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[ { "answer": "_URL_1_\n\n > After smoking, the initial metabolism of THC takes place in the lungs, followed by more extensive metabolism by liver enzymes which transform THC to a number of metabolites. The most rapidly produced metabolite is 9-carboxy-THC (or THC-COOH) which is detectable in blood within minutes of smoking cannabis. It is not psychoactive. Another major metabolite of THC is 11-hydroxy-THC, which is approximately 20 per cent more potent than THC, and which penetrates the blood-brain barrier more rapidly than THC. \n\nNot sure about what it \"binds to\" in the blood, if that's even necessary.\n\n > THC and its metabolites are highly fat soluble and may remain for long periods of time in the fatty tissues of the body, from which they are slowly released back into the bloodstream. This phenomenon slows the elimination of cannabinoids from the body. \n\nFrom [the wiki article](_URL_0_), this seems to be fairly correct.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "OP, you might also find it interesting to know that cannabinoids are highly lipophilic, which means they are sequestered (stored) in the fatty tissues of the body - and only after 6 weeks are they cleared from the body.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "210988", "title": "Cannabinoid", "section": "Section::::Phytocannabinoids.:Cannabis-derived cannabinoids.:Types.:Biosynthesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 488, "text": "Cannabinoid production starts when an enzyme causes geranyl pyrophosphate and olivetolic acid to combine and form CBGA. Next, CBGA is independently converted to either CBG, THCA, CBDA or CBCA by four separate synthase, FAD-dependent dehydrogenase enzymes. There is no evidence for enzymatic conversion of CBDA or CBD to THCA or THC. For the propyl homologues (THCVA, CBDVA and CBCVA), there is an analogous pathway that is based on CBGVA from divarinolic acid instead of olivetolic acid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20866399", "title": "Synthetic cannabinoids", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 506, "text": "Most synthetic cannabinoids are agonists of the cannabinoid receptors. They have been designed to be similar to THC, the natural cannabinoid with the strongest binding affinity to the CB receptor, which is linked to the psychoactive effects or \"high\" of marijuana. These synthetic analogs often have greater binding affinity and greater potency to the CB receptors. There are several synthetic cannabinoid families (e.g. CP-xxx, WIN-xxx, JWH-xxx, UR-xxx, and PB-xx) classified based on the base structure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "210988", "title": "Cannabinoid", "section": "Section::::Phytocannabinoids.:Pharmacology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 373, "text": "Cannabinoids can be administered by smoking, vaporizing, oral ingestion, transdermal patch, intravenous injection, sublingual absorption, or rectal suppository. Once in the body, most cannabinoids are metabolized in the liver, especially by cytochrome P450 mixed-function oxidases, mainly CYP 2C9. Thus supplementing with CYP 2C9 inhibitors leads to extended intoxication.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20207596", "title": "Cannabinoid receptor antagonist", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1578, "text": "A cannabinoid receptor antagonist, also known simply as a cannabinoid antagonist or as an anticannabinoid, is a type of cannabinoidergic drug that binds to cannabinoid receptors (CBR) and prevents their activation by endocannabinoids. They include antagonists, inverse agonists, and antibodies of CBRs. The discovery of the endocannabinoid system led to the development of CB receptor antagonists. The first CBR antagonist, rimonabant, was described in 1994. Rimonabant blocks the CB receptor selectively and has been shown to decrease food intake and regulate body-weight gain. The prevalence of obesity worldwide is increasing dramatically and has a great impact on public health. The lack of efficient and well-tolerated drugs to cure obesity has led to an increased interest in research and development of CBR antagonists. Cannabidiol (CBD), a naturally occurring cannabinoid, is a non-competitive CB/CB receptor antagonist. And Δ-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), a naturally occurring cannabinoid, modulate the effects of THC via direct blockade of cannabinoid CB receptors, thus behaving like first-generation CB receptor inverse agonists, such as rimonabant. CBD is a very low-affinity CB ligand, that can nevertheless affect CB receptor activity \"in vivo\" in an indirect manner, while THCV is a high-affinity CB receptor ligand and potent antagonist \"in vitro\" and yet only occasionally produces effects \"in vivo\" resulting from CB receptor antagonism. THCV has also high affinity for CB receptors and signals as a partial agonist, differing from both CBD and rimonabant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45621", "title": "Psychopharmacology", "section": "Section::::Psychopharmacological substances.:Cannabis and the cannabinoids.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 734, "text": "There exist two primary CNS cannabinoid receptors, on which marijuana and the cannabinoids act. Both the CB1 receptor and CB2 receptor are found in the brain. The CB2 receptor is also found in the immune system. CB is expressed at high densities in the basal ganglia, cerebellum, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex. Receptor activation can inhibit cAMP formation, inhibit voltage-sensitive calcium ion channels, and activate potassium ion channels. Many CB receptors are located on axon terminals, where they act to inhibit the release of various neurotransmitters. In combination, these chemical actions work to alter various functions of the central nervous system including the motor system, memory, and various cognitive processes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43220998", "title": "AB-CHMINACA", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 447, "text": "AB-CHMINACA is an indazole-based synthetic cannabinoid. It is a potent agonist of the CB receptor (\"K\" = 0.78 nM) and CB receptor (\"K\" = 0.45 nM) and fully substitutes for Δ-THC in rat discrimination studies, while being 16x more potent. Continuing the trend seen in other cannabinoids of this generation, it contains a valine amino acid amide residue as part of its structure, where older cannabinoids contained a naphthyl or adamantane residue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20866399", "title": "Synthetic cannabinoids", "section": "Section::::Detection in bodily fluids.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 712, "text": "Synthetic cannabinoids are typically not identified by the standard marijuana drug tests including the immunoassay test (EMIT), GC-MS screening, and multi-target screening by LC-GC/MS because those tests only detect the presence of THC and its metabolites. Although most synthetic cannabinoids are analogs of THC, they are structurally different enough that, for example, the specific antibodies in the EMIT for marijuana do not bind to them. Also, due to their high potency, a very small dose of synthetic cannabinoids is used; moreover, synthetic cannabinoids are highly metabolized by the body, so the window to detect the parent drug (the synthetic cannabinoid itself) in blood and oral fluid is very small.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A radio sends commands to a controller in the car. That in turn sends electrical signals to the various motors and solenoids that operate the mechanical parts of the car.\n\nThis can be super basic in a battery powered car with simple steering, or increasingly complex as you approach full sized gasoline powered vehicles. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "An RC car consists of the radio system \\(transmitter and receiver\\), the motor, motor speed controller, steering servo, and battery. Each function like steering and throttle are on separate channels, usually channel 1 for steering, channel 2 for throttle. When you hit the throttle the radio transmitter sends the signal to the receiver on the car. The receiver will send the throttle signal to the motor speed controller, which then sends power to the motor. When you steer, the receiver will send the steering signal to the steering servo which steers the wheels. The battery pack powers everything.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "843336", "title": "Remote control vehicle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 400, "text": "A remote control vehicle is defined as any vehicle that is teleoperated by a means that does not restrict its motion with an origin external to the device. This is often a radio control device, cable between control and vehicle, or an infrared controller. A remote control vehicle or RCV differs from a robot in that the RCV is always controlled by a human and takes no positive action autonomously.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "843336", "title": "Remote control vehicle", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Military and law enforcement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 363, "text": "Remote control vehicles are used in law enforcement and military engagements for some of the same reasons. The exposure to hazards are mitigated to the person who operates the vehicle from a location of relative safety. Remote controlled vehicles are used by many police department bomb-squads to defuse or detonate explosives. See Dragon Runner, Military robot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2926730", "title": "Fleet management", "section": "Section::::Fleet security and control.:Remote vehicle disabling systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 669, "text": "Remote vehicle disabling systems provide users at remote locations the ability to prevent an engine from starting, prevent movement of a vehicle, and to stop or slow an operating vehicle. Remote disabling allows a dispatcher or other authorized personnel to gradually decelerate a vehicle by downshifting, limiting the throttle capability, or bleeding air from the braking system from a remote location. Some of these systems provide advance notification to the driver that the vehicle disabling is about to occur. After stopping a vehicle, some systems will lock the vehicle's brakes or will not allow the vehicle's engine to be restarted within a certain time-frame.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6343317", "title": "Remote controlled weapon station", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 641, "text": "A remote controlled weapon station (RCWS), or remote weapon station (RWS), also known as a remote weapon system, (RWS) is a remotely operated weaponized system often equipped with fire-control system for light and medium-caliber weapons which can be installed on ground combat vehicle or sea- and air-based combat platforms. Such equipment is used on modern military vehicles, as it allows a gunner to remain in the relative protection of the vehicle. It may also be retrofitted onto existing vehicles, for example, the CROWS system is being fitted to American Humvees and the Thales SWARM for Bushmaster IMVs of the Royal Netherlands Army.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23438548", "title": "Remote starter", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 881, "text": "A remote starter is a radio controlled device, which is installed in a vehicle by the factory or an aftermarket installer to preheat or cool the vehicle before the owner gets into it. Once activated, by pushing a button on a special key chain remote, it starts the vehicle automatically for a predetermined time. Different models have keyless entry as well. Most newer vehicles need some kind of bypass module to bypass the factory anti-theft system, so the vehicle can be started without the ignition key in the ignition, this is bypassed only to start the vehicle, which after it is running returns to its original state. For cars with manual transmission additional safety features may need to be added to prevent the car from starting while it's parked in gear. Having a remote starter installed in a vehicle will usually not void the factory warranty when installed properly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27945098", "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)", "section": "Section::::Progressive Era (1890–1919).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 460, "text": "A remote control is an electronic device used to operate any machine, such as a television, remotely. Many of these remotes communicate to their respective devices through infrared signals and radio control. In Madison Square Garden, at the Electrical Exhibition, Nikola Tesla gave the first demonstration of a boat propelling in water, controlled by his remote control which he designed using radio signals. Tesla received a patent for his invention in 1898.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2253116", "title": "Unmanned ground vehicle", "section": "Section::::Design.:Control systems.:Remote operated.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 324, "text": "A remote-operated UGV is a vehicle that is controlled by a human operator via interface. All actions are determined by the operator based upon either direct visual observation or remote use of sensors such as digital video cameras. A basic example of the principles of remote operation would be a remote controlled toy car.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " The most obvious answer is the election of 1800, but the election on 1796 had some impact on the 12th Amendment as well . The way the constitution was originally structured, electors from each state had 2 votes each with no distinction for president and vice president. It was also the case that many states decided to allot proportional votes (Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina). \n\n The 1796 election between Thomas Jefferson & John Adams was the first contested election as it was the 1st that Washington wasn't running in. The election was pretty nasty even by today's standards with party papers for the Federalists accusing Jefferson of being an anarchist and atheist and Republican papers charging John Adams with having monarchist sentiments and eyeing the creation of a \"throne\" which his son could inherit. In the end Adams won the electoral college vote with 71 votes to Jefferson's 68. Federalist electors didn't coordinate their \"second\" votes and split their votes regionally so that Thomas Pinckney (southerner) received 59 votes and Oliver Ellsworth (northerner) received 11. If the Federalists had voted in a block, they would've sent 2 Federalists to the White House. Instead the mix-up allowed Jefferson to finish second and sent him to D.C. to work in the cabinet of a president he had just accused of wanting to destroy the Constitution (Imaging HRC as Trump's VP, it wouldn't be pretty). In the end, Jefferson was relegated to watching over the Senate in what he described as pretty monotonous task (he did oversee a rather unimpressive Andrew Jackson fill an interim Senate term). Jefferson spent his term under the radar and wasn’t serving any advisory roles in the Adam's cabinet. He also played a role in drafting the KY & VA resolutions which sought to directly undermine the Adams supported Alien & Sedition Acts. \n\n In 1800 the same cast of characters ran for the presidency, but this time 2 things had changed: Electors became more disciplined in voting the party preference for President and Veep, and 2 states (NY & VA) independently decided to no longer give proportional electoral college votes. With Aaron Burr's open campaigning (which many saw as unseemly) the Republicans won New York and won the election. Republican electors were too disciplined though and Jefferson and Burr tied with 73 votes each (The Federalist had actually coordinated their votes and allotted Pinckney one less vote than Adams). Burr, being the scoundrel that he was, didn't concede the presidency to Jefferson and, as per the Constitution, the House had to decide the election. This led to 35 separate votes in which Jefferson and Burr kept tying. Eventually on the 36th vote Jefferson was selected as Pres and Burr and VP. Hamilton convinced some Federalists that Jefferson was the least bad option for president-he would undo Federalist policy, but he was at least a known quantity unlike Burr who just seemed power hungry. The whole Hamilton-Burr conflict escalated pretty quickly after that. \n\n So after 2 contested (I mean in the sense that Washington wasn't the unanimous choice) elections it was pretty obvious that no one foresaw how nasty party politics was going to get in 1787 when the Constitution was drafted. So, the 12th amendment stipulated that electors still had 2 votes, but they needed to be marked for President and then Vice-President. The way the text reads it may seem like the intent was to have a separate election for Veep, but it was really about allowing electors to vote for the party ticket.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "67339", "title": "Government of Argentina", "section": "Section::::Executive Branch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 740, "text": "The President and the Vice President are elected through universal suffrage by the nation considered as a whole. The Constitutional reform of 1994 introduced a \"two-round system\" by which the winning President-Vice President ticket has to receive either more than 45% of the overall valid votes, or at least 40% of it and a 10% lead over the runner-up. In any other case, the two leading tickets get to face a second round whose victor will be decided by a simple majority. This mechanism was not necessary in the 1995 election, when it could have first come into use, nor in the 1999 election, nor in the last two presidential elections, occurred in 2007 and 2011. However, it was instrumental in the selection of Néstor Kirchner in 2003.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "85533", "title": "United States Electoral College", "section": "Section::::Modern mechanics.:Contingencies.:Contingent vice presidential election by Senate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 432, "text": "The only time the Senate chose the vice president was in 1837. In that instance, the Senate adopted an alphabetical roll call and voting aloud. The rules further stated, \"[I]f a majority of the number of senators shall vote for either the said Richard M. Johnson or Francis Granger, he shall be declared by the presiding officer of the Senate constitutionally elected Vice President of the United States\"; the Senate chose Johnson.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31664", "title": "Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 548, "text": "Selecting the Vice President was a simpler process. Whichever candidate received the second greatest number of votes became Vice President. The Vice President, unlike the President, was not required to receive votes from a majority of the electors. In the event of a tie for second place, the Senate would choose who would be Vice President from those tied, with each Senator casting one vote. It was not specified in the Constitution whether the sitting Vice President could cast a tie-breaking vote for Vice President under the original formula.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "216817", "title": "Running mate", "section": "Section::::In United States politics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 778, "text": "The practice of running candidates for president and vice president together evolved in the nineteenth century. Originally, electors cast votes for two candidates on the same ballot for president, and whoever took second place in the tabulation became vice president. Starting in 1804, the president and vice president were elected on separate ballots as specified in the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution which was adopted in that year. As more and more states subsequently began to choose their electors by popular election instead of appointment (South Carolina being the last state to change, in 1860), candidates began to realize they could run together as a team for president and vice president instead of running completely separately for each office.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40449", "title": "1788–89 United States presidential election", "section": "Section::::General election.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 1110, "text": "Uncertain was the choice for the vice presidency, which contained no definite job description beyond being the President's designated successor while presiding over the Senate. The Constitution stipulated that the position would be awarded to the runner-up in the Presidential election. Because Washington was from Virginia, then the largest state, many assumed that electors would choose a vice president from a northern state. However, the stipulation that the President and Vice-President must be from different states dates only to the Twelfth Amendment of 1804. In an August 1788 letter, U.S. Minister to France Thomas Jefferson wrote that he considered John Adams and John Hancock, both from Massachusetts, to be the top contenders. Jefferson suggested John Jay, John Rutledge, and Virginian James Madison as other possible candidates. Adams received 34 electoral votes, one short of a majority - because the Constitution did not require an outright majority in the Electoral College prior to ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to elect a runner-up as Vice President, Adams was elected to that post. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13150787", "title": "List of Vice Presidents of the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 589, "text": "There have been 48 vice presidents of the United States since the office came into existence in 1789. Originally, the vice president was the person who received the second most votes for president in the Electoral College. However, in the election of 1800 a tie in the electoral college between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr led to the selection of the president by the House of Representatives. To prevent such an event from happening again, the Twelfth Amendment was added to the Constitution, creating the current system where electors cast a separate ballot for the vice presidency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32759", "title": "Vice President of the United States", "section": "Section::::Selection process.:Nominating process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 738, "text": "The vice presidential candidate might also be chosen on the basis of traits the presidential candidate is perceived to lack, or on the basis of name recognition. To foster party unity, popular runners-up in the presidential nomination process are commonly considered. While this selection process may enhance the chances of success for a national ticket, in the past it often insured that the vice presidential nominee represented regions, constituencies, or ideologies at odds with those of the presidential candidate. As a result, vice presidents were often excluded from the policy-making process of the new administration. Many times their relationships with the president and his staff were aloof, non-existent, or even adversarial.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Thermionic emission is the ability of some materials to emit electrons more readily when heated. Electronic vacuum tubes (valves) use heated cathodes to take advantage of the effect. \n\nThe thermoelectric effect happens when two different metals are joined. Temperature difference can be converted to electric current and vice versa.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4306334", "title": "Electrocaloric effect", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 431, "text": "The electrocaloric effect is a phenomenon in which a material shows a reversible temperature change under an applied electric field. It is often considered to be the physical inverse of the pyroelectric effect. It should not be confused with the Thermoelectric effect (specifically, the Peltier effect), in which a temperature difference occurs when a current is driven through an electric junction with two dissimilar conductors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2003406", "title": "Photovoltaic effect", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 470, "text": "Besides the direct excitation of free electrons, a photovoltaic effect can also arise simply due to the heating caused by absorption of the light. The heating leads to increased temperature of the semiconductor material, which is accompanied by temperature gradients. These thermal gradients in turn may generate a voltage through the Seebeck effect. Whether direct excitation or thermal effects dominate the photovoltaic effect will depend on many material parameters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "448321", "title": "Thermoelectric effect", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 492, "text": "The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice versa via a thermocouple. A thermoelectric device creates voltage when there is a different temperature on each side. Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, heat is transferred from one side to the other, creating a temperature difference. At the atomic scale, an applied temperature gradient causes charge carriers in the material to diffuse from the hot side to the cold side.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "215226", "title": "Thermionic emission", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 468, "text": "The term \"thermionic emission\" is now also used to refer to any thermally-excited charge emission process, even when the charge is emitted from one solid-state region into another. This process is crucially important in the operation of a variety of electronic devices and can be used for electricity generation (such as thermionic converters and electrodynamic tethers) or cooling. The magnitude of the charge flow increases dramatically with increasing temperature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "476993", "title": "Thermoelectric materials", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 763, "text": "The \"thermoelectric effect\" refers to phenomena by which either a temperature difference creates an electric potential or an electric potential creates a temperature difference. These phenomena are known more specifically as the Seebeck effect (converting temperature to current), Peltier effect (converting current to temperature), and Thomson effect (conductor heating/cooling). While all materials have a nonzero thermoelectric effect, in most materials it is too small to be useful. However, low-cost materials that have a sufficiently strong thermoelectric effect (and other required properties) could be used in applications including power generation and refrigeration. A commonly used thermoelectric material in such applications is bismuth telluride ().\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "791863", "title": "Seebeck coefficient", "section": "Section::::Physical factors that determine the Seebeck coefficient.:Charge carrier diffusion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 1263, "text": "For the thermoelectric effect, now, consider the case of uniform voltage (uniform chemical potential) with a temperature gradient. In this case, at the hotter side of the material there is more variation in the energies of the charge carriers, compared to the colder side. This means that high energy levels have a higher carrier occupation per state on the hotter side, but also the hotter side has a \"lower\" occupation per state at lower energy levels. As before, the high-energy carriers diffuse away from the hot end, and produce entropy by drifting towards the cold end of the device. However, there is a competing process: at the same time low-energy carriers are drawn back towards the hot end of the device. Though these processes both generate entropy, they work against each other in terms of charge current, and so a net current only occurs if one of these drifts is stronger than the other. The net current is given by formula_25, where (as shown below) the thermoelectric coefficient formula_26 depends literally on how conductive high-energy carriers are, compared to low-energy carriers. The distinction may be due to a difference in rate of scattering, a difference in speeds, a difference in density of states, or a combination of these effects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1406812", "title": "Energy harvesting", "section": "Section::::Devices.:Pyroelectric.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 576, "text": "The pyroelectric effect converts a temperature change into electric current or voltage. It is analogous to the piezoelectric effect, which is another type of ferroelectric behavior. Pyroelectricity requires time-varying inputs and suffers from small power outputs in energy harvesting applications due to its low operating frequencies. However, one key advantage of pyroelectrics over thermoelectrics is that many pyroelectric materials are stable up to 1200 ⁰C or higher, enabling energy harvesting from high temperature sources and thus increasing thermodynamic efficiency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because the climate is complicated and modeling it is hard and expensive. Being sort of right is good enough and spending the money to be right slightly more often (meteorologists aren't actually that bad at predicting the weather) isn't worthwhile for, say, a news station.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "357826", "title": "Joseph Needham", "section": "Section::::Career.:The Needham Question.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 260, "text": "\"Why did modern science, the mathematization of hypotheses about Nature, with all its implications for advanced technology, take its meteoric rise only in the West at the time of Galileo [but] had not developed in Chinese civilisation or Indian civilisation?\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11983318", "title": "Branches of science", "section": "Section::::Natural/Pure Science.:Physical science.:Earth science.:Meteorology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 431, "text": "Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19904", "title": "Meteorology", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 996, "text": "Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century. The 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data. It was not until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and more particularly, the development of the computer, allowing for the automated solution of a great many equations that model the weather, in the latter half of the 20th century that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved. An important domain of weather forecasting is marine weather forecasting as it relates to maritime and coastal safety, in which weather effects also include atmospheric interactions with large bodies of water. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55432762", "title": "Berlin scientific balloon flights", "section": "Section::::Background.:Meteorology in the 1880s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 488, "text": "In the course of the 19th century, meteorology was no longer solely an observational and descriptive science. On the basis of classical physics, especially particle and continuum mechanics and mechanical thermodynamics, it was developed into a science of measurement and calculation, to a physics of the atmosphere. The basics of atmospheric thermodynamics were already worked out in the 1880s, but the description of the dynamics was through simple approaches such as Buys Ballot's Law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18963870", "title": "Literature", "section": "Section::::Prose.:Natural science.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 578, "text": "As advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences, the \"literary\" nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries. Now, science appears mostly in journals. Scientific works of Aristotle, Copernicus, and Newton still exhibit great value, but since the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific instruction. Yet, they remain too technical to sit well in most programs of literary study. Outside of \"history of science\" programs, students rarely read such works.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23263", "title": "Physical geography", "section": "Section::::Sub-branches.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 430, "text": "BULLET::::- Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and short term forecasting (in contrast with climatology). Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the eighteenth century. Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22894949", "title": "Heaven and Earth (book)", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 484, "text": "The book is critical of political efforts to address climate change and argues that extreme environmental changes are inevitable and unavoidable. Meteorologists have a huge amount to gain from climate change research, the book claims, and they have narrowed the climate change debate to the atmosphere, whereas the truth is more complex. Money would be better directed to dealing with problems as they occur rather than making expensive and futile attempts to prevent climate change.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "That extension to the Northwest is the modern Gansu Corridor and some areas along the Tarim Basin. These areas were strategically important because they controlled key overland trade routes with India, Central Asia, and the Middle East -- the proverbial Silk Road. This area was important for commerce, but also strategically because it helped encircle and contain the Tibetan Empire which at that time controlled nearly the entirely of what is today Qinghai Province.\n\nThe actual amount of functional control that the central government in Chang'an was able to exert over their border territorries varied considerably over time, especially in the later Tang when the area was repeatedly menaced by both Tibetan and Muslim military incursions, and an unstable central government devolved ever-greater powers on their regional military governors. Which is one of the reasons that contemporary historical atlases vary so much on their depiction of Tang-Chinese \"ownership\" of this area.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The western borders \"jut out\" because the Tang dynasty defeated the Western Turks and the city-states of the Tarim Basin (what is now southern Xinjiang). Under Emperor Taizong, the Tang pursued a divide-and-conquer policy that they called *yi yi zhi yi* (\"using barbarians to control barbarians\"). They destabilized the Western Turkic confederation by recognizing competing claimants such as Isbara yabghu Qaghan in 641 and I-p'i shih-kuei in 642 and encouraging infighting between tribes among the Western Turks. \n\nAs the Western Turkic empire declined, the Tang dynasty was able to expand its control over the oasis kingdoms of the Tarim Basin. The oasis kingdoms were important to the Tang because Silk Road merchants traveled through these oases from Persia, Central Asia, and the Byzantine empire in order to enter China. Karakhoja was annexed by the Tang in 640, Karashahr in 644, and Kucha in 648. Additionally, Kashgar and Khotan submitted to Tang rule in 632 and Yarkand in 635. By 649, Kucha was established as the seat of Anxi-protectorate general. \n\nChinese military garrisons were stationed in Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, and Karashahr to supervise Tang control of the Tarim Basin. In 657, Chinese forces and their Uyghur allies defeated and captured the last qaghan of the Western Turks, ending the confederation. With the collapse of the Western Turkic confederation, their territory came under Tang suzerainty. The Tang emperor installed puppet rulers (Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen) to exert their control. \n\nIn the 7th century, the oasis kingdoms ping-ponged between Chinese and Tibetan rule. The Tang dynasty became weakened by a revolt led by a former Tang general, An Lushan. The Tibetan Empire annexed the oasis kingdoms of the Tarim Basin as the Tang withdrew from Central Asia.\n\nSources:\n\n*The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589-906 AD, Part 1* and Jonathan Karam Skaff's *Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15445108", "title": "Basmyl", "section": "Section::::History.:Türkic-Türgesh period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1016, "text": "Because Chinese Tang forces in the \"Western Territories\" were negligible, to resist the restoration of the Türkic Kaganate, the Tang government had to accede to the rise of Turgesh, a nation descendent from Abars and Mukri, under the leadership of an \"Uchjile\". In effect, the territory captured by Tang by 659 was divided between the Chinese, the Türkic Kaganate, and Türgeshes, a people who did not belong to the Tiele, Chuy, or Türkut group, but are first known as one of the five Dulu tribes. The Türgeshes numbered 5–700,000, and although this represented a large state for the time, they were under pressure from Arabs from the south. Given the complexity of the situation, Tang diplomacy succeeded in drawing the Basmyls into an anti-Türkic alliance that already included the Kidans, Tatabs, and a 300,000 strong Tang expeditionary army. This involved the Basmyls into one of the most exciting events of the century, and bestowed on them a place in the most celebrated Türkic compositions of the 8th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "435828", "title": "Proto-Mongols", "section": "Section::::Tang dynasty and Uyghur Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 434, "text": "For half a century, the Tang retained control of Central Asia and Mongolia and parts of Inner Asia. Both sides of the Great Wall came under Tang rule. During this period, the Tang expanded Chinese control into the Oxus Valley. At the same time, their allies, the Uyghurs, conquered much of western and northern Mongolia until, by the middle of the 8th century, the Uyghur seminomadic empire extended from Lake Balkash to Lake Baykal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34476548", "title": "History of the Great Wall of China", "section": "Section::::Tang dynasty (618–907).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 243, "text": "Frontier policy under the Tang dynasty reversed the wall-building activities of most previous dynasties that had occupied northern China since the third century BC, and no extensive wall building took place for the next several hundred years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6750583", "title": "History of Xinjiang", "section": "Section::::Local rule and Turkic expansion (3th-12th c.).:Tang, Turks, Tibet, and Arabs (7th-8th c.).:Tibetan expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 1153, "text": "Tang rule over Xinjiang and Central Asia was threatened by Tibetan expansion into the Southern Tarim. After defeating the Tang in 670, the Tang retreated eastwards \"and was in full flight from its empire in Central Asia.\" The Tibetans subjugated Kashgar in 676-678 and retained possession until 693, when China regained control of southern Xinjiang, and retained it for the next fifty years, though under constant threat from Tibetan and Turkic forces. The Tang were not able to intervere beyond the Pamir Mountains, where Arab forces were moving into Bactria, Ferghana and Soghdiana in the early 8th century, and had no direct influence on the fights bteween Turks, Tibetans and Arabs for control over Central Asia. Tang outposts were repeatedly attacked by Tibetans and the Türgesh, and in 736 Tibet conquered the Pamir regio. In 744 the Tang defeated the Türgesh, and drove the Tibetans out of Pamir. A few years later, war between Ferghana and Tashkent, with the Han supporting Fergahna, resulted in Arab intervention, and in the Battle of Talas (751) the Tang lost to the Abbasid Caliphate, which did not proceed to Xinjiang further into Xinjiang.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34476548", "title": "History of the Great Wall of China", "section": "Section::::Conquest dynasties (907-1368).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 412, "text": "After the Tang dynasty ended in 907, the northern frontier area remained out of Han Chinese hands until the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368. During this period, non-Han \"conquest dynasties\" ruled the north: the Khitan Liao dynasty (9071125) and the succeeding Jurchen Jin dynasty (11151234) in the east and the Tangut Western Xia (10381227) in the west, all of which had built walls against the north.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39794161", "title": "Tang campaigns against the Western Turks", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 505, "text": "The areas controlled by Tang China came under the dynasty's cultural influences and the Turkic influence of the ethnically Turkic Tang soldiers stationed in the region. Indo-European prevalence in Central Asia declined as the expeditions accelerated Turkic migration into what is now Xinjiang. By the end of the 657 campaign, the Tang had reached its largest extent. The Turks, Tibetans, Muslim Arabs and the Tang competed for control over Central Asia until the collapse of the Tang in the 10th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39726810", "title": "Conquest of the Western Turks", "section": "Section::::Historical significance.:Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 710, "text": "At its maximum extent, Tang expansion brought China into direct contact with the rising Umayyad Caliphate. China's western borders reached the eastern frontier of the Caliphate. Following the Arab defeat of Sassanid Persia in 651, the Caliphate began its expansion into Central Asia, competing with the Tang's sphere of influence in the region. Chinese and Islamic troops finally clashed at the Battle of Aksu in 717 and the Battle of Talas in 751. Though victorious in 717, the Chinese lost against the Arabs, now under Abbasid rule, and the Arab army captured Chinese papermaking craftsmen. An Arabic record of the conflict claims that the battle led to the introduction of papermaking to the Islamic world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In the generations that followed The Black Death, did any particularly interesting patterns of government or economics pop up?\n\nWith such a massive number of people dying, I can't help but think that the collective trauma might have had some far-reaching effects", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This weekend we saw young Americans in cities all over the country ignore the risk and go out to bars, restaurants, and nightclubs. Young adults were the highest-risk group during the Spanish Flu. Was it difficult to get them to respect quarantine guidelines back then, despite the risk?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This all got me very interested in how WWII forced adherents of laisez-faire economics to drastically intervene in the domestic sphere.\nWhat are some good books about the war economy?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What do we know about viruses and vaccines now (or by 2000, I suppose, per the 20-year rule) that we didn’t know during the Spanish Flu outbreak? How much have we learned?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Has the flu always been a winter annoyance? If not, why does it spread so much nowadays? I know that it's existed for millenia but I can't find many sources on it being a \"yearly\" issue prior to the 1800s.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How did nation states coordinate their response to the Spanish flu in 1918? Did citizens know about the pandemic through news reporting or government announcements? Were the most afflicted areas poorly prepared or did they not properly understand the threat?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What were state responses to previous pandemics like? I was specifically thinking of the 1665 outbreak of bubonic plague in England but am curious if any large scale intervention efforts existed in the past, considering people on the whole were less scientifically literate.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This current pandemic is falling on a presidential election year in the United States. How did the 1918-1920 flu pandemic affect the 1920 presidential election?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How do historians determine that past epidemics and plagues such as the plague of Athens or the Antonine Plague are diseases known presently to us instead of previously unknown novel diseases (from isolated populations or animal species) that died out?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Great idea, I would like to know the history of the cold, do we know its origins and when it became the perrenial seasonal infection? Has the greater development of transport heightened its strength? \n\nI also ant to plug a previous AskHistorians podcast episode about the outbreak of Plauge in Marseille and thelocal and national response.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Did people hoarding household supplies (e.g. toilet paper), food, or other items on the eve of a big scare (biological or otherwise) have a substantial impact on a country's economy? I'm interested mainly in 20th century examples, but also from any earlier time in the modern era.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Spanish Flu is named Spanish Flu because they apparently didn´t censor their media as heavily on it as other nations did. If that is the case, why wasn´t it censored as heavily as in other affected nations?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I have a history meme that I'd like to get verified if any medieval scholars happen to know: \nI heard a Pope lit holy fires around the Vatican to prevent the spread of the plague. The meme part goes that fleas are attracted to fire (thermal stimuli) and jumped in - thus saving the Vatican.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a lot of talk about ways that the COVID-19 outbreak is likely to change American society forever. What lasting societal changes came about in America as a result of the 1918 Spanish Flu pandemic?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Was a memorial ever dedicated for victims of the 1918 influenza outbreak? Or any other modern pandemic?\n\nI can think of war memorials, memorials for accidents, and memorials of natural disasters, but can't think of any for diseases.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What are some good books on the overall history of pandemics, comparing how deadly they were, how they were treated, how they were rationalized, the effects of each pandemic on various societies, etc?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why do so many diseases throughout history appear to originate in China? Is it a function of their population density? The Silk Road trade? Did some of them actually originate elsewhere but the nearest known place the Europeans could trace it back to was China?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When the Bubonic Plague was afflicting Europe, were there governmental efforts to suppress people who were selling fake cures?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How big of a role did the Plague of Athens play in the Peloponnesian War? I don't know much about the Plague of Athens, but I read somewhere that it ended up killing roughly 25% of the city's population. Was the plague enough to give the Spartans a considerable enough advantage?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I work in a university that (as of Monday) is stopping lectures because of the Coronavirus.\nThe most recent example that I could find of a similar action was when Cambridge closed for the 1665 outbreak of plague (which famously sent Newton out into the countryside where he got bopped on the head by an apple, and also invented calculus because he was bored).\n\nHave there been any other examples since then of universities (especially in Britain) closing because of an outbreak of disease?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "With retail and gatherings shutting down, what can we expect after the pandemic is over? Historically, did people adjust to the new normal (whatever that was) or was there a boom of festivals, gatherings, and new commerce once the pandemic was over?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why is it that when it comes to the Spanish Flu, there seems to be a dearth of media representation? I cannot think of a film or book that depicts characters having to live through it, whereas I can number off plenty depicting World War I and the Roaring Twenties in general. Was it just not as collectively well remembered?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In previous pandemics such as the plague of 1348, without medical attention and the false beliefs of the people, how were the diseases stopped before everyone was dead?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Like we are making memes about the Covid 19 pandemic, Is there any evidence of jokes/humour being made about a past pandemic (eg. Spanish flu or the plague)?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "288153", "title": "The Stand", "section": "Section::::Plot.:\"Captain Trips\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 764, "text": "As the pandemic intensifies it gains many names, \"Captain Trips\" and the superflu being the most used. A multi-faceted narrative—told partly from the perspective of primary characters—outlines the total breakdown and destruction of society through widespread violence; the failure of martial law to contain the outbreak; the military's increasingly violent efforts to censor information; the rapid collapse of society; the deliberate exposure of the virus in the Soviet Union and China to guarantee their destruction as well and, finally, the near-extinction of humanity. The emotional toll is also dealt with, as the few survivors must care for their families and friends, dealing with confusion and grief as virtually everyone they know succumbs to the disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44607010", "title": "Pandemic (novel)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 274, "text": "Pandemic is a 2014 science fiction thriller novel by Scott Sigler and the final novel in the \"Infected\" trilogy. The book was released in hardback, e-book, and audiobook on January 21, 2014 through Crown Publishing and is set several years after the events in \"Contagious\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9455937", "title": "Empty Cities of the Full Moon", "section": "Section::::Plot summary.:Year 2065 (post-human extinction).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 783, "text": "The pandemic has resulted in the near-extinction of humanity. Some of the survivors were fully resistant to the pandemic and have remained human, called Oldfolk or Urfolk, and some were partially resistant have become Werfolk having some of the madness, drumming, dancing, and shape shifting of the pandemic. Over the past 30 years Cameron Spires has perfected a longevity treatment, created a dolphin-human hybrid species called the Merfolk, kept the islands strictly isolated from the Werfolk, prevented further research into the pandemic and maintained himself as the unquestioned 'founder-ruler'. This has driven all of the major characters, except Simon Lingham, back to the mainland in search of answers. Simon Lingham, leaves for the same reasons soon after the story begins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21221594", "title": "Global catastrophic risk", "section": "Section::::Potential sources of risk.:Non-anthropogenic.:Global pandemic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 384, "text": "Numerous historical examples of pandemics had a devastating effect on a large number of people. The present, unprecedented scale and speed of human movement make it more difficult than ever to contain an epidemic through local quarantines, and other sources of uncertainty and the evolving nature of the risk means natural pandemics may pose a realistic threat to human civilization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1543486", "title": "Third plague pandemic", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 439, "text": "Third Pandemic is the designation of a major bubonic plague pandemic that began in Yunnan province in China in 1855. This episode of bubonic plague spread to all inhabited continents, and ultimately more than 12 million people died in India and China, with about 10 million killed in India alone. According to the World Health Organization, the pandemic was considered active until 1960, when worldwide casualties dropped to 200 per year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1516915", "title": "Swine influenza", "section": "Section::::History.:H1N1 virus pandemic history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 239, "text": "Finally, the last step in S-OIV history was in 2009, when the virus H1N2 co-infected a human host at the same time as the Euroasiatic H1N1 swine strain. This led to the emergence of a new human H1N1 strain, which caused the 2009 pandemic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10326", "title": "Human evolution", "section": "Section::::Evolution of genus \"Homo\".:\"H. sapiens\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 144, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 144, "end_character": 353, "text": "The Toba catastrophe theory, which postulates a population bottleneck for \"H. sapiens\" about 70,000 years ago, was controversial from its first proposal in the 1990s and by the 2010s had very little support. Distinctive human genetic variability has arisen as the result of the founder effect, by archaic admixture and by recent evolutionary pressures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As you'll see in [this article](_URL_0_) there are a number of theories, none of which are confirmed and all of which have problems. \n\nI think as the article states at the end that the most likely answer is that it rhymes with \"nix,\" meaning eliminate or negate. Wouldn't shock me to learn that a bit of rhyming slang just caught on and became popular somewhere, and then ended up in a book/movie and so became popular everywhere. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8389888", "title": "Types of restaurants", "section": "Section::::Origin of categories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1103, "text": "In British English, the term \"restaurant\" almost always means an eating establishment with table service, so the \"sit down\" qualification is not usually necessary. Fast food and takeaway (take-out) outlets with counter service are not normally referred to as restaurants. Outside North America, the terms fast casual dining restaurants, family style, and casual dining are not used and distinctions among different kinds of restaurants are often not the same. In France, for example, some restaurants are called \"bistros\" to indicate a level of casualness or trendiness, though some \"bistros\" are quite formal in the kind of food they serve and clientele they attract. Others are called \"brasseries\", a term which indicates hours of service. \"Brasseries\" may serve food round the clock, whereas \"restaurants\" usually only serve at set intervals during the day. In Sweden, restaurants of many kinds are called \"restauranger\", but restaurants attached to bars or cafes are sometimes called \"kök\", literally \"kitchens\", and sometimes a bar-restaurant combination is called a \"krog\", in English a \"tavern\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43109809", "title": "List of defunct fast-food restaurant chains", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 409, "text": "This is a list of defunct fast-food chains. A restaurant chain is a set of related restaurants with the same name in many different locations that are either under shared corporate ownership (e.g., McDonald's in the U.S.) or franchising agreements. Typically, the restaurants within a chain are built to a standard format through architectural prototype development and offer a standard menu and/or services.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26953756", "title": "86 (term)", "section": "Section::::Meaning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 284, "text": "The term is part of restaurant slang, heard among restaurant workers in the 1930s, where 86 meant \"we're all out of it.\" Walter Winchell published examples of similar restaurant slang in his newspaper column in 1933, which he presented as part of a \"glossary of soda-fountain lingo\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26953756", "title": "86 (term)", "section": "Section::::Meaning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 419, "text": "According to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, \"86\" is a slang term that is used in the American popular culture as a transitive verb in the food service industry as a term to describe an item no longer being available on the menu. The dictionary suggests the term may be associated with the word \"nix\" (\"no\" or a more general prohibition). \"Nix\" is related to the word \"Niks\", which means \"nothing\" in the Dutch language.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2036409", "title": "Michelin Guide", "section": "Section::::Guides.:Other ratings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 412, "text": "All listed restaurants, regardless of their star or status, also receive a \"fork and spoon\" designation, as a subjective reflection of the overall comfort and quality of the restaurant. Rankings range from one to five: one fork and spoon represents a \"comfortable restaurant\" and five signifies a \"luxurious restaurant\". Forks and spoons colored red designate a restaurant that is considered \"pleasant\" as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57023202", "title": "Table manners in North America", "section": "Section::::Restaurant.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1037, "text": "Many restaurants set the table with a bread plate and water glass at each seat before patrons arrive. The bread plate goes to the left of the plate, and the beverage to the right. To avoid drinking from the wrong glass or taking a bite of your neighbor's bread, use the following trick if you forget which is yours:Touch both your index fingers to your thumbs. On your left, you will see a lowercase \"b\", which stands for the bread plate. On your right is a lowercase \"d\" for Drinks. Dining in North America is widely viewed as a social occasion, rather than simply an opportunity to eat. As such, it is important to show the people dining with you that you respect them and their time enough to put your cell phone away. According to a study done by the Pew Research Center, 38% percent of people think it is acceptable to use cell phones in restaurants, and that number gets even smaller depending on the occasion. 12% of people think it is OK to use cell phones at family dinners, and only 5% think it is appropriate during meetings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57519583", "title": "Formula restaurant", "section": "Section::::Formula retail.:Comparison with chain restaurants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 464, "text": "Some chain restaurants are not considered formula restaurants because the chain does not maintain a formulaic or monolithic character at different locations, or has few enough locations that they are substantially dissimilar to what is commonly considered to be a formula restaurant. In addition, the term \"chain restaurants\" generically describes a business arrangement, whereas formula restaurants describe the aesthetic characteristics and customer experience.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "We sneeze to clear irritants out of our noses. As a multistep process to keep whatever it is out of our lungs.\n\nOur bodies are fallible though, sometimes it overreacts. Like seeing pollen as a dangerous intruder.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is no concrete answer, but the leading theory is that when something irritates the lining of the nose, the brain sends a signal to the lungs to take a large breath and then exhale forcefully. The thought is that since the mucus linings of the nose can be an entryway into the body for infection/disease, if the brain senses something, it would behoove the body to get rid of it immediately.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4176408", "title": "Photic sneeze reflex", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1062, "text": "There is much debate about the true cause and mechanism of the sneezing fits brought about by the photic sneeze reflex. Sneezing occurs in response to irritation in the nasal cavity, which results in an afferent nerve fiber signal propagating through the ophthalmic and maxillary branches of the trigeminal nerve to the trigeminal nerve nuclei in the brainstem. The signal is interpreted in the trigeminal nerve nuclei, and an efferent nerve fiber signal goes to different parts of the body, such as mucous glands and the thoracic diaphragm, thus producing a sneeze. The most obvious difference between a normal sneeze and a photic sneeze is the stimulus: normal sneezes occur due to irritation in the nasal cavity, while the photic sneeze can result from a wide variety of stimuli. Some theories are below. There is also a genetic factor that increases the probability of photic sneeze reflex. The C allele on the rs10427255 SNP is particularly implicated in this although the mechanism is unknown by which this gene increases the probability of this response.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "232411", "title": "Sneeze", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 715, "text": "Sneezing typically occurs when foreign particles or sufficient external stimulants pass through the nasal hairs to reach the nasal mucosa. This triggers the release of histamines, which irritate the nerve cells in the nose, resulting in signals being sent to the brain to initiate the sneeze through the trigeminal nerve network. The brain then relates this initial signal, activates the pharyngeal and tracheal muscles and creates a large opening of the nasal and oral cavities, resulting in a powerful release of air and bioparticles. The powerful nature of a sneeze is attributed to its involvement of numerous organs of the upper body – it is a reflexive response involving the face, throat, and chest muscles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4176408", "title": "Photic sneeze reflex", "section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 292, "text": "The photic sneeze reflex manifests itself in the form of uncontrollable sneezing in response to a stimulus which would not produce a sneeze in people without the trait. The sneezes generally occur in bursts of 1 to 10 sneezes, followed by a refractory period that can be as long as 24 hours.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2992380", "title": "God bless you", "section": "Section::::Origins and legends.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 283, "text": "In Persian culture, sneezing sometimes is called \"sabr =صبر,\" meaning \"to wait or be patient.\" And when trying to do something or go somewhere and suddenly sneezing, one should stop or sit for a few minutes and then restart. By this act the \"bad thing\" passes and one will be saved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "232411", "title": "Sneeze", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Sexuality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 431, "text": "Some people may sneeze during the initial phases of sexual arousal. Doctors suspect that the phenomenon might arise from a case of crossed wires in the autonomic nervous system, which regulates a number of functions in the body, including \"waking up\" the genitals during sexual arousal. The nose, like the genitals, contains erectile tissue. This phenomenon may prepare the vomeronasal organ for increased detection of pheromones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2992380", "title": "God bless you", "section": "Section::::Origins and legends.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 586, "text": "In some cultures, sneezing is seen as a sign of good fortune or God's beneficence. As such, alternative responses to sneezing are the French phrase \"à vos souhaits\" (meaning \"to your wishes\"), the German word \"Gesundheit\" (meaning \"health\") sometimes adopted by English speakers, the Irish word \"sláinte\" (meaning \"good health\"), the Italian \"salute\" (also meaning \"health\"), the Spanish \"salud\" (also meaning \"health\"), the Hebrew \"laBri'ut\" (colloquial) or \"liVriut\" (classic) (both spelled: \"לבריאות\") (meaning \"to health\"), the Arabic \"saha\" (spelled \"صحة\", also meaning \"health\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "232411", "title": "Sneeze", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 520, "text": "The function of sneezing is to expel mucus containing foreign particles or irritants and cleanse the nasal cavity. During a sneeze, the soft palate and palatine uvula depress while the back of the tongue elevates to partially close the passage to the mouth so that air ejected from the lungs may be expelled through the nose. Because the closing of the mouth is partial, a considerable amount of this air is usually also expelled from the mouth. The force and extent of the expulsion of the air through the nose varies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Mechanism of delivery < > information\n\nTake all the methods of communication we have. We can deliver messages verbally, written down, on the computer over the wire. The mechanism of delivery is different but the information is the same.\n\nThe reverse is true too. Take how a computer knows if to add or subtract a number in it's registers. The mechanism is the same, a low voltage = 0 a high voltage = 1, however it has a set of gates that says if it's 0101 add the next two numbers, versus 0111 subtract the next two numbers.\n\nThe human brain has a base set functions, these are what handle the information sent and received similar to the various gated functions in a cpu. It doesn't matter what the mechanism is, the information is what matters.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The timing of the nerve impluses can vary, as well as their path. Although each neuron usually has only one axon (\"outgoing\" path), it can have many different dendrites (\"incoming\" path), and respond differently depending on where the signal it is recieving came from.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the same way that when your doorbell rings you go to the front door, and when you phone rings, you pick up the phone, even though both of them use electricity to make the ringing happen.\n\nWhich is to say that even though the physiological mechanisms are the same, their pathways in the nervous system are not the same (so the brain can know where the signals came from) and their connections to various parts of the brain are not the same (so the brain can process them differently).\n\nEdit: typo", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21944", "title": "Nervous system", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 747, "text": "At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called hormones into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this \"broadcast\" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides \"point-to-point\" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21435", "title": "Nerve", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 425, "text": "A nerve conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (as nerve impulses known as action potentials) carried by the individual neurons that make up the nerve. These impulses are extremely fast, with some myelinated neurons conducting at speeds up to 120 m/s. The impulses travel from one neuron to another by crossing a synapse, the message is converted from electrical to chemical and then back to electrical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46425008", "title": "Outline of the human brain", "section": "Section::::Structure of the human brain.:Visible anatomy.:Cranial nerves.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 684, "text": "BULLET::::- Many neurons connect to the brain on one end, with the other end connected to another neuron, with the outside (the brain) junction located within the spinal column. Other neurons bundles which are labeled cranial nerves, connect to the brain on one end, and to locations outside the brain on the other, without having a junction inside the spinal column. Cranial nerves are actually huge collections of vast numbers of individual neurons that have found common routes though the body. They branch several times into smaller bundles which eventually reach many endpoints. With one exception, the optic nerve, they are all considered part of the peripheral nervous system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21120", "title": "Neuron", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 278, "text": "Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21944", "title": "Nervous system", "section": "Section::::Structure.:Cells.:Neurons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 653, "text": "The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell—the neuron (sometimes called \"neurone\" or \"nerve cell\"). Neurons can be distinguished from other cells in a number of ways, but their most fundamental property is that they communicate with other cells via synapses, which are membrane-to-membrane junctions containing molecular machinery that allows rapid transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical. Many types of neuron possess an axon, a protoplasmic protrusion that can extend to distant parts of the body and make thousands of synaptic contacts; axons typically extend throughout the body in bundles called nerves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "396000", "title": "Somatic nervous system", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 649, "text": "The basic route of nerve signals within the efferent somatic nervous system involves a sequence that begins in the upper cell bodies of motor neurons (upper motor neurons) within the precentral gyrus (which approximates the primary motor cortex). Stimuli from the precentral gyrus are transmitted from upper motor neurons and down the corticospinal tract, via axons to control skeletal (voluntary) muscles. These stimuli are conveyed from upper motor neurons through the ventral horn of the spinal cord, and across synapses to be received by the sensory receptors of alpha motor neurons (large lower motor neurons) of the brainstem and spinal cord.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8886367", "title": "Population spike", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 367, "text": "In some areas of the brain, such as the hippocampus, neurons are arranged in such a way that they all receive synaptic inputs in the same area. Because these neurons are in the same orientation, the extracellular signals from the generation of action potentials don't cancel out, but rather add up to give a signal that can easily be recorded with a field electrode.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Is it possible that you and I see the same colors differently?](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The thing you're asking about has a name, [qualia](_URL_0_), which is the experience of consciousness. Such as, what do you perceive when your eye looks at something blue, or what does spinach taste like. This tends to be difficult to study, but here is a good example. The reason why kids tend to dislike vegetables is because they're more sensitive to compounds that are bitter, as we age, we lose some of our sensitivity to bitter. This is an example in the change in qualia over time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Physically, the same wavelengths of light will excite the same photoreceptors in the eye, but people have varying concentrations and distributions of these photoreceptors. Emotional repsonses to colors also have variations between people. [source](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25921922", "title": "Impossible color", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 571, "text": "BULLET::::2. Colors that cannot be seen directly from any combination of retina signal output from one place in one eye, but can be generated in the brain's visual cortex by mixing color signals from the two eyes, or from more than one part of the same eye. Examples of these colors are yellowish-blue and reddish-green. Those colors that appear to be similar to, for example, both red and green, or to both yellow and blue. (This does not mean the result of mixing paints of those two colors in painting, or the result of mixing lights of those two colors on a screen.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "302812", "title": "Color vision", "section": "Section::::Wavelength and hue detection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 623, "text": "The characteristic colors are, from long to short wavelengths (and, correspondingly, from low to high frequency), red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Sufficient differences in wavelength cause a difference in the perceived hue; the just-noticeable difference in wavelength varies from about 1 nm in the blue-green and yellow wavelengths, to 10 nm and more in the longer red and shorter blue wavelengths. Although the human eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues, when those pure spectral colors are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of distinguishable chromaticities can be quite high.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "64656", "title": "Hue", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 220, "text": "Usually, colors with the same hue are distinguished with adjectives referring to their lightness or colorfulness, such as with \"light blue\", \"pastel blue\", \"vivid blue\". Exceptions include brown, which is a dark orange.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33958443", "title": "Analogous colors", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 257, "text": "Analogous colors are groups of three colors that are next to each other on the color wheel, sharing a common color, with one being the dominant color, which tends to be a primary or secondary color, and a tertiary. Red, orange, and red-orange are examples.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "944047", "title": "Color printing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 617, "text": "or monochrome printing). Any natural scene or color photograph can be optically and physiologically dissected into three primary colors, red, green and blue, roughly equal amounts of which give rise to the perception of white, and different proportions of which give rise to the visual sensations of all other colors. The additive combination of any two primary colors in roughly equal proportion gives rise to the perception of a secondary color. For example, red and green yields yellow, red and blue yields magenta (a purple hue), and green and blue yield cyan (a turquoise hue). Only yellow is counter-intuitive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53315", "title": "Ewald Hering", "section": "Section::::Research.:Color theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 340, "text": "Young proposed that color vision is based on three primary colors: red, green, and blue. Maxwell demonstrated that any color can be matched by a mixture of three primary colors. This was interpreted by Helmholtz as proof that humans perceive colors through three types of receptors, while white and black would reflect the amount of light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2116016", "title": "CIE 1931 color space", "section": "Section::::CIE xy chromaticity diagram and the CIE xyY color space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 484, "text": "Since the human eye has three types of color sensors that respond to different ranges of wavelengths, a full plot of all visible colors is a three-dimensional figure. However, the concept of color can be divided into two parts: brightness and chromaticity. For example, the color white is a bright color, while the color grey is considered to be a less bright version of that same white. In other words, the chromaticity of white and grey are the same while their brightness differs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It could be enough liquid explosive to blow a hole in a plane cabin, but blowing it up in a huge airport in a trashcan would be fairly harmless. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Honestly, you're going to have a hard time finding logic in most of the TSA's guidelines. It's more about security theater than actual security.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBasically, the thought is that if people -feel- safe and secure, they'll act safe and secure. And if people -think- security is high, they won't try to bypass it. It's not completely useless, but it's also not based in, you know. Facts.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From what I know most liquid explosives require very careful mixing before they actually function as such, so if you just dump it all into a trash can chances are nothing bad will happen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I believe the answer is in your question. Airport security is well aware that the liquids are not actually dangerous.\n\nImagine, if you will, that they stop someone and find that the passenger is carrying some TNT, a grenade, and a bottle that reeks of gasoline. It is simply impossible to imagine that they would drop these items into a bin and continue working next to that bin for hours. Naturally, they would demand that the items be stored far away - if only for their own safety!\n\nThe people amassed in long lines, of course, pose a different question: Why is airport security purposefully creating the perfect conditions for a terrorist to cause maximum casualties in an airport *before security*?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7058407", "title": "2006 transatlantic aircraft plot security reaction", "section": "Section::::Hand luggage restrictions.:United States.:3-1-1 for carry-ons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 598, "text": "As of 26 September 2006, the Transportation Security Administration adjusted the ban on liquids, aerosols and gels. Travellers are permitted to carry liquids through security checkpoints in containers of 3.4 ounces (100 mL) or less that fit comfortably in one quart-size clear plastic zip-top bag. This procedure came to be known as \"3-1-1 for carry-ons\" (3.4 ounce containers in a 1 quart bag, 1 bag per passenger). Items purchased in the airside zone after clearing security could be brought on board without restriction. Other exemptions to this restriction include medications and breast milk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9019987", "title": "Nuclear flask", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 352, "text": "Each shipping container is designed to maintain its integrity under normal transportation conditions and during hypothetical accident conditions. They must protect their contents against damage from the outside world, such as impact or fire. They must also contain their contents from leakage, both for physical leakage and for radiological shielding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50387", "title": "Containerization", "section": "Section::::Issues.:Hazards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 487, "text": "Containers have been used to smuggle contraband. The vast majority of containers are never subjected to scrutiny due to the large number of containers in use. In recent years there have been increased concerns that containers might be used to transport terrorists or terrorist materials into a country undetected. The US government has advanced the Container Security Initiative (CSI), intended to ensure that high-risk cargo is examined or scanned, preferably at the port of departure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50387", "title": "Containerization", "section": "Section::::Twenty-first century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 682, "text": "Improved cargo security is also an important benefit of containerization. Once the cargo is loaded into a container, it isn't touched again until it reaches its destination. The cargo is not visible to the casual viewer and thus is less likely to be stolen; the doors of the containers are usually sealed so that tampering is more evident. Some containers are fitted with electronic monitoring devices and can be remotely monitored for changes in air pressure, which happens when the doors are opened. This reduced the thefts that had long plagued the shipping industry. Recent developments have focused on the use of intelligent logistics optimization to further enhance security.