from Larissa (also called Cremaste), a town of Thessaly, which still bears the same name
BULLET::::- Ligyron, his original name
BULLET::::- Nereius, from his mother Thetis, one of the Nereids
BULLET::::- Pelides, from his father, Peleus
BULLET::::- Phthius, from his birthplace, Phthia
section:birth :birthearli earliyear yearname nameamong amongappel appelachill achillgeneral generalknown knownfollow followbullet bullet:- :-pyris pyris`` ``save savefire fire'' ''first firstname nameseem seemfavour favourtradit traditmortal mortalpart partburn burnmother mothertheti thetibullet bullet:- :-aeacid aeacidgrandfath grandfathaeacus aeacusbullet bullet:- :-aemonius aemoniusaemonia aemoniacountri countriafterward afterwardacquir acquirname namethessali thessalibullet bullet:- :-aspeto aspeto`` ``inimit inimit'' ''`` ``vast vast'' ''name nameepirus epirusbullet bullet:- :-larissaeus larissaeuslarissa larissaalso alsocall callcremast cremasttown townthessali thessalistill stillbear bearname namebullet bullet:- :-ligyron ligyronorigin originname namebullet bullet:- :-nereius nereiusmother mothertheti thetione onenereid nereidbullet bullet:- :-pelid pelidfather fatherpeleus peleusbullet bullet:- :-phthius phthiusbirthplac birthplacphthia | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-5 | Achilles
Section::::Birth and early years.:Hidden on Skyros.
Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros. There, Achilles is disguised as a girl and lives among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia, whom in the account of Statius he rapes, Achilles there fathers a son, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias). According to this story, Odysseus learns from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus goes to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewellery and places a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly takes up the spear, Odysseus sees through his disguise and convinces him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranges for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women flee in panic, Achilles prepares to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.
section:birth :birthearli earliyear yearhidden hiddenskyro skyropost-homer post-homersourc sourcclaim claimorder orderkeep keepachill achillsafe safewar wartheti thetiversion versionpeleus peleushid hidyoung youngman mancourt courtlycomed lycomedking kingskyro skyroachill achilldisguis disguisgirl girllive liveamong amonglycomed lycomeddaughter daughterperhap perhapname name`` ``pyrrha pyrrha'' ''red-hair red-hairgirl girllycomed lycomeddaughter daughterdeidamia deidamiaaccount accountstatius statiusrape rapeachill achillfather fatherson sonneoptolemus neoptolemusalso alsocall callpyrrhus pyrrhusfather father's 'spossibl possiblalia aliaaccord accordstori storiodysseus odysseuslearn learnprophet prophetcalcha calchaachaean achaeanwould wouldunabl unablcaptur capturtroy troywithout withoutachill achillaid aidodysseus odysseusgoe goeskyro skyroguis guispeddler peddlersell sellwomen women's 'scloth clothjewelleri jewelleriplace placeshield shieldspear spearamong amonggood goodachill achillinstant instanttake takespear spearodysseus odysseussee seedisguis disguisconvinc convincjoin joingreek greekcampaign campaignanoth anothversion versionstori storiodysseus odysseusarrang arrangtrumpet trumpetalarm alarmsound soundlycomed lycomedwomen womenwomen womenflee fleepanic panicachill achillprepar prepardefend defendcourt courtthus thusgive giveident identaway | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-6 | Achilles
Section::::In the Trojan War.
According to the "Iliad", Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 Myrmidons. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon.
section:in :introjan trojanwar waraccord accord`` ``iliad iliad'' ''achill achillarriv arrivtroy troy50 50ship shipcarri carri50 50myrmidon myrmidonappoint appointfive fiveleader leaderleader leadercommand command500 500myrmidon myrmidonmenesthius menesthiuseudorus eudoruspeisand peisandphoenix phoenixalcimedon | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-7 | Achilles
Section::::In the Trojan War.:Telephus.
When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy.
According to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.
section:in :introjan trojanwar. war.telephus telephusgreek greekleft lefttrojan trojanwar waraccident accidentstop stopmysia mysiarule ruleking kingtelephus telephusresult resultbattl battlachill achillgave gavetelephus telephuswound woundwould wouldheal healtelephus telephusconsult consultoracl oraclstate state`` ``wound woundshall shallheal heal'' ''guid guidoracl oraclarriv arrivargo argoachill achillheal healorder ordermight mightbecom becomguid guidvoyag voyagtroy troyaccord accordreport reporteuripid euripidlost lostplay playtelephus telephuswent wentauli aulipretend pretendbeggar beggarask askachill achillheal healwound woundachill achillrefus refusclaim claimmedic medicknowledg knowledgaltern alterntelephus telephusheld heldorest orestransom ransomransom ransomachill achillaid aidheal healwound woundodysseus odysseusreason reasonspear spearinflict inflictwound woundtherefor thereforspear spearmust mustabl ablheal healpiec piecspear spearscrape scrapeonto ontowound woundtelephus telephusheal | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-8 | Achilles
Section::::In the Trojan War.:Troilus.
According to the "Cypria" (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' wrath), when the Achaeans desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of Aeneas, sacked neighbouring cities (like Pedasus and Lyrnessus, where the Greeks capture the queen Briseis) and killed Tenes, a son of Apollo, as well as Priam's son Troilus in the sanctuary of Apollo Thymbraios. However, the romance between Troilus and Chryseis described in Geoffrey Chaucer's "Troilus and Criseyde" and in William Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida" is a medieval invention.
In Dares Phrygius' "Account of the Destruction of Troy", the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well as in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam's and Hecuba's five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo). Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders, a "horse fighter" or "chariot fighter" according to Homer. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena, and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth – who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo Thymbraios. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would have been invincible.
section:in :introjan trojanwar. war.troilus troilusaccord accord`` ``cypria cypria'' ''part partepic epiccycl cycltell tellevent eventtrojan trojanwar warachill achillwrath wrathachaean achaeandesir desirreturn returnhome homerestrain restrainachill achillafterward afterwardattack attackcattl cattlaenea aeneasack sackneighbour neighbourciti citilike likepedasus pedasuslyrnessus lyrnessusgreek greekcaptur capturqueen queenbrisei briseikill killtene teneson sonapollo apollowell wellpriam priam's 'sson sontroilus troilussanctuari sanctuariapollo apollothymbraio thymbraiohowev howevromanc romanctroilus troiluschrysei chryseidescrib describgeoffrey geoffreychaucer chaucer's 's`` ``troilus troiluscriseyd criseyd'' ''william williamshakespear shakespear's 's`` ``troilus troiluscressida cressida'' ''mediev medievinvent inventdare darephrygius phrygius`` ``account accountdestruct destructtroy troy'' ''latin latinsummari summaristori storiachill achilltransmit transmitmediev medieveurop europwell wellolder olderaccount accounttroilus troilusyoung youngtrojan trojanprinc princyoungest youngestking kingpriam priam's 'shecuba hecuba's 'sfive fivelegitim legitimson sonaccord accordsourc sourcanoth anothson sonapollo apollodespit despityouth youthone onemain maintrojan trojanwar warleader leader`` ``hors horsfighter fighter'' ''`` ``chariot chariotfighter fighter'' ''accord accordhomer homerpropheci prophecilink linktroilus troilusfate fatetroy troyambush ambushattempt attemptcaptur capturyet yetachill achillstruck struckbeauti beautitroilus troilussister sisterpolyxena polyxenaovercom overcomlust lustdirect directsexual sexualattent attentyouth youth– –refus refusyield yieldinstead insteadfound founddecapit decapitupon uponaltar-omphalo altar-omphaloapollo apollothymbraio thymbraiolater laterversion versionstori storisuggest suggesttroilus troilusaccident accidentkill killachill achillover-ard over-ardlover loverembrac embracversion versionmyth mythachill achilldeath deaththerefor thereforcame cameretribut retributsacrileg sacrilegancient ancientwriter writertreat treattroilus troilusepitom epitomdead deadchild childmourn mournparent parenttroilus troiluslive liveadulthood adulthoodfirst firstvatican vaticanmythograph mythographclaim claimtroy troywould wouldinvinc | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-9 | Achilles
Section::::In the Trojan War.:In the "Iliad".
Homer's "Iliad" is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, "mênis Achilléōs") is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the "Iliad" read:
The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour.
As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix, to Achilles with the offer of the return of Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do.
The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy.
After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem.
Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles, not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me". Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in his honour.
At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog (Sirius); a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus, the evening/western star (Venus), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus, the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended).
