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Victorian-era architectural element For the model house dessert, see Gingerbread house. Gingerbread trim on a Victorian-era house in Cape May, New Jersey **Gingerbread** is an architectural style that consists of elaborately detailed embellishment known as **gingerbread trim**. It is more specifically used to describe the detailed decorative work of American designers in the late 1860s and 1870s, which was associated mostly to the Carpenter Gothic style. It was loosely based on the Picturesque period of English architecture in the 1830s. History ------- During the 1830s and 1840s, American home builders started interpreting the European Gothic Revival architecture, which had elaborate masonry details, in wood to decorate American timber frame homes. This was also known as Carpenter Gothic. The early designs started with simple stickwork such as vertical sawtooth siding. By the middle of the 19th century, with the invention of the steam-powered scroll saw, the mass production of thin boards that were cut into a variety of ornamental parts had helped builders to transform simple cottages into unique houses. At the time, standard sized gingerbread elements were manufactured at low cost in the American East Coast. Not everyone agreed with this architectural style. Andrew Jackson Downing, a prominent advocate of the Gothic Revival criticized this style in his *Architecture of Country Houses* in 1852. He classified homes in the United States into three types: villas for the wealthy, cottages for working people and farmhouses for farmers. He argued that the lower-cost cottages which were small in size and had simplistic style should not be ornamented with the elaborate embellishment of a villa. He also pointed out that the vergeboard of the Rural Gothic gable should have been carefully carved in thick and solid plank to appreciate its beauty instead of an ornamental part which was "sawn out of thin board, so as to have a frippery and 'gingerbread' look which (degraded), rather than (elevated), the beauty of the cottage." The style lived on and flourished in the residential areas of Chicago in the 1860s. That didn't last very long as the Great Chicago Fire in 1871 destroyed many of those buildings. Some attributed a cause of the fire to be worsened due to the cheap construction materials and the gingerbread decorations in hoping other cities would heed the warning. Still, the style continued to spread to the West. By the late 1870s, San Francisco had many gingerbread houses at a similar level of Chicago five or ten years earlier. In Ontario, Canada, a house style in the area called Ontario Cottage had been evolving since the 1830s. In the third quarter of the 19th century, the builders incorporated gingerbread elements to large houses. A prominent character was to use ornamental bargeboard and finials to decorate the gables. As railways were expanded into cities such as Stratford, more Ontario cottages and houses were built. They were typically one and a half story to one and three-quarter story brick homes with gingerbread wood trim on gables and the front facade. This type of house became prominent from the 1870s to the 1890s. In 1878, a fire in Cape May, New Jersey, destroyed 30 blocks of properties of the seaside town. The town rebuilt quickly. Many were rebuilt with much gingerbread trim and many gables and turrets. This resulted in a high concentration of late 19th century buildings in the town. According to the National Register of Historic Places, "Cape May has one of the largest collections of late 19th century frame buildings left in the United States. It contains over 600 summer houses, old hotels, and commercial structures that give it a homogeneous architectural character, a kind of textbook of vernacular American building." In the 1880s, many houses in California adopted the Eastlake style, which was named after Charles Eastlake a British architect and furniture designer. Eastlake published a book that contained illustrations of interior designs of incised wood panels and knobs to complement his furniture designs. American home builders expanded that to home exteriors by replacing flat-cut gingerbread ornamental elements with lathe-turned spindlework for balusters and wall surface decoration. However, Eastlake criticized the American adaptation as "extravagant and bizarre". The style was later combined with Italianate and Second Empire elements to create the "San Francisco Style". In Haiti -------- A *gingerbread* house in Port-au-Prince Residential buildings of wealthy individuals in Haiti during the *Gingerbread era,* between the 1880s and the 1920s, had a unique architecture that combined the local traditions and adaptation of foreign influences. The adaptation was influenced by many factors including manuals of styles that were circulated from Europe and North America, Haitian architects who studied abroad, and French artisans who set up woodworking shops to train Haitian artisans. Those Gingerbread houses were highly decorative with fretworks, latticeworks with patterns that are unique to Haiti. The structures of this style typically have large windows and doors, tall ceilings, large attics, and deep porches. ### History The movement of the style began in 1881 with the second Haitian National Palace during the presidency of Lysius Salomon. This was followed by the construction of a private villa, now known as Hotel Oloffson, commissioned by President Tirésias Simon Sam's son in 1887. In 1895, three young Haitians—Georges Baussan, Léon Mathon, and Joseph-Eugène Maximilien—traveled to Paris to study architecture, were inspired to build upon the nascent architectural movement, and modified the style to the climate in Haiti by designing homes with vibrant patterns and flamboyant colors of French resort architecture. Many large houses in upscale neighborhoods of Pacot, Turgeau, and Bois-Verna in Port-au-Prince were built in this style. A notable example of those is Villa Miramar (also known as Villa Cordasco) in Pacot, built in 1914. The style then spread to the rest of the country including Saint-Marc, Jérémie, Les Cayes, Petit-Goâve, and Léogâne until 1925. * The second National PalaceThe second National Palace * Hotel Oloffson, a Gingerbread hotel in Port-au-Prince, HaitiHotel Oloffson, a Gingerbread hotel in Port-au-Prince, Haiti * The school of the Brothers of Christian Instruction in Saint-Marc, HaitiThe school of the Brothers of Christian Instruction in Saint-Marc, Haiti * The Hilaire residence in Jérémie, HaitiThe Hilaire residence in Jérémie, Haiti * Villa MiramarVilla Miramar After 1925, new construction materials became available including concrete, and a new regulation that mandated masonry, reinforced concrete, or iron structures for fire prevention. That caused the architectural styles in Haiti to shift away from the gingerbread style. However, after 1946, the middle class families in Port-au-Prince neighborhoods incorporated parts of the styles into their modest sized houses. *Gingerbread* was coined by American tourists in the 1950s, who appreciated the style which bore similarity to that of the Victorian-era buildings with gingerbread trim in the United States. Prior to 2010, the style had bad connotations due to its associations with colonialism and elitism. After the 2010 earthquake, people in Haiti considered rebuilding their homes in gingerbread style due to its resilience to earthquakes. It shifted the tone for the style to be more positive in local communities. Tall doors with louvered shutters at Villa Miramar in Port-au-Prince, Haiti ### Characteristics The gingerbread house by design combines architectural knowledge that stemmed abroad, into an understanding of the Caribbean climate and its living conditions. They were constructed with tall doors, high ceilings, with steep turret roofs to redirect hot air above its inhabitable rooms, along with a cross-breeze of louvered shutter windows on all sides instead of glass to offset the most scorching of days, flexible timber frames with the innate ability to weather some of the toughest storms and tremors, and built with wrap-around verandas. The houses are usually constructed of wood, masonry, or stone and clay. ### Preservation Gingerbread house at Université Episcopale d'Haiti was left standing when the three-story classroom building adjacent to it collapsed in an earthquake. This specific architectural heritage in Haiti is now threatened as the natural aging of the wood, the weather, the high cost of restoration and repairs are all detrimental to the survival of this style. The style was listed on the 2010 World Monuments Watch. The listing was just before the 2010 earthquake that struck Haiti. Surprisingly, only five percent of the estimated 200 gingerbread houses were partially or fully collapsed, in contrast to about 300,000 collapsed buildings which were 40% of all other structures. This left U.S. conservation experts to believe that this architecture can be a model for seismic-resistant structures for the future. The gingerbread neighborhood of Haiti was listed as one of twenty-five sites on the 2020 World Monuments Watch. In Thailand ----------- Gingerbread air passages under the windows of Vimanmek Mansion in Bangkok, Thailand ### History During the European colonisation of Southeast Asia in the 19th century, wood was in high demand. The British timber industry started logging in India for teak, a tropical hardwood native to south and southeast Asia. The teak logging industry then expanded from India to Burma following British rule in Burma. Although Thailand was not a colony, Britain still wanted to expand its teak logging to Thailand. In 1883, Britain won logging a concession agreement with a local ruler in the northern provinces, making Phrae the center of British teak logging in Thailand. The British companies and rulers in northern Thailand built their teak gingerbread houses based on the styles from Britain. The Western architectural style with gingerbread trim was blended with Asian architectural elements such as perforated wood panels to create a style known locally as *Lanna Colonial*. During that period, American style gingerbread houses with decorative wooden fretwork became popular. The style caught on in some British colonies including Singapore and Burma, and then spread to Thailand. Thais of high social standing in the era of King Rama V built teak gingerbread houses to showcase the craftsmanship. Eventually, the popularity of gingerbread houses in Thailand faded away due to high construction and maintenance costs. Today, the remaining gingerbread houses in Thailand can be seen in various locations in Bangkok, Nakhon Pathom, Phrae, Lampang and Chanthaburi. ### Characteristics Moung Ngwe Zin, an example of gingerbread commercial buildings in Lampang Gingerbread houses in the northern provinces of Thailand combined the Lan Na arts and crafts and Victorian-era architecture. Additionally, commercial buildings owned by Chinese settlers and Burmese logging workers incorporated elaborate gingerbread decoration as part of the unique half-wood half-concrete structure called Saranai (or Salanai). These buildings are terraced houses with folding front doors on the first floor that can be fully opened to use as a storefront. The eaves, air passages above the doors, and ornate balustrades are decorated with intricately carved wood panels in different styles including Burmese style. These commercial buildings can be seen in Chiang Mai and Lampang. There were no specific patterns on the gingerbread trim used in the houses in Bangkok and the northern provinces. The principal design elements of Victorian Gothic such as quatrefoil, cross, and flame were used as an inspiration and several gingerbread patterns were developed locally. Popular patterns included, tulips, vines, geometric shapes, mosquito larvae, fruits and vegetables. The fretworks were made by using both perforated and carved woods. Most artisans were local and Chinese that made the fretwork locally, but some of the gingerbread trim was made in Bangkok and shipped to construction sites. A unique character of gingerbread houses in Thailand, to adapt to warmer climate, was the use of gingerbread-style fretwork to create air passages and install them near the floor or under the roof to allow air to flow throughout the house. A gingerbread house, originally known as Windsor House, on the bank of Chao Phraya River in disrepair ### Preservation Many of the gingerbread houses that are owned by the Thai government or temples are preserved in good condition. However, many private homes are at risk of destruction by the elements due to high costs of maintenance of intricate fretwork. Another approach to preservation is to repurpose the buildings. Some private homes have been preserved and given a new life as museums. A deserted gingerbread house, a former private residence in Bangkok, was restored and turned into a cafe. Many teak gingerbread houses in the northern provinces, especially in Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai, and Phayao, have been destroyed throughout the years as the owners demolished them to sell the wood due to high demand of second-hand teak wood since 1989. To combat this issue, the Phrae Architectural Heritage Club has engaged the communities in Phrae to preserve their gingerbread houses and turned them into a major tourist attraction for Phrae. Notable examples ---------------- * Many Victorian-era buildings in the Cape May Historic District, New JerseyMany Victorian-era buildings in the Cape May Historic District, New Jersey * Gingerbread cottages in Oak Bluffs, MassachusettsGingerbread cottages in Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts * Abhisek Dusit Throne Hall, a gingerbread house in Bangkok, ThailandAbhisek Dusit Throne Hall, a gingerbread house in Bangkok, Thailand * Gingerbread Mansion in Ferndale, California built in the American Queen Anne styleGingerbread Mansion in Ferndale, California built in the American Queen Anne style Further reading --------------- * "The Gingerbread Houses of Port-au-Prince, Haiti". Columbia GSAAP. 2016.

1981 studio album by Fad Gadget ***Incontinent*** is the second album by Frank Tovey, better known as Fad Gadget, released in 1981. While developing the industrial sound of his debut *Fireside Favourites* in 1980, the new album relied less on drum machines and found objects, introducing more traditional instruments such as accordion and jaw harp, as well as making more frequent use of female backing vocals. The album's cover featured Tovey made up as the puppet Punch. Its lyrical content was informed by his tour of the US in 1980. Background ---------- "Blind Eyes" satirised keeping the world's problems at arm's length, with lines such as "Send a few pounds to a charity / Now we're feeling so much better" and a chorus intoning "Hear no, see no, speak no evil". This was followed by "Swallow It", which foresaw the general public swallowing whatever mass-circulation newspapers put before them. "Saturday Night Special" took its title from an American revolver and ruminated on the right of men to bear arms and rule their home. It has been called a "baroque ditty for all gun lovers", and "a comment on the macho attitudes of Reagan's America". The title track and "Manual Dexterity", respectively the last track on Side 1 and the first track on Side 2 of the original vinyl LP, were the album's twin instrumentals. The former track featured Mute Records founder Daniel Miller, the latter Robert Gotobed of the band Wire. A non-album single, "Make Room" backed with "Lady Shave", preceded *Incontinent'*s release on 18 March 1981. "King of the Flies" was released as a flexi-single on 2 October 1981. "Saturday Night Special" backed with "Swallow It Live" (recorded at the Venue on 8 December 1981) was issued on 5 January 1982. A rerecorded version of "King of the Flies" backed with "Plain Clothes" was released on 6 April 1982. None of these singles, or the parent album, made the mainstream charts. Reception --------- Professional ratings| Review scores | | --- | | Source | Rating | | AllMusic | | At the time of its release in November 1981, *NME* remarked on the album's "brooding nature... offset by female vocals and exultant piano". More recently *Trouser Press* described it as possessing "more instrumental variety and better production" than its predecessor *Fireside Favourites*, but added: "Forgetting tripe like "Swallow It" and the charming title tune, some of this is interesting enough, but none is really involving; overall, the self-indulgent album rambles incoherently". Track listing ------------- All songs written by Fad Gadget. 1. "Blind Eyes" – 5:04 2. "Swallow It" – 5:42 3. "Saturday Night Special" – 6:39 4. "Incontinent" – 3:27 5. "Manual Dexterity" – 3:35 6. "Innocent Bystander" – 6:32 7. "King of the Flies" – 4:29 8. "Diminished Responsibility" – 5:50 9. "Plain Clothes" – 4:40 Personnel --------- * Fad Gadget – vocals, Chinese shawm, saxophone, flute, percussion, synthesizer, sequencer * Nick Cash – drums (except track 5), percussion, steel drum, vocals, jaw harp, accordion * Peter Balmer – bass guitar, rhythm guitar, vocals * David Simmonds – piano, synthesizer, voice * B.J. Frost – vocals * Anne Clift – vocals * Eric Radcliffe – guitar (tracks 6 and 9) * Robert Gotobed – drums (track 5) * Daniel Miller – sequencer (track 4) * John Fryer – percussion, voice

**Paride Negri** (2 September 1883 – 8 April 1954) was an Italian general during World War II. Biography --------- He was born in Perugia on 2 September 1883, the son of Pietro Negri. In 1900 he entered the Royal Academy of Artillery and Engineers in Turin, from which he graduated on 7 September 1903 with the rank of artillery second lieutenant. He participated in the Italo-Turkish War with the rank of captain, and later in the First World War, serving at the observation points operating on aerostatic balloons for the direction of artillery fire on the Isonzo Front; by the end of the war he reached the rank of major, being awarded a Bronze Medal and a War Cross for Military Valor. After serving as a staff officer, he was promoted to colonel on 28 November 1929, first taking command of the Reserve Officer School of Lucca and then of the 27th Artillery Regiment between 1935 and 1936. On 1 June 1936 he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. In 1937 he became commander of the artillery of the Army Corps of Udine, then he returned to Rome, where he was promoted to Head of Office of the Command of the Staff Officer Corps, later becoming Chief of Staff of the Army Command of Naples between 1938 and 1939. From 15 September 1939 to 8 June 1941, after promotion to major general on 17 August 1939, he was commander of the 41st Infantry Division "Firenze", which he commanded during the campaign against Greece in March-April 1941, after which it was stationed in Montenegro as an occupation unit. After a period at the VII Army Corps for special duties from June to December 1941, on 1 December he was appointed commander of the 154th Infantry Division "Murge", stationed in Herzegovina for occupation duties, with garrisons in Mostar and other towns. The Division was engaged in operations against the Yugoslav partisans. In Mostar Negri declared to the German command that the Royal Italian Army would not take action against the Jews, and to a German officer who demanded that he hand over the Jews living in the area under his control he replied harshly: "*The deportation of the Jews is contrary to the honor of Italian army*". On 13 May 1942, while crossing the woods of Bisina, six kilometers north of Nevesinje, with a large column of his division, he was ambushed by the partisans, who blocked the road with fallen trees, rocks and telegraph poles and opened fire on the head of the column, killing the commanding officer of the 154th Artillery Regiment and another four officers as well as the two drivers. Under heavy enemy fire, Negri managed to organize an improvised defense that allowed the column to retreat from the ambush site, and after the arrival of a reinforcing blackshirt unit he led the counterattack, in which he was slightly wounded. For this, he was awarded another Bronze Medal of Military Valor. From January to March 1943 he was acting commander of the VI Army Corps (having been promoted to lieutenant general), while also retaining command of the "Murge" Division until 1 March, and later he was placed at the disposal of the High Command of Slovenia and Dalmatia (SUPERSLODA). From March to early September 1943 he was attached to the Armed Forces High Command of Albania for special duties. On 2 September 1943 he was assigned to the Ministry of War in Rome for special assignments, due to having reached the age limit. He died in Rome in 1954.

Canadian outlaw biker and gangster **Stéphane Gagné** (born 12 December 1969) is a Canadian former gangster, outlaw biker and contract killer who was a hitman for the Hells Angels Motorcycle Club during the Quebec Biker War. Charged with two counts of first-degree murder, Gagné turned Crown witness against the Hells Angels in 1997 in exchange for one murder charge against him being dismissed. He was sentenced to 25 years' imprisonment. Gagné's testimony resulted in Hells Angels leader Maurice "Mom" Boucher being imprisoned for murder in 2002. Drug dealer ----------- Gagné was born into a working class French-Canadian family in the Hochelaga-Maisonneuve district of Montreal. His father worked as a professional wrestler while his mother was a housewife. His uncle was a hitman for the Dubois brothers and was murdered in 1974. Paul Cherry, the crime correspondent of *The Montreal Gazette*, wrote that Gagné speaks his *joual* (Quebec French) with a strong working class accent with a distinctive nasal tone. Cherry noted that Gagné usually has a "goofy grin" on his face, which gives the impression that his intelligence is very low. As a child he suffered from learning disabilities, especially from attention deficient disorder, and was much bullied by the other children. Gagné dropped out of school in grade 7 to work as a drug dealer and as a thief. A self-confessed drug addict, Gagné was as a teenager "*quasiment gelé*" ("almost frozen") as he phrased it as he was usually high on hashish and PCPs. Besides for selling drugs, Gagné stole automobiles and robbed homes and businesses. He amassed a criminal record, being convicted nine times over 12 years for automobile theft, home invasions, drug trafficking and probation violations. Gagné told the National Parole Board in 2016 that he wanted to become a gangster because being a gangster brings "beautiful women and money". By the age of 24, Gagné had made enough money to purchase a house with his wife, Marie-Claude Nantais, who was also involved in his drug dealing business. He fathered a son, whom he named Harley-David, after his motorcycle. Alongside his partner, Tony Jalbert, Gagné operated a string of crack houses and shooting galleries for cocaine and heroin addicts. Gagné's nickname of *Godasse* (Old Shoe) came from his reputation for brutality as he would beat up people and kick them in the head, usually wearing his old shoes. He testified in court that he had once savagely beat a prostitute because she had stolen from a drug dealer working for him. Gagné stated he felt no shame in beating up a woman because as put it: "if you let that kind of thing go, all of the druggie girls are going to steal from you". He was successful in his business, making $6,000 in cash per week and about $250,000 per year. Gagné also engaged in welfare fraud as he claimed to be unemployed, which allowed him to collect welfare. He has often used the "stupidity defense" at his trials, claiming that his IQ is so low that he could not be held legally responsible for his crimes, a defense that the courts have consistently rejected. Gagné has admitted that he is not as asinine as he claimed to be, saying he acted like a mentally challenged person out of the hope of avoiding prison time. Hells Angels ------------ In July 1994, Gagné was ordered by the Hells Angel, Paul "Fonfon" Fontaine, to close his shooting galleries for heroin addicts, which were competing with the shooting galleries owned by the Hells Angels. Desperate to stay in business, Gagné met with Maurice "Mom" Boucher on Sherbrooke Street. Using a type of sign language used in the Montreal undeworld, Gagné pointed to his nose (meaning he wanted to buy cocaine) and then touched Boucher's arm (meaning he wanted to buy cocaine from the Hells Angels). Boucher pointed to Fontaine, which indicated that he was buy the cocaine from him. Gagné was very attracted to joining the Hells Angels, which he believed would make him into a powerful man. By contrast, Gagné's business partner, Jalbert, broke with him and joined the Rock Machine. Gagné sold an average of three kilograms of cocaine per month for the Hells Angels. Gagné usually paid about $34,000 in cash while the rest of the cocaine he took on was *sur la bras* (credit). At Boucher's trial in 1998, Gagné testified: "I'm not stupid. I knew that the Hells would win the war. They're rich, better organized and certainly more disciplined". In the fall of 1994, Gagné was sent to prison after selling cocaine to an undercover *Sûreté du Québec* officer, Robert Pigeon. In December 1994, while serving his sentence at Bordeaux prison, Gagné was confronted by a member of the Rock Machine, Jean Duquaire, who demanded that he stomp on a photograph of Boucher and declare his allegiance to the Rock Machine. When he refused, he was beaten by Duquaire. After recovering, Gagné attacked Duquaire with a metal bar and beat him bloody. Gagné testified about life in the underworld: "In this environment, there's only rule: win". Gagné was sent to another prison in Sorel, where he met up with Boucher, who was serving six months for violating a weapons ban after the police discovered a gun on him. Boucher was so pleased by the beating that he had given Duquire that he ordered his son Francis to make weekly cash payments to Gagné's wife to support her while her husband was in prison. Boucher and Gagné became close and were often seen talking in the prison courtyard. As a prisoner, Gagné invented what he called the *pen-merde* ("shit-pen"), a mixture of his own excrement and urine that he would keep in an empty shampoo bottle for ten days and then use to soak the guards with. In July 1995, Boucher was released and in April 1996 Gagné was released. On his first day of freedom, Gagné contacted Francis Boucher to ask for a meeting with his father and on the second day he had lunch with Maurice Boucher. Gagné was told: "I've got important work for you. I want you to stick around". He later testified: "It was there that Maurice Boucher said that he had big things for me. And he didn't say much more than that". Gagné discovered that Boucher had a disconcerting habit of suddenly appearing and expecting Gagné to drop everything to carry out his latest project. Gagné took Boucher on a trip through Verdun, where Boucher ordered him to drive and park a car packed with a powerful bomb to explode outside of a Rock Machine clubhouse. After setting off the bomb, the Hells Angels planned to storm the clubhouse and gun down everyone inside. Gagné was trained in how to set off a remote-controlled bomb. The police informer Dany Kane alerted the police to the planned attack which never happened as there was always a police car near the clubhouse. One evening in the summer of 1996, Gagné was supposed to drive a stolen automobile packed with a bomb to the clubhouse, but the attack was cancelled when the Angels noted there was a police cruiser waiting for them. In another attempt to bomb the clubhouse, Gagné stole a van that was painted the same shade of grey as Hydro-Québec vans. On 23 August 1996, the police seized the van that Gagné had parked outside the clubhouse that had 200 pounds of dynamite fashioned into a remoted controlled bomb. Gagné joined the Rockers, the Hells Angels puppet club that Boucher had founded in March 1992. The Rockers were divided into a "baseball team" that beat people up and destroyed property and a "football team" that functioned as a death squad. Gagné joined the latter. Gagné testified that: "The football team is a team of killers". Gagné remembered how the Rocker Pierre Provencher told one drug dealer that he was to pay 10% of his profits to Gagné because: "Godasse is going to open some doors". When the drug dealer expressed some confusion about that statement, Provencher stated that Gagné would kill any drug dealer not working for the Hells Angels. Gagné described the atmosphere in the Rockers as one of relentless paranoia as members communicated via sign language or by writing on an erasable magnetic board of the fear of police wiretaps. In February and March 1997, instead of working on the "football team", Gagné was assigned to the Gay Village project under Serge Boutin, an attempt to take over all drug dealing in Montreal's Gay Village. Gagné reported that the majority of his clients in the Gay Village were male prostitutes who only turned to prostitution to support their drug addictions. In March 1997, Gagné together with a Peruvian immigrant, Steve Boies, kidnapped a rival drug dealer, Christian Bellemare, and took him out to a chalet in the Laurentians. As Bellemare begged for his life, Boies shot him while Gagné's gun jammed. Together, Boies and Gagné shot Bellemare three times. Gagné strangled Bellemare and then buried him in the snow. However, Bellemare was not dead and was able to climb out of the snow, causing Gagné to go into hiding for the next month. Despite botching his first murder attempt, Gagné became a "hang-around" member of the Rockers in May 1997. Gagné served as a drug dealer and bodyguard for the Hells Angels. At restaurants, he always monitored people coming out of the washrooms where weapons might be hidden. Accordingly, to Gagné: "If the guy returned and put his fingerprints everywhere, that's not a killer, that guy because a killer would not put his fingerprints everywhere". Gagné found that the Hells Angels had their own intelligence unit with three vehicles equipped with hidden cameras powered by batteries that lasted for 72 hours. To create a cover, Gagné testified that the Hells Angels printed their surveillance vehicles with the lettering of a fake construction contractor and even created a cell phone number for the pseudo-company to give the impression that the vehicles were parked in the same spot for so long because a construction contractor was at work. Gagné would park one of the three vehicles and then pick it up the next day. When the mother of the gangster Frank Cotroni died, Boucher had Gagné park the automobiles with hidden cameras in the parking lot of the church where the service was held as Boucher wanted footage of everyone who attended the funeral and the license plates of their cars as he was planning to liquate the Cotroni family. One policeman stated: "When the Hells went on a biker rally and stopped for a rest, Gagné would jump off his Harley and starting polishing the Hells' machine. He'd make sure the refrigerator was stocked with beer at biker parties and brought them drinks". Gagné was also involved in the escape of Richard Vallée in June 1997. ### Murders Boucher knew from corrupt policemen that there was an informer in the ranks of the Hells Angels, but did not know his name. To flush out the "mole", Boucher wanted the Hells Angels to start murdering people associated with the justice system. Boucher ordered two Hells Angels, André "Toots" Tousignant and Paul "Fonfon" Fontaine, to kill some random prison guards, and the two men recruited Gagné in turn. Together with Tousignant, Gagné waited outside of Rivière-des-Prairies prison in the eastern end of Montreal, waiting for an auspicious moment to strike. However, it was decided to murder prison guards from Bordeaux prison instead as that prison was closer to the major highways, which made an escape more easier. On 26 June 1997, Gagné and Tousigant armed themselves with handguns and got on two stolen '81 Suzuki Katana motorcycles. As the prison guard Diane Lavigne was leaving work in her minivan at the Bordeaux prison shortly after 9:48 pm, Gagné and Tousigant followed her. The two men rode up next to her minivan and opened fire, putting one bullet through Lavigne's arm and another into her lung, the latter which proved to be fatal. Both men abandoned their guns at the crime scene. After the killing, Lavinge, Tousigant and Gagné returned to the garage, changed their clothes and then went out to the woods to burn the clothing and biker helmets they had been wearing when they had killed Lavigne. The next day, Gagné went for a walk down Saint Catherine Street with Boucher, Fonatine, and Gilles "Trooper" Mathieu. Boucher told Gagné about the murder of Lavigne: "That's great, my Godasse. It's not serious that she had tits". Mathieu agreed with Boucher's statement that there was no dishonor in killing a woman, saying: "That's great, Godasse!". Gagné by his own admission was proud to have killed Lavigne as he remembered he felt was he would soon be promoted up to join the Hells Angels proper. Gagné told the National Parole Board in 2016 about his thinking about having killed a woman: "It was a power trip. I wanted my patches, I adhered to the values [of the Hells Angels]. I had lost sight of my parents' values". On the day after Lavigne was killed, Gagné's wife was watching the television news and stated it must had been a "sick person" who had killed her, a statement made that her husband leave the room in his shame. Shortly after the murder, a member of the Rock Machine used his car to run over Gagné while he was riding his motorcycle, an incident that put Gagné into a hospital for a month. While in the hospital, Gagné was promoted up to being a prospect with the Rockers. On 21 August 1997, Gagné received his half-patch Rockers jacket. Boucher now wanted Fontaine to kill a prison guard to prove that he was not an informer, and once again Gagné was asked to help. This time, Gagné felt more confident about having a good escape route from Rivière des Prairies prison. Gagné reported that Fontaine was desperate to be promoted to being a "full patch" Hells Angel and attended a meeting along with Boucher, Normand "Biff" Hamel, Gilles Mathieu, and Normand Robitalle to ask for permission to kill a prison guard. At about 6:15 am, Fontaine and Gagné were waiting in a van outside of Rivière-des-Praires prison for the prison bus to arrive. As the prison bus driven by Pierre Rondeau and Robert Corriveau arrived to pick up prisoners due in court that day, Fontaine and Gagné opened fire with 9 mm semi-automatic handguns. While Gagné was shooting at the van from the side, Fontaine leaped forward and rolled himself onto the hood of the van to open fire at point-blank range into the front window. Fontaine pumped three bullets into Rondeau, hitting him in the heart, lungs and liver, while Gagné shot and wounded Corriveau. One of the bullets in Rondeau came from Gagné's gun, but the fatal shot through the heart came from Fontaine's gun. Both Gagné and Fontaine fled in their van, which they parked at a pre-selected place. Gagné set the van on fire and accidentally seared his face with the heat from the flames. However, he closed the doors to the burning van, which cut off the oxygen to the fire, which died out and left the murder weapons abandoned inside intact. As Gagné got into the getaway car, a sales clerk, Nancy Dubé, waiting in a bus stop, got a good look at his face. Dubé gave the detectives from the *Service de police de la Ville de Montréal* a detailed enough description that the police were able to issue a composite sketch that closely resembled Gagné. Upon arriving at the garage, Boies assisted Gagné by burning his clothes and driving the getaway car to a junk yard to be crushed. After the murder, Gagné wanted to go to sleep, but instead had to buy several boxes of bolts at a Réno-Dépôt store to assist Tousignant with a bomb he was building to kill some Rock Machine members. To reward him, Boucher paid for Gagné and his family to take a vacation in the Dominican Republic. After Rondeau's murder, Boucher asked Fontaine and Gagné: "Does anybody else know about this?" Gagné was about to say that Boies had assisted him with cleaning up, but Fontaine spoke first, saying: "No. Nobody else knows". Gagné was greatly worried about Fontaine's statement as he knew that Boucher always assumed the worst when people lied to him and would have him killed if he learned Boies had been involved in the clean-up. Gagné admitted to Tousignant that he had lied to Boucher and he was told: "If you lie to the guys, you're going to be killed. You can't lie to the guys. You can lie to the police, but among the bikers you can't lie". In October 1997, Serge Boutin, the boyfriend of Fontaine, reported that he heard rumors that the guards in Bordeaux prison were accusing Gagné of being involved in the Lavigne and Rondeau murders. Boucher demanded a meeting and told Gagné: "Do you know that there are guys at Bordeaux prison, people who are our allies, who say that when they go through the classification in the prison the guards ask them if they know Godasse. When they say yes, the guards say, 'You know that Godasse killed the prison guards?'" However, Boucher concluded: "It's because you're so irritating when you're in prison. That must be why the guards think it's you". ### Arrest On 4 December 1997, a police raid led by Commander André Bouchard at a strippers' agency run by the Hells Angels seized some $2.5 million in drugs and 67 guns. One of those arrested in the raid was Boies. Detective Mike Vargas, an immigrant from Peru, was approached by Boies in the police station. Boies was afraid of being deported back to Peru and wanted to cut a deal with the Crown. Vargas burst into Bouchard's office to tell him that Boies was willing to testify that Gagné was one of the killers. Gagné, unaware that Boies had been arrested, spent the next day working as a bodyguard at Boucher's farm at Contrecoeur outside of Montreal. Upon learning from Boucher's lawyer, Robert Cliche, that Boies was under arrest, Gagné tried to flee to a motel in Saint-Ignace, but was arrested by the police along the way at about 11 pm. At about 2:40 am, Sergeant Detective Robert Pigeon started the interrogation of Gagné. Pigeon was chosen because he had arrested Gagné in 1994 and was the policeman who knew him the best. The journalists Julian Sher and William Marsden wrote: "Detective Sergeant Pigeon is a hard guy to read. He is of medium height and build. His face is round. His eyes are brown and watchful. His voice is soft, but steady. He has an aura of intensity, but at the same time seems to lack all flair or style. Which is probably why he's good at what he does. There's nothing distracting about his physical presence. You tend to listen to him, not see him. And what you hear is the voice that explains your life to you, lays out the choices and then quietly leads you to the right one, making you think you're the one who made that choice. That you're still in control". Gagné was uncooperative, saying he had nothing to say to Pigeon and swore at him a number of times. Pigeon who had arrested Gagné in 1994 felt that he understood his psychology very well, namely that Gagné was a weak man of low intelligence whose self-esteem was based entirely on his association with the Hells Angels, and chose to take advantage of his weaknesses. Over the course of a lengthy interrogation that lasted several hours, Pigeon proceeded to psychologically deconstruct Gagné as he relentlessly challenged him on his life choices and pointed out that the Hells Angels were just using him. Pigeon performed a "good cop/bad cop routine" as he was alternatively sympathetic and unsympathetic towards Gagné, posing as both a potential friend willing to help him avoid going to prison for the rest of his life and as a tormentor who mercilessly mocked Gagné as a loser too dimwitted to realize he was being used by the Hells Angels. Pigeon at times spoke in a friendly tone about Gagné's family and motorcycle, saying he knew that he was a good father and a husband who greatly loved his wife, children and his motorcycles as he was well aware that being too confrontational would strengthen Gagné's resolve and he needed to be seen as a potential friend. Pigeon noted to Gagné that several other Rockers who had killed for the Hells Angels had in turn been killed by the Angels once they ceased to be useful, asking Gagné what made him think that he could avoid the same fate. Pigeon pointed out the absurdity of murdering people at random just out of the hope of being allowed to wear the Hells Angels death's head patch on his biker's vest, and noted that almost everybody else in the world did not need to wear the Hells Angel patch on their backs to feel happy. Gagné was arrogant as he told Piegon in a cocky tone: "I can guarantee you that I won't make the decision you want me to make. You can take that to the bank". At about 5:31 am, Pigeon told Gagné that he was under arrest for two counts of first-degree murder. Using the information gained from Boies, Pigeon informed Gagné that the Crown had a solid case against him and that he had no hope of an acquittal as Boies had told all in his confession. Pigeon told him: "I also arrest you for the murder of the prison guard Diane Lavigne. That's serious, that! You know how serious! But it's over. We have the whole chain, every single link. I know where you parked the little van. I can even tell you that when you first set fire to the van you scorched yourself a little. You went to the Dominican Republic with Marie-Claude to let the heat die down. Why? Because you wanted to become a Hells Angel!". Pigeon was bluffing as only 25% of what Boies had said in his confession was true with the other 75% all lies as Boies was desperate to avoid being deported back to Peru, but he gambled that the sheer psychological impact of learning that Boies had turned Crown's evidence would shatter Gagné's resolve. Pigeon also told Gagné that his wife had been arrested as an accessory to murder and told him that she was also going to prison while their son would be placed in foster care. Changing his approach, Pigeon savagely mocked Gagné as a coward for killing an unarmed woman in cold blood, telling him that the exaggerated machismo of the outlaw biker subculture was only a psychological defense mechanism for weak, insecure men like himself. Pigeon kept taunting Gagné over his sense of masculinity, saying "be a man" and confess. Pigeon told him: "Why did you choose Diane Lavigne? Why did you choose that poor woman? Killing prison guards, what were you thinking when you did that? Be enough of a man at least to answer me today!" Gagné kept mumbling in response: "I have nothing to say". Confronting Gagné head-on, Pigeon told him that he had murdered two people all because he wanted to wear the Hells Angels death head patch on his back, asking him was it really worth it given that he was going to prison for the rest of his life if he did not make a plea bargain immediately. Piegon told him that he was being used, saying: "They made sure you were covered in blood. They injected you with it". Gagné screamed: "I have nothing to say, I have nothing to say, I have nothing to say! And I want my lawyer and I want you to put me the fuck in my cell!"" Pigeon told him: "Yahoo! I killed the prison guard. Yahoo! Me, Stéphane Gagné, I wanted a Hells Angels patch, and I want went as far as killing prison guards to get it. And if you think you're going to get out of here in two years, forget that, Stéphane, my boy. It's all over for you". Gagné broke down hysterically in tears, but Pigeon was relentless in his verbal assault as he told him that the Angels had abandoned him as he reminded him that was just a barely literate grade 7 drop-out who could not even speak proper French whom nobody outside of his family cared about. Gagné was allowed to phone Cliche and left a message on his answering machine, and was then taken back to the interrogation room. The news that Boies had turned Crown's evidence would ensure that Boucher would learn that Gagné had lied to him and he become convinced that Boucher would have him killed. The fact that the lawyers for the Hells Angles such as Cliche were refusing to go to the police station because it was very late in the night made Pigeon's statements about his abandonment seem believable to Gagné. At about 6:30 am, Gagné finally collapsed and amid his tears asked Pigeon: "If I talk, how many years could I expect to get?" At about 7:30 am, Marie-Cluade Nantais, who charged with being an accessory to two counts of murder, arrived at the police station to tell her husband to make a deal with the Crown, saying she did not want to go to prison for his crimes as she had been informed that the Crown was willing to drop the charges against her if her husband turned Crown's evidence. Gagné wanted to see the videotape of Boies's confession, leading Pigeon to play the tape on the police VHS machine and after watching the first five minutes, Gagné said he wanted to become a *délateur* (informer). Starting at 8:10 am, Gagné gave a full confession of his crimes to Pigeon. After giving his confession, Gagné asked for police protection for his wife and son, saying that Boucher would have them both killed if he learned that he become a *délateur*. In response, Pigeon told him that both his wife and son would be placed under 24 hour police guard. Gagné testified at Boucher's trial in 1998: "I understood that if I went to prison, I was a dead man. They would been afraid that I'd talk. Look at what happened to Toots and Paul. It wasn't easy. In a few seconds I had to confide to the police and the system I have hated since I was 15 years old" . Two weeks later, Gagné and his lawyer met with André Vincent, the chief Crown Attorney for Montreal, to negotiate the terms of his plea bargain. Gagné wanted full immunity and to be paid for testifying against Boucher, but Vincent refused both demands. In exchange for a plea bargain where Gagné was to serve 25 years in prison for Lavigne's murder, Vincent dropped the charge of first-degree murder in connection with Rondeau's slaying. If Gagné had been convicted of two counts of first-degree murder, he would have received a life sentence with no chance of parole, and Vincent told Gagné that dropping the charges for Rondeau's murder was a major concession on the part of the Crown. Vincent refused Gagné's demand to be paid $1 million for his testimony as he stated that the people of Quebec would never stand for a murderer be allowed to profit from his crimes at their expense. The only financial concession that Vincent made was that the Crown would pay $400 a week to assist Nantais with raising their son. Vincent informed Gagné that given the gravity of his crimes that he was very lucky to only receive a sentence of 25 years in prison, and he was only making the plea bargain because he wanted to see Boucher convicted. Witness for the Crown --------------------- On the basis of Gagné's confession, Boucher was charged with two counts of first-degree murder on 18 December 1997. Before the trial started, a lawyer for the Hells Angels offered Gagné a $1 million bribe to not testify against Boucher. To further encourage Gagné not to testify against Boucher, the Hells Angels burned down the house of Gagné's parents. He was told that the next time the Hells Angles burned down his parents' house, they would be in it. On 19 March 1998, Gagné pledged guilty to one count of first-degree murder for the slaying of Dianne Lavinge on 26 June 1997 and one count of attempted murder in regards to the shooting of Robert Corriveau on 8 September 1997 in exchange for which the Crown dropped the charge of first-degree murder in connection with the slaying of Pierre Rondeau. The Crown Attorney in charge of prosecuting Boucher, Jacques Dagenais, felt that Gagné was a terrible witness, an unsavory and unlikable hitman who spoke in a flat, cold nasal tone and who only turned Crown's evidence for a lighter sentence. Going into the trial, Dagenais stated that he was facing an uphill battle as Boucher had never actually said anything about murdering prison guards and instead expressed himself to Gagné via sign language, making it difficult to prove that he indeed ordered the murders. Dagenais feared the unlikability of Gagné together with his long criminal record would make it difficult for the jury to believe his testimony that Boucher had ordered him to commit murders via his hand gestures. Boucher's lawyer, Jacques Larochelle, was a well respected defense lawyer noted for his ability to tear apart the credibility of the Crown's witnesses on the stand via a series of sharp, probing questions. Larochelle regarded Gagné as being the weakest link in the Crown's case against Boucher and planned to discredit him as a witness as the best way to secure the acquittal of his client. The trial for Boucher on two counts of first-degree murder began in Montreal on 2 November 1998. During the trial, Larochelle brought up Gagné's long history of telling lies and of anti-social behavior, which he used to paint him as a dishonest sociopath who would tell any falsehood if it would serve his interests such as avoiding going to prison for the rest of his life. Larochelle used the *pen-merde* during the trial as an example of Gagné's anti-social tendencies. Larochelle argued that Gagné had an extreme hatred of prison guards as proven by the *pen-merde* and had murdered the two prison guards on his own initiative. Larochelle made much of the fact that Gagné had been convicted 11 times between 1990-1997 for various offenses and that his criminal record went back to the age of 13. Larochelle also made much of the fact that Gagné had frequently lied to the National Parole Board to gain early releases, leading Gagné to reply: "All criminals are bluffers. If we don't bluff, we're dead".. During his cross-examination of Gagné, Larochelle was able to get Gagné to admit under oath that he had "no respect for the truth", a damning statement that Larochelle used in his final address to the jury as evidence that Gagné had committed perjury to avoid a life prison sentence. Larochelle argued that Gagné had fabricated the claim that Boucher had ordered his crimes in avoid to a life prison sentence. In response, Dagenais admitted that Gagné was an unsavory witness, but argued that all of the evidence supported his testimony. The judge overseeing the trial, Justice Jean-Guy Boilard, showed a strong bias for the defense and excluded much of the Crown's evidence such as the police recordings of Boucher's phone calls-which confirmed several points of Gagné's testimony-which reduced much of the Crown's case down to Gagné. Boilard accused the police of illegally tapping Boucher's cell phone calls, which led him to exclude the phone calls as evidence despite the fact the police had a warrant. In his instructions to the jury, Boilard came very close to accusing Gagné of perjury and told the jury that they should not convict Boucher on the basis of a witness who had probably committed perjury. Dagenais felt that Boilard's jury instructions were so biased in favor of the defense that he filed for a mistrial. In particular, Dagenais noted that Boilard in his instructions had stated that the Crown's case rested entirely on Gagné's testimony, a statement that was false as the Crown had introduced other evidence and witnesses during the course of the trial, which he felt proved that Boilard was determined to see Boucher acquitted. On 27 November 1998, Boucher was acquitted. In a rare move, the Crown chose to challenge double jeopardy in an appeal as it was stated that the trial had been marred by the extreme pro-defense bias of Boilard. Many newspapers in Quebec attacked the plea bargain the Crown made with Gagné, charging that a self-confessed hitman had just been given only 25 years in prison while Boucher had been acquitted. Gagné testified in 2015 that he felt badly about the acquittal of Boucher, saying: "It was he who had lots of people killed and it was me who was in the hole. Justice had not been served. I was disappointed because I owed at least that to the families of the victims". On 10 October 2000, the Crown Attorney, France Charbonneau, in an appeal was able to undo double jeopardy as the Quebec Court of Appeals ordered a new trial under the grounds that Boucher's first trial had been tainted by Justice Boilard's pro-defense bias to such an extent that a new trial was required. The second trial began in Montreal on 26 March 2002. At the second trial, Charbonneau was able to bring in new evidence that confirmed much of Gagné's testimony at the first trial such as phone calls and security camera footage that showed Gagné to be at the places and times that he had testified to having been. Charbonneau was able to have the cell phone calls that Boilard excluded as evidence at the first trial introduced as evidence in the second trial. Cherry described Gagné as a "much more polished witness" at the second trial in 2002 than he had been at the first trial in 1998. Charbonneau was also able to bring the reports from the police informer Dany Kane which confirmed that Gagné had indeed been offered a $1 million bribe. During his cross-examination of Gagné, Larochelle, who again acted as Boucher's counsel, once again hammered Gagné, accusing him of perjury. When Gagné mentioned that he was tired when he gave his confession to Pigeon and failed to mention certain details, Larochelle mocking declared: "I've seen the video and you don't look tired". Charbonneau in response showed the videotape of the confession where Gagné was clearly exhausted as he struggled to stay awake in his chair. Charbonneau was able to use the videotape to put Larochelle on trial in a sense as she presented him as a ruthless lawyer who would tell the most outrageous lies to acquit his client. On 5 May 2002, the trial ended with Boucher being convicted of two counts of first degree murder and one count of attempted murder. In April 2004, the Crown's case against the Hells Angels national president Walter "Nurget" Stadnick and his deputy Donald "Pup" Stockford was badly weakened when the Crown's star witness, Gagné testified. Instead of testifying against Stadnick and Stockford, Gagné went on an extended rant about how the Crown had not in his opinion honored its agreement with him when he agreed to turn Crown's evidence in 1997, complaining he felt cheated. The attempts by the Crown Attorney Randall Richmond to have Gagné to testify about the matter at hand were completely unsuccessful. Gagné's lengthy rant on the stand about how badly he felt treated by the Crown and his unwillingness to testify in support of the Crown's thesis that he committed his murders on the orders of Stadnick and Stockford effectively derailed the Crown's case on the first-degree murder charges. The trial ended with Stadnick and Stockford convicted of conspiracy to commit murder and gangsterism, but acquitted on the charges of first-degree murder. In 2009, Gagné served as the main witness for the Crown at Fontaine's trial for Rondeau's murder. Richmond, who prosecuted Fontaine at his trial in 2008 and 2009, praised Gagné, saying: "He held his ground throughout". The trial ended with Fonatine being convicted of first-degree murder. In prison --------- During his prison sentence, Gagné had to be kept separate from the other prisoners as the Hells Angels had placed a contract on his life. In 2006, Gagné suffered from cancer and had to receive chemotherapy. Gagné learned to meditate from a Buddhist monk and claimed that he is now repentant for the crimes he committed, saying he had a spiritual awakening under the influence of Buddhism. Prison officials described Gagné as a much better man than he what he had been when he started his sentence, saying that his claims of repentance seem genuine. Gagné apologized to the daughters of Lavigne for having killed their mother. In 2010 and again in April 2016, Gagné was involved in two incidents that made the National Parole Board unwilling to grant him parole. In 2015, Gagné testified that his son had told him: "Dad, I'm ashamed of you but I love you the same.' It broke my heart." In December 2016, Gagné told the National Parole Board: "*Connaissez-vous la blague des motards? C'est deux Hells Angels qui vont dans le bois. L'un dit : "Il fait noir et j'ai peur." L'autre répond : "Je vais avoir encore plus peur quand je vais repartir tout seul*" ("Do you know the biker joke? It's two Hells Angels going into the woods. One says: "It’s dark and I’m scared." The other responds: "I'm going to be even more afraid when I go back alone"). Gagné used the joke to illustrate the amorality of the Hells Angels as he stated that the much vaulted biker "brotherhood" does not exist and that the Hells Angels will turn on each on other without guilt the moment it profits them to do so. In the 2017 Quebec television series *Délateurs* (*Informers*), Gagné was played by the actor Maxime Denommée. On 18 October 2018, Gagné was granted day parole. During his outings from prison, Gagné was according to the National Parole Board "able to interact with citizens, learn to pay with bank cards, shop and eat in a restaurant". As a prisoner, Gagné worked in the prison kitchen. In February 2023, the National Parole Board granted Gagné permission to live in a half-way house as a prelude to his release from prison. The National Parole Board wrote: "At the hearing, you mentioned understanding the damage you caused to the victims and collateral victims. You say you have a thought for them every morning. You say that you will never forgive yourself for the irreparable actions you have committed, but that you must learn to live with them". Books ----- * Auger, Michel; Edwards, Peter (2012). *The Encyclopedia of Canadian Organized Crime: From Captain Kidd to Mom Boucher*. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0771030499. * Cherry, Paul (2006). *The Biker Trials: Bringing Down the Hells Angels*. Toronto: ECW Press. ISBN 978-1550226386. * Lavigne, Yves (1999). *Hells Angels at War*. Toronto: HarperCollins. ISBN 9780002000246. * Sher, Julian; Marsden, William (2003). *The Road To Hell How the Biker Gangs Are Conquering Canada*. Toronto: Alfred Knopf. ISBN 0-676-97598-4.

The **conductivity factor** (**CF**) of dissolved salts in a given solution is a measurement of conductivity. Using the electrical conductivity between two electrodes in a water solution, the level of dissolved solids in that solution can be measured. Measurements can then be used to dose the solution with the necessary nutrients in the case of hydroponics. Conductivity measurements are also used in ecology and environmental sciences to assess the level of nutrients in lakes and rivers. For a discussion of conductivity in this context, see Total dissolved solids. CF (conductivity factor) is basically EC multiplied by 10, and is used in some places because it eliminates the need for a decimal point, so an EC of 0.1 is equal to a CF of 1. Electrical conductivity can be expressed using a number of different units but the international standard is EC, and the unit of measurement is usually milliSiemens or microSiemens. The difference between these two units of measurement is the placement of the decimal point, so 1 milliSiemens is equal to 1000 microSiemens.

Japanese visual novel ***Gaku Ou: The Royal Seven Stars*** (学☆王 -THE ROYAL SEVEN STARS-, lit. "School King") is a Japanese adult visual novel developed and published by Lump of Sugar. The game first released on January 27, 2012, it was then later ported to PlayStation Portable, entitled *Gaku Ou: The Royal Seven Stars + Meteor* (学☆王 -THE ROYAL SEVEN STARS- ＋METEOR), and released on March 28, 2013 by Alchemist. The PSP version removes the explicit scenes and loses the rating 15 or older, but adds a new opening and the new main female character named Sorano. Lump of Sugar later went on to produce a fan disc called *Gaku Ou -It's Heartful Days!!-* (学☆王 -It’s Heartful Days!!-) released on Comiket 82 in 2012. The fan disc is set after the events of the main game. A manga adaptation, titled *Gaku ☆ Ou -twinkle star story-* (学☆王〜the twinkle star story〜) began serialization in *Monthly Comic Alive* by Media Factory. Gameplay -------- A screenshot from the game, depicting the protagonist, Hiroto, making conversation with one of the heroines, Akari. Alike a typical visual novel game, the amount of gameplay is extremely minimal. The game gives the player a well-rounded perspective of the characters through the use of dialogue boxes that narrate the character's voice as well as their thoughts and emotions. As the game progresses, the player will reach a point where the players will choose an alternate direction between routes. The PC version contains adult material scenes, depicting the protagonist having sex with the various heroines. In the PSP port, it removes any scenes that involve sexual interaction between characters, it also contains additional scenarios and adds a new main female character, Sorano, the protagonist's younger sister. Plot ---- ### Story Hiroto is a prince from the Kingdom of Eleutheria on the small far-away planet of Fadenfrus. He was tired of spending his days in the royal palace and yearned for a school life like those on Earth, where his mother had once attended. His wish came true when he was allowed to attend Konoegahara Gakuen in Junesis, a country well known for its superior education system. However, the school only had 7 students (including himself) and was on the brink of closure since it was being targeted by officials. He decided to oppose the country to save the school and protect the school life that he had longed for… but moreover, the ulterior motive for him being sent to Earth was to take over Junesis! PSP cover art, featuring new heroine, Sorano. ### Playable characters Hiroto Hiroto is the male protagonist of the game. Sorano Sorano is the female protagonist of the game. She is Hiroto's younger sister. This character is only playable on the PSP version of the game. ### Seven Stars Akari Konoe (近衛 光莉, *Konoe Akari*) * Voiced by: Yuka Kotorii (PC), Natsumi Takamori (PSP) Akari is the first heroine met by Hiroto, she is the school director's granddaughter. Annemarie Lohenstein (アンネマリー・ローエンシュタイン, *Annemarī Rōenshutain*) * Voiced by: Usa Fujisaki (PC), Chiyo Ousaki (PSP) Annemarie is a cute girl who is an exchange student from Switzerland. She enjoys baking. Hinayu Mayuzumi (黛 比奈夕, *Mayuzumi Hinayu*) * Voiced by: Rokka Kitami (PC), Ryoko Ono (PSP) Hinayu is one of the teachers teaching at Konoegahara Gakuen, she is quite shy at times. Despite her small stature, she is a senior classmate. Uzuki Aquarius Tenguuji (天宮寺・アクアリウス・海月, *Tenguuji Akuariusu Uzuki*) * Voiced by: Yuri Bara (PC), Misato Fukuen (PSP) Uzuki is a high spirited, energetic girl who excels in sports. She likes to tease Akari. Erkenbert Lohenstein (エルケンバート・ローエンシュタイン, *Erukenbāto Rōenshutain*) * Voiced by: Ryōta Ōsaka (PC, PSP) Erkenbert is Annemarie's older brother, he is an otaku. Shou Onihara (穂仁原 翔, *Onihara Shō*) * Voiced by: Kōta Ōshita (PC, PSP) Shou's nickname is Harashou, he likes music. Related media ------------- ### Printed media In 2012, a manga called *Gaku Ou: The Twinkle Star Story* was serialized in *Comic Alive* by Media Factory, which was authored by Lump of Sugar. Tatetsu Teto provides the illustrations. A visual fan book for *Gaku Ou: The Royal Seven Stars* was officially released on June 15, 2012, published by Enterbrain. The visual book contains material suitable for audiences over 18, and is precisely 144 pages long. ### Music All the songs, including in the PSP version, were composed by a.k.a.dRESS of Ave;new. Both the opening and ending songs were performed by Saori Sakura, titled "My Sweet Lady" and "Fluorite Diary", respectively. In the PSP game, the opening song "My Little Glory" was also sung by Saori Sakura.

An aerial view of Lethbridge from 1963. The modern **history of Lethbridge** extends to the mid-19th century, when the area was developed from drift mines opened by Nicholas Sheran in 1874, and the North Western Coal and Navigation Company in 1882. Prior to the development of drift mines in the area, Lethbridge, Alberta was known as Coal Banks, and was part of the territory of the Blackfoot Confederacy. The Confederacy was made up of the Kainai Nation, the Northern Peigan, the Southern Peigan (Blackfeet), and the Siksika Nation. 19th century ------------ Fort Whoop-Up, a whiskey trading post, was established in 1869 after the United States Army outlawed alcohol trade with the Kainai Nation in Montana. After the United States Army outlawed alcohol trading in 1869 with the Blood nation in Montana, traders John J. Healy and Alfred B. Hamilton started the whisky trading post Fort Hamilton near the junction of the St. Mary and Oldman rivers. It was burned down, but they rebuilt it and eventually it came to be nicknamed Fort Whoop-Up. The whisky traded at this post was often not much more than alcohol, river water, chewing tobacco and lye. The whisky trade eventually led to the massacre of many Assiniboines in the Cypress Hills area by some Americans in 1873. As a result, the North-West Mounted Police (now the RCMP) were established, and a contingent travelled to southern Alberta to stop the trade and establish order. The NWMP arrived at Fort Whoop-Up on 9 October 1874. Later in 1875, the NWMP established a post at Fort Whoop-up by renting a room from Healy and Hamilton. For the next twelve years, the fort continued to trade (although not in "whisky") while also hosting a NWMP post. ### Coal mining By the 1870s, Nicholas Sheran (an American entrepreneur) mined a coal seam in the coulees on the west side of what is now the Oldman River. He sold what he mined to Montana traders and the NWMP. Sir Alexander Tilloch Galt was interested in the success Sheran was having. He knew a transcontinental railway was soon to be built in the area, and the settlers it would bring would create a profitable market for the coal. On 13 October 1882, Galt's company North Western Coal and Navigation Company opened the first drift mine across from Sheran's operation. This mine was managed by William Stafford. The first president and largest shareholder of the company, William Lethbridge, was the one after whom the town was named. 20th century ------------ By the start of the 20th century, the mines employed about 150 men and produced about 300 tonnes of coal each day. By the time production peaked during World War I, 10 mines employed 2,000 miners and produced 1 million tonnes of coal annually. At the time, Lethbridge area collieries were the largest coal producers in the Northwest Territories. After the war, an increase in oil and natural gas production caused a decline in coal production, and the last mine in Lethbridge closed in 1957. Some of this mine, Galt No. 8, still stands today, and a local society is attempting to renovate it as a museum or interpretive centre. ### Rail Immigrants arrive at Lethbridge station in 1953. Passenger rail service continued to the city until 1971. The first rail line was built in Lethbridge, being completed 28 August 1885 by the Alberta Railway and Coal Company. The line was further extended 595 kilometres beyond Lethbridge and was instrumental in feeding the main CPR lines at the time the ARCC sold it to the CPR in 1912. Because of the rail industry's dependence of coal and the CPR's efforts to settle immigrants in southern Alberta, the railway centre of Lethbridge was instrumental in the economic success of the region. In the mid-1980s, the railyards in downtown Lethbridge were moved to nearby Kipp and Lethbridge ceased operating as a hub for rail traffic. ### Riot of 1907 On 25 December 1907, an altercation occurred at the Dallas Hotel (now the Coalbanks Inn) on 5 Street South in downtown Lethbridge. Reportedly, the altercation was between a Chinese employee working the hotel's restaurant and a Caucasian customer. Word of the altercation spread and somehow escalated into rumours the employee had killed the customer. As a result, a large crowd gathered at the hotel and ransacked the restaurant. Shortly after, they moved to nearby Chinatown to wreak havoc there. At this point, the local police gathered to control the situation and mayor W. S. Galbraith read the Riot Act to those gathered. As a result, everything was brought under control and the crowd soon dispersed. ### Development The University of Lethbridge was established in 1967, one of two post-secondary institutions established in Lethbridge after World War II. After the CPR moved the divisional point of its Crowsnest Line from Fort Macleod to Lethbridge in 1905, the city became a regional centre for Southern Alberta; something the region did not have previously. Between 1907 and 1913, a development boom occurred in Lethbridge, making it the main marketing, distribution and service centre in southern Alberta. Several municipal projects, a construction boom, and rising real estate prices transformed the mining town into a significant city. Part of the impetus behind the municipal projects above was the city playing host to the 7th International Dry-Farming Congress in 1912. As recently as 1911, the city had no facilities to host an event of this significance. By the time the event arrived in October, the city had spent $1.35 million paving downtown streets, putting in cement sidewalks, improving the water and sewer systems, building a street railcar system, creating Henderson Park and setting aside 60 acres (24 ha) for the Exhibition Grounds. Despite the event attracting thousands of delegates from throughout Canada and such places as China, Italy, and India, the city's tax base of only 8,000 could not support those improvements. The city carried the debt for decades after. Even so, the Lethbridge Herald labelled the event as "the greatest week in the history of the city". Between World War I and World War II, the city experienced an economic slump. Development slowed, drought drove farmers from their farms and coal mining rapidly declined from its peak before 1920. Following WWII, irrigation in the surrounding area caused the city's population to swell, which in turn boosted the local economy. Lethbridge Community College (now Lethbridge College) opened in April 1957, and the University of Lethbridge in 1967. Names ----- The town was named after William Lethbridge. Before settlement, the area where Lethbridge is located was known as The Arid Region. After geological surveys around 1880 revealed an abundance of coal, it became called The Belly River Coal District. After the Galts introduced irrigation to counter the Arid Region problems around 1900, the locality became called the Irrigated District. Finally, as an aid to land sales after the rush of dryland settlement started about 1905, the non-irrigable portion was called The Winter Wheat Lands. Other names the area was known by are as follows: * Blackfoot + *Aksaysim*, also transliterated as *Aksiiksahko* or *Steep Banks* + *Mek-kio-towaghs*, also *Miiksskoowa*, variously translated as *Painted Rock*, *Red Painted Rock*, or *Medicine Stone* + *Assini-etomochi*, also *Asinaawaiitomottsaawa*, or *Where We Slaughtered the Crees* + *Sik-ooh-kotok*, *Black/Rocks* or *Coal* * Sarcee + *Chadish-kashi*, *Black/Rocks* * Cree + *Kuskusukisay-guni*, *Black/Rocks* * Stony + *Ipubin-saba-akabin*, or *Digging Coal* * English + *Coal Banks* + *Sherans*, or *Sheran's Ferry* + *The Crossing* + *The Colliery* + *Newlethbridge* + *Lethbridge Colliery* + *Upper and Lower Town* + *Coalhurst* + *Riverside* Since October 15, 1885, the name *Lethbridge* has been the official term. The name Lethbridge was in common unofficial use for the river bottom community at least as early as May 1884.

Canadian anthology television series Canadian TV series or program ***Scope*** is a Canadian anthology television series which aired on CBC Television from 1954 to 1955. Premise ------- This series was one of the CBC's early venues for broadcasting artistic works. It consisted of various presentations such as ballet, documentary, drama and opera. The debut episode featured *Sunshine Town*, a musical version of the Stephen Leacock story. The National Ballet of Canada performed *The Nutcracker* for the second episode. The third episode in January 1955 featured Eric Nicol's review of the previous year. Another episode included a performance of *The Telephone*, the Gian Carlo Menotti opera, highlighting a theme of communications. Sketches by Federico García Lorca and Anton Chekhov formed an episode concerning the topic of marriage. "Sea of Troubles", a documentary by Lister Sinclair, was featured in another episode. Scheduling ---------- This half-hour series was broadcast Sundays at 10:00 p.m. from 19 December 1954 to 1 May 1955.

Russian chess player **Ratmir Dmitrievich Kholmov** (Russian: Ратмир Дмитриевич Холмов) (13 May 1925 in Shenkursk – 18 February 2006 in Moscow) was a Russian chess Grandmaster. He won many international tournaments in Eastern Europe during his career, and tied for the Soviet Championship title in 1963, but lost the playoff. Kholmov was not well known in the West, since he never competed there during his career peak, being confined to events in socialist countries. His chess results were impressive, so this may have been for security reasons, as Kholmov had been a wartime sailor. But he was one of the strongest Soviet players from the mid-1950s well into the 1970s, and was ranked as high as No. 8 in the world by Chessmetrics.com from August 1960 to March 1961. Kholmov stayed active in competitive chess right to the end of his life, and maintained a high standard of play past the age of 80. Early years ----------- Kholmov learned chess at age 12, and was near Master strength within three years. He served as a sailor in the Soviet merchant marine during World War II, sailing mainly the Northern Arctic route. In 1945, he took 5th in Tula. In 1946, he won in Zhdanovichi (Belarus). In 1947, he took 4th in the 13th Belarusian championship. Later that year, he made his first high-level appearance at the Mikhail Chigorin Memorial, Moscow 1947, scoring 5½/15 against a powerful international field. In 1948, Kholmov won the next BLR-ch in 1948, unbeaten, with 11½/13. Kholmov qualified for his first Soviet final in 1948, Moscow URS-ch16, scoring 8½/18 for 12th place, where the winners were David Bronstein and Alexander Kotov. He had to return to the Soviet semifinal level at Tbilisi 1949, where he placed 3rd with 10½/17 to advance. At Moscow URS-ch17, 1949, he showed solid improvement, finishing tied 9th–10th with 10/19, as Bronstein and Vasily Smyslov won. In 1950, he took 3rd in Pärnu, 7th in Tbilisi, and tied 4th–5th in the Spartak Club Championship. He missed Finals qualifying at Tartu 1950 (URS-ch18sf) with 9½/15 for fifth place. In 1954, he took 2nd, behind Vladas Mikėnas in Vilnius (Quadrangular). Kholmov won, or tied for 1st, in the Lithuanian championships in 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1957, 1958, 1959, and 1960, making a total of ten outright or shared Lithuanian titles. This consistent success meant that he could be a full-time chess professional. International debut ------------------- Kholmov made his international debut at Bucharest 1954 with a tied 3rd–4th place, on 11/17, as Viktor Korchnoi won. He placed 6th at Kiev 1954 in the URS-ch21 with 10½/19, with Yuri Averbakh winning; this heralded his arrival in the Soviet elite. FIDE awarded Kholmov the International Master (IM) title in 1954. He tied for 3rd–6th places at Leningrad 1955–56 with 10½/18, as Vladimir Antoshin won. Kholmov tied for 1st–2nd places at Dresden 1956 with Averbakh on 12/15. He earned the International Master title for this. A very solid tied 5th–7th place at URS-ch23 in Leningrad 1956, with 10½/17, reinforced his high-echelon status. He maintained this standard at the next Soviet final, URS-ch24 at Moscow 1957, with 6th place on 12½/21. He placed 2nd at Szczawno-Zdrój 1957 with 11/15 behind winner Efim Geller. Kholmov won the Soviet semifinal at Tashkent 1958 with 11½/15, ahead of Korchnoi and Geller. His first clear international title was at Balatonfüred 1959, where he scored 10/13 to edge Wolfgang Uhlmann. In the URS-ch26 at Tbilisi 1959, Kholmov continued his improvement at the top Soviet level with a tied 4th–5th place, with 12/19, as Tigran Petrosian won. Grandmaster ----------- Kholmov scored one of the best results of his career with a tied 1st–2nd, along with Smyslov, at the Moscow International 1960 with 8½/11. The same year FIDE awarded him the Grandmaster (GM) title. He won the Soviet semifinal at Novgorod 1961 with 13/16. In Baku, at URS-ch29 (December 1961), he scored 11/20 to tie for 8th–11th places. He was clear first at Bucharest 1962 with 11½/15, ahead of Vladislav Shianovsky. He tied for 2nd–4th places in the Spartak Championship at Minsk 1962 with 11/17, behind Anatoly Bannik. Kholmov won at Kecskemét 1962 with 11/15, ahead of Lajos Portisch and László Szabó, who tied for 2nd–3rd places. He placed 4th in the URS-ch30 at Yerevan 1962 with 13/19, a point behind champion Korchnoi. In 1963 he shared 1st–3rd, with Boris Spassky and Leonid Stein, at Leningrad at the 31st Soviet Chess Championships. Stein prevailed in the three man playoff. Consequently, Kholmov is arguably the strongest player of the era ranging from the 1940s through the 1960s to never hold the title of Soviet Champion. (Isaac Boleslavsky is the only other player of Kholmov's strength in that period to never hold the title.) At Sochi 1964, Kholmov tied 2nd–3rd places with 10/15, behind winner Nikolai Krogius. Then Kholmov suffered perhaps his greatest career disappointment in the Soviet Zonal tournament, Moscow 1964, where he scored 6/12 for 4th in a super-strong field, but fell one place short of advancing to the Interzonal stage. At Kiev in the URS-ch32 (1964/65), Kholmov tied 5th–6th places with 11½/19, as Korchnoi won. He made a notable result at Havana 1965 with 5th place on 14½/21, as Smyslov won, but Kholmov defeated Bobby Fischer and finished undefeated in the tournament. At Tbilisi 1966/67 for URS-ch34, he scored 10/20 to tie for 10th–12th places, as Stein won again. Kholmov moved to Moscow in 1967 and lived there for the rest of his life. He won at Belgrade 1967 with 6½/9. One of his best career results was 2nd in a very strong field at Leningrad 1967 with 12/16, behind Korchnoi. He was 4th in an excellent field at Skopje 1967 with 11½/17, as Fischer won. Kholmov won at Havana 1968 with a powerful 12/14, ahead of Stein and Alexey Suetin. His play in the next four Soviet finals continued to be strong. At Alma-Ata 1968/69 for URS-ch36, he placed 6th–9th with 10½/19, as Lev Polugaevsky and Alexander Zaitsev won. The next Interzonal qualifier was URS-ch37 at Moscow 1969, and he finished tied 7th–9th with 12½/22, with Polugaevsky and Petrosian winning; this was a point short of advancing to the Interzonal. At Riga 1970 for URS-ch38, he dropped a bit with just 10/21 for a tied 13th–14th, as Korchnoi won. Then in Baku 1972 for URS-ch40, he had 10½/21 for a tied 10th–11th place, with Tal winning. This was his last Soviet final. His form in his late 40s had substantially fallen from his best years, and a new generation of Soviet players would earn most of the top tournament places and international opportunities. Kholmov got just one chance to represent the USSR in a team event at full international level when he played board ten at the European Team Championships, Kapfenberg 1970. He won the board gold medal with 4½/6 (+3−0=3), and helped his side to team gold. Kholmov did play in many national matches, such as against Hungary and Yugoslavia, generally scoring well. The Chessmetrics website statistically estimates his retroactive ranking at a minimum of Top 25 in the world from 1956 to 1970, with his peak ranking being 8th in 1960–61. They further estimate that his peak rating was 2736, also in 1961. Later years ----------- Kholmov continued to stay very active in competitive play, and he was generally quite successful. At Luhacovice 1973, he tied for 4th–5th places with 9/15, with Andras Adorjan and Jan Smejkal winning. At Sochi 1974, he scored 8½/15 for a tied 4th–6th place, with Polugaevsky winning. He placed 2nd at Kecskemét 1975 with 8½/13 behind winner Karolyi Honfi. One of Kholmov's best late-career results was his tied 3rd–5th place in a very strong Moscow 1975 tournament, with 9½/15, as Geller won. He tied for 1st–2nd at Budapest 1976 on 10½/15 with László Vadász. He placed 2nd at Zalaegerszeg 1977 with 7½/12 behind Evgeni Vasiukov. At age 63, Kholmov tied 3rd–6th at Sochi 1988 with 7/13, as Sergey Dolmatov won. At Voskresensk 1990, Kholmov tied 3rd–6th on 6½/11 behind winners Igor Naumkin and Valery Neverov. He had an excellent 2nd place at Moscow 1991 with 8½/11 behind winner Mikhail Ivanov. At age 72, Kholmov tied for 1st–3rd at Moscow 1997 on 7½/11 with Igor Zaitsev and Andrey Rychagov. World Senior Champion --------------------- Kholmov tied for the title in the 2000 World Senior Championship at Rowy, on 8/11 with Mark Taimanov, Jānis Klovāns, and Alexander Chernikov. Then he placed 2nd–4th in the same event the next year at Arco, again with 8/11, tied with Klovans and Vladimir Karasev, behind champion Vladimir Bukal, Sr. Kholmov played competitive chess virtually right up until his death in early 2006 at age 80. He appeared in a Senior event in Dresden, 50 years after he won a tournament there. Legacy ------ Kholmov was known as "The Central Defender" in Soviet chess circles, because of his great skill at repulsing enemy aggression. But he was also a very dangerous attacker, as most of the leading Soviet players learned. During his peak years, Kholmov was difficult to defeat, even at the top levels. He qualified for 16 Soviet finals between 1949 and 1972, with an aggregate well over 50 per cent. He scored wins over World Champions Petrosian, Spassky, Fischer, and Garry Kasparov. Kholmov was comfortable as White with both 1.e4 and 1.d4, could play excellent classical chess with both colours, and had an occasional fondness for unusual openings, with which he had good success, as the game selection shows. Notable chess games ------------------- * Efim Geller vs. Ratmir Kholmov, USSR Championship, Moscow 1949, Ruy Lopez, Bird's Defence (C61), 0–1 Two rising stars battle for position late in the tournament, and Kholmov scores with an offbeat variation, unleashing a lovely rook sacrifice in the endgame. * Tigran Petrosian vs. Ratmir Kholmov, USSR Championship, Moscow 1957, Blumenfeld Gambit (E10), 0–1 Another unusual defensive choice takes off the future World Champion. * Viktor Korchnoi vs. Ratmir Kholmov, USSR Championship semifinal, Tashkent 1958, Modern Benoni Defence (A64), 0–1 The Modern Benoni was just coming into fashion around this time. * Ratmir Kholmov vs. Paul Keres, USSR Championship, Tbilisi 1959, Sicilian Defence, Rossolimo Variation (B30), 1–0 It's highly unusual to see the powerful tactician Keres get knocked off so quickly. * Ratmir Kholmov vs. Laszlo Szabo, Kecskemet 1962, Slav Defence, Czech Variation (D19), 1–0 Kholmov overcomes the nine-time Hungarian champion. * Ratmir Kholmov vs. Leonid Stein, USSR Championship, Yerevan 1962, Sicilian Defence, Moscow Variation (B52), 1–0 Kholmov again scores with this unusual Sicilian line against one of his great rivals from this period. * Mark Taimanov vs. Ratmir Kholmov, USSR Championship, Leningrad 1963, Nimzo-Indian Defence, Rubinstein / Gligoric Variation (E54), 0–1 Taimanov was a recognized expert on both sides of this defence. * Ratmir Kholmov vs. Boris Spassky, USSR Zonal Tournament, Moscow 1964, Sicilian Defence, Scheveningen Variation (B84), 1–0 Spassky was the tournament winner and a future World Champion. * Ratmir Kholmov vs. David Bronstein, USSR Championship, Kiev 1964–65, Sicilian Defence, Najdorf Variation (B99), 1–0 Kholmov outplays the creative attacker Bronstein for one of his most memorable victories. * Robert Fischer vs. Ratmir Kholmov, Havana 1965, Ruy Lopez, Closed / Chigorin Variation (C98), 0–1 Fischer lost exceptionally rarely on the White side of the Ruy Lopez, so this win was quite an achievement. * Ratmir Kholmov vs. Garry Kasparov, USSR Championship Qualifying Tournament, Daugavpils 1978, Caro–Kann Defence, Classical Variation (B18), 1–0 Kasparov, just 15 at the time, was the tournament winner and a future World Champion. Opening theory -------------- This section uses algebraic notation to describe chess moves. A couple of opening variations have been named after Kholmov. * *ECO* C92: Ruy Lopez, Closed, Kholmov Variation 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 0-0 8.c3 d6 9.h3 Be6 * Russian Game, Damiano Variation, Kholmov Gambit (C42) 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 3.Nxe5 Nxe4 4.Qe2 Qe7 Further reading --------------- * Giddins, Steve, *British Chess Magazine*, vol. May 2006 `{{citation}}`: Missing or empty `|title=` (help) * Sosonko, Gennadi (2006), *Smart chip from St. Petersburg*, New in Chess, ISBN 90-5691-169-4

Kells Parish Church **Kells** parish, in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright in Scotland, is located 14 miles (NWbN) from Castle-Douglas, and 19 miles (NbW) from Kirkcudbright. It contains, with the burgh of New Galloway, 1121 inhabitants.[*when?*] History and description ----------------------- Kells parish is supposed by some to derive its name from its elevated situation, of which, in the Gaelic language, the word is descriptive; others deduce it from the British Cell, on account of the extensive woods formerly existing here, and of which considerable remains are still found embedded in the various mosses. The parish, which is one of the largest in the county, is bounded on the west and south by the river Dee, which separates it from the parishes of Minnigaff, Girthon, and Balmaghie; and on the east by the river Ken, which divides it from Dalry, Balmaclellan, and Parton. It is about sixteen miles in length and eight miles in breadth, comprising an area of 47,500 acres, of which most is mountain pasture, and, with the exception of about 400 acres of woodland and plantations, the remainder is arable and in good cultivation. The surface is irregularly broken, rising towards the north into a range of lofty mountains, including the heights of Galloway, of which some have an elevation of 2700 feet above the sea. The arable lands, which are chiefly along the banks of the Ken, and interspersed with copses of oak and birch. The lower grounds are watered by numerous rivulets, which intersect the parish in various directions, and form tributaries to the Dee and to the Ken. The Ken has its source on the confines of Dumfriesshire, and, after entering the parish on the north-east, receives the waters of the Deuch, and at the southern extremity unites with the Dee. There are also many lakes, of which those of Loch Dungeon and Loch Harrow, in the north, are of considerable extent, but both inferior to Loch Ken, on the eastern border of the parish, which is about five miles in length and three quarters of a mile in breadth. The soil of the lands along the Ken is a rich clay, producing good crops of oats. The hills in the parish are chiefly of granite: there are neither mines nor quarries of any description. The remains of ancient wood are principally copses of oak and birch, both of which are indigenous, and appear well adapted to the soil; and the plantations, which are of recent formation, consist of oak, intermixed with Scotch fir and larch, and are well managed. Kenmure Castle, the seat of Lord Viscount Kenmure, the principal landed proprietor, is a very ancient structure, is seated on a circular mount, at the head of Loch Ken, within a mile of the town of New Galloway, and is supposed to have been the residence of John Balliol. It suffered frequent assaults during the wars with England in the time of Edward I; and was burnt in the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots, and again during the usurpation of Cromwell. The estate subsequently belonged to the Gordons, of Lochinvar, of whom Sir John was created Lord of Lochinvar and Viscount Kenmure, in 1633; but it became forfeited to the crown in the time of William, the sixth viscount, who was attainted for his participation in the rebellion of 1715, and beheaded on Tower Hill, London, in the following year. The property was, however, purchased from the crown by a member of his family; and the title was restored by act of parliament, in 1824, to his grandson, the late viscount and proprietor. The grounds are embellished with stately timber and thriving plantations, and the approach to the castle is by an avenue of lime trees. Glenlee is a mansion, which has been greatly enlarged, and is situated on the banks of the Ken, in a park embellished with many large oak trees. The church, erected in 1822, is a structure in the early English style of architecture, with a square embattled tower; it contains 560 sittings, and can be made to hold a greater number. The Glenkens Society annually award prizes to the most deserving of the scholars. A school-house was erected in the early 19th century in the northern part of the parish, by Mr. Kennedy, of Knocknalling, who paid the salary of the master; and there was also a Sabbath school, to which had attached a good library. The poor were partly supported by the interest of £522 bequeathed by various individuals, in the hands of the Kirk Session. There are several chalybeate springs in the parish, of which one, on Cairn-Edward, about two miles from New Galloway, was formerly in great repute, and is still used by the inhabitants in its neighbourhood. Notable residents ----------------- Among the natives of the parish have been the poet John Lowe, 1750-98, the author of *Mary's Dream*; Robert Heron, author of a *History of Scotland*; Thomas Gordon, the translator of Tacitus; and the Rev. William Gillespie, author of the *Progress of Refinement*, of *Consolation*, and other works. The tiny parish has produced three Moderators: * Very Rev Dr Nathaniel Paterson Moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland in 1850/51. * Very Rev James Maitland Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1860 * Very Rev Thomas Nicol Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1914

**Sigma Iota** (**ΣΙ**), Established March 12, 1912 is the first Latin American–based Greek lettered inter-collegiate fraternity in the United States. On December 26, 1931 Sigma Iota Fraternity merged with Phi Lambda Alpha Fraternity to form Phi Iota Alpha. History ------- ### Origins Sociedad Hispano-Americana Sigma Iota was founded on November 27, 1904 in Louisiana State University as a secret society for Spanish-American students under the name La Colonia Hispano-Americana. Soon after its founding La Colonia Hispano-Americano decided to change its name to Sociedad Hispano-Americana in December 1904. ### Founding On March 12, 1912, recognizing the benefit of the disciplinary background of a Greek system, the society transformed itself into the very first Latino fraternity, Sigma Iota. This name change allowed for the official transformation from a Latin American social club to Latin American Greek Lettered Fraternity. ### Expansion Monument of Sigma Iota's birthplace on the former LSU Campus Between 1912 and 1925, Sigma Iota expanded very rapidly in the United States, Central America, and Europe. As a result of this, Sigma Iota became the first international Latin American–based fraternity. By 1928, Sigma Iota had lost many of its chapters and therefore sought to stabilize its operations by consolidating its chapters in the United States with a more stationary and well-rooted organization. ### Consolidation Meanwhile, another fraternity Phi Lambda Alpha, which had been recently founded in 1919 at the University of California, Berkeley was seeking to expand throughout the United States. Sigma Iota Fraternity was in search of revitalizing some of its defunct chapters. Thus both organizations complemented each other and began to work towards the creation of the fraternity now known as Phi Iota Alpha. On December 26, 1931 Sigma Iota Fraternity merged with Phi Lambda Alpha fraternity to form Phi Iota Alpha. Phi Sigma Alpha fraternity can also trace its roots back to Sigma Iota. Former Chapters --------------- | **Collegiate Institution** | **Establishment Year** | **Country** | | --- | --- | --- | | Louisiana State University | 1912 | United States | | Auburn University (formerly Alabama Polytechnic Institute) | 1913 | United States | | University of Geneva | 1913 | Switzerland | | Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute | 1913 | United States | | Syracuse University | 1913 | United States | | Atlanta Medical School | 1914 | United States | | University of Guatemala | 1914 | Guatemala | | University of Liège | 1914 | Belgium | | University of Louvain | 1914 | Belgium | | University of Pennsylvania | 1915 | United States | | Tulane University | 1924 | United States | | Loyola University, New Orleans | 1927 | United States | | University of Iowa | 1928 | United States | | Iowa State University | 1928 | United States | | University of Florida | 1928 | United States |

**James Preston Poindexter** (October 26, 1819 – February 7, 1907) was an abolitionist, civil rights activist, politician, and Baptist minister from Columbus, Ohio. He was born in Richmond, Virginia and moved to Ohio as a young man. In Ohio he was a part of abolitionist and Underground Railroad societies and became a Baptist preacher. From the pulpit, he preached against slavery and for African-American rights. After the American Civil War (1861–1865), he was involved in political activities in Columbus, serving on the City Council, the city Board of Education, the state Forestry Bureau, and as trustee of the Institute for the Blind and of Wilberforce University. At his death, he was noted as the second longest serving advocate for African American rights after Booker T. Washington. Biography --------- ### Early life James Preston Poindexter was born in Richmond, Virginia October 26, 1819 to Evelina and Joseph Poindexter. His mother was black and Cherokee. Joseph was a white man and may have been a brother of George Poindexter, second governor of Mississippi. Joseph was a journalist at the *Richmond Enquirer*. His mother died when he was four years old. As a child, he attended school, and at the age ten, he was apprenticed to the barber's business. He worked in an aristocratic shop, and Poindexter became acquainted with many Richmond leaders. He later moved to Ohio, settling in Columbus at the age of twelve. In Ohio, he continued to attend school, now privately, and to work as a barber, which again afforded him a variety of useful contacts. In the 1840s he married. After giving the baccalaureate sermon before the graduating class of the State University, Louisville, Kentucky in May, 1887, he was granted an honorary Doctor of Divinity by the school. ### Early career Poindexter is featured on a historical memorial in front of the Second Baptist Church in Columbus, Ohio Poindexter was baptized at the Second Baptist Church in Columbus in the spring of 1840, was ordained in 1849, and became pastor of the Second Baptist Church in 1862, serving until 1893. He was a member of the Pastor's Union and later elected president of the union. He frequently preached against slavery, working against the trend of many preachers failing to respond to claims that the Bible sanctioned slavery. In about 1857 he became president of the society called, "sons of protection," a position he held for 30 years, a secretive African-American civil rights group associated with the Underground Railroad. Other African-American active abolitionists in Columbus included David Jenkins, John Booker, Leslie Washington Sr, and John T. Ward and where helped by white abolitionists including Joseph Sullivant, James E. Coulter, L. G. Van Slyke, Samuel H. Smith, James M. Westwater, the Keltons, William Hanby, Phillip Doddridge, and Eli M. Pinney. In December 1848, Poindexter played an important role in bringing Frederick Douglass to Columbus to speak at a Free Soil Party Convention. ### Later career Poindexter in 1888 After the Civil War, Poindexter was a leading advocate for education of black children. He was a delegate to the 1872 Republican National Convention in Philadelphia and was a delegate to state conventions many times. In 1873, he was the first black man in Ohio nominated to run for a seat in the House of Representatives. He was nominated by the Republican Party, but was defeated by the overwhelmingly Democratic electorate in Franklin County. Starting in 1880, he served two terms, four years, as a member of the city council of Columbus, serving as council vice-president. He was also appointed to fill a vacancy in the Board of Education and later elected to the position, from 1884 to 1893. He was appointed to a four-year term as trustee of the Institute for the Blind by Ohio Governor Charles Foster. He was also appointed trustee of the Athens University (now Ohio University) by Governor George Hoadly but was rejected by the state senate for political reasons in 1885. In 1887 he was appointed to a six-year term as a member of the Board of Directors of the Ohio State Forestry Bureau and was reappointed twice more. In September 1888, he served as president of the Columbus Centennial Freedom Jubillee. He was appointed as a trustee for Wilberforce University in 1898 by governor Asa Bushnell. He served as the first black foreman of an Ohio grand Jury. He was a frequent contributor to numerous newspapers and journals and worked closely with Presidents Rutherford B. Hayes and William McKinley and Ohio governor William Dennison Jr. ### Death and legacy In 1898 he resigned as pastor of the Second Baptist Church, although he continued to preach. He died in Columbus on February 7, 1907, of pneumonia and was survived by two grandchildren. The first public housing project built in Columbus, Poindexter Village, was named for him.

Building in Biscay, Spain Sabin Etxea **Sabin Etxea** (English: Sabin's House, named after Sabino Arana) is the official headquarters of the Basque Nationalist Party, located in Abando, Bilbao. History ------- In 1857, Santiago Arana, who owned a shipyard in the Bilbao basin, decided to build a home for his family in Ibáñez Street, Bilbao. Sabino Arana, considered the father of Basque nationalism and the founder of the Basque Nationalist Party, lived there most of his childhood and adolescence. In Sabin Etxea, Arana's first political statements were made. In 1898, the building was attacked by Spanish nationalists by throwing stones at it. At the end of the century, the family decides to sell the property because of financial reasons. In 1931, Basque nationalists at the Bilbao Ensanche said a batzoki was needed for assembly, and most members of the party proposed the Sabin Etxea for its historical value. The building was finally rented by the BNP, and rent was paid by membership fees and voluntary donations. Sabin Etxea was used for both cultural and political purposes, including Basque language and dances classes, conferences, excursions, and many others. By January 1932, a nationalist holiday was organized, coinciding with Aberri Eguna. However, the event was postponed to March 26, 27, and 28. On March 27, 1932, the first Aberri Eguna takes place. Many Basque nationalists from all over the Basque went to Bilbao for the occasion. A parade finished in front of Sabin Etxea, where a plaque was unveiled in remembrance of Sabino Arana. In 1933, as the Basque nationalist movement grew, the Spanish government tried to stop it by arresting the seven members of the Bizkai Buru Batzar and closing the whole batzoki. However, charges were withdrawn two weeks after the incidents. This important site for Basque Nationalism was purchased and held vacant for many years, before it was acquired by the Basque Nationalists to become a place for their headquarters.

