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After leaving N.W.A , Arabian Prince began a solo career . His first album , " Brother Arab " , was released in 1989 with the hit single " She 's Got A Big Posse " ; " Where 's My Bytches " followed in 1993 . |
In the mid-2000s , he started releasing music again , with his Professor X project on the Dutch label Clone Records . " I could not release the record under Arabian Prince , " he said , " because I already had a single out , so I called myself Professor X on that record . " One of his songs was included on the 2007 video game , " College Hoops 2K8 " . |
In 2018 , Arabian Prince appeared on the AmeriKKKant | fourteenth studio album of industrial-metal band Ministry ( band ) | Ministry . |
Aside from his music career , he worked in special effects , 3D animation and video game s . |
After the release of the NWA film , " Straight Outta Compton " , in 2015 , Arabian Prince said to VladTV : " A lot of the scenes in real life , I was there -I 'm just not there in the film , which I 'm like , if you 're gonna write me out of a movie , shoot some other scenes . Don 't write scenes where I was there . " Some of the pivotal scenes would be choosing the name for the band , the tour and the infamous Detroit concert . He also remembers himself as the main opposer to Jerry Heller about the royalties and the money , a role that in the movie was instead given to Ice Cube . |
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The alphorn or alpenhorn or alpine horn is a Brass instrument | labrophone , consisting of a straight several-meter-long wooden natural horn of bore ( wind instruments ) | conical bore , with a wooden cup-shaped mouthpiece ( brass ) | mouthpiece . It is used by mountain dwellers in the Swiss Alps , Austria | Austrian Alps , Bavarian Alps in Germany , French Alps , and elsewhere . Similar wooden horns were used for communication in most mountainous regions of Europe , from the Alps to the Carpathian Mountains | Carpathians . Alphorns are today used as musical instruments . |
For a long time , scholars believed that the alphorn had been derived from the Roman-Etruscan lituus , because of their resemblance in shape , and because of the word " liti " , meaning Alphorn in the dialect of Obwalden . ! --Does this mean that the dialect name " liti " is not found until after the 18th century , or that it goes back much further ? If the latter , were these Latin writings from three centuries unanimous in using the lituus for all three of these instrument types and , further , does this mean the crumhorn was actually still in use in the 18th century ? -- Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner used the words " lituum alpinum " for the first known detailed description of the alphorn in his " De raris et admirandis herbis " in 1555 . The oldest known document using the German word " Alphorn " is a page from a 1527 account book from the former Cistercian abbey St. Urban near Pfaffnau mentioning the payment of two Batzen for an itinerant alphorn player from the Valais . |
17th-19th century collections of alpine myths and legends suggest that alphorn-like instruments had frequently been used as signal instruments in village communities since medieval times or earlier , sometimes substituting for the lack of church bells . Surviving artifacts , dating back to as far as ca . AD 1400 , include wooden Brass instrument | labrophones in their stretched form , like the alphorn , or coiled versions , such as the " Büchel " and the " Allgäuisches Waldhorn " or " Ackerhorn . " The alphorn 's exact origins remain indeterminate , and the ubiquity of horn-like signal instruments in valleys throughout Europe may indicate a long history of cross influences regarding their construction and usage . |
The alphorn is carved from solid softwood , generally spruce but sometimes pine . In former times the alphorn maker would find a tree bent at the base in the shape of an alphorn , but modern makers piece the wood together at the base . A cup-shaped mouthpiece carved out of a block of hard wood is added and the instrument is complete . |
An alphorn made at Rigi-Kulm , Schwyz , and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum , measures |
The alphorn has no lateral openings and therefore gives the pure Harmonic series ( music ) | natural harmonic series of the open pipe . The notes of the natural harmonic series overlap , but do not exactly correspond , to notes found in the familiar chromatic scale in standard Western equal temperament . Most prominently within the alphorn 's range , the 7th and 11th harmonics are particularly noticeable , because they fall between adjacent notes in the chromatic scale . |
Accomplished alphornists often command a range of nearly three octaves , consisting of the 2nd through the 16th notes of the harmonic series . The availability of the higher tones is due in part to the relatively small diameter of the bore of the mouthpiece and tubing in relation to the overall length of the horn . |
The well-known " Ranz des Vaches " ( was an alphorn melody he heard while vacationing in the Rigi area of Switzerland . For Clara 's birthday in 1868 Brahms sent her a greeting that was to be sung with the melody . Edition Eulenberg score Page I facsimile |
Among music composed for the alphorn : |
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Antonio Lucio Vivaldi ( ; |
Many of his compositions were written for the all-female music ensemble of the " Ospedale della Pietà " , a home for abandoned children . Vivaldi had worked there as a Priesthood ( Catholic Church ) | Catholic priest for years and was employed there from 1703 to 1715 and from 1723 to 1740 . Vivaldi also had some success with expensive stagings of his operas in Venice , Mantua and Vienna . After meeting the Charles VI , Holy Roman Emperor | Emperor Charles VI , Vivaldi moved to Vienna , hoping for royal support . However , the Emperor died soon after Vivaldi 's arrival , and Vivaldi himself died in poverty less than a year later . |
Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was born on 4 March 1678 in Venice , |
Vivaldi 's parents were Giovanni Battista Vivaldi and Camilla Calicchio , as recorded in the register of San Giovanni in Bragora .Landon , p . 15 Vivaldi had five known siblings : Bonaventura Tomaso Vivaldi , Margarita Gabriela Vivaldi , Cecilia Maria Vivaldi , Francesco Gaetano Vivaldi , and Zanetta Anna Vivaldi.Michael Talbot , " Vivaldi " ( London : J.M. Dent & amp ; Sons , Ltd , 1978 ) , 37 . Giovanni Battista , who was a barber before becoming a professional violinist , taught Antonio to play the violin and then toured Venice playing the violin with his young son . Antonio was probably taught at an early age , judging by the extensive musical knowledge he had acquired by the age of 24 , when he started working at the Ospedale della Pietà.Heller , p . 41 Giovanni Battista was one of the founders of the " Sovvegno dei musicisti di Santa Cecilia " , an association of musicians.Michael Talbot , " Vivaldi " ( London : J.M. Dent & amp ; Sons , Ltd . , 1978 ) , 36 . |
The president of the " Sovvegno " was Giovanni Legrenzi , an early Baroque composer and the " maestro di cappella " at St Mark 's Basilica . It is possible that Legrenzi gave the young Antonio his first lessons in composition . The Luxembourg scholar Walter Kolneder has discerned the influence of Legrenzi 's style in Vivaldi 's early liturgical work " Laetatus sum " ( Ryom-Verzeichnis | RV Anh 31 ) , written in 1691 at the age of thirteen . Vivaldi 's father may have been a composer himself : in 1689 , an opera titled " La Fedeltà sfortunata " was composed by a Giovanni Battista Rossi - the name under which Vivaldi 's father had joined the Sovvegno di Santa Cecilia.Heller , p . 40 |
Vivaldi 's health was problematic . One of his symptoms , " strettezza di petto " ( " tightness of the chest " ) , has been interpreted as a form of asthma . ( " Wikt : rosso | Rosso " is Italian for " red , " and would have referred to the color of his hair , a family trait . ) |
Not long after his ordination , in 1704 , he was given a dispensation from celebrating Mass ( liturgy ) | Mass most likely because of his ill health . Vivaldi said Mass as a priest only a few times , and appeared to have withdrawn from liturgical duties , though he remained a member of the priesthood . It is thought that this is also due to his habit of composing while performing mass . He may have remained committed to Catholicism , though the entry in the Vienna death records for him reads , " Antonio Vivaldi , Secular Priest . " Karl Heller , " Antonio Vivaldi : The Red Priest of Venice " , translated by David Marinelli ( AMADEUS PRESS , 1991 ) It is thought that he remained Catholic , though , as in 1792 , the Protestant composer Ernst Ludwig Gerber , wrote of the aged Vivaldi that " the rosary never left his hand except when he picked up the pen to write an opera . " Kolneder 1970 , 29 . |
In September 1703 , Vivaldi became " maestro di violino " ( master of violin ) at an orphanage called the Pio Ospedale della Pietà ( Devout Hospital of Mercy ) in Venice . |
Vivaldi was only 25 when he started working at the orphanage . Over the next thirty years he composed most of his major works while working there.Heller , p . 51 There were four similar institutions in Venice ; their purpose was to give shelter and education to children who were abandoned or orphaned , or whose families could not support them . They were financed by funds provided by the Republic.Marc Pincherle , " Vivaldi : Genius of the Baroque " ( Paris : W. W. Norton & amp ; Company , Inc . , 1957 ) , 18 . The boys learned a trade and had to leave when they reached the age of fifteen . The girls received a musical education , and the most talented among them stayed and became members of the Ospedale 's renowned orchestra and choir . |
Shortly after Vivaldi 's appointment , the orphans began to gain appreciation and esteem abroad , too . Vivaldi wrote concertos , cantatas and sacred vocal music for them.Heller , p . 77 These sacred works , which number over 60 , are varied : they included solo motets and large-scale choral works for soloists , double chorus , and orchestra.Heller , p . 78 In 1704 , the position of teacher of " lyra viol | viola all 'inglese " was added to his duties as violin instructor . |
His relationship with the board of directors of the Ospedale was often strained . The board had to take a vote every year on whether to keep a teacher . The vote on Vivaldi was seldom unanimous , and went 7 to 6 against him in 1709 . ! -- Was he promoted in 1713 or 1716 ? Article apparently stated both -- |
In 1705 , the first collection ( " Connor Cassara " ) of his works was published by Giuseppe Sala : Marc Pincherle , " Vivaldi : Genius of the Baroque " ( Paris : W. W. Norton & amp ; Company , Inc . , 1957 ) , 38. his Opus number | Opus 1 is a collection of 12 sonata s for two violins and Figured bass # Basso continuo | basso continuo , in a conventional style . |
In February 1711 , Vivaldi and his father traveled to Brescia , where his setting of the Stabat Mater ( Stabat Mater ( Vivaldi ) | RV 621 ) was played as part of a religious festival . The work seems to have been written in haste : the string parts are simple , the music of the first three movements is repeated in the next three , and not all the text is set . Nevertheless , perhaps in part because of the forced essentiality of the music , the work is considered to be one of his early masterpieces . |
Despite his frequent travels from 1718 , the Ospedale paid him 2 sequin ( coin ) | sequins to write two concerti a month for the orchestra and to rehearse with them at least five times when in Venice . The orphanage 's records show that he was paid for 140 concerti between 1723 and 1733 . |