With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of Niobe's offspring). The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come.
section:in :introjan trojanwar war`` ``iliad iliad'' ''homer homer's 's`` ``iliad iliad'' ''famous famousnarrat narratachill achilldeed deedtrojan trojanwar warachill achillwrath wrathμῆνις μῆνιςἀχιλλέως ἀχιλλέως`` ``mênis mênisachilléō achilléō'' ''central centraltheme themepoem poemfirst firsttwo twoline line`` ``iliad iliad'' ''read readhomer homerepic epiccover coverweek weekdecade-long decade-longwar warnarrat narratachill achilldeath deathbegin beginachill achillwithdraw withdrawbattl battldishonour dishonouragamemnon agamemnoncommand commandachaean achaeanforc forcagamemnon agamemnontaken takenwoman womanname namechrysei chryseislave slavefather fatherchryse chrysepriest priestapollo apollobeg begagamemnon agamemnonreturn returnagamemnon agamemnonrefus refusapollo apollosend sendplagu plaguamongst amongstgreek greekprophet prophetcalcha calchacorrect correctdetermin determinsourc sourctroubl troublspeak speakunless unlessachill achillvow vowprotect protectachill achillcalcha calchadeclar declarchrysei chryseimust mustreturn returnfather fatheragamemnon agamemnonconsent consentcommand commandachill achillbattl battlprize prizebrisei briseidaughter daughterbriseus briseusbrought broughtreplac replacchrysei chryseiangri angridishonour dishonourplunder plunderglori gloritaken takenaway awaysay saylater laterlove lovebrisei briseiurg urgmother mothertheti thetiachill achillrefus refusfight fightlead leadtroop troopalongsid alongsidgreek greekforc forctime timeburn burnrage rageagamemnon agamemnon's 'stheft theftachill achillpray praytheti theticonvinc convinczeus zeushelp helptrojan trojangain gainground groundwar warmay mayregain regainhonour honourbattl battlturn turngreek greekthank thankinfluenc influenczeus zeusnestor nestordeclar declartrojan trojanwin winagamemnon agamemnonanger angerachill achillurg urgking kingappeas appeaswarrior warrioragamemnon agamemnonagre agresend sendodysseus odysseustwo twochieftain chieftainajax ajaxphoenix phoenixachill achilloffer offerreturn returnbrisei briseigift giftachill achillreject rejectagamemnon agamemnonoffer offersimpli simpliurg urggreek greeksail sailhome homeplan plantrojan trojanled ledhector hectorsubsequ subsequpush pushgreek greekarmi armiback backtoward towardbeach beachassault assaultgreek greekship shipgreek greekforc forcverg vergabsolut absolutdestruct destructpatroclus patrocluslead leadmyrmidon myrmidonbattl battlwear wearachill achillarmour armourthough thoughachill achillremain remaincamp camppatroclus patroclussucceed succeedpush pushtrojan trojanback backbeach beachkill killhector hectorlead leadproper properassault assaultciti cititroy troyreceiv receivnews newsdeath deathpatroclus patroclusantilochus antilochusson sonnestor nestorachill achillgriev grievbelov belovcompanion companion's 'sdeath deathmother mothertheti theticome comecomfort comfortdistraught distraughtachill achillpersuad persuadhephaestus hephaestusmake makenew newarmour armourplace placearmour armourpatroclus patrocluswear weartaken takenhector hectornew newarmour armourinclud includshield shieldachill achilldescrib describgreat greatdetail detailpoem poemenrag enragdeath deathpatroclus patroclusachill achillend endrefus refusfight fighttake takefield fieldkill killmani manimen menrage ragealway alwayseek seekhector hectorachill achilleven evenengag engagbattl battlriver rivergod godscamand scamandbecom becomangri angriachill achillchoke chokewater watermen menkill killgod godtri tridrown drownachill achillstop stophera herahephaestus hephaestuszeus zeustake takenote noteachill achillrage ragesend sendgod godrestrain restraingo gosack sacktroy troytime timeallot allotdestruct destructseem seemshow showunhind unhindrage rageachill achilldefi defifate fatefinal finalachill achillfind findprey preyachill achillchase chasehector hectoraround aroundwall walltroy troythree threetime timeathena athenaform formhector hector's 'sfavorit favoritdearest dearestbrother brotherdeiphobus deiphobuspersuad persuadhector hectorstop stoprun runfight fightachill achillface faceface facehector hectorrealiz realiztrick trickknow knowbattl battlinevit inevitwant wantgo gofight fightcharg chargachill achillweapon weaponsword swordmiss missaccept acceptfate fatehector hectorbeg begachill achillspare sparelife lifetreat treatbodi bodirespect respectkill killachill achilltell tellhector hectorhopeless hopelessexpect expectdeclar declar`` ``rage ragefuri furiwould woulddrive drivehack hackflesh fleshaway awayeat eatraw raw– –agoni agonicaus caus'' ''achill achillkill killhector hectordrag dragcorps corpsheel heelbehind behindchariot chariotdream dreampatroclus patroclusbeg begachill achillhold holdfuner funerachill achillhost hostseri serifuner funergame gamehonour honouronset onsetduel duelhector hectorachill achillrefer referbrightest brighteststar starsky skycome comeautumn autumnorion orion's 'sdog dogsirius siriussign signevil evilcremat crematpatroclus patrocluscompar comparhesperus hesperusevening/western evening/westernstar starvenus venusburn burnfuner funerpyre pyrelast lastphosphorus phosphorusmorning/eastern morning/easternstar staralso alsovenus venusset setdescend descendassist assistgod godherm hermargeiphont argeiphonthector hector's 'sfather fatherpriam priamgoe goeachill achilltent tentplead pleadachill achillreturn returnhector hector's 'sbodi bodiburi buriachill achillrelent relentpromis promistruce trucedurat duratfuner funerlast last9 9day dayburial burial10th 10thtradit traditniob niob's 'soffspr offsprpoem poemend enddescript descripthector hector's 'sfuner funerdoom doomtroy troyachill achillstill stillcome | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-10 | Achilles
Section::::In the Trojan War.:Later epic accounts: fighting Penthesilea and Memnon.
The "Aethiopis" (7th century BC) and a work named "Posthomerica", composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century AD, relate further events from the Trojan War. When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her.
Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion. When Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise, until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess.
Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the "Iliad"s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic "Aethiopis", which was composed after the "Iliad", possibly in the 7th century BC. The "Aethiopis" is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors.
section:in :introjan trojanwar warlater laterepic epicaccount accountfight fightpenthesilea penthesileamemnon memnon`` ``aethiopi aethiopi'' ''7th 7thcenturi centuribc bcwork workname name`` ``posthomerica posthomerica'' ''compos composquintus quintussmyrna smyrnafourth fourthcenturi centuriad adrelat relatevent eventtrojan trojanwar warpenthesilea penthesileaqueen queenamazon amazondaughter daughterare arearriv arrivtroy troypriam priamhope hopedefeat defeatachill achilltemporari temporaritruce trucepriam priamachill achillfight fightkill killwarrior warriorqueen queengriev grievdeath deathlater laterfirst firstdistract distractbeauti beautifight fightintens intensusual usualrealiz realizdistract distractendang endanglife liferefocus refocuskill killfollow followdeath deathpatroclus patroclusnestor nestor's 'sson sonantilochus antilochusbecom becomachill achillclosest closestcompanion companionmemnon memnonson sondawn dawngoddess goddesseo eoking kingethiopia ethiopiaslay slayantilochus antilochusachill achillobtain obtainreveng revengbattlefield battlefieldkill killmemnon memnonconsequ consequeo eolet letsun sunrise risezeus zeuspersuad persuadfight fightachill achillmemnon memnonantilochus antilochusecho echoachill achillhector hectorpatroclus patroclusexcept exceptmemnon memnonunlik unlikhector hectoralso alsoson songoddess goddessmani manihomer homerscholar scholarargu arguepisod episodinspir inspirmani manidetail detail`` ``iliad iliad'' ''descript descriptdeath deathpatroclus patroclusachill achillreaction reactionepisod episodform formbasi basicyclic cyclicepic epic`` ``aethiopi aethiopi'' ''compos compos`` ``iliad iliad'' ''possibl possibl7th 7thcenturi centuribc bc`` ``aethiopi aethiopi'' ''lost lostexcept exceptscatter scatterfragment fragmentquot quotlater laterauthor | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-11 | Achilles
Section::::In the Trojan War.:Achilles and Patroclus.
The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the "Iliad", it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus were lovers. Despite there being no direct evidence in the text of the "Iliad" that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BC Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of "paiderasteia". In Plato's "Symposium", the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. But ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship.
section:in :introjan trojanwar warachill achillpatroclus patroclusexact exactnatur naturachill achillrelationship relationshippatroclus patroclussubject subjectdisput disputclassic classicperiod periodmodern moderntime time`` ``iliad iliad'' ''appear appearmodel modeldeep deeployal loyalfriendship friendshiphomer homersuggest suggestachill achillclose closefriend friendpatroclus patrocluslover loverdespit despitdirect directevid evidtext text`` ``iliad iliad'' ''achill achillpatroclus patrocluslover lovertheori theoriexpress expresslater laterauthor authorcomment commentclassic classicantiqu antiqupresent presentoften ofteninterpret interpretrelationship relationshiplen lencultur cultur5th-centuri 5th-centuribc bcathen athenintens intensbond bondoften oftenview viewlight lightgreek greekcustom custom`` ``paiderasteia paiderasteia'' ''plato plato's 's`` ``symposium symposium'' ''particip participdialogu dialogulove loveassum assumachill achillpatroclus patrocluscoupl couplphaedrus phaedrusargu arguachill achillyounger youngerbeauti beautione onebelov belovpatroclus patrocluslover loverancient ancientgreek greekword worddistinguish distinguishheterosexu heterosexuhomosexu homosexuassum assumman mancould coulddesir desirhandsom handsomyoung youngmen mensex sexwomen womenmani manipair pairmen menthroughout throughouthistori historicompar comparachill achillpatroclus patroclusimpli implihomosexu homosexurelationship | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-12 | Achilles
Section::::In the Trojan War.:Death.