The **promenade position** (abbreviated as **PP** in dance diagrams) is a dance position in ballroom and other dances. It is described differently in various dance categories. Connection ---------- The promenade position is a V-shaped dance position with the man's right hip and the woman's left hip in contact at the point of the "V", and with the man's left side and the woman's right side slightly open. The direction of travel is toward the openside. The man and woman stand in front of each other in body contact, slightly offset to the left, with the middle of the woman's front connected to the man's right front. The connection begins at the upper thighs and should continue all of the way up to the middle of the torso. The man's left hand holds the woman’s right hand, palm to palm in an upper-hand clasp, with fingers and thumbs closed around partner's hand. The man's right hand must rest on the woman’s back, loosely cupped with fingers and thumb together (not spread apart). The man's hand connects to her back on her shoulder blade. His wrist should make contact with her underarm at the junction of her arm and body. This connection should not change from the basic closed position. The woman’s left hand and forearm must be on the man's upper arm. This connection should also not change from the basic closed position. Ballroom -------- In ballroom dances their common trait is that when in promenade position, the dance couple moves (or intends to move) essentially sidewise to the leader's left while partners nearly face each other. Steps of both partners are basically sidewise or diagonally forward with respect to their bodies. Normally the dancers look in the direction of the intended movement. ### International Standard / American Smooth In the International Standard and American Smooth dance categories the promenade position is described as a V-shaped dance position with the man's right hip and the woman’s left hip in contact at the point of the "V". The dancer's heads face the open portion of the "V". The intended direction of movement is in this direction as well, with some exceptions. In International Standard, many pota ballroom partners strive to keep their shoulder lines close to parallel throughout a promenade, by means of an internal rotational stretch which is one of the more elusive dance concepts. Some expansion of the hold may often be seen, in the form of the leader stretching diagonally forwards and the follower diagonally back, each of course retaining their own largely independent balance. Diagonal movement across the feet and placement of the step of the inside foot into Contra body movement position may reduce the amount of hip turnout required for free movement. With proper foot usage, no sacrifice of motion is required to maintain this position. At the same time other skilled dancers often sacrifice the "narrowness" of the V-shape in favor of the amount of the progressive movement Some dance moves started from the PP are Chasse, weave, and several others whose description includes the words "from PP", e.g. "Cross Hesitation from PP". Some dance moves that may end in the PP are Open Telemark, Chasse ### Latin / Rhythm International Latin and American Rhythm dance categories usually do not involve the immediate body contact, but the general relative body positions are basically the same as described above, only the shoulder lines may remain parallel, i.e. one usually do not speak of V-shaped bodies position. Some dance moves that may involve the PP are Botafogos (Samba) and Travelling Spins (Paso Doble). Square and line dancing, Country/Western ---------------------------------------- Main article: Promenade (dance move) In square dances the promenade is a side-by-side position, with the intention to move together forward. The dancers may use various promenade handholds. Some of them are: * Basic promenade or Skirt Skater's handhold: The woman extends her left hand horizontally, palm down, across the front of the gent, and he takes it in his left hand. The woman places her right hand at the right side of her waist or slightly behind her right hip, and the gent holds this hand loosely with his right hand. The woman might also use her right hand to hold on to a full skirt with petticoats, sway the skirt in time to the music as a flourish ("skirtwork"), or simply place her hand on her waist. In this case, the gent places his right hand on the small of her back. * Skater’s handhold: Both hands are held in front of the partners at waist-level. The left hands are held in front of the gent’s waist; the right hands are held in front of the woman’s waist. The gent’s right arm crosses in front of the lady’s left arm. * Varsouvienne handhold (also called Shadow, Horseshoe, Cape Position): The man holds the woman's left hand with his left hand in front of her left shoulder. The man crosses his right arm behind the woman and holds her right hand with his right hand in front of the woman's right shoulder. The man's arm is held just above the woman's shoulder. * Cuddle or Wrap Position (also called Sweetheart or Sweetheart’s Wrap): The gent wraps his right arm around the woman’s waist; she wraps her left arm around her front to hold his right hand. She wraps her right arm over her left arm and across her front to hold his left hand. Hands are at waist level. Lindy Hop --------- In Lindy Hop, the promenade position is often defined similarly to the square dancing version: it is a side-by-side position with the leader's right arm on the follower's right shoulder, see, e.g. Lindy Basic.

Protein family Molecular machinery driving vesicle fusion in neuromediator release. The core SNARE complex is formed by four α-helices contributed by synaptobrevin, syntaxin and SNAP-25, synaptotagmin serves as a calcium sensor and closely regulates the SNARE zipping. **SNARE proteins** – "**SNA**P **RE**ceptors" – are a large protein family consisting of at least 24 members in yeasts, more than 60 members in mammalian cells, and some numbers in plants. The primary role of SNARE proteins is to mediate the fusion of vesicles with the target membrane; this notably mediates exocytosis, but can also mediate the fusion of vesicles with membrane-bound compartments (such as a lysosome). The best studied SNAREs are those that mediate the release of synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters in neurons. These neuronal SNAREs are the targets of the neurotoxins responsible for botulism and tetanus produced by certain bacteria. Types ----- SNAREs can be divided into two categories: *vesicle* or *v-SNAREs*, which are incorporated into the membranes of transport vesicles during budding, and *target* or *t-SNAREs*, which are associated with nerve terminal membranes. Evidence suggests that t-SNAREs form stable subcomplexes which serve as guides for v-SNARE, incorporated into the membrane of a protein-coated vesicle, binding to complete the formation of the SNARE complex. Several SNARE proteins are located on both vesicles and target membranes, therefore, a more recent classification scheme takes into account structural features of SNAREs, dividing them into R-SNAREs and Q-SNAREs. Often, R-SNAREs act as v-SNAREs and Q-SNAREs act as t-SNAREs. R-SNAREs are proteins that contribute an arginine (R) residue in the formation of the zero ionic layer in the assembled core SNARE complex. One particular R-SNARE is synaptobrevin, which is located in the synaptic vesicles. Q-SNAREs are proteins that contribute a glutamine (Q) residue in the formation of the zero ionic layer in the assembled core SNARE complex. Q-SNAREs include syntaxin and SNAP-25. Q-SNAREs are further classified as Qa-, Qb-, or Qc-SNAREs depending on their location in the four-helix bundle. Occurrence ---------- Variants are known from yeasts, mammals *Drosophila*, and *Caenorhabditis elegans*. Structure --------- SNAREs are small, abundant, sometimes tail-anchored proteins which are often post-translationally inserted into membranes via a C-terminal transmembrane domain. Seven of the 38 known SNAREs, including SNAP-25, do not have a transmembrane domain and are instead attached to the membrane via lipid modifications such as palmitoylation. Tail-anchored proteins can be inserted into the plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and peroxisomes among other membranes, though any particular SNARE is targeted to a unique membrane. The targeting of SNAREs is accomplished by altering either the composition of the C-terminal flanking amino acid residues or the length of the transmembrane domain. Replacement of the transmembrane domain with lipid anchors leads to an intermediate stage of membrane fusion where only the two contacting leaflets fuse and not the two distal leaflets of the two membrane bilayer. Although SNAREs vary considerably in structure and size, they all share a segment in their cytosolic domain called a SNARE motif that consists of 60-70 amino acids and contains heptad repeats that have the ability to form coiled-coil structures. V- and t-SNAREs are capable of reversible assembly into tight, four-helix bundles called "trans"-SNARE complexes. In synaptic vesicles, the readily-formed metastable "trans" complexes are composed of three SNAREs: syntaxin 1 and SNAP-25 resident in cell membrane and synaptobrevin (also referred to as vesicle-associated membrane protein or VAMP) anchored in the vesicle membrane. In neuronal exocytosis, syntaxin and synaptobrevin are anchored in respective membranes by their C-terminal domains, whereas SNAP-25 is tethered to the plasma membrane via several cysteine-linked palmitoyl chains. The core *trans*-SNARE complex is a four-\alpha -helix bundle, where one \alpha -helix is contributed by syntaxin 1, one \alpha -helix by synaptobrevin and two \alpha -helices are contributed by SNAP-25. The plasma membrane-resident SNAREs have been shown to be present in distinct microdomains or clusters, the integrity of which is essential for the exocytotic competence of the cell. Membrane fusion --------------- Layering of the core SNARE complex. In the center is the zero hydrophilic ionic layer, flanked by hydrophobic leucine-zipper layers. During membrane fusion, v-SNARE and t-SNARE proteins on separate membranes combine to form a trans-SNARE complex, also known as a "SNAREpin". Depending on the stage of fusion of the membranes, these complexes may be referred to differently. During fusion of *trans*-SNARE complexes, the membranes merge and SNARE proteins involved in complex formation after fusion are then referred to as a "*cis*"-SNARE complex, because they now reside in a single (or *cis*) resultant membrane. After fusion, the *cis*-SNARE complex is bound and disassembled by an adaptor protein, alpha-SNAP. Then, the hexameric ATPase (of the AAA type) called NSF catalyzes the ATP-dependent unfolding of the SNARE proteins and releases them into the cytosol for recycling. SNAREs are thought to be the core required components of the fusion machinery and can function independently of additional cytosolic accessory proteins. This was demonstrated by engineering "flipped" SNAREs, where the SNARE domains face the extracellular space rather than the cytosol. When cells containing v-SNAREs contact cells containing t-SNAREs, *trans*-SNARE complexes form and cell-cell fusion ensues. Components ---------- The core SNARE complex is a 4-\alpha -helix bundle. Synaptobrevin and syntaxin contribute one \alpha -helix each, while SNAP-25 participates with two \alpha -helices (abbreviated as Sn1 and Sn2). The interacting amino acid residues that zip the SNARE complex can be grouped into layers. Each layer has 4 amino acid residues – one residue per each of the 4 \alpha -helices. In the center of the complex is the *zero ionic layer* composed of one arginine (R) and three glutamine (Q) residues, and it is flanked by leucine zippering. Layers '-1', '+1' and '+2' at the centre of the complex most closely follow ideal leucine-zipper geometry and aminoacid composition. The *zero ionic layer* is composed of R56 from VAMP-2, Q226 from syntaxin-1A, Q53 from Sn1 and Q174 from Sn2, and is completely buried within the leucine-zipper layers. The positively charged guanidino group of the arginine (R) residue interact with the carboxyl groups of each of the three glutamine (Q) residues. The flanking leucine-zipper layers act as a water-tight seal to shield the ionic interactions from the surrounding solvent. Exposure of the *zero ionic layer* to the water solvent by breaking the flanking leucine zipper leads to instability of the SNARE complex and is the putative mechanism by which \alpha -SNAP and NSF recycle the SNARE complexes after the completion of synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Mechanism of membrane fusion ---------------------------- ### Assembly Depiction of the formation of a *trans*-SNARE complex. Shows how Munc18 interacts with the SNARE proteins during complex formation. SNARE proteins must assemble into *trans*-SNARE complexes to provide the force that is necessary for vesicle fusion. The four α-helix domains (1 each from synaptobrevin and syntaxin, and 2 from SNAP-25) come together to form a coiled-coil motif. The rate-limiting step in the assembly process is the association of the syntaxin SNARE domain, since it is usually found in a "closed" state where it is incapable of interacting with other SNARE proteins. When syntaxin is in an open state, *trans*-SNARE complex formation begins with the association of the four SNARE domains at their N-termini. The SNARE domains proceed in forming a coiled-coil motif in the direction of the C-termini of their respective domains. SNAP and NSF also associate with the complex formed by SNAREs during this step and participate in the later events of priming and disassembly. The SM protein Munc18 is thought to play a role in assembly of the SNARE complex, although the exact mechanism by which it acts is still under debate. It is known that the clasp of Munc18 locks syntaxin in a closed conformation by binding to its α-helical SNARE domains, which inhibits syntaxin from entering SNARE complexes (thereby inhibiting fusion). The clasp is also capable, however, of binding the entire four-helix bundle of the *trans*-SNARE complex. One hypothesis suggests that, during SNARE-complex assembly, the Munc18 clasp releases closed syntaxin, remains associated with the N-terminal peptide of syntaxin (allowing association of the syntaxin SNARE domain with other SNARE proteins), and then reattaches to the newly formed four-helix SNARE complex. This possible mechanism of dissociation and subsequent re-association with the SNARE domains could be calcium-dependent. This supports the idea that Munc18 plays a key regulatory role in vesicle fusion; under normal conditions the SNARE complex will be prevented from forming by Munc18, but when triggered the Munc18 will actually assist in SNARE-complex assembly and thereby act as a fusion catalyst. ### Zippering and fusion pore opening This figure provides a simple overview of the interaction of SNARE proteins with vesicles during exocytosis. Shows SNARE complex assembly, zippering, and disassembly. Membrane fusion is an energetically demanding series of events, which requires translocation of proteins in the membrane and disruption of the lipid bilayer, followed by reformation of a highly curved membrane structure. The process of bringing together two membranes requires input energy to overcome the repulsive electrostatic forces between the membranes. The mechanism that regulates the movement of membrane associated proteins away from the membrane contact zone prior to fusion is unknown, but the local increase in membrane curvature is thought to contribute in the process. SNAREs generate energy through protein-lipid and protein-protein interactions which act as a driving force for membrane fusion. One model hypothesizes that the force required to bring two membranes together during fusion comes from the conformational change in *trans*-SNARE complexes to form *cis*-SNARE complexes. The current hypothesis that describes this process is referred to as SNARE "zippering." When the *trans*-SNARE complex is formed, the SNARE proteins are still found on opposing membranes. As the SNARE domains continue coiling in a spontaneous process, they form a much tighter, more stable four-helix bundle. During this "zippering" of the SNARE complex, a fraction of the released energy from binding is thought to be stored as molecular bending stress in the individual SNARE motifs. This mechanical stress is postulated to be stored in the semi-rigid linker regions between the transmembrane domains and the SNARE helical bundle. The energetically unfavorable bending is minimized when the complex moves peripherally to the site of membrane fusion. As a result, relief of the stress overcomes the repulsive forces between the vesicle and the cell membrane and presses the two membranes together. Several models to explain the subsequent step – the formation of stalk and fusion pore – have been proposed. However, the exact nature of these processes remains debated. In accordance with the "zipper" hypothesis, as the SNARE complex forms, the tightening helix bundle puts torsional force on the transmembrane (TM) domains of synaptobrevin and syntaxin. This causes the TM domains to tilt within the separate membranes as the proteins coil more tightly. The unstable configuration of the TM domains eventually causes the two membranes to fuse and the SNARE proteins come together within the same membrane, which is referred to as a "*cis*"-SNARE complex. As a result of the lipid rearrangement, a fusion pore opens and allows the chemical contents of the vesicle to leak into the outside environment. The continuum explanation of stalk formation suggests that membrane fusion begins with an infinitesimal radius until it radially expands into a stalk-like structure. However, such a description fails to take into account the molecular dynamics of membrane lipids. Recent molecular simulations show that the close proximity of the membranes allows the lipids to splay, where a population of lipids insert their hydrophobic tails into the neighboring membrane – effectively keeping a "foot" in each membrane. The resolution of the splayed lipid state proceeds spontaneously to form the stalk structure. In this molecular view, the splayed-lipid intermediate state is the rate determining barrier rather than the formation of the stalk, which now becomes the free energy minimum. The energetic barrier for establishment of the splayed-lipid conformation is directly proportional to the intermembrane distance. The SNARE complexes and their pressing of the two membranes together, therefore, could provide the free energy required to overcome the barrier. ### Disassembly The energy input that is required for SNARE-mediated fusion to take place comes from SNARE-complex disassembly. The suspected energy source is N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF), an ATPase that is involved with membrane fusion. NSF homohexamers, along with the NSF cofactor α-SNAP, bind and dissociate the SNARE complex by coupling the process with ATP hydrolysis. This process allows for reuptake of synaptobrevin for further use in vesicles, whereas the other SNARE proteins remain associated with the cell membrane. The dissociated SNARE proteins have a higher energy state than the more stable *cis*-SNARE complex. It is believed that the energy that drives fusion is derived from the transition to a lower energy *cis*-SNARE complex. The ATP hydrolysis-coupled dissociation of SNARE complexes is an energy investment that can be compared to "cocking the gun" so that, once vesicle fusion is triggered, the process takes place spontaneously and at optimum velocity. A comparable process takes place in muscles, in which the myosin heads must first hydrolyze ATP in order to adapt the necessary conformation for interaction with actin and the subsequent power stroke to occur. Regulatory effects on exocytosis -------------------------------- ### Regulation via SNAP-25 palmitoylation The Q-SNARE protein Synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) is composed of two α-helical domains connected by a random coil linker. The random coil linker region is most notable for its four cysteine residues. The α-helical domains combine with those of both syntaxin and synaptobrevin (also known as vesicle associated membrane protein or VAMP) to form the 4-α-helix coiled-coil SNARE complex critical to efficient exocytosis. While syntaxin and synaptobrevin both contain transmembrane domains which allow for docking with target and vesicle membranes respectively, SNAP-25 relies on the palmitoylation of cysteine residues found in its random coil region for docking to the target membrane. Some studies have suggested that association with syntaxin via SNARE interactions precludes the need for such docking mechanisms. Syntaxin knockdown studies however, failed to show a decrease in membrane bound SNAP-25 suggesting alternate docking means exist. The covalent bonding of fatty acid chains to SNAP-25 via thioester linkages with one or more cysteine residues therefore, provides for regulation of docking and ultimately SNARE mediated exocytosis. This process is mediated by a specialized enzyme called DHHC palmitoyl transferase. The cysteine rich domain of SNAP-25 has also been shown to weakly associate with the plasma membrane possibly allowing it to be localized near the enzyme for subsequent palmitoylation. The reverse of this process is carried out by another enzyme called palmitoyl protein thioesterase (see figure). A simplified depiction of the palmitoylation of a cysteine residue in a protein The availability of SNAP-25 in the SNARE complex is also theorized to possibly be spatially regulated via localization of lipid microdomains in the target membrane. Palmitoylated cysteine residues could be localized to the desired target membrane region via a favorable lipid environment (possibly cholesterol rich) complementary to the fatty acid chains bonded to the cysteine residues of SNAP-25. ### SNAP-25 regulation of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in neuronal axon terminals As an action potential reaches the axon terminal, depolarization events stimulate the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) allowing the rapid influx of calcium down its electrochemical gradient. Calcium goes on to stimulate exocytosis via binding with synaptotagmin 1. SNAP-25 however, has been shown to negatively regulate VGCC function in glutamatergic neuronal cells. SNAP-25 leads to a reduction of current density through VGCC's and therefore a decrease in the amount of calcium that is binding the synaptotagmin, causing a decrease in neuronal glutamatergic exocytosis. Conversely, underexpression of SNAP-25 allows for an increase in VGCC current density and increase in exocytosis. Further investigation has suggested possible relationships between SNAP-25 over/underexpression and a variety of brain diseases. In attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or ADHD, polymorphisms at the SNAP-25 gene locus in humans have been linked to the disease suggesting a potential role in its manifestation. This is further suggested by heterogeneous SNAP-25 knockout studies performed on coloboma mutant mice, which led to phenotypic characteristics of ADHD. Studies have also shown a correlation of SNAP-25 over/underexpression and the onset of schizophrenia. ### Syntaxin and the Habc domain Syntaxin consists of a transmembrane domain (TMD), alpha-helical SNARE domain, a short linker region, and the Habc domain which consists of three alpha-helical regions. The SNARE domain in syntaxin serves as a target site for docking of SNAP-25 and synaptobrevin in order to form the four helix bundle requisite to the SNARE complex and subsequent fusion. The Habc domain, however, serves as an autoinhibitory domain in syntaxin. It has been shown to fold over and associate with the SNARE domain of syntaxin inducing a "closed" state, creating a physical barrier to the formation of the SNARE motif. Conversely, the Habc domain can again disassociate with the SNARE domain leaving syntaxin free to associate with both SNAP-25 and synaptobrevin. ### Syntaxin 1B and readily releasable pool of vesicles There is an immense diversity of syntaxin subtypes, with 15 varieties in the human genome. It has been suggested that syntaxin1B has a role in regulating number of synaptic vesicles ready for exocytosis in the axon terminal. This is also called the readily releasable pool (RRP) of vesicles. A knock out study in 2014 showed that the lack of syntaxin1B led to a significant decrease in RRP size. Toxins ------ Many neurotoxins directly affect SNARE complexes. Such toxins as the botulinum and tetanus toxins work by targeting the SNARE components. These toxins prevent proper vesicle recycling and result in poor muscle control, spasms, paralysis, and even death. ### Botulinum neurotoxin Botulinum Toxin (BoNT) is one of the most potent toxins to have ever been discovered. It is a proteolytic enzyme that cleaves SNARE proteins in neurons. Its protein structure is composed of two peptide subunits, a heavy chain (100kDas) and a light chain (50kDas), which are held together by a disulfide bond. The action of BoNT follows a 4-step mechanism including binding to the neuronal membrane, endocytosis, membrane translocation, and proteolysis of SNARE proteins. Target SNARE proteins of Botulinum Neurotoxin (BoNT) and Tetanus Neurotoxin (TeNT) inside the axon terminal. In its mechanism of action, the heavy chain of BoNT is first used to find its neuronal targets and bind to the gangliosides and membrane proteins of presynaptic neurons. Next, the toxin is then endocytosed into the cell membrane. The heavy chain undergoes a conformational change important for translocating the light chain into the cytosol of the neuron. Finally, after the light chain of BoNT is brought into the cytosol of the targeted neuron, it is released from the heavy chain so that it can reach its active cleavage sites on the SNARE proteins. The light chain is released from the heavy chain by the reduction of the disulfide bond holding the two together. The reduction of this disulfide bond is mediated by the NADPH-thioredoxin reductase-thioredoxin system. The light chain of BoNT acts as a metalloprotease on SNARE proteins that is dependent on Zn(II) ions, cleaving them and eliminating their function in exocytosis. There are 8 known isotypes of BoNT, BoNT/A – BoNT/H, each with different specific cleavage sites on SNARE proteins. SNAP25, a member of the SNARE protein family located in the membrane of cells, is cleaved by BoNT isotypes A, C, and E. The cleavage of SNAP-25 by these isotypes of BoNT greatly inhibits their function in forming the SNARE complex for fusion of vesicles to the synaptic membrane. BoNT/C also targets Syntaxin-1, another SNARE protein located in the synaptic membrane. It degenerates these Syntaxin proteins with a similar outcome as with SNAP-25. A third SNARE protein, Synaptobrevin (VAMP), is located on cell vesicles. VAMP2 is targeted and cleaved by BoNT isotypes B, D, and F in synaptic neurons. The targets of these various isotypes of BoNT as well as Tetanus Neurotoxin (TeNT) are shown in the figure to the right. In each of these cases, Botulinum Neurotoxin causes functional damage to SNARE proteins, which has significant physiological and medical implications. By damaging SNARE proteins, the toxin prevents synaptic vesicles from fusing to the synaptic membrane and releasing their neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. With the inhibition of neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft, action potentials cannot be propagated to stimulate muscle cells. This result in paralysis of those infected and in serious cases, it can cause death. Although the effects of Botulinum Neurotoxin can be fatal, it has also been used as a therapeutic agent in medical and cosmetic treatments. ### Tetanus neurotoxin The breakdown of responsibilities and mechanisms of the heavy (HC) and light chain (LC) of tetanus neurotoxin: The HC assists in binding of TeNT to both the ganglioside receptor and the final receptor. Once TeNT is in the vesicle in the inhibitory interneuron space the HC assists in translocation of the LC into the cytoplasm. Then the LC, characterized by zinc endopeptidase activity, inhibits neurotransmission by cleavage of synaptobrevin 1. Tetanus toxin, or TeNT, is composed of a heavy chain (100KDa) and a light chain (50kDa) connected by a disulfide bond. The heavy chain is responsible for neurospecific binding of TeNT to the nerve terminal membrane, endocytosis of the toxin, and translocation of the light chain into the cytosol. The light chain has zinc-dependent endopeptidase or more specifically matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity through which cleaveage of synaptobrevin or VAMP is carried out. For the light chain of TeNT to be activated one atom of zinc must be bound to every molecule of toxin. When zinc is bound reduction of the disulfide bond will be carried out primarily via the NADPH-thioredoxin reductase-thioredoxin redox system. Then the light chain is free to cleave the Gln76-Phe77 bond of synaptobrevin. Cleavage of synaptobrevin affects the stability of the SNARE core by restricting it from entering the low energy conformation which is the target for NSF binding. This cleavage of synaptobrevin is the final target of TeNT and even in low doses the neurotoxin will inhibit neurotransmitter exocytosis. Role in neurotransmitter release -------------------------------- Neurotransmitters are stored in readily releasable pools of vesicles confined within the presynaptic terminal. During neurosecretion/exocytosis, SNAREs play a crucial role in vesicle docking, priming, fusion, and synchronization of neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft. The first step in synaptic vesicle fusion is tethering, where the vesicles are translocated from the reserve pool into physical contact with the membrane. At the membrane, Munc-18 is initially bound to syntaxin 1A in a closed structure. It is postulated that the dissociation of Munc-18 from the complex frees syntaxin 1A to bind with the v-SNARE proteins. The next step in release is the docking of vesicles, where the v- and t-SNARE proteins transiently associate in a calcium-independent manner. The vesicles are then primed, wherein the SNARE motifs form a stable interaction between the vesicle and membrane. Complexins stabilize the primed SNARE-complex rendering the vesicles ready for rapid exocytosis. The span of presynaptic membrane containing the primed vesicles and dense collection of SNARE proteins is referred to as the active zone. Voltage-gated calcium channels are highly concentrated around active zones and open in response to membrane depolarization at the synapse. The influx of calcium is sensed by synaptotagmin 1, which in turn dislodges complexin protein and allows the vesicle to fuse with the presynaptic membrane to release neurotransmitter. It has also been shown that the voltage-gated calcium channels directly interact with the t-SNAREs syntaxin 1A and SNAP-25, as well as with synaptotagmin 1. The interactions are able to inhibit calcium channel activity as well as tightly aggregate the molecules around the release site. There have been many clinical cases that link SNARE genes with neural disorders. Deficiency in SNAP-25 mRNA has been observed in hippocampal tissue of some schizophrenic patients, a SNAP-25 single-nucleotide polymorphism is linked to hyperactivity in autism-spectrum disorders, and overexpression of SNAP-25B leads to the early onset of bipolar disorder. Role in autophagy ----------------- Macroautophagy is a catabolic process involving the formation of double-membrane bound organelles called autophagosomes, which aid in degradation of cellular components through fusion with lysosomes. During autophagy, portions of the cytoplasm are engulfed by a cup-shaped double-membrane structure called a phagophore and eventually become the contents of the fully assembled autophagosome. Autophagosome biogenesis requires the initiation and growth of phagophores, a process that was once thought to occur through de novo addition of lipids. However, recent evidence suggests that the lipids that contribute to the growing phagophores originate from numerous sources of membrane, including endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, plasma membrane, and mitochondria. SNAREs play important roles in mediating vesicle fusion during phagophore initiation and expansion as well as autophagosome-lysosome fusion in the later stages of autophagy. Though the mechanism of phagophore initiation in mammals is unknown, SNAREs have been implicated in phagophore formation through homotypic fusion of small, clathrin-coated, single-membrane vesicles containing Atg16L, the v-SNARE VAMP7, and its partner t-SNAREs: Syntaxin-7, Syntaxin-8, and VTI1B. In yeast, the t-SNAREs Sec9p and Sso2p are required for exocytosis and promote tubulovesicular budding of Atg9 positive vesicles, which are also required for autophagosome biogenesis. Knocking out either of these SNAREs leads to accumulation of small Atg9 containing vesicles that do not fuse, therefore preventing the formation of the pre-autophagosomal structure. In addition to phagophore assembly, SNAREs are also important in mediating autophagosome-lysosome fusion. In mammals, the SNAREs VAMP7, VAMP8, and VTI1B are required in autophagosome-lysosome fusion and this process is impaired in lysosomal storage disorders where cholesterol accumulates in the lysosome and sequesters SNAREs in cholesterol rich regions of the membrane preventing their recycling. Recently, syntaxin 17 (STX17) was identified as an autophagosome associated SNARE that interacts with VAMP8 and SNAP29 and is required for fusion with the lysosome. STX17 is localized on the outer membrane of autophagosomes, but not phagophores or other autophagosome precursors, which prevents them from prematurely fusing with the lysosome. In yeast, the fusion of autophagosomes with vacuoles (the yeast equivalent of lysosomes) requires SNAREs and related proteins such as the syntaxin homolog Vam3, SNAP-25 homolog Vam7, Ras-like GTPase Ypt7, and the NSF ortholog, Sec18. Flexible substitution of components ----------------------------------- Several complexes are known to flexibly substitute one protein for another: Two Qa-SNAREs in yeasts can substitute for each other to some degree. Yeasts which lose the R-SNARE - Sec22p - automatically increase levels of a homolog - Ykt6p - and use it the same way. Although *Drosophilae* cannot survive the loss of the SNAP-25 component, SNAP-24 can fully replace it. And also in *Drosophila*, an R-SNARE not normally found in synapses can substitute for synaptobrevin. In plants --------- SNAREs also occur in plants and some understanding of their occurrence and role has obtained. These have often been found to be essential to vesicle transport, including Zheng et al 1999's finding regarding Golgi-vacuole trafficking. Much of this study has been in *Arabidopsis*.

**Advanced Numerical Research and Analysis Group** (**ANURAG**) is a laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Located in Kanchanbagh, Hyderabad, it is involved in the development of computing solutions for numerical analysis and their use in other DRDO projects. History ------- ANURAG was established on 2 May 1988, to development of indigenous supercomputer.later in 1991,ANURAG became a part of defense R&D Organization.support aeronautical design work, with the mandate of executing specific, time-bound projects leading to the development of custom designed computing systems and software packages for numerical analysis and other applications. As of 2020, it is not longer functional or act as an independent laboratory. All the staff members are transferred to others DRDO labs in Hyderabad, Bangalore and Delhi. Areas of work ------------- ANURAG helps design and develop advanced computing systems. Much of this research is conducted in state-of-the-art concepts like parallel architectures, etc. in order to build up a technology base in these areas. Its areas of work are: * Parallel processing technology. * Scientific Data Visualisation * System engineering, integration. * General purpose microprocessors. * 1 micrometre CMOS fabrication technology. * Design and development of VLSI chips & SOC development. * Processor related technology. * System software development for custom made processors. * Analog, RF and Mixed-signal ASIC design Products -------- ### PACE **PACE (Processor for Aerodynamic Computations and Evaluation)**, developed by ANURAG, is a loosely coupled, message-passing parallel processing supercomputer. PACE was originally designed to cater to the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) needs in aircraft design. It can also be used for other fields such as weather forecasting, automobile & civil engineering design, and Molecular Biology. These systems have been built using VME-bus based Pentium processor boards, ATM switches, and Reflective Memory communication hardware. In 1987, India decided to launch a national initiative in supercomputing to design, develop and deliver a supercomputer in the gigaflops range. Complementary projects were initiated in various labs, ANURAG being one of them. PACE was unveiled by then Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao in April 1995.[] In late 1998, ANURAG developed the 15 times more powerful **"Pace Plus 32"**, which can be used to support missile development, as well as other fields. A 128-node **PACE++** system, built using Pentium processor-based VME boards was unveiled by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam in January 2004. The performance of this system is 50 Gigaflops (sustained performance). It has been installed at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. At present work is in progress on a parallel processing system based on Linux clusters targeted to deliver 1 teraflop performance. ### ANAMICA **ANAMICA (ANURAG's Medical Imaging and Characterization Aid)** is a DICOM compliant three-dimensional medical visualization software for data obtained from any medical imaging system like MRI, CT and Ultrasound. The software has two-dimensional and three-dimensional visualization techniques to visualize the images in various ways. The sequence of images obtained from any imaging system by scanning of a single patient is packed to form a three-dimensional grid. The software has also been modified for accepting data from Industrial CT systems. ### General purpose microprocessors ANURAG has designed and developed general-purpose microprocessors- ANUPAMA and ABACUS. ANUPAMA is a 32-bit RISC processor, and works at 33  MHz clock speed. The complete software development tool kit is available for application development. A single-board computer based on ANUPAMA is available for evaluation and software development. ANUPAMA is also available as an IP core. ABACUS is a 32-bit processor for multi-tasking applications with virtual memory support. It is designed around ANUPAMA core with additions like MMU, two levels of cache, double-precision FPU, SDRAM controller. The IP core of ABACUS is available in Verilog RTL code. This processor is suited for desktop applications. A complete software platform is available for the ABACUS processor and a single board computer with ABACUS is implemented. Linux Kernel is ported. ### Other technologies ANURAG has designed a 16-bit DSP processor, which is available as an IP core and the design is packaged in 120-pin CPGA. It has also designed other processors and arithmetic cores. ANURAG has also been able to fabricate CMOS designs up to 1-micrometer size and with up to 100,000 gates. Die sizes of 14 x 14  mm have been achieved.

English cartoonist and caricaturist **Gilbert Thomas Webster** (1886–1962) was an English cartoonist and caricaturist. Tom Webster by Howard Coster in The National Portrait Gallery London Born in Church Street, Bilston, Staffordshire (now West Midlands), the son of Daniel Webster, ironmonger, and his wife Sarah Ann (née Bostock) a tobacconist, however, his father died before Tom was five years old He was educated at the Royal Wolverhampton School, and at the age of fourteen got his first job as a railway booking-clerk. He taught himself to draw, and in 1904 he won a newspaper cartoon contest. This began his career in cartooning. He started out at the *Sports Argus* in Birmingham, moving to London in 1912 to become the political cartoonist for the short-lived Labour Party mouthpiece, *the Daily Citizen*. An ironic placement given his later Conservative standing. In November 1915 Webster volunteered for the army, giving his occupation as "Bank clerk". He was sent to France in May 1916 as a Lance Corporal and saw action in the Battle of the Somme. He was wounded in the neck at St. Eloi in November 1916 and invalided home soon afterwards. He spent six months in hospital before being discharged in July 1917. Eventually, in 1918, Webster secured a job with the *Evening News*, before joining the *Daily Mail* in 1919. He specialised in cartoons of horseracing, cricket and golf, and stayed at the *Mail* for over twenty years enjoying enormous popularity. As early as 1924 he was reputedly the highest-paid cartoonist in the world. In his capacity as a sports cartoonist, he became friends and golf partner with Arsenal manager Herbert Chapman, and one account says it was a combination of clothing worn by Webster that inspired Chapman to add white sleeves to Arsenal's red shirts. Webster also continued caricaturising politicians generally with an anti-Labour tone; notably on the night of the 1929 general election, a selection of his cartoons was projected in public in London's Trafalgar Square. Also in 1929, in New York City, Webster married Mae Flynn, a former member of the Ziegfeld Follies, and their wedding was covered by the newsreels. They had their honeymoon in Hollywood, where Webster drew Charlie Chaplin, whom he had known earlier in England. The marriage was childless and Webster was divorced in 1933. In December 1935, he married Ida Michael, an American showgirl who had starred on Broadway and in the Dorchester Cabaret in London. He left the *Daily Mail* in 1940, and later during the war he performed in concert parties in France and Belgium, as a cartoonist and comedian, as well as doing some work as a war correspondent. He continued to draw for other newspapers, and his own range of annuals, until 1960. Tom Webster died at his home in London on 21 June 1962 aged 76. He was survived by his second wife, two daughters, and a son.

**Katherine Agnes Chandler** (May 1865 – June 24, 1930) was a botanist and writer, known as "The Wildflower Lady of California". Biography --------- Katherine Agnes Chandler was born in San Francisco in 1865, the daughter of William Sylvester Chandler (1829–1898), of London, and Catherine Agnes Comerford (1847–1912). She had four brothers, Albert E. Chandler, William Sylvester Chandler (1867–1913), Joseph Francis Chandler (1869–1959), and George E. Chandler (1879–1887) and one sister, Mabel G. Chandler (1875-1958). She was a librarian associated with the Pacific Northwest and California (she contributed articles for the *San Francisco Chronicle*); she published books for 2nd and 3rd grade schoolchildren about California wildflowers (*Habits of California Plants*, 1903, and *As California wild flowers grow: suggestions to nature lovers*, 1922), Native folktales (*In the reign of Coyote: folklore from the Pacific coast*, 1905), Sacagawea (*The Bird-Woman of the Lewis and Clark Expedition*), and William Clark's servant York. The Garden of Shakespearean Flowers in Golden Gate Park was originated by Alice Eastwood and carried out by Chandler. In 1903 Chandler credited Eastwood in her *Habits of California Plants*. Another of her ventures was The Deer Park Springs Hotel, near Lake Tahoe, constructed by John Brown Scott in 1880 who sold it to Chandler in 1905. She added tennis and croquet grounds to the resort. In 1908 Chandler recut the trail from Deer Park into the famous Hell Hole, a trail that had been lost for many years. In 1909 Emily Williams remodeled Deer Park Inn for Chandler. Emily probably met Chandler in Pacific Grove, California, where Chandler frequently rented a cottage. Both women were friends of Etta Belle Lloyd, a Pacific Grove businesswoman who ran an insurance agency and managed several commercial properties that had been owned by her father David. In 1905, Chandler compiled, for the Library Association of California, a list of California periodicals issued before the 1861 completion of the transcontinental telegraph. Katherine Chandler died in 1930 in Los Gatos, California, and is buried at Holy Cross Cemetery, Colma.

**Dana Paul Goldman** is the dean of the USC Price School of Public Policy, Leonard D. Schaeffer Chair and director of the University of Southern California Leonard D. Schaeffer Center for Health Policy and Economics, and Professor of Public Policy, Pharmacy, and Economics at the Price School and USC School of Pharmacy. He is also an adjunct professor of health services and radiology at UCLA, and a managing director and founding partner, along with Darius Lakdawalla and Tomas J. Philipson, at Precision Heath Economics, a health care consulting firm. Previously held positions include the director of the Bing Center for Health Economics, RAND Royal Center for Health Policy Simulation, and UCLA/RAND Health Services Research Postdoctoral Training Program. Goldman's professional interests include the innovation of health technology, the future of America's elderly population, the design of insurance, and disparities in health outcomes. More recently, his work has focused on medical innovation and regulation, comparative effectiveness and outcomes research, and patient-reported outcomes in emerging markets Goldman is also the founding co-editor of the Forum for Health Economics and Policy and has been on the editorial board of Health Affairs, B.E. Journals of Economic Analysis and Policy, and the RAND Journal of Economics, among others. He is a health policy advisor to the Congressional Budget Office and, in 2009, was elected a member of the Institute of Medicine. He is also the 2009 recipient of the Eugene Garfield Economic Impact Prize, in recognition of his outstanding research on how medical research impacts the economy. He received his B.A. *summa cum laude* from Cornell University and a Ph.D. in Economics from Stanford University. Goldman’s 1997 article, "Redistributional Consequences of Community Rating" discusses a study done in California where health insurance premiums were based on community ratings. The Patient Protection and Accountable Care Act (PPACA) has been passed through Congress and implementation has commenced in the U.S. healthcare system. Community rating systems will be the basis for health care premiums in the future exchange system. These ratings, pool people in to demographic groups and charge all members a constant rate. The goal of this system is to prevent medical underwriting and decrease the inequities that occur for clients with higher risks of increased medical utilization present in a risk adjusted system. Goldman et al. conducted a study in California that trialed such clusters of insured clients by pooling at the state level, regional level, and metropolitan level. Results from California’s experiment with such a system conclude that the larger the areas pooled, the greater the transfer of costs. Another challenge to community based rating systems is that lower income neighborhoods with lower healthcare utilization subsidize the healthcare cost of higher income communities that tend to have higher healthcare expenditures. The health exchange system will not be the only place where community rating systems are utilized. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) (CMS) plans to initiate a modified rating system starting in January 2014, this may lead other insurance companies following suit. Due to the results of the California experiment and the widespread use of community based rating systems being initiated, it is imperative that some kind of subsidies be used for low income families. Otherwise, these families may be more likely to avoid insurance due to higher premium costs. This result would be counter intuitive to the goals of implementing the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in the U.S. healthcare system. In 2022, Goldman was elected as a fellow of the National Academy of Public Administration. Use of drugs for chronic illness when co-payments are doubled ------------------------------------------------------------- Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) revealed that chronic illness affected 133 million people in the United States and accounted for seven out of ten deaths. In relationship to these numbers, the American Society of Health System Pharmacists say Americans spent $307.5 billion on pharmaceuticals in 2010. Research by Goldman, Joyce, Escarce, Pace, Soloman, Laouri, Landsman, and Teutsch (2001) studied the purchasing behavior of drugs used to treat eight chronic illnesses: diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, asthma, depression, allergies, arthritis, and stomach ulcers. This retrospective study presents a strong correlation between co-payment levels and medication use for these chronic illnesses. The study illustrated the change in consumption behaviors based on plan generosity and structure such as coinsurance rates and mandatory generic substitution. The study by Goldman et al. (2001) predicts there would be a significant decrease in medication utilization in all of the chronic disease categories examined when co-payments were doubled. However, of note, the researchers discovered that patients respond discriminatorily to changes in co-payment and are less likely to reduce consumption of disease specific medications and will reduce pharmacy spending in other medications. Goldman, et al. (2001) exposed the largest decrease in drug spending when co-payments were doubled were in medications to treat arthritis and allergies. The study revealed that patients with diabetes decreased their purchase of diabetes drugs the most compared to the other chronic illnesses examined when their co-payments doubled. The research by Goldman et al. (2001) reveals two points that could inform public policy related to pharmaceutical expenditures. One, consumption of over-the-counter drugs to treat allergies and arthritis are highly influenced by out of pocket spending. Two, diabetes patients may choose lifestyle behavior changes when faced with higher drug costs. Before changing payment structures, more research will be needed to examine adverse health consequences in the chronically ill if pharmaceutical interventions are limited by increasing out of pocket expenses. For instance, emergency department utilization could rise in response to these changes. The results of the study by Goldman et al. (2001) could inform public policy on ways to decrease excess drug usage when the benefits are less than the cost of the drug.

Azerbaijani Red Army lieutenant (1919–1946) **Israfil Maharram oglu Mamedov** (or **Mammadov**, Azerbaijani: *İsrafil Məhərrəm oğlu Məmmədov*, Azeri Cyrillic: Исрафил Məhəррəм oғлу Мəммəдов, Russian: Исрафил Магеррам оглы Мамедов; 30 May 1919 – 5 May 1946) was an Azerbaijani Red Army lieutenant and a Hero of the Soviet Union. He was the assistant commander of a platoon of the Soviet 42nd Rifle Regiment during World War II. He was the first Azerbaijani to be awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, on 11 December 1941. Mammadov was awarded the title for reportedly killing 70 German soldiers and three officers. Early life ---------- Mammadov was born on 16 March 1919 in Chaparly to a peasant family. He graduated from the Kirovabad Industrial College. He worked at a textile mill. Mammadov volunteered for the Red Army in 1939. World War II ------------ Mamedov received the rank of Senior Sergeant and fought in military operations on the Northwestern Front as an assistant platoon leader in the 42nd Rifle Regiment of the 180th Rifle Division. He joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1941. Mammadov fought in battles around Novgorod. He led 20 soldiers in defending the command post and communication line near Pustynka settlement in the Novgorod Oblast. His troops were cut off from the main Soviet forces. After the artillery preparation the Germans commenced a new attack, assuming that the Soviet forces were weakened. Understanding their strategy, Mammadov ordered his troops to hold fire, allowing the enemy to get within 10–15 meters. After three German assaults, he launched a counter-attack with bayonets. The Germans lost over 300 soldiers and retreated. Mammadov personally killed approximately 70 enemy troops, including three officers. For his actions, Mammadov was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union and the Order of Lenin on 11 December 1941 from Pavel Kurochkin. He was the first Azerbaijani to receive the title. Post-war -------- In 1943, Mammadov was medically retired. He lived in Kirovabad, working in the Azerbaijan Komsomol Central Committee. He died on 1 May 1946 in a military hospital in Yalta and was buried in Kirovabad. Personal life ------------- Mammadov married Yevdokia Ivanovna and had two daughters, Galina and Svetlana. Legacy ------ A street in Ganja was named after Mammadov, and a museum and monument were built in the same place. A school in Ganja was named after him, as well as a school in Chaparly.

GB international rugby league footballer **Neil James** (14 February 1961 – 17 December 2014) was an English professional rugby league footballer who played in the 1980s and 1990s. He played at representative level for Great Britain, and at club level for Castleford, Halifax, Gold Coast-Tweed Giants, Leeds and Sheffield Eagles, as a prop, or second-row. Background ---------- Neil James was born in Castleford, West Riding of Yorkshire, England, and he died aged 53. Playing career -------------- ### Castleford James played as a right-second-row in Castleford's 2-13 defeat by Hull F.C. in the 1983 Yorkshire Cup Final during the 1983–84 season at Elland Road, Leeds on Saturday 15 October 1983. ### Halifax In 1985, James was loaned out to Halifax. The deal was later made permanent with Castleford receiving Alan Shillito and a fee of £5,000 in exchange. James made 34-appearances (including 4 as an interchange/substitute) in the Second-row in Halifax's victory in the Championship during the 1985–86 season, scoring 3-tries in League matches and 1 in the Premiership Trophy. James appeared as a substitute (replacing prop Ben Beevers on 70-minutes) in Halifax's 19-18 victory over St. Helens in the 1987 Challenge Cup Final during the 1986–87 season at Wembley Stadium, London on Saturday 2 May 1987, and played left-prop and scored a try in the 12-32 defeat by Wigan in the 1988 Challenge Cup Final during the 1987–88 season at Wembley Stadium, London on Saturday 30 April 1988. In April 1990, he was signed by Leeds for a fee of £20,000. ### International honours Neil James won a cap for Great Britain while at Halifax, playing right-second-row scored a try, and was man of the match in the 24-10 victory over France at Central Park, Wigan on Saturday 1 March 1986.

**Shallow Reign** is a band from Deep Ellum, the East of Dallas, Texas arts and entertainment district. The band was one of the first to become popular in the area from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s. Original Theater Gallery booking agent Jeff Liles described their sound as neopsychedelic. The songs revolved around layered guitar riffs with melancholy lyrics and a dynamic rhythm section. [] The original line-up included Bob Watson, Mark Thomas, Jan Paul Davidsson and Patrick Sugg. The band was said to be pioneering and Sugg was referred to as a guitar whiz in a 1996 story in the Dallas Morning News. The band continued after Sugg left and he eventually joined up with Ian Astbury and the Holy Barbarians. History ------- In May 1985 Shallow Reign played its first live performance at Theatre Gallery in Deep Ellum. Clay McNear of *The Dallas Observer* wrote: > "Those who were at Theatre Gallery on May 30, 1985 laid witness to the birth of the Deep Ellum music scene...how did this band come out of nowhere to set a standard as one of Dallas' finest acts ever, and to help conceive a local revolution that was long overdue." > > [] They played a historical show on December 14, 1986. It was a benefit concert at Prophet Bar and the Theatre Gallery for a homeless shelter along with The New Bohemians and End Over End, among others. Shallow Reign released its self-titled debut on July 4, 1986. The band was featured on Island Records *The Sound Of Deep Ellum* compilation record in 1987 with the song "Paint The Flowers All Black" and in Oliver Stone's movie "Born on the Fourth of July" performing Creedence Clearwater Revival’s "Born On The Bayou". [] In 1989 Shallow Reign went on to release their second full-length album "Strange World" and was then signed to a developmental deal with Interscope Records. [] Shallow Reign played and recorded from May 1985 until 1991 before disbanding. The band toured both coasts and played in the southwest extensively over their six-year career at clubs including CBGB, the China Club and Cat Club in NYC, the Scream Club and Club Lingerie in LA, 930 Club in DC and the infamous Rathskeller in Boston.[] After Shallow Reign disbanded in 1991, Bob Watson and Mark Thomas went on to form Medicine Show Caravan with two members from the Deep Ellum band The Trees. This new band played live and recorded from 1991 to 1994. After Medicine Show Caravan disbanded, Bob Watson has continued writing and recording with and without members of these two bands. Mark and Jan Paul live in Austin now and Bob resides in the East Texas area. Pat Sugg went on to form Neverland and recorded for Interscope Records after his departure in 1988. Pat lives in Los Angeles and continues to play guitar, write, record and lend his skills to a wide range of artists including Blue October.[]

Caroline Estes Smith, 1901, Pacific coast music review **Caroline M. Estes Smith** (November 29, 1877 - April 18, 1970) was the first woman to manage the Philharmonic Orchestra of Los Angeles. Early life ---------- Caroline M. Estes was born on November 29, 1877, in Winn, Maine, the daughter of Willie A. Estes and Mary Graves. Career ------ Robert E. Cowan, Cowan's wife Marie, and Caroline Estes-Smith, in the William Andrews Clark Memorial Library's sunken garden Caroline Estes Smith was William Andrews Clark Jr.’s private secretary until 1922, when she became the first woman to manage the Philharmonic Orchestra of Los Angeles. Even after she retired from her private secretary's job, she and her husband, George Leslie Smith, were frequent guests of Clark at Mowitza Lodge, Salmon Lake State Park, Montana, and lived around the corner from the William Andrews Clark Memorial Library on St. Andrews Place. In 1930 she published *The Philharmonic Orchestra of Los Angeles*. Uplifters Clubhouse She was a member of the Woman's Athletic Club, Casa del Mar, Southern California Athletic and Country Club, Los Angeles Athletic Club, California Country Club, Uplifters Club, Order of the Eastern Star. Personal life ------------- On October 2, 1899, Caroline Estes Smith married George Leslie Smith (1874-1943), at Calais, Maine, and had one son, George Leslie, Jr. For several years a resident of Boston, Caroline Estes Smith moved to Los Angeles, California, in 1903, and lived at 1237 S. Gramercy Place, Los Angeles, California. She died on April 18, 1970, and is buried with her husband at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale).

American historian **Emma Lou Thornbrough** (January 24, 1913 – December 19, 1994) was a pioneer among professional historians in African-American history, a lifelong civil-rights activist in Indiana, a professor of history at Butler University from 1946 until her retirement in 1983, and an Indiana historian and author. She was born in Indianapolis, Indiana. Thornbrough's major scholarly contributions include several publications devoted to black history, such as *The Negro in Indiana before 1900*; *Booker T. Washington*; *T. Thomas Fortune, Militant Journalist*; *Since Emancipation: A Short History of Indiana Negroes, 1863–1963*; and *Indiana Blacks in the Twentieth Century* (published posthumously in 2000). She also wrote *Indiana in the Civil War Era, 1850–1880*, among other scholarly publications. In addition to her writing and research, Thornbrough was well known as a social activist and was especially active in Indianapolis civil rights groups, including the Indianapolis Human Relations Council, which she helped organize; the Indiana Civil Liberties Union; and the Indianapolis National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Early life and education ------------------------ Born in Indianapolis, Indiana, on January 24, 1913, Emma Lou was the first child of Harry C. Thornbrough, who was an inventor, and his wife, Bess Tyler. Emma Lou became an avid gardener, traveled extensively with her younger sister, Gayle, in Europe, and enjoyed the London theater, classical music, and literature. The sisters also shared their childhood home throughout their lives. Thornbrough attended Indianapolis's Shortridge High School. She received and undergraduate degree in 1934 and a master's degree in 1936 from Butler University and began a career teaching history at Indianapolis's George Washington High School. Thornbrough earned a doctorate in history from the University of Michigan in 1946 before returning to Indianapolis to teach at Butler. Thornbrough's interest in black history grew out of Dwight Lowell Dumond's graduate seminar, which she attended while studying for a doctorate degree at Ann Arbor, Michigan. Dumond was a revisionist historian in interpreting the role of abolitionism and the causes of the American Civil War. Thornbrough's dissertation was titled *Negro Slavery in the North: Its Legal and Constitutional Aspects*. Career ------ Thornbrough, a lifelong educator, became a professor of history at Butler University in 1946 and remained on its faculty until her retirement in 1983. A Ford Foundation fellowship enabled Thornbrough to temporarily reside in New York and Washington, D.C. in 1955 and 1956 to conduct research on Timothy Thomas Fortune, the subject of one of her books. In addition, she was a visiting professor at Indiana University and at Case-Western Reserve University. Thornbrough is best known as the author of many scholarly works, including monographs, essays, and articles for academic journals. In 1952 she ran unsuccessfully as a Democratic candidate for the Indiana General Assembly, but she remained active in civic affairs and was a civil-rights activist throughout her adult life. ### Educator Thornbrough began teaching at Butler University immediately after receiving her doctorate in history from the University of Michigan in 1946. Known as innovative and committed to liberal education, she was a popular educator among Butler students. Thornbrough taught courses on American constitutional history, history of the American South, and African American history, as well as courses on Greek and Roman civilizations. During her tenure at Butler she also introduced an interdisciplinary comparative course on world cultures. Thornbrough retired from Butler in 1983. ### Author Although Thornbrough wrote numerous scholarly articles and books, the majority of her work concentrated on Indiana history, with a specific focus on African Americans. She was known for her meticulous research and straightforward presentation. Indiana historian Richard B. Pierce, who met Thornbrough while he was a graduate student, explained that she "produced work that has a lasting merit" in an area of civil rights and race relations that was not popular among historians at the beginning of her career. Thornbrough's range of interests and expertise in topics that included civil rights, legal and legislative history, and political and social issues are evident in reviews of her published works. Some historians have concluded that Thornbrough's reputation as a historian of Indiana rests principally on two books, *The Negro in Indiana before 1900* (1957) and *Indiana in the Civil War Era* (1965). IU's Richard Blackett remarked that *The Negro in Indiana* "set the standard for examinations of the black experience in other northern states." A memorial tribute appearing in the *Indiana Magazine of History* in 1995 further explained that *The Negro in Indiana* was among "the first source consulted by those with questions relating to the 'middle period' of the state's nineteenth-century history." Ball State University's Robert LaFollette, who reviewed her book in 1958, described it as the "historical base for understanding the situation of the Negro in the twentieth century." The Indiana Historical Society commissioned Thornbrough to write *Indiana in the Civil War Era, 1850–1880*, another of her major works, as the third volume of a five-part series about the history of Indiana for the state sesquicentennial. Thornbrough authored several notable biographies. Pioneering kindergarten educator Eliza Ann Cooper Blaker was the subject of her first publication, *Eliza A. Blaker: Her Life and Work* (1956). Thornbrough's biography of Booker T. Washington is part of publisher Prentice Hall's Great Lives Observed series, but *T. Thomas Fortune, Militant Journalist* may be considered her best work. Thornbrough was interested in women's history, but other than her book on Blaker and an essay she contributed on the history of Indiana’s black women, which appears in *Indiana’s African-American Heritage* (1993), her published scholarship was in other areas. Legal and constitutional history, as well as black history, were her major interests. Thornbrough's published works related to black history include *Black Reconstructionists* (1972), *Since Emancipation: A Short History of Indiana Negroes, 1863–1963* ([1963?]), and topics such as the fugitive slave law in Indiana, the history of the civil rights movement in Indiana, and Indianapolis's school desegregation, among others. At the time of Thornbrough's death in 1994, she had completed all but the last chapter of *Indiana Blacks in the Twentieth Century*, the sequel to *The Negro in Indiana before 1900* (1965). *Indiana Blacks in the Twentieth Century*, with edits and a final chapter by Lana Ruegamer, was published posthumously in 2000. Thornbrough's interest in civil rights also included research on the desegregation of Indianapolis's public schools. "The Indianapolis Story: School Segregation and Desegregation in a Northern City, 1993" provides a detailed account of the city's school policy regarding race and the school desegregation process, beginning with the school desegregation law in 1949 to 1971, when the Indianapolis Public Schools was found guilty in federal court of *de jure* segregation. Thornbrough donated the manuscript to the Indiana Historical Society in 1992. Although it remains unpublished as of 2016, the work is considered to be "a lasting testament to the length and breadth of her career." Community service ----------------- Emma Lou Thornbrough was active in many professional, academic, historical, and civil rights organizations, such as the Organization of American Historians, Southern Historical Association, American Association of University Professors, Indiana Association of Historians, Indiana Alpha Association of Phi Beta Kappa, Indiana Historical Society, and the Indianapolis Council of World Affairs. She served as an officer or board member for many of these groups, and was a past president of the Indiana Association of Historians. Thornbrough participated in several national and local historical organizations. In the late 1950s she helped organize the Indianapolis Human Relations Council and chaired its education committee. In addition, Thornbrough served on the executive boards of the Indiana Civil Liberties Union and the Indianapolis NAACP. She was the recipient of several awards from civil-rights organizations for her service. Later years ----------- Thornbrough continued to research and write after her retirement from Butler University in 1983. Two major manuscripts remained unpublished at the time of her death, *Indiana Blacks in the Twentieth Century* (published posthumously in 2000) and "The Indianapolis Study: School Segregation and Desegregation in a Northern City" (remains unpublished as of 2016). Death and legacy ---------------- Thornbrough died on December 16, 1994, leaving behind a lasting legacy of historical scholarship and community service. As one historian concluded, her scholarly research and publication "had a profound effect on many of us for she has shown the way and set a standard we must try to emulate." Honors and awards ----------------- While a professor at Butler University, Thornbrough received the Outstanding Professor Award in 1965. She was appointed to the McGregor Chair in History in 1981. the same year she received the Butler Medal, the university's highest honor. Butler awarded her an honorary doctorate in 1988. The IAH annual fall lecture was renamed to honor Thornbrough and her sister, Gayle, a retired editor and former director of the Indiana Historical Society and the Indiana Historical Bureau. The Indiana Magazine of History's annual Thornbrough award recognizes the best article to appear in its magazine as a tribute to the two Thornbrough sisters and their contributions to the history profession. Her numerous awards from the community include: Phi Beta Kappa, Indiana Author's Day recognition (1966), Martin Luther King award from the Indianapolis Education Association (1976), Indiana Liberty Bell from the Indiana State Bar Association (1987), Roy Wilkins award from the Indianapolis Urban League (1991), Fadely Award from the Marion County–Indianapolis Historical Society (1992), and the IHS's Hoosier Historian award (1992). In 1993 Thornbrough was a recipient of the American Historical Association's Scholarly Distinction Award. Selected works -------------- ### Books * *Eliza A. Blaker, Her Life and Work* (Indianapolis: Eliza A. Blaker Club and Indiana Historical Society, 1956). * *The Negro in Indiana [before 1900]: A Study of a Minority* *Indiana Historical Collections*, Vol. XXXVII (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau, 1957) Reprinted, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. * *Since Emancipation: A Short History of Indiana Negroes, 1863–1963* ([Indianapolis]: American Negro Emancipation Centennial Authority, Indiana Division, [1963?]. * *Indiana in the Civil War Era, 1850–1880* (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau and Indiana Historical Society, 1965) * *Booker T. Washington* (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969). * *Black Reconstructionists* (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972). * *T. Thomas Fortune, Militant Journalist* (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972). * *This Far by Faith: Black Hoosier Heritage* (Indianapolis: Indiana Committee for the Humanities, 1982). * *The Greco-Roman World: The Greeks* (Indianapolis: Butler University, 1985). * *The World of Christopher Columbus: Imperial Spain, 1469–1598* (Indianapolis: Butler University, 1985). Reprinted, Needham Heights, MA: Ginn Press, 1991. * *Indiana Blacks in the Twentieth Century* (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000). Edited and with a final chapter by Lana Ruegamer. ### Chapters in books * "The Indiana Scene in 1870," in *Irvington Historical Society Collected Papers, 1967–1968* (Indianapolis: Irvington Historical Society History Committee, [1968?]), 50–65. * "The Indianapolis School Busing Case," in *We the People: Indiana and the United States Constitution* (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1987), 68–92. * "The History of Black Women in Indiana" in *Indiana’s African-American Heritage*, ed. Wilma L. Gibbs (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1993), 67–85. * "African-Americans" overview essay in *The Encyclopedia of Indianapolis*, eds. David J. Bodenhamer and Robert G. Barrows (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 5–14. ### Articles * "The Race Issue in Indiana Politics during the Civil War," *Indiana Magazine of History*, XLVII (June, 1951), 165–88. * "Indiana and Fugitive Slave Legislation," *Indiana Magazine of History*, L (September, 1954), 201–28. * "The Brownsville Episode and the Negro Vote," *Mississippi Valley Historical Review*, XLIV (December, 1957) 469–93 * "More Light on Booker T. Washington and the *New York Age*," *Journal of Negro History*, XLIII ([Winter?], 1958) 33–49. * "The National Afro-American League, 1887–1908," *Journal of Southern History*, XXVII (November, 1961) 494–512. * "Segregation in Indiana during the Klan Era of the 1920s," *Mississippi Valley Historical Review*, XLVII (March, 1961) 594–618. * "Judge Perkins, the Indiana Supreme Court, and the Civil War," *Indiana Magazine of History*, LX (March, 1964) 79–96. * "American Negro Newspapers, 1880–1914," *Business History Review*, XL (Winter, 1966) 467–90. * "Origins of 'The American Dilemma' Revisited," *Reviews in American History*, VII (September, 1979) 325–30. * "Breaking Racial Barriers to Public Accommodations in Indiana, 1935 to 1963," *Indiana Magazine of History*, LXXXIII (December, 1987) 301–43.

2017 political cartoon by Glenn McCoy ***Trying to Trash Betsy DeVos*** is a political cartoon by American cartoonist Glenn McCoy, published on February 13, 2017, on the GoComics website as well as the *Belleville News-Democrat* website. The cartoon centrally depicts Betsy DeVos, the United States Secretary of Education in the Trump Administration and is thematically based on the 1964 painting *The Problem We All Live With* by Norman Rockwell. It attracted critical commentary in mainstream media. Description ----------- Betsy DeVos, the subject of the political cartoon The cartoon depicts a small version of DeVos walking and surrounded by large men in suits, who are possibly guards. The remains of a thrown tomato can also be seen. The word "CONSERVATiVE" is scrawled on the background wall in gray graffiti in addition to a red anarchy symbol. The abbreviation for the National Education Association is also written on the lefthand side. Publication ----------- The cartoon was published online on February 13, 2017, on the GoComics website, in addition to multiple newspapers. It was also published on the website of the *Belleville News-Democrat*. Reaction -------- Commentators point out that the political cartoon draws directly upon *The Problem We All Live With* by Norman Rockwell, which depicts Ruby Bridges being escorted to school as a child during a time when crowds of white protesters would actively prevent desegregation efforts initiated by the *Brown v. Board of Education* case. McCoy confirmed that he used the Rockwell piece as an inspiration for the political cartoon. On social media, the cartoon was met with unfavorable criticism. Readers of the *Belleville News-Democrat* demanded both that McCoy apologize and that he be terminated from his position. Many complaints centered upon an alleged false equivalency. Among others, Chelsea Clinton responded publicly by expressing outrage at the cartoon, and subsequently pointed out *The Problem We All Live With* on Twitter. One reason for this reaction was due to the explicit comparison of opposition to DeVos with themes of racism explored in Norman Rockwell's *The Problem We All Live With*. German Lopez at Vox.com opined that "protests against DeVos and racial segregation in American schools are not the same". Jillian Steinhauer asserted that McCoy's work is an example of false equivalence, saying, "Glenn McCoy appropriated Norman Rockwell’s *The Problem We All Live With*, replacing the six-year-old black girl who desegregated a public school with the billionaire Secretary of Education". *USA Today* highlighted a comment from a reader who responded to the image, claiming it represents an example of white privilege. A representative for the National Education Association offered no comment on the political cartoon. McCoy responded to criticism via e-mail, saying, "I regret if anyone was offended by my choice of metaphors", and noted that he wanted to draw attention to and start public discussion on the behavior of protesters. In a statement on the *Belleville News-Democrat* website, McCoy also expressed disappointment that, "decades beyond the civil rights protests... people are still being denied the right to speak freely or do their jobs or enter public buildings because others disagree with who they are or how they think". Faced with accusations that the image is hateful, McCoy defended his work, saying, "I thought I was speaking out against hate... You may disagree with her on issues but I didn't see any hate coming from her. I did, however, see hate going in the other direction, which is what made me think of the Rockwell image. That was the only comparison I was drawing".

Protest tactic **Noynoying** (pronounced noy-noy-YING or noy-NOY-ying) is a protest tactic in the form of neologism which critics of Philippine President Benigno Aquino III have used to question the alleged work ethic or alleged inaction on Aquino's part on the issues of disaster response and of rising oil prices. A play on the term planking and Aquino's nickname, "Noynoy", Noynoying involves posing in a lazy manner, such as sitting idly while resting their heads on one hand and doing nothing. The term was created by his critics from the far left, which was meant to create more support for the far left agenda. However, the disinformation campaign of the far left benefited the conservative far right instead, who also lashed out at the centric Aquino administration. The disinformation campaign by the far left later proved beneficial to the rise of presidents Rodrigo Duterte and Bongbong Marcos. While the first documented use of the term dates back to October 2011, the term usage became more widely spread when protesters started using it as a protest gimmick in 2012, catching widespread attention from mainstream media and spreading virally on social media. The origins of Noynoying as a protest device have been strongly associated with the Re-affirmist faction of the Philippines' leftist movements, although its use has since spread to other groups generally critical of Aquino, regardless of affiliation. In response, the Aquino administration expressed confidence that Noynoying would not catch on with the public. When President Aquino died in June 24, 2021, outpouring of tributes and appreciation followed with people generally recognizing his incorruptibility, deep respect in the supremacy of the Constitution and the rule of law, and keenness to details prompting one prominent writer to review the term "Noynoying" focusing on Aquino's positive attributes and contributions. Scholars and personalities have condemned the disinformation campaign which tarnished the active presidency of Noynoy Aquino. Some argue that *Noynoying* should fit the realities of the Aquino administration and not the disinformed narratives spouted by his staunch far left critics, who attacked almost all of his programs including those which benefited the poor. Some have elaborated new definitions of Noynoying, including "clean, truthful, and not corrupt", "criticized but left a more prosperous Philippines after his administration", "a decent, gentle, and pro-country administration, which gives a sense of pride to Filipinos", and "an administration which allows and recognizes criticisms as part of democracy". Despite the harsh criticism from political rivals who jabbed at him regardless of the issue, his administration never banned, harassed, and/or closed any agencies or personalities, a move which was in line with Aquino's personal pro-democracy stances. History ------- ### First documented by media, 2011 The term was first documented in the October 8, 2011, issue of *Manila Standard Today*. In their opinion article, columnists Karl Allan Barlaan and Christian Cardiente criticized Aquino's slow response over typhoons Pedring and Quiel, which left parts of Luzon island, including Metro Manila, in a state of calamity. Aquino convened the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council five days after Pedring hit the country and a full week before overseeing distribution of food and water to the survivors, which was after he attended the 30th anniversary celebrations of McDonald's in the Philippines. They wrote: *"The opposition called the government’s calamity response 'insensitive,* indifferent, and slow.' Palace ally House Speaker Feliciano Belmonte Jr. urged the President to visit the typhoon victims 'to boost their morale.' The Internet was abuzz with a newly-coined word, 'noynoying.' The word translates to 'procrastinating,' members of a UP Diliman alumni social networking group say." ### Use in street protests, 2012 onwards An infographic distributed by youth rights group Anakbayan that instructs how to perform Noynoying and share it through social media. Five months later, student protesters denounced the rise in oil prices and college tuition rates by performing what they call "Noynoying." They make "effortless" poses, wherein they lounged on the ground looking bored and idle. Vencer Crisostomo, national chairman of youth rights group Anakbayan, said the Noynoying poses reflected how Aquino had done nothing to cushion the impact of or prevent the increase in oil prices and tuition rates. He defined Noynoying as "when you do nothing when in fact you have something to do." This protest activity was also created in response to warnings that protesters caught planking on the streets would be arrested. Proceeding protests adopted the act of Noynoying, or using the term in their statements. A group of farmers from Hacienda Luisita lounged in front of Supreme Court on March 19, 2012, as they plea to uphold its ruling ordering the distribution of about 6,400 hectares of land owned by Aquino's clan, the Cojuangcos. They also accused Aquino of intimidating the Supreme Court so that it would overturn the ruling on distribution, or grant the demand of Hacienda Luisita, Inc. of ₱10 billion (US$232,340,000) in just compensation in case the land is dispersed. Child rights advocates also integrated Noynoying in their protests on March 17, 2012, as they expressed concern over the increasing number of children becoming victims of human rights violations under Aquino's term. Fernando Hicap, national chairperson of Pambansang Lakas ng Kilusang Mamamalakaya ng Pilipinas (National Federation of Fisherfolk Organizations, PAMALAKAYA), warned Aquino that an impending increase in electricity rates in May 2012 is "inviting the Filipino people" to protest against Malacañang and Energy Regulatory Commission. He added: "It is time send an earthshaking notice to a Noynoying presidency in Malacañang." At an average of ₱8.48 (US$0.20) per kilowatt hour, the Philippines has the most expensive electricity rate in Asia and Oceania regions. Labor rights groups also introduced an offshoot of Noynoying called "Noy-ngaling," a portmanteau of Noynoy and the Tagalog word "sinungaling" (liar). They urged Malacañang to stop "misinforming" its people that a ₱125 (US$2.90) raise in minimum wage would lead to higher unemployment rate. ### Use in criticisms apart from Aquino Representative and Teodoro Casiño of Bayan Muna (Nation First) partylist, said that the House of Representatives, led by Speaker of the House Feliciano Belmonte, Jr. was "Noynoying" on the proposed measure to remove value added tax on petroleum products. Belmonte stated that such proposals are "not going to get anywhere." Deputy Minority Leader of the House of Representatives Milagros Magsaysay of First District of Zambales accused fellow Representative Henedina Abad of Lone District of Batanes of "not only 'Noynoying' on the resolutions aimed at solving the recurring power problem in Mindanao, but... also 'Noynoying' on several bills and resolutions on oil." The statement was made after Abad defended Department of Energy Secretary Jose Rene Almendras against calls for his resignation over the looming power crisis in Mindanao Island, located in the country's south. Crisostomo said that the Philippine government's "Noynoying" on tuition fee hikes is "pushing parents to extreme desperation," citing a report about a mechanic who killed himself due to problems relating to rising education costs. He also claimed that Aquino's administration did "nothing" to regulate tuition and other school fee increases. John Leonard Monterona, Middle East regional coordinator of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW) rights group Migrante, wrote that OFWs were "exposed to Noynoying daily" from embassy and labor officials who he claimed did not provide needed assistance over the rampant abuse and labor malpractices committed against Filipinos working abroad. ### Media coverage and spread on social networks The Noynoying protests, as well as the debate on Aquino's work ethic and the Internet meme that came out of it, had received coverage from local and international news media, including *The Wall Street Journal*, *France 24*, *BBC World Service*, *Los Angeles Times*, and *Al Jazeera*. Since then, a number of newspapers and websites published photos of Aquino at work. Presidential deputy spokesperson Abigail Valte denied allegations that the photos were released to counter the "Noynoying" protesters. She also expressed her dismay at the protesters for making it appear that Aquino was doing nothing to control the rising oil prices. Noynoying also became a "trending keyword" on Twitter and has its own Facebook page. Prominent local personalities—including entertainment reporter Ogie Diaz, DJ Mo Twister, and broadcasters Jove Francisco and Paolo Bediones—also posted tweets that contain the hashtag "#noynoying". Reception --------- ### Response from Malacañang The Office of the President of the Philippines released a series of photographs, including this one, that showed President Benigno Aquino III at work. The Office denied these were published to counter the Noynoying protests.Representatives of Malacañang belittled the use of Noynoying as a form of protest. Presidential spokesperson Edwin Lacierda said on March 15, 2012, that Noynoying was meant to antagonize Aquino, adding that it will not sell to the public. In a press conference, Aquino declared that the public should not pay attention to Noynoying, adding that the term is a product of people who have nothing good to say. *"Papaano mo ipapakita sa ayaw tumingin? Paano mo iparirinig sa ayaw makinig? Kung masaya silang ginagawa nila 'yun, nasa kanila 'yon."* ("How will you show it to people who refuse to look? How will you express it to people who refuse to listen? If they are happy with what they are doing, that's on them.") He also claims his administration is doing everything to ease the effects of oil price hikes, including subsidies to public transportation drivers as well as substantial discounts on tires, car batteries, and vehicle spare parts. In an interview with Agence France-Presse, Aquino countered criticisms about Noynoying by pointing to the Philippines' positive economic factors under his administration, including a "stable" inflation rate of 2.7 percent, as well as a recent survey by Pulse Asia that showed his popularity ratings at 70 percent, with only 9 percent disapproval. This was despite what critics said about the country's GDP of 3.7 percent last year due to cuts in government spending. ### Reactions from other government officials and politicians Vice President Jejomar Binay also defended Aquino, telling the student groups to give Aquino "a break." Senate President Juan Ponce Enrile advised Aquino to remain unfazed amid the Noynoying tag and instead focus his attention to his work. Senators Teofisto Guingona III and Francis Escudero called Noynoying "unfair," "uncalled for," and "disrespectful." Representative Sherwin Tugna of Citizens' Battle Against Corruption (CIBAC) party-list called Noynoying "baseless" because Aquino is "walking his talk on fighting corruption in government." Representative Jerry P. Treñas of Iloilo City countered the claims of protesters, saying Aquino is a "hands-on worker who shuns much publicity on his projects and programs but only wanted to go ahead, work and accomplish the projects." Department of Budget and Management Secretary Florencio Abad predicted that the Noynoying craze would soon fizzle. Meanwhile, Department of Transportation and Communications Secretary Mar Roxas, who ran alongside Aquino for vice president in 2010, shared his favorable definitions of Noynoying including "somebody who always tells the truth;" "somebody who is careful about people’s money, who does not borrow recklessly and who does not spend recklessly;" and "somebody who is putting our country on the straight and narrow." Technical Education and Skills Development Authority Secretary Joel Villanueva said he is a "living testimony of how the President works," narrating his time with Aquino as he gave out "bowler bonds" to some 15,000 people in Cavite. Governor Joey Salceda of Albay Province debunked Noynoying, claiming Aquino has created 2.1 million jobs last October 2011 and 1.2 million jobs last January 2012, as well as his "disbursement acceleration program" which Salceda claimed he computed to be "not less than 5.7 percent of the country’s gross domestic product." He added that Aquino is benefiting from the United States of America's economic rebound. Meanwhile, Cotabato Governor Emmylou Taliño-Mendoza called on Malacañang to stop Noynoying and quickly find a solution to the long brownouts in her province and parts of Mindanao. Vencer Crisostomo of Anakbayan claimed the photographs being released by the Office of the President, which they believed were meant to counter "Noynoying," did not convince Filipino netizens. Instead, the photos were being "modified" or being given the "meme" treatment. ### Reactions from media Political pundit Conrado de Quiros of *Philippine Daily Inquirer* called Noynoying "a horrendous contretemps," even calling out the groups behind the Noynoying protests as supporters of Manny Villar during his presidential campaign in 2010, which Aquino won. Columnist William M. Esposo of *The Philippine Star* called Noynoying "baseless, if not outright insulting to a head of State, and doesn’t deserve presidential rebuttal." He added: "Noynoying cannot shame P-Noy - but only those rabble-rousing Leftists and P-Noy haters perpetrating it." He previously declared that Noynoying is "the latest concoction of the Reds." *Sun Star Cebu* columnist Pachico A. Seares referred to Noynoying as "the N word," adding that while the Aquino administration claimed it was downplaying the Noynoying criticisms, the fact that Aquino and his representatives tackled the issue gave it "time and energy that it's not supposed to merit." Writing for *Global Inquirer Nation*, Benjamin Pimentel opined that Malacañang could have taken a "more creative" approach to Noynoying than putting out pictures to prove the protesters wrong, adding that such reaction reminded him of how Aquino's mother, former President Corazon Aquino, called a press conference in her bedroom and showed the small space under her bed to counter allegations that she hid underneath it during one of six coup attempts early in her administration. "If he had rolled with the Noynoyers, Noynoy could have even tied it to the tourism campaign by saying, 'Protesting — it’s more fun in the Philippines.'" Romeo Lim of *Malaya* could only "shake his head" if Noynoying would define Aquino's administration, even listing the different monikers of past Philippine presidents that described their governments such as "Dictator" for Ferdinand Marcos, "Mestizo" for Manuel L. Quezon, and "Mambo Magsaysay" for Ramon Magsaysay. In her Lifestyle column, Gilda Cordero-Fernando of *Philippine Daily Inquirer* listed out her "definitions" of Noynoying, all of which were favorable to Aquino. The list included "never to stop believing in the possibility of a clean government;" "being fearless, not being afraid to step into such big shoes;" and "shooting straight between the eyes of the enemy." Boo Chanco of *The Philippine Star* opined that while coining the term "Noynoying" to define Aquino's performance was "unfair," he offered his "more damaging" definition of Noynoying: how Aquino allegedly coddled "incompetent" friends he appointed to public office. Chanco stated this kind of Noynoying is "costing the local economy some serious money." Elinando B. Cinco of *Manila Bulletin* wrote that the definition of Noynoying assumes a "cruel insinuation of which the President is not or does not possess." He also compared a Noynoying person to a Filipino folk tale hero Juan Tamad (Lazy John), while berating Mar Roxas for trying to counter the Noynoying criticism by introducing "P-Noying." He wrote: "You see, Mr. Secretary, in marketing communication, imitating an already popular phrase or word will only remind the public or consumers of the original one. Elementary! And besides, you run the risk of being labeled a poor copycat!" Meanwhile, pundit Federico D. Pascual Jr. of *The Philippine Star* wrote that the reason why Noynoying has caught the attention of the public and even international media because "it is true." He even claimed that while the Wikipedia entry of Noynoying was subject to deletion, the newly coined word would take root, "thanks to Noynoy Aquino himself." Bobby Nalzaro of *Sun Star Cebu* "partly agreed" with leftist organizations that conducted Noynoying protests, which he said was not far from a word he coined to describe Aquino: AIDS (As If Doing Something). "P-Noy has focused on his anti-corruption campaign and has neglected the other aspects of his governance," Nalzaro wrote. Luis V. Teodoro of *BusinessWorld* wrote that perception toward Aquino about being laid-back—that "(Aquino) is more preoccupied with dating rather than assessing typhoon damage, or with sampling Manila night life rather than defusing a hostage crisis"—was already widespread before Anakbayan introduced the Noynoying protests. Jojo A. Robles of *Manila Standard Today* shared his "comprehensive definition" of Noynoying: where Aquino does things he believes are important, like removing Supreme Court Chief Justice Renato Corona from office, even if these do nothing to improve the lives of Filipinos. In another article, he wrote: "Indeed, almost everything Aquino has done so far can be considered Noynoying. And when he’s done, Aquino may look back at how he spent his laid-back years in office as a job that kept him from doing the things he’d much rather be doing, if he hadn’t been saddled with something that, for the first time in his life, required him to work." *France 24* reported that when Malacañang posted the photo of Noynoy at work, allegedly in response to the criticism, critics chose instead to focus on the fact that remote controls for a TV and a DVD player were among the contents of the president's table. In the *BBC World Service* coverage on Noynoying, correspondent to the Philippines Kate McGeown said that Aquino could not seem to shake off the impression about him being idle despite his popularity. She also described Aquino as "relaxed" based on several times she had met him. Presenter Paul Henley then wrapped up the program *Newshour* by playing "The Lazy Song" by Bruno Mars. ### Reactions from economists In addition to arguing that "the campaign and the connotations attached to it are both inaccurate and unfair" economist Andrew James Masigan argued in his *Numbers Don't Lie* column for the *Manila Bulletin* that the phrase "Noynoying" has gone viral "at a time when the country is just on the brink of turning its image around," with global financial institutions finally taking notice of efforts that have given the Philippines "the strongest economic fundamentals in the region.'" ### Reactions from academe David Michael M. San Juan, who teaches Filipino in De La Salle University, wrote that past administrations (not just that of Aquino) have been "Noynoying" to eliminate poverty in the Philippines. He added: "While many of our people suffer from extreme destitution, we have at least six dollar-billionaires and a number of peso-billionaires. The Philippine government does nothing but perpetuate the unjust status quo." He also illustrated how the elite holds control over the country's economy and politics, starting from Aquino who belonged in a clan of billionaire businessmen. Evolution --------- On June 24, 2021, President Aquino died at the age of 61. Soon after, tributes poured from all political colors and camps. Some of the most common sentiments were the public's appreciation of Aquino's incorruptibility, deep respect in the supremacy of the Constitution and the rule of law, and keenness to details. Amidst the outpouring of tributes and appreciation, award-winning writer and TV5 host Lourd de Veyra, in his news segment Word of the Lourd (WOTL), offered a new and positive meaning to the term "Noynoying". > "Noynoying—batid na ang pagpuna ay bahagi ng demokrasya. At pag napipikon, kahit anong banat sa kanya ng media, walang pina-ban, walang hinarass, at higit sa lahat, walang pinasara." > > — Lourd de Veyra, Word of the Lourd (WOTL) news segment; June 25, 2021 edition

Flats in Brighton and Hove, United Kingdom **Marine Gate** is a large block of retirement flats built in 1939 to the design of architects Wimperis, Simpson and Guthrie. It stands to the East of the English seaside resort of Brighton bordering Whitehawk and Roedean, and is situated in the Rottingdean Coastal ward overlooking Brighton Marina and Black Rock. Originally built with 105 flats, a restaurant and offices, internal reconfiguration has increased the number of flats to 132. The International/Modern-style building is situated in a clifftop position at the eastern border of Brighton. Its proximity to a now derelict gasworks resulted in it being damaged by bombs several times during World War II, to the extent that it was Brighton's most bombed building. The block is situated on an approach to Brighton Kemptown from the east. Its form, with Modernist features has invoked strong opinions among architectural critics. Described variously as "interesting", "elegant" and "comparing favourably with Embassy Court" (a building of the same era further west), a 2002 critique by Anthony Seldon placed it among "the city's worst ten buildings". History ------- Brighton's seafront has been characterised since the mid-19th century by "monumental domestic architecture" in the Regency style—"one of the great sequences of Regency and Early Victorian town planning in England". Stuccoed terraces and crescents stretch several miles along the coast, terminating in the east at the Kemp Town development consisting of Arundel Terrace, Chichester Terrace, Lewes Crescent and Sussex Square. Beyond this, the landscape changed significantly at Black Rock, the westernmost point at which the South Downs meet the English Channel. Brighton's eastern boundary (and until 1928, the boundary of the whole borough) was fixed here in 1606, and the only substantial development until the 20th century was a gasworks established by the Brighton Gas Light and Coke Company. Some terraced houses, inns and commercial buildings followed. Until the early 1930s, an old turnpike ran along the top of the cliffs to the village of Rottingdean. In around 1931 it was closed and rebuilt further inland, requiring the demolition of several small houses. In 1936, Marine Parade Estates (1936) Ltd was formed with the aim of developing land in the area behind the new road for housing. It leased a large site next to the gasworks from the landowner, Brighton Corporation (who had themselves acquired it in May 1931). The company commissioned architects Wimperis, Simpson and Guthrie to design a large block of flats for rent (initially, none were sold for owner-occupation). Under the guidance of this firm, Maurice Bloom was responsible for the design; he owned Courtenay Gate, a large block of flats on Hove seafront. Work started in 1937 and was complete in 1939, and Marine Gate opened on 5 May 1939. The building was marketed as "the most up-to-date fully serviced block of flats in the south of England": it had two restaurants for residents, shops, office accommodation with its own telephone exchange (the flats lacked private telephone lines at first), a cocktail bar, offices for the managing agents Fox & Sons, communal garages and sea views from every flat; some also had north-facing windows looking towards the South Downs. Various short leases were available for residents, and rents varied between £140 and £475 per year at first. Marine Gate *(seen here from Whitehawk Hill)* is close to a large gasworks, which was a target for wartime bombing. World War II broke out soon after Marine Gate was completed. Not all flats were let at first, and empty ones were commandeered by the Navy to accommodate personnel based at the Mining and Torpedo School established in the nearby Roedean School (known during the war as HMS *Vernon*). The Royal Air Force also established a lookout post at Marine Gate. Its proximity to Brighton's main gasworks and the cliffs gave it collateral damage from bombing and other attacks. More generally, Brighton and other south coast areas were susceptible to attack because they were easy targets—close to continental Europe and not strongly defended; spare bombs left over from bombing raids elsewhere in England were often released over the coast; and Hitler considered invading Britain by way of the Sussex coast near Brighton. The eastern part of Brighton fared worst, and Marine Gate was the most affected building in the whole town: "very tall, very white and an easy target", it was "strafed with machine gun fire", damaged by explosions at the gas works and bombed more times than any other structure. The u-shaped building stands behind communal gardens. In an attack lasting just 15 seconds on 26 June 1942, Marine Gate was hit by 22 shells fired by two Messerschmitt Bf 109 aircraft, and was further damaged by fire from the gasometer which exploded at the same time. On 29 August 1942, machine gun bullets and a bomb caused serious damage. One resident, Claudette Mawby (a Hollywood child star as one of The Mawby Triplets), was killed when she was blown to the bottom of the building's lift shaft by the blast. Most of the building's windows were shattered. Brighton's worst air raid, on 25 May 1943, affected Marine Gate badly. A large bomb passed through one adjacent building and exploded in another, just missing some workmen. Soon afterwards, three bombs were aimed at the block. One cut through the building at fourth-floor level, destroying three flats and leaving its fin stuck in the floor of one; a second bounced off a patch of wasteland and hit a house before cutting right through Marine Gate, exploding on the road outside; and the third broke every window when it exploded at the southeast corner at ground-floor level. There was also fire damage from another explosion at the gasworks. No residents died, but many were injured, and the artist Percy Shakespeare (who was serving in the Royal Navy and was based at HMS *Vernon* at nearby Roedean School) was killed as he walked past Marine Gate. After this attack, all residents were evacuated and the building was left unrepaired. Another raid on 23 February 1944 caused more damage: Marine Gate was hit by one of several bombs dropped that night. After the war ended, repairs were made and people moved back in. The original layout, with 105 flats, was changed to accommodate more: the main restaurant was taken out in 1955 and the space divided into flats, and the number of flats available went up to 120. The shops were converted into additional garages as well. These changes reflected the decline in the demand for hotel-style serviced apartment blocks: longer leases began to be offered, some flats were sold to their occupiers, and residents were able to become shareholders in the leaseholding company, Marine Gate Holdings Ltd. Its subsidiary Marine Gate Management Ltd runs and manages the building. There are now 132 flats, each with "American-style" numbering in which each floor has a letter. Flats range in size from one to four bedrooms. The garaging below the block has allocated parking, bicycle storage and a carwash facility, and there are about 4 acres (1.6 ha) of south-facing gardens in front of the building. Since August 2007 the private domiciles are majority owned and managed by over 55s including Marine Gate Holdings Ltd Directors appointed by leaseholders, but is not explicitly described as a retirement block. There are two sets of seven lifts inside. Architecture ------------ Marine Gate dominates the eastern approach to Brighton. Wimperis, Simpson and Guthrie were a London-based firm active between the mid-1920s and the mid-1940s. Edmund Walter Wimperis (1865–1946), son of Edmund Morison Wimperis (1835–1900), entered into partnership with William Begg Simpson (1880–1959) in 1913. Their main commission as a pair was the rebuild of the Fortnum & Mason store in 1923. Leonard Rome Guthrie (1880–1958) joined two years later when the architects were working with Edwin Lutyens on Grosvenor House in London. They were known to have designed some buildings in Scotland and others in London. Marine Gate is a u-shaped building on a large elevated plot. It is steel-framed and brick-built; after many changes the brickwork is now painted white, with entrance portals in Bauhaus red, yellow and blue. Each flat has a round window to the bathroom; these porthole-style openings "give a vaguely nautical air". It is International/Modernist style, as seen in several 1920s and 1930s buildings around the city. Integral fitted furniture was provided, and each flat has "indisputable spaciousness and elegant proportions". The steel framing has allowed for changes to be made in the interior layout, as the internal walls are not load-bearing. The building is now being recognised for its pioneering architecture and landmark status, and in 2015 Brighton and Hove Council added Marine Gate to its Local List of Heritage Assets. One commentator failed to see its merits: Anthony Seldon placed Marine Gate at seventh place in his list of "The City's Worst Ten Buildings" in 2002 "on account of its insensitivity to its position". He compared it unfavourably to Embassy Court, noting its similarities but finding "little intrinsic architectural interest" in Marine Gate. Local historian Clifford Musgrave however drew positive comparisons with Embassy Court, noting that the two buildings provided "the first challenge to the [Regency] architecture of Brighton", and claiming that Marine Gate's "slightly more elegant modern style" was more suitable to its position because unlike Embassy Court it did not clash directly with older buildings. The "immense building" was also criticised much less at the time of its construction than Embassy Court, again because of its isolated clifftop position. Other writers have described Marine Gate as a "good example of quality Thirties apartments" and, more generally, "...of the many large-scale flats built along the coast" in the interwar period. Other similar contemporary buildings on the seafront include the Grand Ocean Hotel at Saltdean and the Saltdean Lido, both designed in 1938 and both with Moderne and Art Deco touches.