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13839529", "title": "Foam food container", "section": "Section::::Varieties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 388, "text": "BULLET::::- A cylindrical style container with a separate, translucent or opaque plastic lid which can seal tightly to resist leaks. The container may or may not taper somewhat towards the bottom. Both overall size and the ratio of height to diameter can vary greatly. Such containers usually hold soups and stews; however, smaller varieties are often used to hold sauces and condiments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4723661", "title": "Storage tank", "section": "Section::::Special features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 280, "text": "Since most liquids can spill, evaporate, or seep through even the smallest opening, special consideration must be made for their safe and secure handling. This usually involves building a bunding, or containment dike, around the tank, so that any leakage may be safely contained.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51369694", "title": "Flimsy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 364, "text": "The problem with the containers was the crimped or soldered seams, which easily split during transportation, especially over the rocky desert terrain in North Africa. Containers were stacked on top of each other during shipping, and the upper layers crushed those below, resulting in fuel flowing freely in the bilges, with the resulting poisoning and fire risks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Depends on how you define triumph.\n\nOn one level it can be seen as a triumph in that so many troops were successfully evacuated and the little ships can be seen as a great propaganda scoop.\n\nHowever on the other hand it can be seen as a complete disaster. For a start most of the British equipment was dumped ranging from tanks to even small arms leaving Britain venerable for quiet a while. There is also the perceived fact that the British concentrated on British soldiers first meaning that most of their allies were left behind.\n\nThere is also the fact that the evacuation showed up the limits of the royal navy to evacuation people from a major port (admittedly under air attack) to the point that civilian vessels had to be drafted to assist. Taken out of context such an act would be seen today as military incompetence.\n\nSo while at the time it was seen as a triumph it probably was in reality a defeat for Britain.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Evacuation of Dunkirk was essentially a defeat (and as close to a rout as it got) for the British Expeditionary Force that had its image turned around due to good PR on the part of the performance of the Royal Navy, Merchant Navy and civilian volunteers who helped shuttle retreating soldiers from Dunkirk, as well as Churchill's famous *We shall fight on the beaches* speech delivered to the House of Commons on June 4, 1940. \n\nNow despite the fact the BEF was completely surrounded and on the verge of annihilation at Dunkirk, German forces stopped short of annihilating them as they awaited evacuation from the beach. Now the common myth goes that Hitler ordered German Commanders to hold their positions around the BEF rather than finishing them off, though most contemporary historians tend to agree that it was more likely German commanders felt constrained by their supply lines as they had rapidly advanced through France and the Low Countries faster than their supply lines could keep up as well as German forces wishing consolidating their forces before making a final push, giving the BEF time to evacuate as many troops as they could from Dunkirk before the German offensive resumed. Had the Wehrmacht possessed adequate supply lines for the majority of their forces as they reached Calais, (and this veers into what-if territory) it's very likely the entirety if not the majority of the BEF would have been annihilated or captured by German forces. What this would have resulted in is hard to say, though I'd like to think Britain would have still been able to keep herself in the war without concern, as the Germans were not anywhere near well equipped enough to carry out a successful cross-channel invasion. Knowing this, it's clear that the BEF was essentially defeated at Dunkirk, but was sparred the final crushing blow. Though it should be noted, a still considerable number of BEF forces were captured or killed before they were able to be evacuated from Dunkirk, so while the evacuation was seen as a miracle and success, it was not without it's share of setbacks. \n\nThe eventual evacuation of Dunkirk of well over 300,000 BEF soliders and personal by the Royal Navy and Merchant Navy as well as civilian volunteers greatly helped turned this defeat into the perfect example of what good PR can do to turn morale or opinion around. Churchill's speech delivered to the House of Commons on the last day of the Evacuation further solidified the idea for the British that the Evacuation of Dunkirk was not so much a defeat as it was a miracle and an example of the British spirit to keep the fight going even when facing overwhelming odds. \n\nSources:\n\n[*Inferno: The World at War: 1939-1945*by Max Hastings](_URL_2_)\n\n[*Why the Allies Won** by Richard Overy](_URL_0_)\n\n[Churchill's *We Shall Fight on the Beaches* speech](_URL_1_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think one of the problems in this question is with assigning simplistic words to complex situations. It was a bit of both really. The BEF never had the manpower to resist Germany alone, it was required to fight alongside the French. Once the French collapse started and the Germans had cut the BEF off from the rest of France it was 400,000 or so British troops vs twice that number of German (and with more readily available) and they were in a defensively poor position. Evacuation was inevitable and not specifically a result of any failure of the British Army.\n\nDunkirk wasnt a traditional X vs Y battle, but an inevitable siege and retreat one, and was of that nature right from the start. Thus, from this point of view it was somewhat of a triumph, as the vast majority of men trapped in the pocket managed to escape. The focus of the Battle of Dunkirk, the victory conditions as it were, wasnt the destruction of the Germans and the reconquest of northern France, but the safe recovery of the valuable troops trapped within. This was largely achieved and that is why this triumph/defeat thing remains an issue. On a broad scale of course it was a defeat, in that it was one of the parts of the Battle of France, which was lost. But in and of itself it was a triumph. A defeat would have to have been the capture or killing of the majority of the men trapped, which didnt occur. Naturally there is no small amount of PR spin around the event, but I still think looking back on it objectively it was a triumphant and successful retreat.\n\nSources:\nThe Second World War - Sir Winston Churchil", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1461804", "title": "Timeline of the Battle of France", "section": "Section::::May 1940.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 405, "text": "BULLET::::- 26 May: Around 850 British civilian ships and vessels help assisted Allied forces of Dunkirk, which would become the largest military evacuation in history. On 6:57 PM Operation Dynamo code name for the evacuation of British forces from Dunkirk took place. Hitler also ordered his army forces towards Dunkirk to finally destroy the Allies. HMS \"Curlew\" was sunk from the air by the Luftwaffe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "253774", "title": "Operation Aerial", "section": "Section::::Background.:Royal Navy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1449, "text": "The evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) from Dunkirk left a surplus of men on the lines-of-communication, base depots and other establishments among the still in France. Sufficient lines-of-communication personnel for an armoured division and four infantry divisions and an Advanced Air Striking Force (AASF) were to be retained and the rest returned to Britain. Naval operations in the Norwegian Campaign and the evacuation of Dunkirk had suffered losses, which temporarily weakened the Home Fleet, particularly in smaller vessels needed to escort evacuation ships from the French Atlantic coast. Losses inflicted on the surface ships of the \"Kriegsmarine\" made it impossible for the Germans to challenge British naval supremacy in the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay. Seven German submarines patrolling off the west coast of France made no attempt to interfere and only the \"Luftwaffe\" was used against the evacuations. Operation Aerial was commanded by Admiral William Milbourne James, the Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth. James lacked the vessels necessary for convoys and organised a flow of troopships, storeships and motor vehicle vessels from Southampton, coasters to ply from Poole and the Dutch \"schuyts\" to work from Weymouth, while such warships as were available patrolled the shipping routes. Demolition parties sailed in the ships but it was hoped that supplies and equipment could be embarked as well as troops.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13083104", "title": "HMS Calcutta (D82)", "section": "Section::::Service.:Second World War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 822, "text": "Following the completion of the evacuation from Dunkirk, British Forces continued to operate in France, with Operation Ariel taking part in the second half of June 1940 to evacuate the remainder of British forces from ports in the west of France. \"Calcutta\" took part in Operation Ariel, providing anti-aircraft cover for evacuations from Saint-Jean-de-Luz in the far South-East of France, near the border with Spain from 23 to 25 June, when the Armistice between France and Germany ended the evacuations. On the return journey, \"Calcutta\" was in company with the Canadian destroyers and , when on the evening of 25 June \"Calcutta\" collided with \"Fraser\" off the Gironde estuary, cutting the destroyer in two. The front of \"Fraser\" sank quickly, while the aft part was scuttled by \"Restigouche\". \"Calcutta\" was undamaged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "253767", "title": "Dunkirk evacuation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 785, "text": "The Dunkirk evacuation, code-named Operation Dynamo, also known as the Miracle of Dunkirk, was the evacuation of Allied soldiers during World War II from the beaches and harbour of Dunkirk, in the north of France, between 26 May and 4 June 1940. The operation commenced after large numbers of Belgian, British, and French troops were cut off and surrounded by German troops during the six-week long Battle of France. In a speech to the House of Commons, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill called this \"a colossal military disaster\", saying \"the whole root and core and brain of the British Army\" had been stranded at Dunkirk and seemed about to perish or be captured. In his \"we shall fight on the beaches\" speech on 4 June, he hailed their rescue as a \"miracle of deliverance\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24202410", "title": "Sir Edward Archdale, 3rd Baronet", "section": "Section::::War service.:Operation Ariel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 709, "text": "After Dunkirk there were still Allied forces to be evacuated from other French ports along the coast westward so the navy had further work to do. ‘Operation Cycle' launched on 10 June rescued some 11,000 from the Channel port of Le Havre. Then on the 12th HMS \"Sabre\" was deployed to help with the evacuation of still more British and Allied forces in ‘Operation Ariel’ from the rest of France. It began with the evacuation of Cherbourg and continued for the next ten days, moving south to St Nazaire, Bordeaux and right down to the Franco-Spanish border. Sabre was sent to Alderney the northerly island amongst the Channel Islands on 23 June and helped evacuate around 1,400 islanders to safety in Weymouth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33964239", "title": "HMS Sabre (H18)", "section": "Section::::World War II.:Operation Ariel (15 – 25 June 1940).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 966, "text": "After Dunkirk there were still Allied forces to be evacuated from other French ports along the coast westward so the navy had further work to do. ‘Operation Cycle' launched on 10 June rescued some 11,000 from the English Channel port of Le Havre. Then on 12 June \"Sabre\" was deployed to help with the evacuation of still more British and Allied forces in ‘Operation Ariel’ from the rest of France. It began with the evacuation of Cherbourg and continued for the next ten days, moving south to St Nazaire, Bordeaux and right down to the Franco-Spanish border. Sabre was sent to Alderney the northerly island amongst the Channel Islands on 23 June and helped evacuate around 1,400 islanders to safety in Weymouth. The final Allied evacuation of France ended on 25 June. By that time a further 215,000 servicemen and civilians had been saved, however although successful, Operations 'Aerial' and 'Cycle' never captured the public's imagination like ‘Operation Dynamo’.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34708", "title": "1940", "section": "Section::::Events.:June.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 210, "text": "BULLET::::- The Dunkirk evacuation ends: The British and French navies, together with large numbers of civilian vessels from various nations, complete evacuating 300,000 troops from Dunkirk, France to England.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Computers like powers of 2, and people decided that 2^10 = 1024 was close enough to 1000 to use the kilo- prefix.\n\nBut then some marketers came along, and decided they could make hard drives look bigger if they used 1000 for kilo instead of 1024. So things got confusing.\n\nThere are some alternate prefices, kibi-, mibi-, and gibi-, that have been proposed use with powers of 1024, keeping kilo-, mega- and giga- for powers of 1000, but they are not commonly used.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To elaborate on kouhoutek, computers store memory in 1s and 0s, no doubt you've seen something like 00101101, known as \"binary code\". Well, each 'bit' is actually one of these 1s or 0s, so the code I just showed you is 8 bits in size. \n\nAs it turns out, the number of possible combinations of 1s and 0s I could arrange, is 2 * 2 *2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 = 2^8 since there are 8 bits, each with a possible 1 or 0 (2 options)\n\nNow, there are 8 bits in a byte, so what I showed you is actually a byte of information. So, a byte is actually 2^8 possible 'information states'. Where what I mean by information state is any arrangement of the eight 1s and 0s in a byte.\n\nSo, if I want to know how many of these possible information states I could have on my (hypothetical shitty cd) that has 1 kilobyte of information (2^10 or 1024 bytes), I can simply calculate: 2^8 * 2^10 = 2^18 . Or for a megabyte, 2^18 * 2^10 = 2^28 You get the picture.\n\nHey! That was way simpler than if I had dealt with a clunky number like 1000.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14059031", "title": "Mac OS X Snow Leopard", "section": "Section::::New or changed features.:Refinements to the user interface.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 255, "text": "BULLET::::- Prefixes for bytes are now used in strictly decimal meaning (as opposed to their binary meaning) when describing disk space, such that an indicated file size of 1 MB corresponds to 1 million bytes, as commonly used by hard disk manufacturers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26874", "title": "Metric prefix", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 617, "text": "A metric prefix is a unit prefix that precedes a basic unit of measure to indicate a multiple or fraction of the unit. While all metric prefixes in common use today are decadic, historically there have been a number of binary metric prefixes as well. Each prefix has a unique symbol that is prepended to the unit symbol. The prefix \"kilo-\", for example, may be added to \"gram\" to indicate \"multiplication\" by one thousand: one kilogram is equal to one thousand grams. The prefix \"milli-\", likewise, may be added to \"metre\" to indicate \"division\" by one thousand; one millimetre is equal to one thousandth of a metre.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "147000", "title": "Gibibyte", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 431, "text": "The use of \"gigabyte\" (GB) to refer to bytes in some contexts and to bytes in others, sometimes in reference to the same device, has led to claims of confusion, controversies, and lawsuits. The IEC created the binary prefixes (kibi, mebi, gibi, etc.) in an attempt to reduce such confusion. They are increasingly used in technical literature and open-source software, and are a component of the International System of Quantities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26874", "title": "Metric prefix", "section": "Section::::Application to units of measurement.:Non-metric units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 660, "text": "Metric prefixes are widely used outside the system of metric units. Common examples include the megabyte and the decibel. Metric prefixes rarely appear with imperial or US units except in some special cases (e.g., microinch, kilofoot, kilopound or 'kip'). They are also used with other specialized units used in particular fields (e.g., megaelectronvolt, gigaparsec, millibarn). They are also occasionally used with currency units (e.g., gigadollar), mainly by people who are familiar with the prefixes from scientific usage. In geology and paleontology, the year, with symbol a (from the Latin \"annus\"), is commonly used with metric prefixes: ka, Ma, and Ga.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33366803", "title": "Introduction to the metric system", "section": "Section::::International metric system.:Units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 513, "text": "The names of the units of measure used in the metric system consist of two parts: a unit name (for example \"metre\", \"gram\", \"litre\") and an associated multiplier prefix (for example \"milli-\" meaning , \"kilo-\" meaning 1000). The result is that there are a variety of different named units available to measure the same quantity (for example 10 millimetres = 1 centimetre, 100 centimetres = 1 metre, 1000 metres = 1 kilometre). Each unit and each prefix has a standard symbol (not abbreviation) associated with it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16794", "title": "Kilobyte", "section": "Section::::Definitions and usage.:Base 2 (1024 bytes).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 327, "text": "The binary interpretation of metric prefixes is still prominently used by the Microsoft Windows operating system, but is deprecated or obsolete in other operating systems. Metric prefixes are also used for random-access memory capacity, such as main memory and CPU cache size, due to the prevalent binary addressing of memory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3365", "title": "Byte", "section": "Section::::Unit multiples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 643, "text": "Despite standardization efforts, ambiguity still exists in the meanings of the SI (or metric) prefixes used with the unit byte, especially concerning the prefixes \"kilo\" (k or K), \"mega\" (M), and \"giga\" (G). Computer memory has a binary architecture in which multiples are expressed in powers of 2. In some fields of the software and computer hardware industries a binary prefix is used for bytes and bits, while producers of computer storage devices practice adherence to decimal SI multiples. For example, a computer disk drive capacity of 100 gigabytes is specified when the disk contains 100 billion bytes (93 gibibytes) of storage space.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Slavery as in West (west of Indus) never existed in India until Muslim conquests into India(Legally). There were no Historical stories which mention about slavery, other than few anecdotes. \n\n\nDue to high population and economical/social segregation of Varna system, Slavery as seen in west was observed in the west although , Dasee(women who are dedicated to temple or queens) are not uncommon. \n\nTraditionally slavery was never justified by religion in Indian sub continent . ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "35618839", "title": "Daṇḍa (Hindu punishment)", "section": "Section::::Types of punishment.:Progression of Daṇḍa over time.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 1006, "text": "There are some very notable differences between the way ancient punishment was to be administered and how modern punishment is administered in Hindu societies. If a criminal were to confess to a crime, he would received half of the prescribed punishment in ancient India; however in modern India, confessing does not mitigate one's punishment. In ancient India, one's caste would affect the punishment that he would receive. In modern India, caste does not play a role, which furthers the idea of equality among men. Modern law, in India, dictates that only laws that have been conceived and that are written down may be punished. In ancient Indian law, a person could be prosecuted for a crime that has not been written down if a Sishta, a Brahmin who had studied the Veda, declares the act to be a crime. One other punishment that could be incurred in ancient India was the confiscation of a Shudra's wife if he had an affair with a woman of a higher caste, which would be inconceivable in modern India.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11461860", "title": "Slavery in India", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 257, "text": "Slavery in India was an established institution in ancient India by the start of the common era, or likely earlier. However, its study in ancient times is problematic and contested because it depends on the translations of terms such as \"dasa\" and \"dasyu\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11461860", "title": "Slavery in India", "section": "Section::::Slavery in Ancient India.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 526, "text": "According to Scott Levi, slavery was an established institution in ancient India by the start of the common era based on texts such as the \"Arthashastra\", the \"Manusmriti\" and the \"Mahabharata\". Slavery was \"likely widespread by the lifetime of the Buddha\" and it \"likely existed in the Vedic period\" if the term \"dasas\" is interpreted as slaves, but states Levi, this association is problematic. The term \"dāsa\" and \"dāsyu\" in Vedic and other ancient Indian literature has been interpreted as \"slave\", but others contest it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11461860", "title": "Slavery in India", "section": "Section::::Slavery in medieval India.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 240, "text": "Slavery as a predominant social institution emerged from the 8th century onwards in India, particularly after the 11th century, as part of systematic plunder and enslavement of infidels, along with the use of slaves in armies for conquest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58111406", "title": "Anti-corruption", "section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1164, "text": "In ancient times, moral principles based on religious beliefs were common, as several major religions, such as Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Sikhism, and Taoism condemn corrupt conduct in their respective religious texts. The described legal and moral stances were exclusively addressing bribery but were not concerned with other aspects that are considered corruption in the 21st century. Embezzlement, cronyism, nepotism, and other strategies of gaining public assets by office holders were not yet constructed as unlawfully or immoral, as positions of power were regarded a personal possession rather than an entrusted function. With the popularization of the concept of public interest and the development of a professional bureaucracy in the 19th century offices became perceived as trusteeships instead of property of the office holder, leading to legislation against and a negative perception of those additional forms of corruption. Especially in diplomacy and for international trad purposes, corruption remained a generally accepted phenomenon of the political and economic life throughout the 19th and big parts of the 20th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14308526", "title": "Prostitution in Brazil", "section": "Section::::History.:Prostitution and slavery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1306, "text": "The fact that the enslaved girls and women were exploited in prostitution without misery nor protection by the law was also used as an argument for the abolitionism, the social movement to abolish slavery in the 19th century. The Lei do Ventre Livre (\"Law of the free belly\"), according to which children of slaves were no longer slaves themselves, also decided that slaves were allowed to save money, which their master could not arbitrarily take away from them, and with which they could free themselves. As a result, it became more interesting for slave girls to become prostitute, because this way they had a chance to earn a tip for themselves. The inhibition to prostitute themselves was usually low for the female slaves, because they had learned since childhood that they had no sexual self-determination and were accustomed to be raped. However, the custody and administration of the savings of a slave was the responsibility of the owner, and he could try to manipulate the savings and list cost and penalties like tricky pimps do. There have been even processes of female slaves against their masters, where the women often had to prove with the help of clients that they had been \"industrious\" and diligent and had numerous customers, much more as listed in the wrong accounting of the master.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11461860", "title": "Slavery in India", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 751, "text": "Slavery in India escalated during the Muslim domination of northern India after the 11th-century, after Muslim rulers re-introduced slavery to the Indian subcontinent. It became a predominant social institution with the enslavement of non-Muslims, along with the use of slaves in armies for conquest, long since a vital tradition in all Muslim kingdoms. According to Muslim historians of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire era, after the invasions of non-Muslim kingdoms, Indians were taken slaves with many exported to Central Asia and West Asia. Many slaves from the Horn of Africa were also imported into the Indian subcontinent to serve in the households of the powerful or the Muslim armies of the Deccan Sultanates and the Mughal Empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "About 7000 nuclides are predicted to exist according to certain calculations in theoretical nuclear physics. Of those 7000, about 3000 have been found in nature and/or produced using particle accelerators/nuclear reactors.\n\nSo we can produce a huge range of nuclear species for experimental purposes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It takes a *lot* of energy to attach and rearrange those pieces. Think about burning a log: you're rearranging the *chemicals* by changing the bonds between different atoms, so that you turn cellulose into carbon dioxide and water (and some other byproducts). Doing so requires you to add energy to the system (a match) and produces excess energy. Or electrolysis, which is using electricity to turn water (H20) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), which requires even more energy in and you get less energy out of it than you put into it.\n\nThe bonds between protons and neutrons is *much* stronger. How much stronger? [Here are some atoms being rearranged violently to form different chemicals](_URL_0_), and [here's some protons and neutrons being rearranged violently to form different atoms](_URL_1_). There is a *lot* more energy involved in making different elements compared to chemical changes. The technology to produce that energy and, more importantly, to control it simply doesn't exist at the moment.\n\nEDIT: That said, this is pretty much exactly what particle accelerators do. That's how we \"discover\" more elements: we smash smaller elements together to form bigger elements. We just do that at a very very small scale (a few atoms at a time). But we use larger elements, which require less energy to get to fuse. We could conceivably get smaller elements to fuse, but it wouldn't be economical at all to do so.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically, we can. There are many different ways to arrange subnucleonic particles into atoms, and we have created many elements that don't exist in nature cause they are very short lived and unstable. But even creating a few common atoms requires complex machinery and a lot of energy, so making a complex device out of them isn't efficient or even feasible, especially since we can just mine a lot of the materials and create the ones we don't have through relatively easy to manage large scale chemical reactions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For one it wouldn't be \"from nothing\" you would still need to isolate particles which is in no way an easy task. Then you have to discover how to manipulate neutrons which is really hard because they dont have a charge so moving them through conventional means is really hard. Then you would have to force the protons close enough together which is really expensive and takes a TON of energy, and also releases a ton of energy which has to be contained or else you have a bomb. Keep in mind that forcing protons together is pretty hard, because they dont want to be near each other due to electromagnetic forces, and the more protons you are pushing together the more energy it requires. TL;DR nuclear-synthesis takes a massive amount of energy that we simply dont have. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Protons, electrons and neutrons are so tiny, it's not like you can get a tweezers and connect them just how you want them.\n\nNo, you have to smash them together at high speeds, millions of times, and hope that you get the thing you want. It's like building an alarm clock by shooting springs and bells and gears at each other.\n\nAnd even after all that work atom smashing work, you typically just end up with a handful of your special new atom. In order to get enough to look at, even just a tiny speck, never mind enough to hold in your hand, you need billions and billions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53622964", "title": "Resonance ionization", "section": "Section::::Optical excitation and ionization schemes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 493, "text": "The RIS process can be used to ionize all elements on the periodic table, except helium and neon, using available lasers. In fact, it is possible to ionize most elements with a single laser set-up, thus enabling rapid switching from one element to another. In the early days, optical schemes from RIMS have been used to study over 70 elements and over 39 elements can be ionized with a single laser combination using a rapid computer-modulated framework that switches elements within seconds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "194031", "title": "Nuclear fuel cycle", "section": "Section::::Fuel cycles.:Minor actinides recycling.:Fuel or targets for this actinide transmutation.:Actinides in a uranium matrix.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 486, "text": "If the actinides are incorporated into a uranium-metal or uranium-oxide matrix, then the neutron capture of U-238 is likely to generate new plutonium-239. An advantage of mixing the actinides with uranium and plutonium is that the large fission cross sections of U-235 and Pu-239 for the less energetic delayed-neutrons could make the reaction stable enough to be carried out in a critical fast reactor, which is likely to be both cheaper and simpler than an accelerator driven system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1886874", "title": "Neutron capture", "section": "Section::::Neutron absorbers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 344, "text": "Hence, it is quite important to be able to separate the zirconium from the hafnium in their naturally occurring alloy. This can only be done inexpensively by using modern chemical ion-exchange resins. Similar resins are also used in reprocessing nuclear fuel rods, when it is necessary to separate uranium and plutonium, and sometimes thorium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "194031", "title": "Nuclear fuel cycle", "section": "Section::::Fuel cycles.:Minor actinides recycling.:Fuel or targets for this actinide transmutation.:Mixed matrix.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 496, "text": "It is also possible to create a matrix made from a mix of the above-mentioned materials. This is most commonly done in fast reactors where one may wish to keep the breeding ratio of new fuel high enough to keep powering the reactor, but still low enough that the generated actinides can be safely destroyed without transporting them to another site. One way to do this is to use fuel where actinides and uranium is mixed with inert zirconium, producing fuel elements with the desired properties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27739443", "title": "Nuclear transmutation", "section": "Section::::Artificial transmutation of nuclear waste.:Reactor types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 359, "text": "For instance, plutonium can be reprocessed into MOX fuels and transmuted in standard reactors. The heavier elements could be transmuted in fast reactors, but probably more effectively in a subcritical reactor which is sometimes known as an energy amplifier and which was devised by Carlo Rubbia. Fusion neutron sources have also been proposed as well suited.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3185688", "title": "Nuclear reactor physics", "section": "Section::::Criticality.:Starter sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 760, "text": "The mere fact that an assembly is supercritical does not guarantee that it contains any free neutrons at all. At least one neutron is required to \"strike\" a chain reaction, and if the spontaneous fission rate is sufficiently low it may take a long time (in U reactors, as long as many minutes) before a chance neutron encounter starts a chain reaction even if the reactor is supercritical. Most nuclear reactors include a \"starter\" neutron source that ensures there are always a few free neutrons in the reactor core, so that a chain reaction will begin immediately when the core is made critical. A common type of startup neutron source is a mixture of an alpha particle emitter such as Am (americium-241) with a lightweight isotope such as Be (beryllium-9).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3183152", "title": "Gun-type fission weapon", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 291, "text": "Since it is a relatively slow method of assembly, plutonium cannot be used unless it is purely the 239 isotope. Production of impurity-free plutonium is very difficult and is impractical. The required amount of uranium is relatively large, and thus the overall efficiency is relatively low.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "An interpreted language does not need to be compiled, this means that it is faster to change something and try again, so potentially better for learning to program. These days it's pretty fast either way, though, so makes little difference.\n\nIt's also easier to create a simple interpreted language and interpreter than it is a compiled one and a compiler.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some programming languages are simply interpreted, or compiled. Those that are interpreted read/process the actual written code on the fly, and tend to favor ease-of-development over raw performance. Those that are compiled take the written code, and use it to create a compiled program that can be read directly by the processor. They tend to be more difficult to actually program in, and it's necessary to compile them prior to use, but the tradeoff is raw speed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Compilers came first, they took your code and brought it down to machine code ahead of time so it can run directly on the processor quickly when you needed it to.\n\nCompiling is/was a reasonably slow process and was done on slow equipment so it was good to do it in advance. You could optimize the code during the process as well, reorder some instructions for better hardware usage, and overall just make things run faster\n\nAn interpreted language runs on an interpreter, basically a precompiled program that takes what you've written, compiles and executes each line in order using precompiled function calls. There is little to no optimization being done because the code is read in at run time so if you access your array in a non-ideal fashion you're going to pay the price but a compiler would generally rearrange things so you end up accessing it in an ideal fashion\n\nAn interpreted language is going to be slower, you're running code on top of code and missing out on lots of optimization, but doesn't require precompiling in advance and porting the executable to the target hardware", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5739", "title": "Compiler", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 437, "text": "Compilers are not the only language processor used to transform source programs. An interpreter is computer software that transforms and then executes the indicated operations. The translation process influences the design of computer languages which leads to a preference of compilation or interpretation. In practice, an interpreter can be implemented for compiled languages and compilers can be implemented for interpreted languages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59868", "title": "Interpreter (computing)", "section": "Section::::Variations.:Self-interpreter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 497, "text": "If no compiler exists for the language to be interpreted, creating a self-interpreter requires the implementation of the language in a host language (which may be another programming language or assembler). By having a first interpreter such as this, the system is bootstrapped and new versions of the interpreter can be developed in the language itself. It was in this way that Donald Knuth developed the TANGLE interpreter for the language WEB of the industrial standard TeX typesetting system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5739", "title": "Compiler", "section": "Section::::Compiled versus interpreted languages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 472, "text": "Further, compilers can contain interpreters for optimization reasons. For example, where an expression can be executed during compilation and the results inserted into the output program, then it prevents it having to be recalculated each time the program runs, which can greatly speed up the final program. Modern trends toward just-in-time compilation and bytecode interpretation at times blur the traditional categorizations of compilers and interpreters even further.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59868", "title": "Interpreter (computing)", "section": "Section::::Compilers versus interpreters.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 474, "text": "Thus, both compilers and interpreters generally turn source code (text files) into tokens, both may (or may not) generate a parse tree, and both may generate immediate instructions (for a stack machine, quadruple code, or by other means). The basic difference is that a compiler system, including a (built in or separate) linker, generates a stand-alone \"machine code\" program, while an interpreter system instead \"performs\" the actions described by the high level program.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5783", "title": "Computer program", "section": "Section::::Computer programming.:Compilation and interpretation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 358, "text": "Interpreters are used to execute source code from a programming language line-by-line. The interpreter decodes each statement and performs its behavior. One advantage of interpreters is that they can easily be extended to an interactive session. The programmer is presented with a prompt, and individual lines of code are typed in and performed immediately.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21310186", "title": "History of compiler construction", "section": "Section::::Intermediate representation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 95, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 95, "end_character": 446, "text": "Most modern compilers have a lexer and parser that produce an intermediate representation of the program. The intermediate representation is a simple sequence of operations which can be used by an optimizer and a code generator which produces instructions in the machine language of the target processor. Because the code generator uses an intermediate representation, the same code generator can be used for many different high level languages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5739", "title": "Compiler", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 708, "text": "However, there are many different types of compilers. If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different from the one on which the compiler runs, the compiler is a cross-compiler. A bootstrap compiler is written in the language that it intends to compile. A program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a source-to-source compiler or transpiler. A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language. The term compiler-compiler refers to tools used to create parsers that perform syntax analysis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Smoking might induce the body to produce more blood than otherwise, but so would doing something like donating blood. Unless we are to accept that the Red Cross is harming donors it wouldn't be reasonable to consider the minor monoxide poisoning to qualify as a harm on such a report.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Read the article. It says that marijuana use has no \"significant correlation with health service utilization or health status.\" It's not talking about short-term effects like mild anemia while actually being used. It's talking about long-term indicators. And that's generally what people are talking about when they talk about something's impact on health.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "168915", "title": "Effects of cannabis", "section": "Section::::Long-term effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 580, "text": "Exposure to marijuana may have biologically-based physical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences and is \"associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, eyesight and vasculature\" according to a 2013 literature review by Gordon and colleagues. The association with these diseases has only been reported in cases where people have smoked cannabis. The authors cautioned that \"evidence is needed, and further research should be considered, to prove causal associations of marijuana with many physical health conditions\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175440", "title": "Medical cannabis", "section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Recreational use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 265, "text": "A 2013 literature review found that exposure to marijuana had biologically-based physical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences and was \"associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25905247", "title": "Long-term effects of cannabis", "section": "Section::::Physical health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 348, "text": "A 2013 literature review said that exposure to cannabis was \"associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature\". The authors cautioned that \"evidence is needed, and further research should be considered, to prove causal associations of marijuana with many physical health conditions\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53098416", "title": "Vera D. Rubin", "section": "Section::::Marijuana.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 265, "text": "With Lambros Comitas, she directed a study of marijuana smoking in Jamaica, for the National Institute of Mental Health. They found no significant effect, apart from a slight reduction in the efficacy of oxygen delivery, possibly due to concomitant use of tobacco.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4512923", "title": "Cannabis smoking", "section": "Section::::Health effects of smoking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 435, "text": "A 2013 literature review said that exposure to cannabis had biologically-based physical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences and was \"associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature\". The authors cautioned that \"evidence is needed, and further research should be considered, to prove causal associations of marijuana with many physical health conditions\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1473650", "title": "Removal of cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act", "section": "Section::::History.:1995 petition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 615, "text": "Both sides claimed that the IOM report supported their position. The DEA publication \"Exposing the Myth of Smoked Medical Marijuana\" interpreted the IOM's statement, \"While we see a future in the development of chemically defined cannabinoid drugs, we see little future in smoked marijuana as a medicine,\" as meaning that smoking cannabis is not recommended for the treatment of any disease condition. Cannabis advocates pointed out that the IOM did not study vaporizers, devices which, by heating cannabis to 185 °C, release therapeutic cannabinoids while reducing or eliminating ingestion of various carcinogens.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8596369", "title": "Decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States", "section": "Section::::Arguments in opposition to reform.:Subsequent abuse of other illicit drugs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 115, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 115, "end_character": 360, "text": "In 1985, Gabriel G. Nahas published \"Keep Off the Grass\", which stated that \"[the] biochemical changes induced by marijuana in the brain result in drug-seeking, drug taking behavior, which in many instances will lead the user to experiment with other pleasurable substances. The risk of progression from marijuana to cocaine to heroin is now well documented.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So Alexander the Great's great cause he conquered the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Until he passed over the Indus, all the lands he had conquered had either been Persian satrapies or at least within the Persian orbit. This included everything from Thrace, the Levant, Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, and Persia itself, all highly developed societies with an organized and ancient tradition of rule.\n\nThough every generation saw its share of separatist movements, Persian satrapies were generally quiescent and obedient to Persian rule. Once Alexander showed up as an unstoppable menace however, Persian satraps would often betray the Persian central authority and surrender themselves and their services to the conqueror. The political result of Alexander's conquests being that satraps were either trusted Greek advisors placed to the position by Alexander or they were holdovers from the preceding Persian state. Further, the officials serving within state ministries continued to hail from the local area, as they had under the Achaemenids.\n\nWith Alexander's attention focused on his military conquests, oversight of his empire was slack as long as the necessary materiel and soldiers arrived for his campaigning. Alexander notoriously conscripted men from his conquered provinces (much like the Persians had) and expected to collect the same sort of tax revenue as his predecessors. But with his constant warfare, he wasn't going to conduct a full audit of his empire's finances. \n\nSatraps realized this. Basic quotients of money and goods traveled to Alexander or back to Macedon on Persia's famous road system. But beyond what was needed to slake Alex's immediate demands, the administrators of the Persian bureaucracy could act nigh indiscriminately. The Macedonian army wasn't traveling through to set up a longstanding, permanent civilization; they moved at lightning speed, conquering a continental empire in less than a decade. Thus the local politicking of each court, in Susa, in Sardis, in Babylonia, went completely unchecked. Corruption spread as the only state obligations were to Alexander, a foreign conqueror who moved increasingly further away. Sometimes, they revolted, and Alexander executed several of them for this (Arrian VI.26) on his way back from India. Normally, however, they sent goods where they needed to go as the state apparatus built up by Darius and Artaxerxes could easily handle both completing Alexander's limited fiscal desires and fleecing their own pockets.\n\nIn addition to receiving replenishment from centralized redistribution Alexander's army could expect to collect sustenance and good grace from any ruler through whose lands it passed. There was of course the underlying coercive aspect to parking the greatest empire the world had ever known next to anybody's palace, but most kings, satraps, or rajs (if that's what they were called yet). When local supplies were limited, such as in the Central Asian steppelands, high mountain passes in the winter, or in the Gedrosian Desert, his army had serious problems with attrition. In sum, they were a much more live off the land type army, though they did it in a rather \"civilized,\" rather than Hunnic fashion.\n\nSources: \nPaul Cartledge's *Alexander the Great*\n\nArrian: _URL_0_\nSeriously, check Arrian out. Alexander brought a bunch of historians with him to document his conquests, and what gets passed down to us is nothing short of pulp fiction. It paints Alex as a mega badass who successively beats Achilles, Hercules, and Dionysus in his feats.\n\nDuncan Ryan *The Achaemenid Empire* -super fast breeze through Achaemenid history. Not too much content, but does give a rough trajectory of their empire. I recently read it just to cover my bases as I begin to do more research into Near Eastern history", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Follow up question. I heard a story of Alexander the great pouring out his water in front of his soldiers while crossing the desert, saying something to the effect of \"If my men don't drink, I don't drink.\" Any truth to this story?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Anybody have any feedback on Donald Engels book \"Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army\"? I thought it addressed this topic in some depth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Donald Engels wrote what is kinda the definitive work on this subject, and I highly recommend it, as it's a fascinating subject, because the accomplishment of Alexander the Great cannot be overstated. (1)\n\nThere were large bodies of men not well disposed to this young Greek traipsing through their territories with his army, but more importantly there were vast swathes of often quite hostile landscape across which Alexander had to move his men. Alexander was able to meet these strategic, tactical, and logistical concerns with seeming ease. Much ink has been spilled over the millennia concerning Alexander’s strategic and tactical genius, less so his ability as a logistical commander, and that is a damn shame because he was a genius.\n\nFirst and foremost was the preparation that took place under his father, Philip. Key among these preparations was the organization of the Macedonian Army into the most efficient campaigning force the Mediterranean had ever seen. A key part of this plan was expanding the prestige of the infantry unit, which would prove so essential to his battle plans. Philip accomplished this by making the soldiers of the infantry loyal to him personally, in a shift away from their home region or city. These ‘foot companions’ enjoyed the prestige of being considered directly connected to their king just as the aristocracy already had been for generations. (2)\n\nBy making the men individually and as a unit loyal to their commander and king, Philip was aiming to wage war in a way that Greeks had not done before. Greek discipline operated in a way that might be alien to our modern idea of discipline, which places an emphasis on following orders.\n\nThe main focus of Greek discipline was on the opinion of your fellow soldier-citizens, and in trials for failure to obey orders, the key concern was whether the soldier-citizen had disobeyed orders for reasons of cowardice. Cowardice was the principal concern. Philip’s reforms to the Macedonian military are key to understanding the way he changed the army’s discipline. The existing institution of the Cavalry Companions, consisting of the elite of the Macedonian state, had enjoyed extensive freedom to question their commander and king bluntly. By expanding this and other privileges to include the infantry, Philip was also able to induce a constriction on the freedom of all his soldiers to disobey. The soldiers, having theoretically gained the right to question their king, gave up their traditional freedom to disobey. Effectively, the old nobility were given new obligations, and a new nobility was recruited on the basis of professionalism, meritocracy, and most important of all - loyalty.\n\nIt would not have been difficult to impress upon the men that loyalty meant obedience, by demonstrating that the rewards for loyalty flowed to those most obedient to commands. Therefore, reforms such as Philip’s forbidding of wagons and restricting the number of servants each fighting man was permitted created a situation wherein the armed force was able to field four combatants for every one servant. The men accepted such restrictions, and requirements to carry their own supplies, because to do so meant they would be rewarded. (3)\n\nUnder the hitherto existing Greek system, men would go so far as to bring their commanders up on charges for giving them orders they did not like, even when those orders were to help a wounded comrade to safety. Under Philip’s system, both discipline as obedience and discipline as courage are improved.\n\nSo, reforms are in place, time to invade Persia!\n\nEngels’ breakdown of the logistical framework after the crossing of the Hellespont estimates about 48,000 soldiers, with support personnel bringing the total army’s size to 65,000 individuals. The number of pack animals necessary to carry sufficient rations and other noncomestibles at this point would be, by Engels’ calculations, around 10,000, a sufficient amount to ensure that the army was sufficiently well fed for up to ten days. (Engels, p12) \n\nDuring the initial campaign in Persia, it is most likely that Alexander took a relatively coastal route. Arrian tells us “He sent Parmenio to take over Dascylium; and this was done without trouble, as the guards had abandoned the town.” (Arr. 1.12.9) Dascylium lay directly between Granicus and Sardis. Alexander relied on the fleet for most of his supply solutions until Miletus, and then transport of his siege train through to the battle of Issus, which was preceded by a near-disaster. Darius, acting on the belief that the Macedonian forces remained scattered in Cilicia, and due to his own supply issues in the Amik plain, accidentally flanked Alexander’s army. (Arr. 2.7.2-3)\n\nAlexander, of course, immediately turned around, met Darius, and was victorious.\n\nHaving won a crushing victory at Issus, capturing some three thousand talents on the field itself, with Parmenio capturing more treasure at Damascus, any and all issues in paying for anything his army needed were resolved, as his new wealth proved sufficient to see him to Gaugamela.\n\nThere is a lot more to say about the rest of his campaigns through Hyrcania, Parthyaea, and Bactria. Then there's the total fucking disaster of the Gedrosian campaign, and god damned Nearchus.\n\nGo read Engels's book, for real. It's very good. He leaves a few questions unanswered, like how reinforcements and discharges were sent to and from the Mediterranean to Alexander’s army on campaign in far off places. Certainly they used the same routes and methods that were employed for purposes of communication and supply, and it is clear enough that Antipater’s needs on the home front led Alexander to cease sending all the way to Macedonia for reinforcements after 331, but how discharges from the army and the receipt of reinforcements was handled, there are questions unanswered that may well be unanswerable. That being said, Engels is extremely thorough.\n\n1) Donald Engels, \"Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army.\" University of California Press, 1978\n2) Bosworth, A.B. \"ΑΣΘΕΤΑΙΡΟΙ.\" The Classical Quarterly 23, no. 2 (November 1973): 245-253\n3) John Keegan, \"The Mask of Command.\" Penguin, 1987", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23752873", "title": "Indian campaign of Alexander the Great", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 792, "text": "Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai of Bengal. According to the Greek sources, the Nanda army was supposedly five times larger than the Macedonian army. His army, exhausted, homesick, and anxious by the prospects of having to further face large Indian armies throughout the Indo-Gangetic Plain, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further east. Alexander, after a meeting with his officer, Coenus, and after hearing about the lament of his soldiers, eventually relented, being convinced that it was better to return. This caused Alexander to turn south, advancing through southern Punjab and Sindh, along the way conquering more tribes along the lower Indus River, before finally turning westward.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "section": "Section::::King of Macedon.:Balkan campaign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 693, "text": "Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the \"Independent Thracians\"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights. The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "839658", "title": "Gedrosia", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 889, "text": "Following his army's refusal to continue marching east at the Hyphasis River in 326 BCE, Alexander the Great crossed the area after sailing south to the coast of the Indian Ocean on his way back to Babylon. Upon reaching the Ocean, Alexander the Great divided his forces in half, sending half back by sea to Susa under the command of Nearchus. The other half of his army was to accompany him on a march through the Gedrosian desert, inland from the ocean. Throughout the 60-day march through the desert, Alexander lost at least 12,000 soldiers, in addition to countless livestock, camp followers, and most of his baggage train. Some historians say he lost three-quarters of his army to the harsh desert conditions along the way. However, this figure was likely based on exaggerated numbers in his forces prior to the march, which were likely in the range of no fewer than 30,000 soldiers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6857241", "title": "Middle Eastern empires", "section": "Section::::323 BCE: Alexander's Hellenistic Empire.:Alexander the Great.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 339, "text": "In less than two years Alexander secured the Greek and Thracian borders and gathered an army of 50,000 men for the assault on Asia. In his early campaigns he always maintained a considerable fleet of warships and supplies for his soldiers. With him were many scholars who recorded Alexander's discoveries and achievements far in the east.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23751456", "title": "Alexander's Balkan campaign", "section": "Section::::Thrace.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 839, "text": "Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders and, in the spring of 335 BC, he advanced into Thrace to deal with the revolt, which was led by the Illyrians and Triballi. He was reinforced along the way by the Agriani, a Thracian tribe under the command of Alexander's friend, Langarus. The Macedonian army marched up to Mount Haemus, where they met a Thracian garrison manning the heights. The Thracians had constructed a palisade of carts, which they intended to throw upon the approaching Macedonians. Alexander ordered his heavy infantry to march in loose formation and, when the carts were thrown, either to open the ranks or lie flat on the ground with their shields over them. The Macedonian archers shot and when the Macedonian heavy infantry reached the top of the mountain they routed the Thracians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "84554", "title": "Seleucus I Nicator", "section": "Section::::Early career under Alexander the Great.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1107, "text": "In spring 334 BC, as a young man of about twenty-three, Seleucus accompanied Alexander into Asia. By the time of the Indian campaigns beginning in late in 327 BC, he had risen to the command of the élite infantry corps in the Macedonian army, the \"Shield-bearers\" (\"Hypaspistai\", later known as the \"Silvershields\"). It is said by Arrian that when Alexander crossed the Hydaspes river on a boat, he was accompanied by Perdiccas, Ptolemy I Soter, Lysimachus and also Seleucus. During the subsequent Battle of the Hydaspes (326 BC), Seleucus led his troops against the elephants of King Porus. It is likely that Seleucus had no role in the actual planning of the battle. He is also not mentioned as holding any major independent position during the battle, unlike, for example, Craterus, Hephaistion, Peithon and Leonnatus – each of whom had sizable detachments under his control. Seleucus' Royal \"Hypaspistai\" were constantly under Alexander's eye and at his disposal. They later participated in the Indus Valley campaign, in the battles fought against the Malli and in the crossing of the Gedrosian desert.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24202898", "title": "Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Balkan campaign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 161, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 161, "end_character": 1085, "text": "Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders; in the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several apparent revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he first went east into the country of the \"Independent Thracians\", and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated a Thracian army manning the heights. The Macedonians marched on into the country of the Triballi, and proceeded to defeat the Triballian army near the Lyginus river (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then advanced for three days on to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Surprising the Getae by crossing the river at night, he forced the Getae army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish, leaving their town to the Macedonian army. News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, king of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against Macedonian authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing Cleitus and Glaukias to flee with their armies, leaving Alexander's northern frontier secure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The first question to ask is what message the portrait is intended to convey. Through to the eighteenth century, portraits were primarily commissioned by either the clergy or the nobility and so reflected the social norms and customs of those two groups. In particular, open-mouthed smiling in art was considered somewhat lewd and unattractive. Women especially were encouraged to demonstrate restraint in displaying their emotion; coyness, grace and subtlety were the goal of all portrait commissions of young noble ladies.\n\nBut once you step outside of portraits of the saints, of clergy and of nobility and look at depictions of less \"serious\" folk, of people *expected* to show lewdness or lack of restraint, you can find tons of open-mouthed smiles and toothy grins. For example:\n\n* Court jesters ([1](_URL_19_), [2](_URL_0_)), \n\n* Court dwarfs ([1](_URL_17_), [2](_URL_9_))\n\n* Children ([1](_URL_8_), [2](_URL_7_))\n\n* The drunk ([1](_URL_14_), [2](_URL_10_))\n\n* The insane\n\n* The poor ([1](_URL_16_))\n\n* Musicians ([1](_URL_18_), [2](_URL_13_))\n* And, well, the artists themselves. ([Leyster](_URL_4_), [Liotard](_URL_12_), [Rembrandt](_URL_6_), and the Reddit-famous [Ducreux](_URL_15_))\n\nYou can also find nice wide smiles in the art of non-European cultures. There are several Mesoamerican sculptures of grinning ball-players ([1](_URL_3_), [2](_URL_20_)), for example.\n\nBack to Western art. Informality *starts* to creep in once art opens up to the middle class, who are more willing to buy portraits showing a little more geniality. ([1](_URL_5_), [2](_URL_1_)) The truly toothy grins are reserved for when the subjects themselves are supposed to be the object of ridicule - [political caricatures](_URL_11_) or just [funny cartoons](_URL_21_).\n\nOpen-mouthed grins in photographs of important figures are primarily a twentieth-century development. Aside from the change in acceptable levels of informality, there are two other factors to consider. First off, dentistry. It was not particularly good for most of the periods we've been discussing. Compounding this, the models used by the artists were drawn primarily from the pool of prostitutes and destitutes - neither of which are famed for good oral hygeine even among their contemporaries. Look at the mouths of Ducreux or Liotard above, where they're not making an effort to prettify the subject. Lots of black discolouration and gaps. Very unsightly.\n\nSecondly, early photography required sitters to remain entirely still due to the long exposure time. Holding your mouth open and motionless for that long is a burdensome task if you don't have a specific reason to do so, and the results would look rather fake regardless. The development of film technology (pardon the pun) allowed for more spontaneous and candid shots. Politicians largely still wanted to project an aura of sober authority most of the time, but you can find the odd glimpse of a cheeky grin or a laugh (\"[DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN](_URL_2_)\" springs to mind immediately). In the U.S., it's Kennedy who truly popularised flashing your pearly whites for the camera - it worked towards the image he was trying to put across of youthful vigour (when the truth was actually somewhat different behind the scenes). Since then, bright white smiles and good hair have been fixtures for successful Presidential campaigns.\n\nSo, in summary and in decreasing order of importance - changing attitudes towards informality, the invention of polaroid and digital cameras, prettier smiles.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24867008", "title": "Cosmetics in ancient Rome", "section": "Section::::Lips, nails and teeth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 428, "text": "Although oral hygiene was nowhere near today’s standards, white teeth were prized by the Romans, and so false teeth, made from bone, ivory and paste, were popular items. Ovid shed light on the way white teeth were viewed in society when he wrote the statement, \"You can do yourself untold damage when you laugh if your teeth are black, too long or irregular.\" The Romans also sweetened their breath with powder and baking soda.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8005", "title": "Dentistry", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 815, "text": "Ancient Greek scholars Hippocrates and Aristotle wrote about dentistry, including the eruption pattern of teeth, treating decayed teeth and gum disease, extracting teeth with forceps, and using wires to stabilize loose teeth and fractured jaws. Some say the first use of dental appliances or bridges comes from the Etruscans from as early as 700 BC. In ancient Egypt, Hesy-Ra is the first named \"dentist\" (greatest of the teeth). The Egyptians bound replacement teeth together with gold wire. Roman medical writer Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases as well as dental treatments such as narcotic-containing emollients and astringents. The earliest dental amalgams were first documented in a Tang Dynasty medical text written by the Chinese physician Su Kung in 659, and appeared in Germany in 1528.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9948", "title": "Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Early life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 776, "text": "In 1787, she caused a minor public scandal when her \"Self-Portrait with Her Daughter Julie\" (1787) was exhibited at the Salon of 1787 showing her smiling and open-mouthed, which was in direct contravention of traditional painting conventions going back to antiquity. The court gossip-sheet \"Mémoires secrets\" commented: \"An affectation which artists, art-lovers and persons of taste have been united in condemning, and which finds no precedent among the Ancients, is that in smiling, [Madame Vigée LeBrun] shows her teeth.\" In light of this and her other \"Self-Portrait with Her Daughter Julie\" (1789), Simone de Beauvoir dismissed Vigée Le Brun as narcissistic in \"The Second Sex\" (1949): \"Madame Vigée-Lebrun never wearied of putting her smiling maternity on her canvases.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5024249", "title": "List of inventions and innovations of indigenous Americans", "section": "Section::::C.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 229, "text": "BULLET::::- Chewing gum – Native Americans in New England introduced the settlers to chewing gum made from the spruce tree. The Mayans, on the other hand, were the first people to use latex gum; better known to them as \"chicle\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2536716", "title": "Dental extraction", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 364, "text": "Until the early 20th century in Europe, dental extractions were often made by traveling dentists in town fairs. They sometimes had musicians with them playing loud enough to cover the cries of pain of the people having their teeth extracted. In 1880 in Pyrénées-Orientales (France), one of these traveling dentists claimed to have extracted 475 teeth in one hour.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1145905", "title": "Tooth whitening", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 129, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 129, "end_character": 674, "text": "The Ancient Romans believed in using urine with goat milk to make their teeth look whiter. Pearly white teeth symbolized beauty and marked wealth. In the late 17th century, many people reached out to barbers, who used a file to file down the teeth before applying an acid that would, in fact, whiten the teeth. Although the procedure was successful, the teeth would become completely eroded and more prone to becoming decayed. Guy de Chauliac suggested the following to whiten the teeth: \"\"Clean the teeth gently with a mixture of honey and burnt salt to which some vinegar has been added.\"\" In 1877 oxalic acid was proposed for whitening, followed by calcium hypochlorite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "634877", "title": "Bocca della Verità", "section": "Section::::Cultural references and derivative works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 385, "text": "The Mouth of Truth has also been featured as a theme in historical European art. Lucas Cranach the Elder, a German painter during the Renaissance period, created two paintings depicting a woman placing her hand in the mouth of a statue of a lion while onlookers watched, a subject which was drawn by Albrecht Altdorfer and made into a woodcut by the Dutch printmaker Lucas van Leyden.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There is a spectrum of wines! Both red and white have it. \n\nThey range from dry to sweet. That's how you get semi-sweet, etc.\n\nIt's determined by how much natural sugar from the grapes is left in the wine. You can stop the fermentation process early to make a sweeter wine (or add sugar afterwards). If they ferment until there's no sugar left, it's dry.\n\nThat's how you get dry wine.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "927688", "title": "White wine", "section": "Section::::Types.:Dry white wine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 155, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 155, "end_character": 334, "text": "The dry white wine is a wine without sugar (the sugar ratio is generally less than 4 grams per litre). It is a wine very difficult to develop because the balance of the wine is based on only two parameters: acidity and alcohol. This is the wine that the consumer refers to when he speaks of white wine without giving further details.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "927688", "title": "White wine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 385, "text": "White wines are often used as an \"apéritif\" before a meal, with dessert, or as a refreshing drink between meals. White wines are often considered more refreshing, and lighter in both style and taste than the majority of their red wine counterparts. In addition, due to their acidity, aroma, and ability to soften meat and deglaze cooking juices, white wines are often used in cooking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "927688", "title": "White wine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 428, "text": "The wide variety of white wines comes from the large number of varieties, methods of winemaking, and ratios of residual sugar. White wine is mainly from \"white\" grapes, which are green or yellow in colour, such as the Chardonnay, Sauvignon, and Riesling. Some white wine is also made from grapes with coloured skin, provided that the obtained wort is not stained. Pinot noir, for example, is commonly used to produce champagne.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32961", "title": "Wine", "section": "Section::::Variants.:White wine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 420, "text": "Dry (non-sweet) white wine is the most common, derived from the complete fermentation of the wort. Sweet wines are produced when the fermentation is interrupted before all the grape sugars are converted into alcohol. Sparkling wines, which are mostly white wines, are produced by not allowing carbon dioxide from the fermentation to escape during fermentation, which takes place in the bottle rather than in the barrel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "927688", "title": "White wine", "section": "Section::::Health Effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 244, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 244, "end_character": 264, "text": "Because of its shorter maceration, white wine contains very little tannin and therefore little antioxidants that make red wine so interesting medically speaking. However, a team of researchers from Montpellier has developed a white wine enriched with polyphenols.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "927688", "title": "White wine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 644, "text": "Among the many types of white wine, dry white wine is the most common. More or less aromatic and tangy, it is derived from the complete fermentation of the wort. Sweet wines, on the other hand, are produced by interrupting the fermentation before all the grape sugars are converted into alcohol; this is called \"Mutage\" or fortification. The methods of enriching wort with sugar are multiple: on-ripening on the vine, \"passerillage\" (straining), or the use of \"noble rot\". Sparkling wines, which are mostly white, are wines where the carbon dioxide from the fermentation is kept dissolved in the wine and becomes gas when the bottle is opened.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "927688", "title": "White wine", "section": "Section::::Culinary aspects.:Harmony of white wine and food.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 185, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 185, "end_character": 265, "text": "The acidity of dry white wine is reduced by slightly salty or sweet dishes while the wine accentuates the salty side of food and tempers heavy fatty foods. Sweet wine goes well with sweet and savoury dishes to mitigate the heavy sugar and stimulate the fruitiness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "With the exception of some very very exotic and speculative reproductive technologies, no.\n\nEvolution is just long-term adaptation to our environment. If, say, our brains start getting smaller because we can offload thinking to technology, then that *is* the process of evolution in action. If the main standard for mate selection becomes having a great OKCupid profile, then there will be an evolutionary pressure for good writing skills.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12028404", "title": "The Edge of Evolution", "section": "Section::::Contents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 337, "text": "Design that favors the development of intelligent life, argues Behe, is not only demanded by \"the most recent findings concerning biological complexity\", but also by discoveries in the fields of chemistry (he uses the example of the peculiar, life-supporting structure of water), and of cosmology (referring to the anthropic principle).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8746727", "title": "Level of support for evolution", "section": "Section::::Scientific support.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 991, "text": "Additionally, the scientific community considers intelligent design, a neo-creationist offshoot, to be unscientific, pseudoscience, or junk science. The U.S. National Academy of Sciences has stated that intelligent design \"and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life\" are not science because they cannot be tested by experiment, do not generate any predictions, and propose no new hypotheses of their own. In September 2005, 38 Nobel laureates issued a statement saying \"Intelligent design is fundamentally unscientific; it cannot be tested as scientific theory because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent.\" In October 2005, a coalition representing more than 70,000 Australian scientists and science teachers issued a statement saying \"intelligent design is not science\" and calling on \"all schools not to teach Intelligent Design (ID) as science, because it fails to qualify on every count as a scientific theory\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20347", "title": "Meaning of life", "section": "Section::::Scientific inquiry and perspectives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 624, "text": "Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the science of happiness to death anxiety. Scientific inquiry facilitates this through nomological investigation into various aspects of life and reality, such as the Big Bang, the origin of life, and evolution, and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1956761", "title": "Brookings Report", "section": "Section::::Content.:Quotes from the report.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 328, "text": "Since intelligent life might be discovered at any time via the radio telescope research presently under way, and since the consequences of such a discovery are presently unpredictable because of our limited knowledge of behavior under even an approximation of such dramatic circumstances, two research areas can be recommended:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45754", "title": "Where Mathematics Comes From", "section": "Section::::Critical response.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 532, "text": "It has been pointed out that it is not at all clear that \"WMCF\" establishes that the claim \"intelligent alien life would have mathematical ability\" is a myth. To do this, it would be required to show that intelligence and mathematical ability are separable, and this has not been done. On Earth, intelligence and mathematical ability seem to go hand in hand in all life-forms, as pointed out by Keith Devlin among others. The authors of \"WMCF\" have not explained how this situation would (or even could) be different anywhere else.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30731", "title": "Teleological argument", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:Other criticisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 413, "text": "The teleological argument assumes that one can infer the existence of intelligent design merely by examination, and because life is reminiscent of something a human might design, it too must have been designed. However, considering \"snowflakes and crystals of certain salts\", \"[i]n no case do we find intelligence\". \"There are other ways that order and design can come about\" such as by \"purely physical forces\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43098", "title": "William A. Dembski", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 447, "text": "Intelligent design is the argument that an intelligent cause is responsible for the complexity of life and that one can detect that cause empirically. Dembski postulated that probability theory can be used to prove irreducible complexity (IC), or what he called \"specified complexity.