The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions. In the oldest one, the Iliad, and as predicted by Hector with his dying breath, the hero's death was brought about by Paris with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valour, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. He was represented in the "Aethiopis" as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube.
Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him.
In the "Odyssey", Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his mound at the Hellespont while they are receiving the dead suitors in Hades. He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the Ocean. Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus. Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles.
In Book 11 of Homer's "Odyssey", Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life.
According to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades – as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' "Argonautica" (3rd century BC).
section:in :introjan trojanwar. war.death deathdeath deathachill achilleven evenconsid considsole soleoccur occuroldest oldestsourc sourccomplex complexone onemani manidiffer differversion versionoldest oldestone oneiliad iliadpredict predicthector hectordie diebreath breathhero hero's 'sdeath deathbrought broughtpari pariarrow arrowheel heelaccord accordstatius statiusversion versiongod godapollo apolloguid guidpari pariarrow arrowretel retelalso alsostate stateachill achillscale scalegate gatetroy troyhit hitpoison poisonarrow arrowversion versiondeni denipari parisort sortvalour valourowe owecommon commonconcept conceptpari paricoward cowardman manbrother brotherhector hectorachill achillremain remainundef undefbattlefield battlefieldbone bonemingl minglpatroclus patroclusfuner funergame gameheld heldrepres repres`` ``aethiopi aethiopi'' ''live livedeath deathisland islandleuk leukmouth mouthriver riverdanub danubanoth anothversion versionachill achilldeath deathfell felldeepli deeplilove loveone onetrojan trojanprincess princesspolyxena polyxenaachill achillask askpriam priampolyxena polyxena's 'shand handmarriag marriagpriam priamwill willwould wouldmean meanend endwar warallianc alliancworld world's 'sgreatest greatestwarrior warriorpriam priamoverse overseprivat privatmarriag marriagpolyxena polyxenaachill achillpari pariwould wouldgive givehelen helenachill achillmarri marrisister sisterhide hidebush bushshoot shootachill achilldivin divinarrow arrowkill kill`` ``odyssey odyssey'' ''agamemnon agamemnoninform informachill achillpompous pompousburial burialerect erectmound moundhellespont hellespontreceiv receivdead deadsuitor suitorhade hadeclaim claimbuilt builtmassiv massivburial burialmound moundbeach beachilion ilioncould couldseen seenanyon anyonapproach approachocean oceanachill achillcremat crematash ashburi buriurn urnpatroclus patrocluspari parilater laterkill killphiloctet philoctetuse useenorm enormbow bowheracl heraclbook book11 11homer homer's 's`` ``odyssey odyssey'' ''odysseus odysseussail sailunderworld underworldconvers conversshade shadeone oneachill achillgreet greet`` ``bless blesslife lifebless blessdeath death'' ''respond respondwould wouldrather ratherslave slaveworst worstmaster masterking kingdead deadachill achillask askodysseus odysseusson son's 'sexploit exploittrojan trojanwar warodysseus odysseustell tellneoptolemus neoptolemusheroic heroicaction actionachill achillfill fillsatisfact satisfactleav leavreader readerambigu ambiguunderstand understandachill achillfelt feltheroic heroiclife lifeaccord accordaccount accountmarri marrimedea medealife lifedeath deathunit unitelysian elysianfield fieldhade hade– –hera herapromis promistheti thetiapollonius apollonius`` ``argonautica argonautica'' ''3rd 3rdcenturi centuribc | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-13 | Achilles
Section::::In the Trojan War.:Fate of Achilles' armour.
Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who after considering both men, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena. Athena temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, Ajax was left so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles.
A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was for centuries preserved in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BC by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the "Iliad" with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear. However, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century AD.
section:in :introjan trojanwar warfate fateachill achillarmour armourachill achillarmour armourobject objectfeud feudodysseus odysseustelamonian telamonianajax ajaxajax ajaxgreater greatercompet competgive givespeech speechbravest bravestachill achilltrojan trojanprison prisonconsid considmen mendecid decidodysseus odysseusdeserv deservarmour armourfurious furiousajax ajaxcurs cursodysseus odysseusearn earnire ireathena athenaathena athenatemporarili temporarilimade madeajax ajaxmad madgrief griefanguish anguishbegan begankill killsheep sheepthink thinkcomrad comradathena athenalift liftmad madajax ajaxrealiz realizactual actualkill killsheep sheepajax ajaxleft leftasham ashamcommit commitsuicid suicidodysseus odysseuseventu eventugave gavearmour armourneoptolemus neoptolemusson sonachill achillrelic relicclaim claimachill achillbronze-head bronze-headspear spearcenturi centuripreserv preservtempl templathena athenaacropoli acropoliphase phaselycia lyciaport portpamphylian pamphyliangulf gulfciti citivisit visit333 333bc bcalexand alexandgreat greatenvis envisnew newachill achillcarri carri`` ``iliad iliad'' ''court courtbiograph biographmention mentionspear spearhowev howevshown showntime timepausania pausania2nd 2ndcenturi centuriad | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-14 | Achilles
Section::::In the Trojan War.:Achilles, Ajax and a game of "petteia".
Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game ("petteia"). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.
section:in :introjan trojanwar warachill achillajax ajaxgame game`` ``petteia petteia'' ''numer numerpaint paintpotteri potterisuggest suggesttale talemention mentionliterari literaritradit traditpoint pointwar warachill achillajax ajaxplay playboard boardgame game`` ``petteia petteia'' ''absorb absorbgame gameoblivi oblivisurround surroundbattl battltrojan trojanattack attackreach reachhero herosave saveintervent interventathena | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-15 | Achilles
Section::::Worship and heroic cult.
The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in Troad, was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Caracalla. Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades, in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achilles' homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton, accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero.
The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BC Polyxena sarcophagus, where the sacrifice of Polixena near the tumulus of Achilles is depicted. Strabo (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad:
The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus, today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island (Ukrainian Зміїний, "Zmiinyi", near Kiliya, Ukraine). Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea (graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings, from Olbia, the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century AD, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an "Achilles Pontárchēs" (Ποντάρχης, roughly "lord of the Sea," or "of the Pontus Euxinus"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, or Poseidon.
Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) in his "Natural History" mentions a "port of the Achæi" and an "island of Achilles", famous for the tomb of that "man" (portus Achaeorum, insula Achillis, tumulo eius viri clara), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the Dnieper-Bug Estuary; furthermore, at 125 Roman miles from this island, he places a peninsula "which stretches forth in the shape of a sword" obliquely, called "Dromos Achilleos" (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, "Achilléōs drómos" "the Race-course of Achilles") and considered the place of the hero's exercise or of games instituted by him. This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be the iconic spit, called today "Tendra" (or "Kosa Tendra" and "Kosa Djarilgatch"), situated between the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay, but which is hardly 125 Roman miles (c. 185 km) away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary, as Pliny states. (To the "Race-course" he gives a length of 80 miles, c. 120 km, whereas the spit measures c. 70 km today.)
In the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as "Achillea" and introduces two further names for it: "Leuce" or "Macaron" (from Greek [νῆσος] μακαρῶν "island of the blest"). The "present day" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of "Achillea" or "Leuce" with today's Snake Island. Pliny's contemporary Pomponius Mela (c. 43 AD) tells that Achilles was buried on an island named "Achillea", situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister, adding to the geographical confusion. Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth century BC black-glazed lekythos inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: "Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke." In another inscription from the fifth or fourth century BC, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration.
The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on "Leuce" seems to go back to an account from the lost epic "Aethiopis" according to which, after his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical Λεύκη Νῆσος ("Leúkē Nêsos" "White Island"). Already in the fifth century BC, Pindar had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a "bright island" (φαεννά νᾶσος, "phaenná nâsos") of the Black Sea, while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite Island of the Blest together with other heroes such as his father Peleus and Cadmus. Well known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, "makárôn nêsoi") or the Homeric Elysium with the stream Oceanus which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it. Guy Hedreen has found further evidence for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited world in a poem by Alcaeus, speaking of "Achilles lord of Scythia" and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the Aethiopian prince Memnon, who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother Eos after his death.
The "Periplus of the Euxine Sea" (c. 130 AD) gives the following details:
The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetes, who lived probably during the first century AD, wrote that the island was called "Leuce" "because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour". Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there. Pausanias has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue". Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. Ammianus Marcellinus attributes the healing to waters ("aquae") on the island.