1973 film by James Bridges ***The Paper Chase*** is a 1973 American comedy-drama film starring Timothy Bottoms, Lindsay Wagner, and John Houseman, and directed by James Bridges. Based on John Jay Osborn Jr.'s 1971 novel *The Paper Chase*, it tells the story of James Hart, a first-year law student at Harvard Law School, his experiences with Professor Charles Kingsfield, a brilliant and demanding contract law instructor, and Hart's relationship with Kingsfield's daughter. Houseman earned an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance as the professor. Houseman later reprised the role in a TV series of the same name that lasted four seasons, following Hart, played by James Stephens, through his three years of law school. Plot ---- James T. Hart starts his first year at Harvard Law School in a contract law course with Professor Charles W. Kingsfield Jr. When Kingsfield immediately delves into the material using the Socratic method and asks Hart the first question, Hart is totally unprepared and feels so humiliated that, after class, he throws up in the bathroom. Hart is invited to join a study group with five others: * Ford, the fifth generation of Fords at Harvard Law School * Kevin Brooks, a married man with a photographic memory but lacking in analytical skills * Anderson * Bell, who is devoted to property law * O'Connor Each member of the group agrees to focus on a specific course and write a synopsis of their notes to share with each other before the final exams. Hart chooses contract law. While out getting pizza, Hart is asked by a woman, Susan Fields, to walk her home, as she says she feels uncomfortable about a man who has been following her. Hart returns to her house soon after and asks her on a date, after which they begin a complicated relationship: she resents the time he devotes to his studies and his fascination with Kingsfield, while he expects her to provide him with considerable attention and wants a firm commitment. When Hart and a select few of his classmates are invited to a cocktail party hosted by Kingsfield, he is stunned to discover that Susan is Kingsfield's married daughter. She is, however, separated from her husband and eventually gets a divorce. She and Hart break up and get back together several times. Hart categorizes his classmates into three groups: those who have given up; those who are trying, but fear being called upon in class to respond to Kingsfield's questions; and the "upper echelon" who actively volunteer to answer. Hart strives to move from the second classification to the third, and succeeds as time goes on. Hart eventually learns of the existence of the "Red Set", the archived and sealed personal notes that Harvard professors wrote when they were students, which are stored in a locked room of the library. Late one night, Hart and Ford break into the library to read Kingsfield's notes. The mounting pressure gets to everyone as the course nears its end. Brooks attempts suicide and drops out of school. The study group is torn apart by personal bickering, with only three of the six members remaining. With final exams looming, Hart and Ford hole up in a hotel room for three days and study feverishly. On the last day of class, Hart and his classmates give Kingsfield a standing ovation. Later, as Susan brings Hart his mail at the beach. Hart climbs to the highest rock, makes a paper airplane out of the unopened envelope containing his grades and sends it flying into the water. The film is a faithful adaptation of the novel, although it adds two elements not in the book: Hart's first name and middle initial (James T.), and his final grade in contract law (93, an A). Cast ---- * Timothy Bottoms as James T. Hart * Lindsay Wagner as Susan Fields * John Houseman as Charles W. Kingsfield Jr. * Graham Beckel as Ford * James Naughton as Kevin Brooks * Edward Herrmann as Anderson * Craig Richard Nelson as Bell * Bob Lydiard as O'Connor * Lenny Baker as William Moss, Tutor * David Clennon as Toombs * Regina Baff as Asheley Brooks * Blair Brown as Miss Farranti Inspiration for Kingsfield -------------------------- There are several possible inspirations for the character. The late Harvard Law professor Clark Byse is said to have been the inspiration for the character's position at Harvard Law School, though not the character's personality. According to John Houseman, the inspiration for Kingsfield was crusty professor Edward "Bull" Warren, also reflected in *The Boston Globe* in 2004. Houseman had noted that Kingsfield's behavior is actually a toned-down version of Warren's famous classroom rudeness, as enshrined in classroom lore, and recounted several examples of the professor's putdowns. James Bridges originally earmarked James Mason for the Kingsfield role, but he was unavailable. After attempts to cast Melvyn Douglas, Edward G. Robinson, John Gielgud, Paul Scofield, and other famous actors in the role, Bridges offered it to Houseman, who agreed to fly to Toronto (where the film's interior sequences were to be shot) for a screen test. Bridges called it "fabulous", and Houseman accepted the part, thus launching his acting career. He had seldom acted before, but knew Bridges from the time he was a stage manager in Houseman's UCLA Professional Theater Group. Houseman then recommended Bridges as a writer for the television series *Alfred Hitchcock Presents*, for which Bridges wrote 18 teleplays before establishing himself as a motion picture writer-director. Production ---------- The exterior shots of the Harvard Law School buildings were filmed on the Harvard Law School campus, and the library shots were filmed in the Harvard Andover library at the Harvard Divinity School. All interiors were shot on stages in Toronto. In a 1999 interview, Gordon Willis said production designer George Jenkins "reproduced the Harvard Law School in *The Paper Chase* beautifully." The hotel scene was filmed at the Windsor Arms Hotel. The scene of Hart and Ford entering a building to take their final exam near the film's end was shot in front of the Law School's oldest building, iconic Austin Hall. Most of the extras for the Harvard Law School venue scenes were then current Harvard Law students, paid a $25 per diem by 20th Century Fox. Willis shot *The Paper Chase* in anamorphic format due to the "schoolroom and the graphics in the film." He also commented on the cinematography, noting that the composition of the scenes with Houseman and Bottoms "related to who had command of the situation. We used huge close-ups of John, and demeaning shots of Timothy. Then as the movie goes along and Timothy begins to get on top of it, you'll notice the shot sizes begin to diminish on John and begin to get a little bit bigger on Timothy—until finally they are equal partners shooting back and forth." Reception --------- Vincent Canby wrote that the film "goes slowly soft like a waxwork on a hot day, losing the shape and substance that at the beginning have rightfully engaged our attention;" he concludes "it takes a long while for *The Paper Chase* to disintegrate, and there are some funny, intelligent sequences along the way, but by the end it has melted into a blob of clichés." Jay Cocks called it a movie of "some incidental pleasures and insights and a great deal of silliness:" > What [writer/director] Bridges catches best is the peculiar tension of the classroom, the cool terror that can be instilled by an academic skilled in psychological warfare. His Ivy League Olympian is Kingsfield, a professor of contract law who passes along scholarship with finely tempered disdain. In an original bit of casting, Kingsfield is played by veteran theater and film producer John Houseman. It is a forbidding, superb performance, catching not only the coldness of such a man but the patrician crustiness that conceals deep and raging contempt. > > The University of Chicago Law School called Houseman's rendition of the Socratic method "over-the-top", telling prospective students: > John Houseman may have won an Oscar for his impressive performance, but if anyone ever did teach a law school class like his Professor Kingsfield, no one at Chicago does today. The Socratic Method is a valuable tool used to engage students in discussion and develop critical thinking skills. It is employed at Chicago to foster intellectual approaches to the law, rather than to intimidate or break down new students. Through probing questions, the method helps students delve into the core of the subject matter and encourages them to think critically. > > Others disagreed; another reviewer found it accurate: > This is really the only serious flick about law school life. It's brooding and intense, perfectly capturing the dynamic between law professor and student. The movie is worth watching just for actor John Houseman's Academy Award-winning performance as Professor Kingsfield. Every school still has a professor that knows how to absolutely terrify the 1Ls — for us at UChicago, that was Richard "The Hammer" Helmholz. *The Paper Chase*'s Professor Kingsfield is like a distillation every one of these scary arch-villain type professors. > > One law professor, Ed Fallone, opined: > From the point of those of us who are law professors, it makes sense to criticize the oppressive law school environment reflected in the movie. However, from the point of view of current law students, the movie illustrates a heroic journey by the protagonist that they would like to emulate. > > Roger Ebert gave the movie four stars and singled out the performances of Bottoms and Houseman for praise. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 31 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2/10. On Metacritic, which sampled seven critic reviews and calculated a weighted average score of 67 out of 100, the film received "generally favorable reviews". Awards and nominations ---------------------- | Award | Category | Nominee(s) | Result | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Academy Awards | Best Supporting Actor | John Houseman | Won | | Best Screenplay – Based on Material from Another Medium | James Bridges | Nominated | | Best Sound | Donald O. Mitchell and Larry Jost | Nominated | | Golden Globe Awards | Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture | John Houseman | Won | | National Board of Review Awards | Best Supporting Actor | Won | | New York Film Critics Circle Awards | Best Supporting Actor | Runner-up | | Writers Guild of America Awards | Best Drama Adapted from Another Medium | James Bridges | Nominated | The American Film Institute has placed the film at #91 on its *100 Years...100 Cheers* list. Television series ----------------- Main article: The Paper Chase (TV series) The film was followed by a television series that ran for one season on CBS (1978–79) and three seasons on Showtime (1983–1986).

Rare neuromuscular disease Medical condition **Sporadic late-onset nemaline myopathy**, or **SLONM**, is a very rare disease, one of the nemaline myopathies, causing loss of muscle bulk and weakness in the legs but sparing the cranial nerves, and beginning its clinical course after age 40. It was first identified in 1966 at the Mayo Clinic, by A.G. Engel, and that same year W.K. Engel and J.S. Resnick noted another case that they elaborated in 1975. The diagnosis of the disease rests on subacutely evolving weakness after age 40, normal to low CK level, a myopathic EMG with fibrillations, and often a monoclonal gammopathy. The diagnosis is confirmed by visualizing rods in cryosections on light and electron microscopy. The associated monoclonal gammopathy has an unfavorable prognosis. Presentation ------------ Weakness in a limb-girdle distribution, hips and shoulders, after age 40 is generally the first symptom. Sometimes the weakness is predominantly distal. Head drop may also be a presenting symptom. Dysphagia may occur, as can respiratory insufficiency.[] Pathophysiology --------------- The etiology is unknown. Some cases of SLONM have been comorbid with HIV infection, and others with immune disorders, and so both a viral trigger and an autoimmune disorder have been considered candidate etiologies. The monoclonal gammopathy of unknown significance (MGUS) associated with a worse prognosis also argues for an immune disorder. On electron microscopy, nemaline bodies within the affected muscle fibers may be found. These bodies are sometimes crisply rod-shaped, but can also be irregular and punctate. The rods may be found alongside atrophic muscle fibers, and may be seen arising from the thickened Z-discs of the sarcolemmae. Affected fibers may be vacuolated or lobulated. Diagnosis --------- The myopathic EMG demonstrates fibrillation potentials. The serum CK level will be normal or low normal. The muscle biopsy will demonstrate the nemaline rods, but as they are less than 1 µm in length they are easily overlooked. The sections must be trichromatically stained and sectioned at a thickness of 2 to 4 µm for effective visualization. Immunostains for myotilin and α-actinin all but clinch the diagnosis. However, nemaline rods may still be visible post-mortem in neurosarcoidosis, which may remain on the differential. Generally the outcome is grim, with respiratory insufficiency the cause of death.[] Treatment --------- Rehabilitation for muscle strengthening can be useful in alleviating symptoms. Improvement has been noted in two HIV-negative individuals treated with immunoglobulin (IViG) agents. Improvement has also been noted with autologous stem cell transplantation, and chemotherapy with melphalan.

Reserve units of the Australian Army Military unit The **Australian Army Reserve** is a collective name given to the reserve units of the Australian Army. Since the Federation of Australia in 1901, the reserve military force has been known by many names, including the **Citizens Forces**, the **Citizen Military Forces**, the **Militia** and, unofficially, the **Australian Military Forces**. In 1980, however, the current name—Australian Army Reserve—was officially adopted, and it now consists of a number of components based around the level of commitment and training obligation that its members are required to meet. Overview -------- For the first half of the 20th century, due to a widespread distrust of permanent military forces in Australia, the reserve military forces were the primary focus of Australian military planning. Following the end of World War II, however, this focus gradually shifted due to the changing strategic environment, and the requirement for a higher readiness force available to support collective security goals. Since then, Australian defence policy has been focused more upon the Regular Army, and there has been considerable debate about the role of the Army Reserve within defence planning circles. As the strategic situation has evolved in the post Cold War era, the organisation, structure, training and role of the Army Reserve has undergone considerable changes, and members of the Army Reserve are increasingly being used on overseas deployments, not only within Regular Army units, but also in units drawn almost entirely from Reserve units. Despite being the main focus upon which Australian defence planning was based, since Federation Reserve units have primarily been used in the role of home defence and to provide a mobilisation platform during times of war. During World War I Australia's contribution to the fighting came from forces raised outside the citizen forces that were in existence at the time, and although many citizen soldiers enlisted in these forces, the Citizen Forces units remained in Australia. With the outbreak of World War II a similar situation evolved, with the establishment of an all-volunteer expeditionary force, however, with the entry of Japan into the war the threat to Australia became more direct and a number of Militia units were called upon to fight in New Guinea and other areas of the South West Pacific. Following the end of World War II, however, the decision was made to establish a permanent standing defence force and the role of Reserve forces was reduced to the point where for a while their relevance was called into question. Recently, however, there has been a move to develop a more capable Reserve force, as Australia's overseas military commitments in the Pacific and Middle East have highlighted the importance of the Reserves once more. As such, since 2000 units of the Australian Army Reserve have been deployed to East Timor and the Solomon Islands on peacekeeping duties and many more individual Reservists have been used to provide specialist capabilities and to fill in Regular Army formations being sent overseas. History ------- ### Federation to World War I Following the Federation of Australia in 1901, the amalgamation of the military forces controlled by the six separate, self-governing British colonies to form a unified force controlled by the Commonwealth was an inevitable, albeit slowly realised, consequence, given that the new Constitution of Australia assigned primary responsibility for defence to the Commonwealth. Indeed, this process took some time as, to a large extent, matters of defence were not necessarily a priority of the new Australian legislature at the time, and there was also a considerable diversity in opinion regarding the composition and size of the new national army and role it would play at home and indeed within the wider Imperial defence system. Nevertheless, the official transfer of forces from the states to the Commonwealth occurred on 1 March 1901, and this date is today celebrated as the birthday of the modern Australian Army. At the outset, the bulk of the Commonwealth military force was to be made up of part-time volunteers. This was arguably due to two factors. Firstly, there was a widespread desire amongst Australian policymakers to keep defence expenditure low, while secondly there was a widespread mistrust or suspicion surrounding the idea of a large standing army. Members of the militia in Tasmania, c. 1913 After the initial transfer of forces in March 1901, further progress was slow as administrative and legislative instruments took time to develop. Indeed, it was not until 1 March 1904 that the *Defence Act 1903* was proclaimed, providing the Commonwealth Military Forces a statutory framework within which they could operate. Amidst a background of political manoeuvring and personal agendas, the military forces were eventually reorganised into a more or less unified command structure. As a part of this, state-based mounted units were reformed into light horse regiments, supplemented by the transfer of men from a number of superfluous infantry units, while the remaining infantry were organised into battalions of the Australian Infantry Regiment and engineers and artillery were organised into field companies and garrison artillery batteries. Due to the provisions of the *Defence Act* which did not provide for the establishment of a regular infantry force, the notion that the Commonwealth Military Forces would be largely based on a part-time militia was set out in legislation. The lack of importance placed on military matters in Australian political circles continued for some time, and the size of the Australian military in this time continued to fall, in part due to the emphasis placed upon mounted units in the new command structure. However, following a number of strategic and political "scares", defence matters slowly began to take on more primacy in the Australian psyche before a review of defence needs was made in 1909 by Field Marshal Lord Kitchener. The result of this review was the realisation of the need to build a credible defence force that could not only defend the nation, but also possibly contribute to the Imperial defence system (although this later realisation remained little more than a consideration on paper only). The review also validated the compulsory military training scheme that was to be introduced in 1910, which was directly responsible for expanding the Citizen Forces by up to 50 percent in the three years prior to the outbreak of World War I. Separately then-Brigadier Kenneth Mackay CB VD was appointed to draw up plans for the Australian Army Reserve in 1915, and became its first director-general in 1916. A six-inch gun at Fort Nepean in August 1914. This gun fired Australia's first shot of the war when the German merchant ship SS *Pfalz* attempted to escape from Port Philip Bay on 5 August 1914. Undoubtedly, the scheme proved to have numerous benefits, as many of these youths went on to serve in the First AIF during World War I and the expanded organisation allowed citizen forces officers more experience in commanding formed bodies of men. However, it was the main factor contributing to the decision to recruit the AIF on the basis of voluntary enlistment. Because the army in 1914 was largely made up of young men aged between 19 and 21 who had been enlisted under this scheme, and due to the provisions of the *Defence Act* that precluded sending conscripts overseas, upon the outbreak of the war it was necessary for the Australian government to raise a separate force, outside the Citizen Forces organisation for service overseas. Regardless, it has been estimated that up to 50,000 militiamen subsequently enlisted in the First AIF during the war. During the precautionary stage on 2 August 1914, Citizen Forces units were called up to guard essential points and man coastal forts and harbour defences. The first Australian shots (many sources report the first Allied shots) of both World War I and World War II were fired by the garrison at Fort Nepean. By June 1918, 9,215 home service troops were on active duty in Australia, alongside 2,476 regular soldiers. From 1915, only skeleton garrisons were maintained at coastal forts, but the personnel manning them were forbidden to enlist in the AIF. This ban was lifted in April 1915 but the presence of a German commerce raider in Australian waters caused a mobilisation from February to April 1916, while another mobilisation occurred in April 1918 for the same reason. Just before the end of World War I, Australia's home forces were reorganised to perpetuate the numerical identities of the AIF units. This was done renumbering the infantry regiments that had been formed in 1912, and giving them the numbers of the AIF units that had been formed in their regimental areas. A total of 60 AIF infantry battalions had seen active service during the war, but there were more than 60 infantry regiments; as a result, a number of the Citizen Forces regiments were reorganised with multiple battalions, while other units were converted to pioneer regiments. ### Post World War I Following the end of World War I, the units that had been raised as part of the AIF were disbanded, and the focus of Australian defence planning returned once more to the maintenance of the Citizen Forces. To this end, a review of defence requirements in 1920 established the need for Australia to be able to field a force of approximately 270,000 men in the event of a war, of which half of this would be maintained in peacetime through compulsory enlistment, i.e. in essence a form of national service. It was also decided that the CMF would be re-organised along the lines of the AIF, adopting the divisional structure of the AIF units and maintaining their battle honours. The AIF officially ceased to exist on 1 April 1921 and the new organisation of the Citizen Forces was adopted a month later; this saw the reorganisation of the 88 infantry battalions and five pioneer regiments that had been established under the 1918 scheme, the abolition of infantry regiments and the re-establishment of the 60 infantry battalions that had existed within the AIF, as well as various other units, such as light horse regiments, as well. There was little support for compulsory military service amongst the public, however, and combined with the financial pressure that the government felt at that time to reduce defence spending, the 1920 recommendations were not fully implemented. Although the compulsory training scheme was retained, it was decided that it would only be focused on the more populated areas, essentially ending the scheme in rural areas. The result of this was that the course of only a year the strength of the Citizen Forces fell from 127,000 to only 37,000 in 1922. Throughout the 1920s, numbers decreased even further and although the divisional structure was maintained, it was little more than a skeleton force as units found their numbers dropping drastically. A group of standing men wearing World War I-era military uniformsSoldiers of the CMF 56th Battalion in 1937 In 1929, following the election of the Scullin Labor government, the compulsory training scheme was abolished and in its place a new system was introduced whereby the CMF would be maintained on a part-time, voluntary basis only. At this time it was also decided to change the name of the force to the Militia, as it was felt that the latter name implied voluntary service (rather than compulsory national service). The force would be based upon the five divisions of the old AIF, although it was decided to limit the overall number of units. This force would also be armed with modern weapons and equipment. That, at least, was the promise, however, in reality this never came to fruition and to a large extent they continued to be trained and equipped with 1914–18 equipment right up to and during World War II. The result of this change in recruitment policy was a huge drop in the size of the Army, as numbers fell by almost 20,000 in one year as there was little prospect for training and as the financial difficulties of the Great Depression began to be felt. As a result, in 1930 the decision was made to disband or amalgamate a number of units and five infantry battalions and two light horse regiments were removed from the order of battle. The following year, nine more infantry battalions were disbanded. Between 1929 and 1937, the number of soldiers within the Militia who could provide effective service was well below the force's actual on paper strength as many soldiers were unable to attend even a six-day annual camp out of fear of losing their civilian employment. Also, it has been estimated that up to 50 per cent of the Militia's other ranks were medically unfit. The numbers situation had become so tenuous that it was rare for a battalion to be able to field even 100 men during an exercise, so units accepted men that would not normally meet the medical requirements, indeed it has been stated that men who were "lame and practically blind" were allowed to join in an effort to improve numbers. To illustrate this, in 1936, the largest battalion—the 30th/51st Battalion—had just 412 personnel of all ranks, while the 11th/16th Battalion, which was the smallest, had only 156 men. Financially the Militia was neglected also. Despite the upturn in the economic situation in the early 1930s there was little financial respite for the Militia in this time. As the situation continued to improve, however, the defence vote was increased steadily after 1935. Indeed, in 1938 the government decided to double the strength of the Militia as war clouds began to loom on the horizon, and late in the year a recruiting campaign was launched that saw the size of the Militia increase from 35,000 to 43,000 men over the space of three months. This trend continued into 1939 and by midway through the year there were over 80,000 men serving on a part-time voluntary basis. Nevertheless, there was a serious shortage of equipment and as a result, when World War II broke out in September 1939 the Militia was by no means an effective fighting force and the nation as a whole was not as well prepared for war as it had been in 1914. ### World War II Following the outbreak of the war in Europe, the government's immediate response was to announce on 5 September 1939 that it would begin calling up 10,000 militiamen at a time to provide sixteen days continuous service manning guard posts at selected points around the country. This was later expanded on 15 September to include all of the Militia, in two drafts of 40,000 men, for one month's continuous training, however, the suspension on compulsory training introduced in 1929 was not amended until January 1940. On 5 September 1939 it was also announced that a division would be raised for overseas service, but there was still large-scale opposition to the concept of conscription and the provisions of the *Defence Act* still precluded conscripts from serving outside Australian territory, so it was announced that this force would be raised from volunteers only and would not be raised directly from the Militia. Conscripts, however, were required to serve in the Militia, with the result being that the Militia's ranks were filled with both volunteers and conscripts during this time. As was the case during World War I, many members of the Militia would go on to serve in the Second AIF. Nevertheless, for a period of time the government attempted to limit the number of militiamen transferring across to the AIF to build defences at home against concerns that Britain might not be able to fulfil its pledge to defend Singapore in the event of an attack there by the Japanese. As such, once again Australia maintained a policy of two armies. For the first two years Australia's involvement in the war was focused in overseas theatres in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, and during this time it was the AIF that was involved in the fighting overseas, while units of the Militia were used in garrison duties in Australia and New Guinea, then occupied by Australia. During this time, the Militia units came to be derided by the men of the AIF units, with militiamen sometimes being labelled as "chocolate soldiers" or "koalas". Militia soldiers of the 39th Battalion following their relief at Kokoda in September 1942 This changed dramatically, however, following the entry of Japan into the war on 8 December 1941, with the attack on Pearl Harbor and on the British forces in Malaya. Suddenly the war was brought much closer to Australia's borders, and there was a perception that Japan might attempt to invade the Australian mainland. In April 1942, following the loss of Malaya and Singapore and the subsequent Japanese landings in New Guinea, the possibility of invasion appeared much more real. Seeing the threat that the Japanese posed to British and Australian interests in the region, the government had begun to bring AIF units back from the Middle East. Nonetheless, the bulk of the forces immediately available for the defence of Australia came from the militia, which was at that stage an organisation of some 265,000 men organised into five infantry and two cavalry divisions. Despite earlier derision, a number of Militia units went on to perform with distinction during the Pacific War, especially in 1942, when they fought Japanese forces in New Guinea. As the situation in the Pacific worsened in July 1942 and the Japanese drove towards Port Moresby, members of the Militia found themselves on the front lines. As reinforcements were brought up from Australia, the Militia units that had been sent to New Guinea as garrison troops earlier in the war were called upon to fight a stubborn rearguard action on the Kokoda Track to delay the Japanese advance long enough for these reinforcements to arrive. At the same time, the Militia battalions of the 7th Brigade played a key role in the Battle of Milne Bay, when Australian and United States forces defeated the Japanese in a large-scale battle for the first time during the war. After 1940, use of the term "Militia" to describe the part-time military forces waned and by 1942 the term "Citizen Military Forces" (CMF) had become more common. Later in the war, the *Defence (Citizen Military Forces) Act 1943*, officially referring to the organisation as the CMF, was passed to change the law to allow the transfer of Militia or CMF units to the AIF, if 65 percent or more of their personnel had volunteered for overseas service. Additionally, changes to the Act meant that Militia units were able to serve anywhere south of the Equator in the South West Pacific Area (SWPA), excluding western Java and northern Borneo, and as a result of this, Militia units saw action against Japanese forces in the Dutch East Indies, at Merauke, later in the war. Despite these changes, the AIF remained the Australian Army's main combat force during the war and indeed more than 200,000 members of the Militia transferred to the AIF throughout the course of the conflict. Nevertheless, 32 Militia infantry battalions, later organised into three Militia divisions (3rd, 5th and 11th), saw service over much of the South West Pacific and participated in the following campaigns: Salamaua-Lae, Huon Peninsula, Finisterre Range, New Britain and Bougainville. ### Post World War II to the Vietnam War A CMF machine gun team during an exercise in 1952 Due to an overcommitment of resources early in the war, the Australian economy suffered badly from manpower shortages as early as 1942. As a result, the government began the demobilisation process before the war was over and, when it had finally come to an end, the government was very keen for the demobilisation process to be completed as quickly as possible. Defence issues were not given a high priority as people tried to rebuild their lives after the war and as such it was not until 1948 that the CMF was reformed. Subsequent reviews of defence policy and the strategic situation in South East Asia after the war had resulted in the formation of the Australian Regiment in 1948, the first regular infantry unit of the Australian Army. From that time on as tension within the region increased the strength of the Regular Army increased rapidly in contrast to the CMF, signifying if not an end to Australian military planners' reliance upon citizen soldiers, at least a shift in focus and a realisation of the mistakes that had been made prior to World War II. This would see the CMF providing a platform upon which the Army could mobilise in the event of a war. Initially, the plan had been for the CMF to be made up of 50,000 men organised into two divisions and other units, however, recruitment was unable to meet these targets as initially it was attempted to achieve this through voluntary enlistment. Indeed, in its first year of existence, the actual strength of the CMF was only 8,698 personnel, although this rose the following year to 16,202 and to 32,779 in 1950. In March 1951, a system of compulsory national service was re-established. The reintroduction of this conscription scheme saw the numbers of the CMF rise substantially but its management and administration required the allocation of a large number of resources and personnel from the Regular Army at a time when the army Regular Army already heavily committed in Korea and Malaya and so the scheme was suspended in 1959. This was a significant blow to the CMF and its strength fell by more than half in that year to 20,000 men. Further changes came with the introduction of the pentropic (five battle group) division into the Australian Army in 1960. This proved a disaster for the CMF, as wholesale changes were made and units removed from the order of battle. Seven artillery regiments were disbanded from an original total of 17, while 31 infantry battalions were reduced to 17. This excluded the University Regiments and the Papua New Guinea Volunteer Rifles which remained unchanged. The remaining battalions were later merged into just nine battalions. Meanwhile, the CMF armoured units had already been rationalised in 1957 and as a result the change to the pentropic structure mostly resulted in a change in role only, such as the 4th/19th Prince of Wales's Light Horse, which changed from an armoured unit to a reconnaissance regiment. The two CMF armoured brigade headquarters were also disbanded. | **Redesignation of CMF battalions as pentropic companies**(as at 1 July 1960) | | --- | | Pentropic battalion | CMF source battalion | Pentropic rifle company | | 1st Battalion, Royal Queensland Regiment | 9th Battalion (The Moreton Regiment)25th Battalion (The Darling Downs Regiment}47th Battalion (The Wide Bay Regiment)41st Battalion (The Byron Scottish Regiment) | A Company: The Moreton CompanyB Company: The Darling Downs CompanyC Company: Not UsedD Company: The Wide Bay CompanyE Company: The Byron Scottish Company | | 2nd Battalion, Royal Queensland Regiment | 51st Battalion (The Far North Queensland Regiment)31st Battalion (The Kennedy Regiment)42nd Battalion (The Capricornia Regiment) | A and B Companies: The Far North Queensland CompanyC Company: The Kennedy CompanyD and E Companies: The Capricornia Company | | 2nd Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment | 30th Battalion (The New South Wales Scottish Regiment)17th/18th Battalion (The North Shore Regiment)2nd Battalion (The City of Newcastle Regiment)13th Battalion (The Macquarie Regiment)6th Battalion (New South Wales Mounted Rifles) | A Company: The New South Wales Scottish CompanyB Company: The North Shore RegimentC Company: The City of Newcastle CompanyD Company: The Macquarie CompanyE Company: The Rifles CompanySupport Company: The Kuring Gai Company | | 3rd Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment | 45th Battalion (The St George Regiment)34th Battalion (The Illawarra Regiment)3rd Battalion (The Werriwa Regiment)4th Battalion (The Australian Rifles) | A Company: The St George CompanyB Company: The Illawarra CompanyC Company: The Werriwa CompanyD Company: The Australian Rifles CompanyE Company: The Riverina CompanySupport Company: The St George Company | | 1st Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment | 5th Battalion (The Victorian Scottish Regiment)6th Battalion (The Royal Melbourne Regiment)58th/32nd Battalion (The City of Essendon Regiment | A Company: The Scottish CompanyB Company: The Merri CompanyC Company: The Melbourne CompanyD Company: The Essendon CompanyE Company: The Footscray Company | | 2nd Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment | 8th/7th Battalion (The North Western Victorian Regiment)38th Battalion (The Northern Victorian Regiment)59th Battalion (The Hume Regiment) | A Company: The Geelong CompanyThe Ballarat CompanyC Company: The Sunraysia CompanyD Company: The Bendigo CompanyE Company The Goulburn Valley Company | | 1st Battalion, Royal Tasmania Regiment | 12th Battalion (The Launceston Regiment)40th Battalion (The Derwent Regiment) | A Company: The Launceston CompanyB Company: The Derwent Company | | 1st Battalion, Royal South Australia Regiment | 27th Battalion (The South Australian Scottish Regiment)43rd/48th Battalion (The Hindmarsh Regiment)10th Battalion (The Adelaide Rifles) | A Company: The South-East CompanyB Company: The River CompanyC Company: The Mid-North CompanyD Company: The Adelaide CompanyE Company: The Port Adelaide Company | | 1st Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment | 11th/44th Battalion (The City of Perth Regiment)16th Battalion (The Cameron Highlanders of Western Australia)28th Battalion (The Swan Regiment) | A Company: The City of Perth CompanyB Company: The Cameron CompanyC Company: The Swan CompanyD Company: The West Australian Rifles CompanyE Company: The North Coast Company | | Source: Palazzo 2001, p. 259 | At the same time, it was decided to amalgamate old local and regional regiments that had existed into six new multi-battalion state-based regiments. While the pentropic system eventually fell by the wayside, these regiments have endured, maintaining the battle honours of the previously existing Militia units that had perpetuated the units of the AIF and serving as a valuable link to the traditions and service of earlier units. Nevertheless, many CMF soldiers felt that the introduction of these regiments reduced the Army's links to the community due to the move away from the traditional regionally based system and as a result many of these soldiers chose to leave the organisation. In 1965, as the pentropic system was abandoned, a further re-organisation of the CMF was undertaken as existing battalions were reduced and additional battalions were raised in the more populous areas, namely in Queensland, Victoria and New South Wales. Concerns about the regional identity of these units were addressed by reintroducing the old numerical designations. In 1966, the Army authorised the raising of six remote area battalions, one in each state. These units offered special conditions of service for men who could not meet their training requirements through normal attendance due to their occupation or place of residence. Ultimately though the Tasmanian battalion was never formed. Two CMF Brigadiers examine a captured Type 56 assault rifle at Nui Dat. The subordinate relationship between the CMF and Regular Army was further underlined when the national service scheme was re-introduced in 1965, albeit in the guise of a selective ballot. Whereas previous incarnations of the system had not allowed for national servicemen to be sent overseas (within various definitions of that term), the new scheme was implemented with the express purpose of sending these recruits overseas as Australia's commitments in the region required a large-scale increase in the Army. Additionally, instead of being used to fill the ranks of the CMF, the scheme was essentially used to expand the Regular Army. Due to the terms of service, national servicemen were required to serve two years full-time in Regular Army units, after which they were required to serve a further three years in the CMF. Despite this, however, potential conscripts were given the option to voluntarily enlist in the CMF prior to their date of birth being announced, thus exempting them from being drafted for overseas service. Due to the desire of many to avoid being sent overseas, as a result of this option, it was estimated that by 1968 almost half of the 35,000 men in the CMF had joined to avoid being drafted. This led to a widespread public perception that the CMF was a refuge for "draft dodgers", and to the creation of an organisation in which the majority of its members had little or no motivation to fulfil their training obligations. Although this was not a universal experience, overall it affected the morale of the CMF and, coupled with the decision by the government not to activate CMF units for service in Vietnam, this led to a decline in genuine voluntary enlistment. To a large extent also, the government's decision to not use the CMF during this time highlighted the organisation's increasing structural irrelevance, and questions about the role that the CMF had to play in the defence of Australia would remain until following the end of the Vietnam War. Meanwhile, the last CMF armoured regiment gave up its tanks in 1971. ### Post Vietnam War to the new millennium When the Whitlam government came to power in late 1972, the CMF was in a very poor state. The new government moved quickly to end conscription, and this caused the CMF's strength to fall by roughly 5,000 to 23,119 by June 1973. In 1973 a committee of inquiry into the CMF was announced, under the chairmanship of Dr. T.B Millar and the subsequent report developed from this inquiry became known as the Millar Report. Far from being a vehicle of the Regular Army to denigrate the CMF as some opponents predicted, the report did much to highlight many of the conceptual and structural problems that the CMF was afflicted by at the time, however, the way in which the government chose to implement the recommendations, and indeed the way in which some of them were allowed to lapse, ultimately served to at least partially justify some of the cynicism voiced in certain CMF circles about the report. The committee found that the CMF was a hollow shell of its former self, depleted in numbers and in equipment and unable to adequately fulfil its tasks. However, it still found that there was a role for the CMF to play in the strategic environment that existed at the time, although it would no longer be called upon to provide the base upon which mobilisation in a time of war would be built, instead it would be used to augment the Regular Army. This was the first step in creating the concept of a total force, in which the differing virtues of the citizen soldier and the regular soldier would be used to complement each other, and in this vein the Millar Report recommended that the name be changed from the CMF to the Australian Army Reserve. Nevertheless, due to further cuts in defence spending and an eagerness of the government to implement those recommendations that could assist in achieving this goal, units that were unable to meet attendance requirements were disbanded or amalgamated with others, thus further diffusing the community links units had established in their local areas and thus further impacting upon recruitment and retention. Further, the decision was made to abolish the old CMF divisions, as the role of the Army Reserve would no longer be to act as a skeleton force that would be filled out upon mobilisation, but rather a force that could provide individual sub-units of capability should the need arise to augment the Regular Army. Centralisation of training was also a result of the Millar Report; beforehand, recruit training had been an *ad hoc* process managed mainly by the units themselves. Other issues such as pay and conditions of service, protection of civilian employment and recruitment and retention were touched upon but remained largely unaddressed until more recently. A member of the 9th Battalion, Royal Queensland Regiment during an exercise in 1999 Further reviews came in this time as Defence planners attempted to grapple with the questions regarding strategy following the wars of diplomacy of the previous three decades. The emergence of the Defence of Australia doctrine as the foundation upon which Australian defence policy would be based following Paul Dibb's 1986 review of Australia's defence capabilities seemed to provide the Reserves with a definite role. Nevertheless, there remained a reluctance to rebuild the Reserves and despite these major reviews, as late as the 1990s the Army still had not managed to develop a well-structured reserve force, as it had continued to grapple with the competing demands of maintaining large-scale general readiness over developing a 'hard core' of capability within the Reserves that would be able to provide the Army with a nucleus force in times of national emergency. In 1991, in an attempt to rectify this, the Ready Reserve scheme was established. Under this scheme the 6th Brigade, an existing Regular brigade based in Brisbane at the time, was converted to a Ready Reserve formation. The majority of the personnel were Reservists who undertook a period of twelve months full-time service before returning to normal Reserve status for a further four years. The scheme showed considerable promise. Nevertheless, due to cost constraints it was abolished in 1996 by the newly elected Howard government. By the time that the opening phases of the East Timor operation began in 1999, the issue regarding the purpose of the Army Reserve still had not been resolved. Instead of being able to provide formed units to augment the Regular Army, the Reserves was reduced to providing individuals for round-out purposes only. As a result, in the initial phase of the operation there were only 100 Reservists available to fill positions in INTERFET, mostly in specialist roles that the Regular Army had trouble providing. As the deployment progressed to a second rotation in April 2000, however, a further 630 Reservists volunteered for full-time service. Members of the 5th/6th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment marching on ANZAC day 2006 The deployment to East Timor highlighted the limits of the Australian Defence Force and the need for an Army Reserve that could effectively provide deployable capabilities and individuals to round-out to the Regular Army in times of heavy operational commitment. As such, in late 2000 the government did what many governments had toyed with since the formation of the citizen force almost a hundred years earlier: enacting legislation that enabled the call-up of Reservists to full-time service in circumstances that fell short of a full scale defence emergency, thereby allowing their deployment overseas, while also protecting their employment and providing remuneration to employers. The continuing high operational tempo of the Army after East Timor further emphasised the need to develop the capability of the Army Reserve. Since then increasing numbers of Reservists have been deployed overseas in varying capacities as well as undertaking periods of full-time service in Australia to maintain capabilities within Regular units heavily committed to deployments to Iraq, Afghanistan, East Timor and the Solomon Islands. In lower intensity areas, such as East Timor and the Solomon Islands, formed units of Reservists raised from personnel drawn from many units, have been deployed on peacekeeping duties to relieve the pressure being placed upon the Regular Army and allowing them to focus on the higher intensity combat zones in Iraq and Afghanistan. In addition to this Australian Army Reserve units have been deployed on border security duties with the Royal Australian Navy as part of Operation Relex, as well as participating regularly in multinational exercises such as Rifle Company Butterworth. As such, the role of the Army Reserve now encompasses the '3 Rs'—that is reinforcement, round-out and rotation. With a total strength in 2005–06 of just 15,579 active personnel, recruitment and retention remain an ongoing issue for Defence planners, nevertheless Reservists continue to have a high training obligation. Since September 2006, in an incentive to rectify sliding retention rates, Reservist salaries have been streamlined with those of regular forces as a reflection of overall higher standard of training. This initiative shows that in recent decades, there are now many positions for which there is little training gap at all between Reservists and Permanent Force members. In 2008–09 total strength included 17,064 active personnel. In addition there were another 12,496 members of the Standby Reserve. In late 2008 a company from the 1st Commando Regiment became the first formed Army Reserve unit to see combat since World War II when it was deployed to Afghanistan as part of the Australian Special Operations Task Group. The initial deployment proved problematic however, with a subsequent inquiry finding that the company had received less support for its pre-deployment preparations than was typical for regular units and that its training was inadequate. The 1st Commando Regiment contributed forces to several other Special Operations Task Group rotations. Between 2004 and 2017 a total of approximately 2,400 Army Reserve personnel have deployed on operations. ### Plan Beersheba reforms Main article: Plan Beersheba An 8th Brigade soldier during an exercise in 2016 in which the brigade formed Battle Group Waratah to operate alongside the regular 7th Brigade; such a pairing is a key feature of the Plan Beersheba reforms In 2011, the Army Reserve's role and structure began being reformed under the Plan Beersheba reorganisation of the Army. The Army has stated that the reserves' role will become "to deliver specified capability and support and sustain Australian Defence Force (ADF) preparedness and operations". As part of this reform, the six Army Reserve brigades are being paired with the regular brigades. The 4th and 9th Brigades will partner with the 1st Brigade, the 5th and 8th Brigades with the 7th Brigade, and the 11th and 13th Brigades with the 3rd Brigade. The pairs of Army Reserve brigades will be expected to be able to provide a battalion-sized force upon mobilisation during the regular brigade's 12 month 'ready' phase. The structure of the reserve brigades is also being altered. The reserve artillery regiments will be re-equipped with mortars; the reserve Royal Australian Armoured Corps units will convert from light cavalry to producing crews for Bushmaster Protected Mobility Vehicles, and a brigade operational supply company will be established within each of the combat services support battalions. Current structure ----------------- Main article: Structure of the Australian Army ### Components The Australian Army Reserve currently consists of the following components: * Standby Reserve * Active Reserve These components are basically categories of service, which are determined by the level of training obligation and commitment that a member is required to meet. ### 2nd Division Main article: 2nd Division (Australia) The majority of Australian Army Reserve units are under the command of the 2nd Division in six state-based brigades. There are also many Reservists serving on full-time service within Regular Army units, performing the same roles and under the same pay and conditions as Regular soldiers. 2nd Division is currently made up of the following units: * Headquarters, 2nd Division (Randwick Barracks, NSW) * 8th Signal Regiment (HQ at Randwick Barracks, NSW) + 141st Signal Squadron (Gallipoli Barracks in Brisbane and Lavarack Barracks in Townsville) + 142nd Signal Squadron (Holsworthy Barracks in Liverpool) + 143rd Signal Squadron (HMAS Harman in Canberra) + 144th Signal Squadron (Keswick Barracks in Adelaide and Derwent Barracks in Hobart) + 108th Signal Squadron (Simpson Barracks in Melbourne) + 109th Signals Squadron (Irwin Barracks in Perth) + Operational Support Squadron (Randwick Barracks in Sydney) * 9th Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery, (HQ at Kogarah Barracks, NSW) + 2nd/10th Light Battery (HQ in Melbourne, Vic) + 3rd Light Battery (HQ at Irwin Barracks, WA) + 5th/11th Light Battery (HQ at Lavarack Barracks, Qld) + 6th/13th Light Battery (HQ at Keswick Barracks, SA) + 7th Light Battery (HQ in Dee Why, NSW) + 23rd Light Battery (HQ at Kogarah Barracks, NSW) * Regional Force Surveillance Group + 51st Battalion, Far North Queensland Regiment (HQ at Cairns, Queensland) + North-West Mobile Force (HQ at Larrakeyah Barracks, NT) + Pilbara Regiment (HQ at Taylor Barracks, WA) * 4th Brigade – Victoria and Tasmania + Headquarters 4th Brigade + 4th/19th Prince of Wales's Light Horse, Royal Australian Armoured Corps + 5th/6th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment + 8th/7th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment + 12th/40th Battalion, Royal Tasmanian Regiment + 22nd Engineer Regiment + 4th Combat Service Support Battalion * 5th Brigade – New South Wales + Headquarters 5th Brigade + 1st/15th Royal New South Wales Lancers + 1st/19th Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment + 2nd/17th Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment + 4th/3rd Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment + 41st Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment + 5th Engineer Regiment + 5th Combat Service Support Battalion + 8th Combat Service Support Battalion * 8th Brigade – Training + Headquarters 8th Brigade + Melbourne University Regiment + Sydney University Regiment + Adelaide Universities Regiment + University of New South Wales Regiment + Queensland University Regiment + Western Australia University Regiment * 9th Brigade – South Australia + Headquarters 9th Brigade + 3rd/9th Light Horse (South Australian Mounted Rifles) + 10th/27th Battalion, Royal South Australia Regiment + 3rd Field Squadron, Royal Australian Engineers + 9th Combat Service Support Battalion * 11th Brigade – Queensland + Headquarters 11th Brigade + 9th Battalion, Royal Queensland Regiment + 25th/49th Battalion, Royal Queensland Regiment + 31st/42nd Battalion, Royal Queensland Regiment + 11th Engineer Regiment + 11th Combat Services Support Battalion + 12th/16th Hunter River Lancers * 13th Brigade – Western Australia + Headquarters 13th Brigade + 10th Light Horse Regiment + 11th/28th Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment + 16th Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment + 13th Engineer Regiment + 13th Combat Service Support Battalion ### Other Reserve units Commandos from 1st Commando Company parachute with inflatable boats from an RAAF C-130H into Shoalwater Bay during an exercise in 2001 The following units are reserve units within integrated (mixed regular army and reserve) formations: * 6th Brigade + C Company, 1st Military Police Battalion * 17th Sustainment Brigade + 2nd Force Support Battalion (HQ at Derwent Barracks, Tasmania) * 2nd Brigade + 3rd Health Battalion (HQ at Keswick Barracks, SA) * Special Operations Command + 1st Commando Regiment (HQ at Randwick Barracks, NSW) * flagMilitary history of Australia portal Bibliography ------------ * "Exciting Times Ahead for Our Army". *Army: The Soldiers' Newspaper* (1398 ed.). 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Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, Volume XI (7th ed.). Sydney, New South Wales: Angus and Robertson. ISBN 0-7022-2147-3. OCLC 152414976. * Shaw, Peter (2010). "The Evolution of the Infantry State Regiment System in the Army Reserve". *Sabretache*. **LI** (4 (December)). Garran, Australian Capital Territory: Military Historical Society of Australia: 5–12. ISSN 0048-8933. * Shephard, Allan (1992). *Australian Defence Statistics 1972–1992*. Issues Brief. Vol. 20. Canberra: Department of the Parliamentary Library. OCLC 221762314. * Stanley, Peter (2008). *Invading Australia: Japan and the Battle for Australia, 1942*. Melbourne, Victoria: Penguin Group (Australia). ISBN 978-0-670-02925-9. * Thomson, Mark; Davies, Andrew (2008). *ADF Capability Review: Australian Army*. ASPI Policy Analysis. Vol. 25. Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute. OCLC 682903485. * Thompson, Peter (2008). *Pacific Fury: How Australia and Her Allies Defeated the Japanese Scourge*. Sydney, New South Wales: William Heinemann. ISBN 978-1-74166-708-0. * Wilcox, Craig (1998). *For Hearths and Homes: Citizen Soldiering in Australia 1854–1945*. St Leonards, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86448-700-3.

Dominican writer **Félix Evaristo Mejía** (September 27, 1866 – July 1, 1945) was a Dominican Republic writer, diplomat, and educator. He was a member of the Union Nationalist group representing an important role in the struggle for Dominican sovereignty against United States military intervention (1916–1924). In the Superior Institute of Teacher Education Salomé Ureña there is a site that bears his name. Early life ---------- Mejía was born on September 26, 1866, in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. He studied at the Colegio San Luis Gonzaga, from where he went to the School of Santo Domingo, becoming director of the latter, a position he held subsequently in public education. In 1884, he went into exile in Caracas, Venezuela, in opposition to the dictatorial Ulises Heureaux. In Venezuela, he devoted himself to teaching, shortly after returning to the Dominican Republic, where he continued his career as a teacher. Career ------ In 1890, on his return to Santo Domingo he had to replace his teacher Eugenio Maria de Hostos in the direction as head of the school. As the general superintendent of education, Félix Evaristo had the opportunity to contribute his ideas to the progress of Dominican culture during the period characterized by violence, uncertainty and growing political and economic aggression by the United States in the country. School organization of the time and its relative expansion is due largely to his activity with secular and positivist orientation of Hostos guy who had bequeathed Hostos. Also, many of his published mainly in the fields of history and literature, as well as its activity as an organizer and owner of the first Dominican library, the Library Selecta, works especially addressed his heartfelt desire to fill bibliographic needs as a means of contributing to the intellectual and moral formation of the Dominican youth. Personal life ------------- Mejía was married to Natalia Pérez Ricart, with whom he had three children; Ofelia, Gustavo and Publio. His son Gustavo was also a prominent Dominican writer.

Battle of the Alexandrian War, Caesar vs Ptolemy XIII | * v * t * e Alexandrian war | | --- | | * 1st Alexandria * 2nd Alexandria * Eptastadio * Canope * Pelusium * Camp of the Jews * Nile | | * v * t * e Caesar's civil war | | --- | | Italy * Corfinium * Brundisium Spain * Massilia (land) * Ilerda * Massilia (naval) * Tauroento * Carteia * Munda * Corduba * Lauro Macedonia and Illyricum * Curicta * Tauris * Caesar's invasion of Macedonia + Oricum + Dyrrhachium + Gomphi + Pharsalus Egypt and Asia * Nicopolis * Alexandrian war + Alexandria + Nile * Zela * Apamea Africa * Utica * Bagradas * Caesar's invasion of Africa + Ruspina + Ascurum + Thapsus + Hippo Regius | The **siege of Alexandria** was a series of skirmishes and battles occurring between the forces of Julius Caesar, Cleopatra VII, Arsinoe IV, and Ptolemy XIII, between 48 and 47 BC. During this time Caesar was engaged in a civil war against remaining Republican forces. The siege was lifted by relief forces arriving from Syria. After a battle contesting those forces' crossing of the Nile delta, Ptolemy XIII and Arsinoe's forces were defeated. Events ------ Further information: Caesar's civil war, Alexandrian war, Early life of Cleopatra VII, and Reign of Cleopatra VII ### Prelude After the Battle of Pharsalus, Pompey abandoned his defeated army and fled with his advisors overseas to Mytilene and thence to Cilicia where he held a council of war. Pompey's council of war decided to flee to Egypt, which had in the previous year supplied him with military aid. Upon his arrival in Egypt, he was murdered by Achillas and Lucius Septimius, former soldiers in his army, under the orders of the eunuch Pothinus and Theodotus of Chios, advisors of the King Ptolemy who believed Caesar would be pleased by the removal of his adversary. Caesar landed in Alexandria three days after Pompey's death with some three thousand men and eight hundred Germanic auxiliary horse, arrogantly occupying parts of the Alexandrian royal quarter. Caesar was horrified, or pretended to be so, at the murder of Pompey, and wept for his one-time ally and son-in-law. He demanded a ten million denarii payment towards a debt of Ptolemy's father, Ptolemy XII Auletes, and declared his intention to mediate the dispute between Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra VII. ### Start of the siege After the payment demand, Pothinus sent secret orders summoning Achillas and an army of some twenty thousand men to Alexandria, where they besieged and then launched an all-out attack on the Royal Quarter. Initial fighting was fierce, with an accidental fire spreading to the famous Library of Alexandria, though damage to the library was likely minimal. During the siege, Cleopatra secreted herself into the Royal Quarter and eventually became Caesar's lover. Around the time the relationship started, Caesar also declared that he viewed Ptolemy XII Auletes's will to invest both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII with joint rule over the kingdom. Ptolemy XIII was not impressed with the decision, "probably already aware that his sister was closer to the Roman consul [Caesar] than he could ever be" and incited a Alexandrian riot against Caesar. After one of Caesar's slaves discovered communications between Pothinus and the besiegers, Caesar had Pothinus executed. Meanwhile, Arsinoe IV, the younger sister of Ptolemy, escaped from Caesar and joined the Egyptian army, which proclaimed her queen. She arranged successfully with her eunuch tutor Ganymede the murder of Achillas and then assumed command of the army, renewing the siege. Caesar's water supplies were contaminated, forcing him to dig wells. Reinforcements from his Thirty-seventh legion, a former Pompeian formation, also then arrived by sea bringing supplies and artillery. ### Naval battle Soon after the siege began Caesar made a sally against the Great Harbor and burned the Alexandrian fleet, damaging the Great Library in the process. Ganymedes ordered the Alexandrians to repair as many ships as possible. They readied 27 warships for battle. Caesar unwilling to give up his naval superiority drew up his own fleet, 19 warships and 15 smaller vessels, in two lines just north of the coast of Pharos Island. Ganymedes sailed out from the Eunostos Harbor and formed two lines opposite Caesar's fleet. Between the two fleets were shoals, a narrow channel being the only way through. Both sides eventually held their position, neither wanting to make the initial move. Euphranor, the commander of Caesar's Rhodian allies, convinced Caesar that he and his men could push through and hold for long enough to let the rest of the fleet pass through the channel. Four Rhodian ships sailed through the channel and formed a line against the Alexandrian ships rapidly closing in, delaying them long enough for the rest of Caesar's fleet to pass through. With the channel to his back Caesar needed to win because retreat would be disastrous. Though the Alexandrians were excellent sailors the Romans had a deciding advantage: because of the proximity of the coast and the shoals there was little room for manoeuvre. The ships were forced into close combat, something the Romans excelled at. Two Alexandrian ships were captured, three more were sunk, and the rest fled back to the Eunostos. ### Battle for Pharos After winning the battle for naval supremacy Caesar turned his attention to Pharos Island. The island was crucial for controlling access into the harbors and was linked to the mainland through a bridge, the Heptastadium, connected by two moles, one from the island and one from the mainland. Caesar had stationed a small garrison on the northeastern part of the island opposite the Lighthouse of Alexandria. He ordered ten cohorts of legionaries, some light infantry and his Gallic cavalry to board their transports and led them on an amphibious assault of the island while his garrison on the island attacked the Alexandrians simultaneously. After a hard-fought battle the Alexandrians retreated from the island. Caesar fortified defences around the bridge controlling access to the Pharos, the Alexandrians doing the same on the mainland. The bridge had a large arch through which the Alexandrians could send ships to attack Caesar's transports. To stop the Alexandrians from doing this Caesar needed to take control of the bridge. The day after taking the island he sent several ships with archers and artillery to clear the bridge and he then landed with three cohorts on the bridge. He ordered his men to start constructing a rampart on the bridge while men from the Pharos brought up stones to block the arch. The Alexandrians suddenly launched a two-pronged counterattack by land and sea to take the bridge back. Caesar's captains decided to take the initiative themselves by landing archers and slingers on the bridge to fend off the enemy ships. The Alexandrians, however, landed their troops behind them and attacked them from the rear. Caesar's light troops were quickly outfought by the heavily armed Alexandrian soldiers. Caesar was now caught in a pincer and ordered his troops to withdraw to their transports. In the panic, Caesar's craft was swamped by soldiers, forcing him to remove his armour and then swim to shore, holding his left hand above water to save some important documents. The battle ended in defeat; although Pharos Island was still in Caesar's hands, the bridge was not. He had lost some eight hundred men (about half legionnaires and half sailors) but morale remained high and Caesar's men continued to repulse enemy attacks. ### Arrival of relief army Soon after the skirmish for Pharos, a deputation from the Alexandrians asked Caesar to exchange Arsinoe for Ptolemy XIII, claiming a general weariness with the despotic rule of Arsinoe and Ganymede. Ptolemy XIII, feigning fear of being sent away, was released; he promptly joined his sister and urged his soldiers to continue the attack on Caesar. Contemporaries viewed this in satirical terms, saying "Caesar's excessive kindness was made absurd by the deceit of a boy". Renewed assaults on Roman positions were unsuccessful. The situation began to turn in Caesar's favour when news reached him in March 47 BC of a relief force arriving overland from Syria under Mithridates of Pergamum at the head of an allied army with a detachment of three thousand Jews contributed by High Priest Hyrcanus II and led by Antipater the Idumaean. The Jewish detachment encouraged the Jewish population of Alexandria to become more sympathetic to Caesar and after Mithridates' forces stormed Pelusium, Ptolemy XIII's forces redeployed east to contest Mithridates' crossing of the Nile. Sources ------- * Beard, Mary (2015). *SPQR: a history of ancient Rome* (1st ed.). New York. ISBN 978-0-87140-423-7. OCLC 902661394.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) * Goldsworthy, Adrian (2006). *Caesar: Life of a Colossus*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13919-8. * Rawson, Elizabeth (1992). "Caesar: Civil War and Dictatorship". *Cambridge Ancient History*. Vol. 9. ISBN 0-521-25603-8. * Tempest, Kathryn (2017). *Brutus: the noble conspirator*. New Haven. ISBN 978-0-300-18009-1. OCLC 982651923.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) | * v * t * e Julius Caesar | | --- | | Major life events | * Early life and career * First Triumvirate * Gallic wars * Caesar's civil war + Crossing the Rubicon * Assassination | | Military campaigns | * Mytilene | | | | --- | --- | | Gallic Wars | * Arar * Bibracte * Vosges * Axona * Sabis * Atuatuci * Octodurus * Invasions of Britain * Ambiorix's revolt * Avaricum * Gergovia * Alesia * Uxellodunum | | Civil War | * Corfinium * Brundisium * Ilerda * Dyrrhachium * Pharsalus * Alexandrian war + Siege + Battle of the Nile * Zela * Ruspina * Corduba * Thapsus * Munda | * Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire | | Legislation | * *Lex Julia de maiestate* * *Lex Roscia* * Constitutional reforms * *Dictator perpetuo* | | Works | * *Laudatio Iuliae amitae* * *Anticato* * *Commentarii de Bello Civili* * *Commentarii de Bello Gallico* * *De analogia* * Poems by Julius Caesar | | Quotes | * *Alea iacta est* * *Veni, vidi, vici* * *Ut est rerum omnium magister usus* * Last words | | Buildings | * Forum of Caesar * Curia Julia * Basilica Julia * Temple of Venus Genetrix * Caesar's Rhine bridges | | Portraits | * Tusculum portrait * Chiaramonti Caesar * Green Caesar * Arles bust | | Family | | | | | --- | --- | | Wives | * Cossutia (disputed) * Cornelia * Pompeia * Calpurnia | | Children | * Julia * Caesarion * Augustus (adopted) | | Other | * Gaius Julius Caesar (father) * Aurelia (mother) * Julia Major (sister) * Julia Minor (sister) | | | Legacy | * *Life of Caesar* by Plutarch * Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar * Temple of Caesar * Caesar's Comet * Caesarism * Julio-Claudian dynasty * Caesar (title) | | Related | * Julia gens * Mark Antony * Cleopatra * Servilia * Marcus Junius Brutus * Curia of Pompey | | * **Category** | | Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata | | --- | | International | * FAST | | National | * Spain * Israel * United States |

An **Annual Dry Season Offensive** is a type of low intensity warfare typically practiced by national governments against ethnic insurgent groups fighting for independence or autonomy. This type of warfare usually occurs in countries with poor transportation infrastructure and a climate that makes fighting battles or even holding territory during parts of the year very difficult. Such an offensive is carried out by central states that for geographical, political, financial and historical reasons must restrict troop movement and supply to the dry season. Central Government forces usually move out of well-established base areas into insurgent territory where they attempt to take and hold as much territory as possible while inflicting as many casualties as possible on the insurgent army. The army will also typically inflict as much material damage as possible in areas supporting the insurgency. The offensive also typically extends to collective punishments of the civilian population of the country. At the end of the offensive, the army gives back all of the territory taken and returns to its base areas until the next dry season. The strategy behind Annual Dry Season Offensives is to slowly wear down an insurgency or to at least contain it. It can also prevent insurgent groups from gaining de facto independence from the government. The strategy has never on its own defeated an insurgent movement, but it can pressure insurgent groups into political negotiations. It is often used against groups that demand independence from a central government and have a large base of local ethnic support. The governments of Burma and the Sudan currently engage in annual dry season offensives. Cambodia and Vietnam have engaged in such offensives during their war against Cambodian insurgent groups in the past. North Vietnam historically engaged in such offensives during a proxy war between irregular groups in Laos during the Vietnam War.

A century ride in Illinois A **century ride** is a road cycling ride of 100 kilometers or more in metric system countries or 100 miles (160.9 km) or more in imperial system countries, usually as a cycling club-sponsored event. Many cycling clubs sponsor an annual century ride as both a social event for cyclists and as a fund-raiser for the club’s other activities. The origins of the century ride are obscure, but Dora Rinehart did century rides in Denver, Colorado in the 1890s. The TOSRV began in 1962 with two riders. The Rideau Lakes Cycle Tour started in 1972 with eighty riders. The Apple Cider Century dates back to 1974. Ride lengths ------------ Club-sponsored century rides typically offer several options for cyclists of varying abilities, such as… * Quarter century, 25 km (mi) * Half century, 50 km (mi) * Double century, 200 km (mi) Double century rides are usually scheduled near the summer solstice to take advantage of the longer daylight hours, and begin at or before dawn. The term **Imperial century** is sometimes used outside the United States and United Kingdom to indicate that 100 miles in imperial system is used instead of the implied 100 kilometers in metric system. The term **Metric century** is used inside the United States and United Kingdom to indicate that 100 kilometers (62.13 miles) is being ridden. A double metric is the shortest distance in randonneuring, long distance rides in multiples of 100k. Unlike centuries, riders in a randonneuring event, or brevet, pass through checkpoints on the route insuring that the entire route is being completed. Amateur brevets are generally a test of endurance, rather than speed. Brevets also differ from centuries in being self-supported, riders either carrying or purchasing supplies along the route. Sponsorship ----------- A *sanctioned* century ride is organized and conducted under the rules and liability protection of a sanctioning organization, such as the League of American Bicyclists. Sanctioned rides typically have rest stops every 25 miles or so, where water, food and toilets are available for cyclists. On a *supported* century ride, the route is patrolled by a sag wagon to assist riders with bicycle maintenance, or provide transportation back to the starting line for those unable to ride the entire course. Sanctioned rides are almost always supported. North America ------------- The larger, more unusual and better known annual century rides in the United States and Canada include: * El Tour de Tucson in Tucson, Arizona in November, as many as 9,000 riders. * Apple Cider Century in southwestern Michigan in late September, as many as 5000 riders. * Hotter'N Hell Hundred in Wichita Falls, Texas, with some 14,000 cyclists in 2009. * Ride Around Mount Rainier in One Day (RAMROD), hosted by the Redmond Bicycle Club in Enumclaw, Washington. * Seattle to Portland Bicycle Classic (STP), hosted by the Cascade Bicycle Club, with as many as 10,000 riders every July. * Tour of the Scioto River Valley (TOSRV) in Columbus, Ohio, organized by Columbus Outdoor Pursuits, which drew about 3000 cyclists in May 2011 for the two-day, 210-mile round-trip to Portsmouth. * Rideau Lakes Cycle Tour (RLCT), Ottawa to Kingston and back, 2000 to 2500 riders. A rest stop at a sanctioned century ride in Oregon. Many multiple-day group rides include a century ride in one or more segments of the course. For example, the Ride for AIDS Chicago in Illinois is a two-day, 200-mile charity ride in which cyclists complete the first century on Day 1 and the second on Day 2. Ride the Rockies in Colorado often includes at least one century-optional day, as a detour from the shorter main route, as does the Bicycle Ride Across Georgia. The Register's Annual Great Bike Ride Across Iowa, better known as Ragbrai, has included a century day every year since 1973. Other countries --------------- There are Imperial centuries in the UK, while in Ireland and Europe there are metric and double metric events.

Tutelary god of Carchemish **Karhuha** (Karḫuḫa), also known as **Karḫuḫi**, was the tutelary god of the ancient city of Carchemish. He was associated with deer, and it is presumed his character was similar to that of Hittite Kurunta. He is first attested in texts from the second half of the second millennium BCE, and there is no agreement among researchers if he was a Hurrian god in origin or if similarly to closely associated goddess Kubaba he predated Hurrian control over the region. He appears in a variety of Hittite and Luwian texts, and continued to be worshiped through the first millennium BCE. Name, character and iconography ------------------------------- Karhuha's name was written as *dKar-ḫu-ḫa* or *dKar-ḫu-u-ḫi-iš* in cuneiform, reflecting the spelling Karḫuḫa, with a variant form Karḫuḫi, but the breves are often omitted in modern literature. The name could also be represented by the logogram dLAMMA and analogously by CERVUS in Luwian hieroglyphs, which according to Piotr Taracha might have resulted in portraying Karhuha as a god standing on a stag, similar to Kurunta, also represented by these symbols in writing. Volkert Haas outright describes these two deities as identical. Alfonso Archi accepts some of their characteristics might have been similar, but argues they should be kept separate, and points out they were worshiped separately in Malatya. The character of Karhuha has been described as warlike. It has also been argued that he was associated with game animals. On a limestone stela discovered in Malatya, Karhuha, identified by name by the accompanying hieroglyphic Luwian inscription, is portrayed as an armed deity, with a curved blade hanging from his belt, a spear in his right hand and an unidentified three-pronged object in his left hand. Since depictions of many Luwian gods with the last of these attributes are known, it is unlikely to be a symbolic representation of lightning, as sometimes suggested, and might instead be a type of plant. He stands on a lion, while the other deity depicted on the same object, Kubaba, stands on a stag, which apparently represents an exchange of symbolic animals between them. Worship ------- Karhuha is first attested in sources of from the middle of the fourteenth century BCE. Gianni Marchesi and Nicolò Marchetti maintain that he was a Hurrian deity in origin, and that he entered the local pantheon of Carchemish when it came under the control of the Mitanni Empire. However, according to Alfonso Archi, similarly to Kubaba he predated the period of Hurrian control over this city. They were the two main local deities. Archi assumes they were envisioned as a couple. Karhuha functioned as the city god, but due to lack of attestations predating the second half of the second millennium BCE, it is not likely that he can be identified with Il-Karkamis ("the god of Carchemish"), a byname of a deity associated with Carchemish in the Old Babylonian period. Most likely, at the time the tutelary god of the city was instead Mesopotamian Nergal. The dLAMMA deity mentioned in *Deeds of Šuppiluliuma I* is presumed to be Karhuha. This text states that the king restored the temples of said god and Kubaba. An inscription of one of the first millennium BCE kings of Carchemish, Katuwa (reigned c. 880 BCE) mentions a procession involving Karhuha and Kubaba. Another text from his reign mentions offerings made to both of these deities and Tarhunza. A curse formula invokes this group of three alongside the sun, the moon and Parakaras, presumed to be a late form of Pinikir, possibly functioning as a representation of Venus in this context. A different curse formula invoking Karhuha, Kubaba and Santa has also been identified on an unprovenanced bowl fragment. Karhuha is mentioned alongside Kubaba among the foreign (ie. non-Mesopotamian) deities invoked in a section of the treaty between the Assyrian king Ashur-nirari V and Mati-El, the Aramean ruler of Arpad in Bit Agusi. Mythology --------- Alfonso Archi suggests that the Hurrian myth *Song of dLAMMA* originated in Carchemish, possibly specifically during the period when the city was under Mitanni control, and involved Karhuha, though he presumed that in the known Hittite version of dLAMMA was read as Kurunta, similarly to how Tarḫunna served as a stand-in for Teshub. In this composition, a god designated by the logogram dLAMMA temporarily becomes the king of the gods after defeating Teshub and Shaushka, but eventually proves to be unsuitable for this position, and after ignoring Kubaba's suggestion he is deposed, and later ends up subjugated by the weather god he displaced earlier.

British former artistic gymnast **Imogen Jayne Cairns** (born 26 January 1989) is a British former artistic gymnast who competed at the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics. Representing England, Cairns was a three-time Commonwealth Games champion in vault, twice, and in floor exercise. Senior career ------------- ### 2006 In March, Cairns competed for England at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, Australia. She contributed an all-around score of 54.800 towards the English team's second-place finish and won the vault final with a score of 14.325. The next month, she competed at the European Women's Artistic Gymnastics Championships in Volos, Greece. The British team placed seventh, and Cairns placed eighth on vault with a score of 13.850. At the British Championships in Guildford, England, in July, Cairns placed fourth in the all-around with a score of 54.900. In event finals, she placed second on vault, scoring 13.450; third on uneven bars, scoring 13.500; fourth on balance beam, scoring 14.100; and second on floor exercise, scoring 14.250. In November, Cairns placed fifth on vault at the Artistic Gymnastics World Cup event in Glasgow with a score of 14.012. In December, she placed seventh on vault, scoring 14.037, at the World Cup event in São Paulo, Brazil. ### 2007 Cairns broke her wrist in April 2007 and was in a cast for twelve weeks. After recovering from that injury, she broke her ankle. Her coach, Liz Kincaid, said, "Imogen was vaulting with a wrist support on and noticed during her hurdle step that the support had come undone. She tried to pull up and crashed into the vault and broke her ankle." These injuries caused Cairns to miss the 2007 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships. ### 2008 In April, Cairns placed fifth on vault at the World Cup event in Maribor, Slovenia, with a score of 13.775. After the event, she said, "I know internationally most people thought I had retired. Sorry, got me for a little while longer! Even in Great Britain, people thought I had finished. I find it hilarious." At the British Championships in Guildford in June, Cairns placed fourth in the all-around with a score of 55.650. In event finals, she placed first on vault, scoring 14.200; second on balance beam, scoring 14.900; and first on floor, scoring 14.550. She was named as an alternate for the 2008 Summer Olympics, and made the team after Laura Jones was injured. #### Beijing Olympics Having stepped in to replace Jones, Cairns competed at the 2008 Olympics in Beijing alongside teammates Becky Downie, Marissa King, Beth Tweddle, Hannah Whelan, and Rebecca Wing. She helped the British team finish in ninth place and finished 33rd in the individual all-around with a score of 57.050. After the Olympics, Cairns injured both her ankles while practising on vault. She said, "I rolled both my ankles—the bones weren't snapped, but everything else was. I was out for at least eighteen months with that injury. I had drilling of the bone, two operations on each ankle, and I couldn't walk properly for six months. Ever since, they've been good, but they will never be great. Every now and then they are too painful and I can't train. I have to have injections to numb my ankles, and I've been told I'll have arthritis in them by the time I'm 30." ### 2009 Cairns decided to return to training in 2009. She said, "I thought about quitting because I was out for so long. I put on a bit of weight and got my social life back and I thought, 'This is it.' But when your whole life has been gymnastics, you do miss it. I thought, 'I have nothing to lose if I try to come back.' It was just pure determination. I wanted to do it." ### 2010 At the British Championships in Guildford in July, Cairns placed fifth in the all-around with a score of 54.550. She won the vault final, scoring 14.000, and placed fourth on balance beam (13.200) and floor (13.650). She said about her return to gymnastics, "I thought that getting to the Olympics in 2008 would satisfy me, but having battled through injury, I just have something inside me that tells me I have much more to give. Having been through the highs of the Olympics and lows of injury, I can honestly say I now take things step by step. I learn from successes and setbacks, and put these to good use. I think I've matured, and I set myself personal goals." At the beginning of October, Cairns competed for England at the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi, India. She contributed an all-around score of 53.500 towards the English team's second-place finish. In the all-around final, she placed fourth with a score of 54.650. "One year ago, I didn't think I'd be able to train again," she said. "I think I was only just getting back to walking. Gymnastics just wasn't in the equation until my surgeon said that anything I did to my feet couldn't make them worse—so I decided to go for it again." In event finals, Cairns placed first on vault, scoring 13.775; eighth on balance beam, scoring 11.950; and first on floor, scoring 14.200. After the vault final, she said, "The gold today perhaps means more this time around, having been injured in both feet after the Beijing Olympics and being off for 15 months." Later in October, Cairns competed at the 2010 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships in Rotterdam. She contributed a vault score of 14.633, a balance beam score of 11.833, and a floor score of 14.033 towards the British team's seventh-place finish, and placed eighth in the vault final with a score of 13.999. In November, Cairns won the vault final at the World Cup event in Stuttgart, Germany, with a score of 13.937, and placed second on vault at the World Cup event in Glasgow with a score of 13.875. ### 2011 At the British Teams competition in Guildford in May, Cairns contributed scores of 12.900 on vault, 11.650 on balance beam, and 12.500 on floor toward The Academy's fifth-place finish. In July, she competed at the British Championships in Liverpool, placing first on vault (13.925) and third on balance beam (13.450). At the 2011 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships in Tokyo in October, she contributed a vault score of 14.133 and a floor score of 13.700 towards the British team's fifth-place finish. ### 2012 In May, Cairns was set to compete at the 2012 European Championships but was replaced with teammate Ruby Harrold to allow Cairns more time to recuperate from minor injuries. At the beginning of June, Cairns competed with gymnasts from Finland and Spain at a friendly meet in Ipswich, which also served as the second British Olympic trial. She placed fifth in the all-around with a score of 54.350 and third on floor with a score of 13.500. Later that month, she competed at the British Championships in Liverpool, the third and final Olympic trial. She placed fourth in the all-around with a score of 55.500. In event finals, she placed seventh on balance beam, scoring 12.450, and second on floor, scoring 14.100. At the beginning of July, Cairns was selected to represent the United Kingdom at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, along with Tweddle, Whelan, Jennifer Pinches and Rebecca Tunney. #### London Olympics At the Olympics, Cairns contributed scores of 14.266 on vault and 13.500 on balance beam towards the British team's sixth-place finish. Cairns retired from elite gymnastics soon after the 2012 Olympics.

Educational computer The learning computer with power supply LC80 outside The educational computer **LC80** was a single-board computer manufactured in the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and intended for teaching purposes. It was the first computer that retail customers could buy in the GDR. History and development ----------------------- The development of the LC 80 started in 1983. At the Leipzig Trade Fair in the spring of 1984 it was presented to the public. Early in 1985 the LC80 was on the market, making it the first computer available to retail customers in the GDR. The computers Z 9001 and HC 900 that had been shown at the same spring fair, could not be manufactured in sufficient quantity and were thus available only to educational institutions. > The learning computer LC 80 was developed in a very short period of time by a collective of the Consulting and Information Centre for Microelectronics of the Erfurt district in cooperation with the consumer goods department of VEB Mikroelektronik "Karl Marx" Erfurt. It was conceived in such a way that a device, which is as inexpensive as possible, allows a practical use of microprocessor technology by a broad circle of users. Prospective users are high school and vocational school students, students of electrical engineering/electronics, industrial control technicians and other interested parties. The LC 80 offers an almost unlimited field of application, ranging from hobby, school, training and continuing education to use in small industrial control systems. > > — Dr. Werner Kämpf, developer, The production probably ended around 1986/87. Technical details ----------------- The LC80 was programmed by entering hexadecimal machine codes via a built-in 25-key calculator keyboard (16 hexadecimal keys, 7 function keys, NMI, Reset). Programs could be saved and loaded via cassette tape or EPROM. Beside the CPU the board contained two PIO and one CTC integrated circuits as well as 1 KB of RAM and 2 KB of ROM. Interfaces: * cassette tape interface * 12 programmable input / output lines, 4 Handshake lines, and 7 CTC lines * CPU-bus (unbuffered) ### Export version Based on a request from the United Kingdom, an export variant was developed. This version differed from the conventional LC80 in the following details: * wooden cabinet * 12 KB ROM * 4 KB RAM * keyboard template for chess program *SC-80* (similar to the East German chess computer SC2) As the order from abroad did not come through in the end, only samples were manufactured of this version. Software and applications ------------------------- Except for the operating system, no software was included. The manufacturer published a series of three booklets that contained software as hexadecimal machine code listings. Software and applications were published in journals such as *Funkamateur* (Morse code trainer) and *Radio Fernsehen Elektronik* (EPROM programmer, robot model control). Given the limited availability of computers in East Germany, the LC80 was even used to control scales underground in a potash mine.

French celebrity chef (born 1961) **Jean-Christophe Novelli MBE** (IPA: [ʒɑ̃ kʁistɔf nɔvɛli]; born 22 February 1961) is a French chef, restauranteur and television personality. Early life ---------- Novelli was born in Arras, in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France, in 1961. He left school at 14 and worked in a bakery before, at the age of 20, becoming a personal chef to the Rothschild family. Career ------ Novelli moved to Britain in 1983, working in several establishments including the Chewton Glen Hotel in New Milton, Hampshire, later running Keith Floyd's Maltster's Arms restaurant in Totnes, Devon. He won the first of four Michelin stars as Chef Patron at Gordleton Mill in Lymington, Hampshire and was awarded Best Outstanding Dessert by Egon Ronay before becoming head chef at the Four Seasons Hotel on Hyde Park Corner, London. In 1996 he founded his restaurant, *Maison Novelli*, in Clerkenwell, London. He opened further restaurants in London, France and South Africa. Novelli also expanded into the gastro-pub market, his first being The White Horse in Harpenden. In 2005 he launched the Novelli Academy Cookery School based at his home in Hertfordshire. He opened his first of many brasserie concept restaurants in the Double Tree Hilton Hotel in Liverpool but withdrew the brand after a mutual decision between the brand and the owner in January 2016. In 2018 he opened 'Novelli at City Quays' in the new AC Marriott hotel in the City Quays, Belfast, Northern Ireland. In 2013 Novelli launched recipe book, "Simply Novelli". In it he aimed to eliminate the myth that French cuisine is difficult and time-consuming to prepare. Novelli Restaurants Limited --------------------------- In 2016 The Novelli Restaurant Limited brand was created and the Restaurant Team devised three offerings mainly aimed at quality hotels: Terrané by Jean-Christophe Novelli {brasseries), Bistro '61 by Jean-Christophe Novelli (bistro style) and Rapido by JCN (short menu concept) In 2018 Novelli announced the opening of his restaurant in the first Marriot hotel in Northern Ireland. Accolades --------- Jean-Christophe Novelli is a 5/5 AA Rosette and multi Michelin Star award-winning chef who has also been dubbed "The Nation’s Favourite French Chef", European Chef of Year finalist representing Great Britain, recipient of the prestigious Egon Ronay Dessert of the Year award. Voted the AA's Chef's Chef of the Year by his peers. His Novelli Academy has been voted one of the Top 25 Cooking Academies in the World, which he still owns and where he regularly hosts classes and performs his own cookery demonstrations. On 5 September 2007 Novelli was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Arts from the University of Bedfordshire. In March 2021, Novelli was awarded an honorary MBE by Her Majesty the Queen in recognition of his many acts of "voluntary and charitable service". TV appearances -------------- He appeared in the first series of *The Games* in 2003. In 2005 Jean-Christophe became one of two Head Chefs in the second series of *Hell's Kitchen* with Gary Rhodes. In 2006, Novelli appeared on *The X Factor: Battle of the Stars*, performing in a group with fellow chefs Aldo Zilli, Paul Rankin and Ross Burden. He has been a contestant on *Family Fortunes* with his fiancée Michelle Kennedy and on 2 May 2007 appeared on *The Apprentice: You're Fired!* on BBC Two, the show following *The Apprentice* on BBC One. 2009 saw Jean-Christophe presenting his own show for Bravo TV (USA) called *Chef Academy* where he tried to train 9 aspiring chefs into professionals over a 10-part series (originally planned for 6 episodes). In October 2010, he teamed up with the Potato Council for a nationwide competition called Master Spud which gave the winner a chance to star alongside him in a national TV advert. In 2012 Jean-Christophe was a judge on Britain's Best Chef (ITV). In 2014 Novelli appeared on ITV's This Morning, ITV Loose Women. and the last Alan Titchmarsh Show on ITV. He later appeared on the Britain's Got More Talent on ITV2 in 2015. Jean-Christophe performs many demonstrations around Europe, Russia and may parts of the World including Taste of Dubai and South Africa passing on his passion for cooking and trying to teach people to cook more healthily using little saturated fats, low sugars and no salt. In late 2015 Jean-Christophe featured in BBC One's *A Question of Sport* helping the mystery guest cook in his academy. January 2016 saw a lengthy appearance of Jean-Christophe showing the uses and benefits of Rape Seed Oil on the very popular BBC1 show, *Countryfile*. He was also a member of the celebrity audience in Derren Brown's TV special "The Gathering". In 2017, he was the judge for week four of the ITV show *Culinary Genius*. In 2019, he, with his partner chef Aldo Zilli, won the third season of the Channel 4 show *Celebrity Hunted*. In February 2021, Jean-Christophe cooked live on *Steph's Packed Lunch* on C4 and, with the help of his sons Jean and Jacques, he made pancakes on *Jeremy Vine on 5*. Jean-Christophe also prepared 2 of his favourite classics - Mussels and Tarte Tatin - for Raymond Blanc when he appeared as his guest chef in Episodes 4 & 8 of *Simply Raymond Blanc* on ITV (February and March 2021). In October 2023, it was announced that Novelli would become a judge on the Australian Network 10 competitive cooking show *MasterChef Australia* in 2024, alongside fellow new judges Poh Ling Yeow and Sofia Levin, as well as returning judge Andy Allen. The Novelli Academy ------------------- In 2005 Jean-Christophe Novelli opened the Novelli Academy which is based in his 14th-century home in Hertfordshire. Novelli continues to host public, private and virtual masterclasses and corporate team-bonding events. During sessions in the Academy, Novelli promotes healthy cooking by replacing salt and sugar with his own unique flavours and reducing the amount of saturated fats. Personal life ------------- Novelli has been divorced twice. His first wife, Tina, was of English descent; he has a daughter from his first marriage, Christina Novelli (born 1986), who is a musician and songwriter. He married his second wife, Anzelle Visser, from Stellenbosch in South Africa, in 1999. At the time she was a model and also worked at Maison Novelli. They divorced in 2005. Novelli got engaged in November 2007 to his girlfriend of 2 years, Michelle Kennedy. On 29 August 2008, Kennedy gave birth to a son in Los Angeles.[] In July 2012, Kennedy gave birth to another son (Jacques) in St Johann in Pongau, Austria. They have a third son called Valentino who was born in 2016.

Building in Altendorf, Switzerland **Altendorf Castle** (Swiss German: *Ruine Altendorf*) was a medieval hill castle in the municipality of Altendorf in the canton of Schwyz. On the foundation of the round castle chapel stands the choir of the chapel of St. Johann. Geography --------- The ruins respectively a chapel built at the castle's former location is situated on the western lake shore of Obersee on a ridge towards the mountain called Etzel in Altendorf. The castle overlooked the Linth plain and the upper part of the Lake Zurich. The village of Lachen is situated below the hill on the shore of the lake, although the castle site is on the ground of the municipality of Altendorf. The castle site is accessible by car, parking lots are nearby. Hiking trails lead from the boat landing Altendorf Seestatt and from the railway station Lachen to the castle site. History ------- "Rahprehteswilare" is mentioned for the first time in a document of emperor Otto II, in which goods of the Einsiedeln Abbey in the location of today's Altendorf were confirmed on 14 August 972. *Rahprehteswilare* means *hamlet* or *village of Raprecht*, named after a probably Alemanni nobleman in the 7th or 8th century AD. The House\_of\_Rapperswil had estates in central and eastern Switzerland, more precisely around the upper Lake Zurich and the later silt up Lake Tuggen, in the Zürcher Oberland and in the Glattal. The Counts of Rapperswil acted as *Vögte* of the Einsiedeln Abbey since the 11th century AD, as therefore the castle may have been built as seat of the *Vogt*, in addition to the nearby later fortification in Pfäffikon, that was owned by the Einsiedeln abbey – the exact date of construction is unknown. The establishment of the present Rapperswil was founden around 1200 AD. It became the new seat of the House of Rapperswil and the village with the church of St. Michael was renamed "vetus villa Rapperswile" (literally: old town Rapperswil) and the castle was called "die vestize der alten Rapreswile" (literally: the fortress of the old House of Rapperswil). To the middle of the 15th century AD, for the first time the name "zu dem alten Dorfe" (literally: to the old village) was mentioned from which the name "Altendorf" (literally: old village) arose. When the castle was completed is unknown. From the previously known, patchy history of the House of Rapperswil only conjectures may done: Certainly it was built well before the year 1200 AD, maybe in 972 or earlier, from which the aforementioned document dates. However, the castle was destroyed along with the Rapperswil Castle by Rudolf Brun's troops in 1350, as an attempted coup called 'Mordnacht von Zürich' (literally: Murder night of Zurich) failed. It was an upheaval of the aristocratic opposition which attempted to reverse the guild order of the city of Zurich introduced by Brun. A central person was Count Johann II of the House of Habsburg-Laufenburg, who wanted to revenge his father's death at the Battle of Grynau. The destruction of Alt-Rapperswil followed a siege of the castle in September 1350, in which allied troops from Constance and St. Gallen took part in addition to the troops of Zurich. According to the chronicle, the 30 inhabitants were given safe conduct after five days of siege and the walls were then brought down by undermining, which was confirmed by the excavations in 1972. Thus, Rapperswil was rebuilt by Albrecht II, Duke of Austria in 1352/54. Of Alt Rapperswil only the chapel was rebuilt. Contrary to the records of the chronicler Aegidius Tschudi from the 16th century, it had also been destroyed, which was proven by the excavations in 1972. Habsburg influence in the March District was lost in 1386 after the Battle of Sempach, and the property and its rights passed over to the city of Zurich. Castle ------ The exact location of Alt-Rapperswil was long unknown. It could only be confirmed during the renovation of the chapel of St. Johann when soundings revealed an extensive medieval fortification. The ridge castle occupied an area of 100 × 35 metres on the ridge. The levelled moat, up to eight metres deep on the north and east sides, and the neck ditch on the west side are still faintly visible. The chapel of St. Johann and the Sigristenhaus (Sacristan's House) are located on the former castle grounds. The choir of the Chapel of St. John, which is seven-eighths closed, stands on an approximately 70 cm wide foundation of a former round tower of the castle. It is assumed that the chapel was modelled on the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem to commemorate the crusades and pilgrimages of the House of Rapperswil, because during the excavations a foundation was found which could be the remains of an altar pedestal. The rapid reconstruction of the chapel after its destruction in 1350 is evidenced by a Gothic double window, as can also be found in other buildings from the 1370s in the region. Under the nave of the present chapel of St. John, a wall segment running parallel to the ridge was found with two door sills embedded in it. To the east of the choir of the present chapel on a terrace seven metres below, a square foundation of 3.4 metres edge length was found, surrounded by a fire layer in which remains of stove tiles were found. A one and a half metre thick curtain wall must have surrounded the site. The chapel and the ruined remains are a Swiss heritage site of national significance as *Class A* objects of national importance. Literature ---------- * Roger Sablonier: *Gründungszeit ohne Eidgenossen: Politik und Gesellschaft in der Innerschweiz um 1300*. hier + jetzt, Baden 2008, ISBN 978-3-03919-085-0.