\" The scientific community sees intelligent design—and Dembski's concept of specified complexity—as a form of creationism attempting to portray itself as science.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No. Entanglement is nothing more than a correlation between the outcomes of measurements. If you measure the state of the first particle, then you will be able to predict with certainty the outcome of a similar measurement on the second particle. It has nothing to do with controlling the second particle with the first.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends what you mean by \"change the state of\", or indeed what you mean by the \"state\" altogether.\nIf you treat quantum mechanics from an operationalist perspective, as many quantum information theorists do, then all that the quantum state refers to is preparations and measurements in the laboratory. And indeed, since your choice of measurement at some location cannot transfer information to the other location instantly, it would seem that the answer to your question is no.\n\nHowever, if you ascribe reality to the quantum state (which is commonly done, at least informally, by many physicists applying quantum theory to specific problems), that is, if you claim that the element of Hilbert space corresponds to a real, ontological physical entity, then the answer to your question is still not yes, but a little more murky. For a two-particle system, if the particles have interacted and become entangled, then there simply does not exist \"the state of the far-away particle\", but only the *composite* state of the *entire* two-particle system. A measurement of either particle will affect the composite state, and indeed, the changes to the measurable properties of the far-away particle are felt instantaneously after the nearby measurement, regardless of the distance between the two. It is wrong, however, to say that the state of the far-away particle has changed, because one cannot separate an entangled system into two single-particle states.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "439497", "title": "Classical limit", "section": "Section::::Time-evolution of expectation values.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 581, "text": "Now, if the initial state is very localized in position, it will be very spread out in momentum, and thus we expect that the wave function will rapidly spread out, and the connection with the classical trajectories will be lost. When Planck's constant is small, however, it is possible to have a state that is well localized in \"both\" position and momentum. The small uncertainty in momentum ensures that the particle \"remains\" well localized in position for a long time, so that expected position and momentum continue to closely track the classical trajectories for a long time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "682001", "title": "Singlet state", "section": "Section::::Singlets and entangled states.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 915, "text": "The difficulty captured by the EPR thought experiment was that by perturbing the angular momentum state of either of the two particles in a spatially distributed singlet state, the quantum state of the remaining particle appears to be \"instantaneously\" altered, even if the two particles have over time become separated by light years of distance. A critical insight made decades later by John Stewart Bell, who was a strong advocate of Einstein's locality-first perspective, showed that his Bell's theorem could be used to assess the existence or non-existence of singlet entanglement experimentally. The irony was that instead of disproving entanglement, which was Bell's hope, subsequent experiments instead established the reality of entanglement. In fact, there now exist commercial quantum encryption devices whose operation depends fundamentally on the existence and behavior of spatially extended singlets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "893337", "title": "Local hidden-variable theory", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 585, "text": "The theory of quantum entanglement predicts that separated particles can briefly share common properties and respond to certain types of measurement as if they were a single particle. In particular, a measurement on one particle in one place can alter the probability distribution for the outcomes of a measurement on the other particle at a different location. If a measurement setting in one location instantaneously modifies the probability distribution that applies at a distant location, then local hidden variables are ruled out. For an expanded description, see Bell's theorem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4141476", "title": "Greenberger–Horne–Zeilinger state", "section": "Section::::Pairwise entanglement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 324, "text": "The point of this example is that it illustrates that the pairwise entanglement of the GHZ state is more subtle than it first appears: a judicious measurement along an orthogonal direction, along with the application of a quantum transform depending on the measurement outcome, can leave behind a maximally entangled state.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "682001", "title": "Singlet state", "section": "Section::::Singlets and entangled states.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 525, "text": "It is important to realize that particles in singlet states need not be locally bound to each other. For example, when the spin states of two electrons are correlated by their emission from a single quantum event that conserves angular momentum, the resulting electrons remain in a shared singlet state even as their separation in space increases indefinitely over time, provided only that their angular momentum states remain unperturbed. In Dirac notation this distance-indifferent singlet state is usually represented as:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3066350", "title": "Microstate (statistical mechanics)", "section": "Section::::The microstate in phase space.:Classical phase space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 539, "text": "In this description, the particles are distinguishable. If the position and momentum of two particles are exchanged, the new state will be represented by a different point in phase space. In this case a single point will represent a microstate. If a subset of \"M\" particles are indistinguishable from each other, then the \"M!\" possible permutations or possible exchanges of these particles will be counted as part of a single microstate. The set of possible microstates are also reflected in the constraints upon the thermodynamic system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18743251", "title": "Teleportation", "section": "Section::::Science.:Quantum teleportation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 387, "text": "In 1993, Bennett \"et al\" proposed that a quantum state of a particle could be teleported to another distant particle, but the two particles do not move at all. This is called state teleportation. There are a lot of following theoretical and experimental papers published. Researchers believe that quantum teleportation is the foundation of quantum calculation and quantum communication.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You'll be interested in my response [here](_URL_0_), as well as the discussion elsewhere in the thread. I and the others definitely welcome follow-up questions. It's a claim backed by a few people with monetary investments (read: tourism) in the site, based on results that have not been replicated by any one else. I'm also going to sacrifice my integrity and vouch for the quality of the details in the Wiki article.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4852080", "title": "Semir Osmanagić", "section": "Section::::Bosnian pyramids claim.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 479, "text": "The 'Bosnian Pyramid' project is alleged to have done considerable damage to the archaeological heritage of the area, which contains ruins of a medieval capital, Roman observation post, and earlier remains. Anthony Harding, Professor of Archaeology at Exeter University and then-president of the European Association of Archeologists, said that, \"Osmanagić is conducting a pseudo-archaeological project that, disgracefully, threatens to destroy parts of Bosnia's real heritage.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3777541", "title": "Bosnian pyramid claims", "section": "Section::::Scholarly response.:Responses by sociologist.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 732, "text": "Colin Woodard, writing for the \"Smithsonian Magazine\" in December 2009, has suggested that the 'Bosnian pyramid' phenomenon may be a societal reaction to the widespread destruction and horrors of the Bosnian War which ended in 1995. He notes that Bosnian leaders, including one prime minister and two presidents, and many Bosnian news outlets have welcomed the theory. It appears to flatter a large and receptive domestic audience with an idea that their homeland was once the seat of a great ancient civilization, and holds out a kind of promise of a bright economic future. Conversely, Woodard notes, those in Bosnia who have attempted to expose the project as a nationalist hoax \"have been shouted down and called anti-Bosnian\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "853996", "title": "Visoko", "section": "Section::::History.:Bosnian pyramids.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 276, "text": "Scientific investigations of the site show there is no pyramid. Additionally, scientists have criticised the Bosnian authorities for supporting the pyramid claim saying, \"This scheme is a cruel hoax on an unsuspecting public and has no place in the world of genuine science.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3777541", "title": "Bosnian pyramid claims", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 470, "text": "The 'Bosnian pyramid complex' is a pseudoarchaeological notion to explain the formation of a cluster of natural hills in central Bosnia and Herzegovina. Since 2005, Semir Osmanagić, also known as Sam Osmanagich, a Bosnian businessman now based in Houston, Texas, has claimed that these hills are the largest human-made ancient pyramids on Earth. His claims have been overwhelmingly refuted by scientists but he has proceeded to promote the area as a tourist attraction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1838352", "title": "Great Pyramid of Cholula", "section": "Section::::Current importance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 650, "text": "The pyramid's importance has led to a number of measures taken to protect it. The archaeological zone is patrolled by a police equestrian unit from the municipality of San Ándres. This to keep motor vehicles from damaging the site. Access to parts of the site is restricted during events such as the Quetzalcoatl Ritual. Certain large fireworks have been banned by the city and the Catholic Church because they cause serious vibrations in the pyramid's tunnels. Some of the land around the pyramid has been bought by authorities and made into soccer fields, and sown with flowers to create a buffer between the construction of homes and the pyramid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43607395", "title": "Alexander Golod", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 361, "text": "Alexander Golod is a Ukrainian former defense contractor and current scientist and alternative healer, focusing on pyramid research. He has theorized that pyramid structures have energy forces that bring several benefits, for both man and the environment. He has constructed seventeen fiberglass pyramids throughout Russia, the tallest at a height of 132 feet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3777541", "title": "Bosnian pyramid claims", "section": "Section::::Osmanagić's claims.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 221, "text": "Local authorities have funded his excavations, and authorized visits to the 'pyramids' by school children, with guides telling them the hills are part of their Bosnian heritage. The site has become a tourist destination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is typically called [sexual selection](_URL_0_) and yes, it occurs in many species of animals (humans included). One good example is the tail of a male peacock. The color, size, luster etc, of the plumage works to attract the females of the species (peahens). This makes for a pretty good example because we too can appreciate the beauty of a peacock's tail.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8411", "title": "Darwinism", "section": "Section::::Other uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 308, "text": "In evolutionary aesthetics theory, there is evidence that perceptions of beauty are determined by natural selection and therefore Darwinian; that things, aspects of people and landscapes considered beautiful are typically found in situations likely to give enhanced survival of the perceiving human's genes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4431", "title": "Beauty", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 439, "text": "Beauty is the ascription of a property or characteristic to an animal, idea, object, person or place that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction. Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics, culture, social psychology, philosophy and sociology. An \"ideal beauty\" is an entity which is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture, for perfection. Ugliness is the opposite of beauty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "621169", "title": "Existence of God", "section": "Section::::Arguments for the existence of God.:Empirical arguments.:Argument from beauty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 316, "text": "One form of the argument from beauty is that the elegance of the laws of physics, which have been empirically discovered, or the elegant laws of mathematics, which are abstract but which have empirically proven to be useful, is evidence of a creator deity who has arranged these things to be beautiful and not ugly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55080525", "title": "African-American beauty", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 608, "text": "Beauty is a perceived characteristic of an animal, idea, object, person or place that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction. Many people define beauty as something that is subjective, being that it is in the \"eye of the beholder\" to see what he or she thinks is actually beautiful. This \"eye\" is seen in many different cultures with each having a different preference. This subjective can be seen throughout history, especially in the African-American community. With the presence of oppression in the past, African-American cultural beauty has bend mended and redefined in many ways.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21830", "title": "Nature", "section": "Section::::Human interrelationship.:Aesthetics and beauty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 887, "text": "Beauty in nature has historically been a prevalent theme in art and books, filling large sections of libraries and bookstores. That nature has been depicted and celebrated by so much art, photography, poetry, and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate nature and beauty. Reasons why this association exists, and what the association consists of, are studied by the branch of philosophy called aesthetics. Beyond certain basic characteristics that many philosophers agree about to explain what is seen as beautiful, the opinions are virtually endless. Nature and wildness have been important subjects in various eras of world history. An early tradition of landscape art began in China during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). The tradition of representing nature \"as it is\" became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35659147", "title": "Patterns in nature", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 404, "text": "Living things like orchids, hummingbirds, and the peacock's tail have abstract designs with a beauty of form, pattern and colour that artists struggle to match. The beauty that people perceive in nature has causes at different levels, notably in the mathematics that governs what patterns can physically form, and among living things in the effects of natural selection, that govern how patterns evolve.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "380406", "title": "Comparative psychology", "section": "Section::::Human-animal relationships.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 713, "text": "The relationship between humans and animals has long been of interest to anthropologists as one pathway to an understanding the evolution of human behavior. Similarities between the behavior of humans and animals have sometimes been used in an attempt to understand the evolutionary significance of particular behaviors. Differences in the treatment of animals have been said to reflect a society's understanding of human nature and the place of humans and animals in the scheme of things. Domestication has been of particular interest. For example, it has been argued that, as animals became domesticated, humans treated them as property and began to see them as inferior or fundamentally different from humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because all the major movie producers agree to listen to what the MPAA says. There's nothing stopping some rogue producer from ignoring them, but you'd have a hard time finding that producer's movies.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "75890", "title": "Motion Picture Association of America film rating system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 601, "text": "The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) film rating system is used in the United States and its territories to rate a film's suitability for certain audiences based on its content. The MPAA rating system is a voluntary scheme that is not enforced by law; films can be exhibited without a rating, although certain theaters refuse to exhibit non-rated or NC-17 rated films. Non-members of MPAA may also submit films for rating. Other media, such as television programs, music and video games, are rated by other entities such as the TV Parental Guidelines, the RIAA and the ESRB, respectively.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "75890", "title": "Motion Picture Association of America film rating system", "section": "Section::::Ratings.:MPAA film ratings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 322, "text": "In 2013, the MPAA ratings were visually redesigned, with the rating displayed on a left panel and the name of the rating shown above it. A larger panel on the right provides a more detailed description of the film's content and an explanation of the rating level is placed on a horizontal bar at the bottom of the rating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18932641", "title": "Motion Picture Association of America", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 649, "text": "The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) is an American trade association representing the five major film studios of the United States, as well as the video streaming service Netflix. Founded in 1922 as the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA), its original goal was to ensure the viability of the American film industry. In addition, the MPAA established guidelines for film content which resulted in the creation of the Production Code in 1930. This code, also known as the Hays Code, was replaced by a voluntary film rating system in 1968, which is managed by the Classification and Rating Administration (CARA).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42026002", "title": "Dixie M. Hollins High School", "section": "Section::::Academy of Entertainment Arts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 328, "text": "The film course teaches techniques such as lighting, storyboarding, and using Adobe Premiere Pro as an editing tool. Films with an MPAA rating of G or PG are viewed and analysed throughout the school year; films shown have included \"Sunset Boulevard\" (1950), \"Vertigo\" (1958), \"\" (1968), \"Rocky\" (1976), and \"Star Wars\" (1977).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54393129", "title": "American Cinema Editors Award for Best Edited One Hour Series for Commercial Television", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 424, "text": "The American Cinema Editors Award for Best Edited One Hour Series for Commercial Television, or the ACE Eddie Award, is an award presented by the American Cinema Editors to the best edited episodes of a one-hour series featured on broadcast or basic cable television. It is presented annually. The years denote when each episode first aired. The current eligibility period is the calendar year. The winners are highlighted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18932641", "title": "Motion Picture Association of America", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 471, "text": "More recently, the MPAA has advocated for the motion picture and television industry, with the goals of promoting effective copyright protection, reducing piracy, and expanding market access. It has long worked to curb copyright infringement, including recent attempts to limit the sharing of copyrighted works via peer-to-peer file-sharing networks and by streaming from pirate sites. Former United States Ambassador to France Charles Rivkin serves as chairman and CEO.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21983079", "title": "FilmAffinity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 374, "text": "Registered users can rate movies, find recommended films based on their personal ratings, create any kind of movie lists and — in the Spanish version — write reviews. The site also includes information about contents of the main streaming services, such as Netflix, HBO, Movistar+, Filmin and Rakuten TV. This feature is currently limited to Netflix in the English version.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Might just have to have a look at that...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19646920", "title": "Anglo-French Supreme War Council", "section": "Section::::Meetings of the SWC.:During the Battle of France.:Crisis meetings in Paris.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1117, "text": "On 31 May 1940, Churchill flew again to Paris for a meeting of the SWC, this time with Clement Attlee and Generals John Dill and Hastings Ismay. Discussions were held at the French Ministry of War on the deteriorating military situation with a French delegation consisting of Reynaud, Philippe Pétain and Maxime Weygand. Also present was Churchill's personal representative to the French Prime Minister, General Sir Edward Spears. Three main points were considered: Narvik, the Dunkirk evacuation and the prospect of an Italian invasion of France. Reynaud complained that at the evacuation, Operation Dynamo, more British troops had been taken off than French. Churchill promised to do everything to redress the balance. During discussions after the meeting, a group formed around Churchill, Pétain and Spears. One of the French officials mentioned the possibility of a separate surrender. Speaking to Pétain, Spears pointed out that such an event would provoke a blockade of France by Britain and the bombardment of all French ports in German hands. Churchill declared that Britain would fight on whatever happened.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2123475", "title": "Edward Spears", "section": "Section::::Second World War.:Churchill's Personal Representative to the French Prime Minister.:Discussions about Dunkirk, Narvik and Italy at Supreme War Council in Paris.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 1548, "text": "On 31 May 1940, Churchill flew to Paris with Clement Attlee and Generals John Dill (Chief of the Imperial General Staff) and \"Pug\" Ismay for a meeting of the Anglo French Supreme War Council to discuss the deteriorating military situation with a French delegation consisting of Reynaud, Pétain and Weygand. Three main points were considered: Narvik, the Dunkirk evacuation and the prospect of an Italian invasion of France. Spears did not take part in the discussions but was present 'taking voluminous notes'. It was agreed that British and French forces at Narvik be evacuated without delay – France urgently needed the manpower. Spears was impressed with the way that Churchill dominated the meeting. Dunkirk was the main topic, the French pointing out that 'out of 200,000 British 150,000 had been evacuated, whereas out of 200,000 Frenchmen only 15,000 had been taken off'. Churchill promised that now British and French soldiers would leave together 'bras dessus, bras dessous' – arm in arm. Italian entry into the war seemed imminent, with Churchill urging the bombing of the industrial north by British aircraft based in southern France while at the same time trying to gauge whether the French feared retaliation. Spears guessed that he was trying to assess the French will to fight. With the agenda completed, Churchill spoke passionately about the need for the two countries to fight on, or 'they would be reduced to the status of slaves for ever'. Spears was moved 'by the emotion that surged from Winston Churchill in great torrents'.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "228080", "title": "Battle of France", "section": "Section::::Battle.:Central front.:Low morale of French Leaders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 847, "text": "Churchill flew to Paris on 16 May. He immediately recognised the gravity of the situation when he observed that the French government was already burning its archives and was preparing for an evacuation of the capital. In a sombre meeting with the French commanders, Churchill asked General Gamelin, \"\"Où est la masse de manoeuvre\"?\" [\"Where is the strategic reserve?\"] that had saved Paris in the First World War. \"\"Aucune\"\" [\"There is none\"] Gamelin replied. After the war, Gamelin claimed his response was \"There is no longer any.\" Churchill later described hearing this as the single most shocking moment in his life. Churchill asked Gamelin where and when the general proposed to launch a counterattack against the flanks of the German bulge. Gamelin simply replied \"inferiority of numbers, inferiority of equipment, inferiority of methods\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2842933", "title": "War cabinet crisis, May 1940", "section": "Section::::War cabinet meetings – 26 to 28 May.:Sunday, 26 May.:First session.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 947, "text": "Churchill opened the meeting by briefing his colleagues on the Saturday night defence committee meeting and informing them of Reynaud's visit later on Sunday. He explained that, because of communication difficulties, the French high command had not known of Gort's decision that the BEF must retreat to Dunkirk and await evacuation. Churchill said that General Weygand was now aware and had accepted the situation. Weygand had instructed Blanchard to use his own discretion in supporting the retreat and evacuation as there was no longer any possibility of making a counter-attack to the south, especially as the French First Army had lost all its heavy guns and armoured vehicles. Churchill anticipated the total collapse of France and feared that Reynaud was coming to London to confirm it. As a result, evacuation of the BEF was now the government's first priority and, hence, the conclusions reached on Saturday night and transmitted to Gort.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1815221", "title": "The Gathering Storm (2002 film)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 621, "text": "With Churchill's fortunes restored, the narrative jumps forward to September 1939, with the declaration of war against Germany at the start of World War II, and the announcement that Churchill will be taking over command of the Royal Navy again as First Lord of the Admiralty. An impatient Churchill bids farewell to the staff at the country house, and travels to London. Arriving in the middle of the night at the Admiralty, Churchill is met by a Royal Marine corporal who informs him the fleet have already been signalled that \"\"Winston is Back\"\", to which Churchill triumphantly replies, \"\"And so he bloody well is!\"\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7592547", "title": "Winston Churchill as historian", "section": "Section::::Access to documents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 645, "text": "When he resumed office in 1939, Churchill fully intended to write a history of the war then beginning. He said several times: \"I will leave judgements on this matter to history—but I will be one of the historians.\" To circumvent the rules against the use of official documents, he took the precaution throughout the war of having a weekly summary of correspondence, minutes, memoranda and other documents printed in galleys and headed \"Prime Minister's personal minutes\". As well, Churchill actually wrote or dictated a number of letters and memoranda with the specific intention of placing his views on the record for later use as a historian.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "376965", "title": "Military history of France during World War II", "section": "Section::::European Theatre of World War II.:Battle of France (May 10 – June 25, 1940).:Allied reaction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 169, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 169, "end_character": 723, "text": "Churchill flew to Paris on May 16. He immediately recognized the gravity of the situation when he observed that the French government was already burning its archives and preparing for an evacuation of the capital. In a sombre meeting with the French commanders, Churchill asked General Gamelin, \"Where is the strategic reserve?\" which had saved Paris in the First World War. \"There is none\", Gamelin replied. Later, Churchill described hearing this as the single most shocking moment in his life. Churchill asked Gamelin when and where the general proposed to launch a counterattack against the flanks of the German bulge. Gamelin simply replied \"inferiority of numbers, inferiority of equipment, inferiority of methods\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are 35 worldwide reports of explosions or fires from Note 7s, 2.5 million were sold. That's 0.14% that have had a problem. Its very possible that its just bad luck none of the phones they tested had the issue.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "50039455", "title": "Samsung Galaxy Note 7", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 590, "text": "In the wake of the recall, Samsung, as well as UL LLC, Exponent, and TÜV Rheinland performed internal testing and analysis to determine the exact causes of the defects. Samsung released its official findings on 23 January 2017. Concurrently, the company announced that all of its future battery-operated products would become subject to an \"enhanced\" eight-point inspection and testing protocol, including stricter visual inspections, as well as charge and discharge tests, Total Volatile Organic Compound tests, and accelerated usage tests. An advisory board of academics was also formed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50039455", "title": "Samsung Galaxy Note 7", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 429, "text": "On 18 October 2016, McCuneWright LLP sued Samsung and filed a proposed class-action lawsuit over its handling of the recall, stating that the company had \"failed to reimburse consumers for monthly costs associated with owning an unusable Note 7\". Samsung was also criticized by customers affected by the exploding phones, who alleged that the company was refusing to compensate them for property damage caused by the explosions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50039455", "title": "Samsung Galaxy Note 7", "section": "Section::::Issues.:Initial reports.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1298, "text": "On 31 August 2016, it was reported that Samsung was delaying shipments of the Galaxy Note 7 in some regions to perform \"additional tests being conducted for product quality\"; this came alongside user reports of batteries exploding while charging. On 1 September 2016, South Korea's Yonhap News Agency reported that Samsung was preparing to recall the device worldwide due to these battery issues. On 2 September 2016, Samsung suspended sales of the Galaxy Note 7 and announced an informal recall, after it was found that a manufacturing defect in the phones' batteries had caused some of them to generate excessive heat, resulting in fires and explosions. A formal U.S. recall was announced on 15 September 2016. Samsung exchanged the affected phones for a new revision, which utilized batteries sourced from a different supplier. However, after reports emerged of incidents where these replacement phones also caught fire, Samsung recalled the Galaxy Note 7 worldwide on 10 October 2016, and permanently ceased production of the device on 11 October. Due to the recalls, Samsung has issued software updates in some markets that are intended to \"eliminate their ability to work as mobile devices\", including restricting battery capacity, and blocking their ability to connect to wireless networks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3473219", "title": "Email spoofing", "section": "Section::::Email Spoofing in the Media.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 291, "text": "BULLET::::- In October 2013, an email which looked like it was from the Swedish company Fingerprint Cards was sent to a news agency, saying that Samsung offered to purchase the company. The news spread and the stock exchange rate surged by 50%. It was later discovered the email was a fake.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50039455", "title": "Samsung Galaxy Note 7", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 1540, "text": "\"The Verge\" criticized Samsung's overall handling of the battery faults and recall, arguing that the company had initially delivered unclear messaging over whether the devices were still safe to use, as well as its slow communication with the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, which had the capacity to issue an official recall in the U.S. The arguments were based on data released on 13 September 2016 by the research firm Apteligent, which stated that Galaxy Note 7 usage had been \"almost exactly the same\" since the announcement of the exchange program. \"The Verge\" also noted that the U.S. government's ban on taking Galaxy Note 7 phones aboard airline flights was \"perhaps unprecedented\", acknowledging that only the ban of hoverboards by individual airlines for similar reasons—an entire class of products (albeit one that was \"admittedly fire-prone because of cheap materials\")—came close to a legal ban for a single consumer product in terms of overall magnitude. Kyle Weins of \"Wired.com\" felt that Samsung switched to non-removable batteries in order to imitate the industrial design of Apple, after having used removable batteries on many of its past models (such as the Galaxy Note 4). He argued that this design decision exacerbated the battery faults of the Note 7, by requiring users to replace the entire phone as opposed to just the battery. He suggested that in the future, Samsung could \"lead the pack\" by switching back to removable batteries, as with other \"responsible\" OEMs such as HP Inc. and LG Electronics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59725109", "title": "Protests against Samsung", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 924, "text": "Studies and reports released decades after Samsung's entry into semiconductor fabrication showed that the company has a long history of questionable health and safety practices. It was discovered that Samsung semiconductor workers' exposure to radiation was significantly beyond the acceptable levels recognized by US regulators. Moreover, it was found that Samsung neglected to actually check the chemical composition of substances used in its semiconductor fabrication process, and that the company failed to conduct exposure assessments for 71% of chemicals utilized in production. Other investigations suggested the company continued to use harmful substances even after stating it would no longer use them. For example, internal documents showed that Samsung was using TCE, a known toxic substance, as recently as 2010 despite the company publicly stating it had not been a part of the fabrication process since 1995. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50039455", "title": "Samsung Galaxy Note 7", "section": "Section::::Issues.:Battery faults.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 203, "text": "Battery defects (and some user error) caused many Note 7 units to overheat and combust or explode. On 10 October 2016, Samsung permanently discontinued the Galaxy Note 7 due to these repeated incidents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In a situation like this taking samples is vital.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My guess is that it would be ballooning silk/thread from a spider or other arthropod and that it shrunk after drying out and/or becoming increasingly cohesive/adhesive, and perhaps disappeared because it was either dissolved by water (rain, dew, normal humidity), or consumed by an animal (spiders often recycle their silk, ants might eat it, as might larger animals like a dog), or that you just weren't able to find it again due to its size.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Really great video that should put bugs above in perspective. (Starts slow for first minute but get super interesting) _URL_0_ (1:27 for your answer)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "/r/whatisthisbug should help. my non expert opinion is that it is from a spider. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You might have [star jelly!](_URL_0_)\n\nMaybe. I know it is known for 1) Being found in random ass areas and 2) disappears / evaporates. I've read more interesting articles than the wiki there, but maybe?\n\nEDIT: After looking at your pictures, probably not. But still, tell people you found some star jelly. Way cooler than bug shit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Spider Ballooning: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You are seeing a migration of balloon parachuting spiders! :) They invade Chicago quite frequently, actually. They use their spider silk to form parachutes, and migrate! Really, really neat little buggers! They can actually travel upwards of 1600km using this method -- a hatchling will climb to a high location and create a balloon of spider silk, then take to the wind.\n\n_URL_1_\n_URL_2_\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ballooning spiders? since you mentioned midwest, there was that time when [Hilton warned guests to keep windows shut](_URL_0_) because of the great spider migration.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Very interesting and refreshing, I really didn't knew anything about bugs flying THAT high! Don't the bugs suffer from oxygen starvation?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Spiderweb. little spiders spin these spiderchutes, they catch the wind, travel for ages, and come down all over the place. I lived in southern Australia in the country growing up, and in the right season, the land would be covered in the stuff.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Looks like a spider web to me.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15318146", "title": "Allende meteorite", "section": "Section::::Fall.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 829, "text": "The original stone is believed to have been approximately the size of an automobile traveling towards the Earth at more than 10 miles per second. The fall occurred in the early morning hours of February 8, 1969. At 01:05 a huge, brilliant fireball approached from the southwest and lit the sky and ground for hundreds of miles. It exploded and broke up to produce thousands of fusion crusted pieces. This is typical of falls of large stones through the atmosphere and is due to the sudden braking effect of air resistance. The fall took place in northern Mexico, near the village of Pueblito de Allende in the state of Chihuahua. Allende stones became one of the most widely distributed meteorites and provided a large amount of material to study, far more than all of the previously known carbonaceous chondrite falls combined.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "72076", "title": "Wold Cottage meteorite", "section": "Section::::The meteorite.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 675, "text": "The stone fell at around 3 o'clock, on 13 December 1795, landing within a few yards of ploughman John Shipley. It created a crater approximately across, and embedded itself in the underlying chalk rock to a depth of , passing through of topsoil. The fall was observed by several people, who described a dark body passing through the air. As discovered at its landing point, the stone was warm and smoking; several people reported sounds of explosions as it fell. The owner of the land was Major Edward Topham, a well-known public figure, an ex-soldier, playwright and newspaper proprietor; he publicised the find and exhibited the meteorite publicly at Piccadilly in London.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29639", "title": "Siberia", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 355, "text": "At 7:15 a.m. on 30 June 1908 the Tunguska Event felled millions of trees near the Podkamennaya Tunguska (Stony Tunguska) River in central Siberia. Most scientists believe this resulted from the air burst of a meteor or a comet. Even though no crater has ever been found, the landscape in the (sparsely inhabited) area still bears the scars of this event.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18248105", "title": "Pultusk (meteorite)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 349, "text": "The fall occurred on January 30, 1868 at 7:00 pm near the town of Pułtusk, about northeast of Warsaw. Thousands of people witnessed a large fireball followed by detonations and a very large shower of small fragments falling on ice, land and houses within an area of about 127 sq km (appx. 78 sq. miles). The estimated number of fragments was 68780.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38040379", "title": "Příbram meteorite", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 323, "text": "The fall was preceded by a bright bolide seen throughout what was then western Czechoslovakia. The light extended to . At an altitude of about , the meteor broke up. One loud and several quieter explosions were heard. The meteorite was found to have penetrated ploughed land to a depth of , bounced, and fallen further on.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25572812", "title": "Yardymly (meteorite)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 678, "text": "The eyewitnesses saw the bright bolide flying through clouds from southwest to northeast. The falling was accompanied by a bright, blinding flare brighter than solar illumination and a noise similar to rolling thunder. The illumination embraced the area of ca. . The fall of individual pieces was accompanied by a whistling and drone, resembling that produced by a jet aircraft or missile. The examination of chemical and physical properties of the meteorite was led by Azeri researcher Mirali Qashqai. The meteorite features a sizeable Widmanstätten pattern and an anomalously low amount of tritium. Similar tritium anomalies were detected previously in other iron meteorites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5540794", "title": "1976 Tehran UFO incident", "section": "Section::::Explanation and analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 545, "text": "Regarding pilot reports of \"bright objects\" falling to the ground and \"leaving a bright trail\", American sceptic author Brian Dunning observes that September 19, the day of the incident, was the height of two annual meteorite showers, the Gamma Piscids and the Southern Piscids and the tail of the Eta Draconids shower, so observation of falling objects or odd lights would not have been unusual. At the site where the falling light supposedly crashed, a beeping transponder from a C-141 aircraft was found according to investigating Col. Mooy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No, no. Ports are used so the **device**, identified by it's IP address on the network, knows which application should handle the data, *not* so that the network knows where to send the data.\n\nIt's essentially the same as a ship harbour - the IP address is the coordinates of the harbour, and the Port is the... well, the port the ship should dock at. \n\nYou shouldn't get multiple applications sending or listening on the same respective ports, however a single application can send or receive on many ports at the same time.\n\nA practical example is the internet. Most HTTP websites are served via port 80, and most HTTPS websites are served via port 443. Other websites, for whatever reason, might be served on another port, a common alternate to port 80 is port 8080. In your web browser you would navigate to _URL_0_ in order to access that resource (note the colon).\n\nThere is a sort of 'good practice' when it comes to assigning ports to applications, but it is not mandatory, and hence the server administrator can select any free port they like to serve data on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "347136", "title": "List of TCP and UDP port numbers", "section": "Section::::Well-known ports.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 359, "text": "The port numbers in the range from 0 to 1023 (0 to 2 − 1) are the \"well-known ports\" or \"system ports\". They are used by system processes that provide widely used types of network services. On Unix-like operating systems, a process must execute with superuser privileges to be able to bind a network socket to an IP address using one of the well-known ports.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4971331", "title": "Port (computer networking)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 553, "text": "In computer networking, a port is an endpoint of communication. Physical as well as wireless connections are terminated at ports of hardware devices. At the software level, within an operating system, a port is a logical construct that identifies a specific process or a type of network service. Ports are identified for each protocol and address combination by 16-bit unsigned numbers, commonly known as the port number. The most common protocols that use port numbers, are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30538", "title": "Transmission Control Protocol", "section": "Section::::TCP ports.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 138, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 138, "end_character": 849, "text": "Port numbers are categorized into three basic categories: well-known, registered, and dynamic/private. The well-known ports are assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and are typically used by system-level or root processes. Well-known applications running as servers and passively listening for connections typically use these ports. Some examples include: FTP (20 and 21), SSH (22), TELNET (23), SMTP (25), HTTP over SSL/TLS (443), and HTTP (80). Registered ports are typically used by end user applications as ephemeral source ports when contacting servers, but they can also identify named services that have been registered by a third party. Dynamic/private ports can also be used by end user applications, but are less commonly so. Dynamic/private ports do not contain any meaning outside of any particular TCP connection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5776007", "title": "Open port", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 305, "text": "Ports are an integral part of the Internet's communication model — they are the channel through which applications on the client computer can reach the software on the server. Services, such as web pages or FTP, require their respective ports to be \"open\" on the server in order to be publicly reachable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42920842", "title": "Port (circuit theory)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 352, "text": "In electrical circuit theory, a port is a pair of terminals connecting an electrical network or circuit to an external circuit, a point of entry or exit for electrical energy. A port consists of two nodes (terminals) connected to an outside circuit, that meets the \"port condition\"; the currents flowing into the two nodes must be equal and opposite. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4971331", "title": "Port (computer networking)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 591, "text": "A port number is always associated with an IP address of a host and the protocol type of the communication. It completes the destination or origination network address of a message. Specific port numbers are commonly reserved to identify specific services, so that an arriving packet can be easily forwarded to a running application. For this purpose, the lowest numbered 1024 port numbers identify the historically most commonly used services, and are called the well-known port numbers. Higher-numbered ports are available for general use by applications and are known as ephemeral ports.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60107856", "title": "Smart port", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 301, "text": "In the 21st century, as ports merge with big data, artificial intelligence and IoT, the port is beginning to be seen as a interconnected smart environment bringing together different port sectors and even other ports. The whole supply chain is integrated while making autonomous, intelligent choices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "well, this could be a brief answer to your question _URL_0_ ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45137635", "title": "1947–1949 Palestine war", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1413, "text": "The 1947–1949 Palestine war, known in Israel as the War of Independence (, \"Milkhemet Ha'Atzma'ut\") and in Arabic as The Nakba (\"lit. Catastrophie,\" , \"al-Nakba\"), was fought in the territory of Palestine under the British Mandate. It is the first war of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the broader Arab–Israeli conflict. During this war, the British Empire had withdrawn from Palestine, which they occupied since 1917. The war culminated the establishment of the State of Israel by the Jews, and saw the complete demographic transformation of the of Palestine, with the displacement of around 700,000 Palestinian Arabs and the complete destruction of their villages, towns and cities. The Palestinian Arabs ended up stateless, with 700,000 of them displaced of their homes, either to the Palestinian territories captured by Egypt and Jordan, or to the surrounding Arab states, many of whom, as well as their descendants, remain stateless and in refugee camps. The territory, which was under British administration before the war was now divided between the State of Israel, which captured about 78% of the entire territory, the Kingdom of Jordan (then known as Transjordan) which captured and later annexed the area which would become the West Bank, and Egypt, which captured the Gaza Strip, a coastal territory on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, in which it established the All-Palestine Government. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46216", "title": "Israeli–Palestinian conflict", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 614, "text": "Following the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948, the Arab League decided to intervene on behalf of Palestinian Arabs, marching their forces into former British Palestine, beginning the main phase of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The overall fighting, leading to around 15,000 casualties, resulted in cease fire and armistice agreements of 1949, with Israel holding much of the former Mandate territory, Jordan occupying and later annexing the West Bank and Egypt taking over the Gaza Strip, where the All-Palestine Government was declared by the Arab League on 22 September 1948.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6020082", "title": "Israeli–Lebanese conflict", "section": "Section::::1948 Arab–Israeli War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1057, "text": "Israel declared its independence on 14 May 1948. The next day, the British Mandate officially expired and, in , the seven-member Arab League, including Lebanon, publicly proclaimed their aim of creating a democratic \"United State of Palestine\" in place of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. The League soon entered the conflict on the side of the Palestinian Arabs, thus beginning the international phase of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Transjordan, and Iraq declared war on the new state of Israel. They expected an easy and quick victory in what came to be called the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The Lebanese army joined the other Arab armies in the invasion. It crossed into the northern Galilee. By the end of the conflict, however, it had been repulsed by Israeli forces, which occupied South Lebanon. Israel signed armistice agreements with each of its invading neighbors. The armistice with Lebanon was signed on 23 March 1949. As part of the agreement with Lebanon, Israeli forces withdrew to the international border.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1114732", "title": "Palestine (region)", "section": "Section::::History.:Post–1948.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 433, "text": "In the course of the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the rest of Mandate Palestine from Jordan and Egypt, and began a policy of establishing Jewish settlements in those territories. From 1987 to 1993, the First Palestinian Intifada against Israel took place, which included the Declaration of the State of Palestine in 1988 and ended with the 1993 Oslo Peace Accords and the creation of the Palestinian National Authority.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12641486", "title": "Islam in Palestine", "section": "Section::::History.:1948–1967: Islam under Israeli, Jordanian and Egyptian rule.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 1005, "text": "On May 14, 1948, one day before the end of the British Mandate of Palestine, the leaders of the Jewish community in Palestine led by prime minister David Ben-Gurion, made a declaration of independence, and the state of Israel was established. Contingents of Egyptian, Syrian, Jordanian, and Iraqi armies invaded Israel, thus starting the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The nascent Israeli Defense Force repulsed the Arab nations from part of the occupied territories, thus extending its borders beyond the original UNSCOP partition. By December 1948, Israel controlled most of the portion of Mandate Palestine west of the Jordan River. The remainder of the Mandate consisted of Jordan, the area that came to be called the West Bank (occupied by Jordan), and the Gaza Strip (occupied by Egypt). Prior to and during this conflict, 700,000 Palestinians Arabs fled their original lands to become Palestinian refugees, in part, due to a promise from Arab leaders that they would be able to return when the war is won.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4462091", "title": "History of the Arab–Israeli conflict", "section": "Section::::War of 1948.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 906, "text": "The 1948 Arab–Israeli War (1948–49), known as the \"War of Independence\" by Israelis and al-Nakba (\"the Catastrophe\") by Palestinians, began after the UN Partition Plan and the subsequent 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine in November 1947. The plan proposed the establishment of Arab and Jewish states in Palestine. The Arabs had rejected the plan while the Jews had accepted it. For four months, under continuous Arab provocation and attack, the Yishuv was usually on the defensive while occasionally retaliating. By March 1948 however, the United States was actively seeking a temporary UN approved trusteeship rather than immediate partition, known as the Truman trusteeship proposal. The Jewish leadership rejected this. By now, both Jewish and Arab militias had begun campaigns to control territory inside and outside the designated borders, and an open war between the two populations emerged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15606119", "title": "List of wars involving Israel", "section": "Section::::Wars and other conflicts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 538, "text": "BULLET::::- Israeli war of independence (November 1947 – July 1949) – Started as 6 months of civil war between Jewish and Arab militias when the mandate period in Palestine was ending and turned into a regular war after the establishment of Israel and the intervention of several Arab armies. In its conclusion, a set of agreements were signed between Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, called the 1949 Armistice Agreements, which established the armistice lines between Israel and its neighbours, also known as the \"Green Line\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Many Australian banks will offer loan money to customers as soon as they're approved (at least for personal loans, mortgages can be more complex). Transfers between accounts within a bank are also usually instant.\n\nWhat often takes a long time is transfers between banks. [This is complicated](_URL_0_).\n\nPayday loan companies can bypass this issue by having agreements/accounts with the banks so any transfers they make to customers are within the same bank network.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31249962", "title": "Payday loans in the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 259, "text": "Payday loans originated in the United States and have been growing quickly in the UK market over the last five years. They offer a relatively small amount of capital (usually up to £500) for a short term, often under two weeks on average (or until \"payday\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31249764", "title": "Payday loans in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 635, "text": "A payday loan (also called a payday advance, salary loan, payroll loan, small dollar loan, short term, or cash advance loan) is a small, short-term unsecured loan, \"regardless of whether repayment of loans is linked to a borrower's payday.\" The loans are also sometimes referred to as \"cash advances,\" though that term can also refer to cash provided against a prearranged line of credit such as a credit card. Payday advance loans rely on the consumer having previous payroll and employment records. Legislation regarding payday loans varies widely between different countries and, within the United States, between different states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "631175", "title": "Payday loan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 642, "text": "A payday loan (also called a payday advance, salary loan, payroll loan, small dollar loan, short term, or cash advance loan) is a small, short-term unsecured loan, \"regardless of whether repayment of loans is linked to a borrower's payday.\" The loans are also sometimes referred to as \"cash advances,\" though that term can also refer to cash provided against a prearranged line of credit such as a credit card. Payday advance loans rely on the consumer having previous payroll and employment records. Legislation regarding payday loans varies widely between different countries, and in federal systems, between different states or provinces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31249962", "title": "Payday loans in the United Kingdom", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 300, "text": "Payday loans in the United Kingdom are typically loans of up to £1000 to be repaid over a short terma short term, or until \"payday\". Until the sector was more closely regulated by the FCA, interest rates were unregulated, with a typical loan costing as much as £25 for every £100 borrowed per month.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31249962", "title": "Payday loans in the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1008, "text": "A typical payday loan in the United Kingdom costs as much as £25 for every £100 borrowed per month, meaning a £300 loan would cost £375 to repay after one month. The UK imposes no legal limit on rolling-over loans, and there are no restrictions on the interest rates payday loan companies can charge: one UK payday lender charges a \"typical APR\" of 1,355%, another lender advertises an APR of 2,225%. Most companies charge 25% for an advance repayable at the end of the month, a few charge 30%, which is equivalent to an APR of over 2000%. Failure to repay a payday loan leads to spiraling APR. According to Consumer Focus, \"the cost of obtaining a loan online (often £25-£30 [per month] per £100) exceeds the costs of obtaining a loan on the High Street (often £13-£18 per £100)\" because the lenders reject fewer applicants and face higher rates of fraud and default. The providers charge a fee for the loan usually expressed as a flat fee per £100 borrowed for the stated short period, usually around £25.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31249764", "title": "Payday loans in the United States", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:Asymmetric information.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 411, "text": "The payday loan industry takes advantage of the fact that most borrowers do not know how to calculate their loan's APR and do not realize that they are being charged rates up to 390% interest annually. Critics of payday lending cite the possibility that transactions with in the payday market may reflect a market failure that is due to asymmetric information or the borrowers' cognitive biases or limitations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31249764", "title": "Payday loans in the United States", "section": "Section::::Economic effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 313, "text": "Although borrowers typically have payday loan debt for much longer than the loan's advertised two-week period, averaging about 200 days of debt, most borrowers have an accurate idea of when they will have paid off their loans. About 60% of borrowers pay off their loans within two weeks of the days they predict.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Viral infections such as those caused by [HPV](_URL_0_) often exhibit latent, asymptomatic phases. The virus may remain in the host for many years, cycling through periods of heightened activity before being suppressed [but not cleared entirely] by the immune system.\n\nSo, to answer your question: it's not that they are necessarily predisposed to re-infection, they simply never cleared the infection to begin with.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Viral infections such as those caused by [HPV](_URL_0_) often exhibit latent, asymptomatic phases. The virus may remain in the host for many years, cycling through periods of heightened activity before being suppressed [but not cleared entirely] by the immune system.\n\nSo, to answer your question: it's not that they are necessarily predisposed to re-infection, they simply never cleared the infection to begin with.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34049", "title": "Wart", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 421, "text": "Warts are caused by infection with a type of human papillomavirus (HPV). Factors that increase the risk include use of public showers, working with meat, eczema and a weak immune system. The virus is believed to enter the body through skin that has been damaged slightly. A number of types exist, including \"common warts\", plantar warts, \"filiform warts\", and genital warts. Genital warts are often sexually transmitted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34049", "title": "Wart", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 436, "text": "Warts are caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV). There are about 130 known types of human papilloma viruses. HPV infects the squamous epithelium, usually of the skin or genitals, but each HPV type is typically only able to infect a few specific areas on the body. Many HPV types can produce a benign growth, often called a \"wart\" or \"papilloma\", in the area they infect. Many of the more common HPV and wart types are listed below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34049", "title": "Wart", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 355, "text": "Warts are very common, with most people being infected at some point in their lives. The estimated current rate of non-genital warts among the general population is 1–13%. They are more common among young people. The estimated rate of genital warts in sexually active women is 12%. Warts have been described at least as far back as 400 BC by Hippocrates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "188665", "title": "Genital wart", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 384, "text": "Genital warts are a sexually transmitted infection caused by certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV). They are generally pink in color and project out from the surface of the skin. Usually they cause few symptoms, but can occasionally be painful. Typically they appear one to eight months following exposure. Warts are the most easily recognized symptom of genital HPV infection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "188665", "title": "Genital wart", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 345, "text": "In most cases, there are no symptoms of HPV infection other than the warts themselves. Sometimes warts may cause itching, redness, or discomfort, especially when they occur around the anus. Although they are usually without other physical symptoms, an outbreak of genital warts may cause psychological distress, such as anxiety, in some people.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "198796", "title": "Spanish flu", "section": "Section::::History.:Spread.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 493, "text": "When an infected person sneezes or coughs, more than half a million virus particles can be spread to those close by. The close quarters and massive troop movements of World War I hastened the pandemic, and probably both increased transmission and augmented mutation; the war may also have increased the lethality of the virus. Some speculate the soldiers' immune systems were weakened by malnourishment, as well as the stresses of combat and chemical attacks, increasing their susceptibility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "357756", "title": "Poliovirus", "section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 516, "text": "The primary determinant of infection for any virus is its ability to enter a cell and produce additional infectious particles. The presence of CD155 is thought to define the animals and tissues that can be infected by poliovirus. CD155 is found (outside of laboratories) only on the cells of humans, higher primates, and Old World monkeys. Poliovirus is, however, strictly a human pathogen, and does not naturally infect any other species (although chimpanzees and Old World monkeys can be experimentally infected).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It has to do with the federal nature of our government. One of the core goals of our Constitution was to give all regions of the country a voice in the government. The way that that was done was to create a bunch of separate, winner-take-all districts.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It kind of has. Part of it (the House of Representatives) is based on a system where the number of seats a state has in there is proportional to that state's population. As populations go up, so do the number of seats. The other house though (the Senate), has an equal number of representatives per state.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It goes back to the early days of the country when the US was viewed more as a collection of separate states than as a single country. The issue of representation was a huge issue when writing the Constitution. To oversimplify the situation, big states wanted proportional representation since they'd have the most power. Small states wanted each state to have equal numbers of representatives so they couldn't be pushed around by the bigger states. There were also regional issues and concerns about whether groups of states with similar interests could become too powerful. Multiple proposals were made, but the system that was eventually adopted involved a 2-house legislature with 1 house based on states' populations and the other house giving equal representation to each state. This was known as the Great Compromise of 1787.\n\nIn the modern US, it would be possible to switch to a strictly proportional system. However, it would involve completely changing the way the legislature operates and drastically change the balance of power in one party's favor. Needless to say, one of the parties would lose a tremendous amount of representation, so they'd oppose it strongly. Making such a large change would have to be done via a change to the Constitution itself. The process for doing this involves support from 2/3 of Congress and 3/4 of the states. Needless to say, if either major political party was opposed to such a change or was even mixed, adopting this change would be impossible. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32398642", "title": "The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress: 1789-1989", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1064, "text": "Representation in the United States Congress is \"geographically based\". Moreover, the Founders explicitly designed the House of Representatives to be an institution that reflects local and regional concerns. These inescapable facts, and the actual history and actions of Congress itself, led many prominent historians, political scientists and geographers to attempt to investigate congressional elections, roll call voting, and other characteristics and behavior in their spatial context. Two of the greatest hindrances to this type of research were the unavailability of historical congressional district boundary maps and historical congressional election maps. To fill this gap in American historical information, the National Endowment for the Humanities, in the late 1970s and 1980s, supported research which became two of the most important and award-winning reference books in American political history. These books provided researchers, teachers and students with an additional critical dimension for examining and understanding the American experience.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32398332", "title": "The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts: 1789-1983", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 892, "text": "Representation in the United States Congress is \"geographically based\". The Founders explicitly designed the House of Representatives to be an institution that reflects local and regional concerns. These inescapable facts, and the actual history and actions of Congress itself, led many prominent historians, political scientists and geographers to attempt to investigate congressional elections, roll call voting, and other characteristics and behavior in their spatial context. Two of the greatest hindrances to this type of research were the unavailability of historical congressional district boundary maps and historical congressional election maps. To fill this gap in American historical information, the National Endowment for the Humanities, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, supported research to produce \"The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts: 1789-1983\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20224544", "title": "Gregorio Sablan", "section": "Section::::Delegate to the House of Representatives.:Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 658, "text": "In 2008, the Consolidated Natural Resources Act of 2008, signed into law by President George W. Bush, replaced the position of resident representative with a nonvoting delegate to the House of Representatives. The other United States insular areas, Guam, American Samoa, the United States Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico, as well as the District of Columbia, already had nonvoting delegates to Congress. The new position received the power to serve in congressional committees, to introduce bills, and to vote on proposed legislation in committee, but still had limited powers on the House floor, lacking the right to vote on legislation on the House floor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1729030", "title": "District of Columbia voting rights", "section": "Section::::Proposed reforms.:Legislation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 504, "text": "A secondary criticism of a legislative remedy is that any law granting representation to the District could be undone in the future. Additionally, recent legislative proposals deal with granting representation in the House of Representatives only, which would still leave the issue of Senate representation for District residents unresolved. Thus far, no bill granting the District voting representation has passed both houses of Congress. A summary of legislation proposed since 2003 is provided below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45447387", "title": "PlaceAVote.com", "section": "Section::::Public opinion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 883, "text": "PlaceAVote.com advocates criticize the current political system's tendency to only represent the organized voice of special interests, arguing that the current system is an example of the minority ruling the majority via well-funded special interests. The current delegation system assumes that representatives are experts or are given access to experts on pending legislation. However the truth is that most of the representatives in congress are actually not experts in all the issues but come from a law background. PlaceAVote instead creates a system where experts of differing opinions can come together and publicly debate the merits and weaknesses of upcoming legislation. Though mechanisms within the software that allow for the development of peer to peer coalitions around issues, legislation will be created based on need and public benefit rather than political payback.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "519146", "title": "Statehood movement in the District of Columbia", "section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 1019, "text": "Several bills have been introduced in Congress to grant the District of Columbia voting representation in one or both houses of Congress. The primary issue with all legislative proposals is whether the Congress has the constitutional authority to grant the District voting representation. Members of Congress in support of the bills claim that constitutional concerns should not prohibit the legislation's passage, but rather should be left to the courts. A secondary criticism of a legislative remedy is that any law granting representation to the District could be undone in the future. Additionally, recent legislative proposals deal with granting representation in the House of Representatives only, which would still leave the issue of Senate representation for District residents unresolved. Thus far, no bill granting the District voting representation has successfully passed both houses of Congress. If a bill were to pass, the law would not grant the District any additional authority over its local affairs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "842911", "title": "Bipartisanship", "section": "Section::::In U.S. politics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 253, "text": "A call for bipartisanship is often made by presidents who \"can't get their way in Congress,\" according to one view. Military policies of the Cold War and actions like the Iraq War were promoted and supported, through the mass media, as bipartisan acts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You know how everyone in your class always tries to colour in the lines? Because pictures always look better when you colour in the lines, right? And the sky should be blue and the grass should be green and if you follow all those rules your pictures will always be pretty. ...And they'll all kind of look like everyone else's.\n\nWell, modern art is that kid that said, \"Meh. I'm drawing however I want. I don't care about your stupid rules. And my pictures are still going to be pretty!\"\n\nPostmodern art is the kid who saw that and said, \"What? There's no rules? Cool! I'm going to pee on my desk!\"\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Let me give it a go. Because the word *art* is so vague, there's pretty much no limit on what humans consider art. Because of this, art is able break free of the bind of \"looking good\". A lot of the weird shit you're talking about (much of the time) is just intended to invoke any sort of emotion, even if it's a bad one. Artists like to try to transfer emotion through visual mediums, even if that feeling is the\"what the fuck am I supposed to feel\" feeling.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While we're on the topic... What about abstract art? Now that I really don't understand. Why does a painting of shapes and/or lines - whatever - deserve to be hung in a gallery? Some paintings are visually appealing, sure, but can't anyone paint stuff like that?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I find that Modern art is about the process of making a piece, and the relationship the artist has with his/her piece. The audience is not always taken into consideration, nor is profit. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This would be more effective if you gave some examples that seem to make no sense to you and maybe someone can explain the beauty of it with some context, theoretical understanding, etc.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "art is relative. If it doesn't provoke any feeling or emotion in you, move along.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Art today and art from the past are two different things. Art from the past was representation of something and documentation. Meaning art, specifically sculptures and paintings, were meant to seem as close a representation of real life as possible. This was what they used since they had no cameras. Eventually art became more about personal expression. The artist wants the viewer of the art to \"feel\" something or \"experience\" something. For example different colors make people feel different ways. Red elicits anger while blue is calming. So if you see a painting that look like a bunch of random red brush stokes it probably is meant to make you \"feel\" angry or visually show the feeling of anger. While a piece that is a simple blue gradient make you feel tranquil. A lot is left to interruption to make the piece different for everyone's experience. After saying that many people have criticized art for being to abstract being to far out there for any one to get. The way I like to say it is that too much of modern art doesn't make sense unless you read the place card placed on the wall next to it. Often times too art is just an experiment in the medium. The artist wants to know what can be done so they try it. Sometimes it looks cool. It may very well be completely meaningless beyond just being different for the sake of being different and to a lot of people that is great.\n\nedit: words", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A long time ago, a bad guy invented photography. All the painters were suddenly jobless so they went nuts. Voilá, modern art.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "After working in an art museum for 5 years I can offer this point of view. If you learn even a basic timeline of art history and the why and how each movement lead into the other. You would find pleasure from a much larger amount of art styles. You would also still not like art that you find to be crap or pointless. But it would eat at you, a lot less since you would better understand why crap (sometimes literally) can be considered art. Hope that helps. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Art is any creation that aims to evoke an emotional response in the person experiencing it. (I'll get to modern art. Bear with me.)\n\nOver the years, this is the most accurate description of art I have been able to come up with. With this definition, I'm desperately trying not to put the concept in too small a box. For instance, some people would use the word aesthetics somewhere in there, but that rules out the art associated with creations people generally don't associate with aesthetics, but that are still art. I even use the word \"creation\" because it doesn't have to be a \"thing\". Art can be a concept itself without a physical manifestation. I even balk a bit at the phrase \"evoke an emotional response\", because within that, I would hold that the lack of emotional response in the viewer/listener/experiencer, if that is what you're going for, is included in this definition. If you want someone to feel nothing, and they feel nothing, you've successfully done art. Ok, whatever.