A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo reported on the existence of a town "Achílleion" (Ἀχίλλειον), built by settlers from Mytilene in the sixth century BC, close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the Troad. Later attestations point to an "Achílleion" in Messenia (according to Stephanus Byzantinus) and an "Achílleios" (Ἀχίλλειος) in Laconia. Nicolae Densuşianu recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of Aquileia and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called Chilia (presumably from an older "Achileii"), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law.
The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy. In AD 216 the Roman Emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus.
section:worship :worshipheroic heroiccult culttomb tombachill achillextant extantthroughout throughoutantiqu antiqutroad troadvener venerthessalian thessalianalso alsopersian persianexpeditionari expeditionariforc forcwell wellalexand alexandgreat greatroman romanemperor emperorcaracalla caracallaachill achillcult cultalso alsofound foundplace placee. e.g. g.island islandastypalaea astypalaeasporad sporadsparta spartasanctuari sanctuarieli eliachill achillhomeland homelandthessali thessaliwell wellmagna magnagraecia graeciaciti cititarentum tarentumlocri locricroton crotonaccount accountalmost almostpanhellen panhellencult culthero herocult cultachill achillillustr illustr500 500bc bcpolyxena polyxenasarcophagus sarcophagussacrific sacrificpolixena polixenanear neartumulus tumulusachill achilldepict depictstrabo strabo13.1.32 13.1.32also alsosuggest suggestcult cultachill achillexist existtroad troadspread spreadintens intenshero hero's 'svener veneramong amonggreek greeksettl settlnorthern northerncoast coastpontus pontuseuxinus euxinustoday today's 'sblack blacksea seaappear appearremark remarkarchaic archaiccult cultattest attestmilesian milesiancoloni coloniolbia olbiawell wellisland islandmiddl middlblack blacksea seatoday todayidentifi identifisnake snakeisland islandukrainian ukrainianзміїний зміїний`` ``zmiinyi zmiinyi'' ''near nearkiliya kiliyaukrain ukrainearli earlidedicatori dedicatoriinscript inscriptgreek greekcoloni coloniblack blacksea seagraffiti graffitiinscrib inscribclay claydisk diskpossibl possiblvotiv votivoffer offerolbia olbiaarea areaberezan berezanisland islandtauric tauricchersones chersonesattest attestexist existheroic heroiccult cultachill achillsixth sixthcenturi centuribc bconward onwardcult cultstill stillthrive thrivethird thirdcenturi centuriad addedicatori dedicatoristela stelaolbia olbiarefer refer`` ``achill achillpontárchē pontárchē'' ''ποντάρχης ποντάρχηςrough rough`` ``lord lordsea sea'' ''`` ``pontus pontuseuxinus euxinus'' ''invok invokprotector protectorciti citiolbia olbiavener venerpar parolympian olympiangod godlocal localapollo apolloprostat prostatherm hermagoraeus agoraeusposeidon poseidonplini plinielder elder23–79 23–79ad ad`` ``natur naturhistori histori'' ''mention mention`` ``port portachæi achæi'' ''`` ``island islandachill achill'' ''famous famoustomb tomb`` ``man man'' ''portus portusachaeorum achaeoruminsula insulaachilli achillitumulo tumuloeius eiusviri viriclara clarasituat situatsomewhat somewhatnearbi nearbiolbia olbiadnieper-bug dnieper-bugestuari estuarifurthermor furthermor125 125roman romanmile mileisland islandplace placepeninsula peninsula`` ``stretch stretchforth forthshape shapesword sword'' ''obliqu obliqucall call`` ``dromo dromoachilleo achilleo'' ''ἀχιλλέως ἀχιλλέωςδρόμος δρόμος`` ``achilléō achilléōdrómos drómos'' ''`` ``race-cours race-coursachill achill'' ''consid considplace placehero hero's 'sexercis exercisgame gameinstitut institutlast lastfeatur featurplini plini's 'saccount accountconsid considicon iconspit spitcall calltoday today`` ``tendra tendra'' ''`` ``kosa kosatendra tendra'' ''`` ``kosa kosadjarilgatch djarilgatch'' ''situat situatmouth mouthdnieper dnieperkarkinit karkinitbay bayhard hard125 125roman romanmile milec. c.185 185km kmaway awaydnieper-bug dnieper-bugestuari estuariplini plinistate state`` ``race-cours race-cours'' ''give givelength length80 80mile milec. c.120 120km kmwherea whereaspit spitmeasur measurc. c.70 70km kmtoday todayfollow followchapter chapterbook bookplini plinirefer referisland island`` ``achillea achillea'' ''introduc introductwo twoname name`` ``leuc leuc'' ''`` ``macaron macaron'' ''greek greekνῆσος νῆσοςμακαρῶν μακαρῶν`` ``island islandblest blest'' ''`` ``present presentday day'' ''measur measurgive givepoint pointseem seemaccount accountidentif identif`` ``achillea achillea'' ''`` ``leuc leuc'' ''today today's 'ssnake snakeisland islandplini plini's 'scontemporari contemporaripomponius pomponiusmela melac. c.43 43ad adtell tellachill achillburi buriisland islandname name`` ``achillea achillea'' ''situat situatborysthen borysthenister isterad adgeograph geographconfus confusruin ruinsquar squartempl templmeasur measur30 30meter meterside sidepossibl possibldedic dedicachill achilldiscov discovcaptain captainkritzik kritzik1823 1823snake snakeisland islandsecond secondexplor explor1840 1840show showconstruct constructlighthous lighthousdestroy destroytrace tracetempl templfifth fifthcenturi centuribc bcblack-glaz black-glazlekytho lekythoinscript inscriptfound foundisland island1840 1840read read`` ``glauko glaukoson sonposeidon poseidondedic dedicachill achilllord lordleuk leuk'' ''anoth anothinscript inscriptfifth fifthfourth fourthcenturi centuribc bcstatu statudedic dedicachill achilllord lordleuk leukcitizen citizenolbia olbiadedic dedicciti citiolbia olbiaconfirm confirmcontinu continumainten maintenisland island's 'scult cultsuggest suggestqualiti qualitiplace placesupra-region supra-regionhero herovener venerheroic heroiccult cultdedic dedicachill achill`` ``leuc leuc'' ''seem seemgo goback backaccount accountlost lostepic epic`` ``aethiopi aethiopi'' ''accord accorduntim untimdeath deaththeti thetisnatch snatchson sonfuner funerpyre pyreremov removmythic mythicλεύκη λεύκηνῆσος νῆσος`` ``leúkē leúkēnêsos nêsos'' ''`` ``white whiteisland island'' ''alreadi alreadififth fifthcenturi centuribc bcpindar pindarmention mentioncult cultachill achill`` ``bright brightisland island'' ''φαεννά φαεννάνᾶσος νᾶσος`` ``phaenná phaennánâsos nâsos'' ''black blacksea seaanoth anothwork workpindar pindarwould wouldretel retelstori storiimmort immortachill achilllive livegeograph geographindefinit indefinitisland islandblest blesttogeth togethhero herofather fatherpeleus peleuscadmus cadmuswell wellknown knownconnect connectmytholog mythologfortun fortunisl islμακαρῶν μακαρῶννῆσοι νῆσοι`` ``makárôn makárônnêsoi nêsoi'' ''homer homerelysium elysiumstream streamoceanus oceanusaccord accordgreek greekmytholog mythologsurround surroundinhabit inhabitworld worldaccount accountidentif identifnorthern northernstrand strandeuxin euxinguy guyhedreen hedreenfound foundevid evidconnect connectachill achillnorthern northernmargin margininhabit inhabitworld worldpoem poemalcaeus alcaeusspeak speak`` ``achill achilllord lordscythia scythia'' ''opposit oppositnorth northsouth southevok evokachill achillfight fightaethiopian aethiopianprinc princmemnon memnonturn turnwould wouldremov removhomeland homelandmother mothereo eodeath death`` ``periplus peripluseuxin euxinsea sea'' ''c. c.130 130ad adgive givefollow followdetail detailgreek greekgeograph geographdionysius dionysiusperieget periegetlive liveprobabl probablfirst firstcenturi centuriad adwrote wroteisland islandcall call`` ``leuc leuc'' ''`` ``wild wildanim animlive livewhite whitesaid saidleuc leucisland islandresid residsoul soulachill achillhero herowander wanderuninhabit uninhabitvalley valleyisland islandjove jovereward rewardmen mendistinguish distinguishvirtu virtuvirtu virtuacquir acquireverlast everlasthonour honour'' ''similar similarother otherrelat relatisland island's 'sname namewhite whitecliff cliffsnake snakebird birddwell dwellpausania pausaniatold toldisland island`` ``cover coverforest forestfull fullanim animwild wildtame tameisland islandalso alsoachill achilltempl templstatu statu'' ''leuc leucalso alsoreput reputplace placeheal healpausania pausaniareport reportdelphic delphicpythia pythiasent sentlord lordcroton crotoncure curechest chestwound woundammianus ammianusmarcellinus marcellinusattribut attributheal healwater water`` ``aqua aqua'' ''island islandnumber numberimport importcommerci commerciport portciti citigreek greekwater waterdedic dedicachill achillherodotus herodotusplini plinielder elderstrabo straboreport reportexist existtown town`` ``achílleion achílleion'' ''ἀχίλλειον ἀχίλλειονbuilt builtsettler settlermytilen mytilensixth sixthcenturi centuribc bcclose closehero hero's 'spresum presumburial burialmound moundtroad troadlater laterattest attestpoint point`` ``achílleion achílleion'' ''messenia messeniaaccord accordstephanus stephanusbyzantinus byzantinus`` ``achílleio achílleio'' ''ἀχίλλειος ἀχίλλειοςlaconia laconianicola nicoladensuşianu densuşianurecogn recognconnect connectachill achillname nameaquileia aquileianorthern northernarm armdanub danubdelta deltacall callchilia chiliapresum presumolder older`` ``achileii achileii'' ''though thoughconclus conclusleuc leucsovereign sovereignright rightblack blacksea seaevok evokmodern modernrather ratherarchaic archaicsea-law sea-lawking kingepirus epirusclaim claimdescend descendachill achillson sonneoptolemus neoptolemusalexand alexandgreat greatson sonepirot epirotprincess princessolympia olympiacould couldtherefor thereforalso alsoclaim claimdescent descentmani maniway waystrove strovelike likegreat greatancestor ancestorsaid saidvisit visittomb tombachill achillachilleion achilleionpass passtroy troyad ad216 216roman romanemperor emperorcaracalla caracallaway waywar warparthia parthiaemul emulalexand alexandhold holdgame gamearound aroundachill achilltumulus | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-16 | Achilles
Section::::Reception during antiquity.