American baseball player (born 1978) Baseball player **Brian Ernest Gordon** (born August 16, 1978) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He played for the Texas Rangers and New York Yankees of Major League Baseball (MLB), and for the SK Wyverns and Samsung Lions of the Korea Baseball Organization (KBO). Personal life ------------- His parents are Ernie Gordon, who grew up a Yankees fan in Hyde Park, New York, and Wendy Abrahamsen. They have since divorced. His father was an Army engineer stationed at West Point when he was born, but the family moved to Round Rock, Texas, before he was 2 years old.[] At Round Rock High School, his career record was 43–3, and his team, the Dragons, won the Texas class 5A state championship in 1997.[] Gordon and his wife, Amanda, have a daughter, Finley and a son, Riggs.[] Professional career ------------------- Gordon was drafted by the Arizona Diamondbacks in the 7th round of the 1997 Major League Baseball draft as an outfielder. With the Diamondbacks organization, he made it as high as Triple-A Tucson in 2003 and became a free agent after the season. Gordon signed with the Anaheim Angels where he played in the next two years with their Triple-A affiliate, Salt Lake Stingers. After the 2005 season, Gordon signed with the Houston Astros organization. Playing the entire year in Triple-A, he batted only .241, and after the season decided to convert to pitcher with the help of Hall-of-Famer Nolan Ryan, who was a special assistant to the Astros. Gordon began 2007 with the Double-A Corpus Christi Hooks. In 30 relief appearances, he had an ERA of 2.88 and received a promotion to Triple-A Round Rock. In 2008, Gordon started the season with Double-A Corpus Christi, but after just one appearance, he was released. He signed with the Texas Rangers and did not allow a run in 22 innings pitched for Double-A Frisco. He was promoted to Triple-A Oklahoma where he started and pitched in relief. Gordon was a September call up for the Rangers in 2008 and made his major league debut on September 17. Gordon attended Venezuelan Winter League for the 2008–2009 season with Tiburones de la Guaira, posting a 4–2 record with a 1.79 ERA in 45.1 innings. In his last home game before returning to the US, Gordon faced hard rivals Leones del Caracas in front of a crowd of 20,000, posting 8 innings with 1 allowed run and 9 strikeouts. After the game ended, all la Guaira fans shouted Brian's last name, with Gordon walking out of the dugout and kissing the team's shirt in one of La Guaira's most emotive moments of the season. Gordon was granted free agency after the 2009 season and he signed with the Philadelphia Phillies for the 2010 season. He remained with the Phillies for the start of the 2011 season. On June 14, 2011, Gordon opted out of his minor league contract with the Phillies and signed with the New York Yankees, who promoted him to the major leagues. In his first MLB start, Gordon pitched 5+1⁄3 innings for the Yankees, allowing two earned runs in a Yankees 3–2 victory in 12 innings at Yankee Stadium. He made history by wearing a non-leather glove, the first major leaguer to do so. When Bartolo Colón was activated from the disabled list on July 2, he was optioned to the Triple-A Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Yankees. He was purchased by SK Wyverns in Korea on July 8, 2011. On January 13, 2012, Gordon opted to stay in Korea, signing with the Samsung Lions. Gordon was signed by the New York Yankees to a minor-league contract on December 3, 2013. On June 15, 2014, the Yankees released Gordon.

Ethnic group in Afghanistan **Pashayi** or **Pashai** (/pəˈʃaɪ/; Pashayi: پشه‌ای, romanised: *Paṣhəy*) are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group living primarily in eastern Afghanistan. They are mainly concentrated in the northern parts of Laghman and Nangarhar, also parts of Kunar, Kapisa, Parwan, Nuristan, and a bit of Panjshir. Many Pashai consider themselves as Pashtuns speaking a special language, and many are bilingual in Pashto whereas other Pashai, such as those in Panjshir and Parwan, have been assimilated by Tajiks. History ------- The Pashayi people historically practiced ancient Hinduism and Buddhism, along with tribal religions. Pashayis and Nuristanis were native to the Kunar Valley and Laghman Province, near Jalalabad in north-east Afghanistan, until they were displaced to less fertile mountainous region by successive waves of immigration by Ghilji Pashtuns. Ovesen and Keiser suggest that Pashayi people were not driven up into the mountain valleys where they reside, rather, they were indigenous inhabitants of their respective regions before the rise of the Gandhara civilization. In the 13th century, Marco Polo traveled through the region and described the locals as practitioners of sorcery and witchcraft, as well as calling them a "pestilent people" and crafty". Polo claimed that the men wore brooches and earrings decorated with gemstones and that the main diet of the locals consisted of rice and meat. In the 16th century, when Mughal ruler Babur visited Darai Nur, a town in Nangarhar Province primarily inhabited by the Pashayi people, he found that the eating of pork had only recently been forbidden and that the town was famous for its wine. According to the *Tabakat-i-Akbari* of Nizamuddin Ahmad, Mughal Emperor Akbar had dispatched his younger brother Mirza Muhammad Hakim, who was a staunch adherent of the missionary-minded Naqshbandi Sufi order, against the infidels of Katwar in 1582. Hakim was a semi-independent governor of Kabul. The *Sifat-nama-yi Darviš Muhammad Hān-i Ğāzī* of Kadi Muhammad Salim who accompanied the expedition mentions its details. The *Sifat-nama* gives Muhammad Hakim the epithet of *Darviš Khan Gazi*. Muhammad Hakim's invasion fought its way from Laghman to Alishang, and is stated to have conquered and converted 66 valleys to Islam. After conquering Tajau and Nijrau valleys in Panjshir area, the crusaders established a fort at Islamabad at confluence of Alishang and Alingar Rivers. They continued the raid up to Alishang and made their last effort against the non-Muslims of Alingar, fighting up to Mangu, the modern border between the Pashai and Ashkun-speaking areas. During the 18th century, Pashtuns forced Pashayi people to convert to Islam, and conversions continued into recent history. According to Pashai oral tradition, in the mid-18th century, Deishamir Baba conquered Darra-i Nur Valley and converted the people to Islam. The valley was inhabited by Kafirs who only were armed with bows and arrows, whereas Deishamir Baba and his army had firearms. Deishamir Baba was from Kunar Valley, and he came to Darra-i Nur through Pech Valley and Aret and Shumast villages. The kafir rulers Bhim Raja of Bambakot, Shultan Raja of Sotan, and Sher Raja all surrendered to Deishamir Baba and converted to Islam. Laṇā Raja of Shemul was defeated and he fled the region. Muturu Raja of Utran fought with Deishamir Baba for a longer time, but eventually converted to Islam and became an ally of Deishamir Baba. Deishamir Baba had two sons, Ranga and Japar, and six grandsons. The six grandsons are the ancestors of the Pashai in Sotan. In Darra-i Nur, Deishamir decided to give permanent land settlements to family and followers instead of introducing a rotating land tenure system known as *wesh*, which integrated and strengthened the segmentary lineage systems of the Kohistani people, allowing them to ward off Pashtun attempts of invasion. By not introducing the *wesh* system, the Darai Nur valley's economic cohesion was strengthened and was therefore more immune to "Pashtunization". He invited Aṇu and Kolalek from Kordar to settle in Kandak, and Yarukei from Chelas to settle in Shemul. In return, they had to guard the north of the valley and water supply. He also allowed the Kafir Kalautar from Wama to settle Amla with his goats, on the condition that Kalautar give Deishamir tribute of a kharwar of cheese annually. Kalautar was later expelled because he would not convert to Islam but continued to pay tribute. In the south of the valley, the remaining Kafir rajas were under pressure due to lost allies (Bhim Raja and Shultan Raja) as well as poor land due to lack of water, and thus moved to the east. Bambakot's main market known as the Hindu Quarter also declined with the going of the Hindus. According to Ovsen, these events occurred in the early 1800s. In 1891, Henry Walter Bellew stated: "Pashae, or Pashie ... are attributive plural forms, meaning 'of the Kingdom Padshahi'. The Pashai are still found by that name in the Darai Nur District of Nangarhar Province, Bamyan and Laghman districts in the southern valleys. According to a work published by Jeffrey H.P Evans-von Krbek at the Department of Anthropology at the University of Durham in 1977, an observer known as Masson claimed the Pashayi people can be traced back to the Pasiani tribe, mentioned by Strabo as one of the Scythian tribes. However, Jeffrey states that Masson’s research in the 1830s was devalued by a lack of clarity. By the early 21st century, the Pashayi were often referred to as *Kohistani*, and were Sunni Muslims, while a minority are Nizari Ismaili Muslims. Discrimination in Afghanistan ----------------------------- Reportedly, there have been accounts of the Pashayi population in Nangarhar being referred to with ethnic slurs, such as "*Sharee*", a slur used to describe "backwards people that inhabit a remote and desolate area, as well as "*grisband*" (meaning a can of oil in Pashto) which implies they are "primitive, simple and struggle to cope with urban life". The usage of these slurs has led to a rise in ethnic tensions in eastern Afghanistan and the deepening of divisions in the region. As a result of these negative comments, some Pashayi people only interact with those of their own ethnicity, rather than other ethnic groups. As the Pashayi have a distinctive culture, behavior, and fashion from those in the areas in which they inhabit, they have been isolated by those from other ethnicities, leading some to believe that the Pashayi people are "ignorant" or "threatening". On 16 May 2023, Pashayi tribesmen organised a protest in the Nurgaram district of Nuristan Province against the Taliban against alleged mistreatment and ethnic discrimination under the local Taliban commander, Mawlawi Saadullah, resulting in clashes although no deaths or injuries were reported. Additionally, when an all-Pashayi Taliban squad took control of the National Assembly building on 15 August 2021 and were recorded speaking their language, some of the Afghan diaspora could not understand and therefore referred to them as "Pakistani agents" on social media platforms such as Twitter. Culture ------- The Pashayi engage in a mixed economy of agriculture and herding. Common crops cultivated include rice, wheat, and corn. They also raise goats, cattle, and sheep. It has been noted that both the Pashayi, Nuristani people and other Dardic groups share a fascination with the goat, which might connote to pre-Islamic worship of the animal, or a goat-like deity. They also hold meetings known as *marat* to resolve issues, which has similarities to the Pashtun Jirga, where Pashayi elders are also present and lead the discussions. The Pashayi people additionally perform a dance where young people gather in a circle, hold each other by their shoulders and begin singing songs. This is performed at weddings or during celebrations, and lasts for 20–25 minutes. Flag of the Pashayi people, sighted in Afghanistan and parts of Northern Pakistan Notable individuals ------------------- * Northern Alliance commander Hazrat Ali * IEC Commissioner Rafiullah Bidar * IEC member Abdul Khaliq Hussaini * Hezb-e Islami commander Muhammad Alim Qarar * Former Deputy of Defense and Territorial Affairs Haji Agha Jan Sayedi * Former politician and women’s rights activist Anisa Pashai * Kabul Eagles cricketer Abdul Rahman Rahmani

Species of flowering plant ***Adenochilus gracilis*** is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to New Zealand. It has a long, thin underground rhizome, a single leaf on the flowering stem and a single white flower with glandular hairs on the outside. Its labellum has red to maroon bars and a central band of yellow calli, but is almost obscured by the dorsal sepal. Description ----------- *Adenochilus gracilis* is a terrestrial, perennial, deciduous, herb with a long, thin, horizontal rhizome. There is a single egg-shaped to oblong leaf with a heart-shaped base, 10–30 mm (0.4–1 in) long, near the base of the flowering stem. There is a similar leaf about halfway up the flowering stem, but lacking a petiole. A single white flower 10–20 mm (0.4–0.8 in) wide is borne on the end of the flowering spike which is up to 200 mm (8 in) tall. The outer surface of the sepals and petals is covered with short glandular hairs. The dorsal sepal is lance-shaped and forms a hood over the labellum and column, almost obscuring them. The lateral sepals spread widely apart from each other, and the petals are similar to the sepals. The labellum curves downwards and has three lobes, the central lobe narrower than the others, and has red to maroon bars and two to four rows of yellow calli in a dense central band. Flowering occurs between October and March. * A side view, showing the green "hood."A side view, showing the green "hood." * The growth habit, with its singular, stem, leaf, and flower.The growth habit, with its singular, stem, leaf, and flower. * Two plants growing together near Makarora in Otago.Two plants growing together near Makarora in Otago. Taxonomy and naming ------------------- *Adenochilus gracilis* was first formally described in 1853 by Joseph Dalton Hooker and the description was published in *Flora Novae-Zelandiae*. The specific epithet (*gracilis*) is a Latin word meaning "slender. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ Habitat amongst dense layers of moss. This orchid grows in thick layers of moss or partly decomposed leaf litter in scrub and forests. It is found on the North, South, Stewart and Chatham Islands.

British television documentary series British TV series or programme ***Bringing Up Baby*** is a four-part British television documentary series which compares three different childcare methods for babies: the Truby King method (a strict, routine-based method popular in the 1950s), the Benjamin Spock approach (a more relaxed approach based on parents' instincts, popular in the 1960s), and the Continuum concept (in which babies are in constant contact with a parent at all times, based on tribal child-rearing methods and popular in the 1970s). Each method was advocated and administered by a nanny for two families each. The series was controversial when it aired on Channel 4 in 2007, particularly due to the actions recommended by Truby King advocate Claire Verity, and questions over Verity's qualifications. The Methods ----------- ### The Truby King method Mentor Claire Verity espoused a routine popular in the 1950s, based on the 1907 book *Feeding And Care Of Babies* by Truby King: that babies should follow a strict routine from the day they are born, and that parents should dictate this routine, not the other way round. This included a rigid timetable with feeds every four hours, a separate room from the parents from day one, and rules forbidding "unnecessary contact" especially when the babies woke during the night. Verity also recommended that the babies spend several hours per day outside, saying that the fresh air helped them to sleep better.[] ### The Benjamin Spock approach Mentor Dreena Hamilton supervised two families (including a single mother) with the approach outlined by Benjamin Spock in his best-selling book *The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care*. The Spock method encouraged parents to use their instincts to detect a child's needs. Sarah Fox, one of the mothers using Spock's method admitted that her son Leon did not sleep as well as she would have liked, but the closer bond between them made following Spock worthwhile.[] ### The Continuum concept Mentor Claire Scott had her two families follow the Continuum concept, developed from a study of South American Indians by anthropologist Jean Liedloff. The Continuum concept recommends constant skin-to-skin contact between the baby and its parents until it is twelve months old. The child sleeps in the same bed as the parents, and is carried around in a sling during the day. Grace Collins, who raised her son Oliver using the concept, also praised the bond this method built up between the child and parents, was not too inconvenient and had a positive effect on Oliver's development.[] Controversy ----------- The UK's media regulator Ofcom received 752 complaints about *Bringing Up Baby*, and conducted an investigation which cleared the programme of breaching the broadcasting code. Ofcom found that although some of the techniques portrayed in the series were controversial, they were presented in an appropriate context, and the audience was properly informed of the benefits and disadvantages of each. It determined that Channel 4 had taken due care to ensure the health and wellbeing of the children used as subjects in the experiment, and that the families involved had given clear consent and were free to discontinue their involvement at any time during the filming. Childcare expert Gina Ford strongly criticised Verity's methods in a letter to the NSPCC, urging them to take steps to ensure that television production companies not continue what she called a form of "child abuse". The Foundation for the Study of Infant Deaths (FSID) released a statement on its website, expressing concern over Verity's recommendation that a baby sleep in a separate room from its parents from the day it was born. The FSID stated that "Advice on the programme that a baby should sleep in its own bedroom from day one has, in fact, been found to double the risk of cot death." In addition, questions arose over Verity's qualifications as a maternity nurse. Channel 4 had issued a press release listing a number of qualifications Verity claimed to hold. When *The Times* newspaper requested a list from Verity's agent, it found the lists differed. Verity claimed to hold diplomas in child daycare and pre-school practice from ASET, qualifications in maternity practice, sleep training and paediatrics from Maternity Nurse Training, and a diploma in childcare from Goal. All three organisations confirmed that they had no record of granting such qualifications to Verity, and Channel 4 conducted an investigation into the claims. When the series aired in Australia on the ABC1 network in 2009, complaints to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation regarding the controversies in the UK prompted the ABC to broadcast a disclaimer before the second and subsequent episodes of the series: > Disclaimer: Some of the parenting practices advocated by the mentors in this series are not consistent with current, scientifically based, safe sleeping messages and can increase the risks of sudden and unexpected death in infancy including SIDS and fatal sleeping accidents. The ABC advises that the term "maternity nurse" used in this program does not signify a professionally qualified nurse but rather someone with experience in caring for babies and children. > >

1981 made for TV movie 1981 American TV series or program ***McClain's Law*** is an American made-for-TV police procedural directed by Vincent McEveety and broadcast on November 20, 1981. It is structured as a two-hour pilot episode for James Arness' police detective series *McClain's Law* which broadcast 14 one-hour episodes Friday nights on NBC between November 27, 1981 and March 20, 1982. Plot ---- ### Jim McClain's friend Sid Lammon is murdered In Southern California's San Pedro Bay, on the morning of selling their boat and retiring, fishing boat co-owners Jim McClain and Sid Lammon are taking it for a farewell run around the bay. They meet the buyer and his lawyer Wheeler at the dock and, while receiving separate checks, are observed by three fishing boat owners, Julio Salvi, Rudy Petrovic and Joe Victor who says that his boat is better, but is not for sale and Julio laughs bitterly that, "every fishin' boat in this harbor's for sale". McClain is looking forward to sleeping late, but wakes up as usual at 4 am the next morning, goes to the dock and finds Sid watching their boat heading away to more productive fishing waters in Alaska. They go to the Flatfish Café run by their old friend Vangie Cruise who complains that the neighborhood is going downhill. Sid takes out ten thousand in cash to show her and the money attracts the attention of bar patron Starkey, one of two unsavory members of a work crew assigned to pave the dock. When McClain returns to his apartment house, police officers are waiting for him to identify Sid's body. During questioning by police detective in charge, Harry Gates, McClain displays his badge, identifying him as a retired member of the San Pedro police department and tells him that Sid was his longtime friend as well as fishing business partner and that he intends to find the killer. Sid had planned to take his family to a new life on an Iowa farm and, when McClain goes to comfort his widow Annie and two teenage sons, there is a "SOLD" sign in front of the house. Unwrapping his old service revolver, McClain goes to the dock, commiserates with Rudy and then goes to the scene of the crime where Gates and his partner Jerry Cross finish examining the body chalk outline, conclude that the murder will likely go unsolved and drive off, ignoring McClain calling out to them. McClain then visits the dock paving site to question Starkey who tells him to get lost, causing McClain to punch him in the jaw and send him tumbling into a water and cement slurry. McClain then drives to police headquarters where Gates takes him to meet Lt. DeNisco who has been informed about the assault and warns McClain that if there is one more interference, he will find himself standing in front of a judge. ### McClain promises Sid's widow to find the murderer That evening, McClain is drinking at "The Tides" bar and grill and hears Julio, Rudy and Joe sitting in a booth complaining about crime and hard economic times. The next morning he is at the airport saying goodbye to Annie and the boys as they accompany Sid's body to Iowa. Annie's final words to him are, "You find that man. You find that man who killed Sid." McClain spends the evening at Vangie's place, returns in the morning to the dock and then goes to ask Lt. DeNisco to be reinstated as a police detective. When DeNisco refuses, McClain's next step is to visit his old friend Irv Sutherland at the *San Pedro Dispatch* who prints the headline "SPPD Rejects Former Hero". Capt. Scofield, McClain's colleague from their time on the force, overrules Lt. DeNisco and welcomes McClain back, calling him "Big Jim McClain", but warns that, "You're fifty-two years old" and makes him take a full training course at the police academy. ### McClain goes through a tough training course at the police academy McClain passes with high grades despite DeNisco's interference. On the first day, DeNisco assigns Gates to be McClain's partner and, while Gates chases a grocery store robber who takes a shot at him, it is McClain who corners the robber, punches him in the jaw, reads him his rights while pointing a gun to his ear and then cuffs him. Jerry Cross is working on the Lammon murder, but refuses to divulge any details to McClain. After work, Gates and McClain go for a beer to the Flatfish Café where Gates tries to discourage McClain about the prospects for finding Sid's killer, but McClain tells him that he would be just as adamant if it ever came to finding Gates' killer. ### McClain has a full day, including murder The following morning, McClain arrives at 6:30 for his 8 am shift, sees African-American detective Miller at his desk and assumes her to be a records clerk. She explains that they share the same desk on different shifts. He is assigned a locker, discovers Gates lifting weights in the locker room and then finds a note in his mail slot that the lieutenant made an appointment for him with Dr. Michael Hallett who turns out to be the department's full-time psychologist and tells McClain that he is there for him as a "shrink" if there is ever a need to talk. A large truck arrives at a warehouse and two masked men inside the truck kill the two guards and take a million dollars' worth of Japanese electronics equipment. McClain, Gates and Cross arrive on the scene, followed by DeNisco who excludes McClain from the case and assigns Cross partnered with detective Shaner. Later that day, officers Webster and Caldwell stop a convertible for running a stop sign and spot, covered by a blanket in back seat, ship-to-shore radios and radar receivers which turn out to be stolen. The man, Eddie Grant, a known receiver of stolen goods, is booked, while the 8 mm gun that was found on him arouses Gates' curiosity. After his shift, McClain goes to eat at the Flatfish Café and listens to Vangie regret that Sid felt the need to show her the wad of money that likely caused his murder as well as her fears about the rising crime rate and asks, "Where did it all go wrong?" McClain has no answer. ### McClain moves to a houseboat and makes new friends At his apartment, McClain packs his belongings and moves onto a houseboat the next morning. A pre-teen named Nicky Bannon comes over to the houseboat and introduces himself. His mother, Grace who lives with him in the neighboring houseboat, also comes over and reminds him that the school bus is coming. She invites McClain for coffee, tells him that she does graphic design and strikes up a friendship with him. At the start of their shift, McClain and Gates go to see Rudy and Julio and, while Gates waits from a distance, McClain engages them in conversation and gets information about the large truck that they saw parked outside the electronics warehouse that was subsequently the scene of the robbery and killing. The third fishing boat owner, Joe Victor, to whom McClain speaks separately about communications equipment stolen from fishing boats and later peddled by Eddie Grant, is evasive and, after McClain leaves, goes into his cabin and starts to smear grease on his new ship-to-shore radio. In the police car, Gates tells McClain that Eddie Grant's gun, a Japanese Nambu 8 mm, was the one used to kill Sid. McClain rushes to interrogate Grant, but is told that he was bailed out at 4am. ### McClain and Gates have a shootout with the warehouse robbers McClain goes to police property storage, takes one of Grant's confiscated ship-to-shore radios to his houseboat and examines it for clues. When Nicky comes over, McClain explains to him how electronics parts may be useful in tracking wrongdoers. The next morning, Gates arrives and finds McClain enjoying morning coffee on Grace's boat. At headquarters, DeNisco assigns them as backup to Shaner and Cross on the warehouse case. That evening, while Nicky is away at Little League night practice, McClain and Grace make plans to go sailing and, as they share a glass of wine, Nicky returns. The next morning, McClain and Gates visit electronics repair shops and Gates helps an attractive young woman, Vicki Thomas, start her stalled sportscar. They are then assigned to replace Cross and Shaner at the warehouse where they spot the robbery truck with three men who are listening to police radio and hear DeNisco's instructions to wait for backup. The truck starts driving away and one of the men fires a shotgun at McClain and Gates, shattering their windshield. Gates runs after the truck, climbs on top and shoots at the drivers. The gunman jumps out, fires at Gates and is then shot by McClain. ### McClain deduces that it was Joe who killed Sid DeNisco is angry about the shooting and the flouting of proper procedure, but lets McClain and Gates borrow his car. They find an electronics shop owner who identifies the stolen ship-to-shore radio confiscated from Grant's car and points McClain to Joe Victor, the boat owner. McClain, accompanied by Gates, goes to confront Joe and accuses him of killing Sid Lammon for the money in his pocket. Joe runs, grabs a flare gun and points it at McClain who shoots, killing Joe. In the aftermath, McClain is thinking of turning in his badge, but Gates talks him out of it. DeNisco arrives on the scene and says, "I'm not even going to ask." Cast ---- | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | * James Arness as Jim McClain * Marshall Colt as Harry Gates * George DiCenzo as Lt. DeNisco * Conchata Ferrell as Vangie Cruise * Carl Franklin as Jerry Cross | * Bibi Besch as Annie Lammon * Scott Brady as Capt. Scofield * George Loros as Joe Victor * John Crawford as Salvi * Keith Mitchell as Nicky Bannon * Gerald S. O'Loughlin as Sid Lammon * Luca Bercovici as Eddie Grant * Cheryl Anderson as Grace | * Dominic Barto as Petrovic * Don Maxwell as Officer Webster * Donald V. Allen as Officer Caldwell * Michael Fairman as Dr. Hallett * J.P. Bumstead as Detective Sgt. * George Fisher as Jailer * John Tuell as Starkey * Patrick Cameron as Uniformed Officer * Ed McCready as Worker | * Corinne Bohrer as Vicki Thomas * Eric Lawrence as 1st Officer * Bill Handy as Owner * Robert Balderson as Wheeler * Frank Whiteman as Academy Instructor * Shawn Michaels as Sgt. Evans * Charles Young as Murdoch * Carson Sipes as Scotty Lammon * Gene Ross as Sunderland * Darol Westbrook as Storeowner | Cast notes ---------- Although the African-American actress playing Detective Miller has a prolonged scene with dialogue, she is not listed in either the opening or closing credits. Also, Keith Mitchell, the child actor playing Nicky Bannon, who is billed fifth among the six guest stars listed in the opening credits, has no other known acting credits. Note regarding title -------------------- In the scene where Capt. Scofield sees Jim McClain, he exclaims, "Big Jim McClain!". The title of the 1952 film in which John Wayne and James Arness played Federal investigators tracking American Communist activity in Hawaii, was *Big Jim McLain*, with Wayne playing the title character, while Arness' character was named Mal Baxter.

Company based in Tallinn, Estonia **Tallinna Vesi** is an Estonian company which offers water supply, wastewater collection and treatment services. This company is the largest water utility company in Estonia. The company is serving over 460,000 people in Tallinn and Harju County. The company is established in 1967 as *Tallinn Water Works & Sewerage Management*. Since 1997, the company bears the name AS **Tallinna Vesi**. The privatization of Tallinn Water was finally approved (at the third discussion) by the Tallinn City Council on June 15, 2000, when Rein Voog was the chairman of the Tallinn City Council. International Water UU (owned by International Water and United Utilities International) became the owner of 50.4% of the shares, and the rest remained with the city of Tallinn. Since 2005, the company is listed in Nasdaq Tallinn. Since 2021, the company is majority-owned by the City of Tallinn with 55.06% of the shares. OÜ Utilitas owns 20.36%, while the rest (24.58%) is free float

This article is about the Iraqi city. For the Iraqi district, see Fallujah District. For the depopulated Palestinian village, see Al-Faluja. For the American tech-death band, see Fallujah (band). City in Al Anbar, Iraq **Fallujah** (Arabic: ٱلْفَلُّوجَة *al-Fallūjah* [el.fɐl.ˈluː.dʒɐ]) is a city in Al Anbar Governorate, Iraq. Situated on the Euphrates River, it is located roughly 69 kilometres (43 mi) to the west of the capital city of Baghdad. In 1947, Fallujah was a small town with a relatively small population but had grown to a population of about 250,900 people by 2018. Within Iraq, it is known as the "city of mosques" due to the 200+ mosques that can be found throughout the city as well as in the surrounding villages. Following the American-led invasion of Iraq, which triggered the Iraq War, the city of Fallujah became a major centre of resistance during the Iraqi insurgency. The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Iraqi Interim Government twice engaged in fierce urban combat with insurgents throughout the city; the First Battle of Fallujah failed to dislodge the insurgents, triggering the Second Battle of Fallujah, in which the American-led coalition successfully took control of the city. However, heavy fighting from these two battles left Fallujah severely damaged, though it remained occupied by the coalition until 2011. In January 2014, three years after the American withdrawal from Iraq, Fallujah was captured by the Islamic State (IS) and suffered a major population loss. On 23 May 2016, the Iraqi government announced the beginning of a large-scale military offensive against the IS militants occupying the city, resulting in the Third Battle of Fallujah. On 26 June 2016, the Iraqi Armed Forces stated that Fallujah had been fully liberated and was free from militant control. History ------- The region has been inhabited for many millennia. There is evidence that the area surrounding Fallujah was inhabited in Babylonian times. The current name of the city is thought to come from its Syriac name, **Pallgutha**, which is derived from the word *division* or "canal regulator" since it was the location where the water of the Euphrates River divided into a canal. Classical authors cited the name as "Pallacottas". The name in Aramaic is Pumbedita. ### Sassanid Persians in Anbar and Jews in Nehardea Main articles: Anbar (town) and Nehardea The region of Fallujah lies near the ancient Sassanid Persian town of *Anbar*, in the Sassanid province of Asōristān. The word *anbar* is Persian and means "warehouse". It was known as **Firuz Shapur** or **Perisapora** during the Sassanian Era. There are extensive ruins 2 km (1 mi) north of Fallujah which are identified with the town of Anbar. Anbar was located at the confluence of the Euphrates River with the King's Canal, today the Saqlawiyah Canal, known in early Islamic times as the Nahr Isa and in ancient times as the Nahr Malka. Subsequent shifts in the Euphrates River channel have caused it to follow the course of the ancient Pallacottas canal. The town at this site in Jewish sources was known as Nehardea and was the primary center of Babylonian Jewry until its destruction by the Palmyran ruler Odenathus in 259. The Medieval Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela in 1164 visited "el-Anbar which is Pumbeditha in Nehardea" and said it had 3,000 Jews living there. #### Pumbedita Yeshiva Main articles: Pumbedita and Pumbedita Academy The region played host for several centuries to one of the most important Jewish academies, the Pumbedita Academy, which from 258 to 1038 along with Sura (ar-Hira) was one of the two most important centers of Jewish learning worldwide. ### Ottoman and British rule Fallujah's Caravanserai, ca. 1914 Under the Ottoman Empire, Fallujah was a minor stop on one of the country's main roads across the desert west from Baghdad. In the spring of 1920, the British, who had gained control of Iraq after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, sent Lieut.-Colonel Gerard Leachman, a renowned explorer and a senior colonial officer, to meet with local leader Shaykh Dhari, perhaps to forgive a loan given to the sheikh. Exactly what happened depends on the source, but according to the Arab version, Gerard Leachman was betrayed by the sheikh who had his two sons shoot him in the legs, then behead him by the sword. During the brief Anglo-Iraqi War of 1941, the Iraqi Army was defeated by the British in a battle near Fallujah. In 1947 the town had only about 10,000 inhabitants. It grew rapidly into a city after Iraqi independence with the influx of oil wealth into the country. Its position on one of the main roads out of Baghdad made it of central importance. ### Ba'athist rule and Saddam Hussein Under Saddam Hussein, who ruled Iraq from 1979 to 2003, Fallujah came to be an important area of support for the regime, along with the rest of the region labeled by the US military as the "Sunni Triangle". Many residents of the primarily Sunni city were employees and supporters of Saddam's government, and many senior Ba'ath Party officials were natives of the city. Fallujah was heavily industrialised during the Saddam era, with the construction of several large factories, including one closed down by United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM) in the 1990s that may have been used to create chemical weapons. A new highway system (a part of Saddam's infrastructure initiatives) circumvented Fallujah and gradually caused the city to decline in national importance by the time of the Iraq War. #### Gulf War (1990–1991) During the Gulf War, Coalition warplanes repeatedly attacked a bridge in Fallujah which was used as part of an Iraqi military supply line. On 14 February 1991, a Royal Air Force (RAF) fighter jet fired two laser-guided missiles which were aimed at the bridge but malfunctioned and instead struck Fallujah's largest marketplace (which was situated in a residential area), killing between 50 and 150 non-combatants and wounding many more. After news of the mistake became public, an RAF spokesman, Group Captain David Henderson, issued a statement noting that the missile had malfunctioned but admitted that the Royal Air Force had made an error. Coalition warplanes subsequently launched another attack on the bridge, with one missile hitting its target while two others fell into the river and a fourth struck another marketplace in Fallujah, due to its laser guidance system once again malfunctioning. ### Iraq War (2003–2011) Main article: Fallujah during the Iraq War Fallujah as seen from the west, April 2004 Fallujah was one of the least affected areas of Iraq immediately after the 2003 invasion by the US-led Coalition. Iraqi Army units stationed in the area abandoned their positions and disappeared into the local population, leaving unsecured military equipment behind. Fallujah was also the site of a Ba'athist resort facility called "Dreamland", located a few kilometers outside the city proper. The damage the city had avoided during the initial invasion was negated by damage from looters, who took advantage of the collapse of Saddam Hussein's government. The looters targeted former government sites, the Dreamland compound, and the nearby military bases. Aggravating this situation was the proximity of Fallujah to the infamous Abu Ghraib prison, from which Saddam, in one of his last acts, had released all prisoners. When the US Army entered the town in April 2003, they positioned themselves at the vacated Ba'ath Party headquarters. A Fallujah Protection Force composed of local Iraqis was set up by the US-led occupants to help fight the rising resistance. On the evening of 28 April 2003, a crowd of about two hundred people defied a curfew imposed by the Americans and gathered outside a secondary school used as a military HQ to demand its reopening. Soldiers from the 82nd Airborne stationed on the roof of the building fired on the crowd, killing 17 civilians and wounding over 70. American forces claim they were responding to gunfire from the crowd, while Iraqi witnesses deny this version. Human Rights Watch also disputed the American claims and said that the evidence suggested the US troops fired indiscriminately and used disproportionate force. On 31 March 2004, Iraqi insurgents in Fallujah ambushed a convoy containing four American private military contractors from Blackwater USA, who were conducting delivery for food caterers ESS. The four, armed contractors, Scott Helvenston, Jerry (Jerko) Zovko, Wesley Batalona, and Michael Teague, were dragged from their cars, beaten, and set on fire. Their charred corpses were then dragged through the streets before being hung from a bridge spanning the Euphrates River. This bridge is unofficially referred to as "Blackwater Bridge" by Coalition Forces operating there. Photographs of the event were released to news agencies worldwide, causing outrage in the United States, and prompting the announcement of a campaign to reestablish American control over the city. referThe aftermath of an air strike during the Second Battle of Fallujah A city street in Fallujah heavily damaged by the fighting, November 2004 This led to an abortive US operation to recapture control of the city in Operation Vigilant Resolve, and a successful recapture operation in the city in November 2004, called Operation Phantom Fury in English and Operation Al Fajr in Arabic. Operation Phantom Fury resulted in the death of over 1,350 insurgent fighters. Approximately 95 American troops were killed, and 560 wounded. After the successful recapture of the city, U.S. forces discovered a room in which they claimed to find evidence of a beheading, and bomb-making factories, which were shown to the media as evidence of Fallujah's important role in the insurgency against U.S. forces. They also found two hostages—an Iraqi and a Syrian. The Syrian was the driver for two French journalists, Christian Chesnot and Georges Malbrunot, who had been missing since August 2004. The Iraqi's captors were Syrian; he thought he was in Syria until found by the Marines. Chesnot and Malbrunot were released by their captors, the Islamic Army in Iraq, on 21 December 2004. The U.S. military first denied that it has used white phosphorus as an anti-personnel weapon in Fallujah, but later retracted that denial, and admitted to using the incendiary in the city as an offensive weapon. According to George Monbiot, reports following the events of November 2004 have alleged war crimes, human rights abuses, and a massacre by U.S. personnel. This point of view is presented in the 2005 documentary film, *Fallujah, The Hidden Massacre*. On 17 May 2011, AFP reported that twenty-one bodies, in black body-bags marked with letters and numbers in Latin script had been recovered from a mass grave in al-Maadhidi cemetery in the center of the city. Fallujah police chief Brigadier General Mahmud al-Essawi said that they had been blindfolded, their legs had been tied and they had suffered gunshot wounds. The Mayor, Adnan Husseini said that the manner of their killing, as well as the body bags, indicated that US forces had been responsible. Both al-Essawi and Husseini agreed that the dead had been killed in 2004. The US military declined to comment. Residents were allowed to return to the city in mid-December 2004 after undergoing biometric identification, provided they wear their ID cards all the time. US officials report that "more than half of Fallujah's 39,000 homes were damaged during Operation Phantom Fury, and about ten thousand of those were destroyed" while compensation amounts to twenty percent of the value of damaged houses, with an estimated 32,000 homeowners eligible, according to Marine Lt Col William Brown. According to NBC, 9,000 homes were destroyed, thousands more were damaged and of the 32,000 compensation claims only 2,500 have been paid as of 14 April 2005. According to Mike Marqusee of *Iraq Occupation Focus* writing in the *Guardian*, "Fallujah's compensation commissioner has reported that 36,000 of the city's 50,000 homes were destroyed, along with 60 schools and 65 mosques and shrines". Reconstruction mainly consists of clearing rubble from heavily damaged areas and reestablishing basic utility services. 10% of the pre-offensive inhabitants had returned as of mid-January 2005, and 30% as of the end of March 2005. In 2006, some reports say two-thirds have now returned and only 15 percent remain displaced on the outskirts of the city. Pre-offensive inhabitant figures are unreliable; the nominal population was assumed to have been 250,000–350,000. Thus, over 150,000 individuals are still living as IDPs in tent cities or with relatives outside Fallujah or elsewhere in Iraq. Current[*when?*] estimates by the Iraqi Ministry of Interior and Coalition Forces put the city's population at over 350,000, possibly closing in on half a million. In the aftermath of the offensive, relative calm was restored to Fallujah although almost-daily attacks against coalition forces resumed in 2005 as the population slowly trickled back into the city. From 2005–06, elements of the New Iraqi Army's 2nd and 4th brigades, 1st Division, occupied the city while the Marines maintained a small complex consisting of a security element from RCT8 and a CMOC at the city hall. The Iraqi units were aided by Military Transition Teams. Most Marine elements stayed outside of the city limits. In December 2006, enough control had been exerted over the city to transfer operational control of the city from American forces to the 1st Iraqi Army Division. During the same month, the Fallujah police force began major offensive operations under their new chief. Coalition Forces, as of May 2007, are operating in direct support of the Iraqi Security Forces in the city. The city is one of Anbar province's centers of gravity in a newfound optimism among American and Iraqi leadership about the state of the counterinsurgency in the region. In June 2007, Regimental Combat Team 6 began Operation Alljah, a security plan modeled on a successful operation in Ramadi. After segmenting districts of the city, Iraqi Police and Coalition Forces established police district headquarters in order to further localize the law enforcement capabilities of the Iraqi Police. A similar program had met with success in the city of Ramadi in late 2006 and early 2007 (See Battle of Ramadi). ### Control by the Islamic State (2014–2016) Main articles: Anbar clashes (2013–14), Battle of Fallujah (2014), Anbar campaign (2015–16), and Siege of Fallujah (2016) In January 2014, a variety of sources reported that the city was controlled by al-Qaeda and/or the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS; sometimes called ISIL). On a broadcast of National Public Radio's *All Things Considered*, Middle East analyst Kirk Sowell stated that while ISIS was occupying parts of the city, most of the ground lost was to the tribal militias who are opposed to both the Iraqi government and al-Qaeda. More than 100 people were killed as Iraqi police and tribesmen battled militants who took over parts of two cities on Anbar province. On the same day, the Iraqi Army shelled the city of Fallujah with mortars to try to wrest back control from Sunni Muslim militants and tribesmen, killing at least eight people, tribal leaders and officials said. Medical sources in Fallujah said another 30 people were wounded in shelling by the army. January 2008June 2016 Despite various reports stating that the ISIS was behind the unrest, *The Christian Science Monitor* journalist Dan Murphy disputed this allegation and claimed that while ISIS fighters have maintained a presence in the city, various tribal militias who sympathized with the ideas of nationalism and were opposed to both the Iraqi government and the ISIS controlled the largest share of area in Fallujah. A report from Al Arabiya also backed this claim and alleged that the relationship between the tribesmen and the ISIS militants was only logistical. On 14 January, various tribal chieftains in the province acknowledged "revolutionary tribesmen" were behind the uprising in Fallujah and other parts of Anbar and announced they would support them unless Maliki agreed to cease the ongoing military crackdowns on tribesmen. Speaking on condition of anonymity at the end of May 2014, an Anbar-based Iraqi government security officer told Human Rights Watch that ISIS controlled several neighborhoods of southeast Fallujah as well as several northern and southern satellite communities, while local militias loyal to the Anbar Military Council controlled the central and northern neighborhoods of the city; however, Human Rights Watch stated that they could not confirm these claims. Despite the discussion over which groups initially controlled the city, Fallujah was mostly referred to as under ISIL/ISIS control during the occupation. After beginning a campaign to liberate Anbar Governorate from ISIL in July 2015, in February 2016, the Iraqi army and its allies started to encircle the city in the Siege of Fallujah. On 22 May 2016, *Operation Breaking Terrorism* was launched to recapture Fallujah, marking the beginning of the Battle of Fallujah. #### Third Battle of Fallujah Main article: Battle of Fallujah (2016) Liberation of Fallujah by Iraqi Armed Forces, 28 June 2016 On 22 May 2016, the Iraqi Army notified the remaining Fallujah residents of its plans to retake the city, and that such residents should either evacuate, or if not possible, to minimally raise a white flag over their roofs. Over the next several days, the army made advances on the city, capturing several surrounding villages on the outskirts on the town, killing a total of ~270 ISIL fighters, at least 35 members of Iraqi forces, ~40 civilians, and 1 Basij member, as of 1 June 2016. On 30 May 2016, the military began to enter the city of Fallujah itself, but began to be stalled on 1 June, trying to attack ISIL members, but keeping the tens of thousands of civilians still trapped inside the city safe. However, by 3 June they began to make further advances on the city, killing 62 more ISIL militants. On 26 June, the Iraqi army reported that it had fully liberated the city, while fighting was ongoing in some pockets northwest of Fallujah which remained under ISIL control. Geography --------- Fallujah's western boundary is the Euphrates River. The Euphrates flows from the west (Ramadi), past Fallujah, and into the Baghdad area. When the river reaches the western edge of Fallujah, it turns north, then quickly south, forming what is commonly referred to as the 'peninsula' area. There are two bridges that cross the Euphrates at Fallujah. The city's eastern boundary is Highway 1, a four-lane, divided superhighway that travels from Baghdad past Fallujah towards the west. After the sanctions imposed by the UN after the 1991 Gulf War, this highway became the main supply route for the country. Truckers and travelers from Saudi Arabia, Jordan and southern Syria all merge onto this highway prior to entering the Eastern Al Anbar province. The highway has a prominent 'cloverleaf' interchange with Highway 10 on the eastern edge of Fallujah. Highway 10, which also runs through Fallujah. It is a two-lane highway that turns into a four-lane highway once inside of Fallujah. The highway runs east-west from Baghdad through Fallujah then west towards Ramadi. A 'cloverleaf' on-ramp allows for traffic on/off Highway 1. The highway basically splits the city into two halves, north and south. The northern boundary is a railroad line that runs east-west just along the northern edge of the city. The line sits atop a 10–15 ft high berm all along the northern edge of the city, except where it crosses Highway 1. There are three major hospital locations in Fallujah. The main hospital (formerly Saddam General) is located downtown, near the west end. The second is located across the Euphrates River in an area of west Fallujah commonly referred to as the 'peninsula', (due to its shape). The third hospital is the Jordanian Field Hospital located east of the Highway 10/Highway 1 interchange. Health effects of the Iraq War ------------------------------ In 2010, an academic study had shown "a four-fold increase in all cancers and a 12-fold increase in childhood cancer" since 2004. In addition, the report said the types of cancer were "similar to that in the Hiroshima survivors who were exposed to ionising radiation from the bomb and uranium in the fallout", and an 18% fall in the male birth ratio (to 850 per 1,000 female births, compared to the usual 1,050) was similar to that seen after the Hiroshima bombing. The authors cautioned that while "the results seem to qualitatively support the existence of serious mutation-related health effects in Fallujah, owing to the structural problems associated with surveys of this kind, care should be exercised in interpreting the findings quantitatively".

Building in Khorazm Region, Uzbekistan **Avesta architectural complex** (or "Avesta" garden-complex) is a complex consisting of a garden and a monumental object located on Al-Khorazmi street, Urgench city, Khorazm Region. The complex was created in Khorazm in 2001 before the celebration of the 2700th anniversary of "Avesta". The complex is state property based on the right of operational management of the Department of Culture of the Khorazm region. History ------- On the initiative of the government of Uzbekistan, the 30th session of the UNESCO General Conference decided to celebrate the 2700th anniversary of the creation of "Avesta" on a global scale. In the decision, the events of the celebration of the 2700th anniversary of "Avesta" were determined. After that, a park and the "Avesta" monument were built in the city of Urganch, Khorazm. In October 2001, an international scientific conference dedicated to "Avesta" and festive events took place in Uzbekistan. Structure --------- An enlarged copy of the book "Avesta" was installed in the monument. White and red colors were mainly used to decorate the copy of the book in the monument. According to the Avesta, red color is a symbol of burning fire and blood flowing in veins, while white color is a symbol of light. The total area of the complex is 20 hectares. The Avesta monument, an amphitheater, recreation centers and a garden are located on the territory of the complex. The height of the monument of Avesta is 16 meters, and the project was created by the architect Polvonnazar Solayev. The Avesta architectural complex houses a museum belonging to the Khorazm regional branch of the "Golden Heritage" international fund. The museum consists of 8 departments, where more than 2,000 exhibits depicting the history of Khorazm and the period when "Avesta" was created, as well as handicrafts and ceramics, and many books in Arabic script are stored.

Concept in drug discovery For compounds containing the element lead, see Lead compounds. A **lead compound** (/ˈliːd/, i.e. a "leading" compound, not to be confused with various compounds of the metallic element lead) in drug discovery is a chemical compound that has pharmacological or biological activity likely to be therapeutically useful, but may nevertheless have suboptimal structure that requires modification to fit better to the target; lead drugs offer the prospect of being followed by back-up compounds. Its chemical structure serves as a starting point for chemical modifications in order to improve potency, selectivity, or pharmacokinetic parameters. Furthermore, newly invented pharmacologically active moieties may have poor druglikeness and may require chemical modification to become drug-like enough to be tested biologically or clinically. Terminology ----------- Lead compounds are sometimes called developmental candidates. This is because the discovery and selection of lead compounds occurs prior to preclinical and clinical development of the candidate. Discovering lead compounds -------------------------- ### Discovery of a drugable target Before lead compounds can be discovered, a suitable target for rational drug design must be selected on the basis of biological plausibility or identified through screening potential lead compounds against multiple targets. Drug libraries are oft ### Development of a lead compound A lead compound may arise from a variety of different sources. Lead compounds are found by characterizing natural products, employing combinatorial chemistry, or by molecular modeling as in rational drug design. Chemicals identified as hits through high-throughput screening may also become lead compounds. Once a lead compound is selected it must undergo lead optimization, which involves making the compound more "drug-like." This is where Lipinski's rule of five comes into play, sometimes also referred to as the "Pfizer rule" or simply as the "rule of five." Other factors, such as the ease of scaling up the manufacturing of the chemical, must be taken into consideration.

**Mighty Kong** were an Australian 'supergroup' successor to Daddy Cool, which broke up in August 1972. It was also the fifth (and technically the last) in the line of groups that featured singer-songwriter Ross Wilson and guitarist Ross Hannaford, which began with Pink Finks in 1965. Despite its all-star line-up, drawing from three of the top groups of the time, the band was short-lived and never really achieved its considerable potential, effectively relegated to being a footnote in the story of Daddy Cool. History ------- ### Earlier days The formative stages of the new group occurred in late 1972 – early 1973, and involved several notable players of the day. After Company Caine broke up in October 1972, singer/lyricist Gulliver Smith linked with Wilson and Hannaford. They worked for several months on getting a new band together, but Smith moved on to launch his solo career at the end of 1972. At the start of 1973 Hannaford and Wilson got together with guitarist Tim Gaze (Tamam Shud, Kahvas Jute) and drummer Nigel Macara (Tamam Shud), but after about a month of rehearsals Gaze left and Macara followed. Gaze's place was taken by Company Caine guitarist Russell Smith, who had been off playing in the touring version of G.Wayne Thomas' studio 'supergroup' Duck. For a new drummer, Hannaford and Wilson turned to Ray Arnott, who announced in March that he was leaving his current gig with Spectrum to join the new band (which also reunited him with Russell Smith, his former bandmate from the last days of Cam-Pact and the early Company Caine). Unfortunately, Arnott's departure triggered the break-up of Spectrum, as founder Mike Rudd felt that it wouldn't be possible recruit a new member and maintain Spectrum's special chemistry. Spectrum played their farewell concert in mid-April 1973 and Arnott was then able to join the new group, Gaze and Macara hitched up with the remaining members of Spectrum (Rudd and Bill Putt) to form Ariel. With the final addition of bassist Tim Partridge (also ex-Company Caine) the new band was complete and was launched in May 1973 under the name Mighty Kong. After the break-up of Daddy Cool, Wilson and Hannaford were keen to get away from that band's stylistic restrictions (i.e. the 50s repertoire, and the 'zany' stage outfits), which tended to obscure the more serious side of their work. The material that they put together was a heavier, contemporary rock style, bringing in some of the progressive elements which had featured in their earlier band Sons of the Vegetal Mother, and which had resurfaced on Daddy Cool's second album, *Sex Dope, Rock'n'Roll: Teenage Heaven*. ### *All I Wanna Do Is Rock* Mighty Kong's only album, *All I Wanna Do Is Rock*, was recorded at Melbourne's Armstrong's Studios, engineered and produced by John Fischbach on Robbie Porter's Wizard label. Regrettably the group never really gelled, and Wilson stated in a 2007 interview that it lacked the chemistry that made Daddy Cool such a successful group. Mighty Kong had already split up by the time the album and its accompanying single, "Callin' All Cats" / "Hard Drugs (Are Bad For You)" were released in December 1973, but without a band to promote them, the records made no impression on the charts. In early 1973 Wilson and Hannaford bowed to financial pressures, the split of Daddy Cool had left them with large debts so they reformed Daddy Cool for what was meant to be a one-off performance at the 1974 Sunbury Festival. It was rapturously received, and prompted a full reformation, with more touring and recording; this incarnation of the band lasted until September 1975. ### Post Mighty Kong Ray Arnott moved on to a short stint in The Dingoes, replacing original drummer John Lee for several months; then followed his own bands One Nite Stand and the Ray Arnott Band, as well as a stint in Cold Chisel in the 1980s, during the period when Steve Prestwich had left the group. Ross Hannaford played with a success of fine bands through the 1970s and 1980s, including Billy T, Heavy Division (with Russell Smith) and a stint in Goanna. In the 1990s he was at the Esplanade Hotel, St Kilda, where he had a long-running residency with his band Diana'a Kiss. Tim Partidge moved on to other bands, and became a sought-after session player. After Mighty Kong, he played with Cool Bananas and Aunty Jack & The Gong, the touring bands put together to back Aunty Jack Show members Grahame Bond and Rory O'Donoghue. From there he worked with many well known groups including the Barry Leef Band (1976), two spells with Kevin Borich Express (1976–77, 1979–80), the Foreday Riders, Heavy Division (where he reunited him with Smith and Hannaford) and The Renee Geyer Band (1978). Partridge now teaches at the Tasmanian Conservatorium of Music in Hobart. Tim Partridge died in late 2020. Russell Smith went on to Metropolis, followed by the re-formation of Company Caine in 1975, then Billy T, Heavy Division and Goanna (1983). These days he resides in Perth and is a member of Jeffrey St John & The Embers. Ross Wilson endured a hiatus in his recording career due to a dispute with the Wizard label that resulted from Daddy Cool's abortive attempt to record a new album in 1974. Late that year 1974 he launched his highly successful career as a producer. overseeing three LPs for Skyhooks, including their debut *Living in the 70s*, which broke the previous sales record for an Australian album, set by Daddy Cool. In 1976 he was briefly reunited with Hannaford for the soundtrack to the Chris Lofven film Oz. In 1978 he formed Mondo Rock which became one of the most successful Australian bands of the 1980s. Wilson and Hannaford reformed Daddy Cool in 2007 to play support for Australian tour by Mike Love's Beach Boys and Christopher Cross. Aztec Music announced that it would re-issue Mighty Kong's album, *All I Wanna Do Is Rock*, on a CD format in 2008. Discography ----------- ### Studio albums List of albums, with Australian chart positions| Title | Album details | Peak chartpositions | | --- | --- | --- | | AUS | | *All I Wanna Do Is Rock* | * Released: December 1973 * Format: LP * Label: Wizard Records (Z5 204) | 56 | ### Singles | Year | Title | | --- | --- | | 1973 | "Calling All Cats" / "Hard Drugs (Are Bad for You)" | Members ------- * Ross Wilson – chief vocals, pignose guitar on "Homesick & Horny" * Ross Hannaford – guitar, deep throat * Russell Smith – guitar, lead vocals on "Some Other New Address" * Tim Partridge – bass guitar * Ray Arnott – drums

Variety of the revived Cornish language **Kernewek Kemmyn** (Common Cornish or "KK") is a variety of the revived Cornish language. Kernewek Kemmyn was developed, mainly by Ken George in 1986, based upon George's earlier doctoral thesis on the phonological history of Cornish. It takes much of its inspiration from medieval sources, particularly Cornish passion plays, as well as Breton and to a lesser extent Welsh. It was subsequently adopted by the Cornish Language Board as their preferred system. Like the earlier Unified Cornish, it retains a Middle Cornish base but aims to make the relationship between spelling and pronunciation more systematic by using an approximately morphophonemic orthography. In 2008, a survey indicated that KK users made up 55% of all Cornish speakers. The survey also showed that 21.5% of speakers continued to use the Unified system, and 14.8% were using Late Cornish. The orthography has drawn heavy criticism from several writers. In 1994, Charles Penglase berated the lack of authenticity in KK, along with all systems based on Middle Cornish, resulting from the necessarily conjectural reconstruction of Middle Cornish phonology. In 1995, Nicholas Williams listed some 25 ways in which he believes the phonology and spelling of KK to be erroneous. In 1999, Jon Mills claimed that George's data contains a number of inaccuracies, and that "the English translation equivalents and neologisms given in the *Gerlyver Kernewek Kemmyn* entail a contrastive lexicology that is at odds with traditional practice as attested in the historical corpus of Cornish". Several academics have also lent support to George's reconstruction. Peter Schrijver, in Studies in British Celtic Historical Phonology (1995), finds George's data to be broadly correct, agrees with his analysis of the Middle Cornish phonemic inventory, and supports the view that the Late British 'New Quantity System' was retained in Middle Cornish (pg. 206), all of which is in contrast to Mills and Williams criticisms. In fact, Schrijver's analysis differs from George's only in a few individual words. Another issue, which has caused controversy is that of Cornish placenames. In many instances, there are multiple, conflicting etymologies and possible meanings, but KK has tended to respell these according to one theory or another. This respelling not only can obscure an alternative origin or meaning, but is not always in line with the practice of other forms of revived Cornish. While its users claim it to be the largest, and so most successful, variety of Cornish, a survey in 2008 indicated that KK users only make up roughly half of all Cornish speakers. However 73.9% of "competent and frequent" writers of Cornish used KK, and 69.6% of them preferred to use KK. 70.4% of "competent and frequent" readers were found to prefer to read KK. Despite this, it has drawn heavy criticism from some areas, particularly its rival forms, Unified Cornish (*Unyes*) and Modern Cornish, although the survey found that "competent and frequent" writers of these forms of Cornish made up only 18.3% and 10.4% respectively. In 1987 Kesva an Taves Kernewek (*Cornish Language Board*) voted to adopt the Kernewek Kemmyn form of Cornish as its standard. While the various varieties of revived Cornish have had a rocky relationship with one another, this has had the positive effect of creating a publishing and writing boom in Cornish. All of them have been used in constructing the Cornish language Wikipedia, and also in Gorsedh Kernow, the Cornish *Gorsedd*. Phonetics and phonology ----------------------- The pronunciation of traditional Cornish is a matter of conjecture, but users of Revived Middle Cornish are more or less agreed about the phonology they use. ### Consonants This is a table of the phonology of Revived Middle Cornish (RMC) as recommended for the pronunciation of Kernewek Kemmyn orthography, using symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). | | Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Post-al./Palatal | Velar | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nasal | | m [m] | | | n [n] | | | ng [ŋ] | | | Stop | p [p] | b [b] | | t [t] | d [d] | | k [k] | g [g] | | | Affricate | | | | ch [tʃ] | j [dʒ] | | | | Fricative | f [f] | v [v] | th [θ] | dh [ð] | s [s] | s [z] | | gh [x] | | h [h] | | | Approximant/Lateral | | | | r [ɾ] | | y [j] | hw [ʍ] | w [w] | | | | | | l [l] | | | | ### Vowels These are tables of the phonology of Revived Middle Cornish as recommended for the pronunciation of Kernewek Kemmyn, using symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). **Short Vowels** | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |   | **Front** | **Near- front** | **Central** | **Near- back** | **Back** | | **Close** | | | | --- | |       ɪ         ɤ ə ɛ    ɔ     a   | | |   **Near-close** | | **Close-mid** | | **Mid** | | **Open-mid** | | **Near-open** | | **Open** | *Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel.* **Long Vowels** | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |   | **Front** | **Near- front** | **Central** | **Near- back** | **Back** | | **Close** | | | | --- | | iː **·** yː   uː ɪː         oː   ɛː **·** œː    ɔː     aː   | | |   **Near-close** | | **Close-mid** | | **Mid** | | **Open-mid** | | **Near-open** | | **Open** | *Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. Speakers who prefer a later pronunciation merge the rounded vowels with the unrounded one.* The vowels with their corresponding letters in the Kernewek Kemmyn orthography and the short/long pairs are as follows: | Letter | a | e | eu | i | o | oe | ou | u | y | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Pronunciationshort/long | a ~ aː | ɛ ~ ɛː | œː | iː | ɔ ~ ɔː | ɤ ~ oː | uː | yː | ɪ ~ ɪː | Notes: 1. A vowel is considered short when it comes before double consonants (e.g. ⟨nn⟩, ⟨mm⟩, and so on), or before any two consonants. 2. Some vowels [*which?*] have a tendency to be reduced to schwas [ə] in unstressed syllables

This article is about the Canadian rock band. For the New Zealand rock band, see Th' Dudes. For the defunct 1970s Canadian band, see The Dudes (1970s band). The Dudes **The Dudes** were a Canadian indie rock band, formed in 1996 in Calgary, Alberta. Lead singer Danny Vacon’s public street meltdown on social media over the COVID-19 lockdowns, including statements many deemed racist, sexist, homophobic, and transphobic, resulted in him having several instagram and twitter accounts banned. The result was that very few venues, in very few cities, were willing to book him to play live. Critics have likened their musical style to Modest Mouse, although band members cite their influences as The Flaming Lips, The Descendents, Joel Plaskett, Thrush Hermit and Weezer. The Dudes gained popularity in Calgary both for their lo-fi approach to recording and releasing albums and for their live stage-show. On their album, *Brain Heart Guitar*, they worked with Calgary producer Russ Broom, and released the album in 2006 on the LoadMusic record label. Their music has been played on major Canadian music stations, university radio and CBC Radio 3, and the group has played at North by Northeast, COCA, The Peak and Canadian Music Week. They have toured throughout Canada, Europe and the United States. Their song "Dropkick Queen of the Weekend" was heard across Canada in 2006, having been featured in a Rogers Wireless advertising campaign. On January 12, 2007 they released a single from *Brain Heart Guitar*, "Do the Right Thing". The music video was filmed at Webber Academy, a private school in Calgary, in the summer of 2006. In June 2009 their album, *Blood Guts Bruises Cuts* was released in Canada. The latest single to be released in late 2009 is "The Girl Police" which featured in Season 1 of Rookie Blue. The bulk of the record *Blood Guts Bruises Cuts* was Produced and Recorded by Jeff Dawson and Mixed by Mike Fraser. The latest single in 2012 "American Girl" was also produced by Jeff Dawson and Mixed by Mike Fraser. 2012 saw the release of a third album *Barbers, Thieves, and Bartenders* a title which comes from a lyric on a song from their previous album entitled "Small Mercies." Related bands ------------- * Dojo Workhorse – Dan Vacon (Guitar), Matt Doherty (Drums), Bob Quashnick (Slide Guitar), Rob McIntyre (Bass), Brent Gough (Keys), Clea Anais (Cello), Brock Geiger (Guitar), [Chris Vail formerly on Guitar] * RALEIGH (musical group) – Brock Geiger, Clea Anais, Matt Doherty, Will Maclellan * The A-Team – Pat Downing, Andy Sparacino, Dan McKinnon * The Pants Situation – Braden Funchner, Joey Mooney, Dan Laplante, Newman * Sudden Infant Dance Syndrome – Braden Funchner, Craig Fahner, Sarah Ford, Jesse Locke Frontman Dan Vacon * HighKicks - Dan Vacon (Bass), Matt Doherty (Drums) Discography ----------- * *This Guy's the Limit* (2002) * *Bee Puncher EP* (2003) * *Brain. Heart. Guitar.* (2006) * *Blood. Guts. Bruises. Cuts* (2009) * *Barbers, Thieves and Bartenders* (2012) * *East Side Good Times 5* (2017) ### Singles * "Dropkick Queen of the Weekend" (2006) * "Do the Right Thing" (January 2007) * "Fist" (January 2008) * "Pretty Lies" (May 2009) * "Mr. Someone Else" (2009) * "Girl Police" (2009) * "American Girl" (2012) * "Saturday Night (My C is alright)" (2018) * "Dalje i dalje" (2019) * "Another Tonight" (2020) * ¿Qué más puedo ser? (featuring Los Controles) (2021) * "The Way You Move" (2023)

1981 video game 1981 video game ***Space Eggs*** is a fixed shooter video game for the Apple II computer programmed by Nasir Gebelli and published by Sirius Software in 1981. An Atari 8-bit family port by Dan Thompson was released the same year. *Space Eggs* is an unofficial version of the arcade video game *Moon Cresta*. Gameplay -------- The player moves a ship from side to side across the bottom of the screen while trying to avoid colliding with or being shot by the aliens attacking above. Each level pits the player against multiple aliens of a particular class, which become more difficult to destroy as the levels progress. The game begins with a view of the player's three ships docked together. The first ship, which is the smallest and has only one cannon, splits off from the others and gameplay begins. If an alien touches the ship or successfully hits it with a bomb, the ship is destroyed and replaced by the next one in the set. The second and third ships have progressively wider wingspans and two cannons each. The game ends when all ships are lost. Aliens begin as harmless, multi-colored "eggs" bobbing randomly above the ship, and must be shot to release the creatures within. There are four classes of aliens: * **Spiders**, insectoid creatures that move randomly around the screen and are worth 15 points. * **Lips**, which move a bit more aggressively. They are worth 30 points. * **Wolves**, which move randomly and often descend to the level of the spaceship. They are worth 45 points. * **Fuzzballs**, which bounce up and down rapidly if they are to the left of the ship, or move to the bottom of the playfield and slide horizontally toward the ship if they are to the right (guaranteeing destruction; this appears to be a bug). They are worth 80 points. In the first four waves, all eggs hatch to the same creature. In subsequent waves, eggs hatch random creatures. The wave resets to 1 when the player dies. If the ship is in the second stage (medium width), and the player has scored at least 1,000 points, an opportunity to dock with the first stage will be given. The ship descends from the top of the screen and must be caught by lining up with the ship precisely. If successful, the merged ship will have 3 cannons. Reception --------- *Space Eggs* reached the top spot on *Softalk'*s best-selling software list. The *Addison-Wesley Book of Atari Software 1983* gave it a "B" rating, calling it "cute and challenging."

Bulgarian serial killer **Mihail Tsvetanov Leshtarski** (Bulgarian: Михаил Цветанов Лещарски; born 1959), known as **The Killer from the Cave** (Bulgarian: Убиецът от пещерата), is a Bulgarian thief, robber, murderer and suspected serial killer. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of 59-year-old Elena Tomova in Vlado Trichkov, and is suspected of murdering at least four other pensioners from 2009 to 2011. Biography --------- ### Early life Mihail Leshtarski was born in 1959 in the village of Tsarevets as one of two children. His father Tsvetan was a wealthy shopkeeper, but a very aggressive and nervous man, while his mother was a housekeeper. Mihail Leshtarski was an unruly child, and in order to discipline him, his father would chain him to the family bed and put food just out of reach, starving his young son, with his mother never trying to protect or even interact at all with him. His father would even chain him to the family car and drive around the yard, and beat him with a motor cord until his skin turned blue. He studied up to the 8th grade, but didn't finish his education, and was continuously incarcerated for various robberies throughout the rest of his life, during some of which he was also abused and even gang raped by some of the inmates. In order to evade beatings by his father, the young Leshtarski would go out at night stealing and robbing people. Eventually, at 15 or 16 years old, he was called for mandatory service in the army, and began visiting the village only from time to time. One day, Leshtarski had to return to his regiment following a short break, with his father offering to drive him and his mother to the nearby village in the family's newly bought Moskvitch. From there, Leshtarski would catch a train to Roman. However, shortly after they took off, his father, who had drunk heavily, got into a car crash. Although Leshtarski was unscathed, his father had had his legs broken and his mother suffered a heavy concussion, allegedly causing her mental health issues. According to Leshtarski, she would be in the kitchen cooking and when the cat would jump on the table, she would drag along the cat's fur before putting it back into the pot, and even burned down some of the family's sheep pens. His mother would eventually accuse him of raping her, for which Leshtarski was sentenced to 18 years imprisonment. During his stay in prison, he was regularly visited by his brother, who'd often ask him for money to buy various house appliances. One of the women in the facility also taught Leshtarski how to do donations, in order to have his sentence reduced. Shortly after his incarceration, his mother suffered from a stroke and stopped talking. Leshtarski was described as an "excellent prisoner, bad citizen", and after 12 years behind bars, he was released in 2005. According to him, his father then told him that his mother had started talking again soon after seeing him. After this, Leshtarski resumed with stealing and robbing rich people, being incarcerated and released at various times. He had bought off an underage Romani prostitute to have as a live-in girlfriend, but the girl later abandoned him, hurting him deeply. From 2005 to 2008, he worked in hotel complex "Chaika" in Vratsa as a worker. He was described as a good, hard-working employee, but one day, just after his probation period had ended, he went berserk, breaking all of the company cars' and trucks' windows before fleeing. Feeling that he couldn't fit into normal society, Leshtarski began living in caves around the mountain range, surviving by eating 3-4 spoonfuls of honey every day and hunting animals with a self-made bow, with some reports claiming that he had eaten live bats. He was also a skilled climber who scaled his way to most of his hideouts and even during his later confessions, he claimed that he could walk 30 kilometers to the seaside in the span of several days. For a span of four months, he hid in the house of former cellmate Stoyan Mladenov in Dolna Kremena, threatening to kill the man and his family if they ratted him out. Leshtarski slept in their attic, making a hole in the walls to see what's going on downstairs. He'd disappear for 4-5 days, leaving his hideout by climbing out the roof. On one occasion, he attacked Mladenov with a stool, and even raped his wife. ### Murder of Elena Tomova On August 27, 2009, Elena Tomova, a 59-year-old woman who lived with her daughter and her husband in Sofia and often visited her renewed villa in Vlado Trichkov, noticed that somebody had been in her house and had slept in her bed. The woman even found a hunter's hat lying around, but none of the more expensive items were touched. Tomova contemplated calling the police, but decided that it's no use and abandoned the idea, instead wondering if she should remain in the villa or return to Sofia. As the villa was a bit farther away from other homes, Tomova had decided to get her axe and place it nearby. She then went off to collect wild berries, later asking her neighbor if she could stay at her house, but the latter denied, as she had visitors. Soon after, while trying to read a book, she heard somebody open the wooden gate. That somebody turned out to be Leshtarski – scruffy, with a long, graying and bushy beard. The day before, Leshtarski had boarded a train from Mezdra to Sofia and landed in Vlado Trichkov, where he then proceeded to wander around the hillside, sleeping in abandoned houses without doors or windows before continuing to drift along. He eventually reached Tomova's house, entering through a broken window from the back side, and began looking for food and water. Leshtarski found and drank a bottle of gin, and then ate some canned mushrooms and cucumbers before deciding to leave. He then returned a few hours later to check if anybody was home, noticing that Tomova was there – a plump woman, 160 cm tall, blond hair, wearing a dress, a vest and some slippers. After noticing him, he asked Tomova for some food, after which the good-natured woman gave him two slices of bread. Leshtarski confessed that he intended to sleep in the house, before asking to make himself an omelette, to which Tomova agreed. While he was baking the eggs, Tomova phoned her daughter Zornitsa, telling her that there was a man in the house and that her father was sleeping in the adjoining room (which was a lie, as she had been divorced for 10 years, and visited the villa alone). After offering Leshtarski to go outside for a smoke, the two returned to the room, where Tomova, who was a Jehovah's witness, started lecturing him about the Bible and God. Upon hearing this, Leshtarski got agitated, telling her that she reminded him of his mother. The two got into a quarrel, with the enraged Leshtarski pushing Tomova off her chair. Tomova had grabbed the axe and tried to defend herself, but she was overwhelmed. Leshtarski then pushed her onto the bed, intending to rape her while choking Tomova with his hands. When he let her go, she did not move anymore. Supposedly, Leshtarski then sat on the bed and started crying, and after some time, he lowered his victim's clothes to her spine, before taking a knife and carving a cross on her forehead. He then took a metal spatula and severed her left breast, leaving it under the bed, put the sheets and the Bible over the deceased, grabbed the bottle of gin and left. On August 28, her daughter Zornitsa rang on Tomova's telephone, but nobody answered. She called her mother several times and on the following day, along with her husband and son, traveled to the villa. The husband found the corpse and immediately called the police. The police conducted a search on the entire area, checking twice, but after months, the investigation into Tomova's death was called off. Capture, trial and sentence --------------------------- The investigators worked on the case for two years, examining witness testimonies, pictures and the victim's background. They determined that the killer would be over 35, male, Bulgarian, with a basic education, with no permanent job, without a family. He would also be knowledgeable of the area, sexually immature, have a hatred towards women due to a tragic past, unable to have a social or sexual contact with the opposite sex. That profile fitted Leshtarski near perfectly. On February 22, 2011, Mihail Leshtarski was captured in a cave near Mezdra on suspicion of committing robberies and taken to the court, where he readily confessed to murdering Tomova, but later recanted his confession, claiming he was mistreated by the police and that he wasn't hiding from them due to killing Tomova, and that he was instead doing because he was filmed by a camera stealing heroin from a rich woman. Nevertheless, on September 29, 2011, he was given two life sentences by the court, and is currently serving in Sofia Central Prison. Suspected murders ----------------- Leshtarski is suspected by authorities to have committed at least four other murders in the Vratsa and Montana provinces. Although no details about the latter murders are available, the former suspected murders are that of Yordan Yolov and Vladimir Toshovski. The 82-year-old and half-blind Yolov was beaten to death at his home in Staro Selo in January 2011, not far from where Leshtarski was hiding after killing Tomova, after which he was robbed. The following month, the 75-year-old Toshovski was also robbed at his home in Gorna Kremena, and when he only tried to give half of his pension to the killer, he was also beaten to death in a rage. Aside from these, another similar murder that occurred in the capital is also thought to be Leshtarski's doing: the July 2007 killing of 59-year-old Mariana Dandova, who was also found strangled and with her breast cut off by a knife. Her body was found in a place frequented by a lot of prostitutes, but there were no witnesses to the crime. It was initially thought that, due to wild dogs having torn apart the rest of the corpse, she had been attacked by the rabid beings, but it was later determined that this was not the case. Leshtarski might have also had a motive here - the woman resembled the prostitute which had abandoned him years ago. There is also a possibility for even more murders, as murders of elderly people have been reported around the country. The fact that while searching through his cave police found 12 pairs of glasses, possibly means that for the period that he was hiding out in the mountain range and travelled to the seaside, Leshtarski might have murdered more people living in remote villages. Aftermath --------- Leshtarski continues to deny any of the murders attributed to him, claiming that the police have framed him and that the real killer is out there. He has taken a huge dislike to his portrayal in the media, and in 2016, he claimed that when he gets out, he'd skin alive at least five people. In 2020, during an interview with psychologist Todor Todorov recorded on the Bulgarian show *No Man's Land*, Leshtarski admitted to two further murders: his very first killing, which occurred in his native Tsarevets in 1999, when he got drunk and beat to death a female neighbor without any reason; he also confessed to killing a midwife whose death was erroneously attributed to heart problems, but refused to divulge the date or location of the crime. In response to his claims, prosecutors have indicated that they would investigate the claims and bring new charges if enough evidence is gathered.

Finnish semi-automatic anti-tank rifle The **Lahti L-39** is a Finnish 20 mm anti-tank rifle used during the Second World War. It had excellent accuracy, penetration and range, but its size made transportation difficult. It was nicknamed "Norsupyssy" ("Elephant Gun"), and as tanks developed armor too thick for the Lahti to penetrate, its uses switched to long range sniping, tank harassment and with the L-39/44 fully automatic variant, employment as an improvised anti-aircraft weapon. Development ----------- Aimo Lahti had doubts about the original idea of a 13 mm anti-tank machine gun and started working on a 20 mm design. Officers who wanted smaller caliber anti-tank weapons believed that the muzzle velocities of 20 mm shells were insufficient to penetrate armor, and a weapon with a higher rate of fire and in a smaller caliber would prove useful. As a result, Lahti designed two competing anti-tank weapons: a 13.2 mm machine gun and a 20 mm rifle. After test firing both weapons in 1939, they found that the 20 mm rifle achieved better penetration. ### Operation The rifle is a semi-automatic, gas operated weapon with the piston located beneath the barrel and ammunition feed from a detachable top-mounted magazine with bottom ejection for the spent cartridges. To reduce recoil, the rifle is equipped with a five-hole muzzle brake and a padded leather recoil pad. The barrel has a wooden jacket to allow for transportation after firing has caused the barrel to heat up. Usage ----- ### Winter War During the Winter War (1939–1940) Finland lacked anti-tank weaponry. Only two 20 mm rifles and a few 13.2 mm machine guns made it to the front, where the 13.2 mm machine guns were found to be ineffective and unreliable while the larger 20 mm rifles proved successful against Soviet armor. Because of this, Finland finally settled on the 20 mm design and started production. The gun was also widely[*clarification needed*] used in the "cold Charlie" counter-sniper technique, where the Finns would use mannequins posing as sloppily-covered officers. Soviet snipers would fire upon the mannequins, and the Finns would then return fire at the Soviet snipers with Lahti L-39s. ### Continuation War An L-39 being used as an improvised anti-aircraft weapon in 1942 The Continuation War (Finnish: *jatkosota*, Swedish: *fortsättningskriget*, 25 June 1941 – 19 September 1944) was the second of two wars fought between Finland and the Soviet Union during World War II. Although the weapon was not able to penetrate newer Soviet tanks like the T-34 and KV-1, it still proved to be quite effective against bunker loopholes and embrasures, long range targets, and even aircraft. A fully automatic version of the L39 was made in small numbers that served as an anti-aircraft gun. Other good targets were snipers, and several weak spots on tanks, such as open top hatches, especially with phosphorus ammunition. It was even able to damage tank turrets and pin them to stop traversal of the cannons. Around December 1940, a Lahti L-39 replaced the original 13.2 mm L-35/36 machine gun on the Finnish L-182 armored car. This conversion was employed by the armored unit of 1. Divisioona (English: 1st Division) during 1941. ### After World War II Several of the rifles remained in service after World War II serving as anti-helicopter weapons, while many others were sold to collectors, mostly in the United States. Today the rifles, especially those in working condition, are quite rare and highly sought after. Some deactivated weapons (with steel bars welded into the chambers) have been reactivated due to their value. Because ammunition is rare, they are often rechambered to .50 BMG to lower the cost of use. In the United States, civilian ownership remains possible, depending on state and federal laws. Because the weapon fires rounds larger than .50 caliber, it is considered a destructive device and is subject to the 1934 National Firearms Act. Civilian ownership is dependent on compliance with this law and whether the individual state prohibits civilian ownership of destructive devices. ### Details Users found the L-39 to be heavy and difficult to move in the battlefield. Even its magazine weighs almost two kilograms. The magazines have a covered viewing slit on the right side to indicate the number of rounds left in the magazine, and a 15-round magazine was later developed for anti-aircraft use. To combat the L-39's immense recoil, the recoil spring is so stiff that it would be impossible to cock the weapon with a traditional charging handle. Instead, a rotating crank lever on the right side of the gun, operating a rack and pinion, is used to pull the bolt back. While semi-automatic in function, the L-39's bolt locks back after every shot, and the grip safety also functions to release the bolt. The entire front of the grip and trigger is protected by a large guard and a rubber buffer to protect the operator's hands from the spent casings which eject from the bottom of the gun at very high speeds. The whole weapon weighs some 50 kilograms and it was usually towed by horses, but when stripped down could be carried by several men. The rifle has adjustable iron sights calibrated between 200 and 1,400 meters and was equipped with an unusual "dual" bipod, with two sets of legs, one with spikes for use on hard ground and the other with skids for use on softer ground or snow. In the field, a two-man team was assigned to the gun to move and fire it. Some rifles were abandoned in the heat of battle, but they were easy to replace. By the end of the war over 1,900 L39s had been manufactured by VKT (Valtion Kivääritehdas, "State Rifle Factory", modern day Patria) and put in the field. Bibliography ------------ * Käkelä, Erkki: Marskin panssarintuhoojat. WSOY, 2000, ISBN 951-02-4638-7

American Romantic landscape painter Sydney Laurence in 1914. **Sydney Mortimer Laurence** (1865–1940) was an American Romantic landscape painter and (as of 1923) Alaska's most prominent. Early life ---------- Sydney Mortimer Laurence was born in Brooklyn, New York, and studied at the Art Students League of New York. He married Alexandrina Fredricka Dupre in 1889. He exhibited regularly by the late 1880s. He and his wife traveled to England, settling in 1889 in the English artists' colony of St. Ives, Cornwall from 1889 to 1898. over the next decade he exhibited at the Royal Society of British Artists and was included in the Paris Salon in 1890, 1894, and 1895, winning an award in 1894. Laurence abandoned his family and came to Alaska in 1903. Alaska ------ *The Silent Pool*, 1920-1930. Oil on canvas, 52 cm x 41 cm. Laurence was the first professionally trained artist to make Alaska his home. He moved to Alaska in 1904 for reasons still unknown. Records from 1907 show he lived in the village of Tyonek on the North Shore of Cook Inlet in Southcentral Alaska, about 60 miles from Ship Creek where Anchorage would begin years later. Living the hard life of the pioneer prospector, he painted little in his first years in the then-District of Alaska, but between 1911 and 1914 he began to focus once again on his art. He moved from Valdez to the nascent town of Anchorage in 1915 and by 1920 was Alaska's most prominent painter. Laurence painted a variety of Alaskan scenes in his long and prolific career, among them sailing ships and steamships in Alaskan waters, totem poles in Southeast Alaska, dramatic headlands and the quiet coves and streams of Cook Inlet, cabins and caches under the northern lights, and Alaska Natives, miners, and trappers engaged in their often solitary lives in the northern wilderness. Mount McKinley by Laurence. But the image of Denali from the hills above the rapids of the Tokositna River became his trademark. It is this image more than any other which personifies Laurence for his many admirers and collectors in Alaska and beyond. Laurence forged a uniquely personal style by applying the tonalist techniques he had learned in New York and Europe to the wilderness of the North. He, more than any other artist, defined for Alaskans and others the image of Alaska as "The Last Frontier". In May 1927, Laurence married Jeanne Kunath, a French-born artist who had emigrated to the United States in 1920. He died in Anchorage on December 10, 1940. Several places were named for Laurence in his adopted hometown. Laurence Court is a short street in the Bootleggers Cove neighborhood of Anchorage. Perhaps the most significant was the Sydney Laurence Auditorium, which sat downtown at the northwest corner of West Sixth Avenue and F Street. This structure was replaced during the 1980s by the Alaska Center for the Performing Arts in what Anchorage called "Project 80s", a large-scale civic improvement program carried out under mayors George M. Sullivan and Tony Knowles; now the Sydney Laurence theater is smallest of three stages at the Performing Arts Center.