In early 18th-century Venice , opera was the most popular musical entertainment . It proved most profitable for Vivaldi . There were several theaters competing for the public 's attention . Vivaldi started his career as an opera composer as a sideline : his first opera , " Ottone in villa " ( RV 729 ) was performed not in Venice , but at the Garzerie Theater in Vicenza in 1713.Heller , p . 98 The following year , Vivaldi became the impresario of the Teatro San Angelo in Venice , where his opera " Orlando finto pazzo " ( RV 727 ) was performed . The work was not to the public 's taste , and it closed after a couple of weeks , being replaced with a repeat of a different work already given the previous year . |
In 1715 , he presented " Nerone fatto Cesare " ( RV 724 , now lost ) , with music by seven different composers , of which he was the leader . The opera contained eleven aria s , and was a success . In the late season , Vivaldi planned to put on an opera entirely of his own creation , " Arsilda , regina di Ponto " ( RV 700 ) , but the state censor blocked the performance . The main character , Arsilda , falls in love with another woman , Lisea , who is pretending to be a man . Vivaldi got the censor to accept the opera the following year , and it was a resounding success . |
During this period , the " Pietà " commissioned several liturgical works . The most important were two oratorio s . " Moyses Deus Pharaonis " , ( RV 643 ) is now lost . The second , " Juditha triumphans " ( RV 644 ) , celebrates the Siege of Corfu ( 1716 ) | victory of the Republic of Venice against the Turks and the recapture of the island of Corfu . Composed in 1716 , it is one of his sacred masterpieces . All eleven singing parts were performed by girls of the orphanage , both the female and male roles . Many of the aria s include parts for solo instruments - recorders , oboes , Viola d 'amore | violas d 'amore , and mandolins - that showcased the range of talents of the girls.Landon , p . 52 |
Also in 1716 , Vivaldi wrote and produced two more operas , " L 'incoronazione di Dario " ( RV 719 ) and " La costanza trionfante degli amori e degli odi " ( RV 706 ) . The latter was so popular that it performed two years later , re-edited and retitled " Artabano re dei Parti " ( RV 701 , now lost ) . It was also performed in Prague in 1732 . In the years that followed , Vivaldi wrote several operas that were performed all over Italy . |
His progressive operatic style caused him some trouble with more conservative musicians such as Benedetto Marcello , a magistrate and amateur musician who wrote a pamphlet denouncing Vivaldi and his operas . The pamphlet , " Il teatro alla moda " , attacks the composer even as it does not mention him directly . The cover drawing shows a boat ( the Sant 'Angelo ) , on the left end of which stands a little angel wearing a priest 's hat and playing the violin . The Marcello family claimed ownership of the Teatro Sant 'Angelo , and a long legal battle had been fought with the management for its restitution , without success . The obscure text under the engraving mentions non-existent places and names : for example , " ALDIVIVA " is an anagram of " A. Vivaldi . " |
In a letter written by Vivaldi to his patron Marchese Bentivoglio in 1737 , he makes reference to his " 94 operas . " Only around 50 operas by Vivaldi have been discovered , and no other documentation of the remaining operas exists . Although Vivaldi may have been exaggerating , it is plausible that , in his dual role of composer and " impresario " , he may have either written or been responsible for the production of as many as 94 operas - given that his career had by then spanned almost 25 years.Heller , p . 97 While Vivaldi certainly composed many operas in his time , he never attained the prominence of other great composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti , Johann Adolph Hasse , Leonardo Leo , and Baldassare Galuppi , as evidenced by his inability to keep a production running for an extended period of time in any major opera house . |
In 1717 or 1718 , Vivaldi was offered a prestigious new position as " Maestro di Cappella " of the court of prince Philip of Hesse-Darmstadt , governor of Mantua , in the northwest of Italy.Michael Talbot , " Vivaldi " ( London : J.M. Dent & amp ; Sons , Ltd , 1978 ) , 64 . He moved there for three years and produced several operas , among them " Tito Manlio " ( RV 738 ) . In 1721 , he was in Milan , where he presented the pastoral drama " La Silvia " ( RV 734 ) ; nine arias from it survive . He visited Milan again the following year with the oratorio " L 'adorazione delli tre re magi al bambino Gesù " ( RV 645 , now lost ) . In 1722 he moved to Rome , where he introduced his operas ' new style . The new pope Benedict XIII invited Vivaldi to play for him . In 1725 , Vivaldi returned to Venice , where he produced four operas in the same year . |
During this period Vivaldi wrote the " The Four Seasons ( Vivaldi ) | Four Seasons " , four violin concertos that give musical expression to the seasons of the year . Though three of the concerti are wholly original , the first , " Spring , " borrows motifs from a Sinfonia in the first act of Vivaldi 's contemporaneous opera " Il Giustino " . The inspiration for the concertos was probably the countryside around Mantua . They were a revolution in musical conception : in them Vivaldi represented flowing creeks , singing birds ( of different species , each specifically characterized ) , barking dogs , buzzing mosquitoes , crying shepherds , storms , drunken dancers , silent nights , hunting parties from both the hunters ' and the prey 's point of view , frozen landscapes , ice-skating children , and warming winter fires . Each concerto is associated with a sonnet , possibly by Vivaldi , describing the scenes depicted in the music . They were published as the first four concertos in a collection of twelve , " Il cimento dell 'armonia e dell 'inventione " , Opus 8 , published in Amsterdam by Michel-Charles Le Cène in 1725 . |