\n\nWhen you think of art you typically think of a painting or music or something along those lines. If you ever get involved in some kind of artistic discipline (for me, it's photography), if you really delve into it you may eventually find that you are attracted more to a particular genre within that artform. You may even find that your interests get narrower and narrower still as time goes on. (You may not, of course.)\n\nAs you chase the dragon, trying to improve your art, you will inevitably ask yourself: what constitutes an \"improvement\", anyway? Maybe if you do the thing you're trying to do it will improve your art...maybe it will make it worse, though. Who's to say?\n\nWell, here's what I think. Like anything else, there is a component of art that is subjective, and this informs whether you personally prefer it or not. But there is also a component of art that is objective, and it is fair to judge art based on that part against a standard measuring stick (which is not to say that this is easy or straightforward). In other words, this informs whether the piece is *good* or not, in an objective sense.\n\nConsider wine to make this clearer. If you taste a wine that has muddy flavors, lacks acidity, and could easily be achieved with any grapes from any plot of land the world over, this is an objectively bad wine. Perhaps you like that particular combination of flavors though, you would buy it and enjoy it. Ok, fine; there's no accounting for taste. Now consider a wine with clear notes of strawberry and pepper, with just the right balance of characteristics that allow those flavors to ring clear as a bell on your palate. This is an objectively good wine. The winemaker really had to know what they were doing to get that out of the grapes. Maybe you hate strawberries, or pepper, or the combination, though. This would be a good wine that you don't like. Fine.\n\nThe same holds true of art. There is a difference between enjoyment (subjective) and appreciation (objective). The objective aspects of art, for me, have to do with communication. (I believe that this communication is mainly accomplished by deft management of the experiencer's expectations, but I'm not sure that matters much for this particular answer.) If the artist is able to convey what they want to convey in all its intended detail (or vagueness), it is good art. If they can convey even subtle nuances, it is great art. If an artist is unable to convey any kind of intention to anyone outside themselves, then it is indulgent art. None of this has anything to do with whether you happen to like the piece or not. If you are a collector, you probably care more about the objective significance of the art and the universality of the piece; if you are buying it for your own enjoyment, you probably care more about the impact it has on you and you alone.\n\nOk, so where does this leave us? You can decide if your art is going to be improved by something based on whether you think it will help communicate to the viewer whatever you're trying to communicate. You do this by playing on the universal qualities of human nature. (This is why exploring the \"other\" is so fawned over in art circles...by exploring what the differences between people are, you can home in on what's the same. You can leverage those invariants to increase the universality of your art.)\n\nAs you explore ways to communicate more effectively through your chosen medium, you begin to focus on technique. If I make a composition like this, what does it do to the viewer's expectation? You eventually begin to understand the language of your chosen medium, and master it.\n\nI believe the exploration of these techniques is where most modern art comes from. If I'm studying composition, for example, I'll try to reduce it to the simplest elements. Playing with those elements can often hit upon one of those universal truths for how people experience that medium, and often that would result in something that's interesting.\n\nFor example, what's more interesting? A frame that is divided by a single line down the middle, or one that divides the frame by the golden ratio? Survey says: golden ratio. So for me, if someone presents a canvas with a single line on it, I'm trying to figure out what they hit upon. I probably don't get it b/c I'm not that good at art, but at least I'm trying.\n\nAnd then there's stuff like a blank canvas, which is just stupid because it's indulgent. Again, my opinion. :-)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well I can try to answer that. Art is not a matter of taste, its a knowledge. I might be wrong but I believe the question you want to ask is about contemporary art, not modern art, because its a common mistake to confuse the two. I'll cover modern art anyway. Modern art is pretty straight forward (guys like Picasso, Monet, van Gogh, etc.). Basically artists were tired of the canons imposed until then, in periods that came before like the Neoclassicism and Romanticism. Many people think those artists lacked the skill to paint realistic paintings, when in fact most of them could do it by the age of 15, thats why they wanted to break the boundaries of painting, sometimes by refusing the tri-dimensionalism, as the Cubism did (not always, because sometimes the Cubism tried to represent the 3rd dimension by painting other geometric planes that the perspective they were representing couldn't see, and also Cubism has an african esthetic because at the time Europe was flooded with exhibitions of african exploration and tribal art, Picasso owned many tribal items), or by the stroke technique, as the Impressionism did, with a more emotional and expressive stroke of the brush (among many other movements with other objectives). The propagation of photography also made the realistic paintings obsolete among many other things that contributed to the Modern art era. Contemporary art is a whole other thing, more confusing because, well, we're living it. I guess you'll need the time distance to understand it completely although many people try to explain it like its an absolute truth. And I guess the unexplainable its kind of an attractive quality of it. although many movements from the early stages of Contemporary art are already studied and fully understood. You have a more personal experience with the piece of art. Next time you go see a contemporary piece, try to get something out of it instead of waiting for it to deliver. I guess its all about that.\n\nI'm a wee bit drunk and english is not my mother tongue, so I apologize for any mistakes. In the morning I'll try to edit this. I'm sorry.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "163543", "title": "Modern art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 667, "text": "Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the styles and philosophy of the art produced during that era. The term is usually associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with fresh ideas about the nature of materials and functions of art. A tendency away from the narrative, which was characteristic for the traditional arts, toward abstraction is characteristic of much modern art. More recent artistic production is often called contemporary art or postmodern art.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54087097", "title": "Contemporary-Traditional Art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 843, "text": "Contemporary-Traditional Art refers to an art produced at the present period of time that reflects the current culture by utilizing classical techniques in drawing, painting, and sculpting. Practicing artists are mainly concerned with the preservation of time-honored skills in creating works of figurative and representational forms of fine art as a means to express human emotions and experiences. Subjects are based on the aesthetics of balancing external reality with the intuitive, internal conscience driven by emotion, philosophical thought, or the spirit. The term is used broadly to encompass all styles and practices of representational art, such as Classicism, Impressionism, Realism, and Plein Air (En plein air) painting. Technical skills are founded in the teachings of the Renaissance, Academic Art, and American Impressionism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50672763", "title": "Art & Aesthetics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 994, "text": "\"Art and Aesthetics\" deals with several issues of modern art and of artistic existence, especially: the use of the old to create the new; why the peak of Western music has come and gone; why architecture is the only art form that will always be well and dynamic; the lack of coherent artistic movements through social fragmentation; the academic-scientific approach to literature and how science cannot understand the artistic in any meaningful way; the meaning of \"ab homine\", as opposed to \"ad hominem\"; the triumph of \"interactive-analytical\" over \"authoritarian-memorative\" education, while a balance between the two is claimed to be preferable; the history of perspectivism and its triumph over any objective truth. These ideas are discussed in a partially autobiographical way, and raised through aesthetic experiences and encounters with people and places in several countries. \"The lyrical music on the CD extends his voyage from the philosophically aesthetic into the pure aesthetic.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63380", "title": "Contemporary art", "section": "Section::::Scope.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 993, "text": "The classification of \"contemporary art\" as a special type of art, rather than a general adjectival phrase, goes back to the beginnings of Modernism in the English-speaking world. In London, the Contemporary Art Society was founded in 1910 by the critic Roger Fry and others, as a private society for buying works of art to place in public museums. A number of other institutions using the term were founded in the 1930s, such as in 1938 the Contemporary Art Society of Adelaide, Australia, and an increasing number after 1945. Many, like the Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston changed their names from ones using \"Modern art\" in this period, as Modernism became defined as a historical art movement, and much \"modern\" art ceased to be \"contemporary\". The definition of what is contemporary is naturally always on the move, anchored in the present with a start date that moves forward, and the works the Contemporary Art Society bought in 1910 could no longer be described as contemporary.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24897956", "title": "SCCA-Ljubljana", "section": "Section::::School.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1520, "text": "The World of Art is an educational program introduced in 1997. It was developed out of a need for theoretical and practical education in the field of contemporary visual art and which (still) no university program in Slovenia offered. Formal education in art history has included neither contemporary production nor the art theory of the 20th and 21st Century and the young experts have mainly turned towards past periods due to their lack of knowledge and apparatuses for decoding contemporary tendencies in art. In the nineties, art production in Slovenia formed an important agent in cultural and social processes and was also integrated into international scene, while the theoretical and curatorial apparatuses lagged behind. In response, the World of Art program brought a series of public lectures, which shed some light upon the artistic practices and art theories significant for the understanding of contemporary arts. A one-year-long course for curators of contemporary art, enabled participants to gain knowledge necessary to perform the work of a contemporary art curator. The program had a significant impact on the local contemporary art scene and a number of participants become curators in state and regional institutions, art centers and galleries, whilst others are working as writers and critics for contemporary art. In recent years the role of curator has shifted towards critical and theoretic reflection of contemporary art, stimulating the program to organize a one-year-long seminar from 2005.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63380", "title": "Contemporary art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 704, "text": "Contemporary art is the art of today, produced in the second half of the 20th century or in the 21st century. Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced, culturally diverse, and technologically advancing world. Their art is a dynamic combination of materials, methods, concepts, and subjects that continue the challenging of boundaries that was already well underway in the 20th century. Diverse and eclectic, contemporary art as a whole is distinguished by the very lack of a uniform, organising principle, ideology, or \"-ism\". Contemporary art is part of a cultural dialogue that concerns larger contextual frameworks such as personal and cultural identity, family, community, and nationality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57928627", "title": "Art for art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 236, "text": "Art for art is an international contemporary art movement. Akin to the 19th-century slogan Art for art's sake, or \"l'art pour l'art,\" the work of art is seen as a self-sufficient product independent from the personality of its creator.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They have rubber rollers that descend onto the stack of paper and then push the paper sheet by sheet into the printer. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Rubber rollers with a lot of friction, spread across the sheet. This is really easy for thin sheets. (text weight paper)\n\nSometimes on the bigger industrial printers they are air-fed. A blast of air separates the top sheet and guides it foreword to a rubber roller.\n\nI work with these printers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5561979", "title": "Duplex printing", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 308, "text": "Single-sided printers can print both sides of the paper by manually removing and turning over a stack of sheets after one side is printed; however, the user has to manually turn the print job over and re-initialize the printing of the document, with care to ensure that the order and orientation is correct.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11633687", "title": "Continuous stationery", "section": "Section::::Shape and form.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 462, "text": "Most continuous form paper is punched longitudinally along both edges with regularly spaced engagement holes that engage with sprocket wheels or toothed belts on the \"tractor\" which move the paper through the printer. It is usually perforated transversely with a line of closely spaced holes or slits which form a tear edge that allows it to be torn neatly into separate pages after printing; when fed through the printer the paper is simply a continuous sheet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16861908", "title": "Paper", "section": "Section::::Papermaking.:Finishing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 435, "text": "The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut \"long-grain\", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet. Continuous form paper (or continuous stationery) is cut to width with holes punched at the edges, and folded into stacks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11633687", "title": "Continuous stationery", "section": "Section::::Shape and form.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 325, "text": "After printing the separated sheets can be held in binders by using the sprocket holes when simply required as a record. Alternatively some types of continuous form paper also have longitudinal perforations along each edge inside the engagement holes, allowing the strips with sprocket holes to be torn off the printed page.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2727018", "title": "Page (paper)", "section": "Section::::The printed page in computing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 238, "text": "In word processors and spreadsheets, the process of dividing a document into parts which each occupy one pages of paper when printed is called pagination. Printing a large page on multiple small pages of paper is sometimes called tiling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47451340", "title": "Newspaper production process", "section": "Section::::Press.:\"Folding\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 467, "text": "The folder starts were the printed webs come together. The Folder can produce ribbons and combine these ribbons in such a way that the pages are sorted ontop of each other. The folding process starts in the so called super structure and ends in the main folding units at the end of the press process. The ribbons are cut in such a way that the pages of the newspaper are separated from each other and the folder lays down the newspaper copies onto the delivery belt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "166105", "title": "Paper size", "section": "Section::::North American paper sizes.:Notebook sizes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 123, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 123, "end_character": 854, "text": "The sizes listed above are for paper sold loose in reams. There are many sizes of tablets of paper, that is, sheets of paper bound at one edge, usually by a strip of plastic or hardened PVA adhesive. Often there is a pad of cardboard (also known as chipboard or greyboard) at the bottom of the stack. Such a tablet serves as a portable writing surface, and the sheets often have lines printed on them, usually in non-repro blue, to make writing in a line easier. An older means of binding is to have the sheets stapled to the cardboard along the top of the tablet; there is a line of perforated holes across every page just below the top edge from which any page may be torn off. Lastly, a pad of sheets each weakly stuck with adhesive to the sheet below, trademarked as \"Post-It\" or \"Stick-Em\" and available in various sizes, serve as a sort of tablet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Aside from the fact the packages are tracked and logged, it is unlikely an individual would want to risk there income for a £10 loot crate", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Besides honesty? Nothing except security cameras and the fear of one day finding the police searching their house in response to a suspicious pattern.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1) It is a Federal offense to do this, and postal employees have that made clear to them up front.\n\n2) Postal employees have a salary, benefits and pension plan. They have way less motivation to steal. \"Should I risk all my support over the chance of pilfering a cool Funko Pop?\" I doubt many of them even get to the point of asking themselves that.\n\n3) I don't know if every postal location does this, but it is not uncommon for orientation to include being shown footage of prior employee's lives being ruined for being caught stealing mail.\n\n4) the mail handling is not done in private places typically, in fact there are overseers usually who watch the staff. Not only that, but it is not unheard of to have undercover staff checking on them (on the ones who handle the mail). This is also known to postal staff.\n\nSo the summary is risk versus reward makes it a very very unattractive idea to steal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "629451", "title": "Poste restante", "section": "Section::::By country.:Thailand.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 330, "text": "There is a small amount of storage fee (1-2 Thai Baht) when picking up the mail or parcel. Keep in mind that the recipient must track the delivery status by themself via Tracking number provided. So it is recommended to deliver using Registered mail or EMS. Since regular mail delivery service does not provide a tracking number.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "620851", "title": "Mail carrier", "section": "Section::::United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 405, "text": "Carriers who walk generally also drive postal vehicles to their routes, park at a specified location, and carry one \"loop\" of mail, up one side of the street and back down the other side, until they are back to their vehicle. This method of delivery is referred to as \"park and loop\". Letter carriers may also accommodate alternate delivery points in cases where \"extreme physical hardship\" is confirmed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "206102", "title": "Package delivery", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 257, "text": "Package delivery or parcel delivery is the delivery of shipping containers, parcels, or high value mail as single shipments. The service is provided by most postal systems, express mail, private courier companies, and less than truckload shipping carriers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50591", "title": "United States Postal Service", "section": "Section::::How delivery services work.:Delivery timing.:Direct delivery vs. customer pickup.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 275, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 275, "end_character": 468, "text": "Some customers choose to use post office boxes for an additional fee, for privacy or convenience. This provides a locked box at the post office to which mail is addressed and delivered (usually earlier in the day than home delivery). Customers in less densely populated areas where there is no city delivery and who do not qualify for rural delivery may receive mail only through post office boxes. High-volume business customers can also arrange for special pick-up.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24949", "title": "Post office", "section": "Section::::Under-staffed postal facilities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 557, "text": "In many jurisdictions, mail boxes and post office boxes have long been in widespread use for drop-off and pickup (respectively) of mail and small packages outside post offices or when offices are closed. Deutsche Post introduced the Pack-Station for package delivery (both drop-off and pickup) in 2001. In the 2000s, the United States Postal Service began to install Automated Postal Centers (APCs) in many locations both in post offices (for when they are closed or busy) and in retail locations. APCs can print postage and accept mail and small packages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38490157", "title": "Package tracking", "section": "Section::::Methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 542, "text": "To identify the location of the mail, two methods have been used. One approach involves reporting the arrival or departure of the package and recording the identity of the package, the location, the time, and the status. This approach has been used for package tracking provided by the delivery companies, such as Deutsche Post, United Parcel Service, AirRoad, or FedEx. Another approach is to use a GPS-based vehicle tracking system and nowadays Beacons to locate the vehicle that contains the package and record it in a real-time database.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "629451", "title": "Poste restante", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 331, "text": "Poste restante (, \"remainder post\") or general delivery is a service where the post office holds the mail until the recipient calls for it. It is a common destination for mail for people who are visiting a particular location and have no need, or no way, of having mail delivered directly to their place of residence at that time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Measuring the sideways motion of galaxies isn't something we can really do. However there are nearby galaxies with have negligible velocity (relative to us) in the radial direction; in these cases, you can safely assume that their sideways motion (relative to us) is the larger component.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28736", "title": "Speed of light", "section": "Section::::Faster-than-light observations and experiments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 472, "text": "In models of the expanding universe, the farther galaxies are from each other, the faster they drift apart. This receding is not due to motion \"through\" space, but rather to the expansion of space itself. For example, galaxies far away from Earth appear to be moving away from the Earth with a speed proportional to their distances. Beyond a boundary called the Hubble sphere, the rate at which their distance from Earth increases becomes greater than the speed of light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31155242", "title": "UGC 6945", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 427, "text": "Based upon a radial velocity of about 10,500 km s, the interacting pair of galaxies at the northwest are located at a distance of from us (assuming a Hubble constant value of ). If we further assume that the third galaxy lies at the same distance away from us, we find that the galaxies are separated by a projected linear distance of roughly , though later findings from Hubble may cast this assumption into doubt (see below)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4116", "title": "Big Bang", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 812, "text": "American astronomer Edwin Hubble observed that the distances to faraway galaxies were strongly correlated with their redshifts. This was interpreted to mean that all distant galaxies and clusters are receding away from our vantage point with an apparent velocity proportional to their distance: that is, the farther they are, the faster they move away from us, regardless of direction. Assuming the Copernican principle (that the Earth is not the center of the universe), the only remaining interpretation is that all observable regions of the universe are receding from all others. Since we know that the distance between galaxies increases today, it must mean that in the past galaxies were closer together. The continuous expansion of the universe implies that the universe was denser and hotter in the past.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20580", "title": "Motion", "section": "Section::::List of \"imperceptible\" human motions.:Galaxy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 330, "text": "The Milky Way Galaxy is moving through space and many astronomers believe the velocity of this motion to be approximately relative to the observed locations of other nearby galaxies. Another reference frame is provided by the Cosmic microwave background. This frame of reference indicates that the Milky Way is moving at around .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "804039", "title": "Dynamical friction", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Galaxy Clusters.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 274, "text": "However the observed velocity dispersion of galaxies within a galaxy cluster does not depend on the mass of the galaxies. The explanation is that a galaxy cluster relaxes by violent relaxation, which sets the velocity dispersion to a value independent of the galaxy's mass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11439", "title": "Faster-than-light", "section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Universal expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 378, "text": "There are many galaxies visible in telescopes with red shift numbers of 1.4 or higher. All of these are currently traveling away from us at speeds greater than the speed of light. Because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can actually be cases where a galaxy that is receding from us faster than light does manage to emit a signal which reaches us eventually.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53243172", "title": "Eridanus II", "section": "Section::::Properties of the Galaxy.:Velocity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1417, "text": "While these observations solve the problem of radial velocity, the movement of Eridanus II towards the center of our galaxy, they cannot solve the problem of transverse velocity, motion at right angles to the line between Eridanus II and the Milky Way. That is, we cannot determine whether Eridanus II is orbiting the Milky Way, or simply moving in its direction from outside the system. Li et al. (2016: 7–8) report that Eridanus II does not exhibit a \"tail\" or gradient of lower (or higher) velocity stars in a particular direction, which might give a clue to that galaxy's transverse velocity. However, they point out that an object similar to Eridanus II would need a total velocity of about 200 km/sec to escape capture by the Milky Way. Given its radial velocity of 75 km/sec, Eridanus II would need a transverse velocity of some 185 km/sec to avoid capture—certainly possible, but not likely. In addition, they point to the results of detailed simulation studies of the Local Group (Garrison-Kimmel et al., 2014). All objects situated similarly to Eridanus II in these simulations were determined to be satellites of the Milky Way (Li et al. (2016: 8)). For reasons to be discussed in the concluding section, most researchers now believe that Eridanus II is an extremely long-period (i.e., several billion years per orbit) satellite of the Milky Way, probably beginning only its second approach to our galaxy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Different character encoding standards. \n\nYour computer only recognizes the number that's being sent, not the character. Computers only understand zeros and ones. A computer will assign each letter a different set of 8 zeros and ones, but problems happen when two computers use a different system of matching these numbers to the letters. Unicode is the most common system, but there are many others. The guy writing the site is using a weird set of numbers for his symbols and probably doesn't know it. \n\nGoogle Chrome was unable to detect what encoding this site is using, but it's not Unicode or the European standard. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On computers, we store text as a sequence of numbers. Each number represents one *glyph* (human letters), but there are many different formats (called *encodings* or *character sets*) to choose from, and each has a different number for each glyph.\n\nWhen we save text on a computer, we don't always save the encoding it uses along with it; if you're saving everything into one format then you don't technically need to. However, if you send your text to another computer (which happens when you visit a website) that is using a different encoding, that computer needs to translate your text before it can show it to its user. If for some reason the second computer guesses the encoding your text is using incorrectly, its translation won't make any sense.\n\nIn the case you've shown, that's what has happened. The reason you're able to read *almost* all of the text is a fluke from the history of text encoding; almost all encodings happen to share roughly 128 glyph numbers in common (the ones used for ASCII), and those happen to include upper- and lowercase English letters and common punctuation.\n\nAnd finally, the reason why those characters in particular are displayed incorrectly is that ASCII only has one type of quotation character for both single and double quotes; this character is used to both begin and end quotations as well as represent apostrophes. Other encodings have both opening and closing quotation glyphs (as well as ASCII's version) which are angled. Most word processing programs use the newer quotation styles, especially Microsoft Word. Articles are often written in word and then copied into *HTML* (web page) documents. HTML documents default to an encoding which doesn't use these newer quotation glyphs directly; instead it has sequences of text which will be replaced with the glyph by the web browser. For example, ' & amp;amp;' will be replaced with the ampersand glyph ( & ). If the person copying the article doesn't replace the special characters with these text sequences, the web browser will try to read them and fail exactly the way it has on that page.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Different character encoding standards. \n\nYour computer only recognizes the number that's being sent, not the character. Computers only understand zeros and ones. A computer will assign each letter a different set of 8 zeros and ones, but problems happen when two computers use a different system of matching these numbers to the letters. Unicode is the most common system, but there are many others. The guy writing the site is using a weird set of numbers for his symbols and probably doesn't know it. \n\nGoogle Chrome was unable to detect what encoding this site is using, but it's not Unicode or the European standard. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On computers, we store text as a sequence of numbers. Each number represents one *glyph* (human letters), but there are many different formats (called *encodings* or *character sets*) to choose from, and each has a different number for each glyph.\n\nWhen we save text on a computer, we don't always save the encoding it uses along with it; if you're saving everything into one format then you don't technically need to. However, if you send your text to another computer (which happens when you visit a website) that is using a different encoding, that computer needs to translate your text before it can show it to its user. If for some reason the second computer guesses the encoding your text is using incorrectly, its translation won't make any sense.\n\nIn the case you've shown, that's what has happened. The reason you're able to read *almost* all of the text is a fluke from the history of text encoding; almost all encodings happen to share roughly 128 glyph numbers in common (the ones used for ASCII), and those happen to include upper- and lowercase English letters and common punctuation.\n\nAnd finally, the reason why those characters in particular are displayed incorrectly is that ASCII only has one type of quotation character for both single and double quotes; this character is used to both begin and end quotations as well as represent apostrophes. Other encodings have both opening and closing quotation glyphs (as well as ASCII's version) which are angled. Most word processing programs use the newer quotation styles, especially Microsoft Word. Articles are often written in word and then copied into *HTML* (web page) documents. HTML documents default to an encoding which doesn't use these newer quotation glyphs directly; instead it has sequences of text which will be replaced with the glyph by the web browser. For example, ' & amp;amp;' will be replaced with the ampersand glyph ( & ). If the person copying the article doesn't replace the special characters with these text sequences, the web browser will try to read them and fail exactly the way it has on that page.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1027252", "title": "Windows Glyph List 4", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 338, "text": "Because many fonts are designed to fulfill the WGL4 set, this set of characters is likely to work (display as other than replacement glyphs) on many computer systems. For instance you are probably able to see all the characters in the table below, compared to the many missing characters that may be seen in other articles about Unicode.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4390919", "title": "Character editor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 597, "text": "Generally, use of character editors is considered cheating (similar to using cheat codes to change player statistics, only more flexibly so). However, character editors often have legitimate uses; for example, changing the appearance of the character or character description (possibly using \"hidden\" outlook options that are not available through the game itself, such as using NPC character portraits), changing internal variables of the character to avoid bugs, or use features that are only available through either cheat codes or character editors (such as custom character races from mods).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38946845", "title": "Old Italic (Unicode block)", "section": "Section::::Unification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 246, "text": "Therefore, the appearance of those code points when displayed or printed -- as in the table below -- is likely to be incorrect, unless they are rendered with a font specifically designed for the particular language and letter style of the text. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34164", "title": "Xerox", "section": "Section::::Character substitution bug.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 291, "text": "The source of the error was a bug in the JBIG2 implementation, which is an image compression standard that makes use of pattern matching to encode identical characters only once. While this provides a high level of compression, it is susceptible to errors in identifying similar characters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34746687", "title": "Typographic approximation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 355, "text": "In the age of World Wide Web and digital typesetting, especially after the advent of Unicode and enormous amount of digital fonts, typographic approximations are usually caused either by low ability of humans to distinguish and find needed symbols or by inadequate replacement patterns in word processors, rather than by shortage in available characters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3241063", "title": "Text processing", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 543, "text": "In this way markup such as font and color are not really a distinguishing factor, because the character sequences that affect font and color are simply standard characters inserted automatically by a \"background text processing\" mode, made to work transparently by compliant text editors, yet becoming otherwise visible as \"text processing commands\" when that mode is not in effect. So text processing is defined most basically (but not entirely) around the visual characters (or graphemes) rather than the standard, yet invisible characters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16203229", "title": "Nesting (computing)", "section": "Section::::In spreadsheets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 408, "text": "Due to the potential accumulation of parentheses in only one code line, editing and error detecting (or debugging) can became somehow \"awkward\". That is why modern programming environments -as well as spreadsheet programs- highlight in bold type the pair corresponding to the current editing position. The (automatic) balancing control of the opening and closing parenthesis known as \"brace match checking\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Not at all. Medieval peasants grew livestock and used their produce for their own sustenance - chickens, pigs, goats, and cows were all consumed by members of all classes. If they lived near a river or the sea, they would also probably eat fish as well.\n\nThe difference between classes, as far as culinary was concerned, was the higher classes' ability to get stuff like spices. These sorts of things usually grew outside of Europe and had to be imported by merchants, thus becoming very rare and precious.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually, eating meat was fairly common 900 years ago, however if you go back to the 18th and 19th Century then it actually changes. Industrialisation changed this because many peasants had to buy meat, rather than killing livestock they already owned, this made it become more expensive.\n\nUnder Louis XVI's reign the price of bread itself was between 60-80% of a workers weekly wage, meaning they lived on bread alone, and even so usually lived on an estimated 1,800 kcal/ day lifestyle, which was slowly starving them.\n\nSo meat actually became rarer, as the population moved away from farming, but the rural population ate meat as usual.\n\nSource\n\n Tilly, Louise The Food Riot as a Form of Political Conflict in France (Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol 2, 1971)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10928780", "title": "Early modern European cuisine", "section": "Section::::Foods.:Meats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 667, "text": "European consumption of meat remained exceptional by world standards, and during the period high levels generally moved down the social scale. But the poor continued to rely mainly on eggs, dairy products, and pulses for protein. Often they did better in the less populated regions, where wild game and fish could still easily be found. The richer nations, especially England, ate considerably more meat than the poorer ones. In some areas, especially Germany and the Mediterranean counties, the meat consumption of ordinary people actually declined, beginning in about 1550, and continuing throughout the period. Increasing population seem to lie behind this trend.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6494435", "title": "Curing (food preservation)", "section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 278, "text": "In Europe, medieval cuisine made great use of meat and vegetables, and the guild of butchers was amongst the most powerful. During the 12th century, salt beef was consumed by all social classes. Smoked meat was called \"carbouclée\" in Romance tongues and \"bacon\" if it was pork.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42678699", "title": "Lists of foods", "section": "Section::::Basic foods.:Meat.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 587, "text": "BULLET::::- – meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans are omnivorous, and have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times. The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle, and eventually their use in meat production on an industrial scale. Today, humans consume not only chicken, mutton, pork and beef but also meats of camel, horse, dog, cat, alligator, crocodile, turtle, dolphin, emu, ostrich, duck, deer, zebra, water buffalo, whale, snake, frog, guinea pig, rabbit, squirrel, porcupine and monkey.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "176565", "title": "Hungarian cuisine", "section": "Section::::Hungarian meals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 229, "text": "Some types of meat that were commonly eaten in the past (such as beef tongue, \"disznósajt\" (head cheese) or \"véres hurka\" (similar to black pudding) are now more associated with the countryside as people turn to healthier diets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18940", "title": "Meat", "section": "Section::::History.:Cultural history.:Philosophy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 985, "text": "Later philosophers examined the changing practices of eating meat in the modern age as part of a process of detachment from animals as living beings. Norbert Elias, for instance, noted that in medieval times cooked animals were brought to the table whole, but that since the Renaissance only the edible parts are served, which are no longer recognizably part of an animal. Modern eaters, according to , demand an \"ellipsis\" between meat and dead animals; for instance, calves' eyes are no longer considered a delicacy as in the Middle Ages, but provoke disgust. Even in the English language, distinctions emerged between animals and their meat, such as between cattle and beef, pigs and pork. Fernand Braudel wrote that since the European diet of the 15th and 16th century was particularly heavy in meat, European colonialism helped export meat-eating across the globe, as colonized peoples took up the culinary habits of their colonizers, which they associated with wealth and power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7029997", "title": "Medieval cuisine", "section": "Section::::Meats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 802, "text": "Meats were more expensive than plant foods. Though rich in protein, the calorie-to-weight ratio of meat was less than that of plant food. Meat could be up to four times as expensive as bread. Fish was up to 16 times as costly, and was expensive even for coastal populations. This meant that fasts could mean an especially meager diet for those who could not afford alternatives to meat and animal products like milk and eggs. It was only after the Black Death had eradicated up to half of the European population that meat became more common even for poorer people. The drastic reduction in many populated areas resulted in a labor shortage, meaning that wages dramatically increased. It also left vast areas of farmland untended, making them available for pasture and putting more meat on the market.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18940", "title": "Meat", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 339, "text": "Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times. The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, rabbits, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is a [progress of China's borders](_URL_0_) through out history.\n\nNotice both Tibet and Mongolia were part of China's Qing (1644 to 1911) dynasty. China's Yuan (1271–1368) dynasty was actually Mongols, which of course includes Mongolia. China broke apart into several warring factions after 1911. Tibet, Mongolia and other outlaying regions became self governing. After communist took over in 1949, their first order of business was to reclaim Tibet, Mongolia, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Taiwan and Hong Kong were both islands protected by the US/British fleet. Russia forced Mao to give up Mongolia as a condition of alliance. \n\nKorea was considered a vessel state to China's ming (1368-1644) dynasty. As in they would contribute soldiers and pay tribute to Ming. But they were always self governing. After China was taken over by the Manchus and established Qing dynasty, Korea did not became a vessel state to Qing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2614295", "title": "History of the People's Liberation Army", "section": "Section::::Historical background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 530, "text": "Since the 1960s, China had considered the Soviet Union the principal threat to its security; lesser threats were posed by long standing border disputes with Vietnam and India. China's territorial claims and economic interests made the South China Sea an area of strategic importance to China. Although China sought peaceful reunification of Taiwan with the mainland China, it did not rule out the use of force against the island if serious internal disturbances, a declaration of independence, or a threatening alliance occurred.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11292873", "title": "Economic diplomacy", "section": "Section::::Case studies.:Senkaku Islands dispute.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 412, "text": "After the widely reported incident near the Senkaku Islands in 2010, over which Japan, China and Taiwan all claim sovereignty, China engaged in coercive economic diplomacy. In response to the dispute, China allegedly blocked all shipments of rare earth minerals to Japan, harming their economy. Whether this embargo indeed took place is unclear, as Japan saw no decrease in rare earths imports during that time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29269", "title": "Self-determination", "section": "Section::::History.:World Wars I and II.:Europe, Asia and Africa.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 591, "text": "Many of Eastern Asia's current disputes to sovereignty and self-determination stem from unresolved disputes from World War II. After its fall, the Empire of Japan renounced control over many of its former possessions including Korea, Sakhalin Island, and Taiwan. In none of these areas were the opinions of affected people consulted, or given significant priority. Korea was specifically granted independence but the receiver of various other areas was not stated in the Treaty of San Francisco, giving Taiwan \"de facto\" independence although its political status continues to be ambiguous.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2075107", "title": "Politics of Asia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 514, "text": "The situation today is still mixed, with hostilities in parts of Asia such as the continuing tensions over South China sea, Kashmir, Taiwan, Tibet, North Korea as well as economic competitiveness between the People's Republic of China and India. China and India do not have a peace treaty, nor does Russia and Japan or North Korea and South Korea. However, there are also moves towards greater co-operation and communication within the region with Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) a notable example.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5405", "title": "China", "section": "Section::::Politics.:Foreign relations.:Territorial disputes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 736, "text": "In addition to Taiwan, China is also involved in other international territorial disputes. Since the 1990s, China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, including a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan. China is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal. On 21 May 2014 Xi Jinping, speaking at a conference in Shanghai, pledged to settle China's territorial disputes peacefully. \"China stays committed to seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other countries over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests\", he said.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40879431", "title": "Philippines v. China", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1029, "text": "The dispute has been affected by the fact that, after Japan renounced all claims to the Spratly Islands and other conquered islands and territories in the Treaty of San Francisco and Treaty of Peace with the Republic of China (Taiwan) signed on 8 September 1951, it did not indicate successor states since China was not invited to the treaty talks held in San Francisco. In reaction to that, on 15 August, the Chinese government issued the Declaration on the Draft Peace Treaty with Japan by the US and the UK and on the San Francisco Conference by the then Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai, reiterating China's sovereignty over the archipelagos in the South China Sea, including the Spratly Islands, and protesting about the absence of any provisions in the draft on who shall take over the South China Sea islands following Japan's renouncement of all rights, title and claim to them. It reiterated that \"the Chinese government of the day had taken over those islands\" and that the PRC's rightful sovereignty \"shall remain intact\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "254234", "title": "Provinces of China", "section": "Section::::History.:\"Lost territories\" of China.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 647, "text": "During the 20th century, China claimed that numerous neighbouring countries and regions in Asia were \"lost territories\" of China. Many of these \"lost territories\" were under the rule of Imperial Chinese dynasties or were tributary states. Sun Yat-sen claimed that these territories were lost due to unequal treaties, forceful occupation and annexation, and foreign interference. Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, among others, were supportive of these claims. China published a series of maps during this time known as a \"Map of National Shame\" () which showcased some of the \"lost territories\" that had links to various Imperial Chinese dynasties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "An episode of the [AskHistorians podcast](_URL_0_) deals with this topic. I've pinged /u/gingerkid1234 in case he has more to add.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "א שיינעם דאנק פור די שאלה!\n\nYiddish is, as the podcast and others have said, closely related to German. It's got loans from Hebrew, Aramaic, Slavic languages, and occasionally romance loans (beyond what exists in German dialects), and it's got pronunciation differences like a German dialect would. It formed by Jews in German-speaking areas migrating east but still speaking Yiddish, forming eastern Yiddish, while those that stayed had their language diverge from German and spoke western Yiddish, which is extinct. \n\nMeasuring mutual intelligibility is difficult. I've seen lots of German-speakers say they can figure out Yiddish, but usually that's standard Yiddish on YouTube or something. Colloquial Yiddish has lots more loans from other languages and can have funkier vowel shifts than standard Yiddish. Yiddish speakers can't always understand each other!\n\nIt's also easy to construct a Yiddish sentence unreadable to Germans because of vocabulary. Like \"der rov leynt a seyfer\" means \"the rabbi reads a book\", but rov, leynt, and seyfer are not German words. Or an actual example from /r/Yiddish, \"kulem hobn nekudes toyves\", meaning \"everybody's got good points\"--all words but \"hobn\" are loans ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "531909", "title": "Diaspora language", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Yiddish and the Jewish Diaspora.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 495, "text": "Yiddish is a major linguistic creation of the Jewish Diaspora, originating in what is now Germany. It is one of many languages that emerged as a result of the migration of the Jewish people throughout Europe, alongside Ladino (Judeo-Spanish), Italkian (Judeo-Italian), Knaanic (Judeo-Slavic), Yevanic (Judeo-Greek), and Zarphatic (Judeo-French). Of these languages, Yiddish produced the most significant literature and served as an icon of Jewish identity throughout Central and Eastern Europe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31030456", "title": "List of lingua francas", "section": "Section::::Europe.:Yiddish.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 460, "text": "Yiddish originated in the Ashkenazi culture that developed from about the 10th century in the Rhineland and then spread to central and eastern Europe and eventually to other continents. For a significant portion of its history, Yiddish was the primary spoken language of the Ashkenazi Jews. Eastern Yiddish, three dialects of which are still spoken today, includes a significant but varying percentage of words from Slavic, Romanian and other local languages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33801206", "title": "Middle High German literature", "section": "Section::::Judeo-German.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 453, "text": "From the late 13th century, there is evidence of the beginnings of the Yiddish language, which in the early phase is a variety of Middle High German, not distinct enough even to be described as a dialect, but written in Hebrew characters. In its early phase, it is normally referred to as Judeo-German; from the 15th century it becomes Old Yiddish. Poems in this idiom belong equally to the fields of Medieval German Studies and Jewish/Yiddish studies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34272", "title": "Yiddish", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 469, "text": "Yiddish (, or , \"yidish\"/\"idish\", \"Jewish\", ; in older sources \"Yidish-Taitsh\", Judaeo-German) is the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews. It originated during the 9th century in Central Europe, providing the nascent Ashkenazi community with a High German-based vernacular fused with elements taken from Hebrew and Aramaic as well as from Slavic languages and traces of Romance languages. Yiddish is written with a fully vocalized version of the Hebrew alphabet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34272", "title": "Yiddish", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 747, "text": "It is generally accepted that early Yiddish was likely to have contained elements from other languages of the Near East and Europe, absorbed through migrations. Since some settlers may have come via France and Italy, it is also likely that the Romance-based Jewish languages of those regions were represented. Traces remain in the contemporary Yiddish vocabulary: for example, (\"bentshn\", \"to bless\"), ultimately from the Latin \"\"; (\"leyenen\", \"to read\"), from the Old French \"lei(e)re\"; and the personal names Bunim (related to French \" bon nom\", good name) and Yentl (Old French \"gentil\", \"noble\"). Western Yiddish includes additional words of ultimate Latin derivation (but still very few): for example, \"orn\" (to pray), cf. Old French \"orer\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7873815", "title": "Languages of Sweden", "section": "Section::::Recognised minority languages.:Yiddish.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 866, "text": "Yiddish is a Germanic language with significant Hebrew and Slavic influence, written with a variant of the Hebrew Alphabet (see Yiddish orthography) and, formerly, spoken by most Ashkenazic Jews (although most now speak the language of the country in which they live). Although the Jewish population of Sweden was traditionally Sephardic, after the 18th century, Ashkenazic immigration began, and the immigrants brought with them their Yiddish language (See History of the Jews in Sweden). Like Romani, it is seen by the government to be of historical importance. The organisation \"Sällskapet för Jiddisch och Jiddischkultur i Sverige\" (Society for Yiddish and Yiddish Culture in Sweden) has over 200 members, many of whom are mother-tongue Yiddish speakers, and arranges regular activities for the speech community and in external advocacy of the Yiddish language.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1246911", "title": "History of the Jews in Canada", "section": "Section::::Jewish culture in Canada.:Languages.:Yiddish.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 219, "text": "Yiddish () is the historical and cultural language of Ashkenazi Jews, who make up the majority of the Canadian Jewry and was widely spoken within the Canadian Jewish community up to the middle of the twentieth century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sugar, salt, and fat are critical for the human body to work. Our brain users more sugar than any other part, salt is needed to conduct electricity, and fat is of course an excellent store of energy. \n\nYou and I are unfortunately a very old model, stuck in modern times. Human beings haven't had a major evolution in 35,000 years. We are essentially designed to be the perfect hunter gatherers, but that's not been our role in a very long time. Our tastes turn us on to exactly what our ancestors needed the most, but in the age of the Big Mac that's exactly what we have too much of. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Back in the day, when humans were living a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, bodies adapted to burn primarily fat and protein, since carbohydrates (via vegetables and fruits) were so scarce. \n\nDue to the scarcity of carbohydrates, our bodies and brains adapted to crave them whenever available for their quick energy source. Our primal brain tasted carbohydrates (e.g. a field of fresh strawberries) and said, \"Woah!! We got some quick energy, eat it up while it lasts!\"\n\nUnfortunately, we still have this primal brain in our heads today. It's in there, and says the same thing every time it gets even a little taste.\n\nAnd the Food Industry Incorporated, filled with biochemists who know how the body works, makes food that capitalizes on these systems by intentionally optimizing the amount of sugar to the [Bliss Point (Wikipedia)](_URL_1_ \"Bliss Point\").\n\nCheck out [r/keto/](_URL_0_) if you're curious about living sugar/carb free.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "459560", "title": "Low-carbohydrate diet", "section": "Section::::Definition and classification.:Foodstuffs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 401, "text": "Most vegetables are low- or moderate-carbohydrate foods (in some low-carbohydrate diets, fiber is excluded because it is not a nutritive carbohydrate). Some vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots, maize (corn) and rice are high in starch. Most low-carbohydrate diet plans accommodate vegetables such as broccoli, spinach, kale, lettuce, cucumbers, cauliflower, peppers and most green-leafy vegetables.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "64083", "title": "Junk food", "section": "Section::::Popularity and appeal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 492, "text": "As for junk food's appeal, there is no definitive scientific answer, both physiological and psychological factors are cited. Food manufacturers spend billions of dollars on research and development to create flavor profiles that trigger the human affinity for sugar, salt, and fat. Consumption results in pleasurable, likely addictive, effects in the brain. At the same time, massive marketing efforts are deployed, creating powerful brand loyalties that studies have shown will trump taste.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3426171", "title": "Superfood", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 312, "text": "Berries remain under research and do not have evidence of providing any health benefits different from other fresh fruits. Specifically, blueberries are not especially nutrient dense (a superfood characteristic); they have moderate content of only three essential nutrients: vitamin C, vitamin K, and manganese.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "824148", "title": "Veggie burger", "section": "Section::::Ingredients purpose.:Vegetables.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 285, "text": "Vegetables such as corn, carrots, and mushrooms, provide the patty with texture and taste. Additionally, they provide moisture when heated. This allows the disc shape without breaking apart easily. The vegetables also provide nutrients with the addition of some vitamins and minerals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24707867", "title": "Canadian health claims for food", "section": "Section::::Health claim #4.:\"\"A healthy diet rich in vegetables and fruits may reduce the risk of some types of cancer\"\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 876, "text": "Scientific literature shows that consuming a \"variety\" of fruits and vegetables is linked with reduction of some cancers. There is insufficient evidence to support any one fruit/vegetable or food constituent with a reduction of cancer occurrence. Fruits and vegetables have a wide range of nutrients and phytochemicals, thus to achieve optimal nutrient levels a variety is recommended. \"Some\" types of cancer signifies that not all types of cancers are diet related and thus not all types of cancer can be reduced by a dietary change. The statement \"may help\" eliminates consumer confusion that diet is the only factors in reducing risk of some types of cancers. The wording of this disease reduction health claim cannot be modified in any way. However, words, numbers or signs can be added before or after the claim, provided that they do not change the nature of the claim.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49227197", "title": "Safterei", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 709, "text": "Timo Krämer and Tarek Mandelartz, two students, were looking for a solution for making it easier to consume more fruits and vegetables every day. Both agreed that they did not like the smoothies and pasteurised juices in supermarkets. These still contain either a lot of sugar or just a little percentage of actual fruit, which both contradict the whole principal of eating healthier. In the spring of 2014 they started their business in Berlin, which focussed at first at a detox line. The first recipes for the juices were developed at home in the kitchen and directly sold at the door. Consumers would replace all their food during the day for 9 juices of Safterei every day, also known as juice fasting. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60492138", "title": "Soul food health trends", "section": "Section::::Modifying soul food to fit within health trends.:Soul food for vegan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 645, "text": "Besides there are meant and dairy substitutes that vegan can choose from, such as fiber. There are various kinds of fruit and vegetables. They not only help add flavor, fiber and texture, but also healthy. Sweet potato, as an easy ingredient available in puree, juice, dried flake and flour, are ranked as the number one in nutrition for vegetables by the Centre for Science in the Public Interest. Although vegetables have seasonal variation in colour, nutrients, price and available, using vegetable concentrates and extracts is a effective solution in coping with the consistency, thus boosting specific flavour profile, especially in soups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "From my understanding, neither the maximum amount of insurance possible on the church, nor the insurance bond of the construction company doing the restorations, come anywhere close to the BILLIONS it will take to rebuild.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "804161", "title": "Total S.A.", "section": "Section::::Sponsorship.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 338, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 338, "end_character": 236, "text": "On Tuesday 16th April 2019, the company's Chief Executive Officer, Patrick Pouyanne pledged that Total will make a €100 million contribution to the reconstruction of the Notre-Dame cathedral after it was extensively damaged in a fire. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "62233", "title": "Notre-Dame de Paris", "section": "Section::::History.:21st century.:2019 fire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 502, "text": "Since 1905, France's cathedrals (including Notre-Dame) have been owned by the state, which is self-insured. Some costs might be recovered through insurance coverage if the fire is found to have been caused by contractors working on the site. The French insurer AXA provided insurance coverage for two of the contracting firms working on Notre-Dame's restoration before the blaze which devastated the cathedral. AXA also provided insurance coverage for some of the relics and artworks in the cathedral.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25047977", "title": "United Saints Recovery Project", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 753, "text": "United Saints Recovery Project is a 501(c)(3) non-profit located in the Central City neighbourhood of New Orleans which developed in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. It is a second-tier disaster response and community development organisation that exclusively harnesses the power of national and international volunteers to rebuild and preserve the city of New Orleans. The United Saints organisation was founded by Daryl Kiesow in 2007 after HandsOn organisation transitioned out of the neighbourhood. The United Saints main focus is to help communities affected by disasters and to revitalise economically distressed neighbourhoods. The United Saints Recovery Project operates out of First Street United Methodist Church on Dryades Street, New Orleans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60502903", "title": "Notre-Dame de Paris fire", "section": "Section::::Reconstruction.:Fundraising.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 324, "text": "As of 14 June only €80million had been collected. The minister in charge of national museums and monuments, Franck Riester, predicted that further donations would materialize as reconstruction work progressed, though it was reported that some who made pledges have renounced them because fundraising has been so successful.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25804468", "title": "2010 Haiti earthquake", "section": "Section::::Recovery.:Status of the recovery.:2015.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 118, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 118, "end_character": 1477, "text": "In 2015, NPR and ProPublica investigated the disappearance of US$500 million donated to the American Red Cross for earthquake relief, earlier described by the charity as the result of \"one of the most successful fundraisers ever\". Despite the claims of the American Red Cross that 130,000 homes had been built, the investigation discovered that only six had been built. The investigation reviewed \"hundreds\" of pages of internal documents and interviewed \"more than a dozen\" former and current staff members, investigating the organization's claim that 4.5 million Haitians had been helped \"back on their feet.\" Joel Boutroue, a Haitian government advisor, said that this number would cover \"100 percent of the urban area\", and observed that it would mean the Red Cross had served every city in Haiti. Numerous other claims did not hold up under investigation. NPR found that the project was riddled with \"multiple staffing changes\", bureaucratic delays and a language barrier, as many of the Red Cross officials spoke neither French nor Haitian Creole. General counsel for the American Red Cross, David Meltzer, provided investigators with the NGO's official statistics, but would not elaborate on them. The public affairs office of the Red Cross disputed NPR and ProPublica's claims in an email, and claimed that their investigative report could cause an international incident. By June the American Red Cross had transferred the rebuilding efforts to the Haitian Red Cross.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1151112", "title": "ChristChurch Cathedral", "section": "Section::::Proposed demolition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 271, "text": "On 2 March 2012, Bishop Victoria Matthews announced that the building would be demolished. She questioned the safety of the building and stated that rebuilding could cost NZ$50 million more than insurance would cover and that a new cathedral would be built in its place.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10674328", "title": "St. Frances Cabrini Church (New Orleans)", "section": "Section::::After Hurricane Katrina.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 612, "text": "The church suffered some damage from hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005, including wind damages and flood waters from standing in nearly of water for many weeks before the city authorities could drain the flood water from the city. Archdiocese of New Orleans decided not to try and refurbish the church or demolish it and rebuild a new and collect the 9 million in insurance money and distributed to other parishes that didn't have insurance. The decision was partly because the church's roof was very challenging and costly to maintain requiring constant repairs which often went beyond the parish's means.. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It was fairly different. Though as the war went on, people took the restrictions less seriously and there was always a thriving black market. \n\nThe main differences were the number of men leaving to join the military was very different, the lack of military age males meant for the first time large numbers of women joined the work force, and they joined in large range of jobs, blue to white collar. \n\nThey rationed food, gas, oil, and tires. \nNo one went hungry, but many goods were hard to get, meat and fresh vegetables were more scarce, and this prompted people planting \"victory gardens\" in the yards or even open lots in their neighborhoods. \n\nThe gas rationing was serious enough, that unless you had a job that required you used a car, you really had to cut back on driving. Tires were rationed, and didn't last as long back then. \n\nThere was a black market on ration books and hard to find goods. Gas ration coupons were a very popular item in these markets. \n\nEveryone knew at least someone who was off fighting, most extended families had all their young men off fighting. In some cases they would not come home for several years, and the only form of communication for most people was letters. mail to and from GIs could take months. \n\nNews was via Radio and newsreels at movies. TV had just begun in the US, but broadcasts were suspended during the war. \n\nSome jobs had waivers, so they could not be drafted, police, firemen, civilian pilots, etc. These people could still join of their own accord, and many did leaving many cities with thinner police and firefighting forces. In some cases retirees came out of retirement to help fill positions. \n\nEdit to add more. \n\nALL automobile manufacturing was suspending, so even though getting gas to drive wasn't impossible, getting a good car got harder as the years wore on. Right after the war the car makers went back to the 1941 models and it wasn't until the late 40s new redesigned models started coming out. \n\nAnyplace there was a lot of factories, or a port, or both, like the DC, the CA, Bay Area, Washington state around seattle, LA and San Diego etc, all had housing shortages. Mix in military bases already there or that were built, and you had lots of people packed into the cities. \n\nMany companies that made consumer goods went to all military production. You were not going to get you hands on a new radio for the house, or a new fridge, or even a toaster or sewing machine. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Another aspect I didn't cover was the Khaki Wacky situation, and the DoDs concern over venereal disease causing big problems line they did in WWI. \n\nThey had a lot of combat ineffective men in WWI due to rampant social disease. The Army and DoD really learned a lesson on this, and going into WWII they were prepared. \n\nUS Law enforcement was less prepared for the large numbers of US women, young women became camp followers and they more than paid prostitutes caused the spread of VD of various forms. Penicillin was not readily available until late in the war, so getting VD was a big deal until then. \n\nThe U.S. military had a system, and they set up stations, when men when out on liberty, they were supplied with classes on VD and how to avoid it, and issued condoms. \n\nThe stations were in place to clean the soldier or sailors junk when he came back from the night out on the town, and they were told to go there and use the station if they had any kind of exposure, condom or not. \n\nThe stations was basically and inspection and washing station. Men who came in were not punished in any way for doing so. The ones who did not come in, and then got VD who were in deep water. Rates of social disease were much lower in WWII than WWI for US troops. \n\nAnd it wasn't because there was no sex going on, don't let the movies of the time fool you, you great great grandparents had sex too, and liked it!\n\nAnother aspect was the big Hollywood studios were all backing the government and went to work making patriotic films and propaganda pieces. They even helped the Army training films, like this one. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThis one is about tanks on the march, and was filmed on a hollywood backlot, with a company of tanks sent for the filming. \n\nThere was not a lot of opposition to the war once it got going, there was some politicking and grandstanding by some political figures about war industry corruption, but it was mild by today's standards. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52015314", "title": "Cheapside, Texas", "section": "Section::::Decline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 249, "text": "As well, during World War II, the war effort created work in the cities, and returning soldiers were less willing to return to small communities. With the rise in consumerism, \"places like Cheapside...were casualties of an upwardly mobile society\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1393850", "title": "World War II by country", "section": "Section::::Impact by country.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 605, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 605, "end_character": 992, "text": "Inside the United States, every aspect of life from politics to personal savings was put on a wartime footing. The country directed its massive industrial production to the war effort as what President Roosevelt called \"the [[Arsenal of Democracy]].\" Civilians engaged in volunteer efforts and submitted to government-managed [[Rationing in the United States|rationing]] and [[price controls]]. The [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood film industry]] produced [[American propaganda during World War II|wartime propaganda]]. Between 110,000 and 120,000 [[Japanese Americans]] were [[Internment of Japanese Americans|forcibly moved to internment camps]]. After the war, the United States retained military commitments to European security while providing economic investment to rebuild nations devastated during the war. Politically, the U.S. became a founding member of [[NATO]], and hosts the [[United Nations]] in which it gained one of the permanent chairs on the [[Security Council]].\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1943198", "title": "Dwight H. Green", "section": "Section::::Governor of Illinois.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 260, "text": "The coming of peace in 1945 created new challenges for America's big cities and state governments. In particular, there was a sharp shortage of housing for returning veterans and their families, as little had been built during the war or the Great Depression.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "331847", "title": "History of New York (state)", "section": "Section::::World War II and the modern era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 478, "text": "World War II constituted New York's last great industrial era. At its conclusion, the defense industry shrank and the economy shifted towards producing services rather than goods. Returning soldiers disproportionately displaced female and minority workers who had entered the industrial workforce only when the war left employers no other choice. Companies moved to the south and west, seeking lower taxes and a less costly, non–union workforce. Many workers followed the jobs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3344314", "title": "Lake Muskoka", "section": "Section::::History.:The coming of the car.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 909, "text": "World War I caused a significant dip in the tourist activity for the area and hence the economy. Technological advancements in the motorboat and the automobile resulted in greater overall growth of the area and development spread across the area, including the construction of better roads. As vacationers no longer needed the steamships in order to reach the lake, they built cottages farther afield and demand for the steamships dropped. World War II caused another decline as wartime shortages kept many Americans at home and many Canadians were engaged in war activities. Postwar prosperity brought another boom based around the automobile and the newly affordable fiberglas boat. Owning a summer cottage became more attainable for many in the middle class, resulting in further development around the lake. The steamship companies retired their boats one by one until the last sailing in the late 1950s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4209843", "title": "Eddie Gottlieb", "section": "Section::::The BAA and the NBA.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 430, "text": "In the spring of 1946, the United States was celebrating the end of World War II, which had formally ended in September 1945. Peace brought the population leisure time and money for entertainment, and basketball was ripe for a move to the big time. College basketball had grown immensely in popularity during the previous 10 years, and there was no professional basketball circuit (as hockey had with the National Hockey League).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37336786", "title": "American automobile industry in the 1950s", "section": "Section::::Influential events.:War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 206, "text": "World War II ended in September 1945, which allowed for the conversion of the economy to a peacetime economy, with excess industrial capacity and a high demand for new consumer goods by returning soldiers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Knitting uses two needles\n_URL_1_\ncrocheting uses a hook \n_URL_0_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "977576", "title": "History of knitting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 486, "text": "Knitting is the process of using two or more needles to loop yarn into a series of interconnected loops in order to create a finished garment or some other type of fabric. The word is derived from \"knot\", thought to originate from the Dutch verb \"knutten\", which is similar to the Old English \"cnyttan\", “to knot”. Its origins lie in the basic human need for clothing for protection against the elements. More recently, hand knitting has become less a necessary skill and more a hobby.