Cathedral in the City of London, England This article is about St Paul's cathedral in London, England. For other cathedrals of the same name, see St. Paul's Cathedral (disambiguation). "Saint Paul's" redirects here. For other uses, see Saint Paul (disambiguation). Church in London, England **St Paul's Cathedral** is an Anglican cathedral in London, England, the seat of the Bishop of London. The cathedral serves as the mother church of the Diocese of London. It is on Ludgate Hill at the highest point of the City of London. Its dedication in honour of Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD 604. The present structure, which was completed in 1710, is a Grade I listed building that was designed in the English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren. The cathedral's reconstruction was part of a major rebuilding programme initiated in the aftermath of the Great Fire of London. The earlier Gothic cathedral (Old St Paul's Cathedral), largely destroyed in the Great Fire, was a central focus for medieval and early modern London, including Paul's walk and St Paul's Churchyard, being the site of St Paul's Cross. The cathedral is one of the most famous and recognisable sights of London. Its dome, surrounded by the spires of Wren's City churches, has dominated the skyline for over 300 years. At 365 ft (111 m) high, it was the tallest building in London from 1710 to 1963. The dome is still one of the highest in the world. St Paul's is the second-largest church building in area in the United Kingdom, after Liverpool Cathedral. Services held at St Paul's have included the funerals of Admiral Lord Nelson, the Duke of Wellington, Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher; jubilee celebrations for Queen Victoria; an inauguration service for the Metropolitan Hospital Sunday Fund; peace services marking the end of the First and Second World Wars; the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer; the launch of the Festival of Britain; and the thanksgiving services for the Silver, Golden, Diamond, and Platinum Jubilees and the 80th and 90th birthdays of Queen Elizabeth II. St Paul's Cathedral is the central subject of much promotional material, as well as of images of the dome surrounded by the smoke and fire of the Blitz. The cathedral is a working church with hourly prayer and daily services. The tourist entry fee at the door is £23 for adults (January 2023, cheaper if booked online), but no charges are made to worshippers attending advertised services. The nearest London Underground station is St Paul's, which is 130 yards (120 m) away from St Paul's Cathedral. History ------- ### Before the cathedral The location of Londinium's original cathedral is unknown, but legend and medieval tradition claims it was St Peter upon Cornhill. St Paul is an unusual attribution for a cathedral, and suggests there was another one in the Roman period. Legends of St Lucius link St Peter upon Cornhill as the centre of the Roman Londinium Christian community. It stands upon the highest point in the area of old Londinium, and it was given pre-eminence in medieval procession on account of the legends. There is, however, no other reliable evidence and the location of the site on the Forum makes it difficult for it to fit the legendary stories. In 1995, a large fifth-century building on Tower Hill was excavated, and has been claimed as a Roman basilica, possibly a cathedral, although this is speculative. The Elizabethan antiquarian William Camden argued that a temple to the goddess Diana had stood during Roman times on the site occupied by the medieval St Paul's Cathedral. Wren reported that he had found no trace of any such temple during the works to build the new cathedral after the Great Fire, and Camden's hypothesis is no longer accepted by modern archaeologists. ### Pre-Norman cathedral There is evidence for Christianity in London during the Roman period, but no firm evidence for the location of churches or a cathedral. Bishop Restitutus is said to have represented London at the Council of Arles in 314 AD. A list of the 16 "archbishops" of London was recorded by Jocelyn of Furness in the 12th century, claiming London's Christian community was founded in the second century under the legendary King Lucius and his missionary saints Fagan, Deruvian, Elvanus and Medwin. None of that is considered credible by modern historians but, although the surviving text is problematic, either Bishop Restitutus or Adelphius at the 314 Council of Arles seems to have come from Londinium. Bede records that in AD 604 Augustine of Canterbury consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberht's uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop. It is assumed, although not proved, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals. On the death of Sæberht in about 616, his pagan sons expelled Mellitus from London, and the East Saxons reverted to paganism. The fate of the first cathedral building is unknown. Christianity was restored among the East Saxons in the late seventh century and it is presumed that either the Anglo-Saxon cathedral was restored or a new building erected as the seat of bishops such as Cedd, Wine and Erkenwald, the last of whom was buried in the cathedral in 693. Earconwald was consecrated bishop of London in 675, and is said to have bestowed great cost on the fabric, and in later times he almost occupied the place of traditionary, founder: the veneration paid to him is second only to that which was rendered to St. Paul. Erkenwald would become a subject of the important High Medieval poem *St Erkenwald*. King Æthelred the Unready was buried in the cathedral on his death in 1016; the tomb is now lost. The cathedral was burnt, with much of the city, in a fire in 1087, as recorded in the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*. ### Old St Paul's Main article: Old St Paul's Cathedral Reconstructed image of Old St Paul's before 1561, with intact spire Shrine of St Erkenwald, relics removed 1550, lost as a monument in the Great Fire of London The fourth St Paul's, generally referred to as *Old St Paul's*, was begun by the Normans after the 1087 fire. A further fire in 1135 disrupted the work, and the new cathedral was not consecrated until 1240. During the period of construction, the style of architecture had changed from Romanesque to Gothic and this was reflected in the pointed arches and larger windows of the upper parts and East End of the building. The Gothic ribbed vault was constructed, like that of York Minster, of wood rather than stone, which affected the ultimate fate of the building.[] An enlargement programme commenced in 1256. This "New Work" was consecrated in 1300 but not complete until 1314. During the later Medieval period St Paul's was exceeded in length only by the Abbey Church of Cluny and in the height of its spire only by Lincoln Cathedral and St. Mary's Church, Stralsund. Excavations by Francis Penrose in 1878 showed that it was 585 feet (178 m) long and 100 feet (30 m) wide (290 feet (88 m) across the transepts and crossing). The spire was about 489 feet (149 m) in height.[] By the 16th century the building was deteriorating. The English Reformation under Henry VIII and Edward VI (accelerated by the Chantries Acts) led to the destruction of elements of the interior ornamentation and the chapels, shrines, and chantries. The shrine of Erkenwald (d. 693) rivalled that of St Edward in Westminster Abbey, and his relics were removed during the mayoralty of Sir Rowland Hill The would come to include the removal of the cathedral's collection of relics, which by the sixteenth century was understood to include: * the body of St Erkenwald * both arms of St Mellitus * a knife thought to belong to Jesus * hair of Mary Magdalen * blood of St Paul * milk of the Virgin Mary * the head of St John * the skull of Thomas Becket * the head and jaw of King Ethelbert * part of the wood of the cross, * a stone of the Holy Sepulchre, * a stone from the spot of the Ascension, and * some bones of the eleven thousand virgins of Cologne. Old St Paul's in 1656 by Wenceslaus Hollar, showing the rebuilt west facade In October 1538, an image of St Erkenwald, probably from the shrine, was delivered to the master of the king's jewels. Other images may have survived, at least for a time. More systematic iconoclasm happened in the reign of Edward VI: the *Grey Friar's Chronicle* reports that the rood and other images were destroyed in November 1547. In late 1549, at the height of the iconoclasm of the reformation, Sir Rowland Hill altered the route of his Lord Mayor's day procession and said a de profundis at the tomb of Erkenwald. Later in Hill's mayoralty of (1550) the high altar of St Paul's was removed overnight to be destroyed, an occurrence that provoked a fight in which a man was killed. Hill had ordered, unusually for the time, that St Barnabus's Day would not be kept as a public holiday ahead of these events. Three years later, by October 1553, "Alle the alteres and chappelles in alle Powlles churche" were taken down. In August 1553, the dean and chapter were cited to appear before Queen Mary's commissioners. Some of the buildings in the St Paul's churchyard were sold as shops and rental properties, especially to printers and booksellers. In 1561 the spire was destroyed by a lightning strike, an event that Roman Catholic writers claimed was a sign of God's judgment on England's Protestant rulers. Bishop James Pilkington preached a sermon in response, claiming that the lightning strike was a judgement for the irreverent use of the cathedral building. Immediate steps were taken to repair the damage, with the citizens of London and the clergy offering money to support the rebuilding. However, the cost of repairing the building properly was too great for a country and city recovering from a trade depression. Instead, the roof was repaired and a timber "roo"’[*clarification needed*] put on the steeple. In the 1630s a west front was added to the building by England's first classical architect, Inigo Jones. There was much defacing and mistreatment of the building by Parliamentarian forces during the Civil War, and the old documents and charters were dispersed and destroyed.[*page needed*] During the Commonwealth, those churchyard buildings that were razed supplied ready-dressed building material for construction projects, such as the Lord Protector's city palace, Somerset House. Crowds were drawn to the north-east corner of the churchyard, St Paul's Cross, where open-air preaching took place.[] In the Great Fire of London of 1666, Old St Paul's was gutted. While it might have been possible to reconstruct it, a decision was taken to build a new cathedral in a modern style. This course of action had been proposed even before the fire. ### Present St Paul's St Paul's Cathedral in 1896 The task of designing a replacement structure was officially assigned to Sir Christopher Wren on 30 July 1669. He had previously been put in charge of the rebuilding of churches to replace those lost in the Great Fire. More than 50 city churches are attributable to Wren. Concurrent with designing St Paul's, Wren was engaged in the production of his five *Tracts* on Architecture. Wren had begun advising on the repair of the *Old St Paul's* in 1661, five years before the fire in 1666. The proposed work included renovations to interior and exterior to complement the classical facade designed by Inigo Jones in 1630. Wren planned to replace the dilapidated tower with a dome, using the existing structure as a scaffold. He produced a drawing of the proposed dome which shows his idea that it should span nave and aisles at the crossing. After the Fire, it was at first thought possible to retain a substantial part of the old cathedral, but ultimately the entire structure was demolished in the early 1670s. In July 1668 Dean William Sancroft wrote to Wren that he was charged by the Archbishop of Canterbury, in agreement with the Bishops of London and Oxford, to design a new cathedral that was "Handsome and noble to all the ends of it and to the reputation of the City and the nation". The design process took several years, but a design was finally settled and attached to a royal warrant, with the proviso that Wren was permitted to make any further changes that he deemed necessary. The result was the present St Paul's Cathedral, still the second largest church in Britain, with a dome proclaimed as the finest in the world. The building was financed by a tax on coal, and was completed within its architect's lifetime with many of the major contractors engaged for the duration. The "topping out" of the cathedral (when the final stone was placed on the lantern) took place on 26 October 1708, performed by Wren's son Christopher Jr and the son of one of the masons. The cathedral was declared officially complete by Parliament on 25 December 1711 (Christmas Day). In fact, construction continued for several years after that, with the statues on the roof added in the 1720s. In 1716 the total costs amounted to £1,095,556 (£174 million in 2021). #### Consecration On 2 December 1697, 31 years and 3 months after the Great Fire destroyed Old St Paul's, the new cathedral was consecrated for use. The Right Reverend Henry Compton, Bishop of London, preached the sermon. It was based on the text of Psalm 122, "I was glad when they said unto me: Let us go into the house of the Lord." The first regular service was held on the following Sunday. Opinions of Wren's cathedral differed, with some loving it: "Without, within, below, above, the eye / Is filled with unrestrained delight",[*page needed*] while others hated it: "There was an air of Popery about the gilded capitals, the heavy arches ... They were unfamiliar, un-English ...". ### Since 1900 #### Suffragette terror attacks See also: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign Two suffragette bombs on display at the City of London Police Museum in 2019. The bomb on the right was used in an attempted bombing of St. Paul's in 1913. St. Paul's was the target of two suffragette bombing attacks in 1913 and 1914 respectively. This was as part of the suffragette bombing and arson campaign between 1912 and 1914, in which suffragettes from the Women's Social and Political Union, as part of their campaign for women's suffrage, carried out a series of politically motivated bombings and arson nationwide. Churches were explicitly targeted by the suffragettes as they believed the Church of England was complicit in reinforcing opposition to women's suffrage. Between 1913 and 1914, 32 churches across Britain were attacked. The first attack on St. Paul's occurred on 8 May 1913, at the start of a sermon. A bomb was heard ticking and discovered as people were entering the cathedral. It was made out of potassium nitrate. Had it exploded, the bomb likely would have destroyed the historic bishop's throne and other parts of the cathedral. The remains of the device, which was made partly out of a mustard tin, are now on display at the City of London Police Museum. A second bombing of the cathedral by the suffragettes was attempted on 13 June 1914, however the bomb was again discovered before it could explode. This attempted bombing occurred two days after a bomb had exploded at Westminster Abbey, which damaged the Coronation Chair and caused a mass panic for the exits. Several other churches were bombed at this time, such as St Martin-in-the-Fields church in Trafalgar Square and the Metropolitan Tabernacle. #### War damage Black and White photograph of the dome of St Paul's, starkly lit, appearing through billowing clouds of smokeThe iconic *St Paul's Survives* taken on 29 December 1940 of St Paul's during the Blitz The cathedral survived the Blitz although struck by bombs on 10 October 1940 and 17 April 1941. The first strike destroyed the high altar, while the second strike on the north transept left a hole in the floor above the crypt. The latter bomb is believed to have detonated in the upper interior above the north transept and the force was sufficient to shift the entire dome laterally by a small amount. On 12 September 1940 a time-delayed bomb that had struck the cathedral was successfully defused and removed by a bomb disposal detachment of Royal Engineers under the command of Temporary Lieutenant Robert Davies. Had this bomb detonated, it would have totally destroyed the cathedral; it left a 100-foot (30 m) crater when later remotely detonated in a secure location. As a result of this action, Davies and Sapper George Cameron Wylie were each awarded the George Cross. Davies' George Cross and other medals are on display at the Imperial War Museum, London. One of the best known images of London during the war was a photograph of St Paul's taken on 29 December 1940 during the "Second Great Fire of London" by photographer Herbert Mason, from the roof of a building in Tudor Street showing the cathedral shrouded in smoke. Lisa Jardine of Queen Mary, University of London, has written: > Wreathed in billowing smoke, amidst the chaos and destruction of war, the pale dome stands proud and glorious—indomitable. At the height of that air-raid, Sir Winston Churchill telephoned the Guildhall to insist that all fire-fighting resources be directed at St Paul's. The cathedral must be saved, he said, damage to the fabric would sap the morale of the country. > > #### Post-war On 29 July 1981, the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer was held at the cathedral. The couple selected St Paul's over Westminster Abbey, the traditional site of royal weddings, because the cathedral offered more seating. Extensive copper, lead and slate renovation work was carried out on the Dome in 1996 by John B. Chambers. A 15-year restoration project—one of the largest ever undertaken in the UK—was completed on 15 June 2011. #### Occupy London Julian Assange speaks at the Occupy London outside the cathedral in the City of London on 15 October 2011. In October 2011 an anti-capitalism Occupy London encampment was established in front of the cathedral, after failing to gain access to the London Stock Exchange at Paternoster Square nearby. The cathedral's finances were affected by the ensuing closure. It was claimed that the cathedral was losing revenue of £20,000 per day. Canon Chancellor Giles Fraser resigned, asserting his view that "evicting the anti-capitalist activists would constitute violence in the name of the Church". The Dean of St Paul's, the Right Revd Graeme Knowles, then resigned too. The encampment was evicted at the end of February 2012, by court order and without violence, as a result of legal action by the City of London Corporation. #### 2019 terrorist plot On 10 October 2019, Safiyya Amira Shaikh, a Muslim convert, was arrested following an MI5 and Metropolitan Police investigation. In September 2019, she had taken photos of the cathedral's interior. While trying to radicalise others using the Telegram messaging software, she planned to attack the cathedral and other targets such as a hotel and a train station using explosives. Shaikh pleaded guilty and was sentenced to life imprisonment. National events --------------- The state funeral of the Duke of Wellington in 1852 The size and location of St Paul's has made it an ideal setting for Christian services marking great national events. The opportunity for long processions culminating in the dramatic approach up Ludgate Hill, the open area and steps at the west front, the great nave and the space under the dome are all well suited for ceremonial occasions. St Paul's can seat many more people than any other church in London, and in past centuries, the erection of temporary wooden galleries inside allowed for congregations exceeding 10,000. In 1935, the dean, Walter Matthews, wrote: > No description in words can convey an adequate idea of the majestic beauty of a solemn national religious ceremony in St Paul's. It is hard to believe that there is any other building in the world that is so well adapted to be the setting of such symbolical acts of communal worship. > > National events attended by the royal family, government ministers and officers of state include national services of thanksgiving, state funerals and a royal wedding. Some of the most notable examples are: * Thanksgiving service for the Acts of Union 1707, 1 May 1707 * State funeral of Horatio Nelson, 9 January 1806 * State funeral of the Duke of Wellington, 18 November 1852 * Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, 22 June 1897 * Thanksgiving service for the Treaty of Versailles, 6 July 1919 * Silver Jubilee of George V, 6 May 1935 * Thanksgiving services for VE Day and VJ Day, 13 May and 19 August 1945 * Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II, 7 June 1977 * Wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, 29 July 1981 * Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II, 4 June 2002 * Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II, 5 June 2012 * Ceremonial funeral of Margaret Thatcher, 17 April 2013 * Thanksgiving service for the Queen's 90th Birthday, 10 June 2016 * Platinum Jubilee National Service of Thanksgiving, 3 June 2022 Ministry and functions ---------------------- St Paul's Cathedral is a busy church with four or five services every day, including Matins, Eucharist and Evening Prayer or Choral Evensong. In addition, the cathedral has many special services associated with the City of London, its corporation, guilds and institutions. The cathedral, as the largest church in London, also has a role in many state functions such as the service celebrating the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. The cathedral is generally open daily to tourists and has a regular programme of organ recitals and other performances. The Bishop of London is Sarah Mullally, whose appointment was announced in December 2017 and whose enthronement took place in May 2018. St Paul's during a special service in 2008 ### Dean and chapter Main article: Dean and Chapter of St Paul's The cathedral chapter is currently composed of seven individuals: the dean, three residentiary canons (one of whom is, exceptionally, lay), one "additional member of chapter and canon non-residentiary" (ordained), and two lay canons. Each has a different responsibility in the running of the cathedral. As of October 2022: * Dean — Andrew Tremlett (since 25 September 2022) * Precentor — James Milne (since 9 May 2019) * Treasurer — vacant * Chancellor — Paula Gooder (since 9 May 2019; lay reader since 23 February 2019) * Steward — Neil Evans (since June 2022) * Additional member of chapter and canon non-residentiary — Sheila Watson (since January 2017). * Lay Canon — Pamela (Pim) Jane Baxter (since March 2014). Deputy Director at the National Portrait Gallery, with experience in opera, theatre and the visual arts. * Lay Canon — Sheila Nicoll (since October 2018). She is Head of Public Policy at Schroder Investment Management. * Lay Canon — Clement Hutton-Mills (since March 2021). He is also a Managing Director at Goldman Sachs. * Lay Canon — Gillian Bowen (since June 2022). She is Chief Executive Officer of YMCA London City and North and is a magistrate. ### Minor canons and priest vicar Further information: Minor Canons of St Paul's ### Director of Music The Director of Music is Andrew Carwood. Carwood was appointed to succeed Malcolm Archer as Director of Music, taking up the post in September 2007. He is the first non-organist to hold the post since the 12th century. See also: List of musicians at English cathedrals § London, St Paul's Cathedral #### Organs The south choir organ An organ was commissioned from Bernard Smith in 1694. In 1862 the organ from the Panopticon of Science and Art (the Panopticon Organ) was installed in a gallery over the south transept door. The Grand Organ was completed in 1872, and the Panopticon Organ moved to the Victoria Rooms in Clifton in 1873. The Grand Organ is the fifth-largest in Great Britain, in terms of number of pipes (7,256), with 5 manuals, 136 ranks of pipes and 137 stops, principally enclosed in an impressive case designed in Wren's workshop and decorated by Grinling Gibbons. Details of the organ can be found online at the National Pipe Organ Register. #### Choir St Paul's Cathedral has a full professional choir, which sings regularly at services. The earliest records of the choir date from 1127. The present choir consists of up to 30 boy choristers, eight probationers and the male vicars choral, 12 professional singers. In February 2017 the cathedral announced the appointment of the first female vicar choral, Carris Jones (a mezzo-soprano), to take up the role in September 2017. In 2022, it was announced that girls would be admitted to a cathedral choir in 2025. During school terms the choir sings Evensong six times per week, the service on Mondays being sung by a visiting choir (or occasionally said) and that on Thursdays being sung by the vicars choral alone. On Sundays the choir also sings at Mattins and the 11:30 am Eucharist. Many distinguished musicians have been organists, choir masters and choristers at St Paul's Cathedral, including the composers John Redford, Thomas Morley, John Blow, Jeremiah Clarke, Maurice Greene and John Stainer, while well-known performers have included Alfred Deller, John Shirley-Quirk and Anthony Way as well as the conductors Charles Groves and Paul Hillier and the poet Walter de la Mare. Wren's cathedral ---------------- ### Development of the design > > Sir Christopher Wren > > Said, "I am going to dine with some men. > > If anyone calls, > > Say I'm designing Saint Paul's." > > > > A clerihew by Edmund Clerihew Bentley > > > In designing St Paul's, Christopher Wren had to meet many challenges. He had to create a fitting cathedral to replace *Old St Paul's*, as a place of worship and as a landmark within the City of London. He had to satisfy the requirements of the church and the tastes of a royal patron, as well as respecting the essentially medieval tradition of English church building which developed to accommodate the liturgy. Wren was familiar with contemporary Renaissance and Baroque trends in Italian architecture and had visited France, where he studied the work of François Mansart. Wren's design developed through five general stages. The first survives only as a single drawing and part of a model. The scheme (usually called the *First Model Design*) appears to have consisted of a circular domed vestibule (possibly based on the Pantheon in Rome) and a rectangular church of basilica form. The plan may have been influenced by the Temple Church. It was rejected because it was not thought "stately enough". Wren's second design was a Greek cross, which was thought by the clerics not to fulfil the requirements of Anglican liturgy. Wren's third design is embodied in the "Great Model" of 1673. The model, made of oak and plaster, cost over £500 (approximately £32,000 today) and is over 13 feet (4 m) tall and 21 feet (6 m) long. This design retained the form of the Greek-Cross design but extended it with a nave. His critics, members of a committee commissioned to rebuild the church, and clergy decried the design as too dissimilar to other English churches to suggest any continuity within the Church of England. Another problem was that the entire design would have to be completed all at once because of the eight central piers that supported the dome, instead of being completed in stages and opened for use before construction finished, as was customary. The Great Model was Wren's favourite design; he thought it a reflection of Renaissance beauty. After the Great Model, Wren resolved not to make further models and not to expose his drawings publicly, which he found did nothing but "lose time, and subject [his] business many times, to incompetent judges". The Great Model survives and is housed within the cathedral itself. Wren's fourth design is known as the *Warrant design* because it received a Royal warrant for the rebuilding. In this design Wren sought to reconcile Gothic, the predominant style of English churches, to a "better manner of architecture". It has the longitudinal Latin Cross plan of a medieval cathedral. It is of 1+1⁄2 storeys and has classical porticos at the west and transept ends, influenced by Inigo Jones's addition to Old St Paul's. It is roofed at the crossing by a wide shallow dome supporting a drum with a second cupola, from which rises a spire of seven diminishing stages. Vaughan Hart has suggested that influence in the design of the spire may have been drawn from the oriental pagoda. Not used at St Paul's, the concept was applied in the spire of St Bride's, Fleet Street.[*page needed*] This plan was rotated slightly on its site so that it aligned, not with true east, but with sunrise on Easter of the year construction began. This small change in configuration was informed by Wren's knowledge of astronomy. The Greek Cross designThe Warrant designSt Paul's, as it was built ### Final design The final design as built differs substantially from the official Warrant design.[*page needed*] Wren received permission from the king to make "ornamental changes" to the submitted design, and Wren took great advantage of this. Many of these changes were made over the course of the thirty years as the church was constructed, and the most significant was to the dome: "He raised another structure over the first cupola, a cone of brick, so as to support a stone lantern of an elegant figure ... And he covered and hid out of sight the brick cone with another cupola of timber and lead; and between this and the cone are easy stairs that ascend to the lantern" (Christopher Wren, son of Sir Christopher Wren). The final design was strongly rooted in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The saucer domes over the nave were inspired by François Mansart's Church of the Val-de-Grâce, which Wren had seen during a trip to Paris in 1665. The date of the laying of the first stone of the cathedral is disputed. One contemporary account says it was 21 June 1675, another 25 June and a third on 28 June. There is, however, general agreement that it was laid in June 1675. Edward Strong later claimed it was laid by his elder brother, Thomas Strong, one of the two master stonemasons appointed by Wren at the beginning of the work. ### Structural engineering Cross-section showing the brick cone between the inner and outer domesWilliam Dickinson's plan for the floor paving (1709–1710) Wren's challenge was to construct a large cathedral on the relatively weak clay soil of London. St Paul's is unusual among cathedrals in that there is a crypt, the largest in Europe, under the entire building rather than just under the eastern end. The crypt serves a structural purpose. Although it is extensive, half the space of the crypt is taken up by massive piers which spread the weight of the much slimmer piers of the church above. While the towers and domes of most cathedrals are supported on four piers, Wren designed the dome of St Paul's to be supported on eight, achieving a broader distribution of weight at the level of the foundations. The foundations settled as the building progressed, and Wren made structural changes in response. One of the design problems that confronted Wren was to create a landmark dome, tall enough to visually replace the lost tower of St Paul's, while at the same time appearing visually satisfying when viewed from inside the building. Wren planned a double-shelled dome, as at St Peter's Basilica. His solution to the visual problem was to separate the heights of the inner and outer dome to a much greater extent than had been done by Michelangelo at St Peter's, drafting both as catenary curves, rather than as hemispheres. Between the inner and outer domes, Wren inserted a brick cone which supports both the timbers of the outer, lead-covered dome and the weight of the ornate stone lantern that rises above it. Both the cone and the inner dome are 18 inches thick and are supported by wrought iron chains at intervals in the brick cone and around the cornice of the peristyle of the inner dome to prevent spreading and cracking. The Warrant Design showed external buttresses on the ground floor level. These were not a classical feature and were one of the first elements Wren changed. Instead he made the walls of the cathedral particularly thick to avoid the need for external buttresses altogether. The clerestory and vault are reinforced with flying buttresses, which were added at a relatively late stage in the design to give extra strength. These are concealed behind the screen wall of the upper story, which was added to keep the building's classical style intact, to add sufficient visual mass to balance the appearance of the dome and which, by its weight, counters the thrust of the buttresses on the lower walls. ### Designers, builders and craftsmen During the extensive period of design and rationalisation, Wren employed from 1684 Nicholas Hawksmoor as his principal assistant.[*page needed*] Between 1696 and 1711 William Dickinson was measuring clerk. Joshua Marshall (until his early death in 1678) and Thomas and his brother Edward Strong were master masons, the latter two working on the construction for its entirety. John Langland was the master carpenter for over thirty years. Grinling Gibbons was the chief sculptor, working in both stone on the building itself, including the pediment of the north portal, and wood on the internal fittings. The sculptor Caius Gabriel Cibber created the pediment of the south transept while Francis Bird was responsible for the relief in the west pediment depicting the *Conversion of St Paul*, as well as the seven large statues on the west front. The floor was paved by William Dickinson in black and white marble in 1709–10 Jean Tijou was responsible for the decorative wrought ironwork of gates and balustrades. The ball and cross on the dome were provided by an armorer, Andrew Niblett. Following the war damage mentioned above, many craftsmen were employed to restore the wood carvings and stone work that had been destroyed by the bomb impact. One of particular note is Master Carver, Gino Masero who was commissioned to carve the replacement figure of Christ, an eight-foot sculpture in lime which currently stands on the High Altar. Description ----------- Audio description of the cathedral by Sandy Nairne A floorplan St Paul's Cathedral is built in a restrained Baroque style which represents Wren's rationalisation of the traditions of English medieval cathedrals with the inspiration of Palladio, the classical style of Inigo Jones, the baroque style of 17th century Rome, and the buildings by Mansart and others that he had seen in France.[*page needed*] It is particularly in its plan that St Paul's reveals medieval influences. Like the great medieval cathedrals of York and Winchester, St Paul's is comparatively long for its width, and has strongly projecting transepts. It has much emphasis on its facade, which has been designed to define rather than conceal the form of the building behind it. In plan, the towers jut beyond the width of the aisles as they do at Wells Cathedral. Wren's uncle Matthew Wren was the Bishop of Ely, and, having worked for his uncle, Wren was familiar with the unique octagonal lantern tower over the crossing of Ely Cathedral, which spans the aisles as well as the central nave, unlike the central towers and domes of most churches. Wren adapted this characteristic in designing the dome of St Paul's. In section St Paul's also maintains a medieval form, having the aisles much lower than the nave, and a defined clerestory.[] ### Exterior The most renowned exterior feature is the dome, which rises 365 feet (111 m) to the cross at its summit, and dominates views of the city. The height of 365 feet is explained by Wren's interest in astronomy. Until the late 20th century St Paul's was the tallest building on the City skyline, designed to be seen surrounded by the delicate spires of Wren's other city churches. The dome is described by Sir Banister Fletcher as "probably the finest in Europe", by Helen Gardner as "majestic", and by Sir Nikolaus Pevsner as "one of the most perfect in the world". Sir John Summerson said that Englishmen and "even some foreigners" consider it to be without equal. #### Dome The dome Wren drew inspiration from Michelangelo's dome of St Peter's Basilica, and that of Mansart's Church of the Val-de-Grâce, which he had visited. Unlike those of St Peter's and Val-de-Grâce, the dome of St Paul's rises in two clearly defined storeys of masonry, which, together with a lower unadorned footing, equal a height of about 95 feet. From the time of the *Greek Cross Design* it is clear that Wren favoured a continuous colonnade (*peristyle*) around the drum of the dome, rather than the arrangement of alternating windows and projecting columns that Michelangelo had used and which had also been employed by Mansart. Summerson suggests that he was influenced by Bramante's "Tempietto" in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio. In the finished structure, Wren creates a diversity and appearance of strength by placing niches between the columns in every fourth opening. The peristyle serves to buttress both the inner dome and the brick cone which rises internally to support the lantern. Above the peristyle rises the second stage surrounded by a balustraded balcony called the "Stone Gallery". This attic stage is ornamented with alternating pilasters and rectangular windows which are set just below the cornice, creating a sense of lightness. Above this attic rises the dome, covered with lead, and ribbed in accordance with the spacing of the pilasters. It is pierced by eight light wells just below the lantern, but these are barely visible. They allow light to penetrate through openings in the brick cone, which illuminates the interior apex of this shell, partly visible from within the cathedral through the ocular opening of the lower dome. The lantern, like the visible masonry of the dome, rises in stages. The most unusual characteristic of this structure is that it is of square plan, rather than circular or octagonal. The tallest stage takes the form of a *tempietto* with four columned porticos facing the cardinal points. Its lowest level is surrounded by the "Golden Gallery" and its upper level supports a small dome from which rises a cross on a golden ball. The total weight of the lantern is about 850 tons. #### West front For the Renaissance architect designing the west front of a large church or cathedral, the universal problem was how to use a facade to unite the high central nave with the lower aisles in a visually harmonious whole. Since Alberti's additions to Santa Maria Novella in Florence, this was usually achieved by the simple expedient of linking the sides to the centre with large brackets. This is the solution that Wren saw employed by Mansart at Val-de-Grâce. Another feature employed by Mansart was a boldly projecting Classical portico with paired columns. Wren faced the additional challenge of incorporating towers into the design, as had been planned at St Peter's Basilica. At St Peter's, Carlo Maderno had solved this problem by constructing a narthex and stretching a huge screen facade across it, differentiated at the centre by a pediment. The towers at St Peter's were not built above the parapet. Wren's solution was to employ a Classical portico, as at Val-de-Grâce, but rising through two storeys, and supported on paired columns. The remarkable feature here is that the lower story of this portico extends to the full width of the aisles, while the upper section defines the nave that lies behind it. The gaps between the upper stage of the portico and the towers on either side are bridged by a narrow section of wall with an arch-topped window. The towers stand outside the width of the aisles, but screen two chapels located immediately behind them. The lower parts of the towers continue the theme of the outer walls, but are differentiated from them in order to create an appearance of strength. The windows of the lower story are smaller than those of the side walls and are deeply recessed, a visual indication of the thickness of the wall. The paired pilasters at each corner project boldly. Above the main cornice, which unites the towers with the portico and the outer walls, the details are boldly scaled, in order to read well from the street below and from a distance. The towers rise above the cornice from a square block plinth which is plain apart from large oculi, that on the south being filled by the clock, while that on the north is void. The towers are composed of two complementary elements, a central cylinder rising through the tiers in a series of stacked drums, and paired Corinthian columns at the corners, with buttresses above them, which serve to unify the drum shape with the square plinth on which it stands. The entablature above the columns breaks forward over them to express both elements, tying them together in a single horizontal band. The cap, an ogee-shaped dome, supports a gilded finial in the form of a pineapple. The transepts each have a semi-circular entrance portico. Wren was inspired in the design by studying engravings of Pietro da Cortona's Baroque facade of Santa Maria della Pace in Rome.[*page needed*] These projecting arcs echo the shape of the apse at the eastern end of the building. The west front of St Paul's Cathedral by nightWest front and dome,from the street, between encroaching buildingsSt Paul's from the south-east, with the tower of the destroyed Church of St Augustine, Watling Street to the right, now part of St Paul's Cathedral School #### Walls The building is of two storeys of ashlar masonry, above a basement, and surrounded by a balustrade above the upper cornice. The balustrade was added, against Wren's wishes, in 1718.[*page needed*] The internal bays are marked externally by paired pilasters with Corinthian capitals at the lower level and Composite at the upper level. Where the building behind is of only one story (at the aisles of both nave and choir) the upper story of the exterior wall is sham. It serves a dual purpose of supporting the buttresses of the vault, and providing a satisfying appearance when viewed rising above buildings of the height of the 17th-century city. This appearance may still be seen from across the River Thames. Between the pilasters on both levels are windows. Those of the lower storey have semi-circular heads and are surrounded by continuous mouldings of a Roman style, rising to decorative keystones. Beneath each window is a floral swag by Grinling Gibbons, constituting the finest stone carving on the building and some of the greatest architectural sculpture in England. A frieze with similar swags runs in a band below the cornice, tying the arches of the windows and the capitals. The upper windows are of a restrained Classical form, with pediments set on columns, but are blind and contain niches. Beneath these niches, and in the basement level, are small windows with segmental tops, the glazing of which catches the light and visually links them to the large windows of the aisles. The height from ground level to the top of the parapet is approximately 110 feet. #### Fencing The original fencing, designed by Wren, was dismantled in the 1870s. The surveyor for the government of Toronto had it shipped to Toronto, where it has since adorned High Park. ### Interior The nave, looking towards the choirThe choir, looking towards the nave Internally, St Paul's has a nave and choir in each of its three bays. The entrance from the west portico is through a square domed narthex, flanked by chapels: the Chapel of St Dunstan to the north and the Chapel of the Order of St Michael and St George to the south. The nave is 91 feet (28 m) in height and is separated from the aisles by an arcade of piers with attached Corinthian pilasters rising to an entablature. The bays, and therefore the vault compartments, are rectangular, but Wren roofed these spaces with saucer-shaped domes and surrounded the clerestory windows with lunettes. The vaults of the choir are decorated with mosaics by Sir William Blake Richmond. The dome and the apse of the choir are all approached through wide arches with coffered vaults which contrast with the smooth surface of the domes and punctuate the division between the main spaces. The transepts extend to the north and south of the dome and are called (in this instance) the North Choir and the South Choir. The choir holds the stalls for the clergy, cathedral officers and the choir, and the organ. These wooden fittings, including the pulpit and Bishop's throne, were designed in Wren's office and built by joiners. The carvings are the work of Grinling Gibbons whom Summerson describes as having "astonishing facility", suggesting that Gibbons aim was to reproduce popular Dutch flower painting in wood. Jean Tijou, a French metalworker, provided various wrought iron and gilt grilles, gates and balustrades of elaborate design, of which many pieces have now been combined into the gates near the sanctuary. The cathedral is some 574 feet (175 m) in length (including the portico of the Great West Door), of which 223 feet (68 m) is the nave and 167 feet (51 m) is the choir. The width of the nave is 121 feet (37 m) and across the transepts is 246 feet (75 m). The cathedral is slightly shorter but somewhat wider than Old St Paul's. #### Dome The interior of the dome showing how Thornhill's painting continues an illusion of the real architectural featuresThis view of an arch spanning the aisle shows how Wren succeeded in giving an impression of eight equal arches. The main internal space of the cathedral is that under the central dome which extends the full width of the nave and aisles. The dome is supported on pendentives rising between eight arches spanning the nave, choir, transepts, and aisles. The eight piers that carry them are not evenly spaced. Wren has maintained an appearance of eight equal spans by inserting segmental arches to carry galleries across the ends of the aisles, and has extended the mouldings of the upper arch to appear equal to the wider arches. Above the keystones of the arches, at 99 feet (30 m) above the floor and 112 feet (34 m) wide, runs a cornice which supports the *Whispering Gallery* so called because of its acoustic properties: a whisper or low murmur against its wall at any point is audible to a listener with an ear held to the wall at any other point around the gallery. It is reached by 259 steps from ground level. The dome is raised on a tall drum surrounded by pilasters and pierced with windows in groups of three, separated by eight gilded niches containing statues, and repeating the pattern of the peristyle on the exterior. The dome rises above a gilded cornice at 173 feet (53 m) to a height of 214 feet (65 m). Its painted decoration by Sir James Thornhill shows eight scenes from the life of St Paul set in illusionistic architecture which continues the forms of the eight niches of the drum. At the apex of the dome is an oculus inspired by that of the Pantheon in Rome. Through this hole can be seen the decorated inner surface of the cone which supports the lantern. This upper space is lit by the light wells in the outer dome and openings in the brick cone. Engravings of Thornhill's paintings were published in 1720. #### Apse The choir, looking eastThe apse and high altar The eastern apse extends the width of the choir and is the full height of the main arches across choir and nave. It is decorated with mosaics, in keeping with the choir vaults. The original reredos and high altar were destroyed by bombing in 1940. The present high altar and baldacchino are the work of W. Godfrey Allen and Stephen Dykes Bower. The apse was dedicated in 1958 as the American Memorial Chapel. It was paid for entirely by donations from British people. The Roll of Honour contains the names of more than 28,000 Americans who gave their lives while on their way to, or stationed in, the United Kingdom during the Second World War. It is in front of the chapel's altar. The three windows of the apse date from 1960 and depict themes of service and sacrifice, while the insignia around the edges represent the American states and the US armed forces. The limewood panelling incorporates a rocket—a tribute to America's achievements in space. ### Artworks, tombs and memorials St Paul's, at the time of its completion, was adorned by sculpture in stone and wood: most notably that of Grinling Gibbons, by the paintings in the dome by Thornhill, and by Jean Tijou's elaborate metalwork. It has been further enhanced by Sir William Richmond's mosaics and the fittings by Dykes Bower and Godfrey Allen. Other artworks in the cathedral include, in the south aisle, William Holman Hunt's copy of his painting *The Light of the World*, the original of which hangs in Keble College, Oxford. The St. Paul's version was completed with a significant input from Edward Robert Hughes as Hunt was now suffering from glaucoma. In the north choir aisle is a limestone sculpture of the *Madonna and Child* by Henry Moore, carved in 1943. The crypt contains over 200 memorials and numerous burials. Christopher Wren was the first person to be interred, in 1723. On the wall above his tomb in the crypt is written in Latin: *Lector, si monumentum requiris, circumspice* ("Reader, if you seek his monument, look around you"). Sarcophagus of Nelson in the crypt The largest monument in the cathedral is that to the Duke of Wellington by Alfred Stevens. It stands on the north side of the nave and has on top a statue of Wellington astride his horse "Copenhagen". Although the equestrian figure was planned at the outset, objections to the notion of having a horse in the church prevented its installation until 1912. The horse and rider are by John Tweed. The Duke is buried in the crypt. The tomb of Horatio, Lord Nelson is located in the crypt, next to that of Wellington. The marble sarcophagus which holds Nelson's remains was made for Cardinal Wolsey but not used as the cardinal had fallen from favour. At the eastern end of the crypt is the Chapel of the Order of the British Empire, instigated in 1917, and designed by John Seely, Lord Mottistone. There are many other memorials commemorating the British military, including several lists of servicemen who died in action, the most recent being the Gulf War. Also remembered are Florence Nightingale, J. M. W. Turner, Arthur Sullivan, Hubert Parry, Samuel Johnson, Lawrence of Arabia, William Blake, William Jones and Sir Alexander Fleming as well as clergy and residents of the local parish. There are lists of the Bishops and cathedral Deans for the last thousand years. One of the most remarkable sculptures is that of the Dean and poet, John Donne. Before his death, Donne posed for his own memorial statue and was depicted by Nicholas Stone as wrapped in a burial shroud, and standing on a funeral urn. The sculpture, carved around 1630, is the only one to have survived the conflagration of 1666 intact. The treasury is also in the crypt but the cathedral has very few treasures as many have been lost, and on 22 December 1810 a major robbery took almost all of the remaining precious artefacts. The funerals of many notable figures have been held in the cathedral, including those of Lord Nelson, the Duke of Wellington, Winston Churchill, George Mallory and Margaret Thatcher. ### Clock and bells The south-west tower A clock was installed in the south-west tower by Langley Bradley in 1709 but was worn out by the end of the 19th century. The present mechanism was built in 1893 by Smith of Derby incorporating a design of escapement by Edmund Denison Beckett similar to that used by Edward Dent on Big Ben's mechanism in 1895. The clock mechanism is 19 feet (5.8 m) long and is the most recent of the clocks introduced to St Paul's Cathedral over the centuries. Since 1969 the clock has been electrically wound with equipment designed and installed by Smith of Derby, relieving the clock custodian from the work of cranking up the heavy drive weights.[] The south-west tower also contains four bells, of which **Great Paul**, cast in 1881 by J. W. Taylor of Taylor's bell foundry of Loughborough, at 16+1⁄2 long tons (16,800 kg) was the largest bell in the British Isles until the casting of the Olympic Bell for the 2012 London Olympics. Although the bell is traditionally sounded at 1 pm each day, Great Paul had not been rung for several years because of a broken chiming mechanism. In the 1970s the fastening mechanism that secured the clapper had fractured, sending both through the clock mechanism below and causing damage which cost £30,000 to repair. In about 1989 the clapper fractured completely, although less damage was sustained. On 31 July 2021, during the London Festival of the Bells, Great Paul rang for the first time in two decades, being hand swung by the bell ringers. The clock bells included **Great Tom**, which was moved from St Stephen's Chapel at the Palace of Westminster and has been recast several times, the last time by Richard Phelps. It chimes the hour and is traditionally tolled on occasions of a death in the royal family, the Bishop of London, or the Lord Mayor of London, although an exception was made at the death of the US president James Garfield. It was last tolled for the death of Queen Elizabeth II in 2022, ringing once every minute along with other bells across the country in honour of the 96 years of her life. In 1717, Richard Phelps cast two more bells that were added as "quarter jacks" that ring on the quarter hour. Still in use today, the first weighs 13 long cwt (1,500 lb; 660 kg), is 41 inches (100 cm) in diameter and is tuned to A♭; the second weighs 35 long cwt (3,900 lb; 1,800 kg), is 58 inches (150 cm) in diameter and is tuned to E♭. The north-west tower contains a ring of 12 bells by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough hung for change ringing. In January 2018 the bells were removed for refurbishment and were rehung in September that year, being rung again for the first time on All Saints' Day. The original service or "Communion" bell dating from 1700 and known as "the Banger" is rung before 8 am services. Details of the bells| Bell | Weight | NominalHz | Note | Diameter | Datecast | Founder | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | (long measure) | (lb) | (kg) | (in) | (cm) | | 1 | 8 long cwt 1 qr  4 lb | 928 | 421 | 1,461 | F | 30.88 | 78.4 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 2 | 9 long cwt 0 qr 20 lb | 1,028 | 466 | 1,270 | E♭ | 32.50 | 82.6 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 3 | 9 long cwt 3 qr 12 lb | 1,104 | 501 | 1,199 | D | 34.00 | 86.4 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 4 | 11 long cwt 2 qr 22 lb | 1,310 | 594 | 1,063 | C | 36.38 | 92.4 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 5 | 13 long cwt 1 qr  0 lb | 1,484 | 673 | 954 | B♭ | 38.63 | 98.1 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 6 | 13 long cwt 2 qr 14 lb | 1,526 | 692 | 884 | A | 39.63 | 100.7 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 7 | 16 long cwt 1 qr 18 lb | 1,838 | 834 | 784 | G | 43.75 | 111.1 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 8 | 21 long cwt 3 qr 18 lb | 2,454 | 1,113 | 705 | F | 47.63 | 121.0 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 9 | 27 long cwt 1 qr 22 lb | 3,074 | 1,394 | 636 | E♭ | 52.50 | 133.4 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 10 | 29 long cwt 3 qr 21 lb | 3,353 | 1,521 | 592 | D | 55.25 | 140.3 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 11 | 43 long cwt 2 qr  0 lb | 4,872 | 2,210 | 525 | C | 61.25 | 155.6 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | 12 | 61 long cwt 2 qr 12 lb | 6,900 | 3,130 | 468 | B♭ | 69.00 | 175.3 | 1878 | John Taylor & Co | | Clock | 12 long cwt 2 qr  9 lb | 1,409 | 639 | 853 | A♭ | | | 1707 | Richard Phelps | | Clock | 24 long cwt 2 qr 26 lb | 2,770 | 1,256 | 622 | E♭ | | | 1707 | Richard Phelps | | Clock | 102 long cwt 1 qr 22 lb | 11,474 | 5,205 | 425 | A♭ | 82.88 | 210.5 | 1716 | Richard Phelps | | Bourdon | 334 long cwt 2 qr 19 lb | 37,483 | 17,002 | 317 | E♭ | 114.75 | 291.5 | 1881 | John Taylor & Co | | Communion | 18 long cwt 2 qr 26 lb | 2,098 | 952 | 620 | E♭ | 49.50 | 125.7 | 1700 | Philip Wightman | Education, tourism and the arts ------------------------------- Gilt statue of Saint Paul at the top of the monument to St Paul's Cross in the cathedral precinct ### Interpretation Project The Interpretation Project is a long-term project concerned with bringing St Paul's to life for all its visitors. In 2010, the Dean and Chapter of St Paul's opened St Paul's Oculus, a 270° film experience that brings 1400 years of history to life. Located in the former Treasury in the crypt, the film takes visitors on a journey through the history and daily life of St Paul's Cathedral. Oculus was funded by American Express Company in partnership with the World Monuments Fund, J. P. Morgan, the Garfield Weston Trust for St Paul's Cathedral, the City of London Endowment Trust and AIG. In 2010, new touchscreen multimedia guides were also launched. These guides are included in the price of admission. Visitors can discover the cathedral's history, architecture and daily life of a busy working church with these new multimedia guides. They are available in 12 different languages: English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Polish, Russian, Mandarin, Japanese, Korean and British Sign Language (BSL). The guides have fly-through videos of the dome galleries and zoomable close-ups of the ceiling mosaics, painting and photography. Interviews and commentary from experts include the Dean of St Paul's, conservation team and the Director of Music. Archive film footage includes major services and events from the cathedral's history. #### Charges for sightseers St Paul's charges for the admission of those people who are sightseers, rather than worshippers; the charge is £23 (£20.50 when purchased online). Outside service times, people seeking a quiet place to pray or worship are admitted to St Dunstan's Chapel free of charge. On Sundays people are admitted only for services and concerts and there is no sightseeing. The charge to sightseers is made because St Paul's receives little regular or significant funding from the Crown, the Church of England or the state and relies on the income generated by tourism to allow the building to continue to function as a centre for Christian worship, as well as to cover general maintenance and repair work. ### St Paul's Cathedral Arts Project The St Paul's Cathedral Arts Project explores art and faith. Projects have included installations by Gerry Judah, Antony Gormley, Rebecca Horn, Yoko Ono and Martin Firrell. In 2014, St Paul's commissioned Gerry Judah to create an artwork in the nave to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the beginning of the First World War. Two spectacular sculptures consisting of three-dimensional white cruciforms reflect the meticulously maintained war graves of northern France and further afield. Each sculpture is also embellished with miniaturised destroyed residential blocks depicting war zones in the Middle East—Syria, Baghdad, Afghanistan—thus connecting 100 years of warfare. Bill Viola has created two altarpieces for permanent display in St Paul's Cathedral. The project commenced production in mid-2009. Following the extensive programme of cleaning and repair of the interior of St Paul's, completed in 2005, Viola was commissioned to create two altarpieces on the themes of Mary and Martyrs. These two multi-screen video installations are permanently located at the end of the Quire aisles, flanking the High Altar of the cathedral and the American Memorial Chapel. Each work employs an arrangement of multiple plasma screen panels configured in a manner similar to historic altarpieces. In summer 2010, St Paul's chose two new works by the British artist Mark Alexander to be hung either side of the nave. Both entitled Red Mannheim, Alexander's large red silkscreens are inspired by the Mannheim Cathedral altarpiece (1739–41), which was damaged by bombing in the Second World War. The original sculpture depicts Christ on the cross, surrounded by a familiar retinue of mourners. Rendered in splendid giltwood, with Christ's wracked body sculpted in relief, and the flourishes of flora and incandescent rays from heaven, this masterpiece of the German Rococo is an object of ravishing beauty and intense piety. In March 2010, Flare II, a sculpture by Antony Gormley, was installed in the Geometric Staircase. In 2007, the Dean and Chapter commissioned Martin Firrell to create a major public artwork to mark the 300th anniversary of the topping-out of Wren's building. The Question Mark Inside consisted of digital text projections to the cathedral dome, West Front and inside onto the Whispering Gallery. The text was based on blog contributions by the general public as well as interviews conducted by the artist and on the artist's own views. The project presented a stream of possible answers to the question: "What makes life meaningful and purposeful, and what does St Paul's mean in that contemporary context?" The Question Mark Inside opened on 8 November 2008 and ran for eight nights. ### Depictions of St Paul's St Paul's Cathedral has been depicted many times in paintings, prints and drawings. Among the well-known artists to have painted it are Canaletto, Turner, Daubigny, Pissarro, Signac, Derain, and Lloyd Rees. * Paintings and engravings of St Paul's * Canaletto: The River Thames with St. Paul's Cathedral on Lord Mayor's Day (1746; Lobkowicz Collections, Prague)Canaletto: *The River Thames with St. Paul's Cathedral on Lord Mayor's Day* (1746; Lobkowicz Collections, Prague) * 19th-century coloured engraving from the south-west by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd19th-century coloured engraving from the south-west by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd * Romantic 19th-century engraving of St Paul's in the evening after rain by Edward Angelo GoodallRomantic 19th-century engraving of St Paul's in the evening after rain by Edward Angelo Goodall * Oil painting, John O'Connor, Evening on Ludgate Hill (1887) St Paul's looms beyond St Martin'sOil painting, John O'Connor, *Evening on Ludgate Hill* (1887) St Paul's looms beyond St Martin's * St Paul's from Richmond House by the Venetian painter Canaletto (1747)*St Paul's from Richmond House* by the Venetian painter Canaletto (1747) * St Paul's viewed from a loggia, a capriccio (c. 1748) by Antonio Joli who also worked in Venice*St Paul's viewed from a loggia*, a *capriccio* (c. 1748) by Antonio Joli who also worked in Venice * An Impressionist view of St Paul's from the River by Ernest Dade (before 1936)An Impressionist view of *St Paul's from the River* by Ernest Dade (before 1936) * St Paul's from Bankside, a watercolour by Frederick E. J. Goff (before 1931)*St Paul's from Bankside*, a watercolour by Frederick E. J. Goff (before 1931) #### Photography and film St Paul's Cathedral has been the subject of many photographs, most notably the iconic image of the dome surrounded by smoke during the Blitz.(see above) It has also been used in films and TV programmes (including Thames Television's most recognised ident), either as the focus of the film, as in the episode of *Climbing Great Buildings*; as a feature of the film, as in *Mary Poppins*; or as an incidental location such as Wren's Geometric Staircase in the south-west tower which has appeared in several films including *Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban*. Films in which St Paul's has been depicted include: * *St. Paul's Cathedral* (1942), a wartime documentary film for the British Council, the final part of which shows bomb damage in and around St Paul's. * *Lawrence of Arabia* (1962) shows the exterior of the building and the bust of T.E. Lawrence. * *Mary Poppins* (1964) shows the steps and west front of the cathedral, the main setting for the song '"Feed the Birds'". * St Paul's Cathedral has appeared as a filming location twice in *Doctor Who*, in the 1968 serial *The Invasion*, and in the 2014 two-part story "Dark Water"/"Death in Heaven". In both, the Cybermen are shown descending steps outside the cathedral. * St Paul's is seen briefly in the *Goodies* episode "Kitten Kong" (1971). During his rampage through London, Twinkle damages London landmarks, including St Paul's Cathedral, the dome of which is knocked off. * In the BBC educational programme "A Guide to Armageddon" (1982), a 1-megaton nuclear weapon is detonated over London, with St Paul's used as ground zero. * *Lifeforce* (1985) – the cathedral's interior is the setting for the climax of the film. * *The Madness of King George* (1994) shows the Geometric Staircase in the South West Bell Tower. * *Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban* (2004) shows the Geometric Staircase in the south west bell tower, representing the staircase towards the Divination classroom. * *Star Trek Into Darkness* (2013) depicts St Paul's in 23rd century London along with other notable modern-day London buildings. * St Paul's is the only building of ancient London that survived the "Sixty Minute War" in the movie *Mortal Engines* (2018) and the books it is based on.

This article is about the film. For the song by American rock band Heaven Below, see The Mirror Never Lies (song). 2011 Indonesian film ***The Mirror Never Lies*** (also known by the Indonesian name ***Laut Bercermin***, meaning *The Ocean Reflects*) is a 2011 Indonesian film directed by Kamila Andini and co-produced by Andini's father, Garin Nugroho, and former Puteri Indonesia Nadine Chandrawinata. Starring Gita Novalista, Atiqah Hasiholan, and Reza Rahadian, it follows a young Bajau girl named Pakis who has lost her father at sea and uses mirrors to unsuccessfully search for him. It has several interpretations, including as a coming-of-age story and as an environmentalist piece. Filmed over a period of two months after nearly three years of research, *The Mirror Never Lies* was sponsored in part by the Indonesian branch of the World Wide Fund for Nature and the Wakatobi regency government. The first feature film to star the Bajau, it used their language extensively. Although a commercial failure domestically, it has been screened at many international film festivals and won several awards both inside and outside of Indonesia. Critical reviews have generally been positive, mostly emphasising the film's visuals. Plot ---- Pakis (Gita Novalista) is a young girl from a fishing community of the Bajau people in Wakatobi, Sulawesi, part of the Coral Triangle. She lives with her mother, Tayung (Atiqah Hasiholan). As Pakis' father has been lost at sea, Tayung works hard to support her daughter. Pakis, however, is determined to search for her father, a quest which brings the two into conflict. Pakis regularly visits a local shaman, who conducts a ritual allowing Pakis to search for her father in a mirror's surface. The ritual never shows Pakis his location but she remains determined to keep trying. Meanwhile, Tudo (Reza Rahadian) has broken up with his fiancée. Struggling to cope with the loss, he takes a new job in Wakatobi studying dolphins. There he becomes involved with the Bajau community, staying at Tayung's home. Eventually Pakis is able to realise that her father is dead and continues with her life. Production ---------- Kamila Andini, director of *The Mirror Never Lies* The film was directed by Kamila Andini, who also wrote the script and, in collaboration with Dirmawan Hatta, the screenplay. For her feature film debut, Andini chose to write about the sea – a topic which had long interested her and on which she had previously recorded documentaries. She had also had a long-held interest in environmental issues. It was produced by former Miss Indonesia, Nadine Chandrawinata, together with Andini's father, the director Garin Nugroho. Andini has stated that she only consulted with her father and that he was not directly involved in the production, while Chandrawinata described herself as assistant producer, with Nugroho in charge. Artistic direction was handled by Timothy D Setyanto, with costumes by Retno Ratih Damayanti and make-up by Erwin Wijaya. Cinematography was completed by Ipung Rachmat Syaiful. Editing was handled by Wawan I Wibowo, while Thoersi Argeswara provided music and Khikmawan Santosa provided sound effects. *The Mirror Never Lies* was a collaboration between the Indonesian branch of the World Wide Fund for Nature, the Wakatobi regency government, and SET Film Workshop, with the former two providing funding. It focused on the Bajau people, also known as "sea gypsies" for their nomadic maritime lifestyle. Little Indonesian-language documentation was available to the crew, and as such production took over two years, most of which was research. Andini later recalled that the crew had to "go directly to Wakatobi back and forth to get to know everything about the [Bajau] tribe". Originally planned for the second quarter of 2010, shooting was further delayed until September owing to an extended rainy season. Unlike most contemporary Indonesian films, which are often completed in a matter of days, the crew shot on site over a period of two months. They faced poor weather, including typhoons and large waves, and had difficulty manoeuvring over the wooden walkways and bridges used by the Bajau. The film cast three Bajau teenagers, Gita Novalista, Eko and Zainal, in their feature film debuts; the three were the first Bajau to play in a feature film. More experienced actors, including Atiqah Hasiholan and Reza Rahadian (who had received two Citra Awards), were also cast. Hasiholan later stated that it had been her most challenging role yet, citing the cultural differences between the Bajau and what she was familiar with as well as her unprecedented need to act as a mother. In preparing for their roles, Hasiholan exercised slicing and dicing fish, while Rahadian went to Ancol in North Jakarta to learn about dolphins. *The Mirror Never Lies* uses the Bajau language heavily, with its Indonesian spoken in a Bajau accent and, in domestic screenings, Indonesian-language subtitles when Bajau is spoken. The use of pre-recorded music is minimal. Instead, much of the film's soundtrack consists of "folk songs and chanting" in Bajau. Hasiholan had to undergo tutoring to learn her lines, learning from the Bajau people on location. Themes ------ A man, on a red background, looking forwardProducer Garin Nugroho said the film was to remind Indonesians of their maritime heritage. In a 2012 interview Andini stated that she considered *The Mirror Never Lies* and the Bajau people symbols of unity; she expressed that the sea should not separate the different ethnic groups in the nation, but serve to connect them. Likewise, in an interview with Antara Nugroho stated that the film was intended to remind Indonesians that theirs is a maritime nation, which has influenced the country's culture. The regent of Wakatobi, Hugua, added in an interview with the Indonesian newspaper *Kompas* that Indonesian films had historically only presented land based cultures. Triwik Kurniasari, writing for *The Jakarta Post*, considered the film a criticism of "destructive fishing practices and climate change" in Wakatobi; she believed that this is shown through the director's "respect for the environment" in the film. Writing for *Kompas*, Teguh Prayoga Sudarmanto noted that such a theme is representative of realities faced by Bajau fishermen, who must travel ever further as the fish supplies diminish. He further suggested that the film depicts the sea as capable of both friendliness and hostility, a force with which the Bajau must deal every day. The critic Lisabona Rahman, writing for the Indonesian film database *filmindonesia.or.id*, contrasted *The Mirror Never Lies* with the plot of "tourist" ("*turis*") films: unlike in such films, where a city-dweller changes the traditional lifestyle in a village, Tudo is able to adjust himself to village life and follow their ways. Benny Benke, writing for the Semarang-based *Suara Merdeka*, drew a parallel between *The Mirror Never Lies* and Samuel Beckett's play *Waiting for Godot*. He suggests that they both have the same message: that awaiting somebody who never comes is ultimately futile. Benke further suggests that the film is centred around the conflict between the "utopian" Pakis and her "realistic" mother. Meanwhile, Maggie Lee, reviewing in *The Hollywood Reporter*, considered the film more of a coming-of-age story, with Pakis "discovering her womanhood just when the most significant man in her life is gone". Lee also noted Pakis' burgeoning sensuality and "nascent physical stirrings" for her friend Tudo. Ultimately, Lee suggested that Andini was expressing her desire to "break away from her father' [*sic*] artistic influence and swim alone" through the film. Release and reception --------------------- *The Mirror Never Lies* was premiered at the XXI Cineplex at FX Life Style in Jakarta on 26 April 2011, followed by a wide release on 5 May 2011. According to Lisa Siregar of *The Jakarta Globe*, the film was one of the first to document the Bajau people, including several of their rituals. It was a commercial failure domestically, seeing little viewership. Puput Puji Lestari, writing for the Indonesian entertainment website KapanLagi.com, praised *The Mirror Never Lies*, concluding that it was "highly recomended" [*sic*] and that, despite some scenes which were out of focus, it "showed its quality from the first minute". Kurniasari considered the performances by the Bajau youth well done and praised the visuals as a "sneak peak into the beauty of Wakatobi". She found, however, that the film had several events with unclear motives. Lee likewise praised the film's "breathtaking underwater cinematography" and Novalista's performance, considering the youth's performance "convincingly embodying the uncertainties of a girl on the brink of adolescence". She found some faults in the film, including its ecological message which made "some scenes look rather Discovery Channel" and the "artificial" manner in which traditional songs were included in the film. Siregar also praised the visuals, writing that "every frame of the film is filled with the natural beauty of Wakatobi" and that *The Mirror Never Lies* would likely attract tourists to the islands. Writing for *Tempo* magazine, Nunuy Nurhayati found that Andini had "done pretty well" with the film, praising its storyline and the children's acting. She considered the film's main strength to be the "beauty and uniqueness of Wakatobi's panoramas" and wildlife. Benke found that the film was full of symbolism, similar to the works of Nugroho; Benke stated, however, that *The Mirror Never Lies* much easier to decipher than works by Andini's father. Rahman gave the film six out of ten. She praised Hasiholan and Novalista's performances, but found Rahadian's to be lacking. Although admitting the technical difficulties in filming on-site, she wrote that the cinematography could have been better. The film was screened at numerous international film festivals, including the Busan International Film Festival in Korea, the Vancouver International Film Festival in Canada, the Mumbai Film Festival in India, the Tokyo International Film Festival in Japan (where it received a special mention), the Seattle International Film Festival in the US, and the Melbourne International Film Festival in Australia. It was one of two Indonesian films screened at the 2012 Berlin International Film Festival, playing to full cinemas in the Generation category; *Kompas* reported that it was recommended viewing for German schoolchildren at the time. Awards ------ *The Mirror Never Lies* has won several awards in both domestic and international film festivals. Before its domestic release, it won a special mention from the Global Film Initiative for its aesthetics and cultural content. For her directorial debut, Andini won a "Bright Young Talent Award" at the 2011 Mumbai Film Festival. At that year's Indonesian Film Festival the film was nominated for eight Citra Awards, winning two. It lost four, including Best Film, to Ifa Isfansyah's *Sang Penari* (*The Dancer*; 2011), while Hanung Bramantyo's *?* (2011) surpassed *The Mirror Never Lies* for cinematography. At the 2012 Bandung Film Festival *The Mirror Never Lies* received four awards from a total of ten nominations. At the 2012 Asia Pacific Screen Awards, it was one of two Indonesian works to compete, winning a single award from a single nomination. That year the film competed at the Asian Film Awards, receiving nominations for Best Cinematographer and Best Newcomer. The former award was ultimately captured by Chin Ting-Chang of *Seediq Bale* (2011), while the latter was taken by Ko Chen-tung of *You Are the Apple of My Eye* (2011). | Award | Year | Category | Recipient | Result | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Mumbai Film Festival | 2011 | Bright Young Talent Award | Kamila Andini | Won | | Indonesian Film Festival | Best Film | – | Nominated | | Best Director | Kamila Andini | Nominated | | Best Screenplay | Kamila Andini, Dirmawan Hatta | Nominated | | Best Original Story | Kamila Andini | Won | | Best Cinematography | Ipung Rachmat Syaiful | Nominated | | Best Music Arrangement | Thoersi Argeswara | Won | | Best Leading Actress | Gita Novalista | Nominated | | Best Supporting Actress | Atiqah Hasiholan | Nominated | | Bandung Film Festival | 2012 | Best Film | – | Won | | Best Director | Kamila Andini | Won | | Best Screenplay | Dirmawan Hatta | Nominated | | Best Leading Actor | Reza Rahadian | Nominated | | Best Leading Actress | Atiqah Hasiholan | Nominated | | Best Cinematography | Ipung Rahmat Syaiful | Won | | Best Artistic Direction | Tonny Trimarsanto and Tomy D. Setyanto | Won | | Best Music | Thoersi Argeswara | Nominated | | Best Editing | Wawan I. Wibowo | Nominated | | Best Poster | – | Won | | Asia Pacific Screen Awards | Best Children's Feature Film | Garin Nugroho and Nadine Chandrawinata | Won | | Asian Film Awards | Best Newcomer | Gita Novalista | Nominated | | Best Cinematographer | Ipung Rachmat Syaiful | Nominated | | Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ Also written Bajaw and Bajo 2. ↑ Original: "*... langsung menunjukkan kualitasnya sejak menit pertama.*" 3. ↑ Original: "*... lumayan berhasil*" 4. ↑ Original: "*Keunikan dan keindahan panorama Wakatobi* ..." Works cited ----------- * "6th AFA Nominees and Winners". Hong Kong: Asian Film Awards. Archived from the original on 8 January 2013. Retrieved 10 June 2012. * Aguslia (31 October 2011). "Kamila Andini Bersinar di Film Festival Bombay" [Kamila Andini Shines at the Bombay Film Festival]. *Tempo* (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * "Atiqah Hasiholan Finds Bajo Dialect Difficult". *The Jakarta Post*. 27 April 2011. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2013. * "Atiqah Hasiholan: Terlalu Banyak Kegelisahan di Negeri Ini..." [Atiqah Hasiholan: Too Much Restlessness in this Country...]. *Kompas* (in Indonesian). 19 April 2011. Archived from the original on 23 January 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * Benke, Benny (21 January 2012). "Membaca Tradisi" [Reading Tradition]. *Suara Merdeka* (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 4 April 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * "FAQ (Tanya-Jawab)". *Official Website for The Mirror Never Lies*. Jakarta: WWF Indonesia. Archived from the original on 19 January 2013. Retrieved 19 January 2013. * Febriani, Prih Prawesti (31 October 2011). "Atiqah Hasiholan Belajar Potong Ikan" [Atiqah Hasiholan Learns to Cut Fish]. *Tempo* (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. * Fikri, Ahmad (13 May 2012). "'Mirror Never Lies' Jawara Festival Film Bandung" ['Mirror Never Lies' Champion of the Bandung Film Festival]. *Tempo* (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 5 April 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. * Herman, Ami (27 April 2011). "Nadine Chandrawinata Belajar Jadi Produser" [Nadine Chandrawinata Learning to be a Producer]. *Suara Karya* (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * "Kabar Baik dari Berlin untuk Indonesia" [Good News from Berlin for Indonesia]. *Kompas* (in Indonesian). 21 February 2012. Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * "Kredit The Mirror Never Lies" [Credits for The Mirror Never Lies]. *filmindonesia.or.id* (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Konfidan Foundation. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2012. * Kurniasari, Triwik (18 December 2011). "A Vibrant Year for the Film Industry". *The Jakarta Post*. Archived from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012. * Kurniasari, Triwik (15 May 2011). "Kamila Andini : Filming Close to the Heart". *The Jakarta Post*. Archived from the original on 15 September 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2013. * Kurniasari, Triwik (16 January 2011). "Reza Rahardian: Young Actor with Many Faces". *The Jakarta Post*. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 20 January 2012. * Kurniasari, Triwik (1 May 2011). "Wakatobi's Alluring Beauty". *The Jakarta Post*. Archived from the original on 7 October 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2012. * Lee, Maggie (7 October 2011). "The Mirror Never Lies: Busan Film Review". *The Hollywood Reporter*. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2013. * Lestari, Puput Puji (29 April 2011). "'The Mirror Never Lies', Laut Itu Cermin Besar" ['The Mirror Never Lies', Laut Itu Cermin Besar]. *KapanLagi.com* (in Indonesian). Jakarta. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2013. * "Nominasi Festival Film Bandung 2012" [Nominations for 2012 Bandung Film Festival]. *KapanLagi.com* (in Indonesian). Jakarta. 1 May 2012. Archived from the original on 13 April 2013. Retrieved 21 January 2013. * Nurhayati, Nunuy (8 May 2011). "Karena Cermin Tak Pernah Berdusta" [Because a Mirror Never Lies]. *Tempo* (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * "Penghargaan Tanda Tanya" [Awards for Tanda Tanya]. *filmindonesia.or.id* (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Konfidan Foundation. Archived from the original on 23 March 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2012. * "Penghargaan The Mirror Never Lies" [Awards for The Mirror Never Lies]. *filmindonesia.or.id* (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Konfidan Foundation. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2013. * Rahman, Lisabona (5 May 2011). "Langkah Pertama Yang Mengesankan Walau Tertatih" [An Impressive First Step, Although Falling Short]. *filmindonesia.or.id* (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Konfidan Foundation. Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 20 January 2013. * Siregar, Lisa (29 April 2011). "Reflecting on the Lives of the Bajo". *Jakarta Globe*. Archived from the original on 19 January 2013. Retrieved 19 January 2013. * Sudarmanto, Teguh Prayoga (26 April 2011). "Tiga Anak Suku Bajo Main Film" [Three Bajau Children Play in a Film]. *Kompas* (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 23 August 2011. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * "The Mirror Never Lies". *filmindonesia.or.id* (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Konfidan Foundation. Archived from the original on 1 September 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2013. * "The Mirror Never Lies". Melbourne: Melbourne International Film Festival. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 19 January 2013. * "The Mirror Never Lies". Seattle: Seattle International Film Festival. Archived from the original on 13 June 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2013. * "'The Mirror Never Lies' Kisah Suku Bajo dan Terumbu Karang" ['The Mirror Never Lies' Story of the Bajo and Coral Reefs]. *Antara* (in Indonesian). 27 April 2011. Archived from the original on 28 December 2011. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * Webb, Cynthia (17 October 2012). "Kamila Andini: Two Indonesian Films Compete in the APSA 2012". *The Jakarta Post*. p. 23. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2013.

School in Romney, Virginia , United States **Romney Academy** was an educational institution for higher learning in Romney, Virginia (now West Virginia). Romney Academy was first incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly on January 11, 1814, and was active until 1846 when it was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute. In addition to the Romney Classical Institute, Romney Academy was also a forerunner institution to Potomac Seminary. Romney Academy was one of the earliest institutions for higher learning within the present boundaries of the state of West Virginia. With the growth of settlement in Pearsall's Flats, which was later the location of Romney, the need for educational facilities became apparent and the community began plans for the establishment of schools and churches. A log structure, which served as both a school and a church, was built at Pearsall's Flats around 1752 near Fort Pearsall. To provide for a teacher's payment, a form was circulated around Romney and each parent indicated on the paper how many of their children would attend the school and the type of payment the teacher would expect. By the time Romney was surveyed by Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron laid out the town of Romney in 1762, the log school was still in existence. That year, a stone school building was erected on the site to the immediate north of the old Hampshire County Courthouse and became known as Romney Academy. Local education, including Romney Academy, continued to depend exclusively upon subscriptions until 1810 when the Virginia General Assembly passed what was known as the "Literary Fund". The assembly first incorporated Romney Academy on January 11, 1814. In 1817, the assembly passed a bill for the incorporating the trustees of Romney Academy. The Virginia General Assembly reincorporated Romney Academy on February 11, 1818, and on March 25, 1820. In 1820, as a result of a movement and debate for higher education by the Romney Literary Society, Romney Academy incorporated classical studies into its curriculum, thus making it the first institution of higher education in the region. By 1831, Romney Academy had outgrown its facilities, and the Romney Literary Society was given authorization to raise monies from a lottery to build a new school building. The society successfully raised the funds, and in 1845 bids were called for the construction of a new school building. On December 12, 1846, the Virginia General Assembly empowered the Romney Literary Society to establish a seminary for learning at the academy. That same year, a new brick building was constructed for the academy and for the library of the society; the building now serves as the central unit of the administration building of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind. Romney Academy was administered under the leadership of scholarly Englishman Dr. Henry Johnston, who was succeeded by Presbyterian Reverend and historian Dr. William Henry Foote. Foote introduced courses in theology into the school's curriculum. As the school's popularity grew and knowledge of its curriculum under Dr. Foote spread, Romney Academy began to attract students from beyond the South Branch Potomac River valley region. Other educators at Romney Academy during its early years were E. W. Newton, Silas C. Walker, Thomas Mulledy, and Samuel Mulledy. Thomas and Samuel Mulledy each later served as presidents of Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. Background ---------- The land upon which Romney Academy was established was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary, a land grant that the exiled Charles II awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 during the English Interregnum. Following the Restoration in 1660, Charles II finally ascended to the English throne. Charles II renewed the Northern Neck Proprietary grant in 1662, revised it in 1669, and again renewed the original grant favoring original grantee Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper and Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington in 1672. In 1681, Bennet sold his share to Lord Colepeper, and Lord Colepeper received a new charter for the entire land grant from James II in 1688. Following the deaths of Lord Colepeper, his wife Margaret, and his daughter Katherine, the Northern Neck Proprietary passed to Katherine's son Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron in 1719. The South Branch Survey of the Northern Neck Proprietary extended from the north end of The Trough to the confluence of the North and South Branches of the Potomac River. Lord Fairfax originally planned to maintain the South Branch Survey as his personal manor but later commissioned James Genn to survey the South Branch Potomac River lowlands for sale in 1748, with land lots ranging in size from 300 acres (120 ha) to 400 acres (160 ha). Romney and its environs within the South Branch Survey were originally settled in the 1730s by Job Pearsall, and by 1748 approximately 200 people had settled at what was then known as Pearsall's Flats. Prior to 1762, Lord Fairfax sent surveyors into Hampshire County, who were charged with the selection of a site for what would later become the town of Romney. Pearsall's Flats was selected as the site due to its already having Fort Pearsall, a courthouse, and natural topographical advantages. Lord Fairfax commissioned a survey of Romney, and the town was laid out into 25 2-acre blocks with eight streets in a grid pattern in 1762. On December 13, 1762, the Virginia General Assembly recognized the stability of the upper Potomac frontier when it passed a bill establishing the town of Romney, and the bill was signed by Governor Francis Fauquier on December 23, 1762. In the early years in western Virginia, pioneer settlers were primarily concerned with providing defense from Native American attacks, so little emphasis was placed upon education. Education was viewed as a religious duty, to be provided for at home, where its quality was dependent upon the spare time and level of education of parents. With the growth of settlement in Pearsall's Flats, and later Romney, the need for educational facilities became apparent and the community began plans for the establishment of schools and churches. A log structure, which served as both a school and a church, was built at Pearsall's Flats around 1752 near Fort Pearsall. During his travels in western Virginia in 1753, George Washington made mention of this structure. The log building was constructed of roughly hewn logs with clay chinking and contained puncheon log floors, hewn side up, clapboard doors, and one small window covered by a paper greased with lard. Light in the log structure was provided by the small window and a fireplace measuring 8 feet (2.4 m) in height, which contained a tall pile of logs during the winter to provide for warmth in addition to lighting. The school's teachers were paid by subscriptions from the attending students. To provide for a teacher's payment, a form was circulated around Romney and each parent indicated on the paper how many of their children would attend the school and the type of payment the teacher would expect, whether in the form of cash remuneration, produce, or boarding. These early teachers were usually "wandering pedagogues, settling wherever they could obtain enough signers to insure a living". By the time the surveyors on behalf of Lord Fairfax had laid out the town of Romney in 1762, the log school was still in existence along with other public buildings. Later in 1762 following the establishment of Romney, the school was rebuilt in stone on the same site. The stone building was erected on the site to the immediate north of the old Hampshire County Courthouse and became known as Romney Academy. The stone building was a rugged square building that served as Romney's cultural center before the school was formally incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly, but the exact date of its construction is unknown. Romney Academy was first incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly on January 11, 1814. Following the American Revolutionary War, education in Virginia was provided predominantly by private "district schools" whose curriculum was decided by the people who funded them. On February 8, 1817, the first comprehensive bill for public education in the southern United States was introduced to the Virginia House of Delegates by Federalist delegate Charles F. Mercer. Mercer's bill provided for a centralized system for public education that was to be administered by a board of education and financed by the state of Virginia. The bill stated that primary schools were to be established first for "all free white children ... free of any charge whatever" and provided for the establishment of a system of academies, 48 for males and three for females, and four colleges that were to be dispersed throughout Virginia, and a university to be founded in a centralized location. The bill faced substantial partisan opposition and eventually failed. Despite the bill's failure, the Virginia General Assembly continued incorporated academies or "classical schools" throughout the state to provide primary and secondary education. Despite being incorporated by the assembly, the academies were not public and were instead funded through tuition fees, which were generally low but prevented a larger number of students from attending them. By 1860, the Virginia General Assembly had incorporated 250 of these academies, including Romney Academy. Establishment and development ----------------------------- Local education, including Romney Academy, continued to depend upon subscriptions exclusively until 1810 when the Virginia General Assembly passed what was known as the "Literary Fund", which was to be apportioned among the Virginia counties for the education of the poor. In 1817, a bill "incorporating the trustees of Romney Academy in the county of Hampshire" was presented to the Virginia House of Delegates by Mr. Scott, a delegate on the Committee of Schools and Colleges. The bill was read a second time in the Virginia House of Delegates following a motion by Hampshire County delegate William Naylor, after which it was ordered to be "re-committed to the Committee of Schools and Colleges". An amended version of the bill was again presented to the Virginia House of Delegates for a third time by Mr. Scott, and it was passed by the legislative body and renamed "an act incorporating the trustees of Romney Academy in the county of Hampshire". A further provision for local education in Virginia was included in an act passed by the Virginia General Assembly in 1818 stating that: "It shall be the duty of the courts of the several counties, cities, and corporate towns—in the month of October or as soon thereafter as may be—to appoint not less than five or more than fifteen discreet persons to be called school commissioners." The commissioners who were appointed in Hampshire County were John McDowell, David Gibson, John Pierce, John Randalls, Elisha Thompson, Charles Keller, Frederick Sheets, James Abernathy, and Robert Sherard. Accounts rendered to the Hampshire County court for the expenditure of the Literary Fund illustrated that "the average price of tuition, exclusive of books, paper, etc. has been within a small fraction of four cents for every day of each attendance for each poor child." Because nearly 700 impoverished children in Hampshire County were entitled to the fund, each child was only able to receive only a few months' worth of schooling, and because of the limited facilities, only about half of the total number of eligible children were able to be taken care of at each of the two periods of enrollment. Romney Academy was formally established on February 11, 1818, when the Virginia General Assembly finally passed an act entitled "an act incorporating the trustees of Romney academy, in the county of Hampshire" in which the assembly incorporated Romney Academy and constituted and appointed a board of trustees for the operation of the institution. With a system of formal education underway in Hampshire County, forces were underway for the higher education in the community. On a winter evening in 1819, nine men in Romney conducting a meeting in the office of Dr. John Temple for the purpose "of taking into consideration the proprietary of financing a Society, having for its object the advancement of Literature and Science; the purchase of a Library by and for the use of its members; and their further improvement by discussing before the Society such questions as shall be selected under its directors." The nine men consisted of Thomas Blair, David Gibson, James P. Jack, Virginia author and historian Samuel Kercheval, Nathaniel Kuykendall, Charles T. Magill, James M. Stephens, John Temple, and W. C. Wodrow. Shortly after the formation of the Romney Literary Society, the society recognized that the quality of the education provided by Romney Academy and other local subscription schools was not meeting the needs of the Romney community, and therefore, it launched a movement to establish an institution for "the higher education of the youth of the community". The society frequently debated upon theories of education advancement and popular education. In 1820, as a result of this movement and debate, Romney Academy incorporated classical studies into its curriculum, thus making it the first institution of higher education in the region. The institution was again incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly on March 25, 1820. By 1831, Romney Academy had outgrown its facilities, and the Romney Literary Society commenced its campaign to raise funds for a new academic building. On January 6, 1832, the Virginia General Assembly authorized the society to raise $20,000 by lottery for educational purposes. Following a ten-year lapse after this authorization, the society made arrangements with James Gregory of Jersey City, New Jersey, and Daniel McIntyre of Philadelphia to finance the lottery, "for raising a sum of money not exceeding Twenty Thousand dollars, for the purpose of erecting a suitable building for their accommodation, the purchase of a library and Philosophical apparatus". The lottery was to be conducted for a period lasting 10 years, and the sums of $750, $1,000, and $1,500 were to be raised in semi-annual installments. The society successfully raised the funds, and in 1845 bids were called for the construction of a new school building. On December 12, 1846, the Virginia General Assembly empowered the Romney Literary Society "to establish at or near the town of Romney a Seminary of Learning for the instruction of youth in various branches of science and literature; and the Society may appropriate to the same such portion of the property which it now has or may acquire, as it may deem expedient". That same year, a new brick building was constructed for the academy and for the library of the society, which now serves as the central unit of the administration building of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind. Following the school's move to the building, it was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute with Foote as its principal. Faculty and curriculum ---------------------- The earliest faculty members of Romney Academy are unknown, but the institution's first principal and one of the institution's longest serving teachers from its era of infancy was scholarly Englishman Dr. Henry Johnston. Under Johnston's leadership, Romney Academy became known regionally for its courses in the "higher classics" and made Romney the seat of one of the Eastern Panhandle's most successful academies. Johnston believed in the "rule of the birch rod" and discipline was no light matter under his leadership. Some of Romney's prominent men in its early history were among Johnston's students. Other educators at Romney Academy during its early years were E. W. Newton, Silas C. Walker, a Mr. Brown, Thomas Mulledy, and Samuel Mulledy. Thomas and Samuel Mulledy each later served as presidents of Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. Presbyterian Reverend and historian Dr. William Henry Foote succeeded Johnston as principal of Romney Academy around 1826. Foote served in that capacity until his departure from Romney around 1837 or 1839. Foote also concurrently served as the pastor of the Romney Presbyterian Church. Foote introduced courses in theology into the school's curriculum, which broadened the make-up of the student body to include young men preparing for the ministry. As the school's popularity grew and knowledge of its curriculum under Dr. Foote spread, Romney Academy began to attract students from beyond the South Branch Potomac River valley region. Following Foote's departure, Reverend Theodore Gallaudet served as Romney Academy's principal. Board of trustees ----------------- John Baker White *(pictured left)* and Angus William McDonald *(pictured right)* were members of the Romney Academy board of trustees following its reconstitution in 1839. The inaugural board of trustees were constituted and appointed by the Virginia General Assembly in 1818. Because there were several vacancies among the board of trustees, on March 25, 1839, the Virginia General Assembly passed an act, appointing a new board of trustees consisting of David Gibson, John Baker White, Angus William McDonald, Daniel Mytinger, and John Kern, Jr. In addition, the 1839 act authorized any of the five appointed trustees of Romney Academy to fill vacancies on the board "occasioned by death, resignation, removal, or legal disability", thereby preventing future prolonged vacant trustee seats. Romney Academy trustee John Baker White was a clerk of both the circuit and county courts of Hampshire County and was the father of Robert White, Attorney General of West Virginia from 1877 until 1881. Robert White successfully lobbied the West Virginia Legislature to pass an act establishing the Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind of West Virginia (later named the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind), which utilized the former campus of the Romney Classical Institute, a successor educational institution to Romney Academy. Another trustee, Angus William McDonald, was the father of Marshall McDonald, who served as commissioner of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries from 1888 until 1895. Building -------- Romney Academy utilized a native stone structure located behind the Hampshire County Courthouse at a site presently occupied by the Courthouse Annex building (1934) at 66 North High Street in Romney. According to West Virginia historians Hu Maxwell and Howard Llewellyn Swisher in their *History of Hampshire County, West Virginia* (1897), the Romney Academy building was one of the earliest educational facilities in the county and regarding its architecture, Maxwell and Swisher noted: "the rough unhewn stones of which the academy was built gave it a very uncouth exterior." By 1831, Romney Academy had outgrown its quarters in the old stone school building and relocated to a new Classical Revival structure completed in 1846, after which the institution was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute. After the academy's stone building ceased being used as an educational facility, it was subsequently utilized for various purposes including serving as the offices of the *Virginia Argus and Hampshire Advertiser* newspaper and as a meeting place for local fraternal organizations. Romney Academy's stone building remained dormant and unoccupied for a number of years and was demolished by the time Maxwell and Swisher researched and authored their *History of Hampshire County, West Virginia* in the late 1890s. Notable alumni -------------- John Jeremiah Jacob *(pictured left)* and Angus William McDonald, Jr. *(pictured right)* were students at Romney Academy. During its brief years of operation between 1814 and 1846, Romney Academy educated a number of notable alumni. According to Seldon Brannon's *Historic Hampshire* (1976), "among the pupils of this school were some of the most prominent men in the early history of the [Romney] community." The academy's students included William C. Clayton, a West Virginia state senator; John Jeremiah Jacob, 4th Governor of West Virginia; Angus William McDonald, Jr. a West Virginia lawyer, politician, and military officer; and Reverend Stuart Robinson, a Presbyterian minister, orator, writer, and editor. Legacy ------ According to West Virginia historian Hu Maxwell in his article entitled "West Virginia a Century Ago" published in *The Transallegheny Historical Magazine* (1901), Romney Academy was "one of the oldest and most renowned schools on the early soil of West Virginia". Of the institution, Maxwell stated that "from its halls went forth some of the teachers who became the disseminators of learning in the famous South Branch [valley]—whose people might appropriately be called the Phoenicians of the Alleghenies, the carriers of liberty, equality, and education." Bibliography ------------ * Biographical Publishing Company (1903). *Men of West Virginia, Volume 2*. Biographical Publishing Company. OCLC 670364755. Archived from the original on November 15, 2013. * Blue, John S. (1980). *History & Tales of a Pioneer*. Jasper County Abstract Co. ISBN 9780960447404. OCLC 6347541. Archived from the original on October 31, 2013. * Blume, Kenneth J. (2011). *Historical Dictionary of the U.S. Maritime Industry*. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5634-9. OCLC 741415839. Archived from the original on November 13, 2013. * Brannon, Selden W. ed. (1976). *Historic Hampshire: A Symposium of Hampshire County and Its People, Past and Present*. Parsons, West Virginia: McClain Printing Company. ISBN 978-0-87012-236-1. OCLC 3121468. * Coleman, Roy V. (1951). *Liberty and Property*. New York City: Scribner. OCLC 1020487. * Crowell, Edward Payson; Biscoe, Walter Stanley (1883). William Lewis Montague (ed.). *Biographical Record of the Alumni of Amherst College During its First Half Century, 1821–1871*. The College. * Egerton, Douglas R. (April 1985). "To the Tombs of the Capulets: Charles Fenton Mercer and Public Education in Virginia, 1816–1817". *The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography*. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Historical Society. **93** (1): 155–174. JSTOR 4244181. OCLC 82926642. * Federal Writers' Project (1937). *Historic Romney 1762–1937*. Romney, West Virginia: Federal Writers' Project, The Town Council of Romney, West Virginia. OCLC 2006735. Archived from the original on January 1, 2014. Retrieved October 16, 2016. * Hendricks, Christopher E. (2006). *The Backcountry Towns of Colonial Virginia*. University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-1-57233-543-1. OCLC 64624884. Archived from the original on January 4, 2014. * Maxwell, Hu; Swisher, Howard Llewellyn (1897). *History of Hampshire County, West Virginia From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present*. Morgantown, West Virginia: A. Brown Boughner, Printer. OCLC 1305960. OL 23304577M. * Maxwell, Hu (1901). "West Virginia a Century Ago". *The Transallegheny Historical Magazine*. Transallegheny Historical Society. **1**: 234–236. Archived from the original on January 4, 2014. Retrieved October 16, 2016. * Miller, Thomas Condit; Maxwell, Hu (1913). *West Virginia and Its People*. New York City: Lewis Historical Publishing Company. OCLC 1449151. * Morrison, Alfred James (1917). *The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776–1860: Study of Secondary Schools in Relation to the State Literary Fund, Volume 187*. D. Bottom, Superintendent of Public Printing. Archived from the original on January 4, 2014. * Munske, Roberta R.; Kerns, Wilmer L. eds. (2004). *Hampshire County, West Virginia, 1754–2004*. Romney, West Virginia: The Hampshire County 250th Anniversary Committee. ISBN 978-0-9715738-2-6. OCLC 55983178. * Rice, Otis K. (2015). *The Allegheny Frontier: West Virginia Beginnings, 1730–1830*. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-6438-0. OCLC 900345296. Archived from the original on May 27, 2016. * Rose, Cornelia Bruère (1976). *Arlington County, Virginia: A History*. Arlington County, Virginia: Arlington Historical Society. OCLC 2401541. Archived from the original on April 2, 2016. * Rowe, Alan; Riebe, Erin; Rasmussen, Barbara E. (2003). *National Register of Historic Places Registration Form: Hampshire County Courthouse* (PDF). United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 14, 2011. * Virginia General Assembly (1839). *Acts passed at a General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Virginia*. Virginia General Assembly. Archived from the original on January 4, 2014. * Virginia House of Delegates (1817). *Journal of the House of Delegates of the Commonwealth of Virginia*. Commonwealth of Virginia. Archived from the original on January 4, 2014. * West Virginia Bar Association (1915). *Report of the West Virginia Bar Association: Including Proceedings of the Annual Meeting, Volume 31*. West Virginia Bar Association. OCLC 1588346. Archived from the original on May 4, 2016. * West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey (1927). *Hampshire and Hardy Counties, Volume 1*. Morgantown Printing and Binding Company. OCLC 614539199. Archived from the original on November 3, 2013. * William and Mary Quarterly (April 1898). "The Northern Neck of Virginia". *William and Mary Quarterly*. Williamsburg, Virginia: College of William & Mary. **6** (4): 222–226. doi:10.2307/1915885. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 1915885. OCLC 1607858. * Williams, Flora McDonald (1911). *The Glengarry McDonalds of Virginia*. Louisville, Kentucky: George G. Fetter Company. OCLC 5149045. | * v * t * e Education in Hampshire County, West Virginia | | --- | | Hampshire County Schools | | | | | --- | --- | | Elementary schools | * Augusta Elementary School * Capon Bridge Elementary School * John J. Cornwell Elementary School * Romney Elementary School * Slanesville Elementary School * Springfield–Green Spring Elementary School | | Middle schools | * Capon Bridge Middle School * Romney Middle School | | High schools | * Hampshire High School | | Defunct schools | * Capon Bridge High School * Capon Bridge Junior High School * Grassy Lick Elementary School * Green Spring Elementary School * Hoy Grade School * Levels Elementary School * Mill Creek Elementary School * Rio Elementary School * Romney Colored School * Romney High School * Romney Junior High School * Springfield Elementary School | | | State public schools | * West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and the Blind | | Private learning centersand educational institutions | * Bhavana Society Forest Monastery and Retreat Center * Global Country of World Peace Transcendental Meditation Learning Center and Retreat | | Historic educationalsocieties and institutions | * Potomac Seminary * Romney Academy * Romney Classical Institute * Romney Literary Society * Springfield Academy | | Libraries | * Hampshire County Public Library * Literary Hall | | People | | | | | --- | --- | | Administrators | * John Rinehart Blue * William C. Clayton * John Collins Covell * Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy * William Henry Foote * Henry Bell Gilkeson | | Educators | * John Jacob Cornwell * John Jeremiah Jacob * Howard Hille Johnson * James Sloan Kuykendall * Jerry Mezzatesta * Alexander W. Monroe * Ruth Rowan * Howard Llewellyn Swisher | | Officials | * Robert White | | Portals:* icon Education * icon Schools * flag Virginia * flag West Virginia

1997 American film ***Little Boy Blue*** is a 1997 independent drama film directed by Antonio Tibaldi about a dysfunctional Texas family. The father, Ray (John Savage) is a Vietnam War veteran who was left impotent from a war injury. His teenage son Jimmy West (Ryan Phillippe) tries to protect his two younger brothers from their abusive father, but the story ends in violence and the revelation that Jimmy was abducted by Ray as an infant. Plot ---- Living in the backwoods of Texas is the dysfunctional and apparently incestuous family: a psychotic war veteran father, Ray West, a compliant wife, Kate, and a 19-year-old son, Jimmy, who is relegated to a warehouse outside the family home. Ray and Kate seem to be a normal couple running their bar, raising their two sons, but as they return home from work Ray turns violent and abusive. At his insistence, Kate and Jimmy were having a shocking and strong sexual relationship. Ray goes even so far as to call Jimmy "Little Boy Blue", and to shout that 'he knows' Jimmy likes it. As it turns out, during Jimmy's conversation with his girlfriend, Traci Connor, he rejects a full scholarship for college. He cannot leave his brothers with his father. He explains that if he is not there Ray will take all his rage onto his little brothers, which he finds not tenable. Traci can understand that, but she cannot give up her own future, and so they eventually break up. In the course of the events, it becomes clear that Ray harbors a secret he cannot share with anyone. When a stranger appears in his bar and wants to befriend Ray, the latter gets suspicious, and attempts to knock down the man. He kills someone who appears to be a private detective. Jimmy starts becoming suspicious about his father being a murderer, and one night when Kate visits him in the warehouse he asks her to take the boys and leave Ray for good. She declines for reason of panic. Kate explains that she cannot imagine what she can do in such a frightening place, unbeknownst to her. Ray enters the warehouse and upon seeing Kate in Jimmy's arms, he generates' a ruckus, and insists that Kate and he should tell Jimmy the truth. Kate manages to calm him down, but, Jimmy is still too frustrated, and the next morning he goes to Traci's place to talk to her and to say his final goodbye. She listens to his shocking story about Ray's abusive behavior, and is startled when Jimmy says that he cannot leave his own sons with such a Vietnam-traumatised monster. He leaves her house and goes back to his place. On his way he is stopped by Ray who takes advantage of the absence of Kate and the boys and tells Jimmy that he needs to know who he really is and why he keeps on calling Jimmy "Little Boy Blue". Figuring out where Ray is going, Jimmy wants to stop him, and a fight is started for which Ray is obviously ready, and has been expecting it all along. A few days after that Jimmy is nowhere to be seen, with everyone except Traci assuming that he has left the town. A mysterious woman, Doris Knight, appears in town looking for her private detective. As the police interrogate her, the secret unfolds about Ray, Jimmy, and herself. Years ago she had met Ray when she, her husband, and their newborn baby where driving their family minivan, and Ray needed a ride. While Ray had complimented them on their beautiful baby-boy, and conducted a cheerful, friendly conversation, she was reading a book to her son, the same "Little Boy Blue" book Ray had been keeping among his personal things, and which Jimmy had taken from his elder son earlier to prevent Ray from punishing the boy for stealing, without any hint of what was coming. Hours after they had picked up Ray, she was tied to a tree, beaten severely, her partner killed, and watching as Ray walked away with her son, got into the minivan and drove away. As she breaks into tears while telling the story, she does not forget to mention that "it was 19 years ago and that nobody helped her then and did not find her son." The police send her to her motel room, and guard her so she will not do anything "stupid" before they get an order to interrogate Ray, but she slips away at night and goes directly to Ray's house. With the boys out at the lake, and Kate out in the warehouse to find clues as to where Jimmy might have gone, Ray wakes up to find her pointing a gun at his head. While he starts mumbling that she has the wrong person, that he has not done anything bad to her, she shoots him several times and heads to the warehouse, where Kate is hiding near Jimmy's bed. As the woman starts looking around the place, she finds the "Little boy blue" book lying on the table, and breaks into tears. Right then she hears Kate crying, too, and without any remorse shoots her dead as well. The boys, who had been hiding under the house, run towards the warehouse, but are stopped by a police officer, who had come to find the woman. She comes out of the warehouse waving her gun at the officer, and as she is about to shoot, she is shot dead by the policeman. The boys spend the night in the police car, and in the morning the elder brother remembers that their father had been recently working a lot around their minivan. The policeman sets everyone to work and as the minivan, and the soil under it, are removed, they find doors in the ground. As the doors are opened, the viewer gets an inside look at an unconscious Jimmy, tied up to the wooden shelves like on a cross, bloody and bruised. As the ambulance is cutting the ropes and placing him in the ambulance car, Jimmy has a vision of his future. There he is a policeman, married to Traci, playing with his sons and his newborn baby in the park. As he slowly wakes up from his dreams, he hears his sons calling his name, and assuring them that everything's okay, and that he is never going to leave them, Jimmy smiles. The final scene shows the ambulance car drive away as the credits start to roll. Cast ---- * Ryan Phillippe as Jimmy "Little Boy Blue" West * John Savage as Ray West * Nastassja Kinski as Kate West * Adam Burke as Mikey West * Devon Michael as Mark West * Jenny Lewis as Traci Connor * Shirley Knight as Doris Knight * Tyrin Turner as Nate Carr * Gail Cronauer as Motel Clerk Release ------- *Little Boy Blue* premiered at the Italian film festival Mystfest in June 1997. In the United States, the film was first shown at Hamptons International Film Festival in October 1997. ### DVD release * Studio: Lions Gate Home Ent. DVD * Release date: July 11, 2006 * Run time: 99 minutes The DVD release of the film contains no extra features, and is only available in a fullscreen format. There are no plans to re-release the film on DVD/Blu-ray in widescreen format.