During his time in Mantua , Vivaldi became acquainted with an aspiring young singer Anna Girò | Anna Tessieri Girò , who would become his student , protégée , and favorite " prima donna " .Michael Talbot , " Vivaldi " ( London : J. M. Dent & amp ; Sons , Ltd , 1978 ) , 66 . Anna , along with her older half-sister Paolina , moved in with Vivaldi and regularly accompanied him on his many travels . There was speculation as to the nature of Vivaldi 's and Girò 's relationship , but no evidence exists to indicate anything beyond friendship and professional collaboration . Vivaldi , in fact , adamantly denied any romantic relationship with Girò in a letter to his patron Bentivoglio dated 16 November 1737.Michael Talbot , " Vivaldi " ( London : J.M. Dent & amp ; Sons , Ltd , 1978 ) , 67 . |
At the height of his career , Vivaldi received commissions from European nobility and royalty . The " serenata " ( cantata ) " Gloria e Imeneo " ( RV 687 ) was commissioned in 1725 by the French ambassador to Venice in celebration of the marriage of Louis XV of France | Louis XV . The following year , another " serenata " , " La Sena festeggiante " ( RV 694 ) , was written for and premiered at the French embassy as well , celebrating the birth of the French royal princesses , Princess Henriette of France | Henriette and Louise Élisabeth of France | Louise Élisabeth . Vivaldi 's Opus 9 , " La cetra ( Vivaldi ) | La cetra " , was dedicated to Holy Roman Emperor | Emperor Charles VI , Holy Roman Emperor | Charles VI . In 1728 , Vivaldi met the emperor while the emperor was visiting Trieste to oversee the construction of a new port . Charles admired the music of the Red Priest so much that he is said to have spoken more with the composer during their one meeting than he spoke to his ministers in over two years . He gave Vivaldi the title of knight , a gold medal and an invitation to Vienna . Vivaldi gave Charles a manuscript copy of " La cetra " , a set of concerti almost completely different from the set of the same title published as Opus 9 . The printing was probably delayed , forcing Vivaldi to gather an improvised collection for the emperor . |
Accompanied by his father , Vivaldi traveled to Vienna and Prague in 1730 , where his opera " Farnace " ( RV 711 ) was presented ; Vivaldi 's connections with musical life in Prague and his association with Antonio Denzio , the impresario of the Franz Anton von Sporck | Sporck theater in Prague are detailed in Daniel E. Freeman , " The Opera Theater of Count Franz Anton von Sporck in Prague " ( Stuyvesant , N.Y. : Pendragon Press , 1992 ) . it garnered six revivals . Some of his later operas were created in collaboration with two of Italy 's major writers of the time . " L 'Olimpiade " and " Catone in Utica " were written by Pietro Metastasio , the major representative of the Academy of Arcadia | Arcadian movement and court poet in Vienna . " Griselda ( Vivaldi ) | La Griselda " was rewritten by the young Carlo Goldoni from an earlier libretto by Apostolo Zeno . |
Like many composers of the time , Vivaldi faced financial difficulties in his later years . His compositions were no longer held in such high esteem as they once had been in Venice ; changing musical tastes quickly made them outmoded . In response , Vivaldi chose to sell off sizeable numbers of his manuscripts at paltry prices to finance his migration to Vienna .Walter Kolneder , " Antonio Vivaldi : Documents of his life and works " ( Amsterdam : Heinrichshofen 's Verlag , Wilhelmshaven , Locarno , 1982 ) , 179 . The reasons for Vivaldi 's departure from Venice are unclear , but it seems likely that , after the success of his meeting with Emperor Charles VI , he wished to take up the position of a composer in the imperial court . On his way to Vienna , Vivaldi may have stopped in Graz to see Anna Girò.Walter Kolneder , " Antonio Vivaldi : Documents of his life and works " ( Amsterdam : Heinrichshofen 's Verlag , Wilhelmshaven , Locarno , 1982 ) , 180 . |
Vivaldi was buried next to Karlskirche , a baroque church in an area which is now part of the site of the TU Wien . The house where he lived in Vienna has since been destroyed ; the Hotel Sacher is built on part of the site . Memorial plaques have been placed at both locations , as well as a Vivaldi " star " in the Viennese Musikmeile and a monument at the Rooseveltplatz . |
Only two , possibly three original portraits of Vivaldi are known to survive : an engraving , an ink sketch and an oil painting . The engraving , which was the basis of several copies produced later by other artists , was made in 1725 by François Morellon de La Cave for the first edition of " Il cimento dell 'armonia e dell 'inventione " , and shows Vivaldi holding a sheet of music.Michael Talbot , " The Vivaldi Compendium " ( Woodbridge : The Boydell Press , 2011 ) , 147-48 . The ink sketch , a caricature , was done by Pier Leone Ghezzi | Ghezzi in 1723 and shows Vivaldi 's head and shoulders in profile . It exists in two versions : a first jotting kept at the Vatican Library , and a much lesser-known , slightly more detailed copy recently discovered in Moscow.Michael Talbot , " The Vivaldi Compendium " ( Woodbridge : The Boydell Press , 2011 ) , 87 . The oil painting , which can be seen in the International Museum and Library of Music of Bologna , is anonymous and is thought to depict Vivaldi due to its strong resemblance to the La Cave engraving.Michael Talbot , " The Vivaldi Compendium " ( Woodbridge : The Boydell Press , 2011 ) , 148 . |
Vivaldi 's music was innovative . He brightened the formal and rhythmic structure of the concerto , in which he looked for harmonic contrasts and innovative melodies and themes . Many of his compositions are flamboyantly exuberant . ! -- some compositions before Vivaldi were flamboyantly and playfully exuberant , what does this tell us ? -- |