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7424", "title": "Crochet", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 687, "text": "Crochet (; ) is a process of creating fabric by interlocking loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials using a crochet hook. The name is derived from the French term \"crochet\", meaning 'small hook'. These are made of materials such as metal, wood, or plastic and are manufactured commercially and produced in artisan workshops. The salient difference between crochet and knitting, beyond the implements used for their production, is that each stitch in crochet is completed before the next one is begun, while knitting keeps a large number of stitches open at a time. (Variant forms such as Tunisian crochet and broomstick lace keep multiple crochet stitches open at a time.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14769192", "title": "Stitch marker (crochet)", "section": "Section::::Difference from knitting stitch markers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 280, "text": "Among the differences between crochet and knitting is that crocheters seldom work with more than one stitch at a time, while knitters routinely carry dozens of stitches on their knitting needles. For these reasons these two textile arts require different kinds of stitch markers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16622", "title": "Knitting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 426, "text": "Knitting creates multiple loops of yarn, called stitches, in a line or tube. Knitting has multiple active stitches on the needle at one time. Knitted fabric consists of a number of consecutive rows of intermeshing of loops. As each row progresses, a newly created loop is pulled through one or more loops from the prior row, placed on the gaining needle, and the loops from the prior row are then pulled off the other needle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "977576", "title": "History of knitting", "section": "Section::::Early origins of knitting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 219, "text": "Knitting is a technique of producing fabric from a strand of yarn or wool. Unlike weaving, knitting does not require a loom or other large equipment, making it a valuable technique for nomadic and non-agrarian peoples.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5571754", "title": "Knitted fabric", "section": "Section::::Structure of knitted fabrics.:Cables, increases, and lace.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 307, "text": "Lace knitting consists of making patterns and pictures using holes in the knit fabric, rather than with the stitches themselves. The large and many holes in lacy knitting makes it extremely elastic; for example, some Shetland \"wedding-ring\" shawls are so fine that they may be drawn through a wedding ring.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3060458", "title": "Combined knitting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 819, "text": "Combined knitting or combination knitting is a style that combines elements of Eastern-style knitting with the Western techniques. The name was suggested by Mary Thomas in her 1938 book \"Mary Thomas's Knitting Book\", where she described the technique as \"..the better way to work in Flat Knitting. The resulting fabric is more even and closer in construction.\" By wrapping the yarn the opposite way while purling, the knitter changes the orientation of the resulting loops; then the next row's knit stitches can be formed by inserting the needle through the back leg (as in Eastern knitting), rather than through the front leg, without twisting the stitch. This technique is suitable for all knitted fabrics from the basic Stockinette stitch, to any other style, such as Fair Isle, circular knitting, or lace knitting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you mean buzzcuts in the modern sense, no; at least not for the US Army. They absolutely, however, had grooming standards; its a basic tenet of military hygiene. Hair had to be short at the sides and back; away from the collars and not covering the ears. [Haircuts happened when they could](_URL_2_) and the frequency of them were never guaranteed. However, especially in the US, battalions could rotate off the line with frequency at the end of a drive or series of attacks; so obviously it isn't a case of 'hair growing back.' One has to remember that 'being at the front' doesn't mean you're constantly dodging bullets; it could mean your Battalion is in division reserve, or that you're in a low-activity area; lulls happened even in the high tempo operations of WWII.\n\nThe idea of 'high tops' in hairstyles isn't out of the ordinary across any armies of WWII; the general rule of ['short sides, above the collar in the back'](_URL_1_) generally applies to every branch and army, with obvious variations. \n\nFinally, and as always, lets never forget that Band of Brothers is an interpretation of a book made for our entertainment; and such content will always have inconsistencies, as myself and /u/rittermeister have [discussed before](_URL_0_). \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8416397", "title": "Long hair", "section": "Section::::Cultural history.:Europe.:Trends among men in 20th and 21st centuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 362, "text": "Before World War One men generally had longer hair and beards. However, short hair on men was introduced in World War One for soldiers. Slaves and defeated armies were often required to shave their heads. The trench warfare in 1914 to 1918 exposed men to flea and lice infestations, which prompted the order to cut short hair, establishing a military tradition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "958883", "title": "Head shaving", "section": "Section::::Contexts.:Military.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 742, "text": "The militaries of the United States, Russia, and several other countries have welcomed their recruits by giving them haircuts using hair clippers with no guard attached. As of 2011, shaved heads continued to be standard haircuts in the United States Air Force, United States Marine Corps, United States Army, and the United States Coast Guard during basic/recruit training – upon graduation from training, grooming restrictions are relaxed in accordance with each service's regulations. In Greece, this practice was abolished on June 25, 1982, when the military started allowing recruits to have up to 4 cm of hair. Before then, the regulation haircut in the Greek army for recruits was \"en hro\" (an archaic phrase for \"shaved to the bone\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31782623", "title": "Religious symbolism in the United States military", "section": "Section::::Religious apparel and grooming.:All military personnel: apparel and grooming.:Beards: background information.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 740, "text": "According to Professor Penny Jolly, who has studied \"social trends in appearance,\" beards \"were eliminated in the US military in WWI due to the need to wear gas masks. Razors were issued in GI kits, so men could shave themselves on the battlefield.\" However, the link between the requirement to shave and the use of gas masks has been called only one of \"several theories.\" Other theories include the fact that the massive build-up of the military for WWI brought with it many men from rural areas, and this \"sudden concentration of recruits in crowded army induction centers brought with it disease, including head lice. Remedial action was taken by immediately shaving the faces and cutting the hair of all inductees upon their arrival.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2319212", "title": "Induction cut", "section": "Section::::Purposes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 629, "text": "For U.S. male recruits, the induction haircut has become a sometimes-dreaded symbolic rite of passage for entry into the armed forces and is usually performed within minutes or hours of arrival at boot camp. It is one of several techniques used to mentally shock recruits into adapting to their decision to become a member of the armed forces. Although all branches of the U.S. armed forces employ the tradition of the induction haircut, the U.S. Marines have adopted the most severe version – a \"zero-length\" clipper blade to the scalp, although not shorter to avoid any minor injuries to recruits' head moles or other lesions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "907932", "title": "Mohawk hairstyle", "section": "Section::::Historical use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 320, "text": "During World War II, many American GIs, notably paratroopers from the 101st Airborne Division wore mohawks to intimidate their enemies. It was also occasionally worn by American troops during the Vietnam War. In the early 1950s, mohawks were worn by some jazz musicians like Sonny Rollins, and even a few teenage girls.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41518671", "title": "Mary Babnik Brown", "section": "Section::::Hair donation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 562, "text": "In 1944 Brown was the first woman to have her hair used for military aircraft bombsights. She saw an advertisement in a Pueblo newspaper in 1943 that said the government was looking for hair from women for the war effort, although no details were given as to how it would be used. The ad said only that they wanted blonde hair that was at least , and which had not been treated with chemicals or hot irons. The women's hair collection for use as bombsight crosshairs was a clandestine operation even though they found the hair through a newspaper advertisement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42439087", "title": "Lawyers Military Defense Committee", "section": "Section::::History.:West Germany (1972–76).:Significant cases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 662, "text": "Berlin Haircut Trials– November 1974, LMDC represented a group of Berlin GIs charged with failing to have haircuts meeting military regulations. The cases resulted in widespread publicity and a brief soldiers' strike exposing Army efforts to enforce increased discipline. African-American enlisted person Babbette Peyton was defended at court-martial after she was denied the right to wear her hair in cornrows. In \"United States v. Hatheway\", LMDC urged denial of equal protection in the prosecution of the accused for engaging in homosexual acts on the basis of selective prosecution and a narrowed constitutional test where rights of a minority are at stake.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Its unlikely that they would survive. [Polar bears](_URL_5_) are adapted to eating seals, but its very hard to hunt them in the open water so they hunt on land. Two common ways of catching seals include: crashing through the ice using their paws and kill the seals in their dens or stalking air holes and kill seals as they surface for air. These conditions are not as common in Antarctica because it is an area where land is covered in ice, with no seals under it but the Arctic is ocean covered in ice with seals under it. (There are seals in Antarctica, they would just be harder to hunt). Of course assuming you transferred the polar bears to areas with penguin colonies they would have pretty good (but seasonal) food source - unless it is the [Emperor](_URL_3_) which winters in Antarctica. But over time, the penguins being defenceless against polar bears would probably be exposed to intensive hunting pressure from which they may be extirpated from the region. \n\nIts probable that polar bears could survive Antarctica temperatures - they have many [adaptations to the cold weather](_URL_4_) - thick fur, lots of fat, skin that is black ~~to absorb the sun's heat and clear fur to allow the rays in~~. I do not know the absolute lowest temperature that a polar bear can survive but I do know that [Antarctica](_URL_0_) experiences colder temperatures than the [Arctic](_URL_1_). \n\n\"The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89 °C (−129 °F)...Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F) and −90 °C (−130 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C (41 °F) and 15 °C (59 °F) near the coast in summer. And Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3 kilometres (2 mi) above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation. Second, the Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica.\" and from the Arctic article...\". Average winter temperatures can be as low as −40 °C (−40 °F), and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C (−90 °F).\" So polar bears if transferred to Antarctica would possibly have to face temperatures as low as −80 °C which is colder then what they are normally exposed to at −40 °C. This could potentially be problematic, but not unsurmountable.\n\nThe problem with penguins is that they are essentially adapted to living in an environment where they have very few land predators - only sometimes are eggs/chicks killed by predatory seagulls. Adults main predator is killer whales from the ocean. Anyway... penguins in the Arctic would have a hard time of making it because of land predators like the polar bear, arctic fox or wolf. Even if they lived on cliffs like [puffins](_URL_2_) they can't fly so they would not be able to get to and from the sea. It would be better if they were transferred to a location - island - where no land predators can get them, but bare rock is available in summer for nesting (if the species requires). In terms of food there would be plenty of fish in the Arctic ocean for them to hunt, probably something like pollock. Also, temperatures in the arctic are warmer, so they wouldn't have to deal with being too cold so much as being too warm, especially in the summer months if they live in areas where it gets above what they might normally be exposed too. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23878", "title": "Penguin", "section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 557, "text": "Although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin actually live so far south. Several species live in the temperate zone; one, the Galápagos penguin, lives as far north as the Galápagos Islands, but this is only made possible by the cold, rich waters of the Antarctic Humboldt Current that flows around these islands. Also, though the climate of North Pole and South Pole is similar, there are no penguins found in the North Pole.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24408", "title": "Polar bear", "section": "Section::::Population and distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 875, "text": "The polar bear is found in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses as far south as Newfoundland. Due to the absence of human development in its remote habitat, it retains more of its original range than any other extant carnivore. While they are rare north of 88°, there is evidence that they range all the way across the Arctic, and as far south as James Bay in Canada. Their southernmost range is near the boundary between the subarctic and humid continental climate zones. They can occasionally drift widely with the sea ice, and there have been anecdotal sightings as far south as Berlevåg on the Norwegian mainland and the Kuril Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk. It is difficult to estimate a global population of polar bears as much of the range has been poorly studied; however, biologists use a working estimate of about 20–25,000 or 22–31,000 polar bears worldwide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "567478", "title": "Humboldt penguin", "section": "Section::::In captivity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 222, "text": "In addition to their home waters near South America, Humboldt penguins can be found in zoos all around the world, including Spain, Germany, India, Ireland, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States and other locations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23878", "title": "Penguin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 308, "text": "Although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin live so far south. Several species are found in the temperate zone, and one species, the Galápagos penguin, lives near the equator.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2888018", "title": "Penguins & Polarbears", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 480, "text": "\"Penguins & Polarbears\" is a song by the Swedish punk rock band Millencolin from the album \"Pennybridge Pioneers\". It was released as a single on January 24, 2000 by Burning Heart Records, including two b-sides from the album's recording sessions, \"Queen's Gambit\" and \"Dinner Dog\". An accompanying music video for \"Penguins & Polarbears\" was also filmed and released. In Triple J's Hottest 100 for 2000 the song was number 41, and was also released on disc 2 for the CD release.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "567478", "title": "Humboldt penguin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 524, "text": "The Humboldt penguin (\"Spheniscus humboldti\") is a South American penguin living mainly in the Pinguino de Humbold National Reserve in the North of Chile, although its habitat comprises most of coastal Chile and Peru. Its nearest relatives are the African penguin, the Magellanic penguin and the Galápagos penguin. The Humboldt penguin and the cold water current it swims in both are named after the explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The species is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN with no population recovery plan in place.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2339577", "title": "Evidence of common descent", "section": "Section::::Evidence from biogeography.:Continental distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 173, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 173, "end_character": 671, "text": "Other animal distribution examples include bears, located on all continents excluding Africa, Australia and Antarctica, and the polar bear solely in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses. Penguins are found only around the South Pole despite similar weather conditions at the North Pole. Families of sirenians are distributed around the earth's waters, where manatees are located in western Africa waters, northern South American waters, and West Indian waters only while the related family, the dugongs, are located only in Oceanic waters north of Australia, and the coasts surrounding the Indian Ocean. The now extinct Steller's sea cow resided in the Bering Sea.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Typically organisms with shorter life spans have a survival strategy based on rapid and mass reproduction. A fly for example would be expected to grow many larvae to maturity, mate, and lay their own eggs within a month because flies die all the time to various things. If a fly needed to survive for 5 years before it could reproduce then it would never work as the mass of flies required every generation would be impossible to achieved. From the other side it is equally untenable as there is no way to grow a whale up to full size in 28 days. There simply isn't enough available food even if the organism could grow that quickly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12169672", "title": "Brandt's bat", "section": "Section::::Biology.:Longevity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 206, "text": "In mammals, larger animals tend to have longer lifespans than smaller ones; the Brandt's bat is the most extreme outlier to this pattern, with lifespans exceeding 40 years in the wild while only weighing .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46764", "title": "Even-toed ungulate", "section": "Section::::Lifestyle.:Reproduction and life expectancy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 165, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 165, "end_character": 253, "text": "The life expectancy is typically twenty to thirty years; as in many mammals, smaller species often have a shorter lifespan than larger species. The artiodactyls with the longest lifespans are the hippos, cows, and camels, which can live 40 to 50 years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55895027", "title": "Disposable soma theory of aging", "section": "Section::::Evidence.:Growth and aging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 226, "text": "There is a large body of evidence indicating the negative effects of growth on longevity across many species. As a general rule, individuals of a smaller size generally live longer than larger individuals of the same species.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5914541", "title": "Evolution of ageing", "section": "Section::::Natural selection.:Mortality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 383, "text": "When examining the body-size vs. lifespan relationship, one also observes that predatory mammals tend to live longer than prey mammals in a controlled environment, such as a zoo or nature reserve. The explanation for the long lifespans of primates (such as humans, monkeys, and apes) relative to body size is that their intelligence, and they would have a lower intrinsic mortality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "192225", "title": "Opiliones", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 310, "text": "Typical body length does not exceed , and some species are smaller than 1 mm, although the largest known species, \"Trogulus torosus\" (Trogulidae), grows as long as . The leg span of many species is much greater than the body length and sometimes exceeds and to in Southeast Asia. Most species live for a year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22403915", "title": "Body size and species richness", "section": "Section::::Possible mechanisms.:Energetic constraints.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 541, "text": "A small bodied animal has a greater capacity to be more abundant than a large bodied one. Purely as a function of geometry many more small things can be packed into a given space than can large things into the same area. However, these limits are generally never reached in ecological systems as other resources become limiting long before the packing limits are reached. Additionally, smaller species may have many more ecological niches available to them and thus facilitating the diversification of life (Hutchinson and MacArthur, 1959).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18669", "title": "Life expectancy", "section": "Section::::Human patterns.:Sex differences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 327, "text": "Some argue that shorter male life expectancy is merely another manifestation of the general rule, seen in all mammal species, that larger (size) individuals (within a species) tend, on average, to have shorter lives. This biological difference occurs because women have more resistance to infections and degenerative diseases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Modernism was a cultural movement that began around 100 years ago. Modernist writers are the folks who rejected big, dramatic stories about glorious heroes defeating sinister villains, chosen people going on exciting adventures, comedies about elaborate social disasters, etc and instead focused on intimate and in-depth characterisation, subtlety, social realism, and on the psychological side of things. If you've ever read Virginia Woolf, she is a great example of modernism; she wrote what was later named \"stream of consciousness\", where the book is just a character's brain being poured out, unfiltered, directly onto the paper. It came about during a time when psychology was just taking off as a field, and took from that. Modernists deliberately broke the established rules or preferences to achieve the impact they wanted; this passage by James Joyce is a great example of all of the above.\n\n > Yes because he never did a thing like that before as ask to get his breakfast in bed with a couple of eggs since the City Arms hotel when he used to be pretending to be laid up with a sick voice doing his highness to make himself interesting for that old faggot Mrs Riordan that he thought he had a great leg of and she never left us a farthing all for masses for herself and her soul greatest miser ever was actually afraid to lay out 4d for her methylated spirit telling me all her ailments she had too much old chat in her about politics and earthquakes and the end of the world let us have a bit of fun first God help the world if all the women were her sort down on bathingsuits and lownecks of course nobody wanted her to wear them I suppose she was pious because no man would look at her twice I hope Ill never be like her a wonder she didnt want us to cover our faces but she was a welleducated woman certainly and her gabby talk about Mr Riordan here and Mr Riordan there I suppose he was glad to get shut of her and her dog smelling my fur and always edging to get up under my petticoats especially then still I like that in him polite to old women like that and waiters and beggars too hes not proud out of nothing but not always if ever he got anything really serious the matter with him its much better for them to go into a hospital where everything is clean but I suppose Id have to dring it into him for a month yes and then wed have a hospital nurse next thing on the carpet have him staying there till they throw him out or a nun maybe like the smutty photo he has shes as much a nun as Im not yes because theyre so weak and puling when theyre sick they want a woman to get well if his nose bleeds youd think it was O tragic\n\nSo part of the goal of modernism was to be \"true\", to be \"accurate\" and show things as they really were, with all the stagey drama stripped away. And that became quite popular for a while. \n\n**Post**-modernism is a movement that popped up in response to how popular modernism had gotten. Post-modernism's essence is basically \"Yo modernism, fiction *can't* be true, *can't* be accurate.\" Post-modernists threw away the goal of realism that modernism had, but also threw away the \"convincing illusion\" goal that earlier art and fiction had. Rather than using fiction to represent reality, or using fiction to create fantasy, post-modernists used fiction to mock fiction, or point out how silly fiction was. The characters in a post-modernist book may be aware of their status as fictional characters, and ask the author to make sure they have good fates. Or the author might just cut a chapter out and say \"Just imagine whatever you want happening here.\" Post-modern artists might just slap their name on a urinal and say \"There, that's my new piece of art.\" It is basically a cultural movement that points out how silly/pointless previous cultural movements are.\n\nModernist/post-modernist movements exist in architecture and other fields as well, but I don't know anything about those. Presumably it is, in some way, the same essential concept as modernist/post-modernist literature.\n\nAlso note that post-modern is a pretty vague term, different people have used it in different ways, so it's not as clear and agreed-upon a label as something like 'romanticism' is. Moe Szyslak defines it as \"weird for the sake of weird\" and in casual conversation, more often than not, that's what it means.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Post modernism is a set of values that have been applied to philosophy, music, fine arts, literature, theater, and pretty much every academic field such as anthropology.\n\nModernism is a reflection of the success of the industrial revolution and the building of modern western civilization. It embraces the certainty of science, and truth, and the idea that the world is ordered and knowable. Works of art should be original creations, based on traditional structure.\n\nPostmodernism is a reflection of the chaos and disaster of the 20th century. It suggests that an organised system of knowledge is false, and that no idea can really be objectively true. Works of art should reflect this disorder, and are encouraged to invert, make fun of and sample other works of art.\n\nFrogsfrogsfrogsfrogs is right about postmodern literature, but it might help your understanding if you think of Joyce and Wolfs' chaotic and unpredictable writing as being important precursors of postmodernism, as opposed to the traditionalism of Lord of the Rings.\n\ntldr, modernism = searching for truth, postmodernism = embracing chaos.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Since Post-Modernism has been overlooked a little:\n\nIt's important to point out that postmodernism does exist though it isnt a unified \"movement\" in the way Modernism turned out to be, and it is cross-disciplinary in unpredictable ways.\n\nFor example, in literature post-modernism is really \"writing after modernism\" (and not in the style of modernism or any previous periods: the post-modern style). The focus in literature seems to be on the undermining of \"grand narratives\": history, science, etc. In some sense an ironic trivializing of human affairs, which is in the large part quite legitimate. I'm thinking of Midnight's Children here, where the author occasionally invites the reader to doubt the veracity of the reported history, and indeed he inserts factually false information which is brought to the readers intention. The result is that authorship as the principle source of truth or (at least) source of a definitive account is undermined.\n\nIn philosophy post-modernism would be best characterized, i think, by people like Derrida who seek to undermined the semblance of objectivity in a variety of ways. I mention Derrida here because he's claims about interpretation are implicit in post-modern literature: that there is no True interpretation of a text (though some maybe more useful than others), that the Author's interpretation isnt automatically privileged and so on.\n\nFoucault's approach to philosophy, that is, genealogy seems quite post-modern: rather than stepping into disciplines and analyzing their claims from within, you see how they function from without. The philosophy of physics would step into physics to analyze and assess claims about relativity but a genealogist would not care whether the claims were true or false but see how scientists as actors and how society as an arena of discourse (, power, knowledge, etc.) interacted with science's claims about relativity.\n\nIt is for this reason that post-modernism is often confused with a bleak kind of relativism, indeed it seems many philosophy-hipsters who have watched a Zizek youtube video seem to proffer relativism as a badge (and thus slander quite a large group of philosophers).\n\nI've written this out mainly to jog my memory into coming up with something helpful, not to be exhaustive or particularly accurate. \n\nMy conclusion is however, that you may say the unifying characteristic behind post-modernism is the lack of concern for truth.\n\nAs you might expect that's a rather peculiar and dangerous^ approach, some might accuse it of the worst kind of sophistry: just espousing any old idea recklessly (a charge which, incidentally, I think might fairly be leveled at Zizek). But it isn't sophistry, it is just an alternative meta-philosophy.\n\nThe meta-philosophy of the analytics is an attempt to find out something true, of the continentals to find out something worthwhile, and of the post-modernists to find out how something functions.\n\n(In the proper post-modernist style, I should point out that several statements here are rhetorical: designed to be slightly mis-characterizing to express a personal opinion.)\n\n\"New Atheism\" is an interesting arena to look at alternative approaches. Early on everyone was concerned with analytic claims, Sam Harris and Richard Dawkins would talk about the origin or morality, the origin of the universe, the design argument: assessing religion from the inside. Hitchens however, being more literary, took a radically different approach: he rarely discussed the truth of the claims, but asked how they function, namely, how do they affect the mind of believers, their communities and society as a whole. I recall Dawkins later on addressing the question, \"What happened before the big bang?\" with \"I dont know, ask a cosmologist\" - which I found functioned as a rather poignant conclusion to millenia of rationalization.\n\nEdit: ^ many within disciplines (eg. science) have no idea how their claims will function, true or false. Many find it undermining to even ask such a thing, it seems to suggest that the questioner would prefer something thought to be false if that were useful, which may be true of some post-modernists.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Since everyone here seems to want to write a college essay in the 5 year old room, you might want to check [this](_URL_0_) in the simple wiki.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I had an art history teacher who led us to a neat little summary:\n\nModernism is about answers. Postmodernism is about questions.\n\nI'm going to come from the perspective of fine arts, because that's where I know most about the topic. In very abbreviated terms, Modernism was about building systems: systems of thought which could be used to give structure and meaning to the world around you. A very extreme example is the painter Piet Mondrian, whose work you would probably recognize. I like it and find it visually appealing, but if you read his reasoning behind the way he painted, especially when he was doing the stark blue-red-yellow squares he's mostly remembered for, you'll find he had a hell of a developed system of thought behind what he did, even if it was very outlandish.\n\nPostmodernism was about pointing out the inherent limits of structures, about poking holes in ideas without necessarily proposing alternatives. To the postmodernist, \"problematization\" is enough of a goal. Actually, inherent limits are pretty apparent when you look at the work of spare high modernists like Mondrian. It's often messy, chaotic, and appeals directly to the viewer's sense of outrage or visceral reactions - consider something like Pietro Manzoni's *Merda d'Artista* or \"Artist's Shit,\" which was actually just a can of his shit, priced at the equivalent weight in gold. There's not, intellectually, much more to it than that, and I think sometimes the directness of postmodern art throws people off because they expect it to be convoluted and depend on complicated \"systems\" that they don't understand, like some Modernists' confusing work, whereas it often amounts to a kind of whining about a perceived problem in very direct and sensually violent terms.\n\nSome other (possibly) overbroad categorizations of modern vs. postmodern:\n\n* answers vs. questions\n* thinking vs. reacting\n* structure vs. deconstruction\n* distilled ideas vs. chaotic cultural reference", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "185130", "title": "Modernity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 733, "text": "Modernity, a topic in the humanities and social sciences, is both a historical period (the modern era), as well as the ensemble of particular socio-cultural norms, attitudes and practices that arose in the wake of the Renaissancein the \"Age of Reason\" of 17th-century thought and the 18th-century \"Enlightenment\". Some commentators consider the era of modernity to have ended by 1930, with World War II in 1945, or the 1980s or 1990s; the following era is called postmodernity. The term \"contemporary history\" is also used to refer to the post-1945 timeframe, without assigning it to either the modern or postmodern era. (Thus \"modern\" may be used as a name of a particular era in the past, as opposed to meaning \"the current era\".)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "196556", "title": "Postmodernity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 816, "text": "Postmodernity (post-modernity or the postmodern condition) is the economic or cultural state or condition of society which is said to exist \"after\" modernity (In this context, \"modern\" is not used in the sense of \"contemporary\", but merely as a name for a specific period in history). Some schools of thought hold that modernity ended in the late 20th century – in the 1980s or early 1990s – and that it was replaced by postmodernity, while others would extend modernity to cover the developments denoted by postmodernity, while some believe that modernity ended after World War II. The idea of the post-modern condition is sometimes characterised as a culture stripped of its capacity to function in any linear or autonomous state like regressive isolationism, as opposed to the progressive mindstate of modernism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25690007", "title": "Off-modern", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 847, "text": "The word \"off-modern” was coined by Boym in \"The Future of Nostalgia\", finished in 2000 and published in 2001. The concept became elaborated in the first decade of the 21st century in The Off-Modern Manifesto (2003–2004) and \"The Architecture of the Off-Modern\" (2008) and in her media projects “Cities in Transit,” “Portable Homes,” “Black Mirrors” and “Hydrant Diaspora.” The Off-Modern Manifesto circulated on the web from Cyprus to New Delhi, from Zagreb to New Zealand and was republished in \"NeMe\" and in \"Art-e-fact\" and \"ArtMargins\". The term was embraced by other artists including the RAQs collective from New Delhi as well as the Albanian (and international) artist Anri Sala and many others like the Off Modern group in South London who, since 2008 have been exploring the idea of the Off Modern through impromptu artistic happenings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13139823", "title": "Post-classical history", "section": "Section::::Historiography.:Terminology and periodization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 547, "text": "The post-classical period is one of the five or six major periods world historians use: (1) early civilization; (2) classical societies; (3) post-classical; (4) early modern; (5) long nineteenth century; and (6) contemporary or modern era. (Sometimes the nineteenth century and modern are combined.) Although \"post-classical\" is synonymous with the Middle Ages of Western Europe, the term \"post-classical\" is not necessarily a member of the traditional tripartite periodisation of Western European history into 'classical', 'middle' and 'modern'.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "435268", "title": "History of the world", "section": "Section::::Modern history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 282, "text": "Modern history (the \"modern period,\" the \"modern era,\" \"modern times\") refers to the history of the period following the Middle Ages, spanning from about 1500 to the present day. In contrast, \"Contemporary history\" is history that covers events from around 1945 to the present day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "185130", "title": "Modernity", "section": "Section::::Phases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 433, "text": "Some authors, such as Lyotard and Baudrillard, believe that modernity ended in the mid- or late 20th century and thus have defined a period subsequent to modernity, namely Postmodernity (1930s/1950s/1990s–present). Other theorists, however, regard the period from the late 20th century to the present as merely another phase of modernity; Zygmunt calls this phase \"liquid\" modernity, labels it \"high\" modernity (see High modernism).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25690007", "title": "Off-modern", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 735, "text": "Off-modern, a word invented by Svetlana Boym, is defined as a detour into the unexplored potentials of the modern project. It recovers unforeseen pasts and ventures into the side-alleys of modern history at the margins of error of major philosophical, economic and technological narratives of modernization and progress. Off-modern reflection involves exploration of the lateral potentialities of the project of critical modernity. In other words, it opens into the “modernity of what if” rather than simply modernization as it is. As such, the term can be understood as an intervention in the larger theoretical discussion surrounding modernity, postmodernity, hypermodernity, altermodernity, late modernity, and post-postmodernism. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The only way I can think of would be if your sample size is larger than your population of interest. For example, if you want to figure something out about a population of 10,000 people and you poll 20,000 people, you've clearly polled at least 10,000 people that are not part of your population of interest.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, if you are doing regular old null hypothesis testing and aren't measuring effect size (tsk tsk tsk!). \n\nConsider the one-sample *t*-test: *t* = (x & #772; - & #956;*_0_*) / (s / sqrt(n) )\n\nwhere n is the number of subjects.\n\nRewriting this: *t* = sqrt(n) * (x & #772; - & #956;*_0_*) / s\n\nSo you can see that as n -- > inf, *t* will also go to inf so you will always get a statsitically significant difference.\n\nThis is also true for independent-samples tests. \n\nHere's the graphical explanation: \n\nWhen we do a t-test, we compare the mean of a [sampling distribution](_URL_3_) to 0 (in the case of a one-sample or dependent-samples t-test) or we compare two means (in the case of an independent samples test) like [this](_URL_0_). The more the distributions overlap, the more similar we say they look, and the harder the means are to tell apart. This is particularly true if the distributions are wide (have large standard devquestion high variability) as opposed to narrow (small standard deviations / little variability). But if the distributions are [far apart](_URL_4_) or if they are very narrow like the third picture [here](_URL_2_), we can be more confident that their means are distinct. This is the basic logic of the t-test. \n\nThe standard deviation of the sampling distribution is computed by taking the standard deviation of the sample and divided it by the sqrt(n). You can think about it this way: the sample has a certain mean and variance. But those are specific to the one particular sample that we drew. If we went out and repeated the experiment, we might get a different mean and a different variance. But, because we're drawing the samples from the same population (and because we make certain assumption about our samples and sampling procedure), we believe that all of these sample means are close to the true mean of the population. The sampling distribution is a distribution of these means. It is narrower because we expect the sample means to be more closely distributed around the population mean than any individual sample. This is why the standard deviation of the sampling distribution (aka the standard error) is smaller than that of the sample. That means that the sampling distribution gets skinnier and skinnier the more samples you have. That means that if you have two groups and two means that are very similar, but you have a huge n, then you're going to end up with very very narrow sampling distributions that won't overlap very much, but will be very close together and the t-test will say that the means are different.\n\nThat's why it's important to also compute the effect size. This tells you not just that two means are different (in the case of a comparison of means), but by how much. You might end up with a statistically significant difference between two groups, but the means might differ only by 0.0001. That's probably not very interesting. However, even small differences can be important in certain settings like medical ones. If a medication is going to improve my outcome even by as little as 3%, that might be worth knowing. So small effect sizes aren't by themselves a bad thing -- the context matters.\n\nAddendum: Further discussion [here](_URL_1_) highlighted that my examples may be misleading. An important point to make here that I did not explicitly distinguish is that the null hypothesis that two means are exactly equal is almost never true. This means that as you increase sample size, you will be more likely to find a real but practically insignificant difference. The point I was trying to make in this post is that even if the null hypothesis really is true, simply by increasing the sample size while keeping everything else exactly the same, you can get a statistically significant result when you didn't have one before with the smaller sample size. This is how I interpreted OPs question.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sure, because samples can be expensive both to collect and to compute and (depending on the data) the extra precision often isn't worth the associated costs. There's a saying that given unlimited time and resources anyone can build a bridge that doesn't fall down, but it takes an engineer to build a bridge that just *barely* doesn't fall down, on a budget and on schedule. Statisticians frequently work under analogous conditions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It can be troublesome if you're running correlations and t-tests. If you run a huge sample size, you could end up with correlations that are statistically significant even though with a normal sample size they'd be statistically insignificant. \n\n[This article](_URL_0_) explains what I and another commenter are referring to.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A power analysis will also provide you with an idea of how many members of each study group are needed.\n\nFor example, say you run a power analysis with an alpha of 0.05 for a study that looks at a cholesterol medication vs placebo, and you determine that to provide a 10% difference between the groups you need 500 patients in each group. Enrolling 10,000 patients at that point is excessive.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically all comments are talking about mistakes people could make with big samples that could cause problems. When following best practices, then, no. Your ideal statistic is sampling everybody, and the closer to it you get, the better. As long as everything else is equal, that is unconditionally true. There is no scientist in the world who would ever turn down doubling his sample size for free when conducting an experiment.\n\nYou just have to watch out for not falling into traps like the one /u/albasri outlined in significantly more detail by using more sophisticated estimators for effect sizes and standard errors.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We ran into one at my work related to \"using\" statistics.\n\nA larger sample size can introduce data that is more easily misinterpreted by someone (or some group) that doesn't understand the methodology or wants to mis-represent the data.\n\nLet's say are testing samples for contamination (for fun let's say it is a known toxin). The test will have a a predicted variation of measured concentration that in our case was always less than 1% of the allowable limit. \n\nThe larger the sample size, the more likely you will pick up an outlier (for any number of reasons, probably related to a sampling or testing error) that they can point to and say \"See - this is unsafe sometimes\".\n\n\nAlso data dredging becomes easier.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Imho what still missing is the destructive testing approach. If your samples get destroyed during testing, then you want to keep your sample size as small as possible (but as large as necessary to get a certain confidence level).\n\nClassical example: light bulb lifespan. To test it you got to run the bulbs until they burn out. So to bigger your sample size, the more money you lose.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In addition to the point of understanding the difference between simple test statistics and actual effect sizes, there is the issue of cost and efficiency associated with data collection. It's partly the point of power analysis, not just to establish you have the ability to detect a given effect if it exists, but also to inform the study what target you need to hit.\n\nFor particularly small effects and interactions, the sample sizes needed can be quite large. That's difficult in and of itself to gather, so at some point it's too costly or inefficient to continue.\n\nShorter answer, if you know what sample you need, it can be bad in the sense of waste to gather a larger sample size. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most of the other comments in here are missing a major consideration of research design: ethics.\n\nMany bio medical research studies either use animal or human subjects. In the case of animal studies, you're subjecting creatures to the pain and suffering of procedures, surgeries, or untested compounds. In the case of human studies, you're subjecting people to potentially harmful medications. A outrageously large sample size will be able to detect very small differences between your control and experimental group, but the question is: are those differences clinically significant? A drug that causes a significant 0.001% increase in function is essentially useless. As such, there is no justifiable reason to use a sample size that large. \n\nThis is why running a power analysis beforehand to decide your n is important. Research design should *ALWAYS* have a strong ethics basis.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You'd get some in depth responses over at /r/statistics. \n\nIt is generally a good thing, but with a major caveat: If you increase sample size **until you get significance**, you are essentially p-hacking.\n\nWhy? Because for any test, some random set of data will give you a significant p-value even if there is no actual effect. By simply increasing sample size until you get significance, you are essentially pulling random data until you get one that gives you the p-value you want.\n\nThis is especially possible if the power of the statistic you are calculating is far too low. In other words, if the true effect size is much smaller than your anticipated effect size. For example, look at [this chart from Gelman](_URL_1_). \n\nEDIT: /u/albasri's [comment](_URL_0_) goes into more detail with this.\n\nEDIT 2: /u/lehmakook points out that \"random\" is not the right word to use in this context. I was trying to say that by collecting data until you reach significance, you are essentially making the same mistake that you'd be making if you did the following:\n\n1. Collect sample\n2. Is significant? If yes, stop and bask in the glory of a publication\n3. If no, goto 1\n\nThe result of which would be that your 'significance' would be do to the randomly selected sample, rather than any real significant effect. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1776839", "title": "Sample size determination", "section": "Section::::Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 469, "text": "Larger sample sizes generally lead to increased precision when estimating unknown parameters. For example, if we wish to know the proportion of a certain species of fish that is infected with a pathogen, we would generally have a more precise estimate of this proportion if we sampled and examined 200 rather than 100 fish. Several fundamental facts of mathematical statistics describe this phenomenon, including the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51441272", "title": "Statistical stability", "section": "Section::::The areas of effective use of various approaches for description of the statistical stability phenomenon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 364, "text": "The limitations of statistical stability become apparent for large sample sizes and in the passage to the limit. Sample sizes are often small and therefore many practical tasks can be solved with acceptable accuracy using random (stochastic) models. Such models are usually simpler than the hyper-random models, so \"are preferred\" for not very large sample sizes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1776839", "title": "Sample size determination", "section": "Section::::Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 513, "text": "Sample sizes may be evaluated by the quality of the resulting estimates. For example, if a proportion is being estimated, one may wish to have the 95% confidence interval be less than 0.06 units wide. Alternatively, sample size may be assessed based on the power of a hypothesis test. For example, if we are comparing the support for a certain political candidate among women with the support for that candidate among men, we may wish to have 80% power to detect a difference in the support levels of 0.04 units.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1955561", "title": "Sampling error", "section": "Section::::Description.:Random sampling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 495, "text": "The likely size of the sampling error can generally be controlled by taking a large enough random sample from the population, although the cost of doing this may be prohibitive; see sample size determination and statistical power for more detail. If the observations are collected from a random sample, statistical theory provides probabilistic estimates of the likely size of the sampling error for a particular statistic or estimator. These are often expressed in terms of its standard error.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34952466", "title": "Insensitivity to sample size", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 431, "text": "Insensitivity to sample size is a cognitive bias that occurs when people judge the probability of obtaining a sample statistic without respect to the sample size. For example, in one study subjects assigned the same probability to the likelihood of obtaining a mean height of above six feet [183 cm] in samples of 10, 100, and 1,000 men. In other words, variation is more likely in smaller samples, but people may not expect this.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3878", "title": "Biostatistics", "section": "Section::::Research planning.:Sampling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 598, "text": "It is not possible to take the measures from all the elements of a population. Because of that, the sampling process is very important for statistical inference. Sampling is defined as to randomly get a representative part of the entire population, to make posterior inferences about the population. So, the sample might catch the most variability across a population. The sample size is determined by several things, since the scope of the research to the resources available. In clinical research, the trial type, as inferiority, equivalence, and superiority is a key in determining sample size.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "238695", "title": "Power (statistics)", "section": "Section::::Factors influencing power.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 401, "text": "The sample size determines the amount of sampling error inherent in a test result. Other things being equal, effects are harder to detect in smaller samples. Increasing sample size is often the easiest way to boost the statistical power of a test. How increased sample size translates to higher power is a measure of the efficiency of the test—for example, the sample size required for a given power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Adapted from [an older answer](_URL_1_): \n\nIt's a myth that \"only the richest American families\" in southern states could own slaves, which is perpetuated mainly by Confederate apologists hellbent on arguing that the Civil War wasn't about slavery. \n\nSpoiler alert: it was about slavery. \n\n*Many* people in the antebellum South owned slaves. I wrote an answer on this awhile ago, adapted from the multiple times it's come up before. Before we get to that, here's a handy chart adapted from the 1860 census that looks at percentages of families who were enslavers, and percentages of enslaved people, in the seceding states and border states: \n\n## Enslavers and enslaved population by state \n\n### Seceding states \n\nState | Enslaver families by % of population | Enslaved people as % of population \n---|---|----\nAlabama | 35 | 45\nArkansas | 20 | 26\nFlorida | 34 | 44 \nGeorgia | 37 | 44 \nLouisiana | 29 | 47 \nMississippi | 49 | 55 \nNorth Carolina | 28 | 33 \nSouth Carolina | 46 | 57 \nTennessee | 25 | 25 \nTexas | 28 | 30 \nVirginia | 26 | 31 \n\n### Border states (did not secede) \nState | Enslaver families by % of population | Enslaved people as % of population \n---|---|----\nDelaware | 3 | 2 \nKentucky | 23 | 20 \nMaryland | 12 | 13\nMissouri | 13 | 10 \n\n[The answer I referenced above](_URL_7_): \n\nIt's funny you mention Twain, because he classified lies into three categories: lies, damn lies, and statistics. That statistic you quote is used by Confederate apologists to make it sound like the war wasn't about slavery. (It was about slavery.) To answer your second question first, while many enslaved people worked on slave labor camps (Monticello, Mount Vernon, etc), many households in the South owned \"only\" one or two enslaved people. \n\nAdapted from [an older answer](_URL_4_): \n\n > What percentage of whites owned slaves?\n\nIf you ask this question in this way, you'll get what seems to be a low number because it counts only property owners, who are heads of households, and not families/households who would benefit from the slave. (Think about it in this way: in my household I own a car, but my wife and child also benefit from my ownership of the car -- she drives it, he rides in it, we all use the groceries it brings home, etc.)\n\nIt also depends on whether you look at the percentage of slave owners (or slave-owning households) in the overall population of the U.S., or in slave states particularly.\n\nSo the better question is what percentage of *households* owned enslaved people. Here's a resource for the 1860 census which breaks down slave ownership by state: _URL_5_\n\nI wrote about this awhile back in the context of a border state: _URL_0_\n\nTo expand on that just a bit, the reason why how you count slave ownership matters is that if you state the question as \"what percentage of whites owned people in 1860\", you get a number that's about 8 percent of families owning enslaved people. (See the 1860 census link for context.) That number is often used by Confederate apologists to \"prove\" that the war couldn't be about slavery, because such a low percentage of households owned enslaved people. \n\nSo now we get into some basic stats. The 8 percent number is accurate, but it's also misleading, because fully half the states in the United States banned slavery, and those states held well over twice the population of the southern states -- about 22 million in the North, about 13 million in the South. Further, in the South, about 4 million of the population were slaves. So 22 million people were ineligible to own enslaved people right away, plus there were about four million enslaved people themselves -- so the question has to center on the population eligible to own enslaved people, that is, the remaining 8.2 million. \n\nIf you take a look through that [census link](_URL_5_) it's quite illuminating; slaveholding families ranged from a low of three percent of the population in Delaware, to highs 46 percent in South Carolina and 49 percent in Mississippi. It's also interesting to look at enslaved people as percentage of population, where 57 percent of South Carolina's population and 55 percent of Mississippi's were enslaved people. \n\nFor more on this, see also these threads: \n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_6_\n\n_URL_2_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "133263", "title": "Manumission", "section": "Section::::United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 1048, "text": "Of the Founding Fathers of the United States, as defined by the historian Richard B. Morris, the Southerners were the major slaveholders, but Northerners also held them, generally in smaller number, as domestic servants. John Adams owned none. George Washington freed his own slaves in his will (his wife independently held numerous dower slaves). Thomas Jefferson freed five slaves in his will, and the remaining 130 were sold to settle his estate debts. James Madison did not free his slaves, and some were sold to pay off estate debts, and his wife and son retained most to work Montpelier plantation. Alexander Hamilton's slave ownership is unclear, but it is most likely that he was of the abolitionist ideal, as he was an officer of the New York Manumission Society. John Jay founded the society and freed his domestic slaves in 1798; the same year, as governor, he signed a gradual abolition law in New York. John Dickinson freed his slaves in a manumission process between 1776 and 1786, the only Founding Father to do so during that time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2498648", "title": "Maryus Jones", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 375, "text": "In a retrospective discussion of slavery in the South, Jones stated in a letter that \"The great slave owners in no manner resembled what I have read of the barons of the fourteenth century who haughtily received the trembling vassals; on the contrary the old Virginia gentlemen were courteous and polite to all classes, not only to the whites, but to the slaves themselves.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50128554", "title": "William McClaughry", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 366, "text": "But according to three historians who researched the topic, ex-slaves, William, Thomas and John McClaughry achieved their own impossible dream. In a series of shrewd transactions, they not only acquired large real estate holdings - almost 500 acres of fertile farmland in Walkill and Orange County - but also won the respect and admiration of their White neighbors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "253264", "title": "Slavery in the United States", "section": "Section::::Black slaveholders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 279, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 279, "end_character": 611, "text": "The historian James Oakes in 1982 stated that \"[t]he evidence is overwhelming that the vast majority of black slaveholders were free men who purchased members of their families or who acted out of benevolence\". After 1810 Southern states made it increasingly difficult for any slaveholders to free slaves. Often the purchasers of family members were left with no choice but to maintain, on paper, the owner–slave relationship. In the 1850s \"there were increasing efforts to restrict the right to hold bondsmen on the grounds that slaves should be kept 'as far as possible under the control of white men only.'\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23484924", "title": "Thomas Jefferson and slavery", "section": "Section::::Monticello slave life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 840, "text": "Some historians have noted that Jefferson maintained many slave families together on his plantations; historian Bruce Fehn says this was consistent with other slave owners at the time. There were often more than one generation of family at the plantation and families were stable. Jefferson and other slaveholders shifted the \"cost of reproducing the workforce to the workers' themselves\". He could increase the value of his property without having to buy additional slaves. Jefferson encouraged slaves at Monticello to marry at Monticello. He would occasionally buy and sell slaves to keep families together. In 1815, he said that his slaves were \"worth a great deal more\" due to their marriages. Married slaves, however, had no legal protection or recognition by the law; masters could separate slave husbands and wives any time desired.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "253264", "title": "Slavery in the United States", "section": "Section::::Economics.:Effects on Southern economic development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 196, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 196, "end_character": 440, "text": "Sowell also notes in \"Ethnic America: A History\", citing historians Clement Eaton and Eugene Genovese, that three-quarters of Southern white families owned no slaves at all. Most slaveholders lived on farms rather than plantations, and few plantations were as large as the fictional ones depicted in \"Gone with the Wind\". In \"The Real History of Slavery,\" Sowell draws the following conclusion regarding the macroeconomic value of slavery:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "408840", "title": "Origins of the American Civil War", "section": "Section::::Historical tensions and compromises.:Antebellum South and the Union.:Southern culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 557, "text": "In the 1850s, as large plantation owners outcompeted smaller farmers, more slaves were owned by fewer planters. Yet poor whites and small farmers generally accepted the political leadership of the planter elite. Several factors helped explain why slavery was not under serious threat of internal collapse from any move for democratic change initiated from the South. First, given the opening of new territories in the West for white settlement, many non-slaveowners also perceived a possibility that they, too, might own slaves at some point in their life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well, the first mammals had internal testes. Having external came much later. Rhinoceroses having internal testes has evolved secondarily.\nOn of the arguments is, that early mammals might have had a slightly lower body temperature and didn't need to have external testes for efficient spermatogenesis. But really, it's mostly guesswork.\n\nThere is more in the Wikipedia entry for the mammalian [testicle](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This has more to do with the sperm than the testes.\n\nTemperature tolerances of proteins can vary quite a bit with very small changes in the amino acid sequence used to make them. The bonds between amino acids not linked together by peptide bonds are typically pretty weak so the extra movement with temperature (the average **kinetic** energy of a substance) can rattle this long twisted string apart.\n\n\nAnimals with external testes have sperm that have proteins with lower heat tolerances and require a lower temp to be viable.\n\nIf the proteins of the sperm have a high enough tolerance, the testes can remain inside, which reproductively is advantageous (since they're less likely to be accidentally lost).\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36695798", "title": "Mammalian reproduction", "section": "Section::::Reproductive system.:Placental mammals.:Male placental mammals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1093, "text": "The mammalian male reproductive system contains two main divisions, the penis and the testicles, the latter of which is where sperm are produced. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity, but they can be primarily housed within the abdomen in other animals. For instance, a dog's penis is covered by a penile sheath except when mating. Having the testicles outside the abdomen best facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific temperatures to survive. The external location may also cause a reduction in the heat-induced contribution to the spontaneous mutation rate in male germinal tissue. Sperm are the smaller of the two gametes and are generally very short-lived, requiring males to produce them continuously from the time of sexual maturity until death. The produced sperm are stored in the epididymis until ejaculation. The sperm cells are motile and they swim using tail-like flagella to propel themselves towards the ovum. The sperm follows temperature gradients (thermotaxis) and chemical gradients (chemotaxis) to locate the ovum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67193", "title": "Testicle", "section": "Section::::Other animals.:Location.:Internal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 637, "text": "The basal condition for mammals is to have internal testes. The testes of the non-boreotherian mammals, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, and elephants, remain within the abdomen. There are also some marsupials with external testes and Boreoeutherian mammals with internal testes, such as the rhinoceros. Cetaceans such as whales and dolphins also have internal testes. As external testes would increase drag in the water they have internal testes which are kept cool by special circulatory systems that cool the arterial blood going to the testes by placing the arteries near veins bringing cooled venous blood from the skin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18841931", "title": "Scrotum", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 773, "text": "Having the scrotum and testicles situated outside the abdominal cavity may provide additional advantages. The external scrotum is not affected by abdominal pressure. This may prevent the emptying of the testes before the sperm were matured sufficiently for fertilization. Another advantage is it protects the testes from jolts and compressions associated with an active lifestyle. Animals that move at a steady pace – such as elephants, whales, and marsupial moles – have internal testes and no scrotum. Unlike placental mammals, some male marsupials have a scrotum that is anterior to the penis, although there are several marsupial species without an external scrotum. In humans, the scrotum may provide some friction during intercourse, helping to enhance the activity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67193", "title": "Testicle", "section": "Section::::Other animals.:Location.:External.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 285, "text": "Boreoeutherian land mammals, the large group of mammals that includes humans, have externalized testes. Their testes function best at temperatures lower than their core body temperature. Their testes are located outside of the body, suspended by the spermatic cord within the scrotum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "662776", "title": "Turbellaria", "section": "Section::::Description.:Reproduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 543, "text": "In turbellarians there are one or more pairs of both testes and ovaries. Sperm ducts run from the testes, through bulb-like seminal vesicles, to the muscular penis. In many species, this basic plan is considerably complicated by the addition of accessory glands or other structures. The penis lies inside a cavity, and can be everted through an opening on the posterior underside of the animal. It often, although not always, possesses a sharp stylet. Unusually among animals, in most species, the sperm cells have two tails, rather than one.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67193", "title": "Testicle", "section": "Section::::Other animals.:Location.:External.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 1121, "text": "2) \"Irreversible adaptation to sperm competition\". It has been suggested that the ancestor of the boreoeutherian mammals was a small mammal that required very large testes (perhaps rather like those of a hamster) for sperm competition and thus had to place its testes outside the body. This led to enzymes involved in spermatogenesis, spermatogenic DNA polymerase beta and recombinase activities evolving a unique temperature optimum, slightly less than core body temperature. When the boreoeutherian mammals then diversified into forms that were larger and/or did not require intense sperm competition they still produced enzymes that operated best at cooler temperatures and had to keep their testes outside the body. This position is made less parsimonious by the fact that the kangaroo, a non-boreoeutherian mammal, has external testicles. The ancestors of kangaroos might, separately from boreotherian mammals, have also been subject to heavy sperm competition and thus developed external testes, however, kangaroo external testes are suggestive of a possible adaptive function for external testes in large animals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67193", "title": "Testicle", "section": "Section::::Other animals.:Location.:External.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 380, "text": "There are several hypotheses why most boreotherian mammals have external testes which operate best at a temperature that is slightly less than the core body temperature, e.g. that it is stuck with enzymes evolved in a colder temperature due to external testes evolving for different reasons, that the lower temperature of the testes simply is more efficient for sperm production.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "People like to communicate. When we communicate, sometimes we tell each other secrets - things that nobody else should know.\n\nIf you are sending a message containing a secret to somebody you might fear that this message will fall into the wrong hands and the wrong people will know your secret. So to outsmart the bad guys you can modify your message to seem like gibberish to anybody else.\n\nFor example let's say your secret message is \"I'm high\". You can substitute the letter \"h\" with the letter \"z\" and your message will become \"I'm zigz\". You tell your buddy \"listen, I don't want people to know I'm high, so when I write you messages I will swap the 'z' and 'h' letters.\". If the wrong person gets the message they won't understand it.\n\nChanging your message to seem like gibberish to other people is called encoding.\n\nWhen the recipient receives that \"gibberish\" message and turns it back into a meaningful message, we say that he decodes the message.\n\nWell obviously with a little detective work a person might find out that \"I'm zigz\" probably means \"I'm high\". So we use more complicated methods for encoding our messages, usually involving some complicated mathematics. But the idea is the same.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "323392", "title": "Theoretical computer science", "section": "Section::::Topics.:Cryptography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 590, "text": "Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties (called adversaries). More generally, it is about constructing and analyzing protocols that overcome the influence of adversaries and that are related to various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation. Modern cryptography intersects the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, and electrical engineering. Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18934432", "title": "Cryptography", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 851, "text": "Cryptography or cryptology (from \"hidden, secret\"; and \"graphein\", \"to write\", or \"-logia\", \"study\", respectively) is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called adversaries. More generally, cryptography is about constructing and analyzing protocols that prevent third parties or the public from reading private messages; various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation are central to modern cryptography. Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, electrical engineering, communication science, and physics. Applications of cryptography include electronic commerce, chip-based payment cards, digital currencies, computer passwords, and military communications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23564044", "title": "Outline of cryptography", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 264, "text": "Cryptography (or cryptology) – practice and study of hiding information. Modern cryptography intersects the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, and engineering. Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2379185", "title": "Hacking: The Art of Exploitation", "section": "Section::::Content 2nd edition.:0x700 Cryptology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 379, "text": "Cryptology is the use of communicating secretly through the use of ciphers, and cryptanalysis is the process of cracking or deciphering such secret communications. This chapter offers information on the theory of cryptology, including the work of Claude Shannon, and concepts including unconditional security, one-time pads, quantum key distribution, and computational security.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43318963", "title": "Crypton (framework)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 406, "text": "Crypton is a JavaScript library that allows one to write web applications where the server knows nothing of the contents a user is storing. This is done by use of cryptography, though the developer of the application does not need any cryptographic knowledge. It is designed to encrypt data inside a JavaScript context (either a browser extension, mobile application, or WebKit-based desktop application).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55604987", "title": "Human rights and encryption", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 940, "text": "Cryptography is a long-standing subject in the field of mathematics, computer science and engineering. It can generally be defined as \"the protection of information and computation using mathematical techniques.\" In the OECD Guidelines, Encryption and cryptography are defined as follows: \"Encryption\" means the transformation of data by the use of cryptography to produce unintelligible data (encrypted data) to ensure its confidentiality. Cryptography\" means the discipline which embodies principles, means, and methods for the transformation of data in order to hide its information content, establish its authenticity, prevent its undetected modification, prevent its repudiation, and/or prevent its unauthorized use. encryption and cryptography are \"often used synonymously, although \"cryptographic\" has a broader technical meaning. For example, a digital signature is \"cryptographic\" but arguably it is not technically \"encryption\"\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "520066", "title": "History of cryptography", "section": "Section::::Medieval cryptography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 342, "text": "David Kahn notes in \"The Codebreakers\" that modern cryptology originated among the Arabs, the first people to systematically document cryptanalytic methods. Al-Khalil (717–786) wrote the \"Book of Cryptographic Messages\", which contains the first use of permutations and combinations to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "For children coloring, white and clear mean the same thing, on a white piece of paper. If they want to show something as white, they don't fill it in, it'll be the white of the paper. If they want to show something as clear, they'll leave it blank, and it'll be transparent to them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30087669", "title": "Shades of white", "section": "Section::::White.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 313, "text": "\"White\" is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light that stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the human eye in equal amounts and with high brightness compared to the surroundings. A white visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness. White is the lightest possible color.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32357031", "title": "Shades of gray", "section": "Section::::White and black.:White.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 311, "text": "White is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light that stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the human eye in equal amounts and with high brightness compared to the surroundings. A white visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness. White is the lightest possible color.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61255683", "title": "Charles Reid (painter)", "section": "Section::::Characteristics of Charles Reid's watercolor work.:The colour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 706, "text": "For whites and clear values ​​corresponding to multiple shades of white Reid insists that a white object \"stays white\" regardless of the lighting it receives, even in the shade it is white (according to the other objects). The darker shades of white will always be brighter than the lighter shades of darkness. \"White is white\" in all circumstances, is the principle which guides the way he treats the tonal variations of white objects in the shadows and cast shadows by the use of shades of white. These are obtained from cold and warm subtle mixtures that he juxtaposes on paper, and from shades of a gray composed of ceruleum blue, yellow ocher or natural sienna and carmine that he particularly likes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "302812", "title": "Color vision", "section": "Section::::Wavelength and hue detection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 328, "text": "The perception of \"white\" is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colors of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of color receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of complementary colors such as blue and yellow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31549311", "title": "Stress-whitening", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 330, "text": "The appearance of white line indicates that there is an onset of failure of the corresponding material. This phenomenon is known as \"stress whitening\". This is more common in amorphous materials, and also in some brittle polymers like PS, PMMA and Polycarbonate. The white colour is because of the light scattering by the crazes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "537823", "title": "Whiteness", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 211, "text": "In colorimetry, whiteness is the degree to which a surface is white. An example of its use might be to quantitatively compare two pieces of paper which appear white viewed individually, but not when juxtaposed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50777971", "title": "List of colors by shade", "section": "Section::::Colors with Shades and Tints of that Hue.:White.