American television channel Television channel **Ha!: TV Comedy Network** (commonly known as **Ha!**) was an American pay television channel owned by Viacom; it was one of the first American all-comedy channels available in basic-tier television offers. Launched on April 1, 1990, at 7 p.m. ET, it competed with another startup comedy-oriented cable channel, HBO-owned The Comedy Channel. In 1991, the two channels merged to form Comedy Central. Background ---------- MTV Networks had carved out a niche for itself in the cable programming marketplace throughout the 1980s with its flagship networks MTV and Nickelodeon. Up until that point, there had been only one instance of competition among genres in the cable industry, that of Ted Turner launching a rival to MTV, Cable Music Channel, which ended up being short-lived and Viacom using the channel space for an older-skewing counterpart to MTV, VH1. At the same time though, research constantly encouraged management that a channel strictly dedicated to comedy programming would be profitable, motivating MTV to forge ahead with plans for a comedy channel. When HBO announced the launch of The Comedy Channel, MTV Networks retaliated by announcing the debut of its own rival channel, Ha! Programming ----------- Unlike The Comedy Channel, which focused on stand-up comedy specials and clips of classic comedy feature films, Ha!'s programming centered largely on acquired off-network situation comedies from the 1950s to the 1970s. Some cable providers, particularly those owned by Viacom or Cablevision, carried the channel under a channel-share agreement in which it would be aired on the same channel space as fellow Viacom-owned cable network VH1; Ha! would air for half of the day, with the channel turning over to VH1 afterward. Programing included *Caesar's Hour*, in half-hour segments with *Sid Caesar* intros, *The Steve Allen Show*, also edited to a half-hour format with 1990 reflections taped by Allen, *You Bet Your Life*, *The Jack Benny Program*, the 1960–67 *CBS* network prime time version of *Candid Camera*, *The Phil Silvers Show*, and *Car 54, Where Are You?*. The channel name was culled by MTV Networks from a list of 400 possible suggestions by branding agency Fred/Alan, Inc. New York, whose creative team created the logo, branding, advertising, and was the primary consultant on the on-air promotion. As with other channels owned by MTV Networks, the logo was designed in an approach that gave it many variations, each with a different illustrative approach. Towards the end of 1990, with costs on both sides of the competitive equation struggling to meet the limited needs of cable systems' even limited capacity, HBO and Viacom agreed to merge their respective comedy channels. Ha! and Comedy Channel combined to create **CTV: The Comedy Network**, which began airing on April 1, 1991; prior to the merger, both channels each had fewer than 10 million subscribers. Because of confusion and possible legal issues with the Canadian-based CTV network, the name of the network was subsequently changed to **Comedy Central**. The name "Comedy Partners, Inc." appears on the end credits of all shows produced by the new channel. The original Viacom (not the current one, of which Comedy Central is currently part) bought out Time Warner's (which had belonged to HBO, which operated The Comedy Channel) half of the network in 2003; despite this, the "Comedy Partners, Inc." byline still appears on shows produced by the channel today. ### Original programming * *Access America* (December 7, 1990–1991) * *Afterdrive* (November 1, 1990–1991) * *The Big Room* * *Clash!* * *Comics Only* (December 31, 1990–1991) * *London Underground* * *Random Acts of Variety* ### Acquired programming * *The Abbott and Costello Show* (October–December 1990) * *All Is Forgiven* * *The Associates* * *The Bad News Bears* * *The Best of Groucho* * *The Betty White Show* * *Best of the West* (April–November 1990) * *Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice* (September 1990) * *Bridget Loves Bernie* * *Camp Runamuck* * *Candid Camera* * *Captain Nice* * *Car 54, Where Are You?* * *The Charmings* * *C.P.O. Sharkey* (April–December 1990) * *The Duck Factory* * *Fractured Flickers* * *Fresno* (June–July 1990) * *The Jack Benny Program* * *Laurel and Hardy* * *Love, American Style* * *The Lucy Show* * *Mad Movies with the L.A. Connection* * *McHale's Navy* * *Mork & Mindy* * *The New Candid Camera* * *Occasional Wife* * *The Phil Silvers Show* * *Phyllis* * *Quark* * *Rhoda* * *Saturday Night Live* * *SCTV* * *The Steve Allen Show* * *Tabitha* (June–October 1990) * *The Texas Wheelers* (April–November 1990) * *That Girl* * *The Tim Conway Show* (May–June 1990) * *The Tony Randall Show* * *TV's Bloopers and Practical Jokes* * *When Things Were Rotten* * *Whose Line Is It Anyway?* * *Working Stiffs* * *Your Show of Shows*

Computational method in Bayesian statistics | | | --- | | Part of a series on | | Bayesian statistics | | | | Posterior = Likelihood × Prior ÷ Evidence | | Background | | * Bayesian inference * Bayesian probability * Bayes' theorem * Bernstein–von Mises theorem * Coherence * Cox's theorem * Cromwell's rule * Principle of indifference * Principle of maximum entropy | | Model building | | * Weak prior ... Strong prior * Conjugate prior * Linear regression * Empirical Bayes * Hierarchical model | | Posterior approximation | | * Markov chain Monte Carlo * Laplace's approximation * Integrated nested Laplace approximations * Variational inference * Approximate Bayesian computation | | Estimators | | * Bayesian estimator * Credible interval * Maximum a posteriori estimation | | Evidence approximation | | * Evidence lower bound * Nested sampling | | Model evaluation | | * Bayes factor * Model averaging * Posterior predictive | | * icon Mathematics portal | | * v * t * e | **Approximate Bayesian computation** (**ABC**) constitutes a class of computational methods rooted in Bayesian statistics that can be used to estimate the posterior distributions of model parameters. In all model-based statistical inference, the likelihood function is of central importance, since it expresses the probability of the observed data under a particular statistical model, and thus quantifies the support data lend to particular values of parameters and to choices among different models. For simple models, an analytical formula for the likelihood function can typically be derived. However, for more complex models, an analytical formula might be elusive or the likelihood function might be computationally very costly to evaluate. ABC methods bypass the evaluation of the likelihood function. In this way, ABC methods widen the realm of models for which statistical inference can be considered. ABC methods are mathematically well-founded, but they inevitably make assumptions and approximations whose impact needs to be carefully assessed. Furthermore, the wider application domain of ABC exacerbates the challenges of parameter estimation and model selection. ABC has rapidly gained popularity over the last years and in particular for the analysis of complex problems arising in biological sciences, e.g. in population genetics, ecology, epidemiology, systems biology, and in radio propagation. History ------- The first ABC-related ideas date back to the 1980s. Donald Rubin, when discussing the interpretation of Bayesian statements in 1984, described a hypothetical sampling mechanism that yields a sample from the posterior distribution. This scheme was more of a conceptual thought experiment to demonstrate what type of manipulations are done when inferring the posterior distributions of parameters. The description of the sampling mechanism coincides exactly with that of the ABC-rejection scheme, and this article can be considered to be the first to describe approximate Bayesian computation. However, a two-stage quincunx was constructed by Francis Galton in the late 1800s that can be seen as a physical implementation of an ABC-rejection scheme for a single unknown (parameter) and a single observation. Another prescient point was made by Rubin when he argued that in Bayesian inference, applied statisticians should not settle for analytically tractable models only, but instead consider computational methods that allow them to estimate the posterior distribution of interest. This way, a wider range of models can be considered. These arguments are particularly relevant in the context of ABC. In 1984, Peter Diggle and Richard Gratton suggested using a systematic simulation scheme to approximate the likelihood function in situations where its analytic form is intractable. Their method was based on defining a grid in the parameter space and using it to approximate the likelihood by running several simulations for each grid point. The approximation was then improved by applying smoothing techniques to the outcomes of the simulations. While the idea of using simulation for hypothesis testing was not new, Diggle and Gratton seemingly introduced the first procedure using simulation to do statistical inference under a circumstance where the likelihood is intractable. Although Diggle and Gratton's approach had opened a new frontier, their method was not yet exactly identical to what is now known as ABC, as it aimed at approximating the likelihood rather than the posterior distribution. An article of Simon Tavaré and co-authors was first to propose an ABC algorithm for posterior inference. In their seminal work, inference about the genealogy of DNA sequence data was considered, and in particular the problem of deciding the posterior distribution of the time to the most recent common ancestor of the sampled individuals. Such inference is analytically intractable for many demographic models, but the authors presented ways of simulating coalescent trees under the putative models. A sample from the posterior of model parameters was obtained by accepting/rejecting proposals based on comparing the number of segregating sites in the synthetic and real data. This work was followed by an applied study on modeling the variation in human Y chromosome by Jonathan K. Pritchard and co-authors using the ABC method. Finally, the term approximate Bayesian computation was established by Mark Beaumont and co-authors, extending further the ABC methodology and discussing the suitability of the ABC-approach more specifically for problems in population genetics. Since then, ABC has spread to applications outside population genetics, such as systems biology, epidemiology, and phylogeography. Approximate Bayesian computation can be understood as a kind of Bayesian version of indirect inference. Several efficient Monte Carlo based approaches have been developed to perform sampling from the ABC posterior distribution for purposes of estimation and prediction problems. A popular choice is the SMC Samplers algorithim adapted to the ABC context in the method (SMC-ABC). Method ------ ### Motivation A common incarnation of Bayes’ theorem relates the conditional probability (or density) of a particular parameter value {\displaystyle \theta } given data {\displaystyle D} to the probability of {\displaystyle D} given {\displaystyle \theta } by the rule {\displaystyle p(\theta |D)={\frac {p(D|\theta )p(\theta )}{p(D)}}}, where {\displaystyle p(\theta |D)} denotes the posterior, {\displaystyle p(D|\theta )} the likelihood, {\displaystyle p(\theta )} the prior, and {\displaystyle p(D)} the evidence (also referred to as the marginal likelihood or the prior predictive probability of the data). Note that the denominator {\displaystyle p(D)} is normalizing the total probability of the posterior density {\displaystyle p(\theta |D)} to one and can be calculated that way. The prior represents beliefs or knowledge (such as f.e. physical constraints) about {\displaystyle \theta } before {\displaystyle D} is available. Since the prior narrows down uncertainty, the posterior estimates have less variance, but might be biased. For convenience the prior is often specified by choosing a particular distribution among a set of well-known and tractable families of distributions, such that both the evaluation of prior probabilities and random generation of values of {\displaystyle \theta } are relatively straightforward. For certain kinds of models, it is more pragmatic to specify the prior {\displaystyle p(\theta )} using a factorization of the joint distribution of all the elements of {\displaystyle \theta } in terms of a sequence of their conditional distributions. If one is only interested in the relative posterior plausibilities of different values of {\displaystyle \theta }, the evidence {\displaystyle p(D)} can be ignored, as it constitutes a normalising constant, which cancels for any ratio of posterior probabilities. It remains, however, necessary to evaluate the likelihood {\displaystyle p(D|\theta )} and the prior {\displaystyle p(\theta )}. For numerous applications, it is computationally expensive, or even completely infeasible, to evaluate the likelihood, which motivates the use of ABC to circumvent this issue. ### The ABC rejection algorithm All ABC-based methods approximate the likelihood function by simulations, the outcomes of which are compared with the observed data. More specifically, with the ABC rejection algorithm — the most basic form of ABC — a set of parameter points is first sampled from the prior distribution. Given a sampled parameter point {\displaystyle {\hat {\theta }}}, a data set {\displaystyle {\hat {D}}} is then simulated under the statistical model {\displaystyle M} specified by {\displaystyle {\hat {\theta }}}. If the generated {\displaystyle {\hat {D}}} is too different from the observed data {\displaystyle D}, the sampled parameter value is discarded. In precise terms, {\displaystyle {\hat {D}}} is accepted with tolerance {\displaystyle \epsilon \geq 0} if: {\displaystyle \rho ({\hat {D}},D)\leq \epsilon }, where the distance measure {\displaystyle \rho ({\hat {D}},D)} determines the level of discrepancy between {\displaystyle {\hat {D}}} and {\displaystyle D} based on a given metric (e.g. Euclidean distance). A strictly positive tolerance is usually necessary, since the probability that the simulation outcome coincides exactly with the data (event {\displaystyle {\hat {D}}=D}) is negligible for all but trivial applications of ABC, which would in practice lead to rejection of nearly all sampled parameter points. The outcome of the ABC rejection algorithm is a sample of parameter values approximately distributed according to the desired posterior distribution, and, crucially, obtained without the need to explicitly evaluate the likelihood function. Parameter estimation by approximate Bayesian computation: a conceptual overview. ### Summary statistics The probability of generating a data set {\displaystyle {\hat {D}}} with a small distance to {\displaystyle D} typically decreases as the dimensionality of the data increases. This leads to a substantial decrease in the computational efficiency of the above basic ABC rejection algorithm. A common approach to lessen this problem is to replace {\displaystyle D} with a set of lower-dimensional summary statistics {\displaystyle S(D)}, which are selected to capture the relevant information in {\displaystyle D}. The acceptance criterion in ABC rejection algorithm becomes: {\displaystyle \rho (S({\hat {D}}),S(D))\leq \epsilon }. If the summary statistics are sufficient with respect to the model parameters {\displaystyle \theta }, the efficiency increase obtained in this way does not introduce any error. Indeed, by definition, sufficiency implies that all information in {\displaystyle D} about {\displaystyle \theta } is captured by {\displaystyle S(D)}. As elaborated below, it is typically impossible, outside the exponential family of distributions, to identify a finite-dimensional set of sufficient statistics. Nevertheless, informative but possibly insufficient summary statistics are often used in applications where inference is performed with ABC methods. Example ------- A dynamic bistable hidden Markov model An illustrative example is a bistable system that can be characterized by a hidden Markov model (HMM) subject to measurement noise. Such models are employed for many biological systems: They have, for example, been used in development, cell signaling, activation/deactivation, logical processing and non-equilibrium thermodynamics. For instance, the behavior of the Sonic hedgehog (Shh) transcription factor in *Drosophila melanogaster* can be modeled with an HMM. The (biological) dynamical model consists of two states: A and B. If the probability of a transition from one state to the other is defined as {\displaystyle \theta } in both directions, then the probability to remain in the same state at each time step is {\displaystyle {1-\theta }}. The probability to measure the state correctly is {\displaystyle \gamma } (and conversely, the probability of an incorrect measurement is {\displaystyle {1-\gamma }}). Due to the conditional dependencies between states at different time points, calculation of the likelihood of time series data is somewhat tedious, which illustrates the motivation to use ABC. A computational issue for basic ABC is the large dimensionality of the data in an application like this. The dimensionality can be reduced using the summary statistic {\displaystyle S}, which is the frequency of switches between the two states. The absolute difference is used as a distance measure {\displaystyle \rho (\cdot ,\cdot )} with tolerance {\displaystyle \epsilon =2}. The posterior inference about the parameter {\displaystyle \theta } can be done following the five steps presented in. **Step 1:** Assume that the observed data form the state sequence AAAABAABBAAAAAABAAAA, which is generated using {\displaystyle \theta =0.25} and {\displaystyle \gamma =0.8}. The associated summary statistic—the number of switches between the states in the experimental data—is {\displaystyle \omega \_{E}=6}. **Step 2:** Assuming nothing is known about {\displaystyle \theta }, a uniform prior in the interval {\displaystyle [0,1]} is employed. The parameter {\displaystyle \gamma } is assumed to be known and fixed to the data-generating value {\displaystyle \gamma =0.8}, but it could in general also be estimated from the observations. A total of {\displaystyle n} parameter points are drawn from the prior, and the model is simulated for each of the parameter points {\displaystyle \theta \_{i}:{\text{ }}i=1,\ldots ,n}, which results in {\displaystyle n} sequences of simulated data. In this example, {\displaystyle n=5}, with each drawn parameter and simulated dataset recorded in Table 1, columns 2-3. In practice, {\displaystyle n} would need to be much larger to obtain an appropriate approximation. Example of ABC rejection algorithm| i | {\displaystyle \theta \_{i}} | Simulated datasets (step 2) | Summary statistic {\displaystyle \omega \_{S,i}} (step 3) | Distance {\displaystyle \rho (\omega \_{S,i},\omega \_{E})} (step 4) | Outcome (step 4) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 0.08 | AABAAAABAABAAABAAAAA | 8 | 2 | accepted | | 2 | 0.68 | AABBABABAAABBABABBAB | 13 | 7 | rejected | | 3 | 0.87 | BBBABBABBBBABABBBBBA | 9 | 3 | rejected | | 4 | 0.43 | AABAAAAABBABBBBBBBBA | 6 | 0 | accepted | | 5 | 0.53 | ABBBBBAABBABBABAABBB | 9 | 3 | rejected | **Step 3:** The summary statistic is computed for each sequence of simulated data {\displaystyle \omega \_{S,i}:{\text{ }}i=1,\ldots ,n}. **Step 4:** The distance between the observed and simulated transition frequencies {\displaystyle \rho (\omega \_{S,i},\omega \_{E})=|\omega \_{S,i}-\omega \_{E}|} is computed for all parameter points. Parameter points for which the distance is smaller than or equal to {\displaystyle \epsilon } are accepted as approximate samples from the posterior. Posterior of {\displaystyle \theta } obtained in the example (red), compared to the true posterior distribution (black) and ABC simulations with large {\displaystyle n}. The use of the insufficient summary statistic {\displaystyle \omega } introduces bias, even when requiring {\displaystyle \epsilon =0} (light green). **Step 5:** The posterior distribution is approximated with the accepted parameter points. The posterior distribution should have a non-negligible probability for parameter values in a region around the true value of {\displaystyle \theta } in the system if the data are sufficiently informative. In this example, the posterior probability mass is evenly split between the values 0.08 and 0.43. The posterior probabilities are obtained via ABC with large {\displaystyle n} by utilizing the summary statistic (with {\displaystyle \epsilon =0} and {\displaystyle \epsilon =2}) and the full data sequence (with {\displaystyle \epsilon =0}). These are compared with the true posterior, which can be computed exactly and efficiently using the Viterbi algorithm. The summary statistic utilized in this example is not sufficient, as the deviation from the theoretical posterior is significant even under the stringent requirement of {\displaystyle \epsilon =0}. A much longer observed data sequence would be needed to obtain a posterior concentrated around {\displaystyle \theta =0.25}, the true value of {\displaystyle \theta }. This example application of ABC uses simplifications for illustrative purposes. More realistic applications of ABC are available in a growing number of peer-reviewed articles. Model comparison with ABC ------------------------- Outside of parameter estimation, the ABC framework can be used to compute the posterior probabilities of different candidate models. In such applications, one possibility is to use rejection sampling in a hierarchical manner. First, a model is sampled from the prior distribution for the models. Then, parameters are sampled from the prior distribution assigned to that model. Finally, a simulation is performed as in single-model ABC. The relative acceptance frequencies for the different models now approximate the posterior distribution for these models. Again, computational improvements for ABC in the space of models have been proposed, such as constructing a particle filter in the joint space of models and parameters. Once the posterior probabilities of the models have been estimated, one can make full use of the techniques of Bayesian model comparison. For instance, to compare the relative plausibilities of two models {\displaystyle M\_{1}} and {\displaystyle M\_{2}}, one can compute their posterior ratio, which is related to the Bayes factor {\displaystyle B\_{1,2}}: {\displaystyle {\frac {p(M\_{1}|D)}{p(M\_{2}|D)}}={\frac {p(D|M\_{1})}{p(D|M\_{2})}}{\frac {p(M\_{1})}{p(M\_{2})}}=B\_{1,2}{\frac {p(M\_{1})}{p(M\_{2})}}}. If the model priors are equal—that is, {\displaystyle p(M\_{1})=p(M\_{2})}—the Bayes factor equals the posterior ratio. In practice, as discussed below, these measures can be highly sensitive to the choice of parameter prior distributions and summary statistics, and thus conclusions of model comparison should be drawn with caution. Pitfalls and remedies --------------------- Potential risks and remedies in ABC-based statistical inference| Error source | Potential issue | Solution | Subsection | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nonzero tolerance {\displaystyle \epsilon } | The inexactness introduces bias into the computed posterior distribution. | Theoretical/practical studies of the sensitivity of the posterior distribution to the tolerance. Noisy ABC. | #Approximation of the posterior | | Insufficient summary statistics | The information loss causes inflated credible intervals. | Automatic selection/semi-automatic identification of sufficient statistics. Model validation checks (e.g. Templeton 2009). | #Choice and sufficiency of summary statistics | | Small number of models/incorrectly specified models | The investigated models are not representative/lack predictive power. | Careful selection of models. Evaluation of the predictive power. | #Small number of models | | Priors and parameter ranges | Conclusions may be sensitive to the choice of priors. Model choice may be meaningless. | Check sensitivity of Bayes factors to the choice of priors. Some theoretical results regarding choice of priors are available. Use alternative methods for model validation. | #Prior distribution and parameter ranges | | Curse of dimensionality | Low parameter acceptance rates. Model errors cannot be distinguished from an insufficient exploration of the parameter space. Risk of overfitting. | Methods for model reduction if applicable. Methods to speed up the parameter exploration. Quality controls to detect overfitting. | #Curse of dimensionality | | Model ranking with summary statistics | The computation of Bayes factors on summary statistics may not be related to the Bayes factors on the original data, which may therefore render the results meaningless. | Only use summary statistics that fulfill the necessary and sufficient conditions to produce a consistent Bayesian model choice. Use alternative methods for model validation. | #Bayes factor with ABC and summary statistics | | Implementation | Low protection to common assumptions in the simulation and the inference process. | Sanity checks of results. Standardization of software. | #Indispensable quality controls | As for all statistical methods, a number of assumptions and approximations are inherently required for the application of ABC-based methods to real modeling problems. For example, setting the tolerance parameter {\displaystyle \epsilon } to zero ensures an exact result, but typically makes computations prohibitively expensive. Thus, values of {\displaystyle \epsilon } larger than zero are used in practice, which introduces a bias. Likewise, sufficient statistics are typically not available and instead, other summary statistics are used, which introduces an additional bias due to the loss of information. Additional sources of bias- for example, in the context of model selection—may be more subtle. At the same time, some of the criticisms that have been directed at the ABC methods, in particular within the field of phylogeography, are not specific to ABC and apply to all Bayesian methods or even all statistical methods (e.g. the choice of prior distribution and parameter ranges). However, because of the ability of ABC-methods to handle much more complex models, some of these general pitfalls are of particular relevance in the context of ABC analyses. This section discusses these potential risks and reviews possible ways to address them. ### Approximation of the posterior A non-negligible {\displaystyle \epsilon } comes with the price that one samples from {\displaystyle p(\theta |\rho ({\hat {D}},D)\leq \epsilon )} instead of the true posterior {\displaystyle p(\theta |D)}. With a sufficiently small tolerance, and a sensible distance measure, the resulting distribution {\displaystyle p(\theta |\rho ({\hat {D}},D)\leq \epsilon )} should often approximate the actual target distribution {\displaystyle p(\theta |D)} reasonably well. On the other hand, a tolerance that is large enough that every point in the parameter space becomes accepted will yield a replica of the prior distribution. There are empirical studies of the difference between {\displaystyle p(\theta |\rho ({\hat {D}},D)\leq \epsilon )} and {\displaystyle p(\theta |D)} as a function of {\displaystyle \epsilon }, and theoretical results for an upper {\displaystyle \epsilon }-dependent bound for the error in parameter estimates. The accuracy of the posterior (defined as the expected quadratic loss) delivered by ABC as a function of {\displaystyle \epsilon } has also been investigated. However, the convergence of the distributions when {\displaystyle \epsilon } approaches zero, and how it depends on the distance measure used, is an important topic that has yet to be investigated in greater detail. In particular, it remains difficult to disentangle errors introduced by this approximation from errors due to model mis-specification. As an attempt to correct some of the error due to a non-zero {\displaystyle \epsilon }, the usage of local linear weighted regression with ABC to reduce the variance of the posterior estimates has been suggested. The method assigns weights to the parameters according to how well simulated summaries adhere to the observed ones and performs linear regression between the summaries and the weighted parameters in the vicinity of observed summaries. The obtained regression coefficients are used to correct sampled parameters in the direction of observed summaries. An improvement was suggested in the form of nonlinear regression using a feed-forward neural network model. However, it has been shown that the posterior distributions obtained with these approaches are not always consistent with the prior distribution, which did lead to a reformulation of the regression adjustment that respects the prior distribution. Finally, statistical inference using ABC with a non-zero tolerance {\displaystyle \epsilon } is not inherently flawed: under the assumption of measurement errors, the optimal {\displaystyle \epsilon } can in fact be shown to be not zero. Indeed, the bias caused by a non-zero tolerance can be characterized and compensated by introducing a specific form of noise to the summary statistics. Asymptotic consistency for such "noisy ABC", has been established, together with formulas for the asymptotic variance of the parameter estimates for a fixed tolerance. ### Choice and sufficiency of summary statistics Summary statistics may be used to increase the acceptance rate of ABC for high-dimensional data. Low-dimensional sufficient statistics are optimal for this purpose, as they capture all relevant information present in the data in the simplest possible form. However, low-dimensional sufficient statistics are typically unattainable for statistical models where ABC-based inference is most relevant, and consequently, some heuristic is usually necessary to identify useful low-dimensional summary statistics. The use of a set of poorly chosen summary statistics will often lead to inflated credible intervals due to the implied loss of information, which can also bias the discrimination between models. A review of methods for choosing summary statistics is available, which may provide valuable guidance in practice. One approach to capture most of the information present in data would be to use many statistics, but the accuracy and stability of ABC appears to decrease rapidly with an increasing numbers of summary statistics. Instead, a better strategy is to focus on the relevant statistics only—relevancy depending on the whole inference problem, on the model used, and on the data at hand. An algorithm has been proposed for identifying a representative subset of summary statistics, by iteratively assessing whether an additional statistic introduces a meaningful modification of the posterior. One of the challenges here is that a large ABC approximation error may heavily influence the conclusions about the usefulness of a statistic at any stage of the procedure. Another method decomposes into two main steps. First, a reference approximation of the posterior is constructed by minimizing the entropy. Sets of candidate summaries are then evaluated by comparing the ABC-approximated posteriors with the reference posterior. With both of these strategies, a subset of statistics is selected from a large set of candidate statistics. Instead, the partial least squares regression approach uses information from all the candidate statistics, each being weighted appropriately. Recently, a method for constructing summaries in a semi-automatic manner has attained a considerable interest. This method is based on the observation that the optimal choice of summary statistics, when minimizing the quadratic loss of the parameter point estimates, can be obtained through the posterior mean of the parameters, which is approximated by performing a linear regression based on the simulated data. Methods for the identification of summary statistics that could also simultaneously assess the influence on the approximation of the posterior would be of substantial value. This is because the choice of summary statistics and the choice of tolerance constitute two sources of error in the resulting posterior distribution. These errors may corrupt the ranking of models and may also lead to incorrect model predictions. Indeed, none of the methods above assesses the choice of summaries for the purpose of model selection. ### Bayes factor with ABC and summary statistics It has been shown that the combination of insufficient summary statistics and ABC for model selection can be problematic. Indeed, if one lets the Bayes factor based on the summary statistic {\displaystyle S(D)} be denoted by {\displaystyle B\_{1,2}^{s}}, the relation between {\displaystyle B\_{1,2}} and {\displaystyle B\_{1,2}^{s}} takes the form: {\displaystyle B\_{1,2}={\frac {p(D|M\_{1})}{p(D|M\_{2})}}={\frac {p(D|S(D),M\_{1})}{p(D|S(D),M\_{2})}}{\frac {p(S(D)|M\_{1})}{p(S(D)|M\_{2})}}={\frac {p(D|S(D),M\_{1})}{p(D|S(D),M\_{2})}}B\_{1,2}^{s}}. Thus, a summary statistic {\displaystyle S(D)} is sufficient for comparing two models {\displaystyle M\_{1}} and {\displaystyle M\_{2}} if and only if: {\displaystyle p(D|S(D),M\_{1})=p(D|S(D),M\_{2})}, which results in that {\displaystyle B\_{1,2}=B\_{1,2}^{s}}. It is also clear from the equation above that there might be a huge difference between {\displaystyle B\_{1,2}} and {\displaystyle B\_{1,2}^{s}} if the condition is not satisfied, as can be demonstrated by toy examples. Crucially, it was shown that sufficiency for {\displaystyle M\_{1}} or {\displaystyle M\_{2}} alone, or for both models, does not guarantee sufficiency for ranking the models. However, it was also shown that any sufficient summary statistic for a model {\displaystyle M} in which both {\displaystyle M\_{1}} and {\displaystyle M\_{2}} are nested is valid for ranking the nested models. The computation of Bayes factors on {\displaystyle S(D)} may therefore be misleading for model selection purposes, unless the ratio between the Bayes factors on {\displaystyle D} and {\displaystyle S(D)} would be available, or at least could be approximated reasonably well. Alternatively, necessary and sufficient conditions on summary statistics for a consistent Bayesian model choice have recently been derived, which can provide useful guidance. However, this issue is only relevant for model selection when the dimension of the data has been reduced. ABC-based inference, in which the actual data sets are directly compared—as is the case for some systems biology applications (e.g. see )—circumvents this problem. ### Indispensable quality controls As the above discussion makes clear, any ABC analysis requires choices and trade-offs that can have a considerable impact on its outcomes. Specifically, the choice of competing models/hypotheses, the number of simulations, the choice of summary statistics, or the acceptance threshold cannot currently be based on general rules, but the effect of these choices should be evaluated and tested in each study. A number of heuristic approaches to the quality control of ABC have been proposed, such as the quantification of the fraction of parameter variance explained by the summary statistics. A common class of methods aims at assessing whether or not the inference yields valid results, regardless of the actually observed data. For instance, given a set of parameter values, which are typically drawn from the prior or the posterior distributions for a model, one can generate a large number of artificial datasets. In this way, the quality and robustness of ABC inference can be assessed in a controlled setting, by gauging how well the chosen ABC inference method recovers the true parameter values, and also models if multiple structurally different models are considered simultaneously. Another class of methods assesses whether the inference was successful in light of the given observed data, for example, by comparing the posterior predictive distribution of summary statistics to the summary statistics observed. Beyond that, cross-validation techniques and predictive checks represent promising future strategies to evaluate the stability and out-of-sample predictive validity of ABC inferences. This is particularly important when modeling large data sets, because then the posterior support of a particular model can appear overwhelmingly conclusive, even if all proposed models in fact are poor representations of the stochastic system underlying the observation data. Out-of-sample predictive checks can reveal potential systematic biases within a model and provide clues on to how to improve its structure or parametrization. Fundamentally novel approaches for model choice that incorporate quality control as an integral step in the process have recently been proposed. ABC allows, by construction, estimation of the discrepancies between the observed data and the model predictions, with respect to a comprehensive set of statistics. These statistics are not necessarily the same as those used in the acceptance criterion. The resulting discrepancy distributions have been used for selecting models that are in agreement with many aspects of the data simultaneously, and model inconsistency is detected from conflicting and co-dependent summaries. Another quality-control-based method for model selection employs ABC to approximate the effective number of model parameters and the deviance of the posterior predictive distributions of summaries and parameters. The deviance information criterion is then used as measure of model fit. It has also been shown that the models preferred based on this criterion can conflict with those supported by Bayes factors. For this reason, it is useful to combine different methods for model selection to obtain correct conclusions. Quality controls are achievable and indeed performed in many ABC-based works, but for certain problems, the assessment of the impact of the method-related parameters can be challenging. However, the rapidly increasing use of ABC can be expected to provide a more thorough understanding of the limitations and applicability of the method. ### General risks in statistical inference exacerbated in ABC This section reviews risks that are strictly speaking not specific to ABC, but also relevant for other statistical methods as well. However, the flexibility offered by ABC to analyze very complex models makes them highly relevant to discuss here. #### Prior distribution and parameter ranges The specification of the range and the prior distribution of parameters strongly benefits from previous knowledge about the properties of the system. One criticism has been that in some studies the "parameter ranges and distributions are only guessed based upon the subjective opinion of the investigators", which is connected to classical objections of Bayesian approaches. With any computational method, it is typically necessary to constrain the investigated parameter ranges. The parameter ranges should if possible be defined based on known properties of the studied system, but may for practical applications necessitate an educated guess. However, theoretical results regarding objective priors are available, which may for example be based on the principle of indifference or the principle of maximum entropy. On the other hand, automated or semi-automated methods for choosing a prior distribution often yield improper densities. As most ABC procedures require generating samples from the prior, improper priors are not directly applicable to ABC. One should also keep the purpose of the analysis in mind when choosing the prior distribution. In principle, uninformative and flat priors, that exaggerate our subjective ignorance about the parameters, may still yield reasonable parameter estimates. However, Bayes factors are highly sensitive to the prior distribution of parameters. Conclusions on model choice based on Bayes factor can be misleading unless the sensitivity of conclusions to the choice of priors is carefully considered. #### Small number of models Model-based methods have been criticized for not exhaustively covering the hypothesis space. Indeed, model-based studies often revolve around a small number of models, and due to the high computational cost to evaluate a single model in some instances, it may then be difficult to cover a large part of the hypothesis space. An upper limit to the number of considered candidate models is typically set by the substantial effort required to define the models and to choose between many alternative options. There is no commonly accepted ABC-specific procedure for model construction, so experience and prior knowledge are used instead. Although more robust procedures for *a priori* model choice and formulation would be beneficial, there is no one-size-fits-all strategy for model development in statistics: sensible characterization of complex systems will always necessitate a great deal of detective work and use of expert knowledge from the problem domain. Some opponents of ABC contend that since only few models—subjectively chosen and probably all wrong—can be realistically considered, ABC analyses provide only limited insight. However, there is an important distinction between identifying a plausible null hypothesis and assessing the relative fit of alternative hypotheses. Since useful null hypotheses, that potentially hold true, can extremely seldom be put forward in the context of complex models, predictive ability of statistical models as explanations of complex phenomena is far more important than the test of a statistical null hypothesis in this context. It is also common to average over the investigated models, weighted based on their relative plausibility, to infer model features (e.g. parameter values) and to make predictions. #### Large datasets Large data sets may constitute a computational bottleneck for model-based methods. It was, for example, pointed out that in some ABC-based analyses, part of the data have to be omitted. A number of authors have argued that large data sets are not a practical limitation, although the severity of this issue depends strongly on the characteristics of the models. Several aspects of a modeling problem can contribute to the computational complexity, such as the sample size, number of observed variables or features, time or spatial resolution, etc. However, with increasing computing power, this issue will potentially be less important. Instead of sampling parameters for each simulation from the prior, it has been proposed alternatively to combine the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm with ABC, which was reported to result in a higher acceptance rate than for plain ABC. Naturally, such an approach inherits the general burdens of MCMC methods, such as the difficulty to assess convergence, correlation among the samples from the posterior, and relatively poor parallelizability. Likewise, the ideas of sequential Monte Carlo (SMC) and population Monte Carlo (PMC) methods have been adapted to the ABC setting. The general idea is to iteratively approach the posterior from the prior through a sequence of target distributions. An advantage of such methods, compared to ABC-MCMC, is that the samples from the resulting posterior are independent. In addition, with sequential methods the tolerance levels must not be specified prior to the analysis, but are adjusted adaptively. It is relatively straightforward to parallelize a number of steps in ABC algorithms based on rejection sampling and sequential Monte Carlo methods. It has also been demonstrated that parallel algorithms may yield significant speedups for MCMC-based inference in phylogenetics, which may be a tractable approach also for ABC-based methods. Yet an adequate model for a complex system is very likely to require intensive computation irrespectively of the chosen method of inference, and it is up to the user to select a method that is suitable for the particular application in question. #### Curse of dimensionality High-dimensional data sets and high-dimensional parameter spaces can require an extremely large number of parameter points to be simulated in ABC-based studies to obtain a reasonable level of accuracy for the posterior inferences. In such situations, the computational cost is severely increased and may in the worst case render the computational analysis intractable. These are examples of well-known phenomena, which are usually referred to with the umbrella term curse of dimensionality. To assess how severely the dimensionality of a data set affects the analysis within the context of ABC, analytical formulas have been derived for the error of the ABC estimators as functions of the dimension of the summary statistics. In addition, Blum and François have investigated how the dimension of the summary statistics is related to the mean squared error for different correction adjustments to the error of ABC estimators. It was also argued that dimension reduction techniques are useful to avoid the curse-of-dimensionality, due to a potentially lower-dimensional underlying structure of summary statistics. Motivated by minimizing the quadratic loss of ABC estimators, Fearnhead and Prangle have proposed a scheme to project (possibly high-dimensional) data into estimates of the parameter posterior means; these means, now having the same dimension as the parameters, are then used as summary statistics for ABC. ABC can be used to infer problems in high-dimensional parameter spaces, although one should account for the possibility of overfitting (e.g. see the model selection methods in and ). However, the probability of accepting the simulated values for the parameters under a given tolerance with the ABC rejection algorithm typically decreases exponentially with increasing dimensionality of the parameter space (due to the global acceptance criterion). Although no computational method (based on ABC or not) seems to be able to break the curse-of-dimensionality, methods have recently been developed to handle high-dimensional parameter spaces under certain assumptions (e.g. based on polynomial approximation on sparse grids, which could potentially heavily reduce the simulation times for ABC). However, the applicability of such methods is problem dependent, and the difficulty of exploring parameter spaces should in general not be underestimated. For example, the introduction of deterministic global parameter estimation led to reports that the global optima obtained in several previous studies of low-dimensional problems were incorrect. For certain problems, it might therefore be difficult to know whether the model is incorrect or, as discussed above, whether the explored region of the parameter space is inappropriate. More pragmatic approaches are to cut the scope of the problem through model reduction, discretisation of variables and the use of canonical models such as noisy models. Noisy models exploit information on the conditional independence between variables. Software -------- A number of software packages are currently available for application of ABC to particular classes of statistical models. Software incorporating ABC| Software | Keywords and features | Reference | | --- | --- | --- | | pyABC | Python framework for efficient distributed ABC-SMC (Sequential Monte Carlo). | | | PyMC | A Python package for Bayesian statistical modeling and probabilistic machine learning. | | | DIY-ABC | Software for fit of genetic data to complex situations. Comparison of competing models. Parameter estimation. Computation of bias and precision measures for a given model and known parameters values. | | | abc R package | Several ABC algorithms for performing parameter estimation and model selection. Nonlinear heteroscedastic regression methods for ABC. Cross-validation tool. | | | EasyABC R package | Several algorithms for performing efficient ABC sampling schemes, including 4 sequential sampling schemes and 3 MCMC schemes. | | | ABC-SysBio | Python package. Parameter inference and model selection for dynamical systems. Combines ABC rejection sampler, ABC SMC for parameter inference, and ABC SMC for model selection. Compatible with models written in Systems Biology Markup Language (SBML). Deterministic and stochastic models. | | | ABCtoolbox | Open source programs for various ABC algorithms including rejection sampling, MCMC without likelihood, a particle-based sampler, and ABC-GLM. Compatibility with most simulation and summary statistics computation programs. | | | msBayes | Open source software package consisting of several C and R programs that are run with a Perl "front-end". Hierarchical coalescent models. Population genetic data from multiple co-distributed species. | | | PopABC | Software package for inference of the pattern of demographic divergence. Coalescent simulation. Bayesian model choice. | | | ONeSAMP | Web-based program to estimate the effective population size from a sample of microsatellite genotypes. Estimates of effective population size, together with 95% credible limits. | | | ABC4F | Software for estimation of F-statistics for dominant data. | | | 2BAD | 2-event Bayesian ADmixture. Software allowing up to two independent admixture events with up to three parental populations. Estimation of several parameters (admixture, effective sizes, etc.). Comparison of pairs of admixture models. | | | ELFI | Engine for Likelihood-Free Inference. ELFI is a statistical software package written in Python for Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC), also known e.g. as likelihood-free inference, simulator-based inference, approximative Bayesian inference etc. | | | ABCpy | Python package for ABC and other likelihood-free inference schemes. Several state-of-the-art algorithms available. Provides quick way to integrate existing generative (from C++, R etc.), user-friendly parallelization using MPI or Spark and summary statistics learning (with neural network or linear regression). | | The suitability of individual software packages depends on the specific application at hand, the computer system environment, and the algorithms required.

1993 US parody film by Jim Abrahams For the song, see Hot Shots II. ***Hot Shots! Part Deux*** is a 1993 American parody film directed by Jim Abrahams. It stars Charlie Sheen, Lloyd Bridges, Valeria Golino, Richard Crenna (parodying his Colonel role in the *Rambo* franchise), Brenda Bakke, Miguel Ferrer, Rowan Atkinson, and Jerry Haleva. Sheen, who portrays a spoof of John Rambo, went through a tough weight lifting/training program to gain the physique needed to play the role of an action hero. A sequel to *Hot Shots!* (1991) and the second installment in the *Hot Shots* franchise, the movie primarily spoofs the 1980s action films *Rambo: First Blood Part II* (1985) and *Rambo III* (1988). Abrahams and Pat Proft wrote the screenplay. Members of both men's families have roles as extras. Plot ---- One night, an American special forces team invades Saddam Hussein's palace and a nearby prison camp to rescue captured soldiers from Operation Desert Storm and to assassinate Saddam, but they find the Iraqis waiting for them, and the entire rescue team is captured. This failed operation turns out to be the latest in a series of rescue attempts which were foiled by the Iraqis, and consequently the advisors of President Benson suspect a mole in their own ranks. Colonel Denton Walters suggests that they recruit war hero Topper Harley for the next mission, but Topper has retired from the United States Navy and become a reclusive Buddhist in a small Thai village. Walters and Michelle Huddleston, CIA, arrive and try to tempt him out of retirement in order to rescue the imprisoned soldiers and the previous rescue parties. Topper initially refuses, but when yet another rescue mission (this one, in turn, led by Walters) fails, he agrees to lead a small group of soldiers into Iraq. He is joined by Harbinger, Williams, and Rabinowitz, the sole escapee of the prior rescue mission and whom Topper suspects to be the saboteur. They parachute into an Iraqi jungle close to the heavily guarded hostage camp and set off to meet their contact, who turns out to be Topper's ex-girlfriend, Ramada. Ramada guides them to a fishing boat that she prepared for their transportation. As they move towards the camp, she and Topper reminisce, and she explains that she was married before she met him. When she was informed that her husband, Dexter, was still alive and a prisoner in Iraq, she volunteered to participate in his rescue, but was instructed to keep this strictly confidential, forcing her to break up with Topper just as they were preparing to elope; this ultimately inspired Topper's decision to retire from the Navy. Topper's team proceeds to the prison camp disguised as river fishermen, but a confrontation with an Iraqi patrol boat sets them back. When President Benson hears of the apparent demise of another mission, he decides to help the fight and joins additional forces in Iraq. However, Topper and his teammates have survived, and soon reach the Iraqi hostage camp. In the course of the operation, the alarm is raised and a gunfight ensues, during which Topper finds out that Harbinger is not the saboteur, but has merely become disillusioned in fighting, and manages to inspire him. After the prisoners are freed, Topper goes back to rescue Dexter, who is imprisoned in Saddam's palace. While the squad evacuates the hostages, Topper enters Saddam's palace and encounters the dictator himself, who pulls out his machine pistol and commands Topper to surrender. Topper overpowers Saddam, and they engage in a sword fight. President Benson arrives and orders Topper to release Dexter while Benson and Saddam continue the duel. Benson defeats Saddam by spraying him with a fire extinguisher, upon which he and his dog freeze and crack into pieces, only to subsequently melt, combine and reform as Saddam with his dog's head, fur, nose and ears. In the meantime, Topper manages to locate Dexter, but is forced to carry him out on his shoulders as the Iraqis have tied Dexter's shoelaces together. The squad heads back to the army helicopter, where Ramada, after an intense revelation involving unfounded jealousy, reveals and arrests Michelle as the saboteur who ruined the previous rescue attempts to assist the Iraqis. Dexter arrives with Topper and asks to take a picture of him and Ramada, but backs away too far and falls off a cliff. President Benson joins the escapees, and the evacuation team lifts off; Saddam is about to shoot down the chopper when Topper and Ramada get rid of extra weight in it by pushing a piano out the open door, which crushes him. Reunited, Topper and Ramada kiss as they fly off into the sunset. Cast ---- * Charlie Sheen as Topper Harley * Lloyd Bridges as President Thomas "Tug" Benson * Valeria Golino as Ramada Rodham Hayman * Brenda Bakke as Michelle Huddleston * Richard Crenna as Colonel Denton Walters * Miguel Ferrer as Commander Arvid Harbinger * Rowan Atkinson as Dexter Hayman * Jerry Haleva as Saddam Hussein * David Wohl as Gerou * Mitchell Ryan as Senator Gray Edwards * Michael Colyar as Williams * Ryan Stiles as Rabinowitz * Bob Vila as Himself * Martin Sheen as U.S. Army Captain Benjamin L. Willard * Ben Lemon as Team 2 Leader Reception --------- Reviews for *Hot Shots! Part Deux* were mixed. Rotten Tomatoes gives a score of 59% based on reviews from 34 critics with the consensus stating, "Audiences who enjoyed the first *Hot Shots!* will probably get tickled by this second helping, although the barrage of laughs miss more than they hit this time around". Roger Ebert noted that the film references such movies as *Rambo III*, *Lady and the Tramp* and *Apocalypse Now*, as well as the fairy tale *Goldilocks and the Three Bears*. Ebert concluded, "Movies like this are more or less impervious to the depredations of movie critics. Either you laugh, or you don't. I laughed." The film became a financial success at the box office in 1993, grossing over $130 million worldwide. Mockumentary promotion ---------------------- As part of the film's promotion, a mockumentary was aired on HBO. Titled *Hearts of Hot Shots! Part Deux—A Filmmaker's Apology*, the mockumentary parodied *Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse*, the 1991 documentary about the making of the film *Apocalypse Now* (which starred Charlie Sheen's father, Martin Sheen). Martin and Charlie Sheen briefly encounter each other in a scene in the main movie, parodying *Apocalypse Now* and *Platoon*, where they pass each other in PBR vessels along a river, and shout across to each other, "I loved you in *Wall Street*!".

Culinary traditions of Central Asia Meal served on a *dastarkhan* for the holiday of Nowruz **Central Asian cuisine** has been influenced by Persian, Indian, Arab, Turkish, Chinese, Mongol, African, and Russian cultures, as well as the culinary traditions of other varied nomadic and sedentary civilizations. Contributing to the culinary diversity were the migrations of Uyghur, Slav, Korean, Tatar, Dungan and German people to the region. Background ---------- Nomadic peoples of the Eurasian steppe had simple subsistence diets based primarily on dairy products, and to a lesser extent game and plant-based foods. Excavations at Adji Kui in the Kara Kum Desert of Turkmenistan have shown the site was occupied between 2400 and 1300 BC. Archaeobotanical evidence has shown that crop diffusion was ongoing across the mountain valleys and oasis towns of Central Asia as early as the 3rd millennium BC. The earliest evidence of domesticated grains bring used by nomadic herders (2800 to 2300 BC) has been found at the Tasbas and Begash sites of the Kazakh highland steppe. *Triticum turgidum* and *panicum miliaceum* found at highland campsites in Central Eurasia represent the first known transmission of these domesticated grains from China and the region south of the Syr Darya river into Central Eurasia. Central Asian cooking techniques were influenced by the lack of water. Poplar trees, *saxaul* and animal dung were the primary fuel sources used in tandyr ovens, designed to maximize the heat gained from the limited supply of fuel, where flatbread, *samsa* and meats were cooked. Soups, stews and steamed dumplings were cooked in single cauldron pots. Uzbek *manti* (dumpling) soup Persian cuisine in the golden age of Iran was highly sophisticated with ingredients from China and the Mediterranean. Turkic influence was seen in *manti* dumplings, wheat porridge called *sumalak* and assorted dairy products. Mahmud al-Kashgari describes pit cooking, baking in earthenware and grilling. Even after the disruption of the 13th century Mongol invasions, Iranian and Turkic culinary traditions carried on in Ottoman palace cuisine and have survived into the 20th century. Tamerlane's empire is considered the last significant Central Asian Empire of the 14th century, covering the territories of modern day Baghdad, the Volga and Delhi. The Mughal Empire, founded by a descendant of Tamerlane's named Babur, was noted for cultural achievements, among this a sophisticated cuisine that blended Indian and Persian elements into a unique style. Fragrant spices like nutmeg, cinnamon and mace were used to flavor dishes, that were served with thick sauces made from yogurt and crushed nuts. The rice pilafs were sophisticated. Desserts were flavored with rose. Modern Indian cuisine is heavily influenced by Mughal cuisine, including the grilled tandoori meats and yogurt sauces. Characteristics --------------- The culinary cultures of Central Asia may be divided as follows: nomadic or urban; highland or lowland; and Mongol, Turkic or Iranian. The nomadic diet based on meat and dairy products is found in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. While lamb and beef, breads, baked pies and homemade noodles are common across the region, *besh barmak* (a lamb dish eaten with the hands) and horse meat are found only in some regions, mostly Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Uzbek nan bread cooked in a tandyr oven The typical dishes of the settled Turkic peoples - Uzbek and Uighurs - are pilafs, kebabs, stews, noodles, tandyr flatbreads and savory pastries. The Iranian cultural influence is seen in the cuisine of Tajikistan and southern Uzbekistan, reaching into northern Pakistan and India, where rice and stewed vegetable dishes are more elaborately spiced. Some common ingredients and flavors can be found in the varied cuisines of region. These include generous use of tail fat from sheep and onion, hot peppers, black pepper, cumin, sesame seed, nigella, basil, cilantro, parsley, mint and dill. These are used in all sorts of dishes including soups, salads and pilafs. Less common are cinnamon and saffron. Tea is the most popular beverage. Green tea with cream is more common in Kyrgyz cuisine, while black tea is more common in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. A *chaikhana* is a Central Asian teahouse where people gather to socialize over tea. Traditional dishes are served like *shorpo* (soup), *shashlik* (grilled meats), *mastoba*, *manty*, *pilov* and *samsa*. (Vodka is sometimes called *ak cha* or "white tea"). Kumis is a traditional drink of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. It is a fermented dairy product traditionally made from mare's milk or donkey milk. A meal typically begins with tea or fresh *tandyr nan* bread, followed by soup (*shorpo*) or pulled noodles (*lagman*). The main course is often a *pilov* dish with meat, rice and carrots; hundreds of variations of the basic pilov are possible with the addition of different herbs, dried fruits like raisins and apricots, nuts and other ingredients. After the main course a guest may be offered dumplings or grilled skewers of meat, and fresh fruit often takes the place of a final dessert course. In many parts of Central Asia the meal is served on the floor with many plates laid out on a *dastarkhan* cloth. Korean cuisine has also influenced Central Asian cuisine, through Koryo-saram cuisine. Koryo-saram, ethnic Koreans of the former Soviet Union, have introduced dishes such as *morkovcha* that have become significantly popular throughout the former Soviet Union. Dishes ------ ### Desserts Halva is made from sesame seeds, with flour, sugar, milk and nuts. Fruit compote with nuts is a typical dessert dish. There are hundreds of melon varieties grown locally in Central Asia, and plums, apples, apricots, pears, berries and cherries are locally available. In addition to these pomegranates, fig, peaches and persimmons are imported. The local version of *baklava* is called *paklama*. For Eid celebrations, deep-fried dough balls drenched in honey syrup called *çäkçäk* are piled into mounds, along with sugar-dusted dough spirals called *urama*. Kyrgyz boorsog is a similar deep-fried dough dish, called *bogursak* in Turkmenistan, and *baursaq* in Kazakhstan. Not traditional to the regional cuisine, European-style layered cakes and pastries are available in modern times. Nuts, honey, fruits and halva remain common traditional choices. ### Fruits The region's melons are renowned, and cherries, apples, plums, peaches and figs are also locally grown. Fruit is consumed as a snack, fresh or dried, at all times of day. ### Grains Uighur pulled noodle dish *laghman* The main grain crops of Central Asia are millet, rice, wheat and barley. Rice and wheat are used to make the staple dishes of flatbread and noodles. Wheat flour is used to make traditional flatbread called *tandyr nan*, dumplings called *manti*, smaller dumplings called *chuchvara* and stuffed pastries called *samsa*. Millet is the main ingredient of the beverage *boza*. Similar in flavor to beer, *boza* is made in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Rice pilaf is the most iconic Central Asian dish, with Uzbek cuisine offering a multitude of varieties, often mixed with legumes for added protein. From Turkic cuisine came the flatbreads *yufka* and *çörek*, *katmer* pastry and a noodle dish called tutmaç. *Beliashi* are open-faced pies, cooked in a skillet, from Kazakh cuisine. ### Vegetables The most common vegetables are turnips, tomatoes, radishes, onions, peas, red peppers and cucumbers. *Turp* is the local name for a large green radish that is usually eaten fresh as a side dish or salad. "Yellow carrot" (*sabzi turisida*) is actually a type of parsnip that is used in pilaf dishes. Squash are a common ingredient for stews, soups, dumplings, and *samsa*. Both written history and molecular genetic studies indicate that the domestic carrot has a single origin in Central Asia. Its wild ancestors probably originated in Persia (regions of which are now Iran and Afghanistan).

Welsh indie rock band Not to be confused with Al Capone's henchman Murray "The Hump" Humphreys. **Murry the Hump** were a Welsh indie rock and "urban folk" band. They were active from 1999 until 2001. Since then they have continued to release music under the name The Keys (or simply Keys). History ------- The band was formed in Aberystwyth in the late 1990s by singer Matthew Evans, guitarist Gwion Rowlands, bass guitarist Curig Huws, and drummer Bill Coyne, taking their name from the gangster Llewellyn Morris "Murray The Hump" Humphreys. Early on in the band's career, they competed in a Battle of the Bands contest against Muse. Garnering early interest by way of indie singles "Green Green Grass of Home" (an NME "Single of the Week", and a song about marijuana rather than a cover of the song made famous by Tom Jones) (Blue Dog/V2) and "Thrown Like a Stone" (Shifty Disco) (which was voted number nine in John Peel's Festive Fifty in 1999), they gained support from BBC Radio 1 DJs Steve Lamacq and John Peel, recording three sessions for the Peel, and secured an appearance at industry showcase *In The City*. A publishing deal from Townhill Music (Sony) swiftly followed, and the band were heralded as the best new band in Wales, and by Alex James of Blur as the best new band in Britain. Alex James, artist Damien Hirst and the late Joe Strummer preferred Murry the Hump over Coldplay when they saw both acts perform at a record label showcase gig. In a 2000 review of the "Silver Suit" single in the *NME*, the band were described as "The Proper Indie; winsome, charmsome, delicate, funny and toe-tappin' Trebor fizz-pop Fab". In 2000 the band signed to Too Pure, whereupon they joined new label mates Hefner on a whistle-stop tour of the UK. The band then began work ontheir debut album, *Songs of Ignorance*, and performed some of the new material for Radio 1's *One Live* in Cardiff. Curig was replaced by new bassist Siôn Glyn. The band's first release for Too Pure, "The House That Used to Be a Ship" (a split single with Hefner), was followed by Guardian Guide single of the Week "Cracking Up", gaining much support from Xfm with a John Kennedy Session and live slots for the station at Camden's Barfly. A second single for the label, "Don't Slip Up" and the debut album *Songs of Ignorance* followed. The album was described by Andy Gill in *The Independent* as displaying "a warmth and charm to the group's jangly indie-pop that's entirely engaging", while the *NME*'s April Long said that it revealed "a canny aptitude not only for hook-laden guitar tricks but also story-telling", describing the band as "somewhere between the bucolic surrealism of Super Furry Animals and the cerebral pop of XTC." The *Sunday Times* selected "Cracking Up" as one of the 'Tracks of the Year' at the end of 2001, describing it as "Joyous, mad, brief. 2001's perfect pop song, from a great Welsh band"; Their review of *Songs of Ignorance* from May that year also described the track as "so ripe - it has three different choruses - and so joyous, it makes you want to tear your clothes off and run for the hills." The band announced that they had split up in September 2001, although they played one final concert in October that year as part of the BBC Radio 2 *Live in Cardiff* festival. Evans stated in 2003 "it stopped being fun and we found we had to promote things and that's when things started getting quite tense." Evans, Rowlands, and Glyn re-remerged in 2002 as The Keys, after asking fans to choose a name for the new band, and were described as "Duane Eddy jamming with the Jesus and Mary Chain". The band released a self-titled debut album in 2003, two EPs in 2009 and their second album as The Keys, *Fire Inside*, in 2010. A third album, *Bitten by Wolves*, was released in 2011. The band, now also known simply as Keys, released the albums *Ring the Changes* in 2014, *Bring Me the Head of Jerry Garcia* in 2019. and *Home Schooling Album* in 2020. Trivia ------ * On 26 May 1999 the band supported Tom Jones, Shirley Bassey, the Morriston Orpheus Choir and a host of other Welsh acts in front of 25,000 people for the BBC Voices of a Nation concert. * Blue Dog single (V2) "The Green Green Grass of Home" was a limited edition of 1,000. * Murry the Hump have supported The Stereophonics, The Levellers, Bonnie Tyler, Shed Seven, Björn Again, Mike Peters, Coloursound, The Crocketts, Cartoon, Topper, Big Leaves, Deacon Blue and others. Discography ----------- ### Albums * *Songs of Ignorance* (28 May 2001), Too Pure Records (Pure 116) - CD and LP as The Keys * *The Keys* (2003), Too Pure * *Fire Inside* (2010), See Monkey Do Monkey * *Bitten by Wolves* (2011), See Monkey Do Monkey * *Ring the Changes* (2014), See Monkey Do Monkey * *Bring Me the Head of Jerry Garcia* (2019), Libertino * *Home Schooling Album* (2020), Libertino ### Singles and EPs * *Don't Slip Up* - Demo (not published) * "Green Green Grass of Home" (1999), Blue Dog Records - 7" vinyl single, split with Gorgeous Fame and the Three Degrees * "Thrown Like a Stone"/"Don't Slip Up" (27 September 1999), Shifty Disco Records - CD * *Colouring Book EP* (November 1999), Malthouse Records - CD * "Silver Suit"/"Booze and Cigarettes" (May 2000), Prim and Proper Records - 7" vinyl single * "The House That Used to Be a Ship" (January 2001), Too Pure Records - 7" vinyl single, split with Hefner * "Cracking Up" (26 March 2001), Too Pure (Pure 114) - CD and 7" vinyl single * "Don't Slip Up" (21 May 2001), Too Pure (Pure 107) - CD and 7" white vinyl single as The Keys * *Le Mans* EP (2009), See Monkey Do Monkey * *The Christmas EP* (2009), See Monkey Do Monkey Peel Sessions ------------- The band performed 3 sessions for John Peel over the course of 1999 and 2000, as well as one-off performance as part of a special event for the same host. * 1 December 1999, Peel Session, Maida Vale 4 (recorded 26 September 1999) * 29 March 2000, Peel Session, Live from the Union Chapel, London * 25 October 2000, Peel Session, One Live in Cardiff at Clwb Ifor Bach * 21 December 2000, John Peel Christmas Special, Live from Peelacres

American business executive (born 1964) **Cynthia Marshall** (born December 15, 1959) is chief executive officer of the Dallas Mavericks. In February 2018, Marshall became the first Black female CEO in the history of the National Basketball Association. Marshall was also one of her university's first African-American cheerleaders at the University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s. Marshall worked for AT&T for 36 years in leadership role focused on improving workplace culture and encouraging diversity, equity and inclusion. Early life and education ------------------------ Marshall moved from Birmingham, Alabama to California when she was three months old. Marshall was raised in Richmond, California with three siblings. She describes her childhood as being painful growing up in public housing projects with a family struggling to pay the bills. When she was 11 years old, Marshall witnessed her father shoot a man in the head in self-defense. Back in 1975, as a young teenager of 15, she faced domestic abuse from her father. She attempted to protect her mother from the violence, and in doing so, her father ended up breaking her nose. Her mother, Carolyn Gardener, was a high school executive administrator and resource librarian. Marshall's mother was instrumental in her academic upbringing, she would put "a math book in one hand and the Bible in the other." During high school, Marshall was well-prepared for everything. Her hard work paid off when she earned a full scholarship to attend the University of California, Berkeley to study business administration and human resources management. While studying at Berkeley, Marshall became the university's first black cheerleader, breaking barriers in inclusion. She turned to prayer when fans expressed negative comments about her while she was on the football field as a cheerleader. After graduating from UC Berkeley at 21, she took on a job as a supervisor at AT&T. Marshall worked in executive roles at AT&T for 36 years, where she focused on improving diversity and workplace behavior. She retired in 2017, and founded the consulting firm Managing Resources. While at AT&T she became the first African American head of the North Carolina Chamber of Commerce. Dallas Mavericks ---------------- Mark Cuban hired Marshall following allegations claiming 20 years of sexual harassment and workplace misconduct within the Mavericks organization. *Worth* named Marshall as one of the 21 Most Powerful Women in the Business of Sports. Personal life ------------- Marshall prefers to be called "Cynt" as she acquired the nickname with her high school track team — "Cynt the Sprint." During her marriage to husband Kenneth Marshall, they struggled to have children for ten years. Marshall had three miscarriages, one of which almost killed her, and the loss of a newborn daughter. In her book, *You’ve Been Chosen: Thriving Through the Unexpected,* published in 2022 by Random House, which covers her personal and professional life. Marshall chronicles her painful journey, ultimately adopting four children and beating her fight against stage 3 colon cancer.

French composer, organist and pianist **Albert Jacques Périlhou** (2 April 1846 – 28 August 1936) was a French composer, organist, and pianist. Biography --------- Born in Daumazan-sur-Arize on 2 April 1846, he was the only son of Jean-Justin Périlhou (born 1820 in Laroque-d'Olmes), an organist in Pézenas, and couturière Marie-Jeanne Balbine Carrière (born 1827 in Daumazan-sur-Arize) and received further instruction as an organist under Camille Saint-Saëns at the Niedermeyer school. After some time passed in which he became an organist and a piano teacher in Saint-Étienne, he became professor of piano at the Conservatoire de Lyon (1883). He later moved to Paris in 1888 as an artistic advisor of maison Erard, he became organist of Saint-Séverin (1889) at the new instrument rebuilt by John Abbey, and then auditioned for and was granted the position of titular organist of Saint-Eustache in 1905, resigned the following year. In 1910 he was named director of the Niedermeyer school. Périlhou was a prolific composer who wrote a large body of music for piano, organ, orchestra and voice. He retired in 1914 to Tain-l'Hermitage, where he died at the age of 90 on 28 August 1936. Probably following the example of his teacher and friend Saint-Saëns, he lived for some time in Algeria. His wife Jeanne Petit (born 4 February 1858 in Sens), who he married on 8 July 1879 in her hometown, passed away on 1 September in Tournon-sur-Rhône in the year following his death. They had a son, Louis. Périlhou and his wife are buried in Peaugres. Works ----- Louis Vierne called him "a composer of the 18th century". Recognised as a great improviser, he strove for the colors of the instrument's tone more than tricks of the genre. He preferred delicacy and accessibility over esoteric classical styles. "Distingués" and refined, his works can fit in concert settings as well as in Liturgy. His music is airy without stretching the artistry required, and his legacy is one of elegance, culture, and strength. * *Livre d’orgue*. Simples pieces composed specially for "le service ordinaire" in seven books (Heugel, 1899-1905) : + 1st book : 7 preludes and 3 transcriptions (J.S. Bach and J. Massenet) + 2nd book : 7 pieces, preludes and etudes and 3 transcriptions (R. Schumann and J.S. Bach) + 3rd book : 7 pieces, *Prélude et Marche*, and 3 transcriptions (F. Mendelssohn and J.S. Bach) + 4th book : 7 pieces, *Prélude*, *Cloches*, and 3 transcriptions (Th. Arne and J.S. Bach) + 5th book : 3 church pieces (*Le Cloître*, *Noël*, *Le jour des morts au Mont-Saint-Michel*), 3 Impromptus (for home organ), 2 Preludes and 3 Fugues from the *Well-Tempered Clavier* by J.S. Bach + 6th book : 6 Noëls, *O salutaris*, *Adoremus*, *Andantino*, *Le Glas*, 2 Handel transcriptions + 7th book : 6 pieces, *Impressions* (Saint-Sernin de Toulouse basilica), *Épithalame*, *Lamento*, *Barcarolle* (for home organ), *Nox* (without pedal). * *Ballade* for flute or violin, accompanied by piano. * *Chanson de Guillot Martin*, arranged for harp by Marcel Grandjany * *Fantaisie pour 2 pianos* * *La Primavera: Chanson vénitienne de Reynaldo Hahn*, Paraphrase for piano on the song by Reynaldo Hahn * String quartet * String quintet * Concerto for flute and orchestra * Symphonic works : *Scènes gothiques*, *Scènes d’après le folklore des provinces de France*, *Une veillée en Bresse*, *Une fête patronale en Velay*.

German actor (1916–1992) **Wolf Kaiser** (26 October 1916 – 22 October 1992) was a German theatre and film actor. He grew up in Switzerland, where he studied chemistry and physiology. In 1937 he was deemed unfit for service in the Wehrmacht, and then went to Berlin where he trained as an actor. Career ------ Kaiser made his stage début in 1941 at the Stadtheater in Jihlava, Czechoslovakia, when that country was occupied by Germany. This led to Kaiser's engagement at the Volksbühne in Berlin from 1942 until 1945. Kaiser then had engagements in Frankfurt am Main, Munich and the Schauspiel Leipzig. In 1950 Kaiser returned to Berlin, where Bertolt Brecht recruited him to the Deutsches Theater and the Berliner Ensemble. Kaiser starred as Mack the Knife in Brecht and Weill's *The Threepenny Opera* in more than 450 times. Kaiser stayed with the Berliner Ensemble until 1967, becoming one of East Germany's foremost stage actors. Kaiser had acted in films since the Second World War, including roles in Wolfgang Staudte's *Die Geschichte vom kleinen Muck* (1953), Kurt Maetzig's *Ernst Thälmann, Sohn Seiner Klasse* (1954), Martin Hellberg's *Thomas Müntzer* and Peter Palitzsch and Manfred Wekwerth's film of Brecht's play, *Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder* (1961). Kaiser's first starring role was in 1956 in Hellberg's *Die Millionen der Yvette*, and he was noted for his roles in Helmut Spieß's 1956 film version of *The Valiant Little Tailor*, Martin Hellberg's 1959 film version of Friedrich Schiller's *Intrigue and Love* and Robert Vernay's 1965 film *Das Stacheltier – Das blaue Zimmer*. From 1969 Kaiser concentrated his career on screen acting, including Peter Zadek's 1973 version of *Kleiner Mann – was nun?* and Egon Günther's 1978 television version of *Ursula*. Kaiser's last major film role was in 1981 as Casanova in Martin Eckermann's *Casanova auf Schloß Dux*. Kaiser appeared frequently on East German television. Death ----- Wolf Kaiser's grave in Berlin. Kaiser believed in and supported the East German Communist state. He was distressed at its collapse in 1989, its corruption that came to light after its fall and German reunification, and the return of capitalism and mass unemployment to eastern Germany from 1989 onwards. In 1992, Kaiser committed suicide by leaping out of the study window of his apartment. Kaiser is buried in the Dorotheenstadt and Friedrichswerder Cemetery in Berlin. Awards ------ * 1961: Art Prize of the German Democratic Republic * 1965: National Prize of East Germany 2nd Class * 1967: National Prize of East Germany 3rd Class for collaboration in *Geduld der Kühnen* * 1968: National Prize of East Germany 1st Class for collaboration in *Zeit ist Glück* * 1977: Fatherland Service Order in Silver * 1981: Fatherland Service Order in Gold Selected filmography -------------------- * *Life Calls* (1944) * *The Last Year* (1951) * *Intrigue and Love* (1959)

Chapter of the New Testament **Acts 5** is the fifth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It records the growth of the early church and the obstacles it encountered. The book containing this chapter is anonymous but early Christian tradition affirmed that Luke composed this book as well as the Gospel of Luke. The contents of this chapter include the history of Ananias and Sapphira, an account of the miraculous power and dignity of the Apostles, their imprisonment and liberation, examination before the Sanhedrin, and scourging, and finally Gamaliel's advice to the Sanhedrin. Text ---- Acts 5:2–9; 6:1-6 on the *verso* side of Papyrus 8 (4th century). The original text was written in Koine Greek and is divided into 42 verses. ### Textual witnesses Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter are: * Uncial 0189 (~AD 200) * Codex Vaticanus (325–350) * Codex Sinaiticus (330–360) * Papyrus 8 (4th century; extant verses 2–9) * Papyrus 57 (4th century; extant verses 1–2, 8–10) * Codex Bezae (~400) * Codex Alexandrinus (400–440) * Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (~450; extant verses 35–42) * Codex Laudianus (~550) ### New Testament references * Acts 5:28: Acts 5:18 Ananias and Sapphira (5:1–11) ----------------------------- The narrative underlines the authority of Peter, who could see through the deception by Ananias and Sapphira (verses 3–5, 8–9) and highlights the spiritual authority of the "church" (Greek: *ekklesia*, first used in Acts in verse 11) in form of 'signs' of God (inducing 'great fear' in verses 5 and 11, as well as healing miracles in the next section). The sin of the couple was not simply the dishonesty on monetary value of the land sale, but rather the conspiracy to deceive the community (Greek: *koinonia*), which is a 'symptom of a more serious failure to be "of one mind" within the community' (cf. Ephesians 4:25; Colossians 3:9), that is, lying to the community equals to 'lying to God' (verse 4) and 'tempting the Holy Spirit' (verse 9; cf. Philippians 2:1-2 and 2 Corinthians 13:14). Henry Alford observes that the deaths of Ananias (verse 5) and Sapphira (verse 10) "were beyond question *supernaturally inflicted* by Peter, speaking in the power of the Holy Spirit". He argues that "this is the only honest interpretation of the incident" and that attempts to attribute their deaths to "natural causes" such as "their horror at detection, and ... the solemn words of Peter" are not viable. Signs and wonders (5:12–16) --------------------------- This section summarizes the 'ongoing healing ministry of the apostles' which increases the reputation of the believers of Christ among 'the people' (verse 13), because the bringing out of the sick for healing in public is a manifestation of 'belief (verse 15) which recalls the popularity of Jesus' healing ministry (cf. Luke 4:40-1, 6:18-19). The healing power coming out of Peter is so wonderful that it does not need even to touch him (verse 15: cf. Luke 7:1–10; 8:43). Arrest and escape (5:17–26) --------------------------- In the previous chapter, the apostles received a 'blanket prohibition on teaching in the name of Jesus', which they disdainfully rejected (Acts 4:19). Then, before long, the authority arrested and placed the whole apostolic group in jail (verse 18). The apostles were soon miraculously released by an 'angel of the Lord', who instructed them to continue preaching in the temple (verses 19–21). The trial (5:27–32) ------------------- This trial is 'essentially a reprise' of the previous one (Acts 4), with the charge of 'direct disobedience of an explicit instruction' (verse 28). Peter spoke of behalf of the apostles that they have to obey God, and not 'bound by any human court' (verse 29), followed by a summary of previous sermon points: Jesus has been killed by the authority who 'hanged him on a tree' (verse 30; referring to Deuteronomy 21:22–23; cf. Acts 10:39; also in Paul's epistle, Galatians 3:13), but raised and exalted by God to a position on his 'right hand', as a 'precondition for the outpouring of [spiritual] gifts' of 'repentance and forgiveness of sins now offered to Israel' (verses 31–32). ### Verse 29 *But Peter and the other apostles answered and said: "We ought to obey God rather than men."* * "Ought to obey God rather than men": similar assertion as spoken by Peter and John in Acts 4:19–20, but here has a new significance in relation to the command of the angel in Acts 5:20. The advice of Gamaliel (5:33–39) -------------------------------- Further information: Gamaliel's principle Rabban Gamaliel the Elder was one of the great Pharisaic teachers of the first century (flourished c. 25–50 CE) and is later said to have been the teacher of Paul (Acts 22:3). As a member of the Sanhedrin he began to question the wisdom of pursuing the case, which would be the main theme of the whole account: 'to recognize where God is at work'. The examples he cited — Theudas and Judas of Galilee — are both mentioned in the same order by a first-century historian, Josephus (*Ant.* 20.97–98, 102); but assigned to different time periods, with Judas linked to the time of the Roman census of Judea (cf. Luke 2:1-2) and Theudas dated by Josephus to procuratorship of Fadus (44–46 CE), which would happen after the account in this chapter. The dating aspect is debated with arguments in favor of Luke or of Josephus, or the possibility of different Theudas and Judas. ### Verse 34 *Then one in the council stood up, a Pharisee named Gamaliel, a teacher of the law held in respect by all the people, and commanded them to put the apostles outside for a little while.* As Luke had mentioned (Acts 4:1; Acts 5:7) that there was an influential party of Sadducees in the Sanhedrin, it is specifically noted here that Gamaliel was a Pharisee, who was well-respected to provide balancing opinions to the counsels of the Sadducean members, especially regarding the Resurrection (cf. Acts 23:6–8). Gamaliel is known in the Talmud as "Rabban Gamaliel the Elder" (to distinguish him from his grandson of the same name, "Gamaliel the Younger"), the grandson of Hillel the Elder, the head of the school of Hillel, at some time president of the Sanhedrin, one of the most famous Jewish doctors (the title Rabban is given to only six others), and one whose greatness would be as a shield to his students (Acts 22:3). Summary and transition (5:40–42) -------------------------------- Following Gamaliel's advice, the Sanhedrin treated the apostles with caution, but nonetheless sentenced them to flogging (verse 40). The punishment was received by apostles with 'joy' (verse 41) as they considered it 'worthy to be dishonored for the Name' as martyrs. The section concludes with an assurance that 'the gospel message is assiduously proclaimed, not only in the temple but from house to house'. ### Verse 42 *And daily in the temple, and in every house, they did not cease teaching and preaching Jesus as the Christ.* * "Daily": translated from the Greek phrase πᾶσάν ἡμέραν, *pasan hēmeran*, "each/every/all days", comparable to καθ’ ἡμέραν, *kath’ hēmeran*, "day by day", in Acts 2:46. * "Preaching": literally to "evangelize," (Greek: εὐαγγελιζόμενοι, *euangelizomenoi*) as in Acts 8:4; Acts 8:12; Acts 8:25; Romans 10:15, etc. The temple and private houses are 'two fields of labour' to teach and preach. Sources ------- * Alexander, Loveday (2007). "62. Acts". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). *The Oxford Bible Commentary* (first (paperback) ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 1028–1061. ISBN 978-0199277186. Retrieved February 6, 2019. * Coogan, Michael David (2007). Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann; Perkins, Pheme (eds.). *The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books: New Revised Standard Version, Issue 48* (Augmented 3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195288810.

Kanan Dhru, Founder & managing director of Research Foundation for Governance in India, at the World Economic Forum on India 2012 **The Research Foundation for Governance in India** (RFGI) is a think tank based in Ahmedabad, India, with the aim to research, promote, and enact legal and political changes in Gujarat and across India. RFGI acts as a consultant to help implement government reforms. The Foundation researches issues for legal reform in law and governance. It also sponsors public events to raise awareness, especially among youth. RFGI’s definition of governance is based upon the one given by the European Commission: *"rules, processes and behaviour that affect the way in which powers are exercised…. particularly as regards openness, participation, accountability, effectiveness and coherence"* The Foundation is a non-partisan and independent organization which does not support any ideology, specific candidate, or party. Introduction ------------ Started in January 2009, the Research Foundation for Governance in India (RFGI) is an Ahmedabad-based think tank. RFGI is a think tank in the area of law and governance, with the idea of having citizenry, and especially youth, be more aware and participative to the legal processes in the country. The objective of the Foundation is to help create strong processes of governance and an awareness of citizenry, primarily through seeking reforms in the legal and political arena by involving youth from different spheres. RFGI aims to pursue this objective through spreading awareness of laws pertaining to governance, as well as by conducting research on key legal issues which affects governance of the country. RFGI has a growing member-base of 600 members. This total includes eminent academicians, industrialists, lawyers, media professionals, policy-makers, politicians and students. The organisation has the potential to grow in the future, given the needs of political and legal reforms in the country. Focus areas and activities -------------------------- The activities of RFGI are mainly structured around three focus areas, titled: Awareness, Research, and Consultation. Awareness initiatives One of the primary objectives of the foundation is to spread awareness on issues pertaining to governance and law amongst the citizens of India. The Foundation seeks to make people think about politics in a more positive way through making presentations and interactive sessions in schools and colleges, organising discussions and debates, and by getting more and more people interested in the process of governance. The following are some of the awareness initiatives carried out by RFGI: * Partnered with *Jaago Re! One Billion Votes* to promote voter registration for the 2009 Lok Sabha elections. * Conducted a six-week project on local governance with Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation and Indicorps. * Conducting presentations on citizenship and democracy at local schools and colleges in Ahmedabad. Research activities The research activities at the Foundation include examining and undertaking research on issues concerning politics, law, governance, infrastructure, functioning of public institution, welfare related issues, including those pertaining to elections as part of the function. The Foundation, through its research activities recommends and advocates systems of good governance at different levels of the society. Some of RFGI's publications are the following: * *"Acquisition of Land for 'Development' projects in India: The need for serious reconsideration of existing law"* – Kelly Dhru, 2008 * *"Whether the graduates of the National Law Schools cater to the need of Bar/Bench?"* – Rohit Moonka * *"Freedom within the Law – The Search for Adivasi Autonomy"* – Curtis Riep, 2009 RFGI impact As part of the first phase of this project, RFGI had organised a panel discussion on the issue, on 5 July 2009, at GLS Auditorium, Gujarat. The event was graced by the Chief Justice of Gujarat, Justice Radhakrishnan as well as Dr. Madhava Menon, Founder Director, National Law School Bangalore and National Judicial Academy, Bhopal. The seminar was able to generate debate and discussion on issues pertaining to legal reforms. Two of the recommendations which stemmed from the seminar are already in the stage of implementation: * RFGI has been invited by the Gujarat Bar Association as Advisors on their 'Education & Training' Committee and work has already begun on structuring courses for training of the young lawyers in Gujarat. * Shri Veerappa Moily, Union Law Minister, recently announced scholarships for young lawyers. Consultation The Foundation gets directly involved with Government projects and initiatives through its consultancy work. This involves working closely with different Government departments and organisations. One recent consultancy project was that on Library Development in the city of Ahmedabad for the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation. RFGI's recommendations are now being implemented by the relevant Government authority. Notable members and associates ------------------------------ **Kanan Dhru – Founder & managing director** Kanan Dhru is the Founder of RFGI. She is a practicing lawyer with degrees from the Gujarat National Law University (GNLU), Gandhinagar and the London School of Economics, United Kingdom. Prior to coming to India, she had briefly worked with the World Health Organization in Geneva. In India, she has worked with the National Knowledge Commission, a Prime Minister's Advisory Body, New Delhi. She has been an External Consultant with McKinsey & Company, a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University and been associated with the Government of Gujarat on several initiatives. **Kelly Dhru – Director** Kelly Dhru is a law graduate from the Gujarat National Law University (GNLU), Gandhinagar and BCL (Distinction) from the Oxford University, United Kingdom. Dhru has done internships at a variety of legal institutions and courts, including the Legal and Treatise Division of Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India and Amarchand Mangaldas. She has researched for various projects of the World Bank and presented papers, including at Harvard University. The following individuals are associated with RFGI: * Professor (Dr.) Madhava Menon, Founder Director, National Law School and National Judicial Academy * Professor Dilip Mavalankar, Indian Institute of Public Health Gandhinagar * Dr. Kireet Joshi, Education Advisor to the Chief Minister of Gujarat * Shri Girish Patel, post graduate from Harvard Law School, Senior Counsel at the High Court of Gujarat and a social activist. RFGI has collaborated on various projects and activities with the following organisations and institutions: * *Jaago Re! One Billion Votes* * OS Open Space * Accountability Initiative * ADR Association for Democratic Reforms * Indicorps * The Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad (IIM) * Janaagraha Media coverage -------------- * Indian Express: RFGI & JaaGo Re! One Billion Votes awakens 8,000 voters in Ahmedabad (18 April 2009) * Indian Express: Seminar on youth participation in electoral politics (27 April 2009) * Ahmedabad Mirror: Amdavadi youth talk on why they shun politics (27 April 2009) * Times of India: Well-known personalities debate youth participation in politics (27 April 2009) * DNA: Speak Up (28 April 2009) * Indian Express: Disillusioned voter (3 May 2009) * Hindustan Times: Why I didn't want to Vote (3 May 2009) * Indian Express: Most junior lawyers in HC unhappy over working conditions (20 May 2009) * Indian Express: Bar Council to consider junior lawyers' issues (2 June 2009) * Times of India: Some appointments in judiciary political: CJ (8 July 2009) * DNA: Appoint law officers on merit, says chief justice (8 July 2009) * Ahmedabad Mirror: Gujarat needs more law schools (8 July 2009) * Ahmedabad Mirror: Foreigner helps NGO create benchmark for politics (4 August 2009) * Divyabhaskar: Rajkaran ma ras le yuvano (24 November 2009) * Interview with Kanan Dhru of RFGI * DNA: 'More youths in politics will ensure better governance' (7 December 2009) * Indian Express: No three-year law college in Ahmedabad has requisite faculty strength: survey (9 December 2009) * Times of India: Experts to discuss Indian legal system (12 December 2009) * Times of India: 'India’s legal system needs to be updated' (14 December 2009) * Ahmedabad Mirror: India’s legal system worst:HC lawyer (15 December 2009) * Indian Express: Three-year law colleges could be a thing of the past (13 January 2010) * Indian Express: People divided over compulsory voting (13 January 2010) * DNA: Opinion divided over Compulsory Voting Bill (14 January 2010) Projects -------- **1) Project on Understanding and Removing Entry Barriers to the Profession of Litigation** Research Foundation for Governance in India aims at motivating youth into the processes of governance. These include the fields of politics, administration, and judiciary. Unfortunately, the common perception of the profession of litigation and of judges is that of an inefficient, corrupt system full of delays and malpractices. The aim in this study is to ensure that the profession of litigation is welcoming to young law students. At the same time, it is desirable that the students from five-year as well as three-year colleges are adequately trained to best contribute to the profession and are ultimately working towards an efficient justice-delivery mechanism which will help society. As part of the Phase-2 of the project, work has begun to increase the survey respondents to 1000. In parallel, work to develop a white paper containing concrete recommendations on reconsidering entry level requirements and working conditions for young law graduates in litigation is being undertaken. The white paper would also profile case-studies of some of the individuals who have established themselves as arguing lawyers despite adversity. After the completion of the white-paper, the recommendations will be taken through a volley of round-table discussions with prominent people and opinion makers and finally culminate with publication of the same. RFGI thereafter aims to create awareness and lobby for the implementation of the recommendations to the relevant government departments as well as other stakeholders. RFGI hopes that by implementing recommendations that help attract bright young people to the profession of litigation, many of the issues facing the Indian legal system will improve. **2) Project on Analysing Inner-party Democracy in Political Parties in India** This study aims at providing a link between a common Indian citizen and the main political parties. The basic objective is to raise awareness amongst citizens on how political parties function in terms of the democratic processes followed for its administrative and functional aspects. The research would also look at the way parties outline a career growth for a party member in terms of opportunity and accessibility, while looking at the broader question of the attractiveness of 'politics' as a career. The message would be encapsulated in the premise of moving towards a more democratic and reformist model of political party functioning wherein party members get a bigger say in the functioning and decision making stages, making the party machinery reflect a complete inclusive system of all those involved. In the future, the aim is to create an evolved system with citizens having more faith in political parties, primarily derived from RFGI's proposed new model of meritocracy and fairness in all aspects, be it office bearers, ticket distribution etc. A White Paper would be published on this research idea, taking it through a volley of round table discussions with prominent people and opinion makers and finally culminate with a grand seminar to raise awareness on this issue. RFGI thereafter aims to create new benchmarks and present the recommendations to relevant stakeholders as well as to people of the nation. **3) Study on "Preventive Law: lessons to be learnt from preventive medicine"** under the guidance from Professor Dileep Mavalankar, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad and Columbia School of Public Policy Significant research and developments have been made in the field of preventive andsocial medicines, which have alleviated human suffering to a great extent. By spreading awareness about health and hygiene, vaccinations, spraying of medicines and other such measures, certain diseases have been reduced, and have been 'nipped in the bud'. Like medicine, the role of the legal system of a country is also to alleviate human suffering. So far, the Indian legal system has concentrated on 'Remedial Measures', rather than adopt a preventive approach. The existing courts in India are flooded with cases. The number of pending cases in the courts of Gujarat is 2,300,000. At the same time, the citizens are less aware about their legal rights, and fear the system. The objective of this paper is to draw a parallel between two disciplines which have similar objectives. The hypothesis is to test whether similar paths can be followed and lessons be learnt by the Indian legal system from the Preventive and Social Medicine. The paper focuses on the Human Resource issues pertaining to Law and Medicine, particularly, on the entry requirements, professional qualifications, ethics and the population to provider ratios. The possibilities of customisation of legal assistance provided in different areas are explored. This paper also reviews certain legislations which can be better implemented and the disputes under which can be prevented by following certain key features of preventive medicine. After the completion of the white-paper, the observations would be taken through round table discussions and disseminate the suggestions through publication and distribution of the paper. The suggestions would thereafter be presented to relevant government departments as well as other stakeholders and lobby for their implementation. **4) Study on "Efficiency and Accountability of Lok-Adalats in Gujarat"** in partnership with Accountability Initiative, Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi Lok Adalat is an alternative form of dispute settlement mechanism, introduced in India in the early 80s. The main idea behind having them was to improve access to justice at local levels, and ease the burden on the regular courts due to millions of petty cases that clog up their scare resources, awaiting settlement. Lok Adalats provide a speedy, arguably fair and deliberative form of dispute settlement, drawing on traditional methods of conciliation where the presiding judge – who is an experienced adjudicator with legal acumen and a record of public service – brings about an understanding between the claimants, and settles the cases as compromise between the two sides. Due to a variety of reasons – ranging from misinformation and lack of awareness among people as to what the Lok Adalat was for, lack of knowledge and capacity on the part of the Lok Adalat benches to deal with the cases properly, and even intimidation of complainants against approaching Lok Adalats with their grievances, Lok Adalats often have limited results. Arguably, many of these problems in implementation could be addressed with some attention to detail, and a commitment to results on the part of the authorities. In theory Lok Adalats still remain a possible option to serve as a platform for solving cases at the pre-litigation stage. Given this context, the research project aims to explore the efficacy and efficiency of Lok Adalats and test their accountability to the common Indian citizen. **5) Awareness seminars on Law & Governance in schools & colleges** One of the primary objectives of the foundation is to spread awareness on issues pertaining to governance and law amongst the citizens of India. The Foundation seeks to make people think about politics in a more positive way through making presentations in schools and colleges, organising discussions and debates, and by getting more and more people interested in the process of governance.