Johann Sebastian Bach was deeply influenced by Vivaldi 's concertos and arias ( recalled in his " St John Passion " , " St Matthew Passion " , and Bach cantata | cantatas ) . Bach transcribed six of Vivaldi 's concerti for solo keyboard : three for organ , and one for four harpsichords , strings , and basso continuo ( BWV 1065 ) based upon the concerto for four violins , two violas , cello , and basso continuo ( Ryom-Verzeichnis | RV 580 ) . ! -- That 's four ; what were the other two ? -- |
During his lifetime , Vivaldi was popular in many countries throughout Europe , including France , but after his death his popularity dwindled . After the end of the Baroque period , Vivaldi 's published concerti became relatively unknown , and were largely ignored . Even his most famous work , " The Four Seasons " , was unknown in its original edition during the Classical period ( music ) | Classical and Romantic music | Romantic periods . |
In the early 20th century , Fritz Kreisler ' s Concerto in C , in the Style of Vivaldi ( which he passed off as an original Vivaldi work ) helped revive Vivaldi 's reputation . This spurred the French scholar Marc Pincherle to begin an academic study of Vivaldi 's oeuvre . Many Vivaldi manuscripts were rediscovered , which were acquired by the Turin National University Library as a result of the generous sponsorship of Turinese businessmen Roberto Foa and Filippo Giordano , in memory of their sons . This led to a renewed interest in Vivaldi by , among others , Mario Rinaldi , Alfredo Casella , Ezra Pound , Olga Rudge , Desmond Chute , Arturo Toscanini , Arnold Schering and Louis Kaufman , all of whom were instrumental in the revival of Vivaldi throughout the 20th century . |
In 1926 , in a monastery in Piedmont , researchers discovered fourteen folios of Vivaldi 's work that were previously thought to have been lost during the Napoleonic Wars . Some missing volumes in the numbered set were discovered in the collections of the descendants of the Grand Duke Durazzo , who had acquired the monastery complex in the 18th century . The volumes contained 300 concertos , 19 operas and over 100 vocal-instrumental works.Antonio Vivaldi biography by Alexander Kuznetsov and Louise Thomas , a booklet attached to the CD " The best of Vivaldi , " published and recorded by Madacy Entertainment Group Inc , St. Laurent Quebec Canada |
The resurrection of Vivaldi 's unpublished works in the 20th century is mostly due to the efforts of Alfredo Casella , who in 1939 organized the historic Vivaldi Week , in which the rediscovered Gloria ( Vivaldi ) | Gloria ( RV 589 ) and l 'Olimpiade were revived . Since World War II , Vivaldi 's compositions have enjoyed wide success . Historically informed performance s , often on " original instruments , " have increased Vivaldi 's fame still further . |
Recent rediscoveries of works by Vivaldi include two psalm settings of " Nisi Dominus " ( RV 803 , in eight movements ) and Dixit Dominus ( Vivaldi ) | Dixit Dominus ( RV 807 , in eleven movements ) . These were identified in 2003 and 2005 respectively , by the Australian scholar Janice Stockigt . The Vivaldi scholar Michael Talbot ( musicologist ) | Michael Talbot described RV 807 as " arguably the best nonoperatic work from Vivaldi 's pen to come to light since [ ... ] the 1920s . " Michael Talbot , liner notes to the CD " Vivaldi : Dixit Dominus " , Körnerscher Sing-Verein Dresden ( Dresdner Instrumental-Concert ) , Peter Kopp , Deutsche Grammophon 2006 , catalogue number 4776145 Vivaldi 's 1730 opera " Argippo " ( RV 697 ) , which had been considered lost , was rediscovered in 2006 by the harpsichordist and conductor Ondřej Macek , whose Hofmusici orchestra performed the work at Prague Castle on 3 May 2008 - its first performance since 1730 . |
A composition by Vivaldi is identified by Ryom-Verzeichnis | RV number , which refers to its place in the " Ryom-Verzeichnis " or " Répertoire des oeuvres d 'Antonio Vivaldi , " a catalog created in the 20th century by the musicologist Peter Ryom . |
The Four Seasons ( Vivaldi ) | " Le quattro stagioni " ( The Four Seasons ) of 1723 is his most famous work . Part of " Il cimento dell 'armonia e dell 'inventione " ( " The Contest between Harmony and Invention " ) , it depicts moods and scenes from each of the four seasons . This work has been described as an outstanding instance of pre-19th century program music .Gerard Schwarz , " Musically Speaking - The Great Works Collection : Vivaldi " ( CVP , Inc . , 1995 ) , 13 . |
Vivaldi wrote more than 500 other concertos . About 350 of these are for solo instrument and strings , of which 230 are for violin , the others being for bassoon , cello , oboe , flute , viola d 'amore , Recorder ( musical instrument ) | recorder , lute , or mandolin . About forty concertos are for two instruments and strings , and about thirty are for three or more instruments and strings . |
As well as about 46 operas , Vivaldi composed a large body of sacred choral music , such as Magnificat ( Vivaldi ) | Magnificat . Other works include sinfonia s , about 90 sonata s and chamber music . |
Some sonatas for flute , published as " Il Pastor Fido " , have been erroneously attributed to Vivaldi , but were composed by Nicolas Chédeville . |
Vivaldi 's works attracted cataloging efforts befitting a major composer . Scholarly work intended to increase the accuracy and variety of Vivaldi performances also supported new discoveries which made old catalogs incomplete . Works still in circulation today may be numbered under several different systems ( some earlier catalogs are mentioned Ryom-Verzeichnis | here ) . |