section:recept :receptantiqu | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-17 | Achilles
Section::::Reception during antiquity.:In Greek tragedy.
The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title "Achilleis" by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the "Achilleis" and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the "Achilleis" trilogy, "The Myrmidons", focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato's "Symposium", Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to revenge him.
The tragedian Sophocles also wrote "The Lovers of Achilles", a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive.
Towards the end of the 5th century BC, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in "Hecuba", "Electra", and "Iphigenia in Aulis".
section:recept :receptantiqu antiqugreek greektragedi tragedigreek greektragedian tragedianaeschylus aeschyluswrote wrotetrilog trilogplay playachill achillgiven giventitl titl`` ``achillei achillei'' ''modern modernscholar scholartragedi tragedirelat relatdeed deedachill achilltrojan trojanwar warinclud includdefeat defeathector hectoreventu eventudeath deatharrow arrowshot shotpari pariguid guidapollo apollopunctur puncturheel heelextant extantfragment fragment`` ``achillei achillei'' ''aeschylean aeschyleanfragment fragmentassembl assemblproduc producworkabl workablmodern modernplay playfirst firstpart part`` ``achillei achillei'' ''trilog trilog`` ``myrmidon myrmidon'' ''focus focusrelationship relationshipachill achillchorus chorusrepres represachaean achaeanarmi armitri triconvinc convincachill achillgive givequarrel quarrelagamemnon agamemnonline linesurviv survivtoday todayplato plato's 's`` ``symposium symposium'' ''phaedrus phaedruspoint pointaeschylus aeschylusportray portrayachill achilllover loverpatroclus patroclusbelov belovphaedrus phaedrusargu arguincorrect incorrectachill achillyounger youngerbeauti beautitwo twobelov belovlove lovelover lovermuch muchchose chosedie diereveng revengtragedian tragediansophocl sophoclalso alsowrote wrote`` ``lover loverachill achill'' ''play playachill achillmain maincharact charactfragment fragmentsurviv survivtoward towardend end5th 5thcenturi centuribc bcnegat negatview viewachill achillemerg emerggreek greekdrama dramaeuripid euripidrefer referachill achillbitter bitteriron irontone tone`` ``hecuba hecuba'' ''`` ``electra electra'' ''`` ``iphigenia iphigeniaauli auli'' | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-18 | Achilles
Section::::Reception during antiquity.:In Greek philosophy.
The philosopher Zeno of Elea centred one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between "swift-footed" Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.
section:recept :receptantiqu antiqugreek greekphilosophi philosophiphilosoph philosophzeno zenoelea eleacentr centrone oneparadox paradoximaginari imaginarifootrac footrac`` ``swift-foot swift-foot'' ''achill achilltortois tortoisattempt attemptshow showachill achillcould couldcatch catchtortois tortoishead headstart starttherefor thereformotion motionchang changimposs impossstudent studentmonist monistparmenid parmenidmember membereleat eleatschool schoolzeno zenobeliev believtime timemotion motionillus | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-19 | Achilles
Section::::Reception during antiquity.:Achilles in Roman and medieval literature.
The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers, such as Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Benoît de Sainte-Maure's "Roman de Troie" and Guido delle Colonne's "Historia destructionis Troiae", which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the 17th century.
Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, not as Hellene, but as Scythian, while according to the Byzantine author John Malalas, his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as Bulgars.
section:recept :receptantiqu antiquachill achillroman romanmediev medievliteratur literaturroman romantradit tradittrace tracelineag lineagtroy troytook tookhigh highnegat negatview viewachill achillvirgil virgilrefer referachill achillsavag savagmerciless mercilessbutcher butchermen menhorac horacportray portrayachill achillruthless ruthlessslay slaywomen womenchildren childrenwriter writercatullus catulluspropertius propertiusovid ovidrepres repressecond secondstrand stranddisparag disparagemphasi emphasiachill achillerot erotcareer careerstrand strandcontinu continulatin latinaccount accounttrojan trojanwar warwriter writerdicti dicticretensi cretensidare darephrygius phrygiusbenoît benoîtde desainte-maur sainte-maur's 's`` ``roman romande detroie troie'' ''guido guidodell dellcolonn colonn's 's`` ``historia historiadestructioni destructionitroiae troiae'' ''remain remainwide wideread readretold retoldversion versionmatter mattertroy troy17th 17thcenturi centuriachill achilldescrib describbyzantin byzantinchronicl chroniclleo leodeacon deaconhellen hellenscythian scythianaccord accordbyzantin byzantinauthor authorjohn johnmalala malalaarmi armimade madetribe tribeprevious previousknown knownmyrmidon myrmidonlater laterbulgar | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-20 | Achilles
Section::::In modern literature and arts.
section:in :inmodern modernliteratur literaturart | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-21 | Achilles
Section::::In modern literature and arts.:Literature.
BULLET::::- Achilles appears in Dante's "Inferno" (composed 1308–1320). He is seen in Hell's second circle, that of lust.
BULLET::::- Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida" (1602).
BULLET::::- The French dramatist Thomas Corneille wrote a tragedy "La Mort d'Achille" (1673).
BULLET::::- Achilles is the subject of the poem "Achilleis" (1799), a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
BULLET::::- Achilles is mentioned in Tennyson's poem "Ulysses" (published in 1842): "[...] we shall touch the happy isles and meet there the great Achilles whom we knew."
BULLET::::- In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet Stanisław Wyspiański published a national drama, based on Polish history, named "Achilles".
BULLET::::- In 1921, Edward Shanks published "The Island of Youth and Other Poems", concerned among others with Achilles.
BULLET::::- The 1983 novel "Kassandra" by Christa Wolf also treats the death of Achilles.
BULLET::::- Akhilles is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley's novel "The Firebrand" (1987).
BULLET::::- Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in Colleen McCullough's novel "The Song of Troy" (1998).
BULLET::::- "The Death of Achilles" ("Смерть Ахиллеса", 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer Boris Akunin that alludes to various figures and motifs from the "Iliad".
BULLET::::- The character Achilles in "Ender's Shadow" (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude.
BULLET::::- Achilles is one of the main characters in Dan Simmons's novels "Ilium" (2003) and "Olympos" (2005).
BULLET::::- Achilles is a major supporting character in David Gemmell's "Troy" series of books (2005-2007).
BULLET::::- Achilles is the main character in David Malouf's novel "Ransom" (2009).
BULLET::::- The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan's "The Last Olympian" (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects.
BULLET::::- Achilles is a main character in Terence Hawkins' 2009 novel "The Rage of Achilles".
BULLET::::- Achilles is a major character in Madeline Miller's debut novel, "The Song of Achilles" (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the "Iliad".
BULLET::::- Achilles appears in the light novel series "Fate/Apocrypha" (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red.