Political and cultural advancement of Backward Castes The **Backward Caste movement** in Bihar can be traced back to the formation of Triveni Sangh, a caste coalition and political party, in the 1930s, which was revived after the introduction of land reforms in the 1950s aimed at removing intermediaries from agrarian society. But, this drive could not succeed in bringing long-lasting changes in the condition of lower strata of society, as they lacked political representation and economic power. The period since land reform included caste conflicts and the class struggle which eventually led to a transfer of absolute political power in the hands of Backward Castes, who had been kept away from it earlier. The class struggle succeeded the struggle of some of the Upper Backward Castes against the sacerdotal authorities for improvement in their ritual status. By the 1990s, the conflict between upper-castes and the lower-castes continued, with nearly 17 massacres taking place during this time period. But with the advent of politics of social justice and the Janata Dal in the 1990s, the lower caste became more active politically. Agrarian relations in colonial Bihar ------------------------------------ | | | --- | | Agricultural society of Bihar | | * A women from the Musahar, the rat eater caste. Musahars are kept at the lowest end of hierarchy in caste society.A women from the Musahar, the *rat eater* caste. Musahars are kept at the lowest end of hierarchy in caste society. | | * An 1885 work showing a peasant of Bihar undertaking winnowing operation, from the British Library.An 1885 work showing a peasant of Bihar undertaking winnowing operation, from the British Library. | | * An agricultural field in Saran district of Bihar.An agricultural field in Saran district of Bihar. | | * Art depiction of a bullock cart used by peasants in Bihar by GIERSON, George Abraham (1885).Art depiction of a bullock cart used by peasants in Bihar by GIERSON, George Abraham (1885). | Subordination and discrimination comprised the characteristics which defined agrarian relations in Bihar during the Mughal and East India Company period. Land holding defined the hierarchy of castes in agrarian society where the upper-castes which included Brahmin, Bhumihar and Rajputs worked for the Mughal central authority and were involved in the collection of land revenue and quelling any peasant revolts against their overlords, the Mughals. After the control of *Diwani* rights passed into the hands of the East India Company, an attempt to centralise the revenue collection was made through the Permanent Settlement of 1793 which settled the land, earlier owned by state, in favour of the *Zamindars*. The hierarchy, which was established in the agrarian society, was dominated by three upper-castes which were at the apex and comprised the Raja, the Maharaja and the petty landlords. However, many of the intermediate tenants who worked on the land also belonged to upper-castes, primarily to the Bhumihar and the Rajput caste. Only a few of them were Kayastha and Brahmin. A majority of tenant cultivators, however, belonged to the Yadav, the Kurmi and the Koeri castes, while the Dalits were included in the category of landless labourers, whose condition in this hierarchy was the worst compared to the others. The Permanent Settlement fixed 9/10ths of the land revenue collected by the landlord for the Company for the remuneration of the revenue collectors (the landlords), the remaining 1/10th was secured. However, the landlords extracted excessive revenue from the tenants and the official collection in the records was always shown as 'low'. These upper-caste tenants, and those belonging to backward castes, were always assessed by dual yardsticks, and it was common for the latter to face discrimination while paying revenue. There also existed different "terms of tenure" for a cultivator or agricultural labourer, which depended upon their caste. Grierson in *Bihar Peasant Life (1920)*, highlights the following proverb prevalent in Bihar's rural life to describe the inherent prejudices against the low caste peasants, the so called *rar Jāti*: > *Kaeth kichhu lelen delen, Brahaman khiyaulen > Dhan, pan paniyaulen, au rar jati latiyaulen* > > (A Kayasth does what you want on payment, a Brahman on being fed > paddy and betel on being watered > But a low caste man on being kicked.) > > However, the "untouchables" or the Dalits were the worst sufferers in this hierarchy, as they were in *kamia*-*malik* (labourer-landlord) relationship with the landlords. Under this system, the landlords hired them to work off small debts given them in time of need. The condition for repayment was such that the interest increased and the debt of the father ended up being passed on to the son. In this way, the landless labourers become fully dependent on their master and a kind of "bondage" or "serfdom" prevailed. History of peasant struggle in Bihar ------------------------------------ In the 19th century, the peasants of Bihar were involved in individual heroic struggles against the intermediaries in isolated events like the Santhal Hul rebellion (1855–56) and the Munda uprising of 1899-1901. Later, the Indigo revolt provided Gandhi with an opportunity to experiment with the peasantry. These events, however, were limited to local issues only, and the leadership was provided by local peasant leaders. There was a lack of an overall national perspective. Sahajanand Saraswati is known for leading a peasant struggle in some parts of Bihar, but its effects were limited to certain sections of farmers only. Karyanand Sharma is well known for leading the agrarian movement specially for his *Barahiya Bakhast* struggle in 1937–39. It was Sharma under whom the Communist Party of India (CPI) undertook some of the important peasant struggles in the 1950s, the most important being the *Sathi* farm struggle of Champaran. ### Background of armed struggle A document released by the Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation (CPI (ML)) in 1986 titled *Report From the Flaming Fields of Bihar* which is referred to by authors like Ranbir Sammadar in their work, defines the nature of the agrarian society of Bihar in the period immediately succeeding the Green Revolution. The landed gentry, which mostly comprised the landlords of the upper caste and some of the emerging *kulaks* of the intermediate agricultural caste, was in conflict with the lower caste agricultural labourers and landless tenants often leading to armed struggle. The Socialist movement under Jay Prakash Narayan and others though growing stronger had little scope for acceptance in rural Bihar, which was facing the worst form of *Feudalism*. The state and the landlords often colluded against the Naxalite forces dominated by the landless labourers belonging to lower castes. The CPI (ML) was leading the struggle of the labourers and other groups and ultra-Left cadres belonging to Maoist Communist Centre (MCC) and Chhatra Yuva Sangharsh Samiti, an organisation based on the ideas of Jay Prakash Narayan, which later turned towards radicalism aimed at reducing growing class difference. ### Caste and class composition of Maoist cadres The land reforms primarily benefitted the middle peasant castes who were the tenants' upper caste landlords in the pre-independence period. These middle peasant castes were linked to the landlords in a variety of ways, including economic ties such as trade and money lending to supply credit and input in agricultural operations. Some of these castes left direct cultivation after successfully climbing the socio-economic ladder. Awadhiya Kurmi was one such community. The Bhumihars, who were included in both the landlord and middle peasant category, took up farming in some regions. They were known for their hard-working nature, contrary to the other upper castes whose ritual status forbade them from farming. The Koiris, another middle caste, were more attracted to the Maoist cadres because of the persistent banditry and oppression by the upper-castes. Sammadar argues that even the rich peasants of the Koiri and other middle castes were easily attracted to Naxal cadres because of their peculiar position in the caste hierarchy. Yadavs often made the class struggle difficult by coming between the two ends of agrarian society—landlords and the labourers. But, overall the question of wage, vested lands, social oppression, and 'caste solidarity' made these peasant castes sympathisers of Maoism. A report by the *Asian Development Research Group* suggests that the Kurmi caste dominated the state committee of the radical People's War; members of the Yadav caste dominated the MCC. The CPI(ML), another radical outfit, had its support base among the Koeri and the Yadav castes, which shifted away to electoral politics after the foundation of Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD translation: National People's Party. This shift led to the weakening of the 'liberation' in the Aurangabad and Nalanda districts, but the ideological commitment of the group, which also recruited from backward castes other than Yadav and some upper castes, saved it from complete ruin. However, the mass base of the Naxalite groups like the CPI (ML) remained dominated by fighters belonging to the Schedule Caste and the Extremely Backward Caste (EBC). ### *Sanskritisation* and cultural transition in agrarian society An important aspect of agrarian society on the Gangetic Plain was Sanskritization, the phenomenon of the historical and mythical underpinning of caste identities by the peasant and artisan castes in a bid to seek higher status. Among those who engaged in this effort, the Yadavs, Kushwaha and Kurmi were the most visible. For much of the 20th century, these peasant castes had tilled the fertile soil of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and were known for their hard-working nature and their cultivating skills. While many of them were small landholders and powerful tenants, a section of them included large landowners and tenant labourers. The varna system, upon which the British understanding of Indian society was based, continued to recognise them as Shudra against their claim of Kshatriya status from the beginning of 1900, because of the expertise of Brahmins in the caste-hierarchy related matters. By claiming a noble Kshatriya past, these peasant communities challenged the socio-economic dominance of the elites. This drew antipathy from elite caste groups towards the Kshatriya reform movements, which were portrayed as a question of dignity and self-respect by the reformers. The first instance of this antipathy was the work of Kunwar Chheda Sinha who wrote a book on the anti-Kshatriya reform movement. It avoided the social and cultural transformation going on in contemporary society and connected the movement to the aspirations of Jati activists seeking employment in higher government posts and the rising concern with caste pedigree that was tied to the policy of hierarchical ranking in the census office. The book, published by Sinha in 1907, was circulated widely by the Rajput Anglo-Oriental Press to check the pace of upward mobility of the peasant communities in caste hierarchy. This antipathy of the upper-caste against the Upper-Backwards continued until Congress established a strong position within the state. The peak of this antipathy was witnessed after the abolition of the Zamindari which followed Indian independence from British rule. The Congress made a successful coalition of the upper-caste, Dalits and Muslims and sidelined the agricultural castes which had benefitted from the zamindari abolition. According to Ranbir Sammadar, the antagonism created by the land reforms between the upper castes and the Other Backward Class (OBC) castes especially the Kurmi and the Koeris could never be overcome while the Yadavs, a herder caste were looked down upon with the greatest contempt by the former because of their professional practice. The Yadavs also worked as *charvaha* (herders) for the upper caste apart from traditional occupation of cattle husbandry and milk business had benefitted from the zamindari abolition but to a lesser extent than the other OBCs. The mockery or the (folk) jokes made by the upper-caste at their expense, "Yadav attains intelligence not before the age of 60 years", portrayed them as the most rustic stupid people. The Yadav were most discriminated caste amongst the upper-OBCs. #### Kshatriya reform movement among Yadavs Main articles: Yadav and Bihari Ahir An old cattle grazer from Yadav caste in north Bihar, 2021. The Yadavs, who claimed lineage from the mythological Yadu, were one of the first among the OBCs to claim *kshatriya* status, which was advocated alongside the control on womenfolk of the Jāti for the sake of the greater cause of the community. Baijnath Prasad Yadav, a Kshatriya reformer and a resident of Varanasi, advocated a curb on the independence of women and their participation in public festivals where they were prone to the pollution caused by impure contact of many low Jātis who roamed the crowd. He also claimed the root cause of all unnecessary household expenses is because of the fickle greediness of women. Despite the attempt of the upper-caste to boycott the reformers (Yadavs) with the aim of making it difficult to perform rituals for the attainment of Kshatriyahood, the better off among them arranged for the outsider Brahmins or the Nai (Hajjams) to initiate the rituals. Most often the officiation of the rituals also resulted in compelling the less fortunate Yadavs to prohibit their women from selling *Goetha* (cow dung cakes) in the market as an alternative source of income as it was against the status of the community aspiration of *Kshatriyahood*. However, because of their need women were allowed to do so, but in all other matters they were supposed to follow the practices of higher caste women. Apart from the men, the participation of womenfolk in the Kshatriya reform movement was also a notable phenomenon which (according to Pinch) was to raise their gender status. Consequently, demands for legislation on polygamy and education for both boys and girls became the central motto of *Mahila Sammelans* (conferences), which occurred in conjunction with the regional or national Jati sammelans. #### Caste upliftment in Bhumihars The Bhumihars were yet another caste seeking upliftment in their social status long before the OBC castes like the Yadav and the Kushwaha. They were referred to as "Babhan" in Bihar and were concentrated prominently there and in some parts of Uttar Pradesh. The Bhumihars were classified in the colonial censuses as *Shudra* along with the Kayastha. Their opponents claim that their clans and septs are more similar to the Rajputs than the Brahmins. The majority of them have landed interests, with the rajas of Benaras and Bettiah being the most notable and substantial landowners. Before the formation of *Bhumihar Brahmin Mahasabha* in 1889 to seek the upliftment of socio-cultural status, there were several myths regarding the origin of Bhumihars. The myth associated with the Bhumihars is that when the legendary Parasurama exterminated the Kshatriyas, he issued a command to them being men of his own clan, to take to the plough but According to Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, they belonged to some "lower caste" and were promoted to the status of a Brahmin by order of a *Raja* who wanted the presence of a large number of Brahmins to celebrate his religious festivals. Another popular narrative featured them as belonging to a tribe called the *Bhuyans* who gained land and claimed Brahmin status. According to another theory, a group of them of clan Jetharia, claim themselves to be the descendants of Rati Raut , a herder who ruled over Rati Pargana in the north Bihar perhaps in the 16th or 17th century or an offshoot of mixed marriages between Brahmins and Rajputs. By the 1930s, the great depression had swept over India and income from agricultural land was dwindling. It became clear that as independence proceeded the zamindari would soon end. Caste associations began to manoeuvre community support for urbanisation. As a result, numerous schools and colleges were set up to impart education to community members to enable them to grab a share of power and provide an income opportunity through employment in government services. The Bhumihar Brahmin Mahasabha followed suit and its members became active in securing a share in the bureaucratic sector which was strongly dominated by the Kayasthas. The Bhumihar Brahmin Mahasabha, led by Sir Ganesh Dutt, however, feared a split in 1920 after the emergence of Sahajanand Saraswati as the leader of the tenants and the poorer section of the caste. Later, Sahajanand Saraswati began playing an important role in organising tenants under the banner of the Kisan Sabhas. The Bhumihar's socio-political ascendency, however, remained unaffected after the Zamindari abolition drive of the Kisan Sabha. This helped to elevate S.K Sinha, a leader of the Kisan Sabha, to the post of chief minister. #### The movement for caste upliftment in the Koeri and the Kurmi castes See also: Luv-Kush equation The Kurmis were another agricultural caste present in Bihar and made up around three to four per cent of its population in the 1930s. They claimed kshatriya status like the Yadavs. The Ramanandi Sampraday, a socio-cultural movement launched to bring Shudra castes into the fold of monastic order, prepared the ground for this. By the late 19th century, the Kurmi leaders were the first among the low castes' leaders to claim a *Kshatriya* past by propagating stories through printed bulletins. These stories argued that the Kurmi and the Koeris (also called Kushwaha), a similar caste, were the descendants of the twin sons of Rama and his wife Sita, Lav and Kush. The various Koeris' subcastes, like the Kachhi and the Murao, also claimed descent from Kusha, but no attempt to merge these two groups (Kurmi and Koeri) ever occurred. The first Kurmi caste association was formed in Lucknow in 1894 to protest the decision of the colonial government to reduce the quota in the police for the recruitment of Kurmis. However, the All India Kurmi Kshatriya Mahasabha was officially registered in 1910. Before it launched its movement for socio-economic emancipation of the caste, other organisations, like the Kurmi Sabha, formed prior to its foundation had made an unsuccessful attempt to fuse the castes like the Maratha, Kapu and Patidar together under one umbrella. Later, they tried to bring the Koeri and the Yadav together to form a political union called Triveni Sangh, which appeared dangerous to the Congress because it intended to mobilise the peasant caste sharing the same position on the socio-economic ladder. Consequently, with the formation of the Backward Class Federation by Congress, with the leadership and mobilisation by peasant leaders like Bir Chand Patel and Ram Lakhan Singh Yadav, the Triveni Sangh movement failed to create a long-lasting impact in politics. According to scholars, the three castes failed to unite because of the co-option of Kurmi leaders (like Bir Chand Patel) and Yadav leaders (like Ram Lakhan Singh Yadav) by the Congress and also because of a superiority complex inherent in Yadavs vis-a-vis the Koeri and the Kurmi. By using pseudo historical grounds to give weight to their arguments, Yadavs claimed to be the natural leaders of the backwards which created a drift between the three castes. The Kurmi were known as a tribe rather than a caste before 1894. They were introduced into Hindu society as "hard working" agriculturists. Their predatory practices before 1894 led to the colonial government classifying them as a Criminal Tribe. The word "Kurmi" itself is understood to be derived from "tortoise", a tribal totem. The politicisation of the Kurmis and the gradual expansion of the caste made the Awadhiya Raghuvanshi Community of Patna identity with them. As a result, these groups started calling themselves Kurmi. According to Ashwani Kumar: > ...the Kurmis historically enjoyed the reputation of a violent caste and ruthless *Kulak*, that attempted to impose feudal dominance and consideration of hierarchy over Dalits. In fact, one of the early caste army in Bihar is directly attributed to the social ascendency of Kurmis in state. > > In contrast, the Koeris, according to Kumar, are a horticulturist caste generally considered non-aggressive and disinterested in caste riots. They also attempted to seek Kshatriya status and formed the Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha as their nodal caste association in 1922. Historically, Koeris have participated in increasing horizontal mobilisation of caste association of the backward castes in Bihar. They have also participated in armed movements under the banner of the CPI(ML) in the Patna, Bhojpur, Aurangabad and Rohtas districts of Bihar. In parts of the district of Bihar, they are infamous for their notorious, criminal affairs. *India Today* reported in 1994 that in some adjoining regions of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, caste-based gangs of Koeri and Kurmi dacoits exist. They indulge in predatory practices against the inhabitants and members of rival caste gangs. An elderly couple belonging to Koeri caste, from the *Vaishali* district of Bihar. ### The lower backwards and the Dalits The agrarian society of Bihar also consisted of a large section of unprivileged people who belonged to the lower backwards castes or the Dalit castes. Unlike the upper backwards— the Koeris, Kurmis and Yadavs, these caste groups hailed primarily from artisan backgrounds and had remained associated with a variety of low scale non-agricultural activities in the past. Prominent among them were the Nai (barber caste), the Mallah (fisherman), the Kumhars (potters) and the Barhai (carpenter). According to the Mungeri Lal commission report, the lower backwards were distributed across 108 caste groups and comprised 32% of the population of Bihar. But despite their large population, these castes had suffered marginalisation in the politico-economic corridor at the hands of both the upper castes and later the upper backwards. In the first year of Lalu Yadav's rule, some leaders of these caste groups attained political power. But with the budding of a personality cult, and Yadav's charisma and the popularity of his "muscular social justice" the leadership shifted to the Yadav caste completely. Since these castes were geographically scattered and did not dominate in terms of population numbers in any constituency, they remained ineffective at creating any large-scale political impact on the state until 2001 when they won a large number of seats in the *Mukhia* and Zila Parishad elections and other bodies at the local level of government. Nitish Kumar is credited for bringing these caste groups into the political limelight with his focus on "Atipichhda" (Extremely Backward Castes). He created a social coalition of these castes along with his core support groups to oust Lalu Yadav from power. Unlike artisan groups which were less discriminated against, other communities such as the Dalits have faced historical discrimination by the upper-castes. They were untouchables and mostly belonged to the landless agricultural labour class. They comprised 15.7% of the state of Bihar according to various censuses and were distributed primarily across Gaya, Nawada, Kishanganj, Aurangabad and Kaimur districts. The Indian National Congress in the Bihar provided mileage to Dalit politics in the pre-Mandal [1990] period. Leaders like Jagjivan Ram, who hailed from the Chamar caste, were the tallest leaders at the national level in Congress. The Dalits were the worst sufferers of routine caste massacres, which were a post-independence (1947) phenomenon in rural Bihar. They were later mobilised by the Maoist groups and asserted their rights in an agrarian setup. With the beginning of Mandal politics, the Dalits started supporting Lalu Yadav's politics of social justice but shifted to the Lok Janshakti Party after the emergence of Ram Vilas Paswan, a politically astute Socialist leader. Emergence of a new class in the peasantry ----------------------------------------- The changing agrarian relations and the zeal of the aspiring peasant castes to improve their cultural status resulted in face-offs between them and the elite "upper caste". The most common form of antipathy was a social boycott of the Backward Castes vowing to attain a Kshatriya identity, which was witnessed by the attempts of the "twice born" caste groups to make it difficult for the Yadavs to perform their necessary rituals. Later, this antipathy started turning into violence and caste riots, as witnessed in the Lakhochak riots (1925), where Bhumihars brutally attacked a Jāti conference of Yadavs. > > On the morning of the 27th, before the arrival of the armed police at Lakho Chak, a large body of rioters advanced upon the village. The local police intervened to expostulate and were at once surrounded, the Sub-Inspector and Chaukidar [village watchman] received grievous injuries and the other constables of the party were hurt. After ill-treating the local police, the rioters retired temporarily but returned to the attack soon after the arrival of the S.P. [Superintendent of Police] with his force. The Superintendent and S.D.O [Subdivisional District Officer] went out to meet the advancing rioters and attempted to parley with them. The attacking party, however, to the number of about 3000 armed with lathis [heavy, metal tipped bamboo truncheons], axes, and spears continued to advance and the police were forced to fire to protect themselves and the Goalas. Although temporarily checked by the fire, the Babhan party continued to advance as they outflanked the police on both sides, the police were forced to retire fighting to the village site three or four hundred yards to their rear. The retirement was effected in good order and after the defending party reached the village the rioters withdrew. > > > -William Pinch (*Peasants and Monk in British India*.) Similarly, the *Janeu* movement, which urged the OBC castes to wear 'sacred thread', also met with the same fate and antipathy by the upper castes. The *Janeu* refers to a sacred thread won by the upper castes after the *Upanayana* ceremony, which allots the "twice born" status to them. When the Goalas of Bihar initiated the *Janeu* movement and started wearing the thread to uplift their cultural status in the first decade of the 20th century, they encountered strong resistance from the Bhumihars and the Thakurs. Meanwhile, the economic prosperity of the upper caste was waning as they could hardly farm a productive yield on their large plots of land without the help of sharecroppers or hired labourers. In contrast, the peasant castes used the labour of their family members to extract more and more from their holdings. There also existed the notion of high 'ritual status' which forbade the upper caste from touching the plow in the period under consideration which is observed by revenue specialists like Denzil Ibbetson and mentioned by Susan Bayly, who blames them for being responsible for their own decline. Praising the peasant castes for their skill and hard work, Bayly argues that if they become indebted, it was not because of their deeds but because of the money lending Bania caste. Bayly observes that the Rajputs and the Brahmins who took pride in shunning the plough and secluding their womenfolk ended up selling their unproductive holdings. ### Post Independence The rural Bihar witnessed a remarkable shift owing to the liquidation of the Zamindari in the post-independence period. As a result, the big landlords and the Maharajas began losing control over their tenants, and the legal ways to keep tabs on them became ineffective. Growing Naxalite pressure and the Ceiling laws which made the possession of land above a set acreage an offence, forced upper caste landlords to sell off some of their vulnerable holdings, which were increasingly bought by the middle caste peasants. The Koeri, Kurmi and the Yadav peasantry pushed ahead of others. There also existed a bond between these peasant castes and their land, which they treated as their most productive asset. Arun Sinha mentions the variety of causes for the upper castes to sell their lands. While most of them were forced to sell by leftist 'land grab campaigns' and were happy with whatever prices they got, many of them sold their land it to pay for lavish weddings or the professional education of their children. The reduction in landholdings of the upper-castes synchronised with their rapid urbanisation. By the 1970s, the standards of judging individual progress by urbanisation brought them more frequently to towns than the backward castes. Since the upper-castes hardly engaged in agriculture themselves in those days, their descendants (according to Sinha) chose to live in cities while the backwards remained deeply rooted in their villages. Backward caste politics after 1990 ---------------------------------- ### 1990-2005 : Premiership of Lalu Prasad Yadav and Rabri Devi See also: Politics of Bihar Lalu Prasad with the U.S. Financial Services Industry Study Group delegation led by Mr. David Blair when they called on him in New Delhi (Left) ; A delegation from Bihar led by the Union Railway Minister, Shri Lalu Prasad calling on the Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh, in New Delhi in connection with the prevailing flood situation in Bihar, on August 26, 2008 (Right). Lalu Prasad Yadav was a product of student politics of the 1970s. Mathew and Moore classified the steps taken by Yadav after assuming power with the terminology "politics of state incapacity". The quota for the Other Backward and the Extremely Backward classes was increased from the earlier ceiling. Violating reservation rules was made a punishable offence, and the statutes were passed to reserve 50% of the seats in the senate and syndicate of the universities. Apart from this, the selection of most of the vice-chancellors and the directors of the higher educational institutions was made overwhelmingly from the OBCs. In case of a dearth of qualified people from the OBCs to assume the position, the government chose to keep the position vacant rather than appointing a person belonging to an upper caste. This step transformed the nature and composition of educational institutions which the forward caste had monopolised until then. The three-percent quota for the economically weaker section irrespective of castes, which could have benefitted poor from the upper caste, was also abolished. The minority upper caste had dominated the state's cooperative sector since independence. The government under Lalu passed several statutes to bring them under the firm governmental control. The dismantling exercise was also performed for some of the co-operatives, but in sharp contrast to this, the Bihar State Co-operative Milk Producers Federation (Comfed) prospered. The primary membership of these milk cooperatives was made up of members of the Yadav caste, who were traditionally herders and cattle rearers. Lalu Prasad also abolished the state tax on toddy to the benefit of the Pasi and proclaimed that fisherman (Mallah) would have the right to fish from the river which had earlier depended on the will of the village strongmen. The *Charwaha Schools*, established for the children of the cattle herders, drew widespread criticism from political circles, with some claiming it to be a mockery of elementary education and a hub of third-rate primary education. In the latter half of the 1990s, when Lalu was facing charges for his implicit involvement in the Fodder Scam, he was successful in convincing his core electorate, the backwards, that the "system", which is controlled by the upper castes, was hatching a conspiracy to finish him. The stringent action by the Chief Election Commissioner and the threat by the Bharatiya Janata Party to impose president's rule on the state, were linked as part of bigger conspiracy against him. Lalu Prasad's governing style was a triumph of the backward castes. The backwards or the OBCs were encouraged to assert themselves in politics and local community relations, often resorting to violence, illegality and crime. ### Confrontation with the upper-caste dominated bureaucracy The Yadav's tenure also witnessed the emergence of a wide rift between the Dalits, the Scheduled Caste and the forward caste who were earlier aligned together against the rising Upper-Backward peasantry in political circles. A newly founded, armed militia, the Ranvir Sena of the Bhumihar caste was the prime reason behind this rift. The Sena had perpetrated ghastly massacres of the Scheduled Castes including those in Laxmanpur Bathe, where nearly 50 Dalits including women and children were murdered. Such an incident gave mileage to the Yadav's politics as the slogan, "Vikas nahi samman chahiy" (we need dignity not development) served as a guiding light for these capital scarce, downtrodden communities. The retaliatory killings of the landlords by the Naxalites also took place, but these killings were less frequent than those of the past, due to the weakening of the organisational structure of the erstwhile Naxal groups. In the past, many militants from the Koeri, Yadav and the Kurmi landed caste were also attracted to these armed groups. For instance, the CPI (ML) drew its support largely from the Koeri and Yadav castes, but after the foundation of Rashtriya Janata Dal, the successor of Lalu's Janata Dal, the Koeri and Yadav militants were attracted to it being enamoured by the electoral politics. Similarly, according to a report by the Asian Development Research Institute the Kurmi caste used to held sway in People's War group while Yadavs were dominant in the Maoist Communist Centre. The infatuation of these castes with democratic politics left a leadership vacuum in the Naxal groups, which were now controlled from the top by leaders of upper castes while its local level workers belonged to Scheduled Castes. Meanwhile, the massacres perpetrated by the Ranvir Sena and the support of some of the Samata Party leaders to lift ban from it polarised Dalits toward Yadav's party. It also exposed to them to the weaknesses of the Left leaving them with the sole choice to accept the leadership of Yadavs who formed the base of Rashtriya Janata Dal. Lalu also relied upon 'symbolism', to prove himself the real leader of the Backwards in contrast to former Congress leaders who, while visiting any village, used to visit only the upper-caste inhabited hamlets. Yadav sidelined the upper castes and used to visit only those regions inhabited by the Backward Castes and the SCs. In response to occasional demands for roads and physical infrastructure, the Yadav explained to the masses that development of infrastructure would benefit the contractors, the rich and the capitalists and for them 'dignity' is the real panacea. A study done at the Jitwarpur village in the Araria district of Bihar explains the conception of 'dignity' and what it meant for the lower castes. 31% of the village's population belonged to the Brahmin caste who exercised control over most of the village's orchards and productive land. The upper-OBCs were five per cent and rest of the population was composed of the lower OBCs and the SCs. Prior to 1990, the Brahmin landlords were also dominant politically. They used to use foul language and accused the lower castes working in their fields of being lazy and greedy. Sometimes, public humiliation and physical intimidation were perpetrated against them but the lower castes were accustomed to it, as they depended on the Brahimns' lands for their livelihoods.of the Brahmins. By 1990, during the Yadav's tenure, it was impossible in a normal situation for the Brahmins to win even a *Mukhia* election from the region, and local political power passed into the hands of Backwards. A member of the Mallah caste took over the post of *Mukhia*. It became very difficult for the Brahmin landlords to abuse their workers to their face now, and they were helpless watching a Mallah Mukhia hoist the national flag on the occasion of Independence and Republic day. The bureaucracy was drastically undermined during the Yadav's rule because of the dominance of upper caste in it. Because of a lack of backward caste officers for appointment to important offices, the Yadav had to rely upon existing officers who had ferocious attitudes towards them. Hence, steps were taken to centralise the power of bureaucracy and subject it to the rigid control of democratically elected backward caste leaders. Many times, public humiliation of the officers also took place. One positive aspect of this step was the consolidation of self confidence of the poor and vulnerable who were harassed earlier by officialdom in situations involving "conflict with law". The political leaders were more easily approachable by the poor than the officials and were also close to them. Hence, a poor person coming from the lower caste benefitted from the de-elitisation of the administration. They could now approach their leaders to deal with the administration, which was still under the control of the elites. It was reported that many petitioners who visited the Yadav chief minister with their pleas witnessed the chief secretary of Bihar acting like a servant and passing the bowl for him to spit *Paan* and *Khaini* which was his custom. There also used to be a spitting bowl wherever he visited, not only for him but for other *Paan*-loving leaders of his party. #### Surge in crime, and the criminal-politician nexus The Yadav's rule also resulted in marginalisation of upper caste criminals from the high-value organised criminal activities formerly monopolised in the erstwhile governments by them. During 1990 to 1995, backward caste gangsters belonging primarily to the Yadav and the Bind (a subcaste of the Mallah) converted many areas of Bihar into their crime capitals. Organised crimes like kidnapping, timber-logging, ransom-killing and vehicle theft could thrive under political patronage, which was enjoyed by the upper castes during Congress's regime. But with the advent of Janata Dal patronage shifted to backward-caste criminals. In most cases big merchants were the target and several incidents revealed the implicit involvement of the state machinery in the crimes. In one incident which took place in 1995, *India Today* reported that the personal physician of Lalu Prasad was accosted by a gang of youths when he was driving to his workplace. He was pulled from his car and the criminals fled with it. When the physician approached the chief minister's residence, he saw his car parked in front of it. To his surprise, one of the culprits was also sitting in the drawing room. After he complained, the Yadav allegedly advised him to pay the youths a sum of ₹ 50,000 for the return of his car, which he did. ### Socio-economic condition of backward castes under Yadav and Kumar A propaganda poster of Janata Dal (United) featuring its Bihar state president Umesh Kushwaha, the party claims to represent non-Yadav OBCs, primary the Koeri and Kurmi caste, which were the core vote base of party.; Narendra Modi being received by the Chief Minister of Bihar, Shri Nitish Kumar and the Deputy Chief Minister of Bihar, Shri Sushil Modi, on his arrival, at Purnea, Bihar on August 26, 2017 & The Vice President, Shri M. Venkaiah Naidu being bid farewell by the Governor of Bihar, Shri Satya Pal Malik and the Chief Minister of Bihar, Shri Nitish Kumar, on his departure, in Patna, Bihar on March 22, 2018 (From left to Right). Despite populist measures like the abolition of the zamindari and positive discrimination in the form of reservation for lower castes, the upper-caste retained their socio-economic dominance by exploiting loopholes in the existing legislation. For a long time, the Congress was backed by these upper-caste members who still managed to dominate the block, the bank and the *thana* (police stations)—the tripod of rural India which determines the hierarchy of status in their feudal society. The cultivation of association with these institutions was an important feature of the dominance enjoyed by the upper caste in rural agrarian society. With Mandal politics stirring up the state and the ascendency of OBC leaders like Lalu, the upper-caste lost their importance in state level politics. As ascertained through reports, the upper-caste made up 46% of the membership of the Bihar Legislative Assembly in 1952, a highly disproportionate number compared to their actual population in the state. With the rise of OBCs, they were reduced to 23% in 2000. But, they again managed to represent 30% of the membership of the assembly in 2010, when the Bharatiya Janata Party emerged as a significant player in the state's politics in alliance with Nitish Kumar. It is reported that while Lalu's policies affected the twice-born castes at the upper level of the state's administration and politics, the steps taken by Nitish to extend the caste-based quota to the local institutions and Panchayats, marginalised them at the grassroots level. Earlier, because of their influence in grassroot level institutions, the upper-caste managed to make the lower castes vote for the parties and candidates of their choice. In the absence of this, the upper caste depended totally upon the brokers—the lower-caste people, who manned these institutions—to assert themselves, making it a costly affair. According to a 2018 report in *ThePrint*, it was ascertained that the failure of industrialisation in Bihar during Lalu's rule was not his responsibility but the failure of subsequent Chief Ministers since independence. Krishna Ballabh Sahay, Sri Krishna Sinha, Binodanand Jha and Lalu's other predecessors failed to promote industrial development, which could have benefitted the most rural state in India. Symbolic gestures like using the fire departments' water supply for bathing poor children, pitting a Musahar caste candidate, the lowest in the caste hierarchy, for parliamentary elections and naming the Bihar University after Dalit icon Bhim Rao Ambedkar popularised Lalu amongst the untouchables and the poor meanwhile alienating the upper-caste bastion in the state who dominated the bureaucracy and the media. Journalist Dilip Mandal argues that the upper-caste dominated media demonised Lalu, because of his robust stand on the enforcement of the quota for the lower castes, but it did not help to destroy his political strength in the state. In the 2015 assembly elections, the RJD and the Janata Dal (United) alliance humbled the Bharatiya Janata Party which won only 53 seats in the 243-member Bihar legislative assembly. Even after the initial success of the Nitish Kumar government in bringing some Bihari expatriates to reinvest in the state following his apparent control of crime, private sector investment in the state remained far from satisfactory taking a downturn because of a host of factors including an uncooperative bureaucracy. John Albert Rorabacher in his book *Bihar and Mithila: The historical roots of backwardness* writes: > The state has failed to attract private investors; although many Bihar expatriates at one time, began to reinvest in Bihar based on the apparent elimination of street crimes and the rapid increase in infrastructural development projects. This temporary euphoria quickly faded as private investors were faced with non availability of land for industries, power shortages and a lackadaisical and uncooperative bureaucracy. > > In the period before Yadav's Janata Dal assumed power, industrial development was at a precarious stage compared to India's more developed states. According to reports, the share of the manufacturing sector was only 13.4% of the state's net domestic product in 1984-85. Further reading --------------- * Sankarshan Thakur (2015). *The Brothers Bihari*. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-9351774815. * Sankarshan Thakur (2014). *Single Man : The Life and Time of Nitish Kumar of Bihar*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-9350297780. * Corbridge, Stuart; Williams, Glyn; Srivastava, Manoj; Véron, René (22 September 2005). *Seeing the State: Governance and Governmentality in India*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-44575-7. * Pararia mass rape: After it shocked India, judgement doubts character of the women * Andrew Byrnes; Jane Frances Connors; Lum Bik (1997). *Advancing the Human Rights of Women: Using International Human Rights Standards in Domestic Litigation*. Commonwealth Secretariat. ISBN 0850925150. * Srivastava, Sumit Saurabh. "EMERGENCE OF BACKWARD CASTE POLITICS IN BIHAR: COALITION, ALIGNMENT AND DOMINANCE." The Indian Journal of Political Science, vol. 75, no. 4, 2014, pp. 675–86. JSTOR, .

**Phrixotoxins** are peptide toxins derived from the venom of the Chilean copper tarantula *Phrixotrichus auratus*, also named *Paraphysa scrofa*. Phrixotoxin-1 and -2 block A-type voltage-gated potassium channels; phrixotoxin-3 blocks voltage-gated sodium channels. Similar toxins are found in other species, for instance the Chilean rose tarantula. Sources ------- Phrixotoxins are purified from the venom of the spider *Phrixotrichus auratus* (Diochot 1999) harv error: no target: CITEREFDiochot1999 (help), but they can also be produced by chemical peptide synthesis (Chagot 2004) harv error: no target: CITEREFChagot2004 (help). Structure --------- There are three different phrixotoxins: * Phrixotoxin-1 (PaTx1) – which is composed of 29 amino acids * Phrixotoxin-2 (PaTx2) – which is composed of 31 amino acids * Phrixotoxin-3 (PaurTx3 or Beta-theraphotoxin-Ps1a) – which is composed of 34 amino acids Primary sequence and disulphide bond pattern of the phrixotoxins PaTx1 is 83.3% identical to PATx2, differing only by two acidic residues(Chagot 2004) harv error: no target: CITEREFChagot2004 (help)(Diochot 1999) harv error: no target: CITEREFDiochot1999 (help). Phrixotoxin-1 and -2 are similar to heteropodatoxin, which also has a blocking activity on Kv4.2 channels (Chagot 2004) harv error: no target: CITEREFChagot2004 (help). Phrixotoxin-1, -2 and -3 contain an Inhibitor Cystine Knot (ICK) motif, and thus belong to the ICK peptide family(Chagot 2004) harv error: no target: CITEREFChagot2004 (help)(Bosmans 2006) harv error: no target: CITEREFBosmans2006 (help). Target ------ Phrixotoxin-1 and -2 bind to A-type, transient, voltage-gated potassium channels, near the S3 and S4 segments, where they negatively affect transmembrane movement of the voltage sensing domain in response to depolarizing voltages. They bind preferentially to the closed or inactivated state of Kv4.2 and Kv4.3 channels(Chagot 2004) harv error: no target: CITEREFChagot2004 (help). Phrixotoxin-3 (PaurTx3) inhibits several voltage gated sodium channel subtypes (Nav1.1/SCN1A, Nav1.2/SCN2A, Nav1.4/SCN4A, Nav1.5/SCN5A, and Nav1.8/SCN10A) (Bosmans 2006) harv error: no target: CITEREFBosmans2006 (help). Mode of action -------------- Phrixotoxins 1 and 2 specifically block Kv4.2 and Kv4.3 channels by altering the voltage-dependent gating properties of these channels. Inhibition results from a shift of the conductance-voltage relation and steady-state inactivation properties to more depolarized potentials. These toxins also change Kv4.2 and Kv4.3 kinetics of activation and inactivation by a concentration-dependent increase of the time-to-peak current and time constant of current inactivation (Diochot 1999) harv error: no target: CITEREFDiochot1999 (help). Phrixotoxin-3 modulates voltage-gated sodium channels by causing a depolarizing shift in gating kinetics and by blocking the inward component of sodium current, thus preventing the channels from opening to a moderate depolarization, resulting in a reduced firing rate of the neurons (Bosmans 2006) harv error: no target: CITEREFBosmans2006 (help). Toxicity -------- ### Phrixotoxin-1 Mice that are injected with phrixotoxin-1 can experience numerous, transient, adverse cardiac reactions, such as premature ventricular beats, ventricular tachycardia, and atrio-ventricular blocks. Neurological effects observed are motor impairment and convulsions. These effects are seen following both intravenous and intracisternal injection, making it likely that phrixotoxin-1 crosses the blood brain barrier (Diochot 1999) harv error: no target: CITEREFDiochot1999 (help). ### Phrixotoxin-3 Injection of this venom into mice causes immediate general ataxia, lack to response stimuli and semi-paralysis. Inability to stand and breathing reduction occurs within minutes. Flaccid paralysis and slowing of breathing eventually cause death (Bosmans 2006) harv error: no target: CITEREFBosmans2006 (help).

New York City Subway line The **IRT Flushing Line** is a rapid transit route of the New York City Subway system, named for its eastern terminal in Flushing, Queens. It is operated as part of the A Division. The Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT), a private operator, had constructed the section of the line from Flushing, Queens, to Times Square, Manhattan between 1915 and 1928. A western extension was opened to Hudson Yards in western Manhattan in 2015, and the line now stretches from Flushing to Chelsea, Manhattan. It carries trains of the 7 local service, as well as the express <7> during rush hours in the peak direction. It is the only currently operational IRT line to serve Queens. It is shown in the color purple on station signs, the official subway map, and internal route maps in R188 cars. Before the line was opened all the way to Flushing in 1928, it was known as the **Corona Line** or **Woodside and Corona Line**. Prior to the discontinuation of BMT services in 1949, the portion of the IRT Flushing Line between Times Square and Queensboro Plaza was known as the **Queensboro Line**. Since the mid-2010s, the line's signal system has been converted to an automated system. The Flushing Line has various styles of architecture, which range from steel girder elevated structures to European-style concrete viaducts. The underground stations have some unique designs as well. The designs include Hunters Point Avenue, which is in an Italianate style; Grand Central–42nd Street, which is a single round tube similar to a London Underground station; and 34th Street–Hudson Yards, which, with its deep vault and spacious interior, resembles a Washington Metro station. Abrielian Railways love subway train Extent and service ------------------ ### Route Queens Boulevard viaduct Grand Central deep vault Services that use the Flushing Line are colored purple. The following services use part or all of the IRT Flushing Line: | Service | Time period | | --- | --- | | Rush hours,peak direction | Other times | | "7" train Local | Full line | | "7" express train Express | Full line | No service | The line has two distinct sections, split by the Queensboro Plaza station. It begins as a three-track subway, with the center track used for express service, at Flushing–Main Street. It quickly leaves the ground onto a steel elevated structure above Roosevelt Avenue, passing Citi Field and the United States Tennis Association's National Tennis Center. A flying junction between Mets–Willets Point and 111th Street provides access to the Corona Yard from the local tracks. At 48th Street in Sunnyside, the line switches to Queens Boulevard and an ornate concrete viaduct begins. The express track ends between 33rd Street–Rawson Street and Queensboro Plaza. At Queensboro Plaza, the eastbound track (railroad north) is above the westbound track, with both tracks on the south side of the island platforms. On the north side of these platforms is the BMT Astoria Line. East of this point, both the Flushing Line and the Astoria Line were formerly operated by the IRT and the BMT. Connections still exist between the eastbound tracks just east of the platforms, but cannot be used for revenue service as BMT trains are wider than IRT trains. This is the only track connection between the Flushing Line and the rest of the subway system. West of Queensboro Plaza, the line sharply turns south onto an elevated structure over 23rd Street. It heads into the west end of Amtrak's Sunnyside Yard, and passes through two underground stations before entering Manhattan via the Steinway Tunnel under the East River. In Manhattan, the line runs under 42nd Street, with part directly underneath the 42nd Street Shuttle (S train), before angling towards 41st Street. The Times Square–42nd Street station, with no track connections to other lines, is directly under 41st Street. West of Times Square, the tracks curve sharply downward before turning under 11th Avenue. The tracks end at 24th Street, even though the last station is at 34th Street. This segment was built as part of the extension of the Flushing Line west to Manhattan's Far West Side (see § Extension westward). A decommissioned lower level at the IND Eighth Avenue Line's 42nd Street–Port Authority Bus Terminal station formerly blocked the way. Although London ultimately received the bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics, New York City pursued the extension anyway, albeit as a means to enable the redevelopment of the far West Side under the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project. Overview of the IRT Flushing Line ### Distinctions The Flushing Line is one of only two New York City non-shuttle subway lines that hosts only a single service and does not share operating trackage with any other line or service; the other is the BMT Canarsie Line, carrying the L train. Because of this, the MTA is automating the line with new trains using communication-based train control (CBTC), similar to the Canarsie Line (see § Automation of the line). The IRT Flushing Line's 7 service has the distinction of running trains with the largest number of cars in the New York City Subway. 7 trains are eleven cars long; most other New York City Subway services run ten or eight-car trains. The trains are not the longest by total length, however. An IND/BMT train of ten 60-foot (18 m)-long cars or eight 75-foot (23 m)-long cars, which is 600 feet (180 m) long, is still 35 feet (11 m) longer than an IRT train of eleven 51.4-foot (15.7 m)-long cars, which is 565 feet (172 m) long. History ------- For the history of the subway service, see 7 (New York City Subway service) § History. ### Origins The earliest origins of the Flushing Line emerged on February 22, 1885, with the founding of the **East River Tunnel Railroad**. The railroad would construct the Steinway Tunnel under the East River, connecting the Long Island Rail Road in Queens with the New York Central Railroad in Manhattan. However, the East River Tunnel Railroad Company went out of business. On July 22, 1887, Walter S. Gurnee and Malcolm W. Niven founded the New York and Long Island Railroad Company (NY&LIRR). They soon began planning for the tunnel. To run from West 42nd Street and Tenth Avenue to Van Alst Avenue after crossing under the East River, the builders planned for the remainder of the line to be constructed on private lands, and numerous alterations were made to the proposal. In 1890, William Steinway advised the company to utilize electricity to power the tunnels, believing that the construction of the tunnel would increase the value of his properties in the vicinity. On June 3, 1892, construction of the tunnel commenced near the intersection of 50th Avenue and Vernon and Jackson Avenues. However, several failures and hindrances, which included an underground spring preventing the extraction of rubble, resulted in the termination of the project on February 2, 1893. Several calls for the resumption of the project between 1893 and 1896, in addition to a proposed extension to New Jersey, were futile. The tunnel opened for subway use on June 22, 1915, with service running between Grand Central and Vernon–Jackson Avenues. The Flushing Line was extended one stop from Vernon–Jackson Avenues to Hunters Point Avenue on February 15, 1916. On November 5, 1916, the Flushing Line was extended two more stops to the east to the Queensboro Plaza station. At this point, the Flushing Line between Grand Central and Queensboro Plaza was called the *Queensboro Line*. ### Construction under the Dual Contracts The Dual Contracts were formalized in March 1913, specifying new lines or expansions to be built by the IRT and the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT). The Dual Contracts involved opening the Steinway Tunnel as part of the new Flushing subway line. The route, traveling under 41st and 42nd Streets in Manhattan, was to go from Times Square through the tunnel over to Long Island City and from there continue toward Flushing. The IRT Flushing Line at 33rd Street–Rawson Street, seen in 1920 At Queensboro Plaza, the line met the BMT's 60th Street Tunnel, as well as a spur from the elevated IRT Second Avenue Line on the Queensboro Bridge. From this point east, the Flushing and Astoria Lines were built by the City of New York as part of the Dual Contracts. They were officially IRT lines on which the BMT held irrevocable and equal trackage rights. Because BMT trains were wider, and the platforms had been built for the IRT, normal BMT trains ran only to Queensboro Plaza, with a transfer to shuttles, using elevated cars, that alternated between the Astoria–Ditmars Boulevard and Flushing–Main Street terminals. IRT trains simply continued from the Queensboro Line and Queensboro Bridge onto the lines to Astoria and Flushing. The line to Flushing was originally called the Corona Line or Woodside and Corona Line before it was completed to Flushing. The line was opened from Queensboro Plaza to Alburtis Avenue on April 21, 1917. The Flushing Line was initially derided by opponents, as it passed through agricultural areas rather than connecting populated places, as previous lines had. Rapid development quickly followed once the Flushing Line was operational, with six-story apartment buildings being erected directly on the former fields, and several major firms building housing for their workers along the route. By June 1917 ridership on the line was exceeding expectations, with 363,726 passengers using the Corona Line that month, 126,100 using the Queensboro Plaza station, and 363,508 using the Queensboro Subway. BMT shuttles began to use the Flushing and Astoria Lines on April 8, 1923. Service to 111th Street was inaugurated on October 13, 1925, with shuttle service running between 111th Street and the previous terminal at Alburtis Avenue (now 103rd Street–Corona Plaza) on the Manhattan-bound track. The line to Main Street had been practically completed at this point, but had to be rebuilt in part due to the sinking of the foundations of the structure in the vicinity of Flushing Creek. Once the structure was deemed to be safe for operation, the line was extended to Willets Point Boulevard on May 7, 1927. This extension was served by shuttle trains until through service was inaugurated on May 14. On that date, the opening of the station was formally celebrated; it coincided with the opening of the Roosevelt Avenue Bridge for cars and buses. Wooden elevated rolling stock had to be used by the BMT, as the Flushing Line was built to IRT clearances, and standard steel BMT subway rolling stock were not compatible. #### Western expansion In July 1920, the New York State Public Service Commission announced it would extend the Flushing Line two stops west to Times Square, with an intermediate station under Bryant Park. The western end of the Bryant Park station would be 300 feet (91 m) east of Sixth Avenue, while the eastern end would be about 100 feet (30 m) west of Fifth Avenue. The 42nd Street Association, a local civic group, regarded the station as very important. In May 1921, it was expected that contracts for the extension would be advertised shortly. On November 9, 1921, the New York State Transit Commission opened up the contract for the extension for bidding. The extension would take a slightly different route than the one specified in the Dual Contracts. The original proposal had the line constructed under 42nd Street to a point just to the east of Broadway, which would have forced riders transferring to the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line to walk a long distance. The Times Square station would be designed at a lower level than the two existing stations at Times Square. It would have two upper mezzanines connected by passageways: a mezzanine east of Seventh Avenue extending to Broadway, and one west of Seventh Avenue. Escalators would connect these upper mezzanines with the lower mezzanine, and a provision would be made to permit the installation of an escalator to the east of Seventh Avenue. There would be two entrances at street level at each of the western corners of 41st Street and Broadway, and two entrances at the northeastern corner of 41st Street and Seventh Avenue. On November 22, 1921, the Powers-Kennedy Contracting Corporation was awarded a contract to construct the extension on a low bid of $3,867,138, below the estimated cost of over $4 million. This low bid was the narrowest margin ever recorded for any large city contract, beating out the next highest bidder by 0.7 percent. While the contractor was provided four years to complete work, engineers expected to reduce the time needed to do so to as little as three years. Since work on the project had to be completed underneath the foundations of several large buildings, such as theatres, and the north end of the New York Public Library, the contractor had to provide a $1 million bond. The project was expected to reduce crowding on the 42nd Street Shuttle by enabling riders to use the Queensboro Subway to directly access Times Square. 24,000 of the estimated 100,000 daily shuttle riders transferred to and from the Queensboro Subway. The line was to extend as far as Eighth Avenue to connect with the proposed IND Eighth Avenue Line. Powers-Kennedy started excavating the line westward from Grand Central in May 1922. The Flushing Line extension was to run beneath the original line from Vanderbilt to Fifth Avenue, running as little as 4 inches (100 mm) under the original line. The tunnel also had to pass under a sewage line at Madison Avenue. The construction of the Fifth Avenue station required underpinning the New York Public Library Main Branch and extending the library's foundation downward. The subway tunnel ran 35 feet (11 m) below ground level. During construction, workers took precautions to avoid interrupting the flow of traffic above ground and interfering with preexisting tunnels. The contractors had completed the tunnels to Fifth Avenue by May 1923. Local civic groups advocated for the Fifth Avenue station to be used as a temporary terminal while the permanent terminus at Times Square was being completed. By the end of 1923, the Transit Commission had allocated $50,000 for the construction of a temporary crossover east of the Fifth Avenue station. The temporary terminal at Fifth Avenue was nearly complete by February 1926. The station had two entrances on the south side of 42nd Street (one next to the library and the other next to the park). A third entrance was placed within the Stern Brothers building on the north side. Stern's funded the construction of the entrance inside its building, which also included storefront windows. These entrances connected with a mezzanine above the platform. The platform was to be 480 feet (150 m) long, though only a 300-foot (91 m) section would be used initially. Queensboro Subway Service Extended To Times Square station 1927The Fifth Avenue station opened on March 22, 1926, extending the IRT Flushing Line one stop to the west from the line's previous terminus at Grand Central. In fall 1926, it was announced that the line would be completed by January 1, 1927. On February 8, 1927, the New York City Board of Transportation informed the New York State Transit Commission that work on the Times Square station was sufficiently completed to enable the start of train service beginning on February 19, 1927 with the completion of work to a point between Eighth Avenue and Seventh Avenue. Plans for the construction of an extension of the line to between Eighth Avenue and Ninth Avenue to provide a physical connection with the IND Eighth Avenue Line were underway. On March 1, 1927, the opening of the line was set for March 15, the third time an opening date was set for the line. Work had been postponed given the amount of work that remained to be completed. The opening of the line was about a year behind the April 29, 1926 date specified in the contract. The delay was the result of surprisingly difficult construction. The Board of Transportation had withheld retained percentages, as allowed in the contract, penalizing the contractor, and trying to incentivize it to speed up work. No retained percentages were provided to the contractor until February 1927. The Flushing Line was extended to Times Square on March 14, 1927. #### Eastern expansion The eastern extension to Flushing–Main Street opened on January 21, 1928. At this time, Corona Yard opened, with the inspection shed and some yard tracks available for use. The remaining tracks opened on April 16, 1928. For the 1939 New York World's Fair, the Willets Point Boulevard station was rebuilt and centered on 123rd Street, just west of where the station originally lay. Some remnants of the old station are still visible; ironwork tends to indicate where the older outside-platform stations were, and the remains of the fare entry area can be seen east of the current station. The original Willets Point Boulevard station was a "minor" stop on the Flushing Line; it had only two stairways and short station canopies at platform level. It was rebuilt into the much larger station in use today, and the ramp used during two World's Fairs still exists, but is only used during special events, such as the US Open for tennis. Express service to the World's Fair began on the Flushing Line on April 24, 1939. Currently and historically, the IRT assigned the number 7 to its Flushing Line subway service, though this did not appear on any equipment until the introduction of the R12 rolling stock in 1948. The BMT assigned the number 9 to its service, used on maps but not signed on trains. #### Unrealized eastern expansion The Main Street station was not intended to be the Flushing Line's terminus. While the controversy over an elevated line in Flushing was ongoing in January 1913, the Whitestone Improvement Association pushed for an elevated to Whitestone, College Point, and Bayside. However, some members of that group wanted to oppose the Flushing line's construction if there was not going to be an extension to Whitestone. In January 1913, groups representing communities in south Flushing collaborated to push for an elevated along what was then the LIRR's Central Branch, in the current right-of-way of Kissena Corridor Park. Shortly after, the New York Public Service Commission (PSC) announced its intent to extend the line as an el from Corona to Flushing, with a possible further extension to Little Neck Bay in Bayside. There was consensus that the line should not abruptly end in Corona, but even with the 5.5-mile-long (8.9 km) extension to Bayside, the borough would still have fewer Dual Contracts route mileage than either Brooklyn or the Bronx. *The* *New York Times* wrote that compared to the Bronx, Queens would have far less subway mileage per capita even with the Flushing extension. The Bayside extension was tentatively approved in June 1913, but only after the construction of the initial extension to Flushing. Under the revised subway expansion plan put forth in December 1913, the Flushing Line would be extended past Main Street, along and/or parallel to the right-of-way of the nearby Port Washington Branch of the LIRR towards Bell Boulevard in Bayside. A spur line would branch off north along 149th Street towards College Point. In 1914, the PSC chairman and the commissioner committed to building the line toward Bayside. However, at the time, the LIRR and IRT were administered separately, and the IRT plan would require rebuilding a section of the Port Washington branch between the Broadway and Auburndale stations. The LIRR moved to block the IRT extension past Flushing since it would compete with the Port Washington Branch service in Bayside. One member of the United Civic Association submitted a proposal to the LIRR to let the IRT use the Port Washington Branch to serve Flushing and Bayside, using a connection between the two lines in Corona. The PSC supported the connection as an interim measure, and on March 11, 1915, it voted to let the Bayside connection be built. Subsequently, engineers surveying the planned intersection of the LIRR and IRT lines found that the IRT land would not actually overlap with any LIRR land. The LIRR president at the time, Ralph Peters, offered to lease the Port Washington and Whitestone Branches to the IRT for rapid transit use for $250,000 annually (equivalent to $7,530,000 in 2023), excluding other maintenance costs. The lease would last for ten years, with an option to extend the lease by ten more years. The PSC favored the idea of the IRT being a lessee along these lines, but did not know where to put the Corona connection. Even the majority of groups in eastern Queens supported the lease plan. The only group who opposed the lease agreement was the Flushing Association, who preferred a previous plan to build the Corona Line extension as a subway under Amity Street (currently Roosevelt Avenue), ending at Main Street. Afterward, the PSC largely ignored the lease plan since it was still focused on building the first phase of the Dual Contracts. The Flushing Business Men's Association kept advocating for the Amity Street subway, causing a schism between them and the rest of the groups that supported the LIRR lease. Through the summer of 1915, the PSC and the LIRR negotiated the planned lease to $125,000 a first year, equivalent to $3,760,000 in 2023, with an eight percent increase each year; the negotiations then stalled in 1916. The Whitestone Improvement Association, impatient with the pace of negotiations, approved of the subway under Amity Street even though it would not serve them directly. The PSC's chief engineer wrote in a report that a combined 20,600 riders would use the Whitestone and Bayside lines each day in either direction, and that by 1927, there would be 34,000 riders per day per direction. The Third Ward Rapid Transit Association wrote a report showing how much they had petitioned for Flushing subway extensions to that point, compared to how little progress they had made in doing so. Negotiations continued to be stalled in 1917. Despite the line not having been extended past Corona yet, the idea of a subway extension to Little Neck encouraged development there. The Whitestone Branch would have had to be rebuilt if it were leased to the subway, with railroad crossings removed and the single track doubled. The PSC located 14 places where crossings needed to be eliminated. However, by early 1917, there was barely enough money to build the subway to Flushing, let alone a link to Whitestone and Bayside. A lease agreement was announced on October 16, 1917, but the IRT withdrew from the agreement a month later, citing that it was inappropriate to enter such an agreement at that time. Thereafter, the PSC instead turned its attention back to the Main Street subway extension. Even after the Main Street station opened in 1928, efforts to extend the line past Flushing persisted. In 1928, the New York City Board of Transportation (BOT) proposed allowing IRT trains to build a connection to use the Whitestone Branch, but the IRT did not accept the offer since this would entail upgrading railroad crossings and the single-tracked line. Subsequently, the LIRR abandoned the branch in 1932. As part of the 1929 IND Second System plan, the Flushing Line would have had branches to College Point and Bayside east of Main Street. That plan was revived in 1939. The BOT kept proposing an extension of the Flushing Line past Main Street until 1945, when World War II ended and new budgets did not allow for a Flushing extension. Since then, several New York City Transit Authority proposals for an eastward extension have all failed. ### Service curtailments and slight improvements Second Avenue Line service, including the connection across the Queensboro Bridge, ended June 13, 1942, and free transfers to the IRT Third Avenue Line were offered at Grand Central. These transfers were valid until May 12, 1955, when Third Avenue Line service ended. A poster describing the changes at Queensborough Plaza in 1949 On October 17, 1949, the joint BMT/IRT service arrangement ended. The Flushing Line became the responsibility of IRT. The Astoria Line had its platforms shaved back, and became BMT-only. Because of this, routes through the then eight-track Queensboro Plaza station were consolidated and the northern half of the structure was later torn down. Evidence of where the torn-down platforms were, as well as the trackways that approached this area, can still be seen in the ironwork at the station.[] During the joint service period, the elevated stations on the Astoria and Flushing Lines were only able to fit nine 51-foot-long BMT elevated or IRT cars, the rough equivalent of seven 67-foot-long BMT subway cars. After the BMT/IRT dual services ended in 1949, the New York City Board of Transportation announced that the Flushing Line platforms would be lengthened to 11 IRT car lengths, and the Astoria Line platforms extended to 9 BMT car lengths. The project, to start in 1950, would cost $3.85 million. Identification of Trains and Routing Automatically (IDENTRA) was implemented on the line in the 1957 and used until 1997, when a route selector punch box with B1 Astoria, local/express buttons was installed at the 10/11 car marker on the upper level of Queensboro Plaza. IDENTRA used a removable round circular disc type radio antenna assembly, slide-mounted on the small mounting brackets that were attached on the front of R12, R14, R15, and R17 cars that were assigned to the 7 route, which had been used on the line since 1948. Similar to the use of radio transponders in the CBTC installation, the system used the antennas to determine whether a train was running local or express, and then accordingly switched the track at interlockings near the Queensboro Plaza and Flushing–Main Street stations. This move reduced the number of signal towers on the line from 9 to 2 and theoretically allowed to operate 37 eleven-car trains instead of only 30 nine-car trains per hour. The consolidated signal system was in use by 1956 while the selector system was in service by 1958. However, in practice, train frequencies were not necessarily increased. According to an experiment performed by the *Long Island Star Journal* in 1957, rush-hour headways ranged from 6 to 15 minutes between local trains, and 2 to 6 minutes between express trains. In 1953, with increased ridership on the line, a "super-express" service was instituted on the line. The next year, the trains were lengthened to nine cars each. Subsequently, the trains were extended to ten cars on November 1, 1962. With the 1964–1965 World's Fair in Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in April 1964, trains were lengthened to eleven cars. The Flushing Line received 430 new R33S and R36 cars for this enhanced service. Rolling stock along the Flushing Line received "strip maps" in 1965, the first such installation in the system. The strip maps showed only the stations on the Flushing Line, as opposed to for the entire system, but the transfers available at each station were listed. ### Decline and rehabilitation A 7 train of R36 cars at 33rd Street–Rawson Street, in the Redbird paint scheme As with much of the rest of the subway system, the IRT Flushing Line was allowed to deteriorate throughout the 1970s to the late 1980s. Structural defects that required immediate attention at the time were labeled as "Code Red" defects or "Red Tag" areas, and were numerous on the Flushing Line. Some columns that supported elevated structures on the Flushing Line were so shaky that trains did not run when the wind speed exceeded 65 miles per hour (105 km/h). This was particularly widespread on the Flushing and the BMT Jamaica Lines. Poster announcing the Flushing Line rehabilitation project in 1985. On May 13, 1985, a 41⁄2-year-long, $70 million project to overhaul the IRT Flushing Line commenced. It forced single-tracking on much of the line during weekends, and the elimination of express service for the duration of the project. The MTA advertised this change by putting leaflets in the *New York Times*, the *Staten Island Advance*, the *Daily News*, and *Newsday*. The project laid new track, replaced or repaired concrete and steel structures, replaced wooden station canopies with aluminum, improved lighting, improved signage, and installed new ventilation and pumping equipment. Expanded service was provided when the Mets played home games or when there were sporting events in Flushing Meadows–Corona Park. Paradoxically, Flushing local trains had better on-time performance during the construction than before it started. The $70 million rehabilitation project on the Queens Boulevard concrete viaduct was completed six months early, and <7> express service was restored on August 21, 1989, without stopping at 61st Street–Woodside. This led to protests by community members to get express service back at 61st Street station. The reason for the discontinuance on the Flushing express was because the MTA felt it took too long to transfer between locals and expresses. The service was also due to fears of delays on the line when locals and expresses merged after 33rd Street–Rawson Street. The change was supposed to enable local trains to stop at 61st Street every four minutes (15 trains per hour) during rush hours, but according to riders, the trains arrived every 8–10 minutes. The community opposition led to service changes, and expresses began stopping at Woodside again a few months later. On weekends between January 19 and March 11, 7 service was partially shutdown so that switches at the Fisk Interlocking could be replaced. The $5 million project was not done in conjunction with the work between 1985 and 1989 because the 23-year old switches were not due for replacement. In the mid-1990s, the MTA discovered that the Queens Boulevard viaduct structure was unstable, as rocks that were used to support the tracks as ballast became loose due to poor drainage, which, in turn, affected the integrity of the concrete structure overall. <7> express service was suspended again between 61st Street–Woodside and Queensboro Plaza; temporary platforms were installed to access the express track in the four intermediate stations. The work began on April 5, 1993. When the viaduct reconstruction finished on March 31, 1997, full <7> express service was reinstated. Throughout this entire period, ridership grew steadily. In spring 2018, express service west of 74th Street was suspended temporarily so the MTA could fix the supports under the center track at 61st Street. ### Early 21st century upgrades #### Automation of the line The automation of the Flushing Line required the purchase of the R188 orders on the 7 route, which runs on the Flushing Line In January 2012, the MTA selected Thales for a $343 million contract to set up a communications-based train control (CBTC) system as part of the plan to automate the line. This was the second installation of CBTC, following a successful implementation on the BMT Canarsie Line. The total cost was $550 million for the signals and other trackside infrastructure, and $613.7 million for CBTC-compliant rolling stock. The safety assessment at system level was performed using the formal method Event-B. The MTA chose the Flushing Line for the next implementation of CBTC because it is also a self-contained line with no direct connections to other subway lines currently in use. Funding was allocated in the 2010–2014 capital budget for CBTC installation on the Flushing Line, with scheduled installation completion in 2016. The R188 cars were ordered so the line would have compatible rolling stock. CBTC on the line will allow the 7 and <7>​ services to run 7% more service, or 2 more trains per hour (tph) during peak hours (before retrofit, it ran 27 tph). However, the system had been retrofitted to operate at 33 tph even without CBTC. The first train of R188 cars began operating in passenger service on November 9, 2013. Test runs of R188s in automated mode started in late 2014. However, the CBTC retrofit date was later pushed back to 2017 or 2018 after a series of problems that workers encountered during installation, including problems with the R188s. The project also went over budget, costing $405 million for a plan originally marked at $265.6 million. The whole line was cutover to CBTC operation on November 26, 2018, with the completion of the segment from Hudson Yards to the north of Grand Central. Completely independent of the CBTC installation is the 7 Subway Extension (see below), which features both CBTC signals and fixed-block signaling. The extension will also increase line capacity. #### Extension westward Main articles: 7 Subway Extension and 34th Street–Hudson Yards (IRT Flushing Line) Construction of the 7 Subway Extension In the 1990s, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) began exploring the possibility of a Flushing Line extension to New Jersey. In 2001, a business and civic group convened by Senator Charles Schumer argued that a proposed westward extension of the Midtown office district could not be accomplished without a subway extension, saying: > The long blocks along the avenues make the walk as long as 20 minutes to the westernmost parts of the area. In addition, there is no convenient link from Grand Central Station or elsewhere on the east side of Manhattan, making the Far West Side a difficult commute for workers from parts of Manhattan, Queens, Westchester and Connecticut. > > An extension of the Flushing Line was then proposed as part of the New York City bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The City wanted to get funding before July 2005, at which time the International Olympic Committee would vote on funding, but due to budget shortfalls, the MTA could not pay to fund the extension. After New York City lost their Olympic bid, the government of New York City devised a rezoning plan for the Hudson Yards area and proposed two new subway stations to serve that area. The subway extension was approved following the successful rezoning of about 60 blocks from 28th to 43rd Streets, which became the Hudson Yards neighborhood. In October 2007, the MTA awarded a $1.145 billion contract to build an extension from Times Square to Hudson Yards. There is one new station at 34th Street and Eleventh Avenue to serve Hudson Yards. The MTA originally planned for another station at 10th Avenue and 41st Street but eliminated it due to lack of funding. The extension's opening was delayed several times due to issues in installing the custom-made incline elevators for the 34th Street station. The extension eventually opened on September 13, 2015. The 34th Street–Hudson Yards station's design has been compared to that of Washington Metro stations, or to those of stations along London's Jubilee Line Extension. #### Station renovations In early 2012, the 45th Road–Court House Square station was closed for a complete renovation, which included the addition of elevators and a connection to the Court Square–23rd Street station complex. Additionally, several stations along the line, including Vernon Boulevard–Jackson Avenue, Queensboro Plaza, 33rd Street, and 46th Street, are slated to receive elevators as part of the 2020–2024 MTA Capital Program. As part of the 2015–2019 Capital Program, the MTA would renovate the 52nd, 61st, 69th, 82nd, 103rd and 111th Streets stations, a project that has been delayed for several years. Conditions at these stations were among the worst of all stations in the subway system. Work was supposed to begin in mid-2020 but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. The MTA hired Judlau Contracting as the contractor for the project; in March 2023, Judlau leased space near the 82nd Street station for a construction office. As of March 2023[update], the MTA planned to begin renovating the 61st, 82nd, and 111th Street stations in 2023; the 52nd and 69th Street stations in 2024; and the 103rd Street station in 2025. Station listing --------------- | Station service legend | | --- | | Stops all times | Stops all times | | Stops all times except late nights | Stops all times except late nights | | Stops late nights and weekends | Stops late nights and weekends only | | Stops weekdays during the day | Stops weekdays during the day | | Stops rush hours in the peak direction only | Stops rush hours in the peak direction only | | *Time period details* | | | | Disabled access | Station is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act | | Disabled access ↑ | Station is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Actin the indicated direction only | | Disabled access ↓ | | | Elevator access to mezzanine only | | Neighborhood(approximate) | Disabled access | Station | Tracks | Services | Opened | Transfers and notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Queens** | | Begins as a three track line | | Flushing | Disabled access | Flushing–Main Street | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | January 21, 1928 | originally Main StreetQ44 Select Bus ServiceConnection to LIRR at Flushing–Main Street | | Willets Point | ↑ | Mets–Willets Point | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | January 21, 1928 | Connection to LIRR at Mets–Willets Pointformerly Willets Point–Shea Stadiumoriginally Willets Point Boulevard | | Corona | connecting tracks to Corona Yard | | | 111th Street | local | 7 all times | October 13, 1925 | | | | 103rd Street–Corona Plaza | local | 7 all times | April 21, 1917 | originally Alburtis Avenue | | Disabled access | Junction Boulevard | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | April 21, 1917 | originally Junction Avenue | | Elmhurst | | 90th Street–Elmhurst Avenue | local | 7 all times | April 21, 1917 | originally Elmhurst Avenue | | Jackson Heights | | 82nd Street–Jackson Heights | local | 7 all times | April 21, 1917 | originally 25th Street–Jackson Heights | | Disabled access | 74th Street–Broadway | local | 7 all times | April 21, 1917 | E all times ​F all times <F> two rush hour trains, peak direction ​M weekdays during the day ​R all times except late nights (IND Queens Boulevard Line at Jackson Heights–Roosevelt Avenue)originally BroadwayQ47 bus to LaGuardia Airport (Marine Air Terminal only)Q53 Select Bus ServiceQ70 Select Bus Service to LaGuardia Airport | | Woodside | | 69th Street | local | 7 all times | April 21, 1917 | originally Fisk AvenueQ47 bus to LaGuardia Airport (Marine Air Terminal only). | | Disabled access | 61st Street–Woodside | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | April 21, 1917 | originally WoodsideConnection to LIRR at WoodsideQ53 Select Bus ServiceQ70 Select Bus Service to LaGuardia Airport | | | 52nd Street | local | 7 all times | April 21, 1917 | originally Lincoln Avenue | | Sunnyside | | 46th Street–Bliss Street | local | 7 all times | April 21, 1917 | originally Bliss Street | | | 40th Street–Lowery Street | local | 7 all times | April 21, 1917 | originally Lowery Street | | | 33rd Street–Rawson Street | local | 7 all times | April 21, 1917 | originally Rawson Street | | Center Express track ends | | connecting tracks to BMT Astoria Line (no passenger service) | | Long Island City | | Queensboro Plaza | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | November 5, 1916 | N all times ​W weekdays (BMT Astoria Line) | | Disabled access | Court Square | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | November 5, 1916 | originally 45th Road–Court House SquareG all times (IND Crosstown Line)E all times ​M weekdays during the day (IND Queens Boulevard Line) | | | Hunters Point Avenue | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | February 15, 1916 | Connection to LIRR at Hunterspoint Avenue | | | Vernon Boulevard–Jackson Avenue | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | June 22, 1915 | originally Vernon-Jackson AvenuesConnection to LIRR at Long Island City | | **Manhattan** | | Steinway Tunnel under the East River | | Midtown Manhattan | Disabled access | Grand Central–42nd Street | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | June 22, 1915 | 4 all times ​5 all times except late nights ​6 all times <6> weekdays until 8:45 p.m. peak direction (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)S all except late nights (IRT 42nd Street Shuttle)Connection to Metro-North Railroad at Grand Central TerminalConnection to Long Island Rail Road at Grand Central Madison | | Elevator access to mezzanine only | Fifth Avenue | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | March 22, 1926 | B weekdays during the day ​D all times ​F all times <F> two rush hour trains, peak direction ​M weekdays during the day (IND Sixth Avenue Line at 42nd Street–Bryant Park) | | Midtown Manhattan (Times Square) | Disabled access | Times Square–42nd Street | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | March 14, 1927 | N all times ​Q all times ​R all except late nights ​W weekdays only (BMT Broadway Line)1 all times ​2 all times ​3 all times (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)A all times ​C all except late nights ​E all times (IND Eighth Avenue Line at 42nd Street–Port Authority Bus Terminal)S all except late nights (IRT 42nd Street Shuttle)Port Authority Bus Terminal | | Hell's Kitchen / Hudson Yards / Chelsea | Disabled access | 34th Street–Hudson Yards | all | 7 all times <7> rush hours until 9:30 p.m. peak direction​ | September 13, 2015 | built as part of the 7 Subway Extensionplanning names 34th Street, 34th Street–Javits CenterM34 Select Bus Service |

Basque-Spanish noble and governor In this Basque name, the first surname is *Medrano* and the second is *Altamirano*. **Antonio Vélaz de Medrano y Altamirano, I Marquess of Tabuérniga** (Labastida, 1637 – Spa, Belgium, 1683) was a distinguished Basque-Spanish noble and military figure during the reign of Philip IV and Charles II of Spain, who served as governor of the strategic city of Nieuwpoort in Flanders and Sergeant General of Battle. The title of Marquess de Tabuérniga (also called *Marqués de Tabuérniga de Vélazar*) was granted by King Charles II in 1682. He was a knight of the Order of Santiago. The Most Illustrious Lord Medrano is also known for having led an interesting diplomatic initiative by negotiating with the United Provinces of the Netherlands for the cession of the island of Tobago to himself, as prince. Ancestry and early years ------------------------ Antonio Vélaz was born into the very ancient and noble House of Medrano, originally from the Palace of Vélaz de Medrano in the Kingdom of Navarre, and the noble Houses of Zúñiga, Altamirano and Ponce de León. He was the son of Captain General Pedro Vélaz de Medrano y Manso de Zúñiga, II Lord of Tabuérniga; and María de Altamirano y Ponce de León, a relative of Juan Ponce de León. ### Ancestry He is the paternal grandson of Don Antonio Vélaz de Medrano y Mendoza and María Magdalena Manso de Zúñiga y Solá, I Lady of Tabuérniga. His paternal grandfather Antonio Vélaz de Medrano y Mendoza had served as a knight of the Order of Santiago, a soldier in Naples and Sicily and would later become magistrate in the towns of Malaga (1609-12), Cuenca and Huete (1612-14). The Marquess' paternal grandmother Magdalena Manso de Zúñiga y Sola was the paternal niece of Pedro Manso de Zúñíga y Medrano, bishop of Calahorra, as well as the sister of Pedro Manso de Zúñiga y Sola, president of the Council of Castile, and Francisco Manso de Zúñiga y Sola, I Count of Hervias and Archbishop of Mexico, Burgos and Cartagena. He is the also the paternal great-great-grandson of Beatriz Martínez de Medrano, mother of Juan Manso de Zúñiga y Medrano "El Joven," lord of Canillas, Canãs and Santorcaz, great-grandfather of the Marquess Don Antonio Vélaz de Medrano y Altamirano. ### Journey to New Spain In 1644, following his father's appointment as the Captain General of the Armada de Barlovento and still a child, he moved to the Indies with his family, settling in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. There, they were detained and placed under custody in the city of Atlixco after news of his father's desertion to the Portuguese. Released in 1650, Antonio chose a military career to restore his family's honor. Military and Administrative Career ---------------------------------- During the reign of Philip IV of Spain, Medrano joined the galleys of Spain in 1651, participating in various actions on the Catalan front such as the capture of Mataró, the siege and capture of Barcelona during the Reapers' War, the recovery of the Fort of San Juan de los Reyes, or the battle of San Feliú. Once the Catalan rebellion was subdued, he moved to the Portuguese front, initially joining the army of Extremadura, where he participated in the Duke of Osuna's incursion near Portalegre. He was seriously wounded and taken prisoner. Once released, he continued his services, participating in the battles of Badajoz and Elvas in 1658. After these setbacks, he transferred to the army of Galicia, where he continued his services for 9 years. ### Governor of Nieuwpoort (1671) Plan and elevation of the city of Nieuwpoort in 1641. Following the peace treaty with Portugal, Antonio Vélaz de Medrano headed to his final destination: Flanders. In these provinces, thanks to the protection of the governor, Count of Monterrey, he received favors and promotions: the habit of the Order of Santiago, promotion to captain of light cavalry, the rank of sergeant general of battle, and the appointment as governor of Nieuwpoort. This last charge was conferred upon him in 1671. Medrano's tenure as governor involved significant military and diplomatic challenges, as the region was a focal point for conflict between the major European powers. #### Franco-Dutch War In 1672, the Franco-Dutch War began, forcing Governor Antonio Vélaz de Medrano to confront the French hostilities on the front line. To prevent them from seizing the stronghold, he decided among other measures to break the dikes protecting the vicinity of the town, flooding it. Although this damaged the region's economy, it hindered the French advance and prevented the expected fall of the stronghold. Nieuwpoort was strategically important due to its position near the coast and its potential as a landing spot for military operations and trade. The Franco-Dutch War saw France under King Louis XIV seeking to expand its territory and influence at the expense of the Spanish Netherlands (of which Flanders was a part) and the Dutch Republic. By 1675, the first Modern Royal Military and Mathematics Academy of Flanders in Europe was opened up in Brussels by the sole-director Don Sebastian Fernández de Medrano, Battle General, General of the Artillery, General Prefect, Alferez and Master of Mathematics, at the request of the Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, Carlos de Aragón de Gurrea, 9th Duke of Villahermosa, in order to correct the shortage of artillerymen and engineers from the Spanish Tercio, one of the finest professional infantries in the world. Duelist ------- Dueling remained highly popular in European society, despite various attempts at banning the practice. The practice of dueling was deeply rooted in Modern Age Europe to the point that in the 17th century it had become quite a fashion despite the prohibitions prescribed by civil and military legislation. Don Antonio Vélaz de Medrano had his first flirtation with duels in 1677, while on official mission in Madrid. His opponent was to be Juan de Lasarte, lieutenant general of the Cambrai castle. It was necessary to resort to the mediation of the Duke of Osuna to settle the differences between the two military men and avoid their confrontation. A year later, however, Antonio Vélaz de Medrano played the role of "second sword" for his fellow soldier, the sergeant major Juan de Velasco, who challenged his superior, lieutenant general Francisco Marcos de Velasco, over some critical words the commander had spoken against his subordinate. The duel ended with the victory of Medrano and Juan de Velasco. However, their insolence was swiftly punished by Carlos de Aragón de Gurrea, 9th Duke of Villahermosa and governor of the Netherlands, who imprisoned the former in the Castle of the Counts of Ghent and ordered the execution of the latter. Fearing the same fate, Antonio Vélaz de Medrano fled his prison taking advantage of the city's fall into French hands in March 1678. To avoid retaliation, he sought refuge in the United Provinces, from where he only returned in October of the same year after obtaining guarantees that his life would be respected. In fact, his protectors at court managed to have him merely reprimanded and punished with serving for six months without a post. Prince of the Island of Tobago ------------------------------ Medrano requested the principality of Tobago There is one matter that particularly stands out in Don Antonio's career, it is his project to crown himself prince of the island of Tobago. During his forced exile in the United Provinces, Don Antonio Vélaz de Medrano initiated negotiations with the States General for the cession of this Caribbean island to himself, on the condition of maintaining very favorable economic conditions for the Dutch. Unable to sway the Dutch, Don Antonio Vélaz de Medrano returned to Spain in October 1678 and tried to obtain permission from Charles II to formalize the project, but the Council of the Indies and the Council of State advised against proceeding with it, ultimately Medrano's death prevented this title from coming to fruition. Antonio Vélaz de Medrano y Altamirano's attempt to gain control over the island of Tobago in the late 17th century was driven by several key motives: the Caribbean region was highly valued for its economic potential, thanks to its lucrative trade in sugar, tobacco, and other valuable commodities. Gaining sovereignty over a principality in Tobago would not only have provided Antonio Vélaz de Medrano with significant economic benefits but also strategic military advantages due to the island's location in a contested naval area. Additionally, becoming the prince of Tobago would have greatly enhanced his personal and family prestige and status, offering him sovereign authority of Tobago. Marquessate of Tabuérniga and heir ---------------------------------- Remains of the mayorazgo of Tabuérniga, also known as the "*casa del Moro (house of the Moor)*" As compensation for abandoning the Tobago project, Antonio received the title of the Marquessate of Tabuérniga in 1682. The title was created over a majorat founded in 1602 by Bishop Pedro Manso de Zúñiga y Medrano, whose main income precisely consisted of the village of Tabuérniga, near the town of Labastida (Álava). ### Marriage and descendants Don Antonio Vélaz de Medrano married a lady from the Hurtado de Mendoza family. The Marquessate of Tabuérniga was inherited by his descendants, notably his son Jaime Velaz de Medrano y Hurtado de Mendoza, II Marquess of Tabuérniga, his grandson Jaime José Ignacio Velaz de Medrano y Barros, III Marquess of Tabuérniga, and his great-grandson Fernando Agustín Velaz de Medrano Bracamonte y Dávila (London, December 23, 1742-Cape of Good Hope, November 22, 1791), a nobleman, aristocrat and military man, 15th Marquess of Cañete, Grandee of Spain, 6th Marquess of Fuente el Sol, 8th Marquess of Navamorcuende and 15th Lord of Montalbo, known primarily for his friendship with the literary man José Cadalso. In 1786 Don Fernando Vélaz de Medrano inherited the illustrious Marquessates of Fuente el Sol, Cañete and Navamorcuende on the death of his uncle Agustín de Bracamonte. The last two were associated with the greatness of Spain. The Marquessate of Tabuérniga was rehabilitated in 1985 to María Eugenia Florán-Velaz de Medrano y Ballesteros. Death ----- In his last years, he suffered various health ailments that recommended the use of the medicinal waters of the town of Spa, Belgium. There he died on August 3, 1683. Bibliography ------------ TÉLLEZ ALARCIA, Diego, *Jaque al Rey: la conspiración del marqués de Tabuérniga*. Madrid, Endymion, 2015, pp. 188-223.

**Horace Sowers Kephart** (September 8, 1862 – April 2, 1931) was an American travel writer and librarian, best known as the author of *Our Southern Highlanders* (a memoir about his life in the Great Smoky Mountains of western North Carolina) and the classic outdoors guide *Camping and Woodcraft*. Biography --------- Kephart was born in East Salem, Pennsylvania, and raised in Iowa. He was the director of the St. Louis Mercantile Library in St. Louis, Missouri from 1890 to 1903; during these years Kephart also wrote about camping and hunting trips. Earlier, Kephart had also worked as a librarian at Yale University and spent significant time in Italy as an employee of a wealthy American book collector. In 1904, Kephart's family (wife Laura and their six children) moved to Ithaca, New York, without him, but Laura and Horace never divorced or legally separated. Horace Kephart found his way to western North Carolina, where he lived in the Hazel Creek section of what would later become the Great Smoky Mountains National Park > I took a topographic map and picked out on it, by means of the contour lines and the blank space showing no settlement, what seemed to be the wildest part of these regions; and there I went. > > Later in life Kephart campaigned for the establishment of a national park in the Great Smoky Mountains with photographer and friend George Masa, and lived long enough to know that the park would be created. He was later named one of the fathers of the national park. He also helped plot the route of the Appalachian Trail through the Smokies. Kephart died in a car accident in 1931, and was buried near Bryson City, North Carolina, a small town near the area he wrote about in *Our Southern Highlanders*. Two months before his death, Mount Kephart was named in his honor. The Mountain Heritage Center and Special Collections at Hunter Library, Western Carolina University have created a digitized online exhibit called "Revealing an Enigma" that focuses on Horace Kephart's life and works. This exhibit contains documents and artifacts (photos and maps) that can be browsed or searched. Ken Burns' multi-part documentary, *The National Parks: America's Best Idea*, features Horace Kephart in the fourth episode (1920–1933), which was initially broadcast on September 30, 2009. Kephart is a character in Ron Rash's novel *Serena*, as well as Walt Larimore's novels, *Hazel Creek* and *Sugar Fork*. Writings -------- Kephart in camp in the Smokies He wrote of his experiences in a series of articles in the magazine *Field and Stream*. These articles were collected into his first book, *Camping and Woodcraft*, which was first published in 1906. While mostly a manual of living outdoors, Kephart interspersed his philosophy: > Your thoroughbred camper likes not the attentions of a landlord, nor will he suffer himself to be rooted to the soil by cares of ownership or lease. It is not possession of the land, but of the landscape, that enjoys; and as for that, all the wild parts of the earth are his, by a title that carries with it no obligation but that he shall not desecrate nor lay them waste. > > Houses, to such a one, in summer are little better than cages; fences and walls are his abomination; plowed fields are only so many patches of torn and tormented earth. The sleek comeliness of pasture it too prim and artificial, domestic cattle have a meek and ignoble bearing, fields of grain are monotonous to his eyes, which turn for relief to abandoned old-field, overgrown with thicket, that still harbors some the shy children of the wild. It is not the clearing but the unfenced wilderness that is the camper's real home. He is brother to that good old friend of mine who in gentle satire of our formal gardens and close- cropped lawns, was wont to say, 'I love the unimproved works of God.' > > He also published some more books of the same theme such as *Camp Cookery* (1910) and *Sporting Firearms* (1912). In addition, he wrote *The Hunting Rifle* section of *Guns, Ammunition and Tackle* (New York: Macmillan, 1904), a volume of Caspar Whitney's prestigious American Sportsman's Library. Combining his own experience and observations with other written studies, Kephart wrote a study of Appalachian lifestyles and culture called *Our Southern Highlanders*, published in 1913 and expanded in 1922. In 1925, Kephart wrote a long editorial explaining why the Smoky mountains should be recognized as a National Park. He later wrote and published a short history of the Cherokee and other books which became standards in the field. Kephart completed a typescript for a novel in 1929. However, the book was not edited and published until 2009, when it was published under the title *Smoky Mountain Magic* by Great Smoky Mountains Association. Kephart never left the Great Smokies, having been instantaneously killed in a mountain-road automobile accident on April 2, 1931.

Chinese university administrator and politician In this Chinese name, the family name is *Li*. **Li Wentang** (Chinese: 李文堂; pinyin: *Lǐ Wéntáng*; born 1965) is a Chinese university administrator and politician who is the current chief education officer of the Central Party School of the Chinese Communist Party, in office since July 2022. He is an alternate member of the 20th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. Biography --------- Li was born in Jinhua County (now Jinhua), Zhejiang, in 1965, and graduated from Shandong University and the Institute of Philosophy, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. He also studied at the University of Lausanne and the University of Basel. He was a visiting scholar at the University of Munich and the University of Ireland. Beginning in 1996, he served in several posts in the Central Party School of the Chinese Communist Party, including lecturer, professor, deputy director and director of Teaching and Research Department, and director of Education and Research Department of Culture and History. In July 2022, he was appointed chief education officer, a position at vice-ministerial level. Publications ------------ * 真理之光 [*Light of Truth*] (in Chinese). Suzhou, Jiangsu: Jiangsu People's Publishing House. 2008. ISBN 9787214049230.