Because the simply consecutive Complete Edition ( CE ) numbers did not reflect the individual works ( Opus numbers ) into which compositions were grouped , numbers assigned by Antonio Fanna were often used in conjunction with CE numbers . Combined Complete Edition ( CE ) / Fanna numbering was especially common in the work of Italian groups driving the mid-20th century revival of Vivaldi , such as Gli Accademici di Milano under Piero Santi . For example , the Bassoon Concerto in B major , " La Notte " RV 501 , became CE 12 , F. VIII , 1 |
Despite the awkwardness of having to overlay Fanna numbers onto the Complete Edition number for meaningful grouping of Vivaldi 's oeuvre , these numbers displaced the older Marc Pincherle | Pincherle numbers as the ( re- ) discovery of more manuscripts had rendered older catalogs obsolete . |
This cataloging work was led by the Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi , where Gian Francesco Malipiero was both the director and the editor of the published scores ( Edizioni G. Ricordi ) . His work built on that of Antonio Fanna , a Venetian businessman and the Institute 's founder , and thus formed a bridge to the scholarly catalog dominant today . |
Compositions by Vivaldi are identified today by Ryom-Verzeichnis | RV number , the number assigned by Danish musicologist Peter Ryom in works published mostly in the 1970s , such as the " Ryom-Verzeichnis " or " Répertoire des oeuvres d 'Antonio Vivaldi . " Like the Complete Edition before it , the RV does not typically assign its single , consecutive numbers to " adjacent " works that occupy one of the composer 's single opus numbers . Its goal as a modern catalog is to index the manuscripts and sources that establish the existence and nature of all known works . |
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Albertus Magnus Scholars such as James A. Weisheipl and Joachim R. Söder have referred to him as the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages .Joachim R. Söder , " Albert der Grosse - ein staunen- erregendes Wunder , " Wort und Antwort 41 ( 2000 ) : 145 ; J.A. Weisheipl , " Albertus Magnus , " Joseph Strayer ed . , Dictionary of the Middle Ages 1 ( New York : Scribner , 1982 ) 129 . The Catholic Church distinguishes him as one of the 36 Doctor of the Church | Doctors of the Church . |
It seems likely that Albert was born sometime before 1200 , given well-attested evidence that he was aged over 80 on his death in 1280 . Two later sources say that Albert was about 87 on his death , which has led 1193 to be commonly given as the date of Albert 's birth , but this information has not enough evidence . |
Albert was probably educated principally at the University of Padua , where he received instruction in Aristotle ' s writings . A late account by Rudolph de Novamagia refers to Albertus ' encounter with the Blessed Virgin Mary , who convinced him to enter Holy Orders . In 1223 ( or 1229 ) he became a member of the Dominican Order , and studied theology at Bologna and elsewhere . Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne , Germany , where the Dominicans had a house , he taught for several years there , as well as in Regensburg , Freiburg , Strasbourg , and Hildesheim . During his first tenure as lecturer at Cologne , Albert wrote his " Summa de bono " after discussion with Philip the Chancellor concerning the transcendental properties of being . |
Albert was the first to comment on virtually all of the writings of Aristotle , thus making them accessible to wider academic debate . The study of Aristotle brought him to study and comment on the teachings of Muslim academics , notably Avicenna and Averroes , and this would bring him into the heart of academic debate . |
In 1254 Albert was made provincial superior | provincial of the Dominican Order , and fulfilled the duties of the office with great care and efficiency . During his tenure he publicly defended the Dominicans against attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the University of Paris , commented on John the Evangelist , and answered what he perceived as errors of the Early Islamic philosophy | Islamic philosopher Averroes . |
In 1259 Albert took part in the General Chapter of the Dominicans at Valenciennes together with Thomas Aquinas , masters Bonushomo Britto , , 1960 . Accessed 19 March 2013 |
In 1260 Pope Alexander IV made him bishop of Regensburg , an office from which he resigned after three years . During the exercise of his duties he enhanced his reputation for humility by refusing to ride a horse , in accord with the dictates of the Order , instead traversing his huge diocese on foot . This earned him the affectionate sobriquet " boots the bishop " from his parishioners . In 1263 Pope Urban IV relieved him of the duties of bishop and asked him to preach the eighth Crusade in German-speaking countries . After this , he was especially known for acting as a mediator between conflicting parties . In Cologne he is not only known for being the founder of Germany 's oldest university there , but also for " the big verdict " ( der Große Schied ) of 1258 , which brought an end to the conflict between the citizens of Cologne and the archbishop . Among the last of his labors was the defense of the orthodoxy of his former pupil , Thomas Aquinas , whose death in 1274 grieved Albert ( the story that he travelled to Paris in person to defend the teachings of Aquinas can not be confirmed ) . |
Albert was a scientist , philosopher , astrologer , theologian , spiritual writer , ecumenist , and diplomat . Under the auspices of Humbert of Romans , Albert molded the curriculum of studies for all Dominican students , introduced Aristotle to the classroom and probed the work of Neoplatonists , such as Plotinus . Indeed , it was the thirty years of work done by Aquinas and himself that allowed for the inclusion of Aristotelian study in the curriculum of Dominican schools . |