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 256, "text": "White is a balanced combination of all the colors of the visible light spectrum, or of a pair of complementary colors, or of three or more colors, such as additive primary colors. It is a neutral or achromatic (\"without color\") color, like black and gray.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "When one does drugs or smoke or eat junk food, our brain responds by giving you a “feel good” feeling. This feeling is caused by chemicals aka neurotransmitters, in our body like dopamine and endorphins. Our brain remembers what caused us to feel this way and knows in the future what it needs to make yourself feel good like before ., which leads to cravings. \n\n\nWith quitting drugs, particularly opiates, painful or just unpleasant withdraw happens because our body grew accustomed or dependent on the drugs to make the body produce the feel good chemicals and it didn’t think it needed to produce anymore of its feel good chemicals on its own. Once the drugs stop, the body takes time to readjust and build its own supply back up on its own. ......in the mean time, the person is in agony. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Our brains get \"rewired\" when we use drugs, alcohol or develop an addictive behavior. This isn't just to the substance but to the *ritual* involved.\n\nAlcoholics like the sound of a beer tab, or bottle cracking open; gamblers love the feeling of walking into a card game or casino, etc. The ritual becomes part of the addiction. Even smoking cigarettes is as much about opening the pack and lighting up as it is getting the nicotine high.\n\nThe brain associates those behaviors, as well as the chemicals triggered, with feeling good/better.\n\nSource: recovered/recovering alcoholic/pillhead", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically your brain is using the same circuits as are active in extreme hunger, to motivate you to seek the drug the same way you would seek food if you hadn't eaten for five days.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27158894", "title": "Addiction", "section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Reward sensitization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 847, "text": "\"Cue-induced wanting\" or \"cue-triggered wanting\", a form of craving that occurs in addiction, is responsible for most of the compulsive behavior that addicts exhibit. During the development of an addiction, the repeated association of otherwise neutral and even non-rewarding stimuli with drug consumption triggers an associative learning process that causes these previously neutral stimuli to act as conditioned positive reinforcers of addictive drug use (i.e., these stimuli start to function as drug cues). As conditioned positive reinforcers of drug use, these previously neutral stimuli are assigned incentive salience (which manifests as a craving) – sometimes at pathologically high levels due to reward sensitization – which can transfer to the primary reinforcer (e.g., the use of an addictive drug) with which it was originally paired.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8582684", "title": "Reward system", "section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Animals vs. humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 626, "text": "Berridge developed the \"incentive salience hypothesis\" to address the \"wanting\" aspect of rewards. It explains the compulsive use of drugs by drug addicts even when the drug no longer produces euphoria, and the cravings experienced even after the individual has finished going through withdrawal. Some addicts respond to certain stimuli involving neural changes caused by drugs. This sensitization in the brain is similar to the effect of dopamine because \"wanting\" and \"liking\" reactions occur. Human and animal brains and behaviors experience similar changes regarding reward systems because these systems are so prominent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1085344", "title": "Motivational salience", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Addiction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 417, "text": "In addiction, the \"liking\" (pleasure or hedonic value) of a drug or other stimulus becomes dissociated from \"wanting\" (i.e., desire or craving) due to the sensitization of incentive salience. In fact, if the incentive salience associated with drug-taking becomes pathologically amplified, the user may want the drug more and more while liking it less and less as tolerance develops to the drug's pleasurable effects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46506010", "title": "A-process", "section": "Section::::A and b process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 234, "text": "Research on the brain mechanisms of drug addiction showed how the a-process is equated with the pleasure derived from drugs and once it weakens, it is followed by the strengthening of the b-process, which are the withdrawal symptoms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47537620", "title": "Personality theories of addiction", "section": "Section::::Role of affect dysregulation in addiction.:Negative affect.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 424, "text": "Key to this concept is the Hedonic Hypothesis, which states that individuals initiate use of the substance or behaviour for their pleasurable effects, but then take it compulsively to avoid withdrawal symptoms, resulting in dependence. Based on this hypothesis, some researchers believe that individuals engaging in risky use of substances or behaviours may be over-responsing to negative stimuli, which leads to addiction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9228775", "title": "Politics of drug abuse", "section": "Section::::World Health Organization.:Definitions of drug abuse and drug addiction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 468, "text": "\"Drug addiction is a state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of a drug (natural or synthetic). Its characteristics include: (i) an overpowering desire or need (compulsion) to continue taking the drug and to obtain it by any means; (ii) a tendency to increase the dose; (iii) a psychic (psychological) and generally a physical dependence on the effects of the drug; and (iv) detrimental effects on the individual and on society.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56103154", "title": "Discrimination against drug addicts", "section": "Section::::Lack of objective information about drugs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1303, "text": "When an individual falls victim to drug addiction, they will undergo the five stages of addiction which are the first use, the continued use, tolerance, dependence, and addiction. The first use stage, is the stage where individuals experiment with drugs and alcohol. This is the stage where individuals will partake in drug use because of curiosity, peer pressure, emotional problems etc. They discover how the drug will make them feel. In the continued use stage, individuals know how the drug makes them feel and is likely to notice that they're not getting “high” as quickly as they use to. In the tolerance stage, the brain and the body have adjusted to the drug and it takes longer to get the “high” an individual is seeking. Tolerance arrives after a period of continued use and is one of the first warning signs of addiction. In the dependence stage, the brain becomes accustomed to the drug and doesn't function well without it. Substance abusers become physically ill without the use of drugs and will begin to develop symptoms of withdrawal. This is sign that the addiction is beginning to take hold of the individual. In the addiction stage, individuals find it impossible to stop using drugs even if they do not enjoy it or if their behavior has caused problems within an individual's life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's kinda like how you straighten hair the carbon bonds are weak in hair heat allows the breaking of bonds and forms it straight under the flat surface ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "349632", "title": "Clothes iron", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 669, "text": "A clothes iron is a device that, when heated, is used to press clothes to remove creases and help prevent the spread of infectious disease. Domestic irons generally range in operating temperature from between to . It is named for the metal (iron) of which the device was historically made, and the use of it is generally called ironing. Ironing works by loosening the ties between the long chains of molecules that exist in polymer fiber materials. With the heat and the weight of the ironing plate, the fibers are stretched and the fabric maintains its new shape when cool. Some materials, such as cotton, require the use of water to loosen the intermolecular bonds. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38180", "title": "Clothing", "section": "Section::::Life cycle.:Laundry, ironing, storage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 547, "text": "Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily wrinkle, and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and creates a smooth appearance without ironing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54029391", "title": "Mary Florence Potts", "section": "Section::::Mid life and career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 511, "text": "The most pronounced feature of Potts's clothes iron was a detachable rounded wooden handle. That allowed the iron base to be placed on a heated stovetop and the handle removed at that time to stay away and cool while the base heated up. This prevented burned fingers, that often happened with the conventional all-solid-metal clothes iron of the nineteenth century. The handle and bases were designed standard and could be easily reattached to various sizes after they were heated for little delay in ironing. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "232412", "title": "Putrefaction", "section": "Section::::Factors affecting putrefaction.:Exogenous (external).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 240, "text": "Clothing: Loose-fitting clothing can speed up the rate of putrefaction, as it helps to retain body heat. Tight-fitting clothing can delay the process by cutting off blood supply to tissues and eliminating nutrients for bacteria to feed on.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54029391", "title": "Mary Florence Potts", "section": "Section::::Mid life and career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 509, "text": "The conventional solid metal clothes iron of the 19th century weighed around to and had to be heated on a stove. It was so hot, that often a rag or thick cloth mitt was utilized to touch the metal handle to prevent burning the fingers. Once this all-metal iron cooled down, the ironing job at hand had to stop until it was reheated. The advantage of Potts's system was that there was always a waiting heated base ready to be switched out with the used cooled base, so the ironing could continue immediately. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21402762", "title": "Ironing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 766, "text": "Ironing is the use of a machine, usually a heated tool (an iron), to remove wrinkles from fabric. The heating is commonly done to a temperature of 180–220 °Celsius, depending on the fabric. Ironing works by loosening the bonds between the long-chain polymer molecules in the fibers of the material. While the molecules are hot, the fibers are straightened by the weight of the iron, and they hold their new shape as they cool. Some fabrics, such as cotton, require the addition of water to loosen the intermolecular bonds. Many modern fabrics (developed in or after the mid-twentieth century) are advertised as needing little or no ironing. Permanent press clothing was developed to reduce the ironing necessary by combining wrinkle-resistant polyester with cotton.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21402762", "title": "Ironing", "section": "Section::::Equipment.:Ironing board.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 253, "text": "Most ironing is done on an ironing board, a small, portable, foldable table with a heat-resistant surface. Some commercial-grade ironing boards incorporate a heating element and a pedal-operated vacuum to pull air through the board and dry the garment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A computer prints the numbers on the scratchoff tickets as they roll through the printing presses at a thousand tickets a minute and the machine also coats the tickets with the scratch off coating in the same process. So when they come out of the press all the employee sees is the completed tickets in a giant stack. They have no way of knowing which tickets are winners unless they are upper management of the company who program the software. Those employees are heavily scrutinized at all times to make sure there is no way they can cheat the system.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "54551368", "title": "Lottery betting", "section": "Section::::Models.:Ticket reseller.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 542, "text": "Companies operating using a ticket reseller model purchase tickets for the official lottery draw on behalf of the player. The company then charges the player the price of the ticket, as well as an extra commission. In the event of a winning ticket, the company collects the winnings from the official lottery operators and then forwards the winnings on to the player. Lottery messenger services earn income from charging a service fee for the tickets they sell. This fee goes towards paying staff and maintaining the quality of the website. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10985398", "title": "Louisiana Lottery Corporation", "section": "Section::::Drawings.:How to Claim a Prize.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 586, "text": "Lottery tickets are bearer instruments, which means that the Lottery must pay the holder of a winning ticket presented for payment. Signing the back of the ticket is the single most important thing one can do to help protect themselves from theft and demonstrate ownership of the ticket. Any alteration to a winning ticket worth more than $600 is cause for an immediate security investigation. Once a winning ticket has been paid, however, it is much more difficult to determine whether another individual was the rightful owner. By law, the Lottery can pay a winning ticket only once.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "228592", "title": "Lottery", "section": "Section::::Scams and frauds.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 694, "text": "There have also been several cases of cashiers at lottery retailers who have attempted to scam customers out of their winnings. Some locations require the patron to hand the lottery ticket to the cashier to determine how much they have won, or if they have won at all, the cashier then scans the ticket to determine one or both. In cases where there is no visible or audible cue to the patron of the outcome of the scan some cashiers have taken the opportunity to claim that the ticket is a loser or that it is worth far less than it is and offer to \"throw it away\" or surreptitiously substitute it for another ticket. The cashier then pockets the ticket and eventually claims it as their own.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54551368", "title": "Lottery betting", "section": "Section::::Models.:Insurance-based.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 647, "text": "Companies using this model are not required to purchase tickets from official lottery operators. Instead, when a player places a wager on a lottery, the company then forwards this bet to a third-party insurance company. The betting company pays a set fee for every wager placed to the insurance company in order to offset the risk of a large lottery prize being won. If a player wins a large prize (such as a jackpot), the insurance company pays the betting company, who subsequently give the money to the winning player. In the event of small prize wins, the betting firm will typically pay the prize directly to the player from their own funds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54551368", "title": "Lottery betting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 414, "text": "By betting on the outcome of a lottery draw, rather than purchasing an official ticket, players are able to take part in international and state lottery draws that are usually out of their jurisdiction. For example, a resident of the United Kingdom could place a bet on the outcome of an American lottery drawing, such as Mega Millions or Powerball, even though they would not be eligible to buy official tickets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10949120", "title": "Idaho Lottery", "section": "Section::::Technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 325, "text": "The Lottery also changed its instant ticket vendor to Scientific Games, Inc. in July 2007. This combination of companies has allowed the Lottery to offer unique game promotions where players have the opportunity to enter second-chance draws through either the internet or via tele-entry using a regular touch-tone telephone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23107064", "title": "Ticket exchange", "section": "Section::::Secondary market.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 491, "text": "Ticket exchanges allow people to buy and sell tickets online. For example, an individual who purchased tickets to a football game may find that they can no longer go and hence sell their tickets on a ticket exchange. Those most likely to use the services of a ticket exchange are ticket brokers (commonly known as \"scalpers\"). Brokers may purchase tickets in bulk from a promoter or directly from the venue (box office) hoping that the tickets will sell above face value due to high demand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Solar stills might be more viable there than in other parts of the world, but the problem is that they still aren't very viable.\n\nThe parts of Africa that have trouble accessing clean drinking water generally aren't coastal regions, those tend to be quite prosperous areas that have wells or other forms of water.\n\nThe parts of Africa that we see that need help, are sub-Saharan, middle of the continent Africa. Where they can't reach the Ocean.\n\nThis combined with the high amounts of corruption throughout the continent mean that plants would inevitably end up in the hands of someone who would make it hard for the poor to access it. It'd just be another resource for certain group to try and control.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31150404", "title": "Water scarcity in Africa", "section": "Section::::Addressing the issue.:International and non-governmental organizations' efforts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 536, "text": "To adequately address the issue of water scarcity in Africa, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa emphasizes the need to invest in the development of Africa's potential water resources to reduce unnecessary suffering, ensure food security, and protect economic gains by effectively managing droughts, floods, and desertification. Some suggested and ongoing efforts to achieve this include an emphasis on infrastructural implementations and improvements of wells, rainwater catchment systems, and clean-water storage tanks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "216143", "title": "Sustainable agriculture", "section": "Section::::Barriers.:Geographic barriers.:Solutions to geographic barriers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 626, "text": "Desalination techniques have been developed to allow greater access to fresh water in areas that have historically had limited access. The desalination process turns salt water into fresh water and will allow the irrigation of crops to continue without making a harmful impact on the water supply. While desalination can prove to be an effective tool to provide fresh water to areas that need it to sustain agriculture, it requires money and resources. regions of China have been considering large scale desalination in order to increase access to water, but the current cost of the desalination process makes it impractical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31150404", "title": "Water scarcity in Africa", "section": "Section::::Addressing the issue.:Solutions and technologies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 276, "text": "The more basic solutions to help provide Africa with drinkable and usable water include well-digging, rain catchment systems, de-worming pills, and hand pumps, but high demand for clean water solutions has also prompted the development of some key creative solutions as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31150404", "title": "Water scarcity in Africa", "section": "Section::::Addressing the issue.:International and non-governmental organizations' efforts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 835, "text": "Efforts made by the United Nations in compliance with the Millennium Development Goals have targeted water scarcity not just for Africa, but globally. The compiled list includes eight international development goals, seven of which are directly impacted by water scarcity. Access to water affects poverty, food scarcity, educational attainment, social and economic capital of women, livelihood security, disease, and human and environmental health. Because addressing the issue of water is so integral to reaching the MDGs, one of the sub-goals includes halving the proportion of the globe's population without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2015. In March 2012, the UN announced that this goal has been met almost four years in advance, suggesting that global efforts to reduce water scarcity are on a successful trend.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31150404", "title": "Water scarcity in Africa", "section": "Section::::Addressing the issue.:Solutions and technologies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 824, "text": "Overall, a wide range of cost-effective, manageable, and innovative solutions are available to help aid Africa in producing clean, disease-free water. Ultimately what it comes down to is using technology appropriate for each individual community's needs. For the technology to be effective, it must conform to environmental, ethical, cultural, social, and economic aspects of each Africa community. Additionally, state governments, donor agencies, and technological solutions must be mindful of the gender disparity in access to water so as to not exclude women from development or resource management projects. If this can be done, with sufficient funding and aid to implement such technologies, it is feasible to eliminate clean water scarcity for the African continent by the Millennium Development Goal deadline of 2012\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31150404", "title": "Water scarcity in Africa", "section": "Section::::Health.:Agriculture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 832, "text": "But for many regions, there is a lack of financial and human resources to support infrastructure and technology required for proper crop irrigation. Because of this, the impact of droughts, floods, and desertification is greater in terms of both African economic loss and human life loss due to crop failure and starvation. Additionally, lack of water causes many Africans to use wastewater for crop growth, causing a large number of people to consume foods that can contain chemicals or disease-causing organisms transferred by the wastewater. Thus, for the extremely high number of African areas suffering from water scarcity issues, investing in development means sustainably withdrawing from clean freshwater sources, ensuring food security by expanding irrigation areas, and effectively managing the effects of climate change.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31150404", "title": "Water scarcity in Africa", "section": "Section::::Health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 891, "text": "When infected with these waterborne diseases, those living in African communities suffering from water scarcity cannot contribute to the community's productivity and development because of a simple lack of strength. Additionally, individual, community and governmental economic resources are sapped by the cost of medicine to treat waterborne diseases, which takes away from resources that might have potentially been allocated in support of food supply or school fees. Also, in term of governmental funding, the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) estimates that in Sub-Saharan Africa, treatment of diarrhea due to water contamination consumes 12% of the country's health budget. With better water conditions, the burden on healthcare would be less substantial, while a healthier workforce would stimulate economic growth and help alleviate the prevalence of poverty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Irredentism is a fairly common phenomena. For a long, for instance, Greece had ambitions to take back eastern anatolia, which had once been part of the Greek Byzantine world, from the Turks, regardless of the fact that Turks mostly now lived there, and launched numerous wars to that effect. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Would the [Reconquista](_URL_0_) fit the same pattern?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Check out the [Back to Africa Movement](_URL_0_) from 19th century America. It lead to the foundation of Liberia (fun fact: the capital of Monrovia is named after James Monroe!) \n\nSierra Leone has a similar history of resettlement in the foundation of the Province of Freedom, which was founded for the \"resettlement\" of black loyalists who fled the Revolutionary war in America, as well as other poor, free blacks from around the empire. \n\nNeither of the projects had smooth sailing.\n\nSource: Took a class called \"Small Wars in the Global Context\" Mostly covering cold war proxies and African civil wars. There were no overarching books on those topics, only some memoirs from reporter and child soldiers. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45137635", "title": "1947–1949 Palestine war", "section": "Section::::Background.:Jewish immigration to Palestine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 804, "text": "Zionism was formed in Europe as the national movement of the Jewish people. It sought to re-establish Jewish statehood in the ancient homeland. The first wave of Zionist immigration, dubbed the First Aliyah lasted between 1882 and 1903. Some 30,000 Jews mostly from the Russian Empire reached Ottoman Palestine. They were driven both by the Zionist idea but also by the wave of Antisemitism in Europe and especially in the Russian Empire, which came in the form of the brutal pogroms. They wanted to establish Jewish agricultural settlements and set the base for a Jewish majority in the land that will allow them to establish statehood. The land on which they settled was acquired by cash. They settled mostly the sparsely populated lowlands, which were full of swamps and subjected to Bedouin robbers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14098762", "title": "History of Zionism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 333, "text": "Zionism as an organized movement is generally considered to have been founded by Theodor Herzl in 1897. However, the history of Zionism began earlier and is related to Judaism and Jewish history. The Hovevei Zion, or the \"Lovers of Zion\", were responsible for the creation of 20 new Jewish cities in Palestine between 1870 and 1897.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34484", "title": "Zionism", "section": "Section::::Anti-Zionism.:Characterization as colonialism or ethnic cleansing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 117, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 117, "end_character": 420, "text": "Others, such as Shlomo Avineri and Mitchell Bard, view Zionism not as colonialist movement, but as a national movement that is contending with the Palestinian one. South African rabbi David Hoffman rejected the claim that Zionism is a 'settler-colonial undertaking' and instead characterized Zionism as a national program of affirmative action, adding that there is unbroken Jewish presence in Israel back to antiquity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1511912", "title": "Der Judenstaat", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 228, "text": "Herzl popularized the term \"Zionism\", which was coined by Nathan Birnbaum. The nationalist movement culminated in the birth of the State of Israel in 1948, but Zionism continues to be connected with political support of Israel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146223", "title": "Timeline of Jewish history", "section": "Section::::Post-biblical history.:19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 211, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 211, "end_character": 289, "text": "BULLET::::- 1890: The term \"Zionism\" is coined by an Austrian Jewish publicist Nathan Birnbaum in his journal \"Self Emancipation\" and was defined as the national movement for the return of the Jewish people to their homeland and the resumption of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4820", "title": "Balfour Declaration", "section": "Section::::Background.:Early Zionism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 701, "text": "Zionism arose in the late 19th century in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. Romantic nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe had helped to set off the Haskalah, or \"Jewish Enlightenment\", creating a split in the Jewish community between those who saw Judaism as their religion and those who saw it as their ethnicity or nation. The 1881–1884 anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire encouraged the growth of the latter identity, resulting in the formation of the Hovevei Zion pioneer organizations, the publication of Leon Pinsker's \"Autoemancipation\", and the first major wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine – retrospectively named the \"First Aliyah\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34484", "title": "Zionism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 666, "text": "Zionism ( \"Tsiyyonut\" after \"Zion\") is the nationalist movement of the Jewish people that espouses the re-establishment of and support for a Jewish state in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel (roughly corresponding to Canaan, the Holy Land, or the region of Palestine). Modern Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a national revival movement, both in reaction to newer waves of antisemitism and as a response to Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the desired state in Palestine, then an area controlled by the Ottoman Empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Off the top of my head, there's the blind spot (_URL_0_) in our visual system.\n\nA typical camera (point and shoot, or cell phone for instance) would not have such a blind spot.\n\nEDIT: Fixed link...sorry, link isn't working due to the parentheses in the URL.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Cameras cannot capture visual anomalies that are caused by neural effects. For example, it's not going to be possible to take a photo of the things that someone sees when they close their eyes rub their eyelids.\n\nHuman eyes and cameras operate using the same principles, but cameras have a much wider range of capabilities. So it's likely that for anything that happens outside the body, an appropriate camera can make a picture. There are obviously going to be camera - phenomenon combinations that will miss something. For example, black and white film can miss color information that a human would typically notice.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The human eye is able to sense polarization (though it is very difficult, especially for the untrained eye). When looking at a polarized light source, humans are able to perceive the polarization by the so called [Haidinger's brush](_URL_0_). Its orientation depends on the lights plane of oscillation.\n\nA normal camera without a polarizing filter can not distinguish between polarized and unpolarized light. Even on a photograph that was shot using a polarizing filter, it is in general impossible to determine the polarization of a light source.\n\nOf course, one could in theory create a camera, that was able to exactly recreate this effect.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can think of a couple:\n\n- Extreme dynamic range. You've probably noticed most cameras can't take a picture containing some items in direct sunlight and others in shadow: either the sunlit areas are blown-out to white, or the shaded objects are solid black. This is because our eyes have a greater dynamic range than most sensors. HDR photography is a way of compensating for this with multiple exposures.\n\n- While it's pretty rare, some people can see polarized light. Looking at the blue sky about 90 degrees from the sun, they will see a pattern of blue and yellow.\n\n- This one's controversial, but there's some evidence that certain females may be \"tetrachromats\"--they have a fourth variety of cones in their retinas that would allow them to see a color between red and green, a true yellow. Since cameras emulate the *typical* human eye's sensitivity, they detect red and green, but make no distinction between red+green yellow and true yellow.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not sure if it's related to what you're looking for, but a very famous illusion involving the moon might fit. A full moon very close to the horizon appears much larger than a full moon at a higher angle. Cameras don't pick up on this because the discrepancy is due to how your brain interprets what the eyes see (a lower moon might be compared to other structures on the horizon).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "849874", "title": "Scotoma", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 504, "text": "Every normal mammal eye has a scotoma in its field of vision, usually termed its blind spot. This is a location with no photoreceptor cells, where the retinal ganglion cell axons that compose the optic nerve exit the retina. This location is called the optic disc. There is no direct conscious awareness of visual scotomas. They are simply regions of reduced information within the visual field. Rather than recognizing an incomplete image, patients with scotomas report that things \"disappear\" on them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "192280", "title": "Binocular vision", "section": "Section::::Disorders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 580, "text": "Binocular vision anomalies are among the most common visual disorders. They are usually associated with symptoms such as headaches, asthenopia, eye pain, blurred vision, and occasional diplopia. About 20% of patients who come to optometry clinics will have binocular vision anomalies. The most effective way to diagnosis vision anomalies is with the near point of convergence test. During the NPC test, a target, such as a finger, is brought towards the face until the examiner notices that one eye has turned outward and/or the person has experienced diplopia or doubled vision.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2894072", "title": "Cortical blindness", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 401, "text": "Patients with cortical blindness will not be able to identify the item being questioned about at all or will not be able to provide any details other than color or perhaps general shape. This indicates that the lack of vision is neurological rather than ocular. It specifically indicates that the occipital cortex is unable to correctly process and interpret the intact input coming from the retinas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1417007", "title": "Coloboma", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 484, "text": "The classical description in medical literature is of a key-hole shaped defect. A coloboma can occur in one eye (unilateral) or both eyes (bilateral). Most cases of coloboma affect only the iris. The level of visible impairment of those with a coloboma can range from having no vision problems to being able to see only light or dark, depending on severity and the position of the coloboma (or colobomata if more than one is present). It affects less than one in every 10,000 births.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2158298", "title": "Visual impairment", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 796, "text": "The most common causes of visual impairment globally are uncorrected refractive errors (43%), cataracts (33%), and glaucoma (2%). Refractive errors include near sighted, far sighted, presbyopia, and astigmatism. Cataracts are the most common cause of blindness. Other disorders that may cause visual problems include age related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, corneal clouding, childhood blindness, and a number of infections. Visual impairment can also be caused by problems in the brain due to stroke, premature birth, or trauma among others. These cases are known as cortical visual impairment. Screening for vision problems in children may improve future vision and educational achievement. Screening adults without symptoms is of uncertain benefit. Diagnosis is by an eye exam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "188523", "title": "Macropsia", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 445, "text": "Dysmetropsia in one eye, a case of aniseikonia, can present with symptoms such as headaches, asthenopia, reading difficulties, depth perception problems, or double vision. The visual distortion can cause uncorrelated images to stimulate corresponding retinal regions simultaneously impairing fusion of the images. Without suppression of one of the images symptoms from mild poor stereopsis, binocular diplopia and intolerable rivalry can occur.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5690287", "title": "Scintillating scotoma", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 265, "text": "The visual anomaly results from abnormal functioning of portions of the occipital cortex at the back of the brain, not in the eyes nor any component thereof, such as the retinas. This is a different disease from retinal migraine, which is monocular (only one eye).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Every point is expanding away from every other point. There's no \"center of the expansion\".\n\nImagine an infinitely large rubber sheet, with a 1\" grid drawn on it.\n\nNow stretch out the rubber sheet so that the grid lines are 2\" apart instead, everywhere. Is there a \"center\" to this stretching? Every point is moving away from every other point.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The idea is that space itself was a product of the big bang. So every point around you and in the universe was concentrated at a single point at the beginning. This would make every point in the universe the center of the universe.\n\nSo the universe is expanding relative to every point in the universe. A result of that is that no matter where you look from, the universe is always expanding outwards.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you were to bake a fruitcake, you put the raw mix into the oven and it begins to expand and rise.\n\nThe pieces of fruit inside the cake are moving away from each other inside the fruitcake mix. From each piece of fruits perspective every other piece is moving away from it. If there is any center, then the individual piece is it because every other piece is moving away with expansion.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is a common question both [in ELI5](_URL_1_) and is in the /r/askscience FAQ ([once](_URL_2_), [twice](_URL_0_)).\n\nTip: askscience will get you more accurate answers.\n\ntl;dr There is no center. The universe is infinite. Everything expands away from everything else.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is no center. All points are expanding away from all other points. As a result, if you want to get down to brass tacks, the Big Bang occurred at **all** points in the Universe.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2639335", "title": "Timeline of astronomy", "section": "Section::::1929.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 234, "text": "Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding and that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from us. Two years later, Georges Lemaître suggests that the expansion can be traced to an initial \"Big Bang\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4116", "title": "Big Bang", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 842, "text": "Since Georges Lemaître first noted in 1927 that an expanding universe could be traced back in time to an originating single point, scientists have built on his idea of cosmic expansion. The scientific community was once divided between supporters of two different theories, the Big Bang and the Steady State theory, but a wide range of empirical evidence has strongly favored the Big Bang which is now universally accepted. In 1929, from analysis of galactic redshifts, Edwin Hubble concluded that galaxies are drifting apart; this is important observational evidence for an expanding universe. In 1964, the cosmic microwave background radiation was discovered, which was crucial evidence in favor of the hot Big Bang model, since that theory predicted the existence of background radiation throughout the universe before it was discovered. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5382", "title": "Inflation (cosmology)", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 631, "text": "Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1130097", "title": "Inflationary epoch", "section": "Section::::Inflationary epoch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 568, "text": "The expansion is thought to have been triggered by the phase transition that marked the end of the preceding grand unification epoch at approximately 10 seconds after the Big Bang. One of the theoretical products of this phase transition was a scalar field called the inflaton field. As this field settled into its lowest energy state throughout the universe, it generated a repulsive force that led to a rapid expansion of space. This expansion explains various properties of the current universe that are difficult to account for without such an inflationary epoch.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4116", "title": "Big Bang", "section": "Section::::Features of the model.:Expansion of space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 563, "text": "The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. In other words, the Big Bang is not an explosion \"in space\", but rather an expansion \"of space\". Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Cosmic inflation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 443, "text": "Based on large quantities of experimental observation and theoretical work, the scientific consensus is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as \"metric expansion\". In mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" means a measure of distance, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5378", "title": "Physical cosmology", "section": "Section::::Subject history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 427, "text": "Given the cosmological principle, Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding. Two primary explanations were proposed for the expansion. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow. The other explanation was Fred Hoyle's steady state model in which new matter is created as the galaxies move away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is one of those impossible scenarios not addressed here.\n\nThere are no real edges. That is hard to understand. Think of it this way. If matter exists there is space around it. So nothing can get to the edge.\n\nWe will never travel to an edge. We will not even travel a billion light years. Not in a billion years will we do this. We can see light which has come from far away. That is it. We can detect radiation from the big bang. It can be detected in all directions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is a interesting question, the answer is no because we live in a universe with at least 3 dimensions.\n\nThe fundamental of your question is whether if you were in a space ship flying directly away from something massive, would you eventually slow down, then start falling back down? Is it possible to go fast enough to never slow down? The answer is yes, you can actually be moving fast enough away, so that it is possible for the universe to not crunch together.\n\nThe explanation is much more mathy and complicated. So skip it if you don't like that kind of thing.\n\nFirst we need to describe some applied mathematics.\n\nGravity pulls you towards the Earth. It is acceleration, which is changing velocity over time. If we multiply acceleration by time, we get velocity. Think about this (it is a deep statement). Remember that multiplication is just like adding up over and over.\n\nSo now what we want to do is add up all the gravity from here, to somewhere that is 'infinity' away. If we get any number, then we are good, we just need to go faster than that number. If we get infinity, then this means that no matter how fast you are going, gravity will always pull us back.\n\nThe second idea we need to understand is a more simple one. To get the area of a box, we multiply the base by the height. This representation of multiplication as area will be used.\n\n(Have a look at the graph here.)[_URL_1_]. Those are the shape of gravity in a 2d universe (1/x, blue) and gravity in our 3d universe (1/x^2, violet). So to add up all the gravity, we want to take the area from some number (let's say 2) all the way to infinity. [See this picture.](_URL_0_)\n\nIt turns out that the red area is always a finite number (using calculus). Because it is a finite number, this means that if you go faster than this number, all the gravity from where you are to infinity is not enough to slow you down.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1) No scientists believe that the universe is infinite but empty outside its edges. If the universe is infinite, then it is \"filled\" relatively uniformly throughout.\n\n2) If it were infinite but empty outside of some edges, then it would have a center of mass and gravity would have pulled all of the matter to this center, making the entire mass of the universe a single black hole. Thus the effect curvature caused by gravity would not be to curve space around but to curve it all down toward this center of mass.\n\n3) If the universe is not infinite, then indeed it would be curved just as you said, and if you go in a straight line you would come back to where you started. There would still be no edges.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Reading through this thread I'm imagining this discussion taking place 500 years ago and we're all monkeys grunting and banging sticks to explain our individual understanding of this .\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "192904", "title": "Ultimate fate of the universe", "section": "Section::::Role of the shape of the universe.:Open universe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 313, "text": "If formula_7, the geometry of space is open, i.e., negatively curved like the surface of a saddle. The angles of a triangle sum to less than 180 degrees, and lines that do not meet are never equidistant; they have a point of least distance and otherwise grow apart. The geometry of such a universe is hyperbolic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "99293", "title": "Shape of the universe", "section": "Section::::Global universe structure.:Curvature.:Milne model (\"spherical\" expanding).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 451, "text": "If one applies Minkowski space-based special relativity to expansion of the universe, without resorting to the concept of a curved spacetime, then one obtains the Milne model. Any spatial section of the universe of a constant age (the proper time elapsed from the Big Bang) will have a negative curvature; this is merely a pseudo-Euclidean geometric fact analogous to one that concentric spheres in the \"flat\" Euclidean space are nevertheless curved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18478320", "title": "Future of an expanding universe", "section": "Section::::Cosmology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 332, "text": "Infinite expansion does not determine the overall spatial curvature of the universe. It can be open (with negative spatial curvature), flat, or closed (positive spatial curvature), although if it is closed, sufficient dark energy must be present to counteract the gravitational forces or else the universe will end in a Big Crunch.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1450561", "title": "Creationist cosmologies", "section": "Section::::Creationist cosmology and science.:Starlight problem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 660, "text": "In standard Big Bang cosmology, the universe has no center and no edge. A third idea for potentially solving the distant starlight problem, put forward by Russell Humphreys in 1994 and refined by others since, sets this assumption aside and proposes that the Earth is located near the center of a finite and bounded (i.e. spherical) universe. Time dilation would have allowed billions of years of time to elapse at the edge of the universe in its own reference frame, while only a few days passed on Earth. Humphreys also finds a place for the \"waters above (and below) the Earth,\" locating them at the edge (\"above\") and the centre (\"below\") of the universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Measuring distances in expanding space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 531, "text": "At cosmological scales the present universe is geometrically flat, which is to say that the rules of Euclidean geometry associated with Euclid's fifth postulate hold, though in the past spacetime could have been highly curved. In part to accommodate such different geometries, the expansion of the universe is inherently general relativistic; it cannot be modeled with special relativity alone, though such models exist, they are at fundamental odds with the observed interaction between matter and spacetime seen in our universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "99293", "title": "Shape of the universe", "section": "Section::::Global universe structure.:Curvature.:Milne model (\"spherical\" expanding).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 214, "text": "The apparent paradox of an infinite universe contained within a sphere is explained with length contraction: the galaxies farther away, which are travelling away from the observer the fastest, will appear thinner.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22166774", "title": "Synergetics (Fuller)", "section": "Section::::Starting with Universe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 445, "text": "Because of the fundamental nonsimultaneity of universal structuring, a single, simultaneous, static model of Universe is inherently both nonexistent and conceptually impossible as well as unnecessary. Ergo, Universe does not have a shape. Do not waste your time, as man has been doing for ages, trying to think of a unit shape \"outside of which there must be something,\" or \"within which, at center, there must be a smaller something.\" (307.04)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The bomb generated extreme heat, around 3000 degrees Celsius and given that humans are mostly water, they literally steam cooked and exploded at the same time ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's a video. You can see the multiple stages of the atomic bomb detonation. First there's flash, which causes the spontaneous ignition of many materials.\n\nNow a burning can survive having it's outer layer vaporized away. A human has more trouble. Next there's the airblast which can blow away both humans and structures.\n\nThe reason this building survived the blast is because it was nearly directly beneath. Normally structures are build to survive downwards forces (such as gravity) and much weaker to sideways forces. Most other buildings were destroyed.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24837512", "title": "Whale Whores", "section": "Section::::Cultural references.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1129, "text": "The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are identified as the cause of Japanese whaling. The two Japanese cities were destroyed by atomic weapons during the final stages of World War II under orders by U.S. President Harry Truman, which killed about 220,000 people. In \"Whale Whores\", the Japanese are presented with a doctored picture of the \"Enola Gay\", the B-29 Superfortress bomber that dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. The picture shows a dolphin and a whale piloting the plane to bomb the city. The Miami Dolphins, a National Football League professional football team, are killed along with real dolphins by the whalers in \"Whale Whores\". Near the end of the episode, Stan and the crew of the MY Steve Irwin encounter fishing ship captain Sig Hansen and his crew from the Discovery Channel reality series, \"Deadliest Catch\". The scene with Paul Watson's crew throwing \"stinky butter\" at the whalers refers to Watson and his crew's practice of throwing stink bombs containing butyric acid, an acid found in rancid butter and cheese, at Japanese whaling vessels, including the factory vessel, the \"Nisshin Maru\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1027", "title": "August 9", "section": "Section::::Events.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 288, "text": "BULLET::::- 1945 – World War II: Nagasaki is devastated when an atomic bomb, \"Fat Man\", is dropped by the United States B-29 \"Bockscar\". Thirty-five thousand people are killed outright, including 23,200–28,200 Japanese war workers, 2,000 Korean forced workers, and 150 Japanese soldiers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21790", "title": "Nagasaki", "section": "Section::::History.:Atomic bombing of Nagasaki during World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 952, "text": "Less than a second after the detonation, the north of the city was destroyed and 35,000 people were killed. Among the deaths were 6,200 out of the 7,500 employees of the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, and 24,000 others (including 2,000 Koreans) who worked in other war plants and factories in the city, as well as 150 Japanese soldiers. The industrial damage in Nagasaki was high, leaving 68–80% of the non-dock industrial production destroyed. It was the second and, to date, the last use of a nuclear weapon in combat, and also the second detonation of a plutonium bomb. The first combat use of a nuclear weapon was the \"Little Boy\" bomb, which was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. The first plutonium bomb was tested in central New Mexico, United States, on July 16, 1945. The Fat Man bomb was somewhat more powerful than the one dropped over Hiroshima, but because of Nagasaki's more uneven terrain, there was less damage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9559286", "title": "Air raids on Japan", "section": "Section::::Atomic bombings and final attacks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 812, "text": "Hiroshima was attacked on 6 August. At 8:15 am local time the B-29 \"Enola Gay\", piloted by Tibbets, dropped the \"Little Boy\" atomic bomb over the center of the city. The resulting explosion killed tens of thousands of people and destroyed about of buildings. The six American aircraft involved in this attack returned safely to the Marianas. Postwar estimates of casualties from the attack on Hiroshima range from 66,000 to 80,000 fatalities and 69,000 to 151,000 injured. Tens of thousands more subsequently died as a result of radiation and other injuries from the attack; it has been estimated that 140,000 people had died as a result of the atomic bomb by the end of 1945. Estimates of the total number of fatalities range as high as 230,000. Of the survivors of the bombing, 171,000 were rendered homeless.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18597", "title": "Little Boy", "section": "Section::::Bombing of Hiroshima.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 657, "text": "The bomb was dropped at approximately 08:15 (JST) 6 August 1945. After falling for 44.4 seconds, the time and barometric triggers started the firing mechanism. The detonation happened at an altitude of . It was less powerful than the Fat Man, which was dropped on Nagasaki, but the damage and the number of victims at Hiroshima were much higher, as Hiroshima was on flat terrain, while the hypocenter of Nagasaki lay in a small valley. According to figures published in 1945, 66,000 people were killed as a direct result of the Hiroshima blast, and 69,000 were injured to varying degrees. Of those deaths, 20,000 were members of the Imperial Japanese Army.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44674508", "title": "Tatsuo Miyajima", "section": "Section::::Kaki Tree Project.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1235, "text": "On the 9th of August, 1945, an atomic bomb was dropped in Nagasaki. Tens of thousands of people died suffering from the intense blast and heat, and the city of Nagasaki was reduced to ashes.However, there was a kaki tree which miraculously survived while more than half of the trunk was burnt black, and barely standing and about to die at any moment. In 1994, Masayuki Ebinuma, an arborist, started to treat the fragile tree and restored its health as to be able to produce “seedlings” from the bombed tree. Then Ebinuma started to hand out the “saplings” from the survivor tree to children who visited Nagasaki as a symbol of peace. After Miyajima learned Ebinuma’s activity, he wanted to support Ebinuma as an artist. So then he displayed the saplings and recruited foster parents at an art exhibition in 1995. They received ten applications and selected the former Ryuhoku Elementary School in Taito-ku, Tokyo as a planting site. Through the process, Miyajima had conceived an art project called “Revive Time: Kaki Tree Project” and launched the Executive Committee. In 1996, the first planting of the project took place at the former Ryuhoku Elementary School. Miyajima himself conducted a workshop at the tree-planting ceremony.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11660", "title": "Fat Man", "section": "Section::::Bombing of Nagasaki.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1125, "text": "An estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed outright by the bombing at Nagasaki. A total of 60,000–80,000 fatalities resulted, including from long-term health effects, the strongest of which was leukemia with an attributable risk of 46% for bomb victims. Others died later from related blast and burn injuries, and hundreds more from radiation illnesses from exposure to the bomb's initial radiation. Most of the direct deaths and injuries were among munitions or industrial workers. Mitsubishi's industrial production in the city was also severed by the attack; the dockyard would have produced at 80 percent of its full capacity within three to four months, the steel works would have required a year to get back to substantial production, the electric works would have resumed some production within two months and been back at capacity within six months, and the arms plant would have required 15 months to return to 60 to 70 percent of former capacity. The Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works was the factory that manufactured the type 91 torpedoes released in the attack on Pearl Harbor; it was destroyed in the blast.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, there are galaxies from which we will never receive any light at all. (Any galaxy beyond a current distance of about 65 Gly.) There are also galaxies whose light we have already received in the past but which are currently too far away for any signal emitted from us *now* to reach them some time in the future. (Any galaxy beyond a current distance of about 15 Gly.) The farthest points from which we have received any light at all as of today are at the edge of the observable universe, currently at a distance of about 43 Gly.\n\nFor more details, [read this post](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I know this is essentially already answered, but...\n\nYes, there are things beyond our view that are no longer \"in causal contact\" with your part of the universe. This basically means that nothing that happens in the parts of the universe outside our little bubble of observable things impacts us at all.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What blows my mind, although somewhat insignificant, is the fact that we could've missed seeing other advanced life forms in the universe by a couple of years. We've only been looking up for a couple of thousands years, but other life forms on different planets could've evolved and completely destroy themselves before humans wete a thought. Craaaazy how big the universe is in time and space", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11439", "title": "Faster-than-light", "section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Universal expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 850, "text": "However, because the expansion of the universe is accelerating, it is projected that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of cosmological event horizon where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any time in the infinite future, because the light never reaches a point where its \"peculiar velocity\" towards us exceeds the expansion velocity away from us (these two notions of velocity are also discussed in Comoving and proper distances#Uses of the proper distance). The current distance to this cosmological event horizon is about 16 billion light-years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event was less than 16 billion light-years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event was more than 16 billion light-years away.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16786863", "title": "Ant on a rubber rope", "section": "Section::::Metric expansion of space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 412, "text": "This puzzle has a bearing on the question of whether light from distant galaxies can ever reach us given the metric expansion of space. The universe is expanding, which leads to increasing distances to other galaxies, and galaxies that are far enough away from us will have an apparent relative motion greater than the speed of light. It might seem that light leaving such a distant galaxy could never reach us.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9075104", "title": "Dark Energy Survey", "section": "Section::::Supernovae.:Applications in cosmology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1019, "text": "To determine if the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up or slowing down over time, cosmologists make use of the finite velocity of light. It takes billions of years for light from a distant galaxy to reach the Earth. Since the universe is expanding, the universe was smaller (galaxies were closer together) when light from distant galaxies was emitted. If the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up due to dark energy, then the size of the universe increases more rapidly with time than if the expansion were slowing down. Using supernovae, we cannot quite measure the size of the universe versus time. Instead we can measure the size of the universe (at the time the star exploded) and the distance to the supernova. With the distance to the exploding supernova in hand, astronomers can use the value of the speed of light along with the theory of General Relativity to determine how long it took the light to reach the Earth. This then tells them the age of the universe when the supernova exploded.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "921168", "title": "Scale factor (cosmology)", "section": "Section::::Detail.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 657, "text": "Current evidence suggests that the expansion rate of the universe is accelerating, which means that the second derivative of the scale factor formula_23 is positive, or equivalently that the first derivative formula_24 is increasing over time. This also implies that any given galaxy recedes from us with increasing speed over time, i.e. for that galaxy formula_25 is increasing with time. In contrast, the Hubble parameter seems to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some fixed distance d and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18478320", "title": "Future of an expanding universe", "section": "Section::::Timeline.:Stelliferous Era.:Coalescence of Local Group and galaxies outside the Local Supercluster are no longer accessible.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1002, "text": "Assuming that dark energy continues to make the universe expand at an accelerating rate, in about 150 billion years all galaxies outside the Local Supercluster will pass behind the cosmological horizon. It will then be impossible for events in the Local Group to affect other galaxies. Similarly it will be impossible for events after 150 billion years, as seen by observers in distant galaxies, to affect events in the Local Group. However, an observer in the Local Supercluster will continue to see distant galaxies, but events they observe will become exponentially more red shifted as the galaxy approaches the horizon until time in the distant galaxy seems to stop. The observer in the Local Supercluster never observes events after 150 billion years in their local time, and eventually all light and background radiation lying outside the local supercluster will appear to blink out as light becomes so redshifted that its wavelength has become longer than the physical diameter of the horizon. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "336254", "title": "De Sitter universe", "section": "Section::::Relative expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 664, "text": "The exponential expansion of the scale factor means that the physical distance between any two non-accelerating observers will eventually be growing faster than the speed of light. At this point those two observers will no longer be able to make contact. Therefore, any observer in a de Sitter universe would see event horizons beyond which that observer can never see nor learn any information. If our universe is approaching a de Sitter universe then eventually we will not be able to observe any galaxies other than our own Milky Way (and any others in the gravitationally bound Local Group, assuming they were to somehow survive to that time without merging).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16786863", "title": "Ant on a rubber rope", "section": "Section::::Metric expansion of space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 241, "text": "However, the metric expansion of space is accelerating. An ant on a rubber rope whose expansion increases with time is not guaranteed to reach the endpoint. The light from sufficiently distant galaxies may still therefore never reach Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Encoder - changes data into a certain format or \"code\". Usually it's to conform to certain standards for displaying the information, such as ASCII being the standard for displaying letters and symbols on computers and other devices, or .mp3 being a common format for audio data.\n\nDecoder - changes the encoded data back into it's original form\n\nTranscoder - changes encoded data into a different code, which is generally faster and more efficient than decoding it and re-encoding it to the new format (although in some cases, that's all you can do).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A human example:\n\nEncoder: hear someone talking, write their words down on paper\n\nDecoder: read words from paper out loud\n\nTranscoder: Read words from paper, type into computer without moving your lips.\n\nOr alternatively, transcoder: Read words from paper, translate into French & write down on new bit of paper.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "313461", "title": "Encoder", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 203, "text": "An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software program, algorithm or person that converts information from one format or code to another, for the purpose of standardization, speed or compression.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38870173", "title": "Feature learning", "section": "Section::::Multilayer/deep architectures.:Autoencoder.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 849, "text": "An autoencoder consisting of an encoder and a decoder is a paradigm for deep learning architectures. An example is provided by Hinton and Salakhutdinov where the encoder uses raw data (e.g., image) as input and produces feature or representation as output and the decoder uses the extracted feature from the encoder as input and reconstructs the original input raw data as output. The encoder and decoder are constructed by stacking multiple layers of RBMs. The parameters involved in the architecture were originally trained in a greedy layer-by-layer manner: after one layer of feature detectors is learned, they are fed up as visible variables for training the corresponding RBM. Current approaches typically apply end-to-end training with stochastic gradient descent methods. Training can be repeated until some stopping criteria are satisfied.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37535513", "title": "Incremental encoder", "section": "Section::::Signal types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 321, "text": "Incremental encoders employ various types of electronic circuits to drive (transmit) their output signals, and manufacturers often have the ability to build a particular encoder model with any of several driver types. Commonly available driver types include open collector, mechanical, push-pull and differential RS-422.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37583418", "title": "Glossary of video terms", "section": "Section::::D.:Decoder.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 147, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 147, "end_character": 420, "text": "Device used to recover the component signals from a composite (encoded) source. Decoders are used in displays and in various processing hardware where components signals are required from a composite source such as composite chroma keying or color correction equipment. Device that changes digital signals to analog, or reconstructs information (data) by performing the inverse (reverse) functions of an encode process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37535513", "title": "Incremental encoder", "section": "Section::::Incremental encoder interface.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 252, "text": "An incremental encoder interface is an electronic circuit that receives signals from an incremental encoder, processes the signals to produce absolute position and other information, and makes the resulting information available to external circuitry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11163240", "title": "Residual frame", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 220, "text": "An encoder will use various algorithms such as motion estimation to construct a frame that describes the differences. This allows a decoder to use the reference frame plus the differences to construct the desired frame.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27945098", "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)", "section": "Section::::Great Depression and World War II (1929–1945).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 451, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 451, "end_character": 587, "text": "A vocoder, a portmanteau of the words voice and encoder, is an analysis and synthesis system, mostly used for speech. In the encoder, the input is passed through a multiband filter, each band is passed through an envelope follower, and the control signals from the envelope followers are communicated to the decoder. The decoder applies these control signals to corresponding filters in the (re)synthesizer. Research physicist Homer Dudley invented the Vocoder at Bell Labs in 1939 which served the purpose of improving the voice-carrying capabilities of his employer's telephone lines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Two reasons. First, getting to the moon is *incredibly* difficult. It's not like \"Yeah, it's hard to figure out but once you crack it it's easy.\" I mean it's *incredibly* difficult. The energy requirements are really enormous. You just wouldn't believe.\n\nThe other, better reason is that the moon's a shithole. There's no reason to go there.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28431", "title": "Space exploration", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 402, "text": "In the 2000s, the People's Republic of China initiated a successful manned spaceflight program, while the European Union, Japan, and India have also planned future crewed space missions. China, Russia, Japan, and India have advocated crewed missions to the Moon during the 21st century, while the European Union has advocated manned missions to both the Moon and Mars during the 20th and 21st century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80740", "title": "Moon landing conspiracy theories", "section": "Section::::Conspiracists and their contentions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 598, "text": "BULLET::::- Marcus Allen – British publisher of \"Nexus\", who said photographs of the lander would not prove that the United States put men on the Moon, and \"Getting to the Moon really isn't much of a problem – the Russians did that in 1959. The big problem is getting people there.\" He suggests that NASA sent robot missions because radiation levels in outer space would be deadly. A variant of this idea has it that NASA and its contractors did not recover quickly enough from the Apollo 1 fire, and so all the early Apollo missions were faked, with Apollos 14 or 15 being the first real mission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15111", "title": "Interplanetary spaceflight", "section": "Section::::Current achievements in interplanetary travel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 737, "text": "No manned missions have been sent to any planet of the Solar System. NASA's Apollo program, however, landed twelve people on the Moon and returned them to Earth. The American Vision for Space Exploration, originally introduced by President George W. Bush and put into practice through the Constellation program, had as a long-term goal to eventually send human astronauts to Mars. However, on February 1, 2010, President Barack Obama proposed cancelling the program in Fiscal Year 2011. An earlier project which received some significant planning by NASA included a manned fly-by of Venus in the Manned Venus Flyby mission, but was cancelled when the Apollo Applications Program was terminated due to NASA budget cuts in the late 1960s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80740", "title": "Moon landing conspiracy theories", "section": "Section::::Hoax claims and rebuttals.:NASA technology compared to USSR.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 485, "text": "Bart Sibrel cites the relative level of the United States and USSR space technology as evidence that the Moon landings could not have happened. For much of the early stages of the Space Race, the USSR was ahead of the United States, yet in the end, the USSR was never able to fly a crewed craft to the Moon, let alone land one on the surface. It is argued that, because the USSR was unable to do this, the United States should have also been unable to develop the technology to do so.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60929261", "title": "January 1970", "section": "Section::::January 13, 1970 (Tuesday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 322, "text": "BULLET::::- NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine announced further changes in the American manned space program because of a reduced budget, including the layoff of 50,000 NASA employees over the next 12 months, and a halt in further production of the Saturn V rocket needed to break Earth orbit to make a trip to the Moon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19331", "title": "Moon", "section": "Section::::Observation and exploration.:By spacecraft.:20th century.:Soviet missions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 675, "text": "The Cold War-inspired Space Race between the Soviet Union and the U.S. led to an acceleration of interest in exploration of the Moon. Once launchers had the necessary capabilities, these nations sent unmanned probes on both flyby and impact/lander missions. Spacecraft from the Soviet Union's \"Luna\" program were the first to accomplish a number of goals: following three unnamed, failed missions in 1958, the first human-made object to escape Earth's gravity and pass near the Moon was \"Luna 1\"; the first human-made object to impact the lunar surface was \"Luna 2\", and the first photographs of the normally occluded far side of the Moon were made by \"Luna 3\", all in 1959.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80740", "title": "Moon landing conspiracy theories", "section": "Section::::Claimed motives of the United States and NASA.:The Space Race.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 427, "text": "Motivation for the United States to engage the Soviet Union in a Space Race can be traced to the then on-going Cold War. Landing on the Moon was viewed as a national and technological accomplishment that would generate world-wide acclaim. But going to the Moon would be risky and expensive, as exemplified by President John F. Kennedy famously stating in a 1962 speech that the United States chose to go \"because\" it was hard.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I assume you're talking about an *acknowledged* illegitimate kid?\n\nIf so, and you're a boy, you'll probably be made a duke or an earl and the king will pay for you're upbringing and you'll have a very comfortable life, including favouritism for a political career if you want one. If you're a girl, you'll probably be married off to a peer.\n\nAlso, while it's unlikely, you may potentially be a candidate for the throne; both Henry I and Henry VIII had illegitimate sons that were at times considered potential successors.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9629294", "title": "Christopher Dyer", "section": "Section::::Selected publications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 202, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Making a Living in the Middle Ages: the People of Britain, 850–1520\" (London and New Haven, 2002 (Yale UP); London, 2003 (Penguin);), New Haven, 2003 (American paperback, Yale UP), 403 pp.