BULLET::::- Achilles is a main character in Pat Barker’s 2018 novel "The Silence of the Girls", much of which is narrated by his slave Briseis.
section:in :inmodern modernliteratur literaturarts. arts.literatur literaturbullet bullet:- :-achill achillappear appeardant dant's 's`` ``inferno inferno'' ''compos compos1308–1320 1308–1320seen seenhell hell's 'ssecond secondcircl circllust lustbullet bullet:- :-achill achillportray portrayformer formerhero herobecom becomlazi lazidevot devotlove lovepatroclus patrocluswilliam williamshakespear shakespear's 's`` ``troilus troiluscressida cressida'' ''1602 1602bullet bullet:- :-french frenchdramatist dramatistthoma thomacorneill corneillwrote wrotetragedi tragedi`` ``la lamort mortd'achill d'achill'' ''1673 1673bullet bullet:- :-achill achillsubject subjectpoem poem`` ``achillei achillei'' ''1799 1799fragment fragmentjohann johannwolfgang wolfgangvon vongoeth goethbullet bullet:- :-achill achillmention mentiontennyson tennyson's 'spoem poem`` ``ulyss ulyss'' ''publish publish1842 1842`` ``... ...shall shalltouch touchhappi happiisl islmeet meetgreat greatachill achillknew knew'' ''bullet bullet:- :-1899 1899polish polishplaywright playwrightpainter painterpoet poetstanisław stanisławwyspiański wyspiańskipublish publishnation nationdrama dramabase basepolish polishhistori historiname name`` ``achill achill'' ''bullet bullet:- :-1921 1921edward edwardshank shankpublish publish`` ``island islandyouth youthpoem poem'' ''concern concernamong amongother otherachill achillbullet bullet:- :-1983 1983novel novel`` ``kassandra kassandra'' ''christa christawolf wolfalso alsotreat treatdeath deathachill achillbullet bullet:- :-akhill akhillkill killpoison poisonkentaur kentaurarrow arrowshot shotkassandra kassandramarion marionzimmer zimmerbradley bradley's 'snovel novel`` ``firebrand firebrand'' ''1987 1987bullet bullet:- :-achill achillone onevarious variousnarrat narratcolleen colleenmccullough mccullough's 'snovel novel`` ``song songtroy troy'' ''1998 1998bullet bullet:- :-`` ``death deathachill achill'' ''`` ``смерть смертьахиллеса ахиллеса'' ''1998 1998histor histordetect detectnovel novelrussian russianwriter writerbori boriakunin akuninallud alludvarious variousfigur figurmotif motif`` ``iliad iliad'' ''bullet bullet:- :-charact charactachill achill`` ``ender ender's 'sshadow shadow'' ''1999 1999orson orsonscott scottcard cardshare sharenamesak namesak's 'scun cunmind mindruthless ruthlessattitud attitudbullet bullet:- :-achill achillone onemain maincharact charactdan dansimmon simmon's 'snovel novel`` ``ilium ilium'' ''2003 2003`` ``olympo olympo'' ''2005 2005bullet bullet:- :-achill achillmajor majorsupport supportcharact charactdavid davidgemmel gemmel's 's`` ``troy troy'' ''seri seribook book2005-2007 2005-2007bullet bullet:- :-achill achillmain maincharact charactdavid davidmalouf malouf's 'snovel novel`` ``ransom ransom'' ''2009 2009bullet bullet:- :-ghost ghostachill achillappear appearrick rickriordan riordan's 's`` ``last lastolympian olympian'' ''2009 2009warn warnperci percijackson jacksoncurs cursachill achillside sideeffect effectbullet bullet:- :-achill achillmain maincharact charactterenc terenchawkin hawkin2009 2009novel novel`` ``rage rageachill achill'' ''bullet bullet:- :-achill achillmajor majorcharact charactmadelin madelinmiller miller's 'sdebut debutnovel novel`` ``song songachill achill'' ''2011 20112012 2012orang orangprize prizefiction fictionnovel novelexplor explorrelationship relationshippatroclus patroclusachill achillboyhood boyhoodfate fateevent event`` ``iliad iliad'' ''bullet bullet:- :-achill achillappear appearlight lightnovel novelseri seri`` ``fate/apocrypha fate/apocrypha'' ''2012–2014 2012–2014rider riderred redbullet bullet:- :-achill achillmain maincharact charactpat patbarker barker’ ’2018 2018novel novel`` ``silenc silencgirl girl'' ''much muchnarrat narratslave slavebrisei | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
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Section::::In modern literature and arts.:Visual arts.
BULLET::::- "Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes" is a subject treated in paintings by Anthony van Dyck (before 1618; Museo del Prado, Madrid) and Nicolas Poussin (c. 1652; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) among others.
BULLET::::- Peter Paul Rubens has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: "Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx", "Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron", "Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes", "The wrath of Achilles", "The death of Hector", "Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus", "The death of Achilles" (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam), and "Briseis restored to Achilles" (Detroit Institute of Arts; all c. 1630–1635)
BULLET::::- Pieter van Lint, "Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem
BULLET::::- "Dying Achilles" is a sculpture created by Christophe Veyrier (c. 1683; Victoria and Albert Museum, London).
BULLET::::- "The Rage of Achilles" is a fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana ai Nani, Vicenza).
BULLET::::- Eugène Delacroix painted a version of "The Education of Achilles" for the ceiling of the Paris Palais Bourbon (1833–1847), one of the seats of the French Parliament.
BULLET::::- created a statue group "Achilles and Penthesilea" (1895; Vienna).
BULLET::::- "Achilleus" (1908) is a lithography by Max Slevogt.
section:in :inmodern modernliteratur literaturart artvisual visualart artbullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achilldaughter daughterlycomed lycomed'' ''subject subjecttreat treatpaint paintanthoni anthonivan vandyck dyck1618 1618museo museodel delprado pradomadrid madridnicola nicolapoussin poussinc. c.1652 1652museum museumfine fineart artboston bostonamong amongother otherbullet bullet:- :-peter peterpaul paulruben rubenauthor authorseri seriwork worklife lifeachill achillcompris compristitl titl`` ``theti thetidip dipinfant infantachill achillriver riverstyx styx'' ''`` ``achill achilleduc educcentaur centaurchiron chiron'' ''`` ``achill achillrecogn recognamong amongdaughter daughterlycomed lycomed'' ''`` ``wrath wrathachill achill'' ''`` ``death deathhector hector'' ''`` ``theti thetireceiv receivarm armachill achillvulcanus vulcanus'' ''`` ``death deathachill achill'' ''museum museumboijman boijmanvan vanbeuningen beuningenrotterdam rotterdam`` ``brisei briseirestor restorachill achill'' ''detroit detroitinstitut institutart artc. c.1630–1635 1630–1635bullet bullet:- :-pieter pietervan vanlint lint`` ``achill achilldiscov discovamong amongdaughter daughterlycomed lycomed'' ''1645 1645israel israelmuseum museumjerusalem jerusalembullet bullet:- :-`` ``die dieachill achill'' ''sculptur sculpturcreat creatchristoph christophveyrier veyrierc. c.1683 1683victoria victoriaalbert albertmuseum museumlondon londonbullet bullet:- :-`` ``rage rageachill achill'' ''fresco frescogiovanni giovannibattista battistatiepolo tiepolo1757 1757villa villavalmarana valmaranaai ainani nanivicenza vicenzabullet bullet:- :-eugèn eugèndelacroix delacroixpaint paintversion version`` ``educ educachill achill'' ''ceil ceilpari paripalai palaibourbon bourbon1833–1847 1833–1847one oneseat seatfrench frenchparliament parliamentbullet bullet:- :-creat creatstatu statugroup group`` ``achill achillpenthesilea penthesilea'' ''1895 1895vienna viennabullet bullet:- :-`` ``achilleus achilleus'' ''1908 1908lithographi lithographimax maxslevogt | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
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Section::::In modern literature and arts.:Music.
Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres.
BULLET::::- Operas titled "Deidamia" were composed by Francesco Cavalli (1644) and George Frideric Handel (1739).
BULLET::::- "Achille et Polyxène" (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by Jean-Baptiste Lully and finished by Pascal Collasse.
BULLET::::- "Achille e Deidamia" (Naples 1698) is an opera, composed by Alessandro Scarlatti.
BULLET::::- "Achilles" (London 1733) is a ballad opera, written by John Gay, parodied by Thomas Arne as "Achilles in petticoats" in 1773.
BULLET::::- "Achille in Sciro" is a libretto by Metastasio, composed by Domenico Sarro for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from Antonio Caldara (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by Leonardo Leo (Turin 1739), Niccolò Jommelli (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), Giuseppe Sarti (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), Johann Adolph Hasse (Naples 1759), Giovanni Paisiello (St. Petersburg 1772), Giuseppe Gazzaniga (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as "Il Trionfo della gloria".
BULLET::::- "Achille" (Vienna 1801) is an opera by Ferdinando Paër on a libretto by Giovanni de Gamerra.
BULLET::::- "Achille à Scyros" (Paris 1804) is a ballet by Pierre Gardel, composed by Luigi Cherubini.
BULLET::::- "Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja" ("Achilles, or Troy Destroyed", Bonn 1885) is an oratorio by the German composer Max Bruch.
BULLET::::- "Achilles auf Skyros" (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist Egon Wellesz.
BULLET::::- "Achilles' Wrath" is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin.
BULLET::::- "Achilles Last Stand" a track on the 1976 Led Zeppelin album "Presence".
BULLET::::- "Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts" is the first song on the 1992 Manowar album "The Triumph of Steel".