After suffering a collapse of health in 1278 , he died on November 15 , 1280 , in the Dominican convent in Cologne , Germany . Since November 15 , 1954 , his relics are in a Roman sarcophagus in the crypt of the Dominican St. Andreas Church in Cologne . |
Albert was beatified in 1622 . He was canonized and proclaimed a Doctor of the Church on December 16 , 1931 , by Pope Pius XI and the patron saint of natural scientists in 1941 . St. Albert 's feast day is November 15 . |
Albert 's writings collected in 1899 went to thirty-eight volumes . These displayed his prolific habits and encyclopedic knowledge of topics such as logic , theology , botany , geography , astronomy , astrology , mineralogy , alchemy , zoology , physiology , phrenology , justice , law , friendship , and love . He digested , interpreted , and systematized the whole of Aristotle 's works , gleaned from the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators , in accordance with Church doctrine . Most modern knowledge of Aristotle was preserved and presented by Albert . |
His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard ( " Magister Sententiarum " ) , and the " Summa Theologiae " in two volumes . The latter is in substance a more didactic repetition of the former . |
Albert 's activity , however , was more philosophical than theological ( see Scholasticism ) . The philosophical works , occupying the first six and the last of the 21 volumes , are generally divided according to the Aristotelianism | Aristotelian scheme of the sciences , and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle 's relative works , with supplementary discussions upon contemporary topics , and occasional divergences from the opinions of the master . Albert believed that Aristotle 's approach to natural philosophy did not pose any obstacle to the development of a Christian philosophical view of the natural order . |
Albert 's knowledge of natural science was considerable and for the age remarkably accurate . His industry in every department was great : not only did he produce commentaries and paraphrases of the entire Aristotelian corpus , including his scientific works , but Albert also added to and improved upon them . His books on topics like botany , zoology , and minerals included information from ancient sources , but also results of his own empirical investigations . These investigations pushed several of the special sciences forward , beyond the reliance on classical texts . In the case of embryology , for example , it has been claimed that little of value was written between Aristotle and Albert , who managed to identify organs within eggs . Furthermore , Albert also effectively invented entire special sciences , where Aristotle has not covered a topic . For example , prior to Albert , there was no systematic study of minerals . For the breadth of these achievements , he was bestowed the name " Doctor Universalis . " |
Much of Albert 's empirical contributions to the natural sciences have been superseded , but his general approach to science may be surprisingly modern . For example , in " De Mineralibus " ( Book II , Tractate ii , Ch . 1 ) Albert claims , " For it is [ the task ] of natural science not simply to accept what we are told but to inquire into the causes of natural things . " |
In the centuries since his death , many stories arose about Albert as an Alchemy | alchemist and magician . " Much of the modern confusion results from the fact that later works , particularly the alchemical work known as the " Secreta Alberti " or the " Experimenta Alberti " , were falsely attributed to Albertus by their authors to increase the prestige of the text through association . " Katz , David A. , " An Illustrated History of Alchemy and Early Chemistry , " 1978 On the subject of alchemy and chemistry , many treatises relating to alchemy have been attributed to him , though in his authentic writings he had little to say on the subject , and then mostly through commentary on Aristotle . For example , in his commentary , " De mineralibus " , he refers to the power of stones , but does not elaborate on what these powers might be.Georg Wieland , " Albert der Grosse . Der Entwurf einer eigenständigen Philosophie , " Philosophen des Mittelalters ( Darmstadt : Primus , 2000 ) 124-39 . A wide range of Pseudo-Albertine works dealing with alchemy exist , though , showing the belief developed in the generations following Albert 's death that he had mastered alchemy , one of the fundamental sciences of the Middle Ages . These include " Metals and Materials " ; the " Secrets of Chemistry " ; the " Origin of Metals " ; the " Origins of Compounds " , and a " Concordance " which is a collection of " Observations on the philosopher 's stone " ; and other alchemy-chemistry topics , collected under the name of " Theatrum Chemicum " .Walsh , John , " The Thirteenth , Greatest of Centuries . " 1907 : 46 ( He did believe that stones had occult properties , as he related in his work " De mineralibus " . However , there is scant evidence that he personally performed alchemical experiments . |
According to legend , Albert is said to have discovered the philosopher 's stone and passed it on to his pupil Thomas Aquinas , shortly before his death . Albert does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings , but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by " transmutation . " Julian Franklyn and Frederick E. Budd . " A Survey of the Occult . " Electric Book Company . 2001. p . 28-30 . . Given that Thomas Aquinas died six years before Albert 's death , this legend as stated is unlikely . |
Albert was deeply interested in astronomy , as has been articulated by scholars such as Paola ZambelliPaola Zambelli , " The Speculum Astronomiae and its Enigma " Dordrecht. and Scott Hendrix . |
Albert believed that all natural things were compositions of matter and form , he referred to it as " quod est " and " quo est " . Albert also believed that God alone is the absolute ruling entity . Albert 's version of hylomorphism is very similar to the Aristotelianism | Aristotelian doctrine . |