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15055", "title": "Ivanhoe", "section": "Section::::Composition and sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 952, "text": "For detailed information about the middle ages Scott drew on three works by the antiquarian Joseph Strutt: \"Horda Angel-cynnan or a Compleat View of the Manners, Customs, Arms, Habits etc. of the Inhabitants of England\" (1775–76), \"Dress and Habits of the People of England\" (1796–99), and \"Sports and Pastimes of the People of England\" (1801). Two historians gave him a solid grounding in the period: Robert Henry with his \"The History of Great Britain\" (1771–93), and Sharon Turner with \"The History of the Anglo-Saxons from the Earliest Period to the Norman Conquest\" (1799–1805). His clearest debt to an original medieval source involved the Templar Rule, reproduced in \"The Theatre of Honour and Knight-Hood\" (1623) translated from the French of André Favine. Scott was happy to introduce details from the later middle ages, and Chaucer was particularly helpful, as (in a different way) was the fourteenth-century romance \"Richard Coeur de Lion\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15378788", "title": "England in the Late Middle Ages", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 463, "text": "England in the Late Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the late medieval period, from the thirteenth century, the end of the Angevins, and the accession of Henry III – considered by many to mark the start of the Plantagenet dynasty – until the accession to the throne of the Tudor dynasty in 1485, which is often taken as the most convenient marker for the end of the Middle Ages and the start of the English Renaissance and early modern Britain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15378755", "title": "England in the High Middle Ages", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1483, "text": "England in the High Middle Ages includes the history of England between the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the death of King John, considered by some to be the last of the Angevin kings of England, in 1216. A disputed succession and victory at the Battle of Hastings led to the conquest of England by William of Normandy in 1066. This linked the crown of England with possessions in France and brought a new aristocracy to the country that dominated landholding, government and the church. They brought with them the French language and maintained their rule through a system of castles and the introduction of a feudal system of landholding. By the time of William's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of an Anglo-Norman empire, ruled by nobles with landholdings across England, Normandy and Wales. William's sons disputed succession to his lands, with William II emerging as ruler of England and much of Normandy. On his death in 1100 his younger brother claimed the throne as Henry I and defeated his brother Robert to reunite England and Normandy. Henry was a ruthless yet effective king, but after the death of his only male heir in the White Ship tragedy, he persuaded his barons to recognise his daughter Matilda as heir. When Henry died in 1135 her cousin Stephen of Blois had himself proclaimed king, leading to a civil war known as The Anarchy. Eventually Stephen recognised Matilda's son Henry as his heir and when Stephen died in 1154, he succeeded as Henry II.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "275009", "title": "Culture of the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Folklore.:Robin Hood and the Ballad Tradition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 601, "text": "During the High Middle Ages tales originated from Brythonic traditions, notably the Arthurian legend. Deriving from Welsh source; King Arthur, Excalibur and Merlin, while the Jersey poet Wace introduced the Knights of the Round Table. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's \"Historia Regum Britanniae\" (\"History of the Kings of Britain\"). Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54077368", "title": "Alex Burghart", "section": "Section::::Career.:Writing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 306, "text": "Burghart is the author of 'A Better Start in Life: Long-term approaches for the most vulnerable children', published by Policy Exchange in 2013. Burghart has written extensively about early medieval England, writing for \"The Times Literary Supplement\" for over 12 years, \"The Spectator\" and \"BBC History\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1318048", "title": "Sharon Turner", "section": "Section::::Historical work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 454, "text": "He continued the narrative in several subsequent works: \"History of England During the Middle Ages\", a multi-volume publication covering English history from the reign of William the Conqueror to the accession of Henry VIII; \"History of the Reign of Henry VIII\"; and \"History of the Reigns of Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth\". In 1839, the works were combined into \"The History of England\", a twelve-volume set covering all of English history up to 1603.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The hot gas does leave the muzzle equally. \n\nHandguns are held from the bottom and the recoil goes backwards through the barrel on top, so there's a torque force which wants to rotate it a little. \n\nEven if the recoil force translated directly through the hands and wasn't off center (which would make aiming tricky), the gun would still tend to rotate a little to point more upward by virtue of human anatomy - elbows only bend in one direction. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Every action has an equal and opposite reaction, so shooting a bullet also pushes back at you. Since the gun barrel isn't centered right where you grab, the gun will push back and start rotating around the fulcrum aka a pivot point, which is where your hand holds the gun. If you want to simulate something like this (without the gun), you can try putting an object on the edge of a surface, like a table. You put it so that the center of mass of the object is past where the object touches the table. You should see the object start rotating around that point of contact and falling off the table. Gravity is like the recoil, and where the object touches the table is like where you hold the gun. I hope that made sense :)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is a question I know! I discovered the answer one day as I was preparing for an upcoming shooting competition!\n\nSo first of all, what is a gun? A gun is a tool that fires a projectile. Then HOW does it fire that projectile? The hammer hits the strike pin, igniting the gunpowder in the bullet shell. This ignite is the equivalent of a small explosion in your hands, which then sends the brass, copper, or lead projectile outwards at a target. The force of the explosion and travel of gasses cause the muzzle to jump. (Regardless of my competitive rifle, handgun, or shotgun. Specifically for pistols though, is the most noticeable for recoil.) Since your hands absorb most of the shock and there's nothing restricting the slide's movement, that is a major reason it jumps 'up' \n\nSo, the explosion is a major force. Some guns have something called a recoil spring, which acts as a lot of shock absorption and can change the way recoil is received. Some guns, like the Hudson H9 have a recoil spring that is deliberately placed lower to send the shock to your hands rather than the muzzle.\n\nBut based on the way you hold it also affects the movement of the muzzle. If you hold it at a 90 degree angle so it's parallel to the ground, it would still travel through the 'top' of the gun, aka the slide.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "94223", "title": "Muzzle brake", "section": "Section::::Rationale.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 633, "text": "The muzzle rises primarily because, for most firearms, the centerline of the barrel is above the center of contact between the shooter and the firearm's grip and stock. The reactive forces from the fired bullet and propellant gases exiting the muzzle act directly down the centerline of the barrel. If that line of force is above the center of the contact points, this creates a moment or torque (rotational force) that causes the firearm to rotate and the muzzle to rise. The M1946 Sieg automatic rifle had an unusual muzzle brake that made the rifle climb downward, but enabled the user to fire it with one hand in full automatic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25700188", "title": "Muzzle rise", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 647, "text": "The primary reason for muzzle rise is that for nearly all guns, the bore axis (longitudinal centerline of the barrel) is slightly above the gun's center of mass, while the contact points between the shooter and the gun (e.g. grips and stock) are often all below the center of mass. When the gun is fired, the bullet motion and the escaping propellant gases exert a reactional recoil directly backwards along the bore axis, while the countering forward push from the shooter's hands and body are well below it. This creates a couple, a rotational torque around the center of mass, which causes the gun the pitch upwards and the muzzle end to rise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11901400", "title": "Modern technique", "section": "Section::::Method.:Compressed surprise break.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 955, "text": "In this technique, one should pull the trigger to have the shot break as if it were a glass rod. When the compression of the trigger by the finger reaches an appropriate point, the \"glass rod\" of the trigger will break and discharge the firearm. The \"surprise break\" of the \"glass rod\" means the pistol remains aligned on the target while the muscles in the shooter's hand adjust from merely gripping the pistol to depressing the trigger at the same time. This disturbance in the muscles of the hand, while it attempts to move the trigger backwards while still holding the pistol steady, can cause the alignment of the firearm to shift, causing the shot to miss the target. The gradual compression of the trigger by the hand muscles means the alignment may be observed by the eye during the process of compression and kept on the target, regardless of slight changes to the alignment introduced by the muscles of the hand starting to squeeze the trigger.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1382388", "title": "Point shooting", "section": "Section::::In military doctrine.:Fairbairn, Sykes, and Applegate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 290, "text": "To reduce error in the stance, targets not directly in front of the shooter are engaged by turning the upper body at the hips, since turning the arm at the shoulder, elbow, or wrist will result in a loss of control and a miss, while turning at the waist keeps everything aligned correctly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "176537", "title": "M1911 pistol", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 1187, "text": "At this point, a link pivots the rear of the barrel down, out of locking recesses in the slide, and the barrel is stopped by making contact with the lower barrel lugs against the frame's vertical impact surface. As the slide continues rearward, a claw extractor pulls the spent casing from the firing chamber and an ejector strikes the rear of the case, pivoting it out and away from the pistol through the ejection port. The slide stops and is then propelled forward by a spring to strip a fresh cartridge from the magazine and feed it into the firing chamber. At the forward end of its travel, the slide locks into the barrel and is ready to fire again. However, if the fired round was the last round in the magazine, the slide will lock in the rearward position, which notifies the shooter to reload by ejecting the empty magazine and inserting a loaded magazine, and facilitates (by being rearwards) reloading the chamber, which is accomplished by either pulling the slide back slightly and releasing, or by pushing down on the slide stop, which releases the slide to move forward under spring pressure, strip a fresh cartridge from the magazine and feed it into the firing chamber.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "94908", "title": "Luger pistol", "section": "Section::::Design details.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 777, "text": "The Luger has a toggle-lock action which uses a jointed arm to lock, as opposed to the slide actions of many other semi-automatic pistols. After a round is fired, the barrel and toggle assembly travel roughly rearward due to recoil, both locked together at this point. The toggle strikes a cam built into the frame, causing the knee joint to hinge and the toggle and breech assembly to unlock. The barrel strikes the frame and stops its rearward movement, but the toggle assembly continues moving, bending the knee joint, extracting the spent casing from the chamber, and ejecting it. The toggle and breech assembly then travel forward under spring tension and the next round is loaded from the magazine into the chamber. The entire sequence occurs in a fraction of a second. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "210960", "title": "Recoil", "section": "Section::::Recoil: momentum, energy and impulse.:Angular momentum.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 656, "text": "For a gun firing under free-recoil conditions, the force on the gun may not only force the gun backwards, but may also cause it to rotate about its center of mass or recoil mount. This is particularly true of older firearms, such as the classic Kentucky rifle, where the butt stock angles down significantly lower than the barrel, providing a pivot point about which the muzzle may rise during recoil. Modern firearms, such as the M16 rifle, employ stock designs that are in direct line with the barrel, in order to minimize any rotational effects. If there is an angle for the recoil parts to rotate about, the torque (formula_17) on the gun is given by:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "First of all, the family members may not be correct. Second of all, you can't just \"ping\" a cell phone like you see on TV. It just doesn't work that way. Third of all, the way cell phones work, it might not be unusual at all for a phone to ring and then disconnect and not go to voice mail. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because, realistically, it would be a dead lead. There is absolutely no way any of the crash victim's phones are actively communicating with *anything*, especially not service towers that would allow family members to call the phones. \n\nWhat seems more probable to you: That cellphones thousands of feet under the ocean are some how in active use and accepting incoming calls (as the family members claim) or that either 1) there was some sort of glitch in the communication network wherein the family members heard a ring instead of instant voicemail or 2) grief stricken family members are trying to *do* something in anyway they can, even if it means grasping at improbable straws? \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Phones don't really work that way. When you dial a phone number it's sent to the telco. The telco could choose to send you a ring tone while it's attempting to locate the phone. Unable to find the phone it can just send you to voicemail which is located at the telco not on the phone.\n\nJust because you hear ringing isn't a promise that the other phone is actually ringing or reachable.\n\nAlternatively the telco can just sit there and play ringback tone forever because thats how it's configured. None of which is a promise that it can reach the phone.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why are people reporting a plane flying overhead to possibly be the lost plane? It's been days, there's no fucking way it's still flying.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I was under the impression that the reason no one was using this to track them was because those whose phones still rung had their calls redirected to another line, so their phones weren't actually ringing, but rather, a landline or work phone. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The first 2 or so rings when you usually call someone is your provider trying to connect to the provider of who you're calling.\n\nAKA: First 2 Rings is AT & T trying to get T-Mobile's attention.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The key here is that the plane was equipped with cellular communication hardware, supplied by AeroMobile, to provide GSM services via satellite. If the plane was to undergo a slow decompression due to cracks near the SATCOM antenna ([**which has been reported to be an issue, and would explain the loss of location data**](_URL_0_)), the phones would have rung, but the unconscious people on board would not have answered. The GSM services do not go through the SATCOM to my knowledge.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No one here mentioned the social media activity of 3 of the people on QQ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The ringing you hear when you call a phone is NOT the other phone. The ringing you hear is sent to your phone by your carrier. They then send a signal to the other phone to make the ringtone/vibrator ring/buzz. Then, when they answer, they connect your call.\n\nThink about it. If I change my ringtone on my phone to a song, when you call me you don't hear that song.\n\nThe phones are still ringing because your carrier plays the ringing sound in your phone when you make a call.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If their phones are under water, then how can their relatives still call them? The calls should automatically be transferred to voice mail.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A local news channel were discussing about the possibility of plane getting sucked in to A 'Dark Hole'", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The phones appear to be ringing because they are calling QQ, NOT the phones. For God's sakes, stop this \"OMG their phones are still on\" nonsense. \"Some of the relatives have said passenger QQ accounts (a Chinese web chat service like Gmail Chat) are still online. Tencent, the company that administers QQ, says if a user has not logged out of QQ, but merely turned their phone or computer off, they could still seem to be there, even if they are not. \" source, the _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You folks have way too much faith in technology. During Hurricane Katrina, my husband was in the middle of the storm, and I was 150 miles north-- I was still pretty much in the shit storm, but I had cell service and everyone within 80-100 miles of the coast (where he was) lost cell service. When I called him, it rang and rang and rang and rang, never went to voicemail even though he had that set up. There was no cell service where he was, so the call couldn't be sent to his phone, and I just heard \"ringing\" when the phone wasn't actually ringing where he was. Hopefully you can see how this principle would apply to the phones on board the plane.\nEDIT-- I removed my \"elite bullshit text sigh\" since it was so very, very way far the hell out of line with internet etiquette. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Waterproof cell phone cases?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I learned from this thread that GPS on phones is READ ONLY but that they will broadcast their location to a connected cell tower.\n\nHow about on the satellites themselves? Surely there must be some identifier whenever a phone requests its co-ordinates and surely we can read the logs from the relevant satellites to discover where any phones on this plane with GPS switched on were last seen?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42299382", "title": "Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 unofficial disappearance theories", "section": "Section::::Hijacking.:Phantom cellphone hypothesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 584, "text": "Some had speculated that the passengers were still alive but could not answer their cellphones—sometimes known as the \"phantom cellphone theory\". This was based on early reports that family members of Flight 370 passengers heard ringing (as opposed to a busy/off signal) while calling the passengers' phones, though this was after the plane disappeared. However, this was later challenged by Jeff Kagan, a wireless analyst, who in an email to NBC News explained that the network may still produce \"ringbacks\" as it searches for a connection, even if the cellphone has been destroyed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39719909", "title": "2014 in Malaysia", "section": "Section::::Events.:March.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 287, "text": "BULLET::::- One Italian and one Austrian were not on board of the Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 because their country's passport were stolen. INTERPOL confirms that at least two stolen passports used by passengers on missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 were registered in its databases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2421864", "title": "Copterline Flight 103", "section": "Section::::Investigation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 453, "text": "The Estonian authorities refused to send the flight data recorder of the helicopter to the United States because the aircraft was manufactured there, thus possibly creating a conflict of interest. The technical investigation was in fact performed in the United Kingdom. The voice recording indicated that the pilots realized that something was wrong only 35 seconds before the helicopter hit the sea, and that they did attempt to send a Mayday message.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37125", "title": "Australian Security Intelligence Organisation", "section": "Section::::History.:The Petrov Affair.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 693, "text": "An opportunity to allow her to speak with her husband came when the Director-General of Security, Charles Spry, was informed that the MVD agents had broken Australian law by carrying firearms on an airliner in Australian airspace and so could be detained. When the aeroplane landed in Darwin for refuelling, the Soviet party and other passengers were asked to leave the plane. Police, acting on ASIO orders, quickly disarmed and restrained the two MVD officers and Evdokia was taken into the terminal to speak to her husband via telephone. After speaking to him, she became convinced he was alive and speaking freely and asked the Administrator of the Northern Territory for political asylum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52763499", "title": "2017 in aviation", "section": "Section::::Events.:March.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 109, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 109, "end_character": 791, "text": "BULLET::::- Families of the passengers of Malaysian Airlines Flight 370 – a Boeing 777 with 239 people on board missing since 8 March 2014 – announce that they have begun a campaign to raise funds to pay for a private search for the plane, hoping to raise US$15 million for a search in a area in the Indian Ocean to the north of previous search areas. Speaking at the remembrance event at a shopping mall near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, at which the families announce the new effort, Malaysian Minister of Transport Liow Tiong Lai claims that there is an 85 percent chance that the missing plane will be found in the new search area. The governments of Australia, the People's Republic of China, and Malaysia had called off their two-year, US$160 million search for the airliner on 17 January.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43355390", "title": "Boeing Honeywell Uninterruptible Autopilot", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 470, "text": "There have been claims that the technology has been secretly fitted to some commercial airliners. Some have blamed it for the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, whose cause is unknown . According to Bob Mann, an airline industry consultant, there is no evidence that the Boeing Uninterruptible Autopilot has ever been used in a commercial airliner. Safety concerns, including the possibility that such a system could be hacked, have prevented its roll-out. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "291315", "title": "US Airways", "section": "Section::::History.:2000s.:Post-2005 merger.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 217, "text": "Aircraft were equipped with Verizon Airfone in every row of seats. Since Verizon ended this service, the airline has deactivated the service and as of 2007, has removed the phones or has covered them in all aircraft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sell when it's high, stockholders may start selling too which can bring down stock price, buy it all back again. Profit. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think its for tax reason. Sell below capital value to realise a capital loss then immediately buy it back.\n\nLink : _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To realize a loss which lowers the tax burden.\n\nLet's say you buy a share of stock for $100. It drops in value initially, but you believe their product is the best product ever and it will rebound, so you want to hang on to it long term for the capital gain. However, since the price is currently down, you sell your stock for $75 and immediately buy it back for $75. Your portfolio has not changed at all. You still own that one stock. You are still poised to strike it rich once the stock takes off. The difference is now you will pay less income tax since you realized a loss of $25. The loss is written off against your income, thus reducing your taxes. Works the same for companies. For sake of simplicity, this scenario did not take into account the transaction cost for buying and selling the stock. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19372783", "title": "Stock", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 904, "text": "Stock can be bought and sold privately or on stock exchanges, and such transactions are typically heavily regulated by governments to prevent fraud, protect investors, and benefit the larger economy. As new shares are issued by a company, the ownership and rights of existing shareholders are diluted in return for cash to sustain or grow the business. Companies can also buy back stock, which often lets investors recoup the initial investment plus capital gains from subsequent rises in stock price. Stock options, issued by many companies as part of employee compensation, do not represent ownership, but represent the right to buy ownership at a future time at a specified price. This would represent a windfall to the employees if the option is exercised when the market price is higher than the promised price, since if they immediately sold the stock they would keep the difference (minus taxes).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8056336", "title": "Short and distort", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 484, "text": "It is often performed as a form of naked short selling in which stock is sold without being borrowed and without any intent to borrow. Once the stock price has declined, the investor uses the proceeds of the initial sale to buy a larger number of the company's shares than sold originally. Some of the newly purchased stock is used to fulfill the short-selling contract; the remaining shares are then offered for sale, which causes an additional decline in the company's share price.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16954953", "title": "Accelerated share repurchase", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 513, "text": "By purchasing the shares in this way, it immediately exchanges a fixed amount of money for shares of its stock. It is currently being theorized that such arrangements are used by management to manipulate earnings figures for incentive compensation and reporting reasons. There are also earnings reporting black-out periods during which companies are not allowed to announce repurchasing of stock, so the ASR product from an investment bank could allow a company to essentially buy back shares during a black out.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19372783", "title": "Stock", "section": "Section::::Trading.:Selling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 249, "text": "Selling stock is procedurally similar to buying stock. Generally, the investor wants to buy low and sell high, if not in that order (short selling); although a number of reasons may induce an investor to sell at a loss, e.g., to avoid further loss.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2335596", "title": "Front running", "section": "Section::::Other uses of the term.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 798, "text": "For example, analysts and brokers who buy shares in a company just before the brokerage firm is about to recommend the stock as a strong buy, are practising this type of \"front running\". Brokers have been convicted of securities laws violations in the United States for such behavior. In 1985, a writer for the Wall Street Journal, R. Foster Winans, tipped off brokers about the content of his column Heard on the Street, which based upon publicly available information would be written in such a way as to give either good or bad news about various stocks. The tipped off brokers traded on the information. Winans and the brokers were prosecuted by the prosecutor Rudolph Giuliani, tried and convicted of securities fraud. Their convictions were upheld by the United States Supreme Court in 1986.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "228796", "title": "Day trading", "section": "Section::::Techniques.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 732, "text": "Some of these approaches require short selling stocks; the trader borrows stock from his broker and sells the borrowed stock, hoping that the price will fall and he will be able to purchase the shares at a lower price, thus keeping the difference as their profit. There are several technical problems with short sales - the broker may not have shares to lend in a specific issue, the broker can call for the return of its shares at any time, and some restrictions are imposed in America by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission on short-selling (see uptick rule for details). Some of these restrictions (in particular the uptick rule) don't apply to trades of stocks that are actually shares of an exchange-traded fund (ETF).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5893649", "title": "Share repurchase", "section": "Section::::Types.:Other types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 647, "text": "A company may also buy back shares held by or for employees or salaried directors of the company or a related company. This type of buyback, referred to as an \"employee share scheme buyback\", requires an ordinary resolution. A listed company may also buy back its shares in on-market trading on the stock exchange, following the passing of an ordinary resolution if over the 10/12 limit. The stock exchange's rules apply to \"on-market buybacks\". A listed company may also buy unmarketable parcels of shares from shareholders (called a \"minimum holding buyback\"). This does not require a resolution but the purchased shares must still be canceled.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It depends slightly on the type of supernova, and what the core will be made of. However you need to remember a star is much bigger than a nuclear reactor! As such it will emit trillions of times more radiation. \n\nTo go into a bit more detail, stars don't contain many radioactive materials (the radiation comes from fusion instead) until a supernova. At this point the flux of neutrons creates many unstable isotopes, which will undergo radiative decay. A core of a recent supernova and the surrounding material is incredibly radioactive. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What kind of supernova? In any event, the answer is: lots.\n\nOne of the main products in a supernova remnant (which, mind you, will be scattered into interstellar space by the explosion) is Nickel-56. This is the product of the \"last\" round of fusion that happens in the core of a star before it explodes. In some supernovae the fusion reactions generate enough energy to blow the star apart entirely (as in a Type Ia supernova), in others the production of a sufficiently large quantity of Nickel-56 in the core leads to gravitational collapse of the core into a neutron star (Type II). In both large quantities of remaining Nickel-56 is blown off into space along with other portions of the stellar envelope (or core, as in the case of a Type Ia). The Ni-56 has a half-life of 6 days, decaying via beta+ (positron emission) into Cobalt-56 which has a half-life of 77 days (and also decays via positron emission to Iron-56, which is stable). This radioactivity is what's responsible for a lot of the longer lived (days) light from the supernova.\n\nRegular beta- decay also occurs, but at a much lower level. There is a whole zoo of short-lived nuclei created by the high neutron flux in the supernova, particularly in a Type II supernova, which creates lots of different new isotopes, some of them with half-lives of tiny fractions of a second, some with longer half-lives (like Uranium and Thorium).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27680", "title": "Supernova", "section": "Section::::Current models.:Energy output.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 986, "text": "Core collapse supernovae are on average visually fainter than Type Ia supernovae, but the total energy released is far higher. In these type of supernovae, the gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy that compresses and collapses the core, initially producing electron neutrinos from disintegrating nucleons, followed by all flavours of thermal neutrinos from the super-heated neutron star core. Around 1% of these neutrinos are thought to deposit sufficient energy into the outer layers of the star to drive the resulting catastrophe, but again the details cannot be reproduced exactly in current models. Kinetic energies and nickel yields are somewhat lower than Type Ia supernovae, hence the lower peak visual luminosity of Type II supernovae, but energy from the de-ionisation of the many solar masses of remaining hydrogen can contribute to a much slower decline in luminosity and produce the plateau phase seen in the majority of core collapse supernovae.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27680", "title": "Supernova", "section": "Section::::Current models.:Energy output.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 684, "text": "Although pair-instability supernovae are core collapse supernovae with spectra and light curves similar to Type II-P, the nature after core collapse is more like that of a giant Type Ia with runaway fusion of carbon, oxygen, and silicon. The total energy released by the highest mass events is comparable to other core collapse supernovae but neutrino production is thought to be very low, hence the kinetic and electromagnetic energy released is very high. The cores of these stars are much larger than any white dwarf and the amount of radioactive nickel and other heavy elements ejected from their cores can be orders of magnitude higher, with consequently high visual luminosity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2350918", "title": "Thermal runaway", "section": "Section::::Astrophysics.:Pair-instability supernovae.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 923, "text": "A pair-instability supernova is believed to result from runaway oxygen fusion in the core of a massive, 130–250 solar mass, low to moderate metallicity star. According to theory, in such a star, a large but relatively low density core of nonfusing oxygen builds up, with its weight supported by the pressure of gamma rays produced by the extreme temperature. As the core heats further, the gamma rays eventually begin to pass the energy threshold needed for collision-induced decay into electron-positron pairs, a process called pair production. This causes a drop in the pressure within the core, leading it to contract and heat further, causing more pair production, a further pressure drop, and so on. The core starts to undergo gravitational collapse. At some point this ignites runaway oxygen fusion, releasing enough energy to obliterate the star. These explosions are rare, perhaps about one per 100,000 supernovae.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "974908", "title": "Messier 96", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 429, "text": "On May 9, 1998 a supernova event was observed in this galaxy. Designated SN 1998bu, this was a Type Ia supernova explosion. It reached maximum light on May 21, then steadily declined in magnitude thereafter. Observations of the ejecta a year later showed that the explosion created 0.4 times the mass of the Sun worth of iron. The spectrum of the supernova remnant confirmed the presence of radioactive Co, which decays into Fe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63025", "title": "Variable star", "section": "Section::::Intrinsic variable stars.:Cataclysmic or explosive variable stars.:Supernovae.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 127, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 127, "end_character": 301, "text": "Supernovae can result from the death of an extremely massive star, many times heavier than the Sun. At the end of the life of this massive star, a non-fusible iron core is formed from fusion ashes. This iron core is pushed towards the Chandrasekhar limit till it surpasses it and therefore collapses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1051535", "title": "Lionel Murphy", "section": "Section::::Legacy.:\"Lionel Murphy SNR\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 301, "text": "A supernova remnant (SNR) results from the gigantic explosion of a star, the resulting supernova expelling much or all of the stellar material with velocities as much as 1% the speed of light and forming a shock wave that can heat the gas up to temperatures as high as 10 million K, forming a plasma.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14587467", "title": "SN 1979C", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 561, "text": "SN 1979C was a supernova about 50 million light-years away in Messier 100, a spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices. The Type II supernova was discovered April 19, 1979 by Gus Johnson, a school teacher and amateur astronomer. This type of supernova is known as a core collapse and is the result of the internal collapse and violent explosion of a large star. A star must have at least 9 times the mass of the Sun in order to undergo this type of collapse. The star that resulted in this supernova was estimated to be in the range of 20 solar masses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No, it's a change in the way they produce speech which just seems to sound (to some speakers) like another specific accent. The man who gained an Irish accent after a stroke would not have sounded Irish to an Irish person. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'll answer this with the caveat that this is a very rare condition [( < 20 cases worldwide to date)](_URL_0_) and with an etiology that is not perfectly understood. \n\nThe basic idea is that after a stroke regions of the brain are damaged that result in a changed prosody. Most of the time, the change in speech pattern becomes close to but does not perfectly correspond with another accent (not necessarily one known to the patient). The current thinking is that observers hear this atypical speech and attribute it to an accent that they are familiar with, even if there are inconsistencies.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "390767", "title": "Foreign accent syndrome", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 569, "text": "Its symptoms result from distorted articulatory planning and coordination processes and although popular news articles commonly attempt to identify the closest regional accent, speakers suffering from foreign accent syndrome acquire neither a specific foreign accent nor any additional fluency in a foreign language. Despite an unconfirmed news report in 2010 that a Croatian speaker had gained the ability to speak fluent German after emergence from a coma, there has been no verified case where a patient's foreign language skills have improved after a brain injury.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "390767", "title": "Foreign accent syndrome", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1114, "text": "To the untrained ear, those with the syndrome sound as though they speak their native languages with a foreign accent; for example, an American native speaker of English might sound as though he spoke with a south-eastern English accent, or a native English speaker from Britain might speak with a New York American accent. However, researchers at Oxford University have found that certain specific parts of the brain were injured in some foreign accent syndrome cases, indicating that particular parts of the brain control various linguistic functions, and damage could result in altered pitch and/or mispronounced syllables, causing speech patterns to be distorted in a non-specific manner. Contrary to popular beliefs that individuals with FAS exhibit their accent without any effort, these individuals feel as if they are suffering from a speech disorder. More recently, there is mounting evidence that the cerebellum, which controls motor function, may be crucially involved in some cases of foreign accent syndrome, reinforcing the notion that speech pattern alteration is mechanical, and thus non-specific.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7356538", "title": "Dysprosody", "section": "Section::::Symptoms.:Related symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 514, "text": "After experiencing brain injury, some people may begin speaking in an accent not native to their country of origin, as discussed in the preceding sections, but more common forms of dysprosody consist of alterations in vocal pitch, timing, rhythm, and control, not necessarily resulting in a foreign dialect. In addition, there have been some cases in which seizures began to develop in patients also suffering from dysprosody, but no decisive conclusions connecting dysprosody and seizure activity have been made.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23251776", "title": "Acquired characteristic", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Injury.:Head trauma.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 136, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 136, "end_character": 479, "text": "There is also the rare condition called Foreign Accent Syndrome in which someone who has suffered a brain injury will appear to speak in a new language or dialect. This is typically thought to be due to an injury to the linguistic center of the brain causing speech impairment that just happens to sound like a persons non-native language. This is thought to be the reasoning behind the urban legend where someone wakes from a coma or surgery and suddenly speaks a new language.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "390767", "title": "Foreign accent syndrome", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 229, "text": "Foreign accent syndrome usually results from a stroke, but can also develop from head trauma, migraines or developmental problems. The condition was first reported in 1907, and between 1941 and 2009 there were 62 recorded cases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "390767", "title": "Foreign accent syndrome", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 402, "text": "The perception of a foreign accent is likely to be a case of pareidolia on the part of the listener. Nick Miller, Professor of Motor Speech Disorders at Newcastle University has explained: \"The notion that sufferers speak in a foreign language is something that is in the ear of the listener, rather than the mouth of the speaker. It is simply that the rhythm and pronunciation of speech has changed.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "390767", "title": "Foreign accent syndrome", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 836, "text": "Cases of foreign accent syndrome often receive significant media coverage, and cases have been reported in the popular media as resulting from various causes including stroke, allergic reaction, physical injury, and migraine. A woman with foreign accent syndrome was featured on both \"Inside Edition\" and Discovery Health Channel's \"Mystery ER\" in October 2008, and in September 2013 the BBC published an hour-long documentary about Sarah Colwill, a woman from Devon, whose \"Chinese\" foreign accent syndrome resulted from a severe migraine. In 2016, a Texas woman, Lisa Alamia, was diagnosed with Foreign Accent Syndrome when, following a jaw surgery, she developed what sounded like a British accent. Ellen Spencer, a woman from Indiana who has foreign accent syndrome, was interviewed on the American public radio show Snap Judgment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "While some anthropologists hang out here, you should X-post this to /r/AskAnthropology, as this well predates written history.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The good fellows over at /r/AskAnthropology gave me some [wonderful answers](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "89792", "title": "Mitochondrial Eve", "section": "Section::::History.:Criticism and later research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 301, "text": "Alan Templeton (1997) asserted that the study did \"not support the hypothesis of a recent African origin for all of humanity following a split between Africans and non-Africans 100,000 years ago\" and also did \"not support the hypothesis of a recent global replacement of humans coming out of Africa.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4816754", "title": "Human genetic variation", "section": "Section::::History and geographic distribution.:Recent African origin of modern humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 540, "text": "The recent African origin of modern humans paradigm assumes the dispersal of non-African populations of anatomically modern humans after 70,000 years ago. Dispersal within Africa occurred significantly earlier, at least 130,000 years ago. The \"out of Africa\" theory originates in the 19th century, as a tentative suggestion in Charles Darwin's \"Descent of Man\", but remained speculative until the 1980s when it was supported by study of present-day mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence from physical anthropology of archaic specimens.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "260987", "title": "East Africa", "section": "Section::::History.:Prehistory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 495, "text": "According to the theory of the recent African origin of modern humans, the predominantly held belief among most archaeologists, East Africa is the area where anatomically modern humans first appeared. There are differing theories on whether there was a single exodus or several; a multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory. A growing number of researchers suspect that North Africa was instead the original home of the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1767352", "title": "Taung Child", "section": "Section::::Initial criticism of Dart's claims.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 472, "text": "There were several reasons that it took decades for the field to accept Dart's claim that \"Australopithecus africanus\" was in the human line of descent. First, the British scientific establishment had been fooled by the hoax of the Piltdown Man, which had a large brain and ape-like teeth. Expecting human ancestors to have evolved a large brain very early, they found that the Taung Child's small brain and human-like teeth made it an unlikely ancestor to modern humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2061529", "title": "Arthur Keith", "section": "Section::::European hypothesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 385, "text": "In 1925 Raymond Dart announced the discovery of \"Australopithecus africanus\", which he claimed was evidence for an early human ancestor in Africa. The British anthropologists of the time, who firmly believed in the European hypothesis, did not accept finds outside of their own soil. Keith, for example, described “Darts child” as a juvenile ape and nothing to do with human ancestry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1981069", "title": "Cheikh Anta Diop", "section": "Section::::Views.:Physical variability of the African people.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 482, "text": "Diop consistently held that Africans could not be pigeonholed into a rigid type that existed somewhere south of the Sahara, but they varied widely in skin color, facial shape, hair type, height, and a number of additional factors, just like other human populations. In his \"Evolution of the Negro World\" in \"Présence Africaine\" (1964), Diop castigated European scholars who posited a separate evolution of various types of humankind and denied the African origin of \"homo sapiens\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42888", "title": "Human genome", "section": "Section::::Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 210, "text": "In September 2016, scientists reported that, based on human DNA genetic studies, all non-Africans in the world today can be traced to a single population that exited Africa between 50,000 and 80,000 years ago.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can tell you how bleach works on some types of stains. So some Compounds have color because of the molecule is a conjugated system. Meaning that more than 8 groups of alternating double then single bonds in a row all share electrons. When light hits this conjugated system it absorbs then releases energy that we see in the visible spectrum. Bleach comes in and breaks double bond(s) in this system making them single bonds. This breaks the conjugated system up either completely or into smaller conjugated systems. So for example, where you had 8 groups of alternating double then single bonds you now have 2 conjugated systems of 4 groups which emit light in the ultraviolet spectrum and it’s not visible, BUT the stain is still there, you just can’t see it.\nI suspect the stains are hard to remove because intermolecular forces between the stain maker to the fabric. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's a matter of what the stain likes more: water or cloth? Stains usually are made up by fatty molecules (oils, fats, etc) that don't mix up with water (think oil and water, they don't mix together and form an emulsion). This means the stain likes to stick on cloth, rather than getting dissolved into water...unless you help the stain in the trip! And to help the stain, you need surfactants! (_URL_0_) \nSurfactants are molecules made by up a \"fatty\" lipophilic part, and a \"watery\" hydrophilic part: these molecules bind the fatty part in the stain, then when you rinse the cloth with water the watery part brings them from the cloth to the water side. Easy isn't it? \nDisclaimer: I hold a master's degree in chemistry. Not exactly surfactant chemistry, but I got to study the subject.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm still looking forward to somebody answering the main question (removing the particles instead of uncoloring them).\n\nPerhaps some points can lead us closer to the solution? Edit: /r/Mortorz managed to answer some of this while I was writing.\n\n* Organic/protein stains are easier to remove on synthetic and cotton clothes than wool and silk, because we can use enzymes and/or bleach, which would destroy wool or silk fibers. Is there any hope of cleaning wool at all?\n* Many of the detergents are \"surface active\". What does this mean? Why does this work?\n* Good old soap contains fatty acids. What I remember is that one of the ends of those molecules is polar (?) and another isn't and that's how they manage to attach to fat and other organic (not so polar) molecules and make them soluble in water (a polar solvent). Is this true?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are also enzymes in detergent! Proteases can break down protein stains, lipases can break down any fatty stains, amylases can break down starch based stains, and cellulases break down the cotton that is stained just enough to break down the fibers that are stained without eating holes in your clothes. Fun fact: the cellulases were discovered during the war in Vietnam. They are produced by a fungus and would eat holes into the tents. There still is a lot of research being done to optimize the enzymes and the conditions they work best under. A lot of work went into getting the detergents to work in cold water.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Stains can be caused by several different processes. Persistent stains tend to be the result of certain chemicals with a strong color, chemically bonding to natural fibers in clothing. \n\nAn example being wine, blood, or coffee. \n\nBlood contains iron(+3) ions which are complexed with proteins that make them reasonably water soluble. However exposure to oxygen and light over time destroys those proteins, which liberates the iron ions. These then form highly insoluble compounds with oxygen, hydroxide, or carbonate ions commonly present in water. This \"sets\" the iron into the fabric fibers and makes it difficult to remove.\n\nThe color of coffee is due to various tannic acids found in many plants. Note that some kinds of tannins have been used to create inks since prehistoric times. \n\nThese have the ability to react with hydroxide (-OH) side groups found in most natural materials. Cotton or wool for example. This reaction occurs slowly under most conditions, but failure to immediately rinse a coffee spill can cause some of the tannic acids to permanently link themselves to the cloth fibers. This makes the stain impossible to remove except by chemical means. \n\nThe process of deliberate dyeing natural fabrics and threads is actually the same one as that which creates these kind of stains.\n\nIn dyeing, the fabric or thread is soaked in a basic, astringent solution called a \"mordant.\" The articles to be dyed is then soaked in a solution containing an acid and the dye compound for hours or days. This causes some of the dye molecules to chemically bond to the fibers. The article is then washed several times in a mildly basic solution containing washing soda (sodium carbonate) this neutralizes any remaining unreacted dye and washes it away, while setting the color in the fabric.\n \nStains may also occur when some type of binding agent that is highly insoluble in water becomes absorbed by clothing fibers, which traps pigment particles. \n\nScreen printing on shirts does this deliberately by applying flexible wash resistant paint to a shirt. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "411782", "title": "Staining", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 539, "text": "Staining is a technique used to enhance contrast in samples, generally at the microscopic level. Stains and dyes are frequently used in histology (the study of tissue under the microscope) and in the medical fields of histopathology, hematology, and cytopathology that focus on the study and diagnoses disease at a microscopic level. Stains may be used to define biological tissues (highlighting, for example, muscle fibers or connective tissue), cell populations (classifying different blood cells, or organelles within individual cells.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40413995", "title": "Mallory's trichrome stain", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 455, "text": "For tissues that are not directly acidic or basic, it can be difficult to use only one stain to reveal the necessary structures of interest. A combination of the three different stains in precise amounts applied in the correct order reveals the details selectively. This is the result of more than just electrostatic interactions of stain with the tissue and the stain not being washed out after each step. Collectively the stains compliment one another.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4140761", "title": "Differential staining", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 221, "text": "Differential Staining is a staining process which uses more than one chemical stain. Using multiple stains can better differentiate between different microorganisms or structures/cellular components of a single organism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4884616", "title": "Stain", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 307, "text": "A stain is a discoloration that can be clearly distinguished from the surface, material, or medium it is found upon. They are caused by the chemical or physical interaction of two dissimilar materials. Staining is used for biochemical research, metal staining, and art (e.g., wood staining, stained glass).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "411782", "title": "Staining", "section": "Section::::Common biological stains.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 364, "text": "Different stains react or concentrate in different parts of a cell or tissue, and these properties are used to advantage to reveal specific parts or areas. Some of the most common biological stains are listed below. Unless otherwise marked, all of these dyes may be used with fixed cells and tissues; vital dyes (suitable for use with living organisms) are noted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3255718", "title": "H&E stain", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 210, "text": "H&E staining does not always provide enough contrast to differentiate all tissues, cellular structures, or the distribution of chemical substances, and in these cases more specific stains and methods are used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13570", "title": "Histology", "section": "Section::::Sample preparation.:Staining.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 348, "text": "Biological tissue has little inherent contrast in either the light or electron microscope. Staining is employed to give both contrast to the tissue as well as highlighting particular features of interest. When the stain is used to target a specific chemical component of the tissue (and not the general structure), the term histochemistry is used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "To answer briefly, there was a massive amount of contact between the two cultures. Trade continued between them in the early years, and after the Anglo-Saxon conversions were complete numerous missionaries were sent to different parts of Germany, the most famous being Boniface and Willibrord in the eighth century. I do not know, but I can't imagine that any Anglo-Saxons would have fought on the side of the pagan Saxons against Charlemagne, nor that they would have felt more kin with the Saxons specifically than other Germanic groups on the continent. Connections continued after Charlemagne, with one of Alfred's advisers being John the Old Saxon. If I remember right, there is also some evidence that the Old Saxon poem *Heliand* was copied in England in the late tenth century, but I forget the details on this at the moment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1902917", "title": "Sub-Roman Britain", "section": "Section::::Breakdown of Roman society.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 738, "text": "In the late 6th century there was another period of Saxon expansion, starting with the capture of Searoburh in 552 by the dynasty that later ruled Wessex, and including entry into the Cotswolds area after the Battle of Deorham (577), though the accuracy of the entries in the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\" for this period has been questioned. These conquests are often said by modern writers, on no clear evidence, to have separated the Britons of South West England (known later as the West Welsh) from those of Wales. (Just after the period being discussed, the Battle of Chester in 611 might have separated the latter from those of the north of England.) Until the 570s, the Britons were still in control of about half of England and Wales.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2645367", "title": "History of Anglo-Saxon England", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 775, "text": "The Anglo-Saxons were the members of Germanic-speaking groups who migrated to the southern half of the island of Great Britain from nearby northwestern Europe and their cultural descendants. Anglo-Saxon history thus begins during the period of Sub-Roman Britain following the end of Roman control, and traces the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the 5th and 6th centuries (conventionally identified as seven main kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex), their Christianisation during the 7th century, the threat of Viking invasions and Danish settlers, the gradual unification of England under the Wessex hegemony during the 9th and 10th centuries, and ending with the Norman conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13485", "title": "History of England", "section": "Section::::The Anglo-Saxon migration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1132, "text": "In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain from the middle of the fourth century, present day England was progressively settled by Germanic groups. Collectively known as the \"Anglo-Saxons\", these were Angles and Saxons from what is now the Danish/German border area and Jutes from the Jutland peninsula. The Battle of Deorham was a critical in establishing Anglo-Saxon rule in 577. Saxon mercenaries existed in Britain since before the late Roman period, but the main influx of population probably happened after the fifth century. The precise nature of these invasions is not fully known; there are doubts about the legitimacy of historical accounts due to a lack of archaeological finds. Gildas Sapiens's \"De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae\", composed in the 6th century, states that when the Roman army departed the Isle of Britannia in the 4th century CE, the indigenous Britons were invaded by Picts, their neighbours to the north (now Scotland) and the Scots (now Ireland). Britons invited the Saxons to the island to repel them but after they vanquished the Scots and Picts, the Saxons turned against the Britons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27850", "title": "Saxons", "section": "Section::::History.:Later Saxons in Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 557, "text": "Under Carolingian rule, the Saxons were reduced to tributary status. There is evidence that the Saxons, as well as Slavic tributaries such as the Abodrites and the Wends, often provided troops to their Carolingian overlords. The dukes of Saxony became kings (Henry I, the Fowler, 919) and later the first emperors (Henry's son, Otto I, the Great) of Germany during the 10th century, but they lost this position in 1024. The duchy was divided in 1180 when Duke Henry the Lion refused to follow his cousin, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, into war in Lombardy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27850", "title": "Saxons", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 679, "text": "While the English Saxons were no longer raiders, the political history of the continental Saxons is unclear until the time of the conflict between their semi-legendary hero Widukind and the Frankish emperor Charlemagne. While the continental Saxons are no longer a distinctive ethnic group or country, their name lives on in the names of several regions and states of Germany, including Lower Saxony (which includes central parts of the original Saxon homeland known as Old Saxony), Saxony in Upper Saxony, as well as Saxony-Anhalt (which includes Old, Lower and Upper Saxon regions). The current state of Saxony has its name from dynastic history, and not their ethnic history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28395", "title": "Saxony", "section": "Section::::History.:Duchy of Saxony.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 456, "text": "While the Saxons were facing pressure from Charlemagne's Franks, they were also facing a westward push by Slavs to the east. The territory of the Free State of Saxony, called White Serbia was, since the 5th century, populated by Slavs before being conquered by Germans e.g. Saxons and Thuringii. A legacy of this period is the Sorb population in Saxony. Eastern parts of present Saxony were ruled by Poland between 1002 and 1032 and by Bohemia since 1293.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3535274", "title": "Saxon Wars", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 548, "text": "The Saxon Wars, also called the Saxon War or Saxon Uprising (not to be confused with the Saxon Rebellion of 1073–75), were the campaigns and insurrections of the thirty-three years from 772, when Charlemagne first entered Saxony with the intent to conquer, to 804, when the last rebellion of disaffected tribesmen was crushed. In all, eighteen campaigns were fought, primarily in what is now northern Germany. They resulted in the incorporation of Saxony into the Frankish realm and their forcible conversion from Germanic paganism to Catholicism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I've written [pretty extensively](_URL_0_) before on the causes of the war, on [British war aims](_URL_2_) and their [alliance with American Indians](_URL_3_), and how they contrasted with [American goals](_URL_1_). To make a long story short, the British were defending their colonies in Canada and the Caribbean from an American invasion, and they had no interest in conquering the United States, at any point in the war.\n\nHowever, even in a purely defensive war, the British realized fairly quickly that passively defending their borders was not going to end the war quickly, and was unsuitable for the style of warfare preferred by their native allies - early, aggressive successes by British commanders like Isaac Brock earned the British a popular renown among American Indians, which contrasted heavily with Henry Procter. Brock was universally liked and respected by American Indians, and had a famous relationship with Tecumseh, who allegedly reported on meeting him: \"This is a man!\" Procter was likened to a bull, running away with its tail tucked between its legs. \n\nBut aggressive defense didn't necessarily mean that they were attempting to conquer the country, by any means. The goal was either to raid in such a devastating, sustained manner that the country would surrender or the civilian population would no longer support the effort (it was already *highly unpopular*), or to capture key cities and force a treaty on terms favorable to Great Britain. The (brief) capture of Washington was an effort to that end, and it should be noted that the destruction of public buildings was a recognized aspect of long 18th century warfare, and it was practiced on both sides. Burning the White House wasn't *necessary* and was viewed at the time as excessive, but it certainly wasn't beyond the pale, and Americans had done similarly in captured Canadian cities, as well.\n\nBy 1814, there were two large-scale efforts to end he war by capturing key cities. An invasion force assembled in Canada would sweep down into Northern New York, following Lake Champlain. A second force was being assembled in the Caribbean, and would invade the southern coast, capturing New Orleans. Of the two efforts, the New Orleans campaign was the more critical; New Orleans was an economic bottleneck, because it was where the Mississippi river met the sea, and a great deal of American agricultural produce was shipped down that river. With New Orleans in British hands, they would have a powerful bargaining chip with which to end the war.\n\nBoth of these campaigns ended in disaster, which gave a somewhat inflated impression to the American public that the war had been *won* when they heard news of the Treaty of Ghent following the battles of Platssburgh and New Orleans, more or less back-to-back.\n\nThe long term plan, such as it was, was *end the war*, hopefully from a position of strength. Being able to hand back an important city to the United States would be a powerful motivation to cave to British demands.\n\nI'll be happy to answer follow-ups.\n_____\n\nJon Latimer's *1812: War with America* and Donald Hickey's *The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict* are the two best overall histories of the war. For more on the American Indian role, check out John Sugden, *Tecumseh's Last Stand*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53842", "title": "New Orleans", "section": "Section::::History.:Battle of New Orleans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 600, "text": "During the final campaign of the War of 1812, the British sent a force of 11,000 in an attempt to capture New Orleans. Despite great challenges, General Andrew Jackson, with support from the U.S. Navy, successfully cobbled together a force of militia from Louisiana and Mississippi, including free men of color, U.S. Army regulars, a large contingent of Tennessee state militia, Kentucky riflemen, Choctaw fighters, and local privateers (the latter led by the pirate Jean Lafitte), to decisively defeat the British troops, led by Sir Edward Pakenham, in the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56445899", "title": "Jordan Bankston Noble", "section": "Section::::Military service.:The War of 1812.:The Battle of New Orleans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 500, "text": "On January 8, 1815, the British launched their main and final assault on the American forces defending New Orleans. During the battle, young Noble held his position and continued the beat on his drum. In the confusion of the battle, this let the troops know what needed to be done, and that the American force was still successfully defending the city. This was the final battle of the War of 1812, as the Treaty of Ghent had recently been signed and was on its way to the United States from Europe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1622931", "title": "History of New Orleans", "section": "Section::::19th century.:Early 19th century: a rapidly growing commercial center.:War of 1812.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 503, "text": "During the War of 1812, the British sent a large force to conquer the city, but they were defeated early in 1815 by Andrew Jackson's combined forces some miles downriver from the city at Chalmette's plantation, during the Battle of New Orleans. The American government managed to obtain early information of the enterprise and prepared to meet it with forces (regular, militia, and naval) under the command of Maj. Gen. Andrew Jackson. Privateers led by Jean Lafitte were also recruited for the battle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "147394", "title": "Battle of New Orleans", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Withdrawal of the British.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 369, "text": "Three days after the battle, General Lambert held a council of war which concluded that capturing New Orleans and continuing the Louisiana campaign would be too costly, despite the news that the battery had been captured on the west bank of the river. He agreed with his officers to withdraw, and the British abandoned their camp at Villere's Plantation by January 19.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21452834", "title": "Robert Townsend (spy)", "section": "Section::::As \"Culper, Jr.\".:Disinformation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 791, "text": "After the French had joined the war on the side of the colonists, a French fleet was set to land and disembark troops at Newport, Rhode Island. The problem with this plan was that the British controlled Long Island and New York City and had large amounts of influence in Long Island Sound. The British got wind of the French plans and began preparing to intercept the smaller French fleet before the French soldiers could make landfall. George Washington learned of the British plans through the Culper Spy Ring, and he was able to successfully bluff the British forces into believing that an attack was planned on New York City, feeding the enemy false information on his plans. Thus, Washington was able to keep the British occupied while the French were able to safely land their forces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "147394", "title": "Battle of New Orleans", "section": "Section::::References.:Bibliography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 216, "text": "BULLET::::- Drez, Ronald J. (2014). \"The War of 1812, conflict and deception: the British attempt to seize New Orleans and nullify the Louisiana Purchase\". Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 362 pages, .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34966698", "title": "The Houmas", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 423, "text": "During the war, plans were made to use the plantation house as a headquarters for Union general Benjamin Franklin Butler, who governed New Orleans for about seven months following the city's capture in May 1862. Burnside, still a citizen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, reputedly prevented this by suggesting that international complications would arise if his estate was seized by Federal authorities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm no expert on this, but I'm currently reading [Steve Silberman's Neurotribes](_URL_0_), which is a cultural history of autism. It's not specifically about homosexuality, but it does delve into the use of electro-shock therapy on autistic children, as what's known as aversion therapy. Basically, the psychiatrist gives an order, and if it isn't followed, a shock is administered. Theoretically, the subject will learn to avoid the behavior on his/her own. \n\n[This article](_URL_1_) from the Huffington Post (but written by an archivist at the National Gay and Lesbian Archives) \nSilberman proposes that those administering these \"cures\" believed they were acting humanely. Given that it was deemed impossible to change the attitude of society toward homosexuality, it was more humane to change the undesired behavior. \n\n[This article](_URL_1_) (from the National Gay and Lesbian Archives) might also shed some light on your question. Remember that homosexuality was considered a mental disorder before 1973, and the prevailing attitude of psychologists seemed to rest on curing disorders, instead of either encouraging acceptance or studying how best to integrate into mainstream society. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14711778", "title": "Criticism of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "section": "Section::::Views on sexuality.:Views on homosexuality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 349, "text": "In the early 1970s, Ford McBride did research in electroshock therapy while a student at Brigham Young University (BYU); he performed it on volunteer homosexual students to help cure them of ego-dystonic sexual orientation. This was a standard type of aversion therapy used to treat homosexuality, which was considered a mental illness at the time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53563841", "title": "Brigham Young University LGBT history", "section": "Section::::Aversion therapy at BYU.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 523, "text": "In an independent BYU newspaper article two men describe their experience with the BYU Aversion therapy program during the early 1970s. After confessing to homosexual feelings they were referred to the BYU Counseling Center where the electroshock aversion therapy took place using pornographic pictures of males and females. Jon, one of the individuals, implied that the treatment was completely ineffective. The experiences match most reports which state that shock therapy was ineffective in changing sexual orientation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47591189", "title": "The Aversion Project", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 824, "text": "The Aversion Project was a medical torture program in South Africa led by Dr. Aubrey Levin during apartheid. The project identified gay soldiers as conscripts who used drugs in the South African Defence Forces (SADF). Victims were forced to submit to \"curing\" their homosexuality because the SADF considered homosexuality to be \"subversive\" and those who were homosexual were subject to punishment. The approach taken by the SADF to treating the homosexual and transsexual patients were done with extremely old knowledge that can be taken back to the ideologies of Havelock Ellis. The requirement for homosexuals going through gender reassignment surgery is to have extensive assessment and a period of supervision for two years. In 1995 the Medical Association of South Africa issued a public apology for past wrongdoings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29383", "title": "Stonewall riots", "section": "Section::::Legacy.:Unlikely community.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 1136, "text": "Throughout the 1970s, gay activism had significant successes. One of the first and most important was the \"zap\" in May 1970 by the Los Angeles GLF at a convention of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). At a conference on behavior modification, during a film demonstrating the use of electroshock therapy to decrease same-sex attraction, Morris Kight and GLF members in the audience interrupted the film with shouts of \"Torture!\" and \"Barbarism!\" They took over the microphone to announce that medical professionals who prescribed such therapy for their homosexual patients were complicit in torturing them. Although 20 psychiatrists in attendance left, the GLF spent the hour following the zap with those remaining, trying to convince them that homosexual people were not mentally ill. When the APA invited gay activists to speak to the group in 1972, activists brought John E. Fryer, a gay psychiatrist who wore a mask, because he felt his practice was in danger. In December 1973—in large part due to the efforts of gay activists—the APA voted unanimously to remove homosexuality from the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60124645", "title": "Lesbians in the Second Republic period", "section": "Section::::Prelude to the Second Republic (1800 - 1922).:LGBT culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 815, "text": "Some lesbians who were discovered in this period were forced to undergo conversion therapy, voluntarily submitting to it because they viewed themselves as defective and sick in the head. The creation by Freud of psychoanalysis encouraged many to believe that the method could be used to cure homosexuality.  These cures often involved chemical and surgical approaches, with hormone treatments first which were then followed by drugs designed to remove a women's sexual libido.  If this failed, women would be subjected to aversion therapy, which sometimes included shock therapy.  If a woman still had homosexual thoughts, surgical treatments would be undertaken, including removal of the uterus or ovaries.  In a few cases, lobotomies were also performed.  To avoid this, many lesbians just went into deep denial.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "211889", "title": "Electrical injury", "section": "Section::::Deliberate uses.:Torture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 414, "text": "Advocates for the mentally ill and some psychiatrists such as Thomas Szasz have asserted that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is torture when used without a \"bona fide\" medical benefit against recalcitrant or non-responsive patients. A similar argument and opposition apply to the use of painful shocks as punishment for behavior modification, a practice that is openly used only at the Judge Rotenberg Institute.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60283354", "title": "Lesbians in Francoist Spain", "section": "Section::::Lesbian culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 783, "text": "Lesbians were at risk of imprisonment during this period because of their orientation. Families also highly disapproved, and conversion therapy using electroshock treatment was not unheard of. Some women died within a few years of being given electroshock treatment. This sort of conversion therapy and problems with family estrangement would continue on into the Spanish transition to democracy. For many lesbians, it would be a tough choice as to which was worse: prison or mental institutions where conversion therapy took place. In addition to the threat of conversion therapy, lesbians had to worry about other aspects of their family discovering their orientation. This included being disowned by their family or being assaulted by family members because of their orientation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Precisely because they were able to calculate the circumference of the Earth. Ancient Greek ships weren't able to handle the open ocean, and it was thought all the way up until Columbus' time that there was nothing but open ocean between Europe and Asia. Sailors and explorers at the time would have wisely figured that they would die of thirst, starvation, or to a storm before they ever made it to the other side, and this was actually a huge obstacle for Columbus himself to get funding since everyone thought he would die. Any Greeks setting out to the West would know they would find a watery grave, and if any tried that's exactly what they got with their ships at the time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16825333", "title": "Greeks in Russia and the Soviet Union", "section": "Section::::History.:Ancient.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 344, "text": "The Greeks had to fight off Scythian and Sarmatian (Alan) raiders who prevented them from progressing inland but retained the shores which became the wheat basket of the ancient Greek world. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great and the Roman conquest the provinces maintained active trading relations with the interior for centuries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5974273", "title": "Santa Caterina dello Ionio", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 702, "text": "The Greeks founded along the coast from the 8th Century. Colonies flourished, but near the sea there was little suitable defense. The Greeks felt the need to unite in a safer and more suitable place for defense of all villages, abandoning the coast because of malaria and Saracen pirate invasions. It is believed that Santa Caterina dello Ionio arose following the Saracen invasions (650-1086 AD), by the union of the colonies in the territory. Originally, it was a small village surrounded by defensive walls, which opened four doors. Only one door \"Porta dell'acqua\", which translates to \"Gateway of the water\", remains. Around 1060, Santa Caterina dello Ionio became part of the county of Badolato.