BULLET::::- "Achilles Come Down" is a song on the 2017 Gang of Youths album "Go Farther in Lightness".
section:in :inmodern modernliteratur literaturarts. arts.music musicachill achillfrequent frequentsubject subjectopera operaballet balletrelat relatgenr genrbullet bullet:- :-opera operatitl titl`` ``deidamia deidamia'' ''compos composfrancesco francescocaval caval1644 1644georg georgfrider friderhandel handel1739 1739bullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achillet etpolyxèn polyxèn'' ''pari pari1687 1687opera operabegun begunjean-baptist jean-baptistlulli lullifinish finishpascal pascalcollass collassbullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achille edeidamia deidamia'' ''napl napl1698 1698opera operacompos composalessandro alessandroscarlatti scarlattibullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achill'' ''london london1733 1733ballad balladopera operawritten writtenjohn johngay gayparodi parodithoma thomaarn arn`` ``achill achillpetticoat petticoat'' ''1773 1773bullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achillsciro sciro'' ''libretto librettometastasio metastasiocompos composdomenico domenicosarro sarroinaugur inaugurteatro teatrodi disan sancarlo carlonapl napl4 4novemb novemb1737 1737even evenearlier earliercomposit compositantonio antoniocaldara caldaravienna vienna1736 1736later lateropera operalibretto librettocompos composleonardo leonardoleo leoturin turin1739 1739niccolò niccolòjommelli jommellivienna vienna1749 1749rome rome1772 1772giusepp giuseppsarti sarticopenhagen copenhagen1759 1759florenc florenc1779 1779johann johannadolph adolphhass hassnapl napl1759 1759giovanni giovannipaisiello paisiellost. st.petersburg petersburg1772 1772giusepp giuseppgazzaniga gazzanigapalermo palermo1781 1781mani maniother otheralso alsoset setmusic music`` ``il iltrionfo trionfodella dellagloria gloria'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achill'' ''vienna vienna1801 1801opera operaferdinando ferdinandopaër paërlibretto librettogiovanni giovannide degamerra gamerrabullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achillà àscyro scyro'' ''pari pari1804 1804ballet balletpierr pierrgardel gardelcompos composluigi luigicherubini cherubinibullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achilloder oderdas daszerstört zerstörttroja troja'' ''`` ``achill achilltroy troydestroy destroy'' ''bonn bonn1885 1885oratorio oratoriogerman germancompos composmax maxbruch bruchbullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achillauf aufskyro skyro'' ''stuttgart stuttgart1926 1926ballet balletaustrian-british austrian-britishcompos composmusicologist musicologistegon egonwellesz welleszbullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achillwrath wrath'' ''concert concertpiec piecsean seano'loughlin o'loughlinbullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achilllast laststand stand'' ''track track1976 1976led ledzeppelin zeppelinalbum album`` ``presenc presenc'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achillagoni agoniecstasi ecstasieight eightpart part'' ''first firstsong song1992 1992manowar manowaralbum album`` ``triumph triumphsteel steel'' ''bullet bullet:- :-`` ``achill achillcome come'' ''song song2017 2017gang gangyouth youthalbum album`` ``go gofarther fartherlight light'' | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-24 | Achilles
Section::::In modern literature and arts.:Film and television.
In films Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series:
BULLET::::- The 1924 film "Helena" by Carlo Aldini
BULLET::::- The 1954 film "Ulysses" by Piero Lulli
BULLET::::- The 1956 film "Helen of Troy" by Stanley Baker
BULLET::::- The 1961 film "The Trojan Horse" by Arturo Dominici
BULLET::::- The 1962 film "The Fury of Achilles" by Gordon Mitchell
BULLET::::- The 1997 television miniseries "The Odyssey" by Richard Trewett
BULLET::::- The 2003 television miniseries "Helen of Troy" by Joe Montana
BULLET::::- The 2004 film "Troy" by Brad Pitt
BULLET::::- The 2018 TV series "" by David Gyasi
section:in :inmodern modernliteratur literaturart artfilm filmtelevis televisfilm filmachill achillportray portrayfollow followfilm filmtelevis televisseri seribullet bullet:- :-1924 1924film film`` ``helena helena'' ''carlo carloaldini aldinibullet bullet:- :-1954 1954film film`` ``ulyss ulyss'' ''piero pierolulli lullibullet bullet:- :-1956 1956film film`` ``helen helentroy troy'' ''stanley stanleybaker bakerbullet bullet:- :-1961 1961film film`` ``trojan trojanhors hors'' ''arturo arturodominici dominicibullet bullet:- :-1962 1962film film`` ``furi furiachill achill'' ''gordon gordonmitchel mitchelbullet bullet:- :-1997 1997televis televisminiseri miniseri`` ``odyssey odyssey'' ''richard richardtrewett trewettbullet bullet:- :-2003 2003televis televisminiseri miniseri`` ``helen helentroy troy'' ''joe joemontana montanabullet bullet:- :-2004 2004film film`` ``troy troy'' ''brad bradpitt pittbullet bullet:- :-2018 2018tv tvseri seri`` ``'' ''david davidgyasi | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
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Section::::In modern literature and arts.:Architecture.
In 1890, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in Corfu. The building is named the "Achilleion", after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the Trojan War, with particular focus on Achilles.
section:in :inmodern modernliteratur literaturarts. arts.architectur architectur1890 1890elisabeth elisabethbavaria bavariaempress empressaustria austriasummer summerpalac palacbuilt builtcorfu corfubuild buildname name`` ``achilleion achilleion'' ''achill achillpaint paintstatuari statuaridepict depictscene scenetrojan trojanwar warparticular particularfocus focusachill | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
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Section::::Namesakes.
BULLET::::- The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 – both as HMS "Achilles" and with the French spelling HMS "Achille". A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the Battle of Trafalgar. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War.
BULLET::::- HMNZS "Achilles" was a "Leander"-class cruiser which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II. It became famous for its part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside and . In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–43 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948 but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand.
BULLET::::- A species of lizard, "Anolis achilles", which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles.
section:namesak :namesakbullet bullet:- :-name nameachill achilluse useleast leastnine nineroyal royalnavi naviwarship warshipsinc sinc1744 1744– –hms hms`` ``achill achill'' ''french frenchspell spellhms hms`` ``achill achill'' ''60-gun 60-gunship shipname nameserv servbattl battlbelleisl belleisl1761 176174-gun 74-gunship shipserv servbattl battltrafalgar trafalgarbattl battlhonour honourinclud includwalcheren walcheren1809 1809armor armorcruiser cruisername nameserv servroyal royalnavi navifirst firstworld worldwar warbullet bullet:- :-hmnzs hmnzs`` ``achill achill'' ''`` ``leander leander'' ''-class -classcruiser cruiserserv servroyal royalnew newzealand zealandnavi naviworld worldwar warii iibecam becamfamous famouspart partbattl battlriver riverplate platealongsid alongsidaddit additearn earnbattl battlhonour honourriver riverplate platehmnzs hmnzsachill achillalso alsoserv servguadalcan guadalcan1942–43 1942–43okinawa okinawa1945 1945return returnroyal royalnavi naviship shipsold soldindian indiannavi navi1948 1948scrap scrappart partship shipsave savepreserv preservnew newzealand zealandbullet bullet:- :-speci specilizard lizard`` ``anoli anoliachill achill'' ''widen widenheel heelplate platename nameachill | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
305-27 | Achilles
Section::::Further reading.
BULLET::::- Ileana Chirassi Colombo (1977), "Heroes Achilleus – Theos Apollon." In "Il Mito Greco", edd. Bruno Gentili and Giuseppe Paione. Rome: Edizione dell'Ateneo e Bizzarri.
BULLET::::- Anthony Edwards (1985a), "Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis". "Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies". 26: pp. 215–227.
BULLET::::- Anthony Edwards (1985b), "Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic". "Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie". 171.
BULLET::::- Anthony Edwards (1988), "Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory," "Classical Quarterly". 38: pp. 25–30.
BULLET::::- Hélène Monsacré (1984), "Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère", Paris: Albin Michel.
BULLET::::- Gregory Nagy (1984), "The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology", "Illinois Classical Studies". 19.
BULLET::::- Gregory Nagy (1999), "The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry". Johns Hopkins University Press (revised edition, online).
BULLET::::- Dale S. Sinos (1991), "The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic", Ph. D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International.