Albert is known for his commentary on the musical practice of his times . Most of his written musical observations are found in his commentary on Aristotle 's " Poetics " . He rejected the idea of " Musica universalis | music of the spheres " as ridiculous : movement of astronomical bodies , he supposed , is incapable of generating sound . He wrote extensively on proportions in music , and on the three different subjective levels on which plainchant could work on the human soul : purging of the impure ; illumination leading to contemplation ; and nourishing perfection through contemplation . Of particular interest to 20th-century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music . |
Both of his early treatises , " De natura boni " and " De bono " , start with a metaphysical investigation into the concepts of the good in general and the physical good . Albert refers to the physical good as " bonum naturae " . Albert does this before directly dealing with the moral concepts of metaphysics . In Albert 's later works , he says in order to understand human or moral goodness , the individual must first recognize what it means to be good and do good deeds . This procedure reflects Albert 's preoccupations with neo-Platonic theories of good as well as the doctrines of Pseudo-Dionysius .Cunningham , Stanley . Reclaiming Moral Agency : The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great . Washington , D.C. : The Catholic University Of America Press , 2008 p . 93 Albert 's view was highly valued by the Catholic Church and his peers . |
Albert devoted the last tractatus of " De Bono " to a theory of justice and natural law . Albert places God as the pinnacle of justice and natural law . God legislates and divine authority is supreme . Up until his time , it was the only work specifically devoted to natural law written by a theologian or philosopher.Cunningham , Stanley . Reclaiming Moral Agency : The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great . Washington , D.C. : The Catholic University Of America Press , 2008 p.207 |
Albert mentions friendship in his work , " De bono " , as well as presenting his ideals and morals of friendship in the very beginning of " Tractatus II " . Later in his life he published " Super Ethica " .Cunningham , Stanley . Reclaiming Moral Agency : The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great . Washington , D.C. : The Catholic University Of America Press , 2008 p.242 With his development of friendship throughout his work it is evident that friendship ideals and morals took relevance as his life went on . Albert comments on Aristotle 's view of friendship with a quote from Cicero , who writes , " friendship is nothing other than the harmony between things divine and human , with goodwill and love . " Albert agrees with this commentary but he also adds in harmony or agreement.Cunningham , Stanley . Reclaiming Moral Agency : The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great . Washington , D.C. : The Catholic University Of America Press , 2008 p.243 Albert calls this harmony , " consensio " , itself a certain kind of movement within the human spirit . Albert fully agrees with Aristotle in the sense that friendship is a virtue . Albert relates the inherent metaphysical contentedness between friendship and moral goodness . Albert describes several levels of goodness ; the useful ( " utile " ) , the pleasurable ( " delectabile " ) and the authentic or unqualified good ( " honestum " ) . Then in turn there are three levels of friendship based on each of those levels , namely friendship based on usefulness ( " amicitia utilis " ) , friendship based on pleasure ( " amicitia delectabilis " ) , and friendship rooted in unqualified goodness ( " amicitia honesti " ; " amicitia quae fundatur super honestum " ) .Cunningham , Stanley . Reclaiming Moral Agency : The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great . Washington , D.C. : The Catholic University Of America Press , 2008 p.244 |
The iconography of the pediment | tympanum and archivolt s of the late 13th-century gate | portal of Notre Dame de Strasbourg | Strasbourg Cathedral was inspired by Albert 's writings . " France : A Phaidon Cultural Guide " , Phaidon Press , 1985 , , p . 705 Albert is frequently mentioned by Dante Alighieri | Dante , who made his doctrine of free will the basis of his ethical system . In his " Divine Comedy " , Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom ( " Spiriti Sapienti " ) in the Heaven of the Sun . Albert is also mentioned , along with Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa | Agrippa and Paracelsus , in Mary Shelley ' s " Frankenstein " , in which his writings influence a young Victor Frankenstein . |
In " The Concept of Anxiety " , Søren Kierkegaard wrote that Albert , " arrogantly boasted of his speculation before the deity and suddenly became stupid . " Kierkegaard cites Gotthard Oswald Marbach whom he quotes as saying " " Albertus repente ex asino factus philosophus et ex philosopho asinus " " [ Albert was suddenly transformed from an ass into a philosopher and from a philosopher into an ass ] . " The Concept of Anxiety " , Princeton University Press , 1980 , , pp. 150-151 |
Johann Eduard Erdmann considers Albert greater and more original than his pupil Aquinas .Erdmann - History of Philosophy vol 1 trans Hough - London 1910. p . 422 |
A number of schools have been named after Albert , including Albertus Magnus High School in Bardonia , New York ; |
Albertus Magnus Science Hall at Thomas Aquinas College , in Santa Paula , California , is named in honor of Albert . The main science buildings at Providence College and Aquinas College ( Michigan ) | Aquinas College in Grand Rapids , Michigan , are also named after him . |