Military unit The Military Order of Christ (previously *Ordem dos Cavaleiros de Cristo* "Order of the Knights of Christ") was founded in 1318. The order, in every sense of the term, were Knights Templar who continued their operations from their headquarters in Tomar, Santarém Portugal. Contrary to the belief that the Templar Order was renamed and established by King Denis of Portugal, the Templars merely moved backed to their original headquarters in Tomar Castle which was an autonomous zone granted to the Templar Order. Reasons for this move and change of name were to protect the vast assets of the order from repatriation by the Catholic Church. The Templar assets were then transferred over to the Cavaleiros de Cristo, all with the blessing of King Diniz who helped pull off the deal with the Church. The order was secularized in 1789, and dissolved in 1910. It was revived in 1917 within the Portuguese Republic, headed by the President of Portugal, as a decoration in recognition of outstanding services to the state. History of the Knights Templar in Portugal ------------------------------------------ | | | --- | | Part of a series on the | | Knights Templar | | Templar CrossTemplar Cross | | Poor Fellow-Soldiers ofChrist and of the Temple of Solomon | | Overview | | * History * Latin Rule * Seal * Grand Masters * Members * Trials and dissolution | | Councils | | * *Council of Troyes (1129)* * *Council of Pisa (1135)* * *Council of Vienne* | | Papal bulls | | * *Omne datum optimum* (1139) * *Milites Templi* (1144) * *Militia Dei* (1145) * *Pastoralis praeeminentiae* (1307) * *Faciens misericordiam* (1308) * *Vox in excelso* (1312) * *Ad providam* (1312) | | Locations | | * England * Scotland | | Successors | | * Military Order of Christ * Order of Montesa | | Cultural references | | * In the IOGT * In self-styled orders * In Freemasonry * In popular culture | | See also | | * Military order (religious society) * Catholic orders of chivalry | | icon Catholic Church portal | | * v * t * e | Further information: History of the Knights Templar The Templars were founded around 1118 and soon formed commanderies around Europe to support their efforts in the Holy Land, settling in Portugal at least since 1122, in the region of Braga, where the Order received successive donations and where they also bought lands. This occurred only two or three years after their foundation in Jerusalem, and about 7 years before their recognition and confirmation in the Council of Troyes. The Templars also received lands donated by D. Theresa in 1126, a few years before Portugal became a fully independent kingdom. Portugal was the first country in Europe where they settled. Gualdim Pais, provincial Master of the Order of the Temple in Portugal, constructed the Convento de Cristo in 1160. According to folklore, he chose the location after drawing lots and receiving a sign to build a new Templar fortress on a hill between the river Fria and Saint Gregory's creek. Traditional local legends and chronicles preach that the choice was for mystical reasons and by divine inspiration, from practices like geomancy by the provincial Grand Master, based on exercises taken from luck and predestination. Reinforcing this magical view is the fact that the lot was part of a small chain of seven elevations (*lugar dos sete montes*), which became known as the *city of seven hills*, as the seven hills of Jerusalem, the seven hills of Rome or the seven columns of Constantinople. The "Convento de Cristo" in Tomar, central Portugal. The Convento de Cristo is a testament to the Templars' architectural abilities. The octagonal church was inspired by the Islamic Dome of the Rock shrine in Jerusalem, used by the Templars as their base of operations. The Dome of the Rock is located on the Temple Mount, where the Temple of Jerusalem stood prior to its destruction in 70 A.D. and the Templars believed the Dome of the Rock was a remnant of the ancient Temple from which their name derives. The order incorporated features of the shrine into their imagery and architecture, including the seals of Grand-Masters. The architecture of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre may have also served as a model. The sepulchre itself stands in an elaborate structure within the rotunda (rotunda – 35 m diameter), surrounded by a group of three columns between four pairs of square piers columns supporting an ornamented, domed roof. It is possible that the 4th-century rotunda's columns were removed from their original location on the façade of the Roman temple. Renovation of the piers exposed evidence that the columns had originally been much higher and that the Crusaders cut them in half for use in the 12th-century rotunda. On 13 July 1190, Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur, the King of Morocco laid siege to the Templars in Tomar. This test of strength confirmed the Templars' military power and established them as an indispensable presence in the defense of northern Portugal. Pais died in 1195 after ruling for 50 years. Birth of the Order ------------------ Floor Plan of the Church, Chapter House and Charola After the Templar order's suppression by Pope Clement in 1312, King Denis set about creating a new order for the displaced knights in his realm. He instituted the "Christi Militia" under the patronage of Saint Benedict in 1317 (some sources say August 14, 1318), and Pope John XXII approved this order by a Papal bull on 14 March 1319, "AD EA EX QVIBVIS". After four years of negotiations, Pope John XXII passed another bull authorizing Denis to grant the Templar's property to the Order of the Christ in 1323. The knights of the order were committed to vows of poverty, chastity and obedience to the king. It is unclear how many Templars continued in the new order; some historians would claim the Order of Christ was essentially the Templars under a new name, while others see it as a mostly original formation. The first Grand Master, Dom Gil Martins, had been a knight of Saint Benedict in the Order of Aviz. The Order of Christ was first seated at Castro Marim, in the Algarve (in the Diocese of Faro). In 1357, the order was moved to the town of Tomar, near Santarém, former seat of the Order of the Knights Templars in Portugal. (Other sources give the movement date 1366 under the sixth Grand Master, Dom Nuno Rodrigues.) Henry the Navigator's Command ----------------------------- Henry the Navigator After 1417, by King John I of Portugal's request to the Pope, Prince Henry the Navigator (1417–1460) became the order's Grand Master. Prince Henry was born in 1394, the king's third son. During that time, Duarte I and Afonso V were Kings of Portugal. In 1433, King Duarte I gave the Order "Sovereign" status not over these territories which already held, but over any future conquests. Pope Calixtus III in 1455 confirmed that Afonso V extended his temporal jurisdiction by conceding the royal prerogative over three episcopal nominations in areas ruled by the Order. In 1460, King Afonso V granted the Knights of Christ a 5 percent levy on all merchandise from the new African lands. Using Order of Christ money, Prince Henry organized the Navigator's school in Sagres, preparing the way for Portuguese supremacy; from this village, the first great wave of expeditions of the Period of Discoveries were launched. After Henry, the grand mastership was held by the royal family. Henry colonised the Azores and Madeira islands — his aim was to go south beyond Cape Bojador, south of the Canary Islands. During Prince Henry's rule, two Gothic cloisters were built in the Convent of Tomar. Henry was the Duke of Viseu and also member of the Knights of the Garter. Henry's impact on history is great, having arguably sparked the European interest in colonial exploration that would so transform the world for the next four centuries. The cross of the Order adorned Portuguese sails in their travels to India, Brazil and Japan. After Henry the Navigator ------------------------- Prince Henry was succeeded in the governorship of the Order by Prince Ferdinand, son of King Edward I. In 1484, Emanuel, Duke of Beja, became the 11th Governor of the Order. Due to the fact that the discipline of the order was declining, Pope Alexander VI commuted the vow of celibacy to that of conjugal chastity in 1492; in 1496, the brethren were dispensed from celibacy and in 1505, from poverty, but they still continued their responsions (one third of their revenues) to the Order's treasury. (The condition that they should apply the third part of their revenues to the building and support of the Tomar Cloister) and the priests of which he bound to the whole of the three vows. Also in 1501, Pope Julius II mitigated the vow of poverty into the payment of a tax - the meia-anata; for the Order of Christ this tax was three-quarters of their annual revenues. Portuguese caravel, adorned with the Cross of the Order. This was the standard model used by the Portuguese in their voyages of exploration. It could accommodate about 20 sailors. Manuel I of Portugal sought and obtained the title of Grand Master by Pope Leo X's Bull *Constante fide* (June 30, 1516). King Manuel, João's successor, sent Vasco da Gama (a member of the Order of Christ) to sail around the African cape to India. He set sail in 1497 and reached Calicut. By the end of king Manuel's reign, the order possessed 454 commanderies in Portugal, Africa and the Indies. Manuel also made extensive additions to the Order's headquarters in Tomar. Manuel ordered that the church of Tomar be expanded westwards, spreading beyond the castle limits and opening up the Charola to add on to it a magnificent nave which housed the choir and the sacristy, becoming known as the chapter house. The order also began its step-by-step transformation from monastic to secular during Manuel's reign. At the end of this process, the order had taken the form of a royal institution. The son of Manuel did not automatically obtain the succession right for ruling the order, and got an approval by Bull of Pope Adrian VI: *Eximiae devotionis* (April 14, 1523). After thirty years, John III obtained "Perpetual Administration" of all the Portuguese Military Orders including the Order of Christ, and of course the Grand Mastership of the Order passed to the Crown by Pope Julius III's Bull, issued in Rome in 1551. For the government of these orders in the king's name, John III instituted a special council named "Mesa das Ordens". ### John III and Fra António There are some scholars who say that in 1522 the Order was divided into two branches – a religious one under the Pope, and a civil one under the king, as they remain today – however, there is a lack of evidence supporting this. In 1523, John III formed a chapter of the Order giving Fra António (also known as Antonius of Lisbon) a Spanish-born Jerome friar, the authority and responsibility to reform the Order. The new statutes were approved in 1529 by the Friars. The Grand Prior was removed from office and all the priests and religious of the Order were required to resume convent life at Tomar, and to wear the habit and cross of the Order. Several religious friars were persuaded to abandon the Order and others were expelled. António of Lisbon obtained the position of Prior. The violation of the tombs of the Templar Masters and the destruction and burning of documents of the Order are attributed to him. Years later, António was also charged with forcibly imposing the dictates of the Council of Trent on the Order of Christ, and later, for ordering two autos-da-fé, the first and only ones held in Tomar (involving four people executed and several penanced, especially New Christians, and allegedly the burning of papers and books as well). The Portuguese Inquisition was established in 1536 after the king sent a diplomatic mission to the Holy See led by an ally and friend of Anthony, Baltazar de Faria, who after his death, would be buried in the Convent of Christ in Tomar by Fra António himself. In 1567, António persuaded pope Pius V to give him control of all the convents of the order. More than eighty years before the publication of the first Rosicrucian *manifesto*, around 1530, a short time before the reform of the Order and the expulsion of several friars, the cross and the rose were associated in the Convent of the Order of Christ. Three *bocetes* are on the *abóboda* (vault) of the interior chamber, which is thought to have been the initiation room because of its initial seven steps, seven carved rose-crosses, and a rosette depicting a *circular sun* on the vault, and its own underground small *chamber* or *tomb of initiation* at the end. In some of them, the rose flower can clearly be seen at the center of the cross. ### Counterreform by Sebastian King Sebastian tried to reverse the reform of brother Antonius of Lisbon in 1574. When Antonius persuaded the pope Pius V to give him the control of all convents of the order in 1567, King Sebastian protested and obtained confirmation of his post as Grand Master. As a result, the religious members of the Order were separated into lay and military membership. ### Philippine Reforms Between 1580 and 1640 there was another attempt to reform the order. The new statutes were enacted by the general chapter at Tomar 1619 and were promulgated by Philip III of Portugal in 1627. The conditions for admission to the order were noble birth and either two years' service in Africa or three years with the fleet. Secularization of the Order --------------------------- The *Convento de Cristo'*s famous Manuel I Chapter window by Diogo de Arruda (around 1510) Pope Pius VI (1789) and Queen Mary I made the last attempt to reform the order. This reform made the convent of Tomar once again the headquarters of the whole order. The sovereign still remained Grand Master, but instead of the conventual prior there was a grand prior of the Order. In 1789 the Portuguese Order lost its religious character, being secularised by Queen Mary. Since 1789, the members consisted (besides the Grand Master and Great Commander) of six Knights of the Grand Cross, four hundred and fifty Commanders, and an unlimited number of Knights. Foreigners were exempt from the rules, but, at the same time, were excluded from the participation in the revenues of the Order. Only Catholics of noble descent could be admitted to the Order. The Order of Christ also survived in Brazil until the end of the Monarchic period in 1889. In 1834 when the civil government of Portugal became anti-Catholic, after the defeat of King Miguel in the Civil War, under the constitutional monarchy the order lost its properties. The ancient Military Orders were transformed by the liberal constitution and subsequent legislation into mere Orders of Merit. The privileges which once had been an essential part of the membership of the old military orders were also ceased. In 1910, when Portuguese monarchy ended, the Republic of Portugal abolished all the Orders except the Order of the Tower and Sword. However, in 1917, at the end of the Great War, some of these Orders were re-established as mere Orders of Merit to reward outstanding services to the state, the office of Grand Master belonging to the Head of State - the President of the Republic. The Military Order of Christ, together with the other Portuguese Orders of Merit, had its Statutes revised in several occasions, during the First Republic (1910–1926), then in 1962, and again in 1986. The order is currently governed by a Chancellor and a Council of eight members, appointed by the President of the Republic, to assist him as Grand Master in all matters concerning the administration of the Order. The Order, despite its name, can be conferred on civilians and on military, Portuguese and foreigners, for outstanding services to the Republic, in parliament, in the government, in the diplomatic service, in the Courts of Justice, on public authorities or on the Civil Service.

Town in New South Wales, Australia **Leadville** is a town in New South Wales, Australia. The town is located in the Warrumbungle Shire local government area, 376 kilometres (234 mi) north west of the state capital, Sydney. At the 2016 census, Leadville and the surrounding area had a population of 169. History ------- ### Aboriginal history The site of modern-day Leadville lies on the traditional lands of Wiradjuri people, close to the lands of neighbouring Kamilaroi people that lie to the north and east. Early government surveyors were directed to use local language words for place names whenever possible and place names of surrounding settlements such as Dunedoo, Coolah, Goolma, Gulgong and Mudgee are settler interpretations of Wiradjuri language words. That tends to confirm that it is Wiradjuri country. ### Mining town The origins of the town are associated with the nearby silver-lead ore deposits; the former Mount Stewart, Extended, Mount Scott, Grosvenor and Latimer Mines are nearby. An Aboriginal man, Tommy Governor—the father of Jimmy Governor—found some interesting rocks, near what would become Mount Stewart, and showed these to Mr. George Stewart. The rocks were lead carbonate and assays showed the presence of silver. Governor was later to complain that he had not received what he thought was fair compensation for his discovery. Mining commenced at Mount Stewart in 1888. For the first few years, the miners used nearby Denison Town for supplies and services. Tommy Governor, discoverer of the silver-lead deposit.In 1891, Free Trader politician, gold-mining entrepreneur, and director of the Mount Stewart Lead and Silver Mining Company, Charles Lancelot Garland, retired as the member for Carcoar and bought 32 hectares (80 acres), at what is now Leadville, immediately to the east of the Mount Stewart mine site. He subdivided the land into 250 town allotments. The new 'private town' of Leadville took its name from another silver-lead mining town, Leadville, Colorado. Private ownership of the town was the reason that Leadville was a 'town', while nearby Dunedoo and Coolah were officially only 'villages'. The streets of the new town were named after directors of the Mount Stewart mine—Clarke, Garland, Cox, Channon, Stewart, Plumb—and others—Denham, Davis (a mine manager), and Robinson.The growth of Leadville caused Denison Town to fade away, as business migrated to the new town; One of those to move was storekeeper, William Latimer. Mining at Leadville occurred in three distinct phases, 1888 to 1894, 1913 to 1935, and 1950 to 1952. Beginning in 1888, silver and lead ore was mined. In 1889, the Mount Steward mine shaft had reached a depth of 78 metres (255 ft) and was driving east and west from the 76 metres (250 ft) level. In 1890, the Mount Stewart Mining Lead and Silver Mining Company was floated. For fourteen months, from early 1892, there was also a smelter at Leadville, which produced 1,539 tons of lead and 9,085 kilograms (292,093 ozt) of silver, from 15,000 tons of ore. The smelter had an 80-ton "water jacket furnace" (a cold-blast furnace), with 19 kilowatts (25 hp) steam-driven blast engine, and a 15 metres (50 ft) high brick chimney. The furnace used coke—brought from Newcastle to Mudgee by rail and then carted from there to Leadville, an expensive proposition—supplemented by locally burned charcoal. The fortunate accidental discovery of a deposit of limestone, within the mine itself, provided a local source of limestone for flux used in the furnace. The initial success of the Mount Stewart Mine prompted others to explore and take up leases in the area. A second mine, the Mount Steward Extended Mine—just north of the original Mount Stewart Mine and close to its smelter—was sunk in 1892 and a company floated to fund it; Garland was also a director of this company. The Dynevor Silver and Gold Mining Co. was floated in Melbourne in 1891, and began to mine a deposit of sulphide ores approximately one kilometre/mile away from the Mount Stuart Mine. Storekeeper William Latimer's freehold paddock also became a mine. Three miles from Leadville, yet another company sank a shaft, the Mount Scott Mine, which seems never to have gone into production. Mining activity peaked in 1893, and with it the town's population—growing from 26 in 1891 to around 1000—before the silver price crashed in a worldwide financial panic. By 1894, complicating the problem of the silver price, the carbonate ores at the Mount Stewart Mine were becoming exhausted, as miners reached the sulphide zone, consisting mainly of iron pyrites and zinc sulphide. Mining ceased around the end of 1894, and also effectively ended land sales in the town, leaving Garland with many unsold town allotments. Charles Lancelot Garland, founder of Leadville, politician, and mining entrepreneur, c.1899. After silver-lead mining ended, some ethnic-Chinese shearers and station hands settled in the town, which had been vacated by the miners. There was an ethnic-Chinese presence in the town for some years. Charles Garland bought the Mount Stewart Mine from the liquidator in 1898 and was joined in the venture by James Channon, a Sydney manufacturer and mine owner. Pyrite (iron pyrites) was used to make sulphuric acid, providing a potential market. In 1913, a trial shipment of 100 tons of pyrite was sold. Garland was soon advocating—despite his earlier political stance in favour of free trade—the imposition of a duty on imported iron pyrites, claiming his mine would be a local source. Prior to 1920, the closest railway connection was at Craboon, on the Gwabegar railway line. In 1913, the construction of a branch line from Craboon to Coolah—passing through Leadville and servicing the mines there—was already under active consideration. Garland advocated the new line, as a means to lower the cost of Leadville iron pyrites to superphosphate fertiliser manufacturers. An act to build the line was passed in December 1915; it opened in March 1920. In 1916, iron pyrites was shipped to the Wallaroo-Mount Lyall Superphosphate Works, and in 1920 to the Cockle Creek Smelter, over the new railway line. Around this time, in 1919, the population of Leadville and its surrounding area was still 772. However, misfortune followed; Channon died in December 1920 and, on 14 October 1921, many buildings in the town and at the mine were damaged by a violent storm. Garland lost his earlier enthusiasm for operating the mine, and with it the support of the town. In late 1926, the "Leadville Mines"—consisting of the Mount Stewart, Grosvenor, and Extended Mines— were on the market, "For the purposes of winding up a partnership", presumably the partnership of Garland and Channon's heirs. Garland had lost interest in reopening the mine, by 1929, further angering the people of the town whose future prosperity depended upon it. Garland died in 1930. In 1932 the Mount Stewart Syndicate reopened the mine and began shipping iron pyrites to Australian Fertilisers Limited at Port Kembla but, in 1935, the mining ceased. In 1934–1935, there had been a bitter demarcation dispute between the Miners Federation and the Australian Workers Union, at Leadville, and, in April 1935, there was suspected sabotage at the mine. The dispute may have been a factor in bringing about the mine's closure. However, it was another industrial dispute—at distant Port Kembla—that was held responsible for the cessation of iron pyrites mining at Leadville and putting 50 men out of work. Imminent reopening was anticipated—for some years—but did not occur. In 1951, the Leadville Mining Company, produced a small amount of ore and concentrate and, in 1952, Mr R.H. Spence attempted to recover silver from the mine tailings using the cyanide process, unsuccessfully. That was the last mineral production at Leadville. After the First World War, two locations near Leadville, 'Pine Ridge' and 'Lawson Park', became soldier-settlement areas. Consequently, a number of returned servicemen settled in the area. Leadville became a soldier-settler town, during the inter-war years, as mining declined. In 1935, Leadville had a population of 250 (the district 600), a public school, post office, two hotels, two churches, bakery, butcher, billiard hall, fruiterer, newsagent, stock and station agent, a commercial store, a brand new community hall, and a passenger train from Sydney, every day except Saturday. Around 1960, the town experienced a serious decline, as businesses and services drifted away to Dunedoo. In 1960 and 1965, town allotments—including many still owned by Charles Garland's estate—were sold to recover unpaid rates. The school—opened in 1892—closed in 1972. The post office—opened in 1891—closed in 1991. Leadville railway station opened in 1920 and closed in 1975. It was located just to the north of the town. The Coolah branch railway last carried trains in 1982. For a time, a railway from Leadville to Merriwa was proposed as an alternative to the Sandy Hollow to Maryvale railway; in the end neither line would be completed. The town's most famous son was Major-General Sir Ivan Dougherty (1907-1998). The continuation of Garland St, after it crosses the town's boundary, is named Sir Ivan Dougherty Drive in his honour. Remnants -------- Modern-day Leadville is a quiet place. What remains of the town today lies just to the east of the site of the former Mount Stewart Mine. Most of the town allotments have been subsumed into larger blocks and paddocks but can still be viewed using Google Maps. The town's cemetery still exists.

Bulgarian telecommunications company **Cooolbox** is a Bulgarian telecommunications company. It was launched in 1997 as **ITD Network.** Initially providing ISP services, ITD Network launched Cooolbox in 2008 and rebranded in 2016. The Cooolbox network is entirely built on the FTTH - AON technology and provides internet in Sofia, Plovdiv, and Veliko Tarnovo. History - ITD Network --------------------- ITD Network (now Cooolbox) has provided Internet and telecommunication services in Bulgaria since launching in 1997. At this stage, ITD Network mainly provided leased line access services to smaller ISPs and business customers in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1999, ITD Network expanded their presence with an office in Sofia. Commencing in mid-2002, ITD Network began providing VoIP telephony services In 2006, with the introduction of the relevant regulatory framework, ITD Network acquired licenses 116A and 116B, allowing VOIP telephony services to transform into a fixed voice service with the corresponding numbering plan. In 2008, ITD Network commenced construction of an optical network in Plovdiv and Veliko Tarnovo to provide internet and telephony to users by using Fiber to the Home Direct Fiber (FTTH - Direct Fiber), or AON. This was the first use of FTTH technology in Bulgaria by ITD Network to provide mass service to customers. History - Cooolbox ------------------ In 2008, the company started building its own network in the cities of Plovdiv and Veliko Tarnovo, which started the provision of the Cooolbox service, consisting of: Internet delivery, digital TV and telephony. The Cooolbox network is entirely built on the FTTH - AON technology and is the only one of its kind in Bulgaria. The same technology is used by Google Internet to build its network in various US cities. In 2011, ITD Network completed the acquisition of Sofia Online, which ensures a strong presence in Sofia as infrastructure and customer base. In 2016, the company changed its name to Cooolbox, with which it ends the process of transformation from an ISP to an end-to-end Internet provider. At the same time, offering a full gigabit service has begun. In January 2022, the company added to its portfolio interactive TV with the coool.tv online application, compatible with smart TVs with Android TV/Google TV, Apple TV, Amazon Fire OS, Samsung (models after 2020) and LG (models after 2018). Awards ------ Awards of b2b Media * Third place Most creative workspace for 2016 * Second place in Business project of the year 2016 * Second place on Business project of the year 2017

Experimental missile program **Weapons System 199** (**WS-199**) was a weapons development program conducted by the United States Air Force to research and develop new strategic weapons systems for Strategic Air Command. Two air-launched and one ground-launched vehicles were developed as part of the program. While none entered production, they assisted in the development of both the GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile and that of re-entry vehicles for ballistic missiles. Background ---------- The US Navy began their Polaris missile project in December 1956, and this program presented serious problems for the Air Force's own missile developments. The Air Force intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) were liquid fueled and required considerable time to fuel and spin up their inertial platforms before launch, during which time they were open to air attack. This meant that a Soviet sneak attack by bombers on the ICBM bases, combined with using their own ICBMs against Strategic Air Command's bomber bases, could significantly damage the Air Force's strike capabilities. In comparison, Polaris could be launched from practically anywhere in huge areas of the Atlantic and Pacific and was essentially immune to attack. The Navy developed a policy known as "survivable deterrent force" of about 600 megatons, which they felt would deter any Soviet attack under any circumstances. As they laid plans to build the Polaris submarine fleet needed to carry these missiles, the Air Force was left in the position of potentially being cut out of the deterrence role. This was most forcibly pointed out in an internally circulated document entitled "The Problem of Polaris". The Air Force response was two-fold. One was WS-199, which explored various options to make the Air Force's own missiles as immune as the Navy's. The primary method was the air-launched missile, which would be kept on station close to the Soviet Union but outside their defensive range, able to be launched at a moment's notice. They also explored ways to extend the range of ground-launched missiles, so that small mobile missiles might be able to carry out attacks from the United States without being subject to counterattack. Other options, not part of WS-199, included an active defense using the LIM-49 Nike Zeus and its follow-ons, and rail-based launchers. WS-199A ------- The designation WS-199A was applied to Strategic Air Command's overall studies of future requirements, that were tested using the hardware developed under the other WS-199 subprojects. Receiving Congressional approval in 1957, the WS-199 project would award contracts to three different companies to develop experimental designs for new, hypersonic weapons. Although none of the weapons were planned to be operational, in an emergency they could be quickly developed for combat service. WS-199B *Bold Orion* -------------------- Main article: Bold Orion Developed by Martin Aircraft, the Bold Orion missile was an air-launched ballistic missile, launched from the B-47 Stratojet medium bomber, with flight tests being carried out in 1958 and 1959. Early launches of the Bold Orion as a single-stage vehicle were unsuccessful, however a redesign as a two-stage weapon produced improved results, with the remainder of the 12-launch series establishing the ALBM as a viable vehicle. The final test flight trialed the Bold Orion missile as an anti-satellite missile, passing within 4 miles (6.4 km) of Explorer VI, the first-ever interception of a satellite. WS-199C *High Virgo* -------------------- Main article: High Virgo Developed by Lockheed Aircraft, the High Virgo missile was developed as a single-stage air-launched ballistic missile, launched from the B-58 Hustler supersonic bomber. Four test flights were conducted during 1958 and 1959, of which two were successful; the final launch of the program tested the missile in the anti-satellite role, but suffered telemetry failure. The results of the Bold Orion and High Virgo tests assisted in the development of the WS-138 specification, which became the GAM-87 Skybolt ALBM. WS-199D *Alpha Draco* --------------------- Main article: Alpha Draco Developed by McDonnell Aircraft, the Alpha Draco missile was an experimental, ground-launched, two-stage missile that conducted research on re-entry vehicles and the boost-glide principle of reentry. Three launches of the vehicle were conducted during 1959, of which two were successful.

**Imatest LLC** is a company that produces image quality testing software, equipment and test charts. Imatest was founded by photographer/engineer Norman Koren in Boulder, Colorado in 2004 to develop software for testing digital camera image quality. Using Imatest software, a variety of image quality factors can be analyzed including Acutance (image sharpness), color response, image noise, dynamic range, tonal response, lens flare, lens distortion, lens vignetting, texture response, and color moiré. Imatest software products include Imatest Master: for R&D engineers, Imatest IT: for test automation, and Imatest Studio: for photographers. Imatest test charts include SFRplus, eSFR ISO, SFRreg, Spilled Coins, and 36-patch Dynamic Range targets. Imatest has been adopted by a wide range of industries that employ embedded digital imaging systems, including mobile imaging (camera phones), automotive, medical imaging, aerospace and machine vision, as well as publications/reviews, and academic, cultural, and research institutions. Imatest software is referenced in research, art, and industry. Imatest is a member of the International Organization for Standardization and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers contributing and implementing standardized methods of image quality analysis. Among many other applications, Imatest has been used to adjust images with different amounts of sharpening to a *standard* amount of sharpening, and to compare resolution in of those adjusted images. Imatest also tests color accuracy, tone-scale linearity, image distortion, light falloff, and printing gamut.

Italian opera singer **Gino Bechi** (16 October 1913 – 2 February 1993) was an Italian operatic baritone, particularly associated with the Italian repertory, especially in Verdi roles. Life and career --------------- Bechi studied in his native Florence with Raul Frazzi and di Giorgio, and made his debut at Empoli, in 1936, as Germont in *La traviata*. Bechi in *Little Lady* (1949) He sang widely in Italy, appearing frequently at the Rome Opera from 1938 to 1952, and at La Scala from 1939 to 1953, where he sang the title role in *Nabucco* for its reopening in 1946. He quickly established himself as the leading dramatic baritone of his time, in roles such as Rigoletto, Count de Luna, Renato, Carlo, Amonasro, Alfio, Gérard, but was also admired as Figaro and Hamlet. Bechi sang relatively little outside Italy, but did appear in England and North and South America in the late 1950s, but by then he was past his best. In his prime, Bechi possessed a dark and incisive voice and was a fine singing actor. He can be heard in a number of early recordings, opposite Beniamino Gigli, such as *Un ballo in maschera*, *Aida*, *Andrea Chénier*, and *Cavalleria rusticana*, conducted by Pietro Mascagni himself. He also recorded *Il barbiere di Siviglia*. Also available is an unauthorized recording of *Nabucco*, with Maria Callas, from 1949, and the Prologue from *Pagliacci*. Bechi retired from the stage in 1965, and taught in Siena. He died in Florence in 1993. Selected filmography -------------------- * *Music on the Run* (1943) * *Be Seeing You, Father* (1948) * *Mad About Opera* (1948) * *Little Lady* (1949) Videography ----------- * Verdi – *La traviata* – Anna Moffo, Franco Bonisolli, Gino Bechi – Giuseppe Patanè (1968), VAI Sources ------- * *Le guide de l'opera, les indispensables de la musique*, R. Mancini & J-J. Rouvereux, (Fayard, 1986), ISBN 2-213-01563-5 | Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata | | --- | | International | * FAST * ISNI * VIAF | | National | * Norway * Spain * France * BnF data * Germany * Italy * Israel * Belgium * United States * Czech Republic * Poland | | Academics | * CiNii | | Artists | * MusicBrainz | | Other | * SNAC * IdRef |

A **compilospecies** is a genetically aggressive species which acquires the heredities of a closely related sympatric species by means of hybridisation and comprehensive introgression. The target species may be incorporated to the point of despeciation, rendering it extinct. This type of genetic aggression is associated with species in newly disturbed habitats (such as pioneering species), weed species and domestication. They can be diploid or polyploid, as well as sexual or primarily asexual. The term compilospecies derives from the Latin word compilo, which means to seize, to collect, to rob or to plunder. A proposed explanation for the existence of such a species with weak reproductive barriers and frequent introgression is that it allows for genetic variation. An increase in the gene pool through viable hybrids can facilitate new phenotypes and the colonisation of novel habitats. The concept of compilospecies is not frequent in scientific literature and may not be fully regarded by the biological community as a true evolutionary concept, especially due to low supporting evidence. History ------- Bothriochloa bladhii (Bothriochloa intermedia), an example of a compilospecies Compilospecies were first described by Harlan and de Wet in 1962, who examined a wide range of grasses and other species such as *Bothriochloa intermedia*, otherwise known as Australian bluestem grass. *B. intermedia* was found to introgress heavily with neighboring sympatric grass species and even genera, particularly in geographically restricted areas. The species itself is of hybrid origin, containing genetic material from five or more different grass species. Harlan and de Wet examined the interactions between the genera *Bothriochloa, Dichanthium and Capillipedium* - an apomictic complex of grasses from the tribe Andropogoneae - and used the cytogenetic model of these as a basis for the compilospecies concept. Species within these genera exhibit both sexual and asexual reproduction, high heterozygosity, ploidies from 2x to 6x, and gene flow between bordering populations as evidence of ongoing introgression. However, this gene flow is only made possible in the presence of *B. intermedia*, which introgression moves towards, and the absence of which keeps the other species reproductively isolated. *B. intermedia* is identified as the compilospecies in this model. ### Further examples Other researched examples of compilospecies include; * *Helianthus* (sunflowers) * *Draba* (whitlow-grasses) * *Armeria villosa*

**John Graefer** or **Johann Andreas Graeffer** (1 January 1746 – 7 August 1802) was a German botanist nurseryman born in Helmstedt. Graeffer/Graefer is remembered by garden historians as having introduced a number of exotic plants to British gardens and to have worked for the king of Naples at the palace of Caserta. Trained by Philip Miller at the Chelsea Physic Garden, London, one of the most prominent botanical gardens of Europe during the 18th century, Graeffer was subsequently gardener to the Earl of Coventry at Croome Court, Worcestershire, which was being landscaped by Capability Brown, and then to James Vere, of Kensington Gore, a founder of the Royal Horticultural Society Graeffer struck out on his own as a partner with Archibald Thompson and the prominent nurseryman James Gordon in Gordon's long-established Mile End nursery near the New Globe, Stepney, just beyond the East End of London. After Gordon's retirement and his death in 1780, the nursery at Mile End was inherited by Gordon's three sons. In August 1781, it was reported in *L'ésprit des Journaux*, that *MM Grœffer et Bessel* had been issued a royal patent (dated 30 December 1780) for their preparation of cooked and preserved vegetables for the Royal Navy and the use of those on sea voyages; it was the first recorded patent for preserving vegetables by drying them. For that purpose, it was reported, they had purchased 200 *arpents* of land near the "nouvelle globe", Mile End, for plantings, which appears to be Gordon's long-established plant nursery. The patent was issued for preserving "a vegetable of the Brassica kind, generally known by the name of green and brown borecole, scotch or other kale with a salt solution and drying so it will keep for up to a year." Among Graeffer's introductions to British horticulture by far the most familiar was the variegated form of *Aucuba japonica*, the loved and loathed "Spotted Laurel" of gardens, which he introduced to British horticulture in 1783, at first as a plant for a heated greenhouse; it became widely cultivated as the "Gold Plant" by 19th-century gardeners. According to John Claudius Loudon he was also responsible for the introduction of *Pyrus bollwylleriana*, the Bollwyller pear (later called Shipova), and *P. baccata* (later called *Malus baccata*), the Siberian wild crab. Another of his introductions was *Sideroxylon melanophloeos* (later called *Rapanea melanophloeos*), from the Cape Province, 1784. Not all his introductions took: in 1783 Graeffer introduced *Fumaria nobilis*, a little alpine plant native to the Altai in Siberia, but it was subsequently lost to horticulture and reintroduced; he catalogued 80 species of plants suitable for rock gardens in 1789. Graham Stuart Thomas who knew the 1794 edition, found it "certainly the first 'quick reference' book on alpines that I have come across: he gives full particulars of descriptions and cultivation in a tabulated list. I think he was entitled to claim: 'The Author proposes in his use of his great variety of Herbaceous Plants a more constant and uniform and gay Attraction of Gardens, than has been hitherto pointed out, or adopted'". He also issued *A Descriptive Catalogue of Upwards of Eleven Hundred Species and Varieties of Herbaceous Or Perennial Plants* that same year. In the 1790s Graeffer obtained a recommendation from Sir Joseph Banks, to be employed as head gardener to the king of Naples; at the royal palace of Caserta he introduced elements of the English landscape garden to the extensive formal plan, the *Giardino Inglese* instigated by Sir William Hamilton, for King Ferdinand, who eventually took an interest in it, after Sir William had urged Queen Maria Carolina, as Hamilton reported to Banks from Caserta 22 April 1794, "that it would be a constant reproach to this country the having had by your goodness such a man as Graeffer for more than ten years without having had the least profit from his well known talents". A knowledgeable visitor, Sir James Edward Smith, founder of the Linnean Society, has left an account of Graeffer's unsuccessful try at introducing the English taste: > Mr Graeffer, a very ingenious gardener recommended to the queen of Naples by sir Joseph Banks, was then employed in laying out a garden for her majesty in the English taste, to which purpose a portion of ground was allotted nor far from the palace; but unluckily in full view of a stupendous brick wall , built with Herculean labour for the purpose of keeping the above-mentioned cascade in its place. No plantation whatever could conceal this glaring wall from any part of the garden; nor could any climbing plants reach near to its top. The ground was besides occupied by miserable olives, with scarcely a picturesque tree to turn to account. Nevertheless Mr. Graeffer had succeeded, we thought, wonderfully. He had formed some very pleasant lawns, interspersed with clumps of myrtle and other shrubs, and the whole wore a very promising appearance. But unfortunately none of the Neapolitans could see any kind of beauty in his performances, and they complained of his introducing so vulgar a thing as myrtle! The queen was much disposed to be pleased, but she could not stem the tide of opinion; nor did the king approve of the expense: so the whole was given up some time after. > > With more success, Graeffer, who must have had plenty of time on his hands, published a catalogue of the plants at Caserta, *Synopsis plantarum regii viridarii Caserti* (Naples 1803). In 1799, on Sir William Hamilton's suggestion, he became bailiff of Admiral Horatio Nelson's estate at Bronte, Sicily, where Graeffer was expected to reorganize the agriculture along progressive English lines; his extravagant ideas, however, consumed the income Nelson expected from the estate: to Lady Hamilton Nelson wrote "I hope Graeffer is going on so at Bronté; I am sure I take nothing from that estate.". Graeffer died in Bronte in 1802.

German politician and historian Leonhard in 2011 **Melanie Leonhard** (born 14 July 1977) is a German historian and politician of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) who has been serving as State Minister for Economic Affairs in the Government of Hamburg since 2022. She previously was the State Minister of Labor, Social Affairs, Family and Integration under mayors Olaf Scholz and Peter Tschentscher from 2015 to 2022. Since March 2018 has been the chair of the SPD Hamburg. Education and early career -------------------------- Leonhard was born and grew up in Wilhelmsburg, Hamburg. Her father worked for a petroleum company. After attending high school Lessing-Gymnasium, which she completed in 1996, she performed a Voluntary social year. Afterwards she studied social and economic history at the University of Hamburg from 1998 to 2004 with minor subjects in Politics and Geography. There she received her doctorate in 2009 with a thesis on the development of a family business, the Rickmers family of ship owners and shipbuilders in German shipbuilding and German shipping from 1834 to 1918. From 2008 to 2013 she was a research associate at E.R. Capital Holding, the holding company of E.R. Schiffahrt and Nordcapital, and from 2013 to 2015 she was head of the Department of Urban History Harburg of the Archaeological Museum Hamburg. Political career ---------------- ### Early beginnings Leonhard has been a member of the SPD since 1999 and represented her party from 2004 to 2011 at the Harburg district assembly. In the state election in Hamburg in 2011, she was elected on place 9 of the state list to the Hamburg Parliament. There she was a member of the Family, Children and Youth Committee, the Interior Committee, the Urban Development Committee, as well as the special committee on the death of the girl Chantal. In the state election in Hamburg in 2015, she ran on place 6 of the state list and moved again into the state parliament. ### Career in state government On 1 October 2015 Leonhard followed Detlef Scheele as a state minister (*senator*) and head of the Hamburg Authority of Labor, Social Affairs, Family and Integration. Since then, her parliamentary mandate has rested under Article 39 of the Hamburg constitution. As one of the state's representatives at the Bundesrat, she also serves on the Committee on Labour, Integration and Social Policy; the Committee on Family and Senior Citizen Affairs; and the Committee on Women and Youth. In the negotiations to form a fourth coalition government under the leadership of Chancellor Angela Merkel following the 2017 federal elections, Leonhard was part of the working group on families, women, seniors and youth, led by Annette Widmann-Mauz, Angelika Niebler and Katarina Barley. On 24 March 2018, Leonhard was elected with 94.6 percent of the delegate votes as the successor of Olaf Scholz, the Federal Finance Minister in the cabinet Merkel IV, as state chairwoman of the SPD Hamburg. In the negotiations to form a so-called traffic light coalition of the SPD, the Green Party and the Free Democrats (FDP) following the 2021 German elections, Leonhard was part of her party's delegation in the working group on social policy, co-chaired by Dagmar Schmidt, Sven Lehmann and Johannes Vogel. Leonhard was nominated by her party as delegate to the Federal Convention for the purpose of electing the President of Germany in 2022. Other activities ---------------- * Stiftung Lesen, Member of the Board of Trustees Personal life ------------- Leonhard is married and lives with her husband and son in Marmstorf, Hamburg.

**Hildegrim** (c. 750 – 19 June 827) was Bishop of Châlons from 804 to 810 and the second abbot of Werden Abbey, after his elder brother Ludger, from 809 until his death. Life ---- Like his brother Ludger, Hildegrim was of Christian Frisian noble descent. He presumably stayed at the Benedictine abbey of Monte Cassino and received a thorough liberal arts education at the Utrecht Cathedral School, founded by Bishop Gregory, and in York under Alcuin. Mentioned as deacon in 793, he was ordained a priest three years later. About 804 he became Bishop of Châlons. Upon Ludger's death in 809, he succeeded him as Abbot of Werden and Helmstedt in 809. He is also traditionally named as the first Bishop of Halberstadt, a position now discounted by scholars; nevertheless, Hildegrim is known to have been active in spreading Christianity as a missionary into the Osterwieck and Halberstadt region after the Saxon Wars of Charlemagne. Hildegrim is buried in the crypt of Werden Abbey church. He is a Catholic and Orthodox saint, remembered on June 19.

**Harrison David Horblit** (1 May 1912, in Boston – 8 March 1988, in Danbury) was a philanthropist and collector of books, manuscripts, and photographs. He is famous for the Harrison D. Horblit Collection of Early Photographs. Horblit graduated from Harvard University in 1933, then graduated from Harvard Business School and became an executive in textile manufacture. For about 30 years he was president of Colonial Fabrics, a Manhattan company, which closed in 1966 when he retired. In the 1960s Horblit purchased the entire photography collection of Thomas Phillipps and added to it for about 20 years. Horblit's wife Jean (née Mermin) donated most of this collection to Harvard's Houghton Library in 1995. From March 10 to May 26, 1999, after three years of cataloguing, re-housing and conserving the collection, Houghton Library exhibited the collection to the public, along with a two-day symposium on the 10th and 11 March. According to the Harvard Gazette, "This premier collection of more than 7,000 items —including daguerreotypes, photographic prints, books illustrated with original photographs, early photographic albums, cameras, and manuscripts— documents the discovery of photography from the 1830s through the turn of the century." Horblit was a collector of rare books related to the history of science, navigation and mathematics. In 1964 the Grolier Club published his book *One hundred books famous in science: based on an exhibition at the Grolier Club*. About 1964 Horblit designed a "Bibliographical Collation Computer", a 128 x 245 mm card in a plastic sleeve which operates much like a slide rule in which the letters of the alphabet are correlated with the pagination values of formats of 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,12, 16, 20, 24, and 32 leaves. The card was copyrighted in 1964 and copies were sold by the Grolier Club. In 1965 the Horblits purchased the Wagoner mansion in Ridgefield, Connecticut. For many years Harrison and Jean Horblit spent two months each summer yachting along the Maine coast. Harrison Horblit was survived by his wife, two children and two grandchildren. Jean Horblit died at the age of 98.

French paramotor The **Reflex S** is a French paramotor that was designed by Dominique Cholou and produced by Reflex Paramoteur of Chatou for powered paragliding. Now out of production, when it was available the aircraft was supplied complete and ready-to-fly. Design and development ---------------------- The "S" was designed to comply with the European microlight regulations. It features a paraglider-style wing, single-place accommodation and a single Simonini Racing 25 hp (19 kW) engine in pusher configuration with a 2.38:1 ratio reduction drive and a 115 cm (45 in) or 123 cm (48 in) diameter three-bladed composite propeller. The fuel tank capacity is 10 litres (2.2 imp gal; 2.6 US gal). As is the case with all paramotors, take-off and landing is accomplished by foot. Inflight steering is accomplished via handles that actuate the canopy brakes, creating roll and yaw. Specifications (S) ------------------ *Data from* Bertrand **General characteristics** * **Crew:** one * **Empty weight:** 27 kg (60 lb) * **Fuel capacity:** 10 litres (2.2 imp gal; 2.6 US gal) * **Powerplant:** 1 × Simonini Racing single cylinder, two-stroke, air-cooled aircraft engine, with a 2.38:1 reduction drive, 19 kW (25 hp) * **Propellers:** 3-bladed composite, ground adjustable, 1.23 m (4 ft 0 in) diameter

Canadian singer and dance teacher **Danièle Dorice** (née Angers; July 23, 1935 – March 12, 2018) was a Canadian singer and teacher of dance, staging and voice. She began her career as a singer in amateur shows in 1958 and went on to tour countries in Europe, the Far East and South America. Dorice also toured for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) performing at Canadian Armed Forces bases across the world and presented television programs on Ici Radio-Canada Télé and CTV Television Network. She also performed on American talk shows and founded the Montreal-based artistic agency Les Productions Danièle Dorice Inc in 1971 before going on to teach there. Personal life ------------- Dorice was born on July 23, 1935, in Quebec City, Quebec. She was the daughter of Loretta LeClair and Roland Angers and had five siblings, including her sister Denyse Angé who is also a singer. Dorice was married to William Anton Skerczak, with whom she had a daughter. She died on March 12, 2018, from cancer in Outremont, Quebec. Dorice was given a funeral service at Mount Royal Funeral Complex four days later. Career ------ While working as a secretary in Quebec City, she began her career working as a singer in amateur shows in 1958, winning the Miss Personality Canada contest and earning her a screen test with The Rank Organisation in London, England. Following that, Dorice made extensive tours of Europe, the Far East, the Orient and South America. Upon returning to Canada in 1963, she performed in multiple cabarets and hotets before going overseas to tour eleven nations, such as France, Japan and the United States. Dorice conducted her first tour for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) in 1965, visiting worldwide bases of the Canadian Armed Forces, so that she could entertain them. In March 1966, her first single was released by Elysée. Dorice presented the television program *Comment allez-vous* on the Ici Radio-Canada Télé from May 1966 to 1967. She went on to present the English-language program *Le Caf' Conc* between 1969 and 1970, on the CTV Television Network affiliate CFCF-TV. On the show, Dorice performed weekly with a cabaret featuring "scantily-clad dancers, live singing, and an appreciative crowd" according to CTV News. She also made guest appearances on multiple programs on television and radio in Canada and the United States. In 1970, Dorice performed on *The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson* and also went on *The Carol Burnett Show* and *The Ed Sullivan Show*. She founded the Montreal-based artistic agency Les Productions Danièle Dorice Inc in 1971, and began to administer a music hall school in 1974, where Dorice taught dance, staging and voice. Dorice and her dance group Les Doricettes performed on cruise ships, in hotels in Montreal and in Florida, throughout the 1970s and the 1980s. She recorded the LP *Danièle Dorice, la joie de vivre* in 1971, and performed at the CBC Showcase '73 in the Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts in May 1973. Artistry -------- Dorice was able to perform in nine different languages, including English, French, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Russian and Spanish. Dan Lewis of *The Record* wrote that she did not speak the letter H in her vocabulary when she did not employ phonetic pronunciations. Lewis also noted Dorice "offers each song with the exuberance of a gay French mademoiselle on a sprightly walk along the banks of the Seine, or along the Champs Elysee" and that there was "typical French warble in her songs".

**Sannappa Parameshwar Gaonkar** (11 January 1885 – 1972), also called **Sa.Pa. Gaonkar**, was an Indian Politician, and an author. Sapa. Gaonkar was often described as "Sajjan"', or "good and gentle". Gaonkar was imprisoned during the British Raj for having participated in the Quit India Movement, and later served as a Deputy Chief Minister in B. G. Kher’s Cabinet of the Composite State of Bombay, India. Early life ---------- Sannappa Parameshwara Gaonkar (Grandson of Ram Gaonkar) was born on 11 January 1885 in Torke into a Nadavaru family. Sa. Pa. was a head master of the Kannada Primary School, at Tadadi. At the age of 40 (1925), Gaonkar graduated from the Willingdon College, Sangli. He was an officer at Hubli municipality. As Politician ------------- After his retirement in the year 1942, S. P. Gaonkar participated in Quit India Movement and joined the Swaraj Party. In the year 1946–47, B. G. Kher nominated Gaonkar as a Deputy Chief Minister in his Cabinet of the Composite State of Bombay, India. SAPA was the paternal grandfather of Dilip Gaonkar a professor at Northwestern University. Founded Organisation -------------------- **Dr.Sannappa Parameshwar Gaonkar,** **Founder** and **First** **President** Of **Nadavara Sangha, Ankola** (Nadavara Community Organisation ) This organization has completed a century. Dr.Sannappa Parameshwar Gaonkar, Bronze Statue Photo Gallery ------------- Bronze Statue Poetry and Writings ------------------- SAPA was the paternal grandfather of Dilip Gaonkar a professor at Northwestern University. | | | | --- | --- | | * Mugilu Kavan (1932) * Raitar Golu * Nadakale | * Ankoleyavanu * Gitanjali ( A translation of Rabindranath Tagore’s Gitanjali into Kannada language) (1962). |

1988 video game ***Head Coach v3*** is a 1988 video game published by Coda Software. Gameplay -------- *Head Coach* is a game in which the player is the head coach of an American football team, taking them through the season to get to the Super Bowl. The player is the coach of a fictional team called the Schoburg Franklins. Reception --------- John Harrington reviewed *Head Coach* for *Games International* magazine, and gave it a rating of 6 out of 10, and stated that "It is gratifying to see a small British software company come up with a reasonable sport simulation, and although the game will probably pall after a few seasons it should maintain its appeal long enough to get gridiron junkies through the baseball season." Desmond for *The Micro User* wrote that the game is "fascinating and good fun - excellent tor bringing out the emotions" and quipped that not many games get him emotional enough to shout at the screen the way this one did. Damon Howarth for *Page 6* recommended the game to anyone with any interest in American football, commenting that anyone who wants to "use your computer in conjunction with your brain rather than just a picture gallery" may be interested in this program.

German painter Friedrich von Keller (1908) **Friedrich von Keller** (18 February 1840, Ludwigsburg - 26 August 1914, Abtsgmünd) was a German genre painter. Biography --------- He was the youngest of ten children born to Johann Jakob Keller, a vintner, who died when Friedrich was only nine. Thanks to the support of some patrons, he was able to study drawing at the local trade school. He earned his living as a general craftsman. At the age of eighteen, he went to Stuttgart to attend the Royal Art School, but the tuition was too high, so he took drawing classes in the evening at the Polytechincal School. Finally, at the age of twenty-seven, he was awarded a royal scholarship of 125 Ducats and was able to attend the art school, where he studied with Bernhard von Neher and Heinrich von Rustige. During his studies, he supported himself by painting coats-of-arms and signs. In 1871, he moved to Munich and became a free-lance artist. He continued to improve his technique by working with Wilhelm von Lindenschmit at the Academy of Fine Arts. In 1872, he began a series of scenes depicting stonebreakers at work, which are his best known paintings. He married in 1876. He was appointed a professor of genre painting at the Royal Art School in 1883, succeeding Carl von Häberlin, who had resigned. His notable students there included Paula von Wächter, Bernhard Buttersack, Maria Caspar-Filser, Adolf Fleischmann, Oskar Schlemmer, and Rudolf Yelin. In 1908, his twenty-fifth anniversary as a Professor was celebrated at the art school, which had become a State Academy. The following year, King Wilhelm II presented him with the Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown. He retired in 1913. Selected paintings ------------------ * A Puppet Maker in His WorkshopA Puppet Maker in His Workshop * Street Musician at a TavernStreet Musician at a Tavern * Studies from NatureStudies from Nature * Stonebreaker with WheelbarrowStonebreaker with Wheelbarrow * Stonebreakers with BouldersStonebreakers with Boulders Sources ------- * Max Diez: "Die heimische Schule Keller Haug Speyer Landenberger", In: Julius Baum, Max Diez (Ed.): *Die Stuttgarter Kunst der Gegenwart*, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1913, pp. 37 ff. 40–46 (Online) * Thomas Maier, Bernd Müllerschön: *Die Schwäbische Malerei um 1900. Die Stuttgarter Kunstschule/Akademie, Professoren und Maler; Geschichte – Geschichten – Lebensbilder*. Stuttgart 2000, pp. 77–81 ISBN 978-3-935252-00-3 * "Keller, Friedrich von". In: *Verzeichnis der Gemäldegalerie im Kgl. Museum der bildenden Künste zu Stuttgart*, Das Museum, Stuttgart 1917, pg.42 (Online) * Werner Fleischhauer: "Keller, Friedrich von". In: Hans Vollmer (Ed.): *Allgemeines Lexikon der Bildenden Künstler von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart*, Vol.20: Kaufmann–Knilling. E. A. Seemann, Leipzig 1927, pp. 100–101. * Eugen Keuerleber (1977), "Keller, Friedrich von", *Neue Deutsche Biographie* (in German), vol. 11, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, p. 436; (full text online)

Area of Wetherby, West Yorkshire, England Human settlement in England **Ainsty** is an area of Wetherby, West Yorkshire, England. Ainsty is in the north of Wetherby and runs as far as the border between North and West Yorkshire, to the north of this is Kirk Deighton. Location -------- Ainsty lies close to Deighton Bar, generally accepted to include areas along Deighton Road and the Badgerwood Estate. Ainsty, by most definitions, generally encompasses the estates around Ainsty Road, Aire Road, Nidd Approach, Oakwood Road and the northern section of Barleyfields Road. The area nearing the end of Aire Road is sometimes known as Priest Hill. History ------- Ainsty developed over many years, the earliest houses being built in the early 1950s and the latest of the houses being built in the mid-1990s by Bryant Homes. Ainsty contains a mix of private and council houses. The council housing as well as private housing around Coxwold Hill was built first, then in the 1960s, developer Ashtons built many houses (both semi detached and detached). Ashtons built many houses around West Yorkshire in this era, not only in Wetherby, but also in Holt Park, Knottingley and Mirfield. Amenities --------- Deighton Bar Post Office on Aire Road Currently Ainsty has a decorating centre situated on the lower end of Ainsty Road, a Co-operative convenience store which opens late into the night further down Ainsty Road, a Post Office on Aire Road, named Deighton Bar post office. Ainsty also boasts a junior school (Deighton Gates primary school) and areas of open recreation. The Co-op was formerly a parade of shops and has had in the past between one and four shops on it at any time, with shops expanding into each other and then being divided up again to suit the owners. In the past this parade has had a launderette, tool hire shop, newsagent (Ainsty News), Nisa, Happy Shopper and independent convenience shop (Harves and Green Grocers). The decorating centre for many years was a sandwich shop, while the parade of shops on Aire Road (all except the Post Office are now flats) has had a hairdresser, sports shop (Sports Zone) and other businesses in the past. There is no public house on the estate, however there is a working men's club on the Sandbeck Industrial estate, only a short walk from the estate, while the Bay Horse public house in Kirk Deighton serves residents in the area. Transport --------- The estate lies close to junction 46 of the A1(M) and Wetherby service station. The First Leeds X98 bus service (Leeds City Square to Wetherby Deighton Bar) links the estate with Wetherby bus station, Linton, Collingham, Seacroft, Oakwood, Harehills and Leeds city centre. The estate is also linked to Knaresborough by Connexionsbuses service 780. Gallery ------- * 1980s private housing in Ainsty1980s private housing in Ainsty * Council housing on Ainsty CrescentCouncil housing on Ainsty Crescent * Ashtons semi-detached houses on Poplar AvenueAshtons semi-detached houses on Poplar Avenue * The Co-op on Ainsty RoadThe Co-op on Ainsty Road

Species of fish The **bluespotted trevally** (*Caranx bucculentus*), also known as the **wide-mouthed trevally**, is a species of moderately large marine fish in the jack family Carangidae. The bluespotted trevally is distributed through the tropical east Indian and west Pacific Oceans, ranging from Taiwan in the north to Australia in the south. It is an inshore species, found in sandy, muddy and seagrass environments, often in large bays. The bluespotted trevally is distinguished by dark blue spots on its upper body, as well as a number of more detailed anatomical features. It is a benthopelagic predator, taking a variety of crustaceans including crabs and prawns as a juvenile, before shifting to a more fish-dominated diet as an adult. It is one of the most common predators in the Gulf of Carpentaria of northern Australia, and is considered the most important predator of commercially important prawn species. Sexual maturity is reached at 110 mm in length and one year of age, with spawning occurring year round with a peak in spring. Growth is estimated to be 82.2 mm per year for both sexes, reaching a maximum known length of 66 cm. Bluespotted trevally are commonly taken as bycatch in prawn fisheries, however are of little commercial value and often discarded. They are occasionally taken by anglers on lures and baits, but are considered mediocre table fare. Taxonomy and naming ------------------- The bluespotted trevally is classified within the genus *Caranx*, one of a number of groups known as the jacks or trevallies. *Caranx* itself is part of the larger jack and horse mackerel family Carangidae, part of the order Carangiformes. The species was first scientifically described by the Australian zoologists Haynes Gibbes Alleyne and Sir William John Macleay based on a specimen collected off Cape Grenville, Queensland, which was later designated to be the holotype. They named the species *Caranx bucculentus*, with the specific epithet meaning 'with full cheeks' in Latin, referring to the species' wide mouth gape. In the original volume of *Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales* in which the species was described, the specific name is spelled as *bucculantus* in the legend, but is considered to be a typographical error and ignored. The species placement in *Caranx* has never been challenged and no attempts have been made to independently rename the species, making it one of the few members of *Caranx* to have no synonyms. The commonly used name of 'bluespotted trevally' is in reference to the fishes' body markings, with 'wide-mouthed trevally' also infrequently used. Description ----------- The short, sharply curved front section of the lateral line and blue spots distinguish the species The bluespotted trevally is a moderately large fish, growing to a known maximum length of 66 cm. It has a body shape characteristic of many of the larger species of *Caranx*, possessing a strongly compressed, oblong form with the dorsal profile, particularly anteriorly, much more convex than the ventral profile. The dorsal fin is in two distinct sections, the first consisting of eight spines while the second has one spine and 18 or 19 soft rays. The anal fin consists of two detached spines anteriorly followed by one spine and 15 to 17 soft rays, while the pelvic fin has 1 spine followed by 18 soft rays. The species lateral line is very strongly curved over a short length, becoming straight before the origin of the second dorsal fin, with this straight section over 2.5 times the length of the curved section. The curved section contain 40 to 50 scales while the straight section contains no scales, but 33 to 39 strong scutes. The breast is naked ventrally, with this area extending to behind the origin of the pelvic fins and diagonally to the base of pectoral fins. The eyes have a moderately well-developed posterior adipose eyelid which usually extends to the posterior edge of the pupil. The upper jaw contains an outer row of strong canines and an inner band of villiform teeth, while the lower jaw has only a single band of conical teeth. The species has 26 to 31 gill rakers in total and 24 vertebrae. The bluespotted trevally is a pale olive green above, fading to a more silvery white below, with adults having numerous small blue spots on the upper half of their bodies. The upper end of the opercle has a large dark spot, with a black spot also present at the upper base of the pectoral fins. All the fins are yellow green. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ The bluespotted trevally inhabits the tropical waters of the East Indian-West Pacific Ocean, and is restricted to a smaller range than most of its relatives. The species range extends from the waters of the South China Sea around Taiwan and Borneo south through eastern Indonesia and the Arafura Sea around Papua New Guinea. The species is commonly found off northern Australia, especially the Gulf of Carpentaria, but is occasionally seen as far south as Gladstone, Queensland. The bluespotted trevally is an inshore fish, generally inhabiting coastal waters throughout its range. The species is known to inhabit shallow bays over sand, mud, and rarely seagrass bottoms, as well as slightly deeper waters in bays. Extensive sampling across the Gulf of Carpentaria indicates the maximum biomass for the species occurs at around 28.1 m depth, indicating the species preferentially inhabits substrate of this depth. Biology ------- A bluespotted trevally taken from northern Queensland Considerable research has been conducted on the bluespotted trevally in comparison to most other Indo-Pacific carangids, with this being partly due to the discovery of its abundance and importance in northern Australian shallow water ecosystems. It is one of the top ten most abundant secondary consumers in the system and the most important predator of commercially important prawn species. Successive sampling periods over a period between 1986 and 1991 found no systematic seasonal variations in the species abundance, although interannual variations in numbers occurred. The species also appears to undergo diel vertical migrations as evidenced by markedly decreased catches in demersal night trawls, possibly in response to prey movement. Bluespotted trevally are predatory fish, consuming a range of crustaceans and fish. Studies in the Gulf of Carpentaria and in particular, Albatross Bay, indicate the species is most common over known prawn grounds. A shift in diet happens with age, with young fish less than 275 mm in length taking penaeids, brachyurans, other crustaceans, echinoderms, and molluscs, while larger fish take mostly small fish. The smaller trevally tend to forage during the day, taking species of small noncommercial species of prawns, while the larger fish took larger, commercially important species at night. Experimental studies indicate the species has low success foraging in seagrass beds and over soft strata where penaeids burrow during the day, but increased efficiency during the night when the prawns emerge to forage. There appears to be little seasonal variation in diet. Bluespotted trevally reach sexual maturity at around 110 mm in length, usually after their first year of life. This is much earlier than other members of the genus, which attain similar lengths and reach maturity in their second or third years of life. The species spawns year round in the Gulf of Carpentaria with a peak in spring, with between 18,000 and 650,000 eggs released during spawning. The bluespotted trevally grows at a rate of around 82.2 mm per year. Intensive feeding experiments indicate the species can increase its weight by 3.7% and 2.7% of its body weight per day when fed prawns and pilchards, respectively. Relationship to humans ---------------------- Despite the large populations of bluespotted trevally, particularly in northern Australia, no major fishery is based around the species. They are taken by trawls and hook-and-line methods throughout their range, but form a considerable proportion of some prawn-trawler bycatches. Despite this, they are generally considered of no worth due to their mediocre reputation as table fish, as well as the possibility of ciguatera poisoning from larger specimens. Bluespotted trevally are occasionally caught by recreational fishermen on various baits and lures, and are considered to a good sport fish, but tend to be overshadowed by giant trevally and bluefin trevally in reputation.

**Arthur Macnamara** (1831 – 11 February 1906), was a squire of Billington near Leighton Buzzard in Bedfordshire, England. He is known for building in and improving the village of Billington. Early life ---------- Macnamara came from a wealthy family who owned many properties. They included in England, Caddington Hall in Hertfordshire and an estate at Eaton Bray in Bedfordshire, and in Wales, Llangoed Estate, the seat of which was Llangoed Hall at Llyswen in the historic county of Brecknockshire. Marriage -------- On 28 September 1854, Macnamara married Lady Sophia Hare, daughter of the local MP for St Albans the 2nd, Earl of Listowel. The couple were married in the bride's family estate at Ballyhooly in County Cork, Ireland. The couple then established their home at Caddington Hall. At that time, young Macnamara developed a passion for building. He embarked on the project of re-creating the lost castle of Eaton Bray on some land bequeathed to him by his mother. After building grandiose lodges and clearing and preparing the moated site, he seemed to abandon the idea, probably due to lack of funds. All was not well in his marriage, either. Sophia's father, a Lord-in-Waiting to Queen Victoria, was able to secure his daughter a position as a Lady-in-Waiting to the Queen's daughter, Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll. The Manor House was built by Arthur Macnamara at Billington, one of the Irish McNamaras of the Ennistymon House branch from County Clare. This book has been republished in a limited edition by Martin Breen. See for more details. Construction ------------ In the early 1880s, Macnamara began to acquire land and cottages at Billington and embarked on an ambitious building project, perhaps inspired by the building of Mentmore by Baron Mayer de Rothschild, which was only five miles away. At first, he built farm houses in the village, adorning each with the Macnamara cypher 'AM'. As Billington became the estate village, Macnamara began to build a manor house, which was a large, multi-gabled Victorian mansion. The grounds had stable yards, lodges, and farm houses. At Little Billington, a mile away, a lodge was built for a new principal approach to the house, but as money became exhausted, the drive was never built. A row of cottages existed within sight of the new drive, although as the landlord, Macnamara turned out the elderly occupants and placed them in the workhouse. Reputation ---------- Macnamara had a reputation for severity, and was regarded as someone who was cruel to the common people of the village. It was said that when he encountered any of his tenants driving sheep or cattle along the road, he ordered his coachman not to stop or slow down. If people did not hurry out of his path, they were mowed down. As chairman of the police and the largest land owner in the district, he thought he was above the law. The slightest affront imagined by the squire could lead to the eviction of the perpetrators from their homes. However, Squire Macnamara had one huge fear: he was frightened of thunder. An underground suite of rooms was furnished at Billington Manor, where he would retreat for long periods of time at the slightest threat of thunder. Death ----- On 11 February 1906, Arthur Macnamara died in the great house, alone except for his housekeeper. The cause of his death was cirrhosis of the liver. After his death, he was found to be bankrupt. Lady Sophia sold the estate in her old age. She then lived at Heath and Reach, Leighton Buzzard, where members of the royal family visited her. Arthur Macnamara was buried in the Billington churchyard, with a monumental tombstone surrounded by iron railings. There is a legend that it was a tradition for the spikes on top of the railings to curve outwards to keep the devil out, but on Arthur Macnamara's grave, the spikes were turned in to prevent him from escaping. (The railings were removed during World War II when iron work was melted down to help the war effort.) Lady Sophia McNamara died in 1912. She chose to be buried in Ireland. Further reading --------------- Arthur Macnamara's family history, and the history of others in the British Macnamara line, was written in 1908 by Robert Twigge, an eminent historian of the time. Martin Breen, has republished R.W.Twigge's 1908 publication on Arthur MacNamara's family, 'The Pedigree of John MacNamara, Esquire, with some Family Reminiscences'.

Canadian politician **William Masson** was a politician from Alberta, Canada. He served in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta from 1935 to 1955 as a member of the Social Credit caucus in government. Political career ---------------- Masson ran for a seat to the Alberta Legislature as a Social Credit candidate in the electoral district of Wainwright for the 1935 general election. He defeated three other candidates in an open race with a large percentage of the vote to pick up the seat for his party. Masson ran for a second term in office in the 1940 Alberta general election. He faced three other candidates, among them Albert Blue, a former Social Credit MLA whose district, Ribstone had been abolished after redistribution and who now ran under the banner of the Independent Progressive Association. Masson retained the seat in the third vote count. Masson ran for a third term in office in the 1944 Alberta general election. He was returned on the first ballot with a very large majority over two other candidates. Masson ran for a fourth term in office in the 1948 Alberta general election. His popular vote dropped slightly compared to 1944, but he won the three-way race to keep his seat. Masson ran for a fifth term in the 1952 Alberta general election. He lost popular support for the second election in a row, but won with over half the popular vote over two other candidates. Masson retired from provincial politics at dissolution of the assembly in 1955.

American painter **Fred Beaver** (2 July 1911 – 18 August 1980) was a prominent Muscogee Creek-Seminole painter and muralist from Oklahoma. Background ---------- Fred Beaver was born in Eufaula, Oklahoma. His Muscogee name was Ekalanee, meaning "Brown Head." He was the son of Willie Beaver and Annie Johnson, was raised in Eufaula, and attended the Eufaula High School. He had become the All-State football and basketball star player. His grandfather was the sub-chief of the Okfuskee town in Alabama named Itshaus Micco, and had moved his town to where Eufaula is today. Before Beaver had attended grade school, he was not able to speak any English and became a self-taught artist throughout the years of school. Graduating from high school in 1931, Beaver went straight into college at Bacone College. Beaver was an important part of the early Bacone College in Muskogee, Oklahoma. He had attended the Haskell Business College after graduating from Bacone in 1935. Beaver really had no art training at Bacone while he was there and gave up his art career during the Great Depression and went to serve in World War II. Once he had returned to the United States, he picked up his art career again and had a great teacher and second cousin on his wife’s side of the family, named Acee Blue Eagle. Art career ---------- Soon after looking for help and thinking about going back to school for art, he entered the Philbrook Museum of Art's annual art competition in Tulsa, Oklahoma and won an Honorable mention award. He helped define traditional Oklahoma Indian art with his style that he created; he started defining traditional painting of the Five Civilized Tribes. Beaver was one of the first artists to be designated as "Master Artists" of the Five Civilized Tribes Museum. His works are included in many museums and collections, including the Heard Museum (Phoenix, Arizona), the Sequoyah Research Center in Little Rock, Arkansas, and the Philbrook Museum of Art (Tulsa, OK). Beaver has gone on to win many awards at the Philbrook’s annual competitions and has worked for the Bureau of Indian Affairs for twenty-five years of his life. He was able to make a living off his artwork full-time and became more aware of the detail that was put into the paintings. The Creek and Seminole artists were starting to question the work he was doing that represented the tribes' cultures. But his work is very accurate in the images, such as chickees and patchwork in clothing []. He has been interviewed at the University of Florida for The Southeastern Indian Oral History Project, which was in collaboration with the Seminole Tribe of Florida. Beaver designed three medallions for the Franklin Mint's celebration of the United States Bicentennial in 1976. Quote ----- > I wanted to change the non-Indian's image of my people, and I wanted to help my own people understand themselves, especially the young. > >

American actress Terris, circa 1929 **Norma Terris** (born **Norma Allison Cook**; November 13, 1904 – November 15, 1989) was an American performer in musical theatre and vaudeville. Early years ----------- Born in Columbus, Kansas, Terris was named after the heroine of Bellini's opera, *Norma*. Her grandmother and grandfather taught in college, and both initially opposed her going into acting. Undeterred, as a child she put on her own productions in a barn and on the family's front porch. A cousin enabled her to study dancing and drama. In December 1920, she and Max Hoffman Jr. applied for a license to marry, but both were underage, so they did not wed then. Career ------ In the early 1920s, Hoffman and Terris debuted an act, "Junior and Terris" in Asbury Park, New Jersey. They went on to tour on the Interstate Circuit. In vaudeville, Terris headlined two-a-day programs, appearing in productions by Schubert and Ziegfeld. She also gave a command performance for the Prince of Wales while she was in Europe. Terris was known for her impersonations of popular public figures. She originated the roles of Magnolia in the original Broadway production of *Show Boat* in 1927. She reprised her role in the first New York revival of the show in 1932. However, she was not selected to reprise her role in the 1929 part-talkie film, nor in the 1936 film version. Her Broadway credits included *Queen O' Hearts* (1922), *A Night in Paris* (1926), *A Night in Spain* (1927), *The Well of Romance* (1930), *The Climax* (1933), *So Many Paths* (1934), and *Great Lady* (1938). For 10 seasons in the 1930s and 1940s, she starred in productions at the Muny Opera in St. Louis. Terris was originally chosen to play the dual roles of Moonyean Clare and her niece Kathleen in *Through the Years*, Vincent Youmans's 1932 musical version of Jane Cowl's once-popular play, *Smilin' Through*, but she was replaced at the last minute. She made two films during the early days of talking pictures - *Married In Hollywood*, and the 1930 version of *Cameo Kirby*, which was, like *Show Boat*, a riverboat musical involving a gambler. *Cameo Kirby* appears to be lost, and only twelve minutes of *Married in Hollywood* apparently survive. Marriage -------- Terris and Hoffman married in Houston while they were touring with their act. Terris married Dr. Jerome Wagner and retired to Lyme, Connecticut, where she was an avid supporter of the Goodspeed Opera House (which eventually became the Norma Terris Theatre). She later married Albert D. Firestone, son of William McKinley Firestone and Gladys Bigam Firestone of Greensburg, Pennsylvania. Terris and Albert Firestone spent winters at their Palm Beach, Florida, residence (where they were major donors to the Ballet Florida) and summered in Lyme, Connecticut. Mr. Firestone, who remained dedicated to Terris’ remembrance, died in 1997 at the summer residence. Last years ---------- In 1972, Terris donated 30 acres of land on which the Norma Terris Humane Education and Nature Center was created. She performed two one-woman shows, *An Evening with Norma Terris* (1969 and 1971) and *A Tribute To Jerome Kern* (1985). She created The Norma Terris Fund "to encourage achievements in musical theater" in 1987, and in 1989 she created a scholarship in her name to sponsor an internship at the Goodspeed Opera House. Death ----- Terris died at her summer home in Lyme, Connecticut, on November 15, 1989, aged 87. Legacy ------ In 1984, Goodspeed Musicals created a second performance venue in Chester, Connecticut, which is named the Norma Terris Theatre.

American football player (1918–1984) American football player **James Lake Roberson Jr.** (August 5, 1918 – December 11, 1984) was an American football player. He played college football for Ole Miss from 1937 to 1940 and professional football for the Richmond Arrows in 1941 and the Detroit Lions in 1945. Early years ----------- Roberson was born in 1918 at Clarksdale, Mississippi. He attended Clarksdale High School and was president of the school's class of 1937. He then attended the University of Mississippi and played college football as an end for Ole Miss from 1937 to 1940. He also was a member of the Ole Miss boxing team. He graduated with honors from Mississippi. Professional football --------------------- He played professional football in the Dixie Football League for the Richmond Arrows, appearing in 10 games during the 1941 season. He played football for the Army's Randolph Field football team and also served in military intelligence in the Pacific Theatre of Operations. After the war, he played in the National Football League (NFL) as an end for the Detroit Lions. He appeared in four NFL games during the 1945 season. Later years ----------- After his football career ended, Roberson worked as an attorney. In 1934, he served as assistant manager of the campaign staff for U.S. Senator Hubert D. Stephens. After two years in private practice, he became a special agent of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. He jointed the U.S. Marine Corps in 1944. Roberson was married in 1943 to Yvette Williams. He died in 1984 at Lyon, Mississippi.

**Number 304** was one of the Auckland, New Zealand, Freight/Works trams which operated from 1913 until 1957. It was built in the Ponsonby Depot and commissioned on 1 August 1913. 304 was designed to carry rails for reconstruction and construction of the Auckland Tramway network and was perhaps one of the most unique trams in service in New Zealand. During peace celebrations following World War I, in 1919, No. 304 carried a brass band up and down Queen Street. 10 December 1956 was number 304's last journey into Central Auckland where it removed the remains of a damaged safety zone. It was the last tram to move under power on the original tram system in 1957, towing tram 248 now at Museum of Transport & Technology. Number 304's Blackwell trolley standard which the trolley pole's were attached to were removed in 1957. They were later sent to the Museum of Transport & Technology in Auckland where they were fitted to two trams when undergoing restoration (numbers 44 & 11). No. 304's crane controller is preserved at the Museum of Transport & Technology. No. 304 in the early 1900s -------------------------- Number 304 entered service in 1913. The *New Zealand Herald* stated "she is a travelling crane which will easily accommodate nine lengths of rail. It would take three carts to handle such a load". In 1917, a Ponsonby tram ran off the lines on the corner of Queen and Trafalgar Streets. No. 304 was sent to assist. Primary use ----------- No.304 was especially constructed for the use of moving full length tram track. Imported tram track was shipped from the United Kingdom and taken to a stub track on Quay Street around the eastern corner from Queen Street where it was craned aboard 304, which had especially dished front aprons so over-length rails could be carried. The rails would then be taken to the Permanent Way Department of the Auckland Electric Tramway Company Limited, later the Auckland City Corporation Tramways and finally Auckland Transport Board, where the rail was stored and bent prior to being relocated by 304 to wherever new rail was being laid or repairs or track replacement was required. Fate ---- On 5 July 1957, No. 304 was withdrawn from service after towing dismantled old Auckland tram bodies around the Royal Oak Workshops that were left after the closure of the Auckland tramways in December 1956. Once 304 had towed the last tram to the gallows (used to raise old tram bodies to enable transport to their new homes) it was sent back to the truckshop. Graham Stewart (author of many New Zealand tram and history books) had written in chalk on the front aprons "THE END". 304 was sold to a farmer. 304 left the Royal Oak Workshops on 5 September 1957 by Elliot (Te Kopuru Transport). The chassis remnants of 304 were recovered in the 2010s and are privately preserved. Detailed Information -------------------- Number 304 had Brush model D trucks, canopies over both motorman's cabins with glass fronts, Self Lapping Motorman brake valves for ease of use by Workshop crews. With a 30cwt (1.5 tonne) jib-crane at one end. Further reading --------------- * Stewart, Graham (1996). *Always a tram in sight*. ISBN 9781869340568. * Stewart, Graham (2002) [1996]. *Around Auckland by Tram in the 1950s*. ISBN 9781869340889. * Stewart, Graham (1994). *The End of the Penny Section 1993*. ISBN 9781869340377. * "Museum of Transport and Technology".[*full citation needed*] * "New life for old tram".[*full citation needed*] * Stewart, Graham (2021). *Trams Still Around New Zealand 2021*. ISBN 9780995138520.

Norwegian resistance fighter "The Chin" redirects here. For other uses, see Chin (disambiguation). Memorial to Sønsteby, Karl Johans Gate, Oslo | * v * t * e Norway and World War II | | --- | | Key events | * Operation Weserübung * Norwegian campaign * Elverum Authorization * Occupation * Resistance * Camps * The Holocaust * Telavåg * Martial law in Trondheim (1942) * Festung Norwegen * Heavy water sabotage * Liberation of Finnmark * Post-war purge | | People | * Haakon VII * Crown Prince Olav * Johan Nygaardsvold * Halvdan Koht * C. J. Hambro * Carl Gustav Fleischer * Otto Ruge * Jens Christian Hauge * Gunnar Sønsteby * Vidkun Quisling * Jonas Lie * Gulbrand Lunde * Sverre Riisnæs * Josef Terboven * Wilhelm Rediess * Henry Rinnan * Nikolaus von Falkenhorst | | Organizations | * Milorg * XU * Linge * Osvald Group * Nortraship * Nasjonal Samling * Hirden * Statspolitiet * Sonderabteilung Lola | **Gunnar Fridtjof Thurmann Sønsteby** DSO (11 January 1918 – 10 May 2012) was a member of the Norwegian resistance movement during the German occupation of Norway in World War II. Known by the nickname "Kjakan" ("The Chin") and as "Agent No. 24", he was the most highly decorated citizen in Norway, including being the only person to have been awarded the War Cross with three swords, Norway's highest military decoration. Early life and education ------------------------ Born in Rjukan, in Telemark, he was the son of Margit and Gustav Sønsteby. As a boy he enjoyed walking in the mountains around Rjukan with his school friends, many of whom later became members of the Resistance alongside him. He attended what is now Rjukan videregående skole, earning an examen artium. Among the members of his graduating class in 1937 were later Resistance fighters such as Knut Haugland, Halvor Rivrud, Olav Skogen, Leif Nilsen, Rolf Solem, Turjus Aarnes, Knut Berge, and Einar Nordgaard. After graduating from gymnasium, he moved to Oslo, where he studied at Otto Treiders Business School. The next year he began studying social economy at the University of Oslo. While in Oslo he also carried out his obligatory military service and worked in a series of jobs. Second World War ---------------- Sønsteby was working as an accountant when the Germans occupied Norway in 1940. Norway's regular armed forces surrendered on 10 June 1940, after two months of fighting, and the country was subsequently occupied by the Germans. He quickly joined the Norwegian Resistance forces in Østlandet. He fought in Philip Hansteen's ski company. He was also involved in the underground press. In 1941 he was brought into the secret British military unit called Special Operations Executive (SOE) at their office in Stockholm. He became "Agent 24" in the SOE. While on assignment in Stockholm in 1942, he was interned and imprisoned for three months by Swedish police, but managed to convince them that he was not the same Gunnar Sønsteby for whom they were looking. Back in Norway in 1943, he was caught by the Gestapo but managed to escape and flee to Sweden. From there, he was sent to Britain, where in June of that year he enrolled in the Linge Company, which was formed to participate in British-led operations in Norway, to organise, instruct, and the lead the Norwegian Resistance Movement, to serve as a link between the home front and the outside world, and to perform intelligence work. In October, he parachuted into Norway and became a leader of the Milorg group. In that same month he also became head of the newly established Oslo Gang, a sabotage group, whose other members were Andreas Aubert, Viggo Axelsen, Gregers Gram, Henrik Hop, William Houlder, Max Manus, Martin Olsen, Arthur Pevik, Birger Rasmussen, Tor Stenersen, and Edvard Tallaksen. The British historian William Mackenzie called the Oslo Gang "the best group of saboteurs in Europe". After saboteur training in England in 1943, he became the contact for all SOE agents in eastern Norway and head of the Norwegian Independent Company 1 group in Oslo. This group performed several spectacular acts of sabotage; among them smuggling out plates for the printing of Norwegian kroner from the Norwegian Central Bank to the exiled government in London and blowing up the office for Norwegian forced labour, thereby stopping the Nazis' plan of sending young Norwegian men to the Eastern Front. Sønsteby's gang also carried out the "Mardonius" action, blowing up several ships in Oslo harbour in April 1943. They also attacked Kongsberg munitions factory in September 1944, destroying guns and vital machine tools. In addition, they killed several leading figures in the Occupation Forces, including the Nazi head of police in Norway, Karl Marthinsen. Other actions included the theft of 75,000 ration books, which allowed pressure to be placed on authorities, stopping a threatened cut in rations; the destruction of sulphuric acid manufacturing facilities in Lysaker; destroying or seriously damaging over 40 aircraft, and related equipment which were being repaired at a tram company depot in Korsvoll; destroying a railway locomotive which was under repair at Skabo; destroying a number of Bofors guns, a field gun and vital machine tools at the Kongsberg arms factory; and starting a large fire in an oil storage depot at Oslo harbour which destroyed large quantities of oil and other specialist lubricants. After D-Day, Sønsteby concentrated largely on bombing Norwegian railways, thereby keeping German reinforcements from being moved back to the front line. His team also sank the German transport ship Donau outside Drøbak in 1945. Operating in occupied territory, and being high on the Gestapo list of wanted men, Sønsteby became a master of disguise. He operated under 30 to 40 different names and identities, and the Germans did not acquire his real name until near the end of the war. They were never able to catch him. His obituary in Aftenposten attributed his ability to elude capture to "resourcefulness, luck, intuition," and "such an entirely ordinary appearance that he was hardly noticed when he rode his bicycle through Oslo's streets." Sønsteby himself explained his ability to get through the war without capture on his ability to carry out many of his actions himself and on his ability to arrange for his own ID papers. He had 20 to 30 places where he spent the night, many for only one night at a time, and never used any of them for more than a couple months. To avoid detection, he moved from flat to flat almost daily. One of his hideaways was above a bakery. "When I came to the baker's shop I always looked at the girl selling bread. If she gave a special face I would know the Germans were there. I would turn around," Sønsteby later said. Aftenposten described him as having "nerves of steel" and he himself said that he had inherited a strong psychological makeup from his parents. "I was so cold," he once said, "that some time I didn't react the way I should have." During the last six months of the war he carried a hand grenade at all times, so that he could commit suicide if he was arrested. Not until the very end of the war, he explained, did he begin to experience anxiety. Sønsteby was a "master forger who could replicate the signature of Nazi police chief Karl Marthinsen." As a punishment for Sønsteby's activities, his father was arrested by the Gestapo and held as a hostage for almost two years, from February 1943 to December 1944. ### Assassinations of informants When Sønsteby was 80 years old, he said "Of course wrong decisions were made, also by the Resistance Movement. But one must remember that war was going on. It did happen that we had to kill without being sure that the person concerned was an informant. But the decisions were correct—there and then." Post-war activities ------------------- The Nazis withdrew from Norway on 8 May, and on 13 May Sønsteby led the cortege when Crown Prince Olav, the first member of the royal family to return from exile in London, arrived in Oslo. On 7 June, Sønsteby served as bodyguard for the Crown Prince and his family at the homecoming of the rest of the royal family, including King Haakon. After the liberation of Norway, he refused job offers from both the British and Norwegian intelligence services. "I didn't want any more war," he explained. "I had had enough. I'd lost five years of my life." Instead, in the autumn of 1945, Sønsteby moved to Boston, where he worked at a government purchasing center in New York and took part in an executive study program at Harvard Business School. He worked for Standard Oil (Esso). In 1949 he returned home to Norway, where he held several major positions in private business. Later, he also worked at the Norwegian Home Front Museum. Throughout the post war years and particularly after his retirement, Sønsteby gave many lectures in an effort to pass on the lessons of the Second World War to future generations. His credo, he said, was as follows: "As long as I live, I will tell the important facts. The historians can analyze, but I was there." Harald Stanghelle wrote in 2018 that Sønsteby was for many years a "living war encyclopedia" who helped serve as "an effective political vaccine against all forms of fascism" and who, while "factually oriented and sober," could get angry in debates at persons who tried to equate democracies with autocracies and had little patience for "historyless historians and ignorant journalists." At the same time, he minimised his own personal contributions to the war effort, saying that the merchant marines had played a more significant role in Norway's fight against the Nazi occupiers. Two days before Sønsteby's death, Norwegian Financial Minister Sigbjørn Johnsen unveiled a statue of Sønsteby at Rjukan torg and stated, "Gunnar Sønstebye is a great hero who risked his life so that we could win our freedom and our democracy". Honours and awards ------------------ Captain (Kaptein) Sønsteby is the only person awarded the War Cross with Three Swords (more properly known as "War Cross with sword and two swords"). All three awards were made in 1946. His additional recognitions include the following: * In 1945, Sønsteby was awarded the British Distinguished Service Order and the U.S. Medal of Freedom with Silver Palm. * In 2001 he was awarded the American-Scandinavian Foundation's culture award. * On 13 May 2007, a statue of him was erected on Solli plass in Oslo. The statue was sculpted by Per Ung and portrays a 25-year-old Sønsteby standing next to his bicycle. The statue was unveiled by King Harald of Norway. * Poland awarded him the Medal Pro Memoria in 2007. * On his 90th birthday on 11 January 2008, he was honoured with a reception at Akershus Fortress attended by King Harald V of Norway and the other members of the Royal Family. * In 2008 he was the first non-American awarded the United States Special Operations Command Medal. * There are monuments for him in Oslo (at Solli Plass) and in Rjukan. * In November 2011 a portrait of Sønsteby by Ross Kolby was unveiled at Norway's Restistance Museum in Oslo. It is permanently exhibited in Sønsteby's last office at Akershus Fortress. After death ----------- A state funeral for Sønsteby was held on 25 May 2012 in Oslo Domkirke. Twenty-four soldiers from Hans Majestet Kongens Garde provided an honour guard, while the service was attended by the King of Norway, the Prime Minister of Norway, current and seven past Ministers of Defence, and the Chief of Defence. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom was represented by a wreath. Several embassies to Norway were represented, including the United States Ambassador to Norway Barry B. White. The pallbearers were six officers, a break from the norm of using soldiers drafted from the King's Guard, and as they carried the coffin from the church, four Air Force F-16s performed a missing man flypast. A book of condolences at Armed Forces Museum in Oslo, was opened to the public on 11 May 2012. Memorial fund ------------- The establishment of a Gunnar Sønstebye Memorial Fund was discussed a half year before his death. The Fund was created with donations from Erling Lorentzen, Hans Hermann Horn, and the Inge Steensland Foundation. The Fund presents an annual memorial prize, the Gunnar Sønsteby Prize, consisting of a sum of money and a miniature of Per Ung's statue of Sønstebye in Studenterlunden. The prize was first awarded on 5 January 2012. The winners have included Per Edgar Kokkvold and Kristin Solberg (2015), Deeyah Khan and Trond Bakkevig (2016), and ten Norwegian veterans (2017). In popular culture ------------------ Gunnar Sønsteby is portrayed by Knut Joner in the 2008 Norwegian World War II-biopic *Max Manus*. * Sønsteby and Knut Joner being interviewed by Nettavisen on location in Oslo for the film Max ManusSønsteby and Knut Joner being interviewed by Nettavisen on location in Oslo for the film *Max Manus* * Sønsteby pictured in 2008Sønsteby pictured in 2008