BULLET::::- Jonathan S. Burgess (2009), "The Death and Afterlife of Achilles". Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
BULLET::::- Abrantes, M.C. (2016), "Themes of the Trojan Cycle: Contribution to the study of the greek mythological tradition" (Coimbra).
section:further :furtherread readbullet bullet:- :-ileana ileanachirassi chirassicolombo colombo1977 1977`` ``hero heroachilleus achilleus– –theo theoapollon apollon'' ''`` ``il ilmito mitogreco greco'' ''edd eddbruno brunogentili gentiligiusepp giusepppaion paionrome romeedizion ediziondell'ateneo dell'ateneoe ebizzarri bizzarribullet bullet:- :-anthoni anthoniedward edward1985a 1985a`` ``achill achillunderworld underworldiliad iliadodyssey odysseyæthiopi æthiopi'' ''`` ``greek greekroman romanbyzantin byzantinstudi studi'' ''26 26pp. pp.215–227 215–227bullet bullet:- :-anthoni anthoniedward edward1985b 1985b`` ``achill achillodyssey odysseyideolog ideologheroism heroismhomer homerepic epic'' ''`` ``beiträg beiträgzur zurklassischen klassischenphilologi philologi'' ''171 171bullet bullet:- :-anthoni anthoniedward edward1988 1988`` ``kleo kleoaphthiton aphthitonoral oraltheori theori'' ''`` ``classic classicquarter quarter'' ''38 38pp. pp.25–30 25–30bullet bullet:- :-hélène hélènemonsacré monsacré1984 1984`` ``les leslarm larmd'achill d'achillle lehéros hérosla lafemm femmet etla lasouffranc souffrancdan danla lapoési poésid'homèr d'homèr'' ''pari parialbin albinmichel michelbullet bullet:- :-gregori gregorinagi nagi1984 1984`` ``name nameachill achillquestion questionetymolog etymologfolk folketymolog etymolog'' ''`` ``illinoi illinoiclassic classicstudi studi'' ''19 19bullet bullet:- :-gregori gregorinagi nagi1999 1999`` ``best bestachean acheanconcept concepthero heroarchaic archaicgreek greekpoetri poetri'' ''john johnhopkin hopkinunivers universpress pressrevis revisedit editonlin onlinbullet bullet:- :-dale dales. s.sino sino1991 1991`` ``entri entriachill achillgreek greekepic epic'' ''ph phd. d.thesi thesijohn johnhopkin hopkinunivers universann annarbor arbormichigan michiganunivers universmicrofilm microfilmintern internbullet bullet:- :-jonathan jonathans. s.burgess burgess2009 2009`` ``death deathafterlif afterlifachill achill'' ''baltimor baltimorjohn johnhopkin hopkinunivers universpress pressbullet bullet:- :-abrant abrantm.c m.c2016 2016`` ``theme themetrojan trojancycl cyclcontribut contributstudi studigreek greekmytholog mythologtradit tradit'' ''coimbra | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
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Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Trojan War Resources
BULLET::::- Gallery of the Ancient Art: Achilles
BULLET::::- Poem by Florence Earle Coates
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-trojan trojanwar warresourc resourcbullet bullet:- :-galleri galleriancient ancientart artachill achillbullet bullet:- :-poem poemflorenc florencearl earlcoat | 305 | Achilles | Characters in Greek mythology,People of the Trojan War,Kings of the Myrmidons,Achaean Leaders,Greek mythological heroes,Characters in the Iliad,Demigods of Classical mythology,Thessalians in the Trojan War,LGBT themes in Greek mythology |
157647-1 | Albert of Aix
Albert of Aix(-la-Chapelle) or Albert of Aachen ("floruit" circa AD 1100), historian of the First Crusade, was born during the later part of the 11th century, and afterwards became canon (priest) and "custos" (guardian) of the church of Aachen.
Nothing else is known of his life except that he was the author of a "Historia Hierosolymitanae expeditionis" (“History of the Expedition to Jerusalem”), or "Chronicon Hierosolymitanum de bello sacro", a work in Latin in twelve books, written between 1125 and 1150. This history begins at the time of the Council of Clermont, deals with the fortunes of the First Crusade and the earlier history of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, and ends somewhat abruptly in 1121.
The "Historia" was well known during the Middle Ages, and was largely used by William, archbishop of Tyre, for the first six books of his "Belli sacri historia". In modern times, it was accepted unreservedly for many years by most historians, including Edward Gibbon. In more recent times, its historical value has been seriously impugned, but the verdict of the best scholarship seems to be that in general it forms a true record of the events of the First Crusade, although containing some legendary matter.
Albert never visited the Holy Land, but he appears to have had a considerable amount of discourse with returned crusaders, and to have had access to valuable correspondence. Unlike many other chronicles of the First Crusade, Albert did not rely on the Gesta Francorum, but used his own independent interviews; he may also have had access to the Chanson d'Antioche, as his work shares textual similarities with that poem. The first edition of the history was published at Helmstedt in 1584, and a good edition is in the "Recueil des historiens des croisades", tome iv (Paris, 1841–1887). A modern edition in Latin and English translation by Susan B. Edgington is available in the Oxford Medieval Texts series.
albertaix aix-la-chapell -la-chapellalbert albertaachen aachen`` ``floruit floruit'' ''circa circaad ad1100 1100historian historianfirst firstcrusad crusadborn bornlater laterpart part11th 11thcenturi centuriafterward afterwardbecam becamcanon canonpriest priest`` ``custo custo'' ''guardian guardianchurch churchaachen aachennoth nothels elsknown knownlife lifeexcept exceptauthor author`` ``historia historiahierosolymitana hierosolymitanaexpeditioni expeditioni'' ''“ “histori historiexpedit expeditjerusalem jerusalem” ”`` ``chronicon chroniconhierosolymitanum hierosolymitanumde debello bellosacro sacro'' ''work worklatin latintwelv twelvbook bookwritten written1125 11251150 1150histori historibegin begintime timecouncil councilclermont clermontdeal dealfortun fortunfirst firstcrusad crusadearlier earlierhistori historilatin latinkingdom kingdomjerusalem jerusalemend endsomewhat somewhatabrupt abrupt1121 1121`` ``historia historia'' ''well wellknown knownmiddl middlage agelarg larguse usewilliam williamarchbishop archbishoptyre tyrefirst firstsix sixbook book`` ``belli bellisacri sacrihistoria historia'' ''modern moderntime timeaccept acceptunreserv unreservmani maniyear yearhistorian historianinclud includedward edwardgibbon gibbonrecent recenttime timehistor historvalu valuserious seriousimpugn impugnverdict verdictbest bestscholarship scholarshipseem seemgeneral generalform formtrue truerecord recordevent eventfirst firstcrusad crusadalthough althoughcontain containlegendari legendarimatter matteralbert albertnever nevervisit visitholi holiland landappear appearconsider consideramount amountdiscours discoursreturn returncrusad crusadaccess accessvaluabl valuablcorrespond correspondunlik unlikmani manichronicl chroniclfirst firstcrusad crusadalbert albertreli religesta gestafrancorum francorumuse useindepend independinterview interviewmay mayalso alsoaccess accesschanson chansond'antioch d'antiochwork workshare sharetextual textualsimilar similarpoem poemfirst firstedit edithistori historipublish publishhelmstedt helmstedt1584 1584good goodedit edit`` ``recueil recueildes deshistorien historiendes descroisad croisad'' ''tome tomeiv ivpari pari1841–1887 1841–1887modern modernedit editlatin latinenglish englishtranslat translatsusan susanb. b.edgington edgingtonavail availoxford oxfordmediev medievtext textseri | 157647 | Albert of Aix | 12th-century Latin writers,Crusade literature,11th-century births,12th-century deaths,12th-century historians |
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Section::::References.
BULLET::::- Susan B. Edgington, "Albert of Aachen and the Chansons de Geste" in "The Crusades and their sources: essays presented to Bernard Hamilton" ed. John France, William G. Zajac (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998) pp. 23–37.
BULLET::::- Albert of Aachen, "Historia Ierosolimitana", ed. and trans. S. Edgington (Oxford: Oxford Medieval Texts, 2007).
section:refer :referbullet bullet:- :-susan susanb. b.edgington edgington`` ``albert albertaachen aachenchanson chansonde degest gest'' ''`` ``crusad crusadsourc sourcessay essaypresent presentbernard bernardhamilton hamilton'' ''ed edjohn johnfranc francwilliam williamg. g.zajac zajacaldershot aldershotashgat ashgat1998 1998pp. pp.23–37 23–37bullet bullet:- :-albert albertaachen aachen`` ``historia historiaierosolimitana ierosolimitana'' ''ed edtran trans. s.edgington edgingtonoxford oxfordoxford oxfordmediev medievtext text2007 | 157647 | Albert of Aix | 12th-century Latin writers,Crusade literature,11th-century births,12th-century deaths,12th-century historians |
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Section::::Bibliography.
BULLET::::- Albert of Aachen, "Albert of Aachen's History of the Journey to Jerusalem, vol.1: Books 1-6. The First Crusade 1095-1099", trans. S.B. Edgington (Farnham, 2013).
BULLET::::- Albert of Aachen, "Albert of Aachen's History of the Journey to Jerusalem, vol. 2: Books 7-12. The Early History of the Latin States 1099-1119", trans. S.B. Edgington (Farnham, 2013).
section:bibliographi :bibliographibullet bullet:- :-albert albertaachen aachen`` ``albert albertaachen aachen's 'shistori historijourney journeyjerusalem jerusalemvol.1 vol.1book book1-6 1-6first firstcrusad crusad1095-1099 1095-1099'' ''tran trans.b s.bedgington edgingtonfarnham farnham2013 2013bullet bullet:- :-albert albertaachen aachen`` ``albert albertaachen aachen's 'shistori historijourney journeyjerusalem jerusalemvol vol2 2book book7-12 7-12earli earlihistori historilatin latinstate state1099-1119 1099-1119'' ''tran trans.b s.bedgington edgingtonfarnham farnham2013 | 157647 | Albert of Aix | 12th-century Latin writers,Crusade literature,11th-century births,12th-century deaths,12th-century historians |