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54204", "title": "Philip II of Macedon", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Third Sacred War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 485, "text": "There were no hostilities with Athens yet, but Athens was threatened by the Macedonian party which Philip's gold created in Euboea. From 352 to 346 BC, Philip did not again travel south. He was active in completing the subjugation of the Balkan hill-country to the west and north, and in reducing the Greek cities of the coast as far as the Hebrus. To the chief of these coastal cities, Olynthus, Philip continued to profess friendship until its neighbouring cities were in his hands.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21208262", "title": "Western culture", "section": "Section::::History.:Classical West.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 655, "text": "While the concept of a \"West\" did not exist until the emergence of the Roman Republic, the roots of the concept can be traced back to Ancient Greece. Since Homeric literature (the Trojan Wars), through the accounts of the Persian Wars of Greeks against Persians by Herodotus, and right up until the time of Alexander the Great, there was a paradigm of a contrast between Greeks and other civilizations. Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves (in the formulation of Aristotle) as something between the advanced civilisations of the Near East (who they viewed as soft and slavish) and the wild barbarians of most of Europe to the west.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18476303", "title": "Ancient maritime history", "section": "Section::::Ancient seafaring.:Ancient routes and locations.:Egypt.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 731, "text": "This early description of Necho's expedition as a whole is contentious, though; it is recommended that one keep an open mind on the subject; but Strabo, Polybius, and Ptolemy doubted the description. Egyptologist A. B. Lloyd suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the Sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He suggests that \"It is extremely unlikely that an Egyptian king would, or could, have acted as Necho is depicted as doing\" and that the story might have been triggered by the failure of Sataspes' attempt to circumnavigate Africa under Xerxes the Great. Regardless, it was believed by Herodotus and Pliny.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "187726", "title": "Chandragupta Maurya", "section": "Section::::Building the empire.:Conquest of north-west regions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 238, "text": "The Greeks led by Indian campaign of Alexander the Great had invaded north-western India during 327-325 BCE. Alexander left India in 325 BCE, leaving the control of his newly-conquered territories under Greek governors and local vassals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34310361", "title": "The Sands of Ammon", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 388, "text": "After the victory in Thessaly which ended the first book of the trilogy, \"Child of a Dream\", Alexander and his army march towards the East. The first step of the expedition is to free the Greek cities from the Persian domination in order to establish a strong and united Pan-Hellenic League. Once that is achieved, the target is the Persian Empire itself and its immense Asian territory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The #2 is a measure of the \"hardness\" of the pencil lead (which is actually graphite, but that's a different thread). \r\r#1 pencils are very \"soft\", meaning they wear fast, smudge often, and it's difficult to keep the writing point sharp. Numbers #3 and higher stay nice and sharp, but make lighter markings, which is why they aren't recommended for machine graded \"fill in the bubble\" forms.\r\rI've used #5 pencils, and I like the sharp points for drawing math equations and graphs. I understand that they are commonly used for drafting. I prefer #3s, or \"extra hard\" pencils which are kinda like a #2-and-a-half.\r\rBut #2 is, for most people, the\"just right\" of pencils, that don't smudge much, stay sharp fairly well, but still make a dark mark when writing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3257352", "title": "Justice League Task Force (comics)", "section": "Section::::Publication history.:Creative teams.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 346, "text": "Similar to the role of the writers, few pencillers stuck around for more than one or two issues, with exception being Sal Velluto, who, alongside David Michelinie created the book, and pencilled 22 issues of the title. The only other regular artist was Ramon Bernado, who pencilled nine issues in total and pencilled the title's last few issues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "654729", "title": "Marvel 1602", "section": "Section::::Background.:Illustration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 295, "text": "Unlike usual penciled pages, \"Marvel 1602\" used a technique called \"enhanced pencils\", whereby the finished pencil drawings are sent straight to the colorist instead of to an inker first. This technique had been used before on Kubert's \"Origin\", and results in cleaner and more elaborate lines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12343497", "title": "Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 361, "text": "At the 1889 World Fair in Paris, the Hardtmuth's displayed their pencils rebranded as \"Koh-I-Noor Hardtmuth\". Each pencil was encased in a yellow cedar-wood barrel. The inspiration for the name was the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond (Persian for \"Mountain of Light\"), part of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, and the largest diamond in the world at the time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1049521", "title": "Dixon Ticonderoga Company", "section": "Section::::Ticonderoga pencil.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 300, "text": "Dixon Ticonderoga makes a variety of pencils, including the Classic, Black, Noir, Tri-Conderoga, Microban, Laddie, My First (formerly Beginners), SenseMatic, and colored pencils. The pencils are available in different grades: #1 (Extra Soft), #2 (Soft), #2½ (Medium), #3 (Hard), and #4 (Extra Hard).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35937164", "title": "The Zero Clue", "section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 561, "text": "With the pencils laid out on his desk as they were on Heller's, Wolfe explains that the book he consulted earlier was on the history of mathematics. The two groups of pencils were arranged to symbolize a three and a two, and he originally assumed that the eraser between them stood for multiplication; hence his focus on the number six. However, the mention of the horse's name made him realize that the eraser was meant to stand for a zero. Before he was killed, Heller had laid out the pencils to form the number 302 – the death toll in the hospital bombing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2824899", "title": "Vince Colletta", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Early life and career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 849, "text": "Colletta's first confirmed work as an inker of another artist's pencils is unknown, largely due to credits not being given routinely in 1950s comics. Two possibilities suggested by historians and researchers are the cover of Atlas' \"Annie Oakley Western Tales\" #10 (April 1956), co-inking with Sol Brodsky over Brodsky's pencils, and the three-page story \"I Met My Love Again\", penciled by Matt Baker, in \"My Own Romance\" #65 (Sept. 1958). Additionally assigned to ink stories in Atlas' emerging science-fiction/fantasy and giant-monster comics, Colletta entered what fans and historians call \"pre-superhero Marvel\" with three Baker-penciled stories: \"The Green Fog\" in \"Journey into Mystery\" #50 (Jan. 1959), \"I Fell to the Center of the Earth\" in \"Tales to Astonish\" #2 (March 1959), and \"The Brain Picker\" in \"World of Fantasy\" #17 (April 1959).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30283069", "title": "Capes, Cowls & Villains Foul", "section": "Section::::Other art.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 533, "text": "The \"Core Rulebook\" also features numerous full-color character illustrations by Brent Sprecher, Scott Brewer, Tom Martin, and Derek Hand, all in a deliberate \"superhero realism\" style (as opposed to a cartoon or manga type style). The cover was done by Brent Sprecher and depicts many heroes and villains created by him before the creation of the game. Most of these characters appear as fully fleshed out, playable heroes and villains in the book, also (including Americana, Breaker, Deathstalker, Lillith, Moon Girl, and Vector).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Satellites take pictures of things from about 100 miles away. A planet that's 40 light years away is 235,100,000,000,000 miles away. So, you'd need a camera that is about one trillion times more powerful than what's on a satellite.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because of fundamental physical limits. If you look at something, you need a mirror with a radius roughly equal to the wavelength you're observing divided by the angular size of the object you're watching.\n\nLets assume we want to at least see continents (~1000km) on those planets and that they're 40 lightyears away. Then we get an angular size of 10^-12 ish. Lets also say we want to watch in optical wavelengths, so we need to observe light with a wavelength of about 500nm. Then we need a mirror with a radius of at least 500 kilometers. Not to mention that the mirror has to be in space, because else the atmosphere would ruin the image.\n\nBuilding something that size in space isn't really feasible at our current stage of technology. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "152628", "title": "Overwhelmingly Large Telescope", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 364, "text": "It has been estimated that a telescope with a diameter of 80 meters would be able to spectroscopically analyse Earth-size planets around the forty nearest sun-like stars. As such, this telescope could help in the exploration of exoplanets and extraterrestrial life (because the spectrum from the planets could reveal the presence of molecules indicative of life).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3837308", "title": "Extraterrestrial (TV program)", "section": "Section::::Series concept and scientific basis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 506, "text": "The sensitivity of current detection methods makes it difficult for scientists to search for terrestrial planets smaller than this. To allow smaller bodies to be detected, NASA was studying a project called the Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF), a two-telescope concept slated to begin launching around 2014. However, Congressional spending limits under House Resolution 20 passed on January 31, 2007 by the U.S. House of Representatives and February 14 by the U.S. Senate have all but canceled the program.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2776501", "title": "Visible-light astronomy", "section": "Section::::Commonly observed objects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 307, "text": "Planets are usually observed with the aid of a telescope or binoculars. Venus is likely the easiest planet to observe without the aid of any instruments, as it is very bright, and can even be seen in daylight. However, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn can also be seen without the aid of telescopes or binoculars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58968", "title": "Observatory", "section": "Section::::Astronomical observatories.:Space-based observatories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 1330, "text": "Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in outer space, many in orbit around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays and is partially opaque to infrared radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet. Another advantage of space-based telescopes is that, because of their location above the Earth's atmosphere, their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground-based observations. As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "849815", "title": "Kepler space telescope", "section": "Section::::Planet finding process.:Confirming planet candidates.:Through validation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 615, "text": "If a planet cannot be detected through at least one of the other detection methods, it can be confirmed by determining if the possibility of a Kepler candidate being a real planet is significantly larger than any false-positive scenarios combined. One of the first methods was to see if other telescopes can see the transit as well. The first planet confirmed through this method was Kepler-22b which was also observed with a Spitzer space telescope in addition to analyzing any other false-positive possibilities. Such confirmation is costly, as small planets can generally be detected only with space telescopes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58017976", "title": "Asteroid impact prediction", "section": "Section::::Improving impact prediction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 1316, "text": "To get around all of these issues, the second approach suggested is the use of space-based telescopes which can observe a much larger region of the sky around Earth. Although they still cannot point directly towards the Sun, they do not have the problem of blue sky to overcome and so can detect asteroids much closer in the sky to the Sun than ground-based telescopes. Unaffected by weather or airglow they can also operate 24 hours per day all year round. Finally, telescopes in space have the advantage of being able to use infrared sensors without the interference of the Earth's atmosphere. These sensors are better for detecting asteroids than optical sensors, and although there are some ground based infrared telescopes such as UKIRT, they are not designed for detecting asteroids. Space-based telescopes are more expensive, however, and tend to have a shorter lifespan. Therefore, Earth-based and space-based technologies complement each other to an extent. Although the majority of the IR spectrum is blocked by Earth's atmosphere, the very useful thermal (long-wavelength infrared) frequency band is not blocked (see gap at 10 μm in the diagram below). This allows for the possibility of ground based thermal imaging surveys designed for detecting near earth asteroids, though none are currently planned.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2898458", "title": "New Worlds Mission", "section": "Section::::Objectives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 489, "text": "BULLET::::5. Planetary assessment: The final step in extrasolar planet studies would be the ability to study these distant worlds in the same way that Earth-observing systems study the Earth's surface. Such a telescope would need to be extremely large, to collect enough light to resolve and analyze small details on the planet's surface. However, these kinds of studies do not lie in the foreseeable future, for it takes square kilometers of collecting area to capture the needed signal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Instant gratification versus something that has long last impact where the benefit isn't immediately noticeable or required?\n\nYour steam game for example, doesn't just cost you money, it costs you *time* which you gotta invest in.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You expect your beer to be gone in 5 mins. Even if it's not good, it won't be terrible, dangerous or cause you problems beyond that time. What you're weighing up is the prolonged annoyance caused by a poor decision.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Where the fuck are you getting a beer for £3.00?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1426924", "title": "Licensing Act 2003", "section": "Section::::Reaction to the Act.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 538, "text": "The Act has caused some controversy. On one side of the argument is the frustration some British drinkers and many tourists have with the traditional closing time of 23:00, as opposed to the more liberal drinking regulations of continental Europe and further afield. They believe that a liberalisation of the drinking-up time will reduce 'drinking against the clock', a precursor to binge drinking. Those against the legislation, on the other hand, believe that binge drinking will increase, as drinkers will have more time to get drunk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "795050", "title": "Affluenza", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 438, "text": "Clive Hamilton and Richard Denniss's book, \"\", poses the question: \"If the economy has been doing so well, why are we not becoming happier?\" They argue that affluenza causes overconsumption, \"luxury fever\", consumer debt, overwork, waste, and harm to the environment. These pressures lead to \"psychological disorders, alienation and distress\", causing people to \"self-medicate with mood-altering drugs and excessive alcohol consumption\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54301172", "title": "Well-being contributing factors", "section": "Section::::Personal factors.:Personal Finance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 185, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 185, "end_character": 291, "text": "Some studies suggest, however, that people are happier after spending money on experiences, rather than physical things, and after spending money on others, rather than themselves. However, purchases that buy ‘time’, for instance, cleaners or cooks typically increase individual well-being.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19592348", "title": "Binge drinking", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 559, "text": "Binge drinking costs the UK economy approximately £20 billion a year; 17 million working days are estimated to be lost due to hangovers and drink-related illness each year. The cost of binge drinking to employers is estimated to be £6.4 billion and the cost per year of alcohol harm is estimated to cost the National Health Service £2.7 billion. Urgent action has been recommended to understand the binge drinking culture and its aetiology and pathogenesis and urgent action has been called for to educate people with regard to the dangers of binge drinking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12939995", "title": "Fundamental psychological law", "section": "Section::::Psychological law of consumption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 505, "text": "Keynes defines psychological law of consumption in terms of \"the fundamental psychological law, upon which we are entitled to depend with great confidence both a priori from our knowledge of human nature and from the detailed facts of experience, is that men are disposed, as a rule and on the average, to increase their consumption as their income increases but not by as much as the increase in the income.\" It simply means that Marginal Propensity to consume is positive but less than unity (0 but 1).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21872524", "title": "Books v. Cigarettes", "section": "Section::::Argument.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 540, "text": "In contrast, Orwell works out that before the war he was spending £20 a year on beer and tobacco and that he currently spends £40 per year on tobacco. He works out the national average spent on beer and tobacco to be £40 a year. Noting that it is difficult to establish a relationship between the price of different types of books and the value derived from them, Orwell works out that if books are read simply recreationally, the cost per hour is less than the cost of a cinema seat. Therefore, reading is one of the cheapest recreations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17283697", "title": "All Marketers Are Liars", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 395, "text": "\"All marketers tell stories. And if they do it right, we believe them. We believe that wine tastes better in a $20 glass than a $1 glass. We believe that an $80,000 Porsche Cayenne is vastly superior to a $36,000 VW Touareg, even if it is virtually the same car. We believe that $225 Pumas will make our feet feel better--and look cooler--than $20 no names. . . and believing it makes it true.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's better to have them released beforehand, so when people see the movie and get excited they can immediately find them on the shelves in stores, than risk a delay and them not getting into stores when demand is highest.\n\nBack when Star Wars (the original movie) came out in theatres, the toys weren't ready yet. For Christmas of that year parents could give their kids a card printed by Kenner that promised delivery of the action figures in February of the following year, IIRC.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "149920", "title": "Toy", "section": "Section::::Types.:Promotional merchandise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 233, "text": "Many successful films, television programs, books and sport teams have official merchandise, which often includes related toys. Some notable examples are \"Star Wars\" (a space fantasy franchise) and Arsenal, an English football club.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12431351", "title": "Educational toy", "section": "Section::::Marketing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 538, "text": "Toys are big business: the global toy market is estimated at over 80 billion US dollars annually. In 2013 the average household in the United Kingdom spent the equivalent of $438 US per child on toys, while US families spent $336 per child. In advertising, \"educational toys\" are sometimes differentiated from \"promotional\" toys, which are marketed primarily as part of a group of related products (e.g. American Girl dolls, Transformers, Steven Universe toys). It is also possible for these categories to overlap (e.g. Star Wars Legos).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "149920", "title": "Toy", "section": "Section::::Types.:Promotional merchandise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 801, "text": "Promotional toys can fall into any of the other toy categories; for example they can be dolls or action figures based on the characters of movies or professional athletes, or they can be balls, yo-yos, and lunch boxes with logos on them. Sometimes they are given away for free as a form of advertising. Model aircraft are often toys that are used by airlines to promote their brand, just as toy cars and trucks and model trains are used by trucking, railroad and other companies as well. Many food manufacturers run promotions where a toy is included with the main product as a prize. Toys are also used as premiums, where consumers redeem proofs of purchase from a product and pay shipping and handling fees to get the toy. Some people go to great lengths to collect these sorts of promotional toys.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60659", "title": "Collectable", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 396, "text": "Early versions of a product, manufactured in smaller quantities before its popularity as a collectable developed, sometimes command exorbitant premiums on the secondary market. Dolls and other toys made during an adult collector's childhood can command such premiums. Unless extremely rare or made as a one-of-a-kind, in a mature market, collectables rarely prove to be a spectacular investment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "649384", "title": "Fossil Group", "section": "Section::::Special products.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 309, "text": "In addition, the company produces collectibles, some of which are based on popular films or pop culture characters. Previous designs include: Superman; Batman; Wonder Woman; Elvis Presley; Pirates of the Caribbean; Flash; Green Lantern; Snoopy, Pokémon; Star Wars; Chronicles of Narnia; Cars; and The Matrix.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4907743", "title": "Deal toy", "section": "Section::::Materials.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 296, "text": "There are many ways to make deal toys, the most common material used is acrylic due to its versatility and price; however, crystal, resin, faux or real stone, wood, metal, and glass are used. Prices of these deal toys vary based on size, type of material(s) used and the amount of customization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28745707", "title": "List of films based on toys", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 944, "text": "Prior to 1977, toys were released together with films as merchandising tie-ins. Films that were suitably toyetic spawned numerous licensed properties, often marketed heavily to children. Beginning in the late 1970s, this approach was flipped as films began to appear that were based on popular toys. In 1977, \"\" debuted as the first theatrical motion picture in which a consumer toy was the star. During the 1980s, action figures got their own films, such as Masters of the Universe (\"The Secret of the Sword\") and Transformers (\"\"), as did dolls, such as Pound Puppies (\"Pound Puppies and the Legend of Big Paw\") and My Little Pony (\"\"). Also in the 1980s, the greeting card companies American Greetings and Hallmark Cards created popular characters that were made into toys, on which films were later based, such as The Care Bears (\"The Care Bears Movie\"), Rainbow Brite (\"Rainbow Brite and the Star Stealer\"), and Strawberry Shortcake (\"\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Punk in the Soviet Union](_URL_0_)\n\nedit: not in the 60's, but might be interesting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8544676", "title": "Counterculture of the 1960s", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 846, "text": "Several factors distinguished the counterculture of the 1960s from the anti-authoritarian movements of previous eras. The post-World War II \"baby boom\" generated an unprecedented number of potentially disaffected young people as prospective participants in a rethinking of the direction of the United States and other democratic societies. Post-war affluence allowed many of the counterculture generation to move beyond a focus on the provision of the material necessities of life that had preoccupied their Depression-era parents. The era was also notable in that a significant portion of the array of behaviors and \"causes\" within the larger movement were quickly assimilated within mainstream society, particularly in the US, even though counterculture participants numbered in the clear minority within their respective national populations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35543293", "title": "Rock music and the fall of communism", "section": "Section::::History and background.:1960s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 484, "text": "Hippie culture emerged in the late 60s and early 70s. Although very similar in terms of aesthetic to their western cousins, Soviet hippies were more passive. The Soviet hippie movement did not develop the same radical social and political sensibilities as did the New Left in the United States. Elsewhere in the eastern bloc, however, rockers and hippies were quite politically active and in the Prague Spring of 1968 numerous concerts were held in support of greater liberalization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "144633", "title": "Counterculture", "section": "Section::::History.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 499, "text": "In the United States, the counterculture of the 1960s became identified with the rejection of conventional social norms of the 1950s. Counterculture youth rejected the cultural standards of their parents, especially with respect to racial segregation and initial widespread support for the Vietnam War, and, less directly, the Cold War—with many young people fearing that America's nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union, coupled with its involvement in Vietnam, would lead to a nuclear holocaust.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2032683", "title": "Boys/Girls State", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 665, "text": "Documentation provided by various Boys State programs across the country refer to these as \"Young Pioneer Camps\" and alternately describe them as either fascist- or communist-inspired. Since the Young Pioneer Camps was the name of a youth program based in the Soviet Union that made inroads in the U.S. in the early 20th Century, it is likely that these left-wing movements are what Kennedy was responding to, and not the growth of the radical left. Kennedy felt that a counter movement must be started among the ranks of the nation's youth to stress the importance and value of a democratic form of government and maintain an effort to preserve and perpetuate it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35543293", "title": "Rock music and the fall of communism", "section": "Section::::History and background.:1950s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 552, "text": "The stilyagi, the first youth counterculture movement in the Soviet Union, emerged in the 1950s. The stilyagi, meaning stylish in Russian, listened to the music and copied the western fashion trends. Unlike later youth movements, the regime made no attempt to infiltrate and channel the movement toward their own ends, opting instead for public oppression. The stilyagi virtually disappeared by the early 1960s because many restrictions on the flow of information were relaxed, showing that the styles the stilyagi drew inspiration from were outdated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42478380", "title": "Cold War playground equipment", "section": "Section::::Eastern Bloc.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 269, "text": "Playgrounds in the Soviet Union were also designed to stimulate children's excitement about space, as this was an ideology supported across Communist states. Eastern Europe \"followed the Soviet playgrounds movement and was under the influence of the Cold War fashion.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8544676", "title": "Counterculture of the 1960s", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 793, "text": "The counterculture of the 1960s was an anti-establishment cultural phenomenon that developed throughout much of the Western world between the mid-1960s and the mid-1970s. The aggregate movement gained momentum as the Civil Rights Movement continued to grow, and, with the expansion of the US government's extensive military intervention in Vietnam, would later become revolutionary. As the 1960s progressed, widespread social tensions also developed concerning other issues, and tended to flow along generational lines regarding human sexuality, women's rights, traditional modes of authority, experimentation with psychoactive drugs, and differing interpretations of the American Dream. Many key movements related to these issues were born or advanced within the counterculture of the 1960s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Who said the 4th dimension was time?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well if you are considering the 4th dimension to be time then yes you are dead somewhere in the 4th dimension, unless you plan on living forever.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The way I like to think about all these dimensions, is that the one before it is a just a slice.\nSo like a point is just a slice of a line, a line is just a slice of a square and a square is just a slice of a cube. \nNow we're in the 4th dimension, meaning we can fully experience the first three, which we interpret as length, width, and height. We can only experience the fourth, time, as a straight line, continually moving. Now think back to the points, lines, squares, and cubes. If you drag a point, you get a line, if you drag a line, you get a square (Think painting with the edge/line of a paintbrush), if you drag a square, you get a cube.\n\nSo theoretically, next dimension experiences ALL of time at once (Kind of like how we experience all of the lines of a square at once to form a square), so yes, in the next dimension up, you are already dead, but also alive, all at the same time. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Fourth dimension isn't time, it's just another dimension like length, width, or height. Here's a good way of thinking about:\nA line is an infinite number of infinitely small points placed next to each other, a square is an infinite number of lines with an infinitely small width stacked on top of each other, a cube is an infinite number of squares with an infinitely small height stacked on top of each other, and a four dimensional cube (A [tesseract](_URL_0_)) is an infinite number of cubes placed together in a direction that we don't understand.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38917650", "title": "Fourth dimension in literature", "section": "Section::::Early influence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 254, "text": "In the \"Brothers Karamazov\", Dostoevsky's last work completed in 1880, the fourth dimension is used to signify that which is ungraspable to someone with earthly (or three-dimensional) concerns. In the book, Ivan Karamazov laments to his younger brother:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38917650", "title": "Fourth dimension in literature", "section": "Section::::Early influence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 378, "text": "In the first volume of \"In Search of Lost Time\" (or \"Remembrance of Things Past\") published in 1913, Marcel Proust envisioned the extra dimension as a temporal one. The narrator describes a church at Combray being \"..for me something entirely different from the rest of the town; an edifice occupying, so to speak, a four-dimensional space – the name of the fourth being time.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14466140", "title": "Shinji Takahashi (religious leader)", "section": "Section::::Principles that Takahashi preached.:Past life, present life, and afterlife.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 345, "text": "With the 3rd dimension as the origin, each dimension is referred to by name, such as the “astral world” of the fourth dimension and the “spiritual world” of the fifth dimension, but according to Takahashi, the numbers are merely appellations; in reality, these stages are considered as existing inexorably, confirmed when the third eye is open.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34411843", "title": "The Map of Time", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 415, "text": "3. The final section of the story focuses on HG Wells himself, as he tries to discern if the fourth dimension is actually something that can be broken through, or if it is just a storytelling mechanism in stories (like the ones he writes). He discovers the \"Map Of Time\" in a house in London (that is reputedly haunted), he discovers that time is not a plaything - and his actions could have serious repercussions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7190885", "title": "Four-dimensionalism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 421, "text": "In philosophy, four-dimensionalism (also known as the \"doctrine of temporal parts\") is an ontological position that an object's persistence through time is like its extension through space. Thus, an object that exists in time has temporal parts in the various subregions of the total region of time it occupies, just like an object that exists in a region of space has at least one part in every subregion of that space.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39647006", "title": "The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series, season 1)", "section": "Section::::Intro.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 377, "text": "\"There is a fifth dimension, beyond that which is known to man. It is a dimension as vast as space, and as timeless as infinity. It is the middle ground between light and shadow, between science and superstition, and it lies between the pit of man's fears and the summit of his knowledge. This is the dimension of imagination. It is an area which we call \"The Twilight Zone\".\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38917650", "title": "Fourth dimension in literature", "section": "Section::::Early influence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 391, "text": "\"Has it never glimmered upon your consciousness that nothing stood between men and a geometry of four dimensions - length, breadth, thickness, and \"duration\" - but the inertia of opinion? ..When we take up this new light of a fourth dimension and reexamine our physical science in its illumination.. ..we find ourselves no longer limited by hopeless restriction to a certain beat of time.\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you check our [FAQ](_URL_0_) we have a whole section dedicated to pre-Columbian contact that may answer your question.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Connections between what is now the American Southwest and Mesoamerican are so well established that it is almost inappropriate to think of them are entirely separate areas. These links were primarily trade based, not political or military, with products like [tropical birds/feathers](_URL_1_) and [cacao](_URL_4_), as well various other products like cotton, rubber, and copper goods flowing north from Mesoamerica in exchange for Southwestern goods, primarily turquoise (Phil Weigand's work is focused on this). There were cultural links as well, with Mesoamerican style ballcourts appearing in the Southwest and an endless discussion of whether symbolic elements of Southwest and Mesoamerican religions were borrowed, adopted, or simply convergent. McGuire's ([1980](_URL_3_)) paper is dated, but represents not only a seminal summation of the evidence for connections, but also a turning point in moving away from the older diffusionist idea that the complex societies in the Southwest were necessarily founded by long distance traders from Mesoamerica. \n\nThe Meso-SW connect, running up through West Mexico, reached its peak in the early (Mesoaemrican) Postclassic, about 900-1200 CE. This is pre-Aztec, after the decline of Teotihuacan and the Classic Maya, during the time when the Toltecs in Central Mexico and Chaco Canyon in the Southwest. There several sites in NW Mexico/SW US which flourished during this period as a result of this connect, such as Alta Vista and La Quemada. After this period, the Southwest and Mesoamerica see a [period of drought and aridity](_URL_0_) (ironically known better as the Medieval Warm Period) which would lead to a decline in these interstitial groups. This climatic change was also a factor in the dissolution of the dense, complex societies in the SW and would spur the migration of Nahua groups from the Chichimec region into the Basin of Mexico, where they would eventually found the Aztec state.\n\nOutside the Southwest, however, there is little indication of contact between Mesoamerica and other North American groups. Indeed, the only Mesoamerican linked artifact found outside the SW-Meso context is a [single obsidian scaper](_URL_2_). The inevitable question is \"why not more connection?\" but \"why\" is rarely a useful question in examining historical trends. One thing to take into account is the immense distances involved and the lack of pack animals. Direct trade between Tula and Cahokia, for instance, would *walking* from central Mexico to Missouri. Moreover, because humans can't graze like pack animals, it would have involved feeding all the porters carrying goods, which meant they would have had to carry supplies for themselves across long distances with uncertain resupply. Hassig in *Aztec Warfare* makes the case that these sort of logistic limitations were key in Mesoamerica being a hegemonic political system, rather than one that routinely exercised direct control. It's a useful concept to consider with regards to long distance trade as well. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "399215", "title": "Mesoamerican chronology", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Postclassic Period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 311, "text": "The Aztec Empire arose in the early 15th century and appeared to be on a path to asserting dominance over the Valley of Mexico region not seen since Teotihuacan. Spain was the first European power to contact Mesoamerica, however, and its conquistadores and a large number of native allies conquered the Aztecs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18524", "title": "Latin America", "section": "Section::::History.:European colonization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1211, "text": "With the arrival of the Europeans following Christopher Columbus' voyages, the indigenous elites, such as the Incas and Aztecs, lost power to the heavy European invasion. Hernándo Cortés seized the Aztec elite's power with the help of local groups who had favored the Aztec elite, and Francisco Pizarro eliminated the Incan rule in Western South America. The European powers of Spain and Portugal colonized the region, which along with the rest of the uncolonized world, was divided into areas of Spanish and Portuguese control by the line of demarcation in 1494, which gave Spain all areas to the west, and Portugal all areas to the east (the Portuguese lands in South America subsequently becoming Brazil). By the end of the sixteenth century Spain and Portugal had been joined by others, including France, in occupying large areas of North, Central and South America, ultimately extending from Alaska to the southern tips of the Patagonia. European culture, customs and government were introduced, with the Roman Catholic Church becoming the major economic and political power to overrule the traditional ways of the region, eventually becoming the only official religion of the Americas during this period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32759787", "title": "Exploration of the Pacific", "section": "Section::::European exploration.:Iberian pioneers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 676, "text": "From 1565 to 1815, a Spanish transpacific route known as the Manila galleons regularly crossed from Mexico to the Philippines and back. On the Asian side the Portuguese and later the Dutch built a regular trade from the East Indies to Japan. On the American side Spanish power stretched thousands of miles from Mexico to Chile. The vast central Pacific was visited only by the Manila galleons and an occasional explorer. The south Pacific was first crossed by Spanish expeditions in the 16th century who discovered many islands including Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands, and later the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13299", "title": "History of Spain", "section": "Section::::Early Modern Spain.:Spanish empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 346, "text": "In the 15th and 16th centuries, trade flourished across the Atlantic between Spain and the Americas and across the Pacific between East Asia and Mexico via the Philippines. Spanish Conquistadors, operating privately, deposed the Aztec, Inca and Maya governments with extensive help from local factions and took control of vast stretches of land.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7094718", "title": "Pochteca", "section": "Section::::Organization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 666, "text": "The volume of trade passing through the great \"tianquizco\" of \"Tlatelolco\" was unsurpassed in Mesoamerica. Some sources have estimated that up to 60,000 people daily passed through this market hub. The Spanish conquerors commented on the impressive nature of the local markets in the 15th century. The Mexica (Aztec) market of Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas and said to be superior to those in Europe. It served not merely to distribute goods but as the great clearing house of the Empire. Such was the organisation required to manage this massive entrepreneurial center that the Aztec state founded special institutions and officials to oversee it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63125", "title": "Veracruz", "section": "Section::::History.:Colonial period, 1519–1821.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 899, "text": "The Totonacs were some of the first people with whom the Spanish had contact on the American mainland. The very first contact was with Captain Juan de Grijalva on the coastline north of the present-day city of Veracruz. Still chafing under Aztec rule, Totonac ruler Tlacochcalcatl welcomed Hernán Cortés and promised 50,000 warriors to help defeat Tenochtitlan. The Spanish helped the Totonacs expel Aztec tribute collectors and to seize control of some Aztec outposts. The Spanish founded the port city of Veracruz on the coast, as the first municipality under the direct control of the king of Spain. Cortés then began his march inland to Tenochtitlan. During the Conquest, the rest of the Totonac peoples allied themselves with the Spanish, but the Huastecs, despite also being under Aztec rule, fought against them. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, Cortés sent a regiment to subdue the Huastecs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10158", "title": "Empire", "section": "Section::::History of imperialism.:Post-classical period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 283, "text": "In the pre-Columbian America, two Empires were prominent—the Azteca in Mesoamerica and Inca in Peru. Both existed for several generations before the arrival of the Europeans. Inca had gradually conquered the whole of the settled Andean world as far south as today Santiago in Chile.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\"Punk\" was used to mean listless or generally poor. So this could be taken to mean that he was going to a party that was bland and he wasn't having a good time. Would that make sense in the context? Context is everything. References to this use of the term in North American slang appears in the Oxford English Dictionary.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Punk as a word has been used some time before the explosion of punk rock in the ‘70s to refer to ruffians, street rats, or any sort of person that would be considered below you in some sense, usually lower class. Like in the famous Dirty Harry scene when he asks the \"punk\" how many shots he fired (this was in ‘71, the general accepted time that \"punk rock\" becomes used as a phrase for the scenes popping up in London and New York is about ‘76 or ‘77). That’s how the prostitution definition ties in, because of their association as a “lesser” class. Uses like this can be seen even further back than Dirty Harry. I don’t know when the first usage of it was, but it’s used in in Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure, Act V, Scene 1:\n\n > My lord, she may be a punk; for many of them are neither maid, widow, nor wife.\n\nSometimes it was used (mainly in prison) to refer to the subservient on in a gay relationship (think like the equivalent of a contemporary \"prison bitch\"). There's a quote of it in the Jazz musician Mezz Mezzrow's autobiography from 1946 about this:\n\n > \"The real trouble between the two gangs was caused by a fact that Big Six, a colored boy, had a white \"punk\". A punk, if you want it in plain English, is a boy with smooth skin who takes the place of a woman in a jailbird's love life. I'm not going to apologize for Big Six; I'm just saying that the Southern boys had their punks too, plenty of them, but they resented a Negro doing the same things they did with a white boy\". (p.15)\n\nThe first uses of “punk rock” started to come along in the late 60’s early 70’s to describe the harder more striped down garage rock sound of bands like ? and the Mysterians. One of the first uses is mentioned in the note for the compilation album [*Nuggets: Original Artyfacts from the First Psychedelic Era, 1965–1968*](_URL_0_). I’m looking at the booklet included in the ’98 box set reissue, and the producer Lenny Kaye is talking about how him and his associates came to name punk rock by taking this (as he says) “young energy” style of playing rock n’ roll and mixing it with these more “rebellious” lower class aesthetics. They later changed the name to garage rock and “in ’77 the Sex Pistols appropriated it”.\n\nIt seems like overtime punk grew from meaning prostitute and prison bitch, to become anybody who was just the lowest of the low, then later it came to have the connotations of underclass rebelliousness and juvenile delinquency associated with current punk subculture. Without any more context of your relative’s life and the party, it’s hard to tell what exactly he might have meant, I’d assume since he’s upper class he was saying that either the party was full of people that he saw as “punks” or, possibly, he could be saying that at the party he thought it was worthless, or in poor taste. Granted, if he was a stereotypical \"good Christian\" like you say, then his definition of what constitutes a low life and low life behavior might be more expansive than someone else.\n\nReally it's hard to tell for sure without more information.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "59402164", "title": "Punk (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Premise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 244, "text": "\"Punk\" explores \"the music, the fashion, the art and the DIY attitude of a subculture of self-described misfits and outcasts.\". Each episode focuses on an individual era of punk, beginning with protopunk in the 1960s up until the present day. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13710401", "title": "Punk rock subgenres", "section": "Section::::Art punk.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 335, "text": "Art punk or avant punk refers to punk rock and post-punk music of an experimental bent, or with connections to art school, the art world, or the avant-garde. Examples of Art punk artists include A Frames, Art Brut, the Blood Brothers, Glenn Branca, Chicks on Speed, Chimera, Country Teasers, Crass, Daughters, the Death Set, and Devo.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51848531", "title": "Punking", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 238, "text": "\"The Word Punk is an Insult in Urban Dictionary ( it means Fag ) and because All of Us that Started the Style of Dance Were Punks ! The Description when they saw us was ! Oh ! Their just Punks and they are Punking! So there you Have it.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23037", "title": "Punk rock", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 787, "text": "The term \"punk rock\" was first used by American rock critics in the early 1970s to describe 1960s garage bands and subsequent acts understood to be their stylistic inheritors. When the movement now bearing the name developed between 1974-1976, acts such as Television, Patti Smith, and the Ramones in New York City, the Sex Pistols, the Clash, and the Damned in London, and the Saints in Brisbane formed its vanguard. As 1977 approached, punk became a major cultural phenomenon in the UK. It spawned a punk subculture expressing youthful rebellion through distinctive styles of clothing and adornment (such as deliberately offensive T-shirts, leather jackets, studded or spiked bands and jewelry, safety pins, and bondage and S&M clothes) and a variety of anti-authoritarian ideologies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24589", "title": "Punk subculture", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 354, "text": "The punk subculture includes a diverse array of ideologies, fashion, and other forms of expression, visual art, dance, literature and film. It is largely characterised by anti-establishment views and the promotion of individual freedom, and is centred on a loud, aggressive genre of rock music called punk rock. Its adherents are referred to as \"punks\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3112966", "title": "Art punk", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 442, "text": "Art punk is a subset of punk in which artists go beyond the genre's rudimentary garage rock and are considered more sophisticated than their peers. These groups generated punk's aesthetic of being simple, offensive, and free-spirited, in contrast to the angry, working-class audience generated by pub rock. In the late 1970s, the term was used as a pejorative for punk bands who were out of step with the genre's ideologies (i.e. post-punk).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4210216", "title": "Human Punk", "section": "Section::::Cultural impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 533, "text": "\"Human Punk\" covers many aspects of the punk scene, from the original music and bands to its DIY ethos. It is also a novel that charts some major shifts in British society, from the failing Labour government of 1977 to Thatcherism in the 1980s (when Joe almost literally “gets on his bike”), and later the New Labour of Tony Blair and a Cool Britannia that means little to those portrayed in the book. \"Human Punk\" reflects a version of punk that is anti-fashion, its roots to be found in the broader culture of the main characters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Not a doctor. Do know several though that work ER. Since \"butt-chugging\" of alcohol is a thing I would be more concerned about the alcohol getting in there. Or just burning like hell on your bits. But if it did make it in, the effect is much stronger than if you drink it, which is why these idiots end up in the ER. \n\n\nI get what you're after though- is absorbing it thru the skin going to impact you. I don't see how it could make it to the bloodstream, which is where it would need to go. But again, not a doctor. I do agree with others in here though that the fumes would most likely get to you regardless as they would be replacing the oxygen you're breathing. I believe that was actually a brief thing- oxygen bar-type with alcohol instead, but I'm fuzzy on whether that was just a rumor. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Im taking anatomy as a premed and i learned about this 2 weeks ago: \nAs someone mentioned earlier, the only way to get drunk this way is if the alcohol enters your butthole. This is because your rectum (butthole) is technically a continuation of your large intestine, which is the one responsible for absorbing water and other chemicals like alcohol. If the alcohol goes into your anus, then it will go into your large intestine without first passing your stomach, small intestine, etc. Which in turn makes you more drunk, but this is dangerous, dont try it!!\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hansen CS, Færch LH, Kristensen PL. Testing the validity of the Danish urban myth that alcohol can be absorbed through feet: open labelled self experimental study. BMJ. \n > Conclusion \nOur results suggest that feet are impenetrable to the alcohol component of vodka. We therefore conclude that the Danish urban myth of being able to get drunk by submerging feet in alcoholic beverages is just that; a myth. The implications of the study are many though. \n \nFrom this experiment, it would seem that we can't get drunk through our skin.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12274183", "title": "Hangover", "section": "Section::::Management.:Unsupported remedies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 206, "text": "BULLET::::- Sauna or steam-bath: Medical opinion holds this may be dangerous, as the combination of alcohol and hyperthermia increases the likelihood of dangerous cardiac arrhythmia}abnormal heart rhythms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8277795", "title": "St James Power Station", "section": "Section::::Entertainment hub.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 394, "text": "Unfortunately, there are the quite a number of cases of unruly drunk patrons who vomit or urinate on the premises, making a public nuisance of themselves, as well as ere cases of serious bar-fights and ugly brawls and damage when Molotov Cocktails (fiery-lit beer bottles filled with petrol or flammable liquid) were thrown in a fight in September 2016 and serious cases of bar brawls in 2012.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60915032", "title": "Francis Edward Goldsmith", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 513, "text": "BULLET::::- To alleviate a shortage of drinking water, a well was dug, but the water had a greenish tinge and smelled of hydrogen sulphide, and after several cases of stomach pain Goldsmith pronounced it unsafe to drink, contradicting Finniss's stated opinion. Finniss had for himself several tanks of rainwater, collected from the roof of his residence. Surveyor George Warland, one of those affected by the well water, was caught helping himself to the rainwater and upbraided within hearing of other officers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40345875", "title": "Alcohol and Native Americans", "section": "Section::::Native American temperance activists.:Samson Occom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 533, "text": "When we are intoxicated with strong drink we drown our rational powers, by which we are distinguished from the brutal creation--we unman ourselves, and bring ourselves not only level with the beasts of the field, but seven degrees beneath them...How many [drunkards] have been drowned in our rivers, and how many frozen to death in the winter season! And now let me exhort you all to break off from your drunkenness...Take warning by this doleful sight before us, and by all the dreadful judgments that have befallen poor drunkards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8011", "title": "Alcohol intoxication", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 522, "text": "Alcohol intoxication, also known as drunkenness or alcohol poisoning, is the negative behavior and physical effects due to the recent drinking of ethanol (alcohol). Symptoms at lower doses may include mild sedation and poor coordination. At higher doses, there may be slurred speech, trouble walking, and vomiting. Extreme doses may result in a decreased effort to breathe (respiratory depression), coma, or death. Complications may include seizures, aspiration pneumonia, injuries including suicide, and low blood sugar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8727264", "title": "Sir John Lowther, 2nd Baronet, of Whitehaven", "section": "Section::::Family.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 460, "text": "His elder son, Christopher, had a drink problem, and – when drunk – other problems: \"when sober he is sometimes passable enough, but not without discovering by fits notions very extravagant. When drunk no man in Bedlam more wild or more dangerous. The reflections he pretends to make afterwards, but if either dice or strong drink come in his way, he never yet resisted the temptation.\" complained Lowther, who disinherited him with an allowance of £2 a week.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3829190", "title": "Hand sanitizer", "section": "Section::::Safety.:Ingestion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 204, "text": "There have been reported incidents of people drinking the gel in prisons and hospitals, where alcohol consumption is not allowed, to become intoxicated leading to its withdrawal from some establishments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Almost anyone can enlist, and it's basically the entry level to the military. Officers are required to have at least a bachelors degree, and are placed into leadership positions. The [rank](_URL_0_) system is completely different, and they are also sent to different boot camps to be trained in their respective positions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Commissioned Officers(2nd LT on up to General) are given a commission by their nation's head of state. The President of the US commissions officers. In the past Kings would commission their army's officers.\n\nThere are a few ways to become an officer in the US Army.\n\n1. Graduate from West Point. Graduates are automatically commissioned as 2nd LT.\n\n2. Attend a ROTC program while enrolled at a university and graduate.\n\n3. Earn a Bachelor's Degree, apply and be accepted to Officer's Candidacy School, and graduate from that.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1459854", "title": "Officer candidate", "section": "Section::::United States.:Officer candidate.:U.S. Army.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 1030, "text": "With regard to rank, a U.S. Army officer candidate exists in a gray area. AR 600-20, Army Command Policy, places their rank as outranking all enlisted members of the service and rank directly below all officers. They are not yet officers. They are enlisted soldiers who lose all rank status when reporting to the course. Regardless of pay grade, traditionally, but technically incorrect, candidates are outranked by any course cadre or permanent party enlisted soldiers they may encounter. Although their status does not correspond to a position of authority within the standard U.S. Army ranks, candidates serve in leadership training roles at the platoon or company level. They are addressed as \"candidate\" by the OCS cadre. During the first few weeks of indoctrination, candidates are treated much the same as a new recruit. In the final weeks of training, OCS platoons may achieve \"senior\" status and senior officer candidates may be addressed as \"Sir\" or \"Ma'am\" by more junior candidates, but never by other enlisted ranks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "938728", "title": "Military service", "section": "Section::::Countries with mandatory military service.:Thailand.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 320, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 320, "end_character": 658, "text": "Military service selection is done at a designated date and time at a local school or assembly hall. Each selection station has a quota for recruitment. The process begins with a call for volunteers. Those who volunteer will have the option to choose the branch of service and their date of induction. If the number of volunteers is fewer than the quota for the selection station, the remaining men will be asked to draw a card from an opaque box. The box contains red cards and black cards. Drawing a black card results in exemption from military service. Drawing a red card results in conscription in the branch of service and induction date on the card. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1353018", "title": "Enlisted rank", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 810, "text": "An enlisted rank (also known as an enlisted grade or enlisted rate) is, in some armed services, any rank below that of a commissioned officer. The term can be inclusive of non-commissioned officers or warrant officers, except in United States military usage where warrant officers/chief warrant officers are a separate officer category ranking above enlisted grades and below commissioned officer grades. In most cases, enlisted service personnel perform jobs specific to their own occupational specialty, as opposed to the more generalized command responsibilities of commissioned officers. The term \"enlistment\" refers solely to a military commitment (whether officer or enlisted) whereas the terms \"taken of strength\" and \"struck off strength\" refer to a servicemember being carried on a given unit's roll.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23420210", "title": "Structure of the United States Army", "section": "Section::::Branches and functional areas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 136, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 136, "end_character": 964, "text": "Basic branches - contain groupings of military occupational specialties (MOS) in various functional categories, groups, and areas of the army in which officers are commissioned or appointed (in the case of warrant officers) and indicate an officer's broad specialty area. (For example, Infantry, Signal Corps, and Adjutant General's Corps.) Generally, officers are assigned to sequential positions of increasing responsibility and authority within one of the three functional categories of the army branches (Maneuver, Fires and Effects; Operations Support; Force Sustainment) to develop their leadership and managerial skills to prepare them for higher levels of command. The branches themselves are administrative vice operational command structures that are primarily involved with training, doctrine, and manpower concerns. Each branch has a Branch Chief who is the Head of the Branch and usually serves as the respective branch school commandant or director.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23420210", "title": "Structure of the United States Army", "section": "Section::::Branches and functional areas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 137, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 137, "end_character": 1259, "text": "Special branches - contain those groupings of military occupational specialties (MOS) of the army in which officers are commissioned or appointed after completing advanced training and education and/or receiving professional certification in one of the classic professions (i.e., theology, law, or medicine), or other associated health care areas (e.g., dentistry, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, registered nurse, physician's assistant). Officers of most special branches are restricted to command of units and activities of their respective department/branch only, regardless of rank or seniority. This means, for example, that Army Medical Department (AMEDD) branch officers may only command AMEDD units and activities. Likewise, Chaplains are essentially \"officers without command\" and are ineligible to command operational units and activities. They do, however, supervise junior ranking chaplains and enlisted chaplain's assistants. As an exception to this general rule, JAG Corps officers are eligible to command and may be assigned (with permission from the Judge Advocate General) to non-legal command positions, although ordinarily, like other Special branch officers, a JAG officer will only lead JAG Corps units and activities during their career.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32212", "title": "United States Armed Forces", "section": "Section::::Personnel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 796, "text": "As in most militaries, members of the U.S. Armed Forces hold a rank, either that of officer, warrant officer or enlisted, to determine seniority and eligibility for promotion. Those who have served are known as veterans. Rank names may be different between services, but they are matched to each other by their corresponding paygrade. Officers who hold the same rank or paygrade are distinguished by their date of rank to determine seniority, while officers who serve in certain positions of office of importance set by law, outrank all other officers in active duty of the same rank and paygrade, regardless of their date of rank. In 2012, it was reported that only one in four persons in the United States of the proper age meet the moral, academic and physical standards for military service.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32087", "title": "United States Army", "section": "Section::::Organization.:Army components.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 697, "text": "The U.S. Army is also divided into several branches and functional areas. Branches include officers, warrant officers, and enlisted Soldiers while functional areas consist of officers who are reclassified from their former branch into a functional area. However, officers continue to wear the branch insignia of their former branch in most cases, as functional areas do not generally have discrete insignia. Some branches, such as Special Forces, operate similarly to functional areas in that individuals may not join their ranks until having served in another Army branch. Careers in the Army can extend into cross-functional areas for officer, warrant officer, enlisted, and civilian personnel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Going to the next page asks reddit to give you the 25 links following the link that's at the bottom of your current page. But the rankings of links are constantly changing - if that link has moved up the reddit rankings since you loaded your old page, it can jump over links you've already seen, and you'll get them again.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1851223", "title": "HITS algorithm", "section": "Section::::History.:On the Web.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 430, "text": "This phenomenon also occurs in the Internet. Counting the number of links to a page can give us a general estimate of its prominence on the Web, but a page with very few incoming links may also be prominent, if two of these links come from the home pages of sites like Yahoo!, Google, or MSN. Because these sites are of very high importance but are also search engines, a page can be ranked much higher than its actual relevance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "665789", "title": "Web traffic", "section": "Section::::Control.:Increasing traffic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 408, "text": "If a web page is not listed in the first pages of any search, the odds of someone finding it diminishes greatly (especially if there is other competition on the first page). Very few people go past the first page, and the percentage that go to subsequent pages is substantially lower. Consequently, getting proper placement on search engines, a practice known as SEO, is as important as the website itself..\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "187946", "title": "Search engine optimization", "section": "Section::::Methods.:Increasing prominence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 206, "text": "A variety of methods can increase the prominence of a webpage within the search results. Cross linking between pages of the same website to provide more links to important pages may improve its visibility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1566407", "title": "News server operation", "section": "Section::::Articles and posts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 574, "text": "End users often use the term \"posting\" to refer to a single message or file posted to Usenet. For articles containing plain text, this is synonymous with an article. For binary content such as pictures and files, it is often necessary to split the content among multiple articles. Typically through the use of numbered Subject: headers, the multiple-article postings are automatically reassembled into a single unit by the newsreader. Most servers do not distinguish between single and multiple-part postings, dealing only at the level of the individual component articles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2396210", "title": "The Corey and Jay Show", "section": "Section::::Features of the show.:Current segments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 281, "text": "BULLET::::- Missing Links - The show's website features a list of links to odd and/or humorous websites. Many links are submitted by listeners, while others are found by the hosts. Before Head Up Your Ass Headlines begins, new additions to the Missing Links section are announced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1457423", "title": "Shane Cooper (artist)", "section": "Section::::Early internet art.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 548, "text": "\"Caption\" (1998) is a black web page showing only an image and a string of text. Usually, the pair appears to have a meaning of some sort, making it seem like the text was written specifically to go with the image. However, the image and text are chosen completely at random. (This can be verified by simply reloading the page until the same image appears twice, in which case it will most likely be matched with a different text string.) The project serves to illustrate how the human mind will find a link between any two randomly matched items.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "580494", "title": "Backlink", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 723, "text": "A backlink is a reference comparable to a citation. The quantity, quality, and relevance of backlinks for a web page are among the factors that search engines like Google evaluate in order to estimate how important the page is. PageRank calculates the score for each web page based on how all the web pages are connected among themselves, and is one of the variables that Google Search uses to determine how high a web page should go in search results. This weighting of backlinks is analogous to citation analysis of books, scholarly papers, and academic journals. A Topical PageRank has been researched and implemented as well, which gives more weight to backlinks coming from the page of a same topic as a target page. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Spider webs are not completely sticky.\n\nSome of the \"silk\" (sorry, don't know the name in English), is sticky, but spider can produce some that are not.\n\nSo, when a bug come in contact with the web, it get glued on it, but the spider, who know where it put the sticky or non sticky silk, can move around and stay on the non sticky part", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They have small hair follicles on their feet that allow them to move freely on their own web without getting caught.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "346104", "title": "Parasteatoda tepidariorum", "section": "Section::::Behavior.:Interaction with humans and predators.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 585, "text": "As these spiders live in constant proximity to humans, they are not usually aggressive and will even let a human hand approach their web. Like any other spider, however, they are afraid of bigger foes, and, in most cases, will retreat behind an obstacle (such as a dried leaf or prey remains) upon perceiving more than usual disturbance to their web. Further disturbance may lead to the spider dropping down on a thread, then running away from the web. If the distance is not considerable, it will usually return to its web within a couple of days. Otherwise, it will start a new one.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4189933", "title": "Spider taxonomy", "section": "Section::::Suborder Opisthothelae.:Infraorder Araneomorphae.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 483, "text": "These spiders are frequently seen in cellars. When light contact disturbs their web their characteristic response is to set the entire web moving the way a person would jump up and down on a trampoline. It is unclear why they cause their webs to vibrate in this way; moving their webs back and forward may increase the possibility that insects flying close by may be ensnared, or the rapid gyrations caused by the spider in its web may make the spider harder to target by predators.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31334166", "title": "Mimetus", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 471, "text": "Spiders in this genus are specialised spider killers. They spin no web but are slow moving, stalking or ambushing their prey. They sometimes invade the web of their potential victim, vibrating the silk to mislead the owner. An individual will attack a potential victim by biting one of its legs and injecting toxins. It then retreats and the prey spider quickly becomes paralysed. The attacker then advances and starts to feed, sucking out the body fluids of its victim.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2149006", "title": "Giant house spider", "section": "Section::::Biology and behavior.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 502, "text": "The webs built by the giant house spider are flat and messy with a funnel at one end. They do not contain sticky threads. The spider lurks in the funnel until a small invertebrate happens to get trapped in the web, at which point the spider runs out and attacks it. They usually build their webs in corners (on both the floor and ceiling), between boxes in basements, behind cupboards, in attics, or any other area that is rarely disturbed by large animals or humans. Often found near window openings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4918889", "title": "Steatoda grossa", "section": "Section::::Habitat and range.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 700, "text": "As is common with other members of the family Theridiidae, \"S. grossa\" constructs a cobweb, i.e. an irregular tangle of sticky silken fibers. As with other web weavers, these spiders have very poor eyesight and depend mostly on vibrations reaching them through their webs to orient themselves to prey or warn them of larger animals that could pose a danger. They are not aggressive, and most injuries to humans are due to defensive bites delivered when a spider gets unintentionally squeezed or pinched. It is possible that some bites may result when a spider mistakes a finger thrust into its web for its normal prey, but ordinarily intrusion by any large creature will cause these spiders to flee.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2885829", "title": "Nephila inaurata", "section": "Section::::Habits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 341, "text": "Like other spiders in the subfamily Nephilinae it can weave webs so strong that sometimes even birds and bats get caught. Its webs can be found in damp places such as large trees and unpolluted areas to which no cars have access; normally several are strung together to form enormous \"homes\" so as to cover as much surface area as possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31721009", "title": "Cyrtophora exanthematica", "section": "Section::::Ecology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 1070, "text": "Because of the relatively large size of web, they are often infested with kleptoparasitic split-faced silver spiders (\"Argyrodes fissifrons\"). While able to build webs of their own, dewdrop spiders (genus \"Argyrodes\") prefer to live and even reproduce in the webs of other spiders, stealing prey in the process. They can be permanently associated with one web or move around between several other tent webs in the immediate vicinity. The size of the web is directly proportional to the number of \"A. fissifrons\" inhabiting them. The relationships can sometimes be commensal or even mutual, as \"A. fissifrons\" eat prey entangled in the webs that are too small for the larger double-tailed tent spiders. However, they often help themselves to food stores or even food in the process of being consumed by the hosts as well. Larger individuals are more audacious, but they usually stay on the tangle webs and out of the way of their hosts. Double-tailed tent spiders seem to tolerate their presence though they sometimes have to shove them away when they catch larger prey.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A manifold is Ricci-flat if the Ricci curvature tensor is zero. This roughly means that small cubes whose edges are geodesics have the same volume as cubes in the corresponding Euclidean space of the same dimension. But the geodesic cube itself may be twisted or curled into a different shape. (Think of distorting a spherical ball into an ellipsoid of the same volume.)\n\nIn general relativity, a Ricci-flat spacetime is one which is a vacuum solution to the Einstein field equations. That is, there are no matter fields: no baryonic matter, no radiation, no energy or any kind. All of the spacetime curvature is caused by gravitational energy.\n\nAll of the classical black hole solutions that get talked about most often (Schwarzschild, Kerr, Nordstrom, etc.) are all vacuum solutions, and thus represent Ricci-flat spacetimes. Minkowski space of special relativity is also Ricci-flat. The FLRW metric, which models our expanding universe, is *not* Ricci-flat.\n\nThere are some interesting mathematical questions about Ricci-flat manifolds. For instance, if a (Lorentzian) manifold is Ricci-flat and geodesically complete (i.e., singularity-free), is the manifold flat? The answer turns out to be \"no\", and one such family of spacetimes is the pp-wave spacetimes, which model a universe with massless plane wave radiation only.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "644797", "title": "Ricci-flat manifold", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 205, "text": "In mathematics, Ricci-flat manifolds are Riemannian manifolds whose Ricci curvature vanishes. Ricci-flat manifolds are special cases of Einstein manifolds, where the cosmological constant need not vanish.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12372650", "title": "Sonnet 87", "section": "Section::::Couplet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 502, "text": "Richard Strier additionally notes the complexity of the word \"flatter\" not only within Sonnet 87 but within other Shakespeare sonnets as well. While the word has been used \"in contexts of purely negative self-deception\" as well as \"in the context of providing genuine beauty,\" it is utilized within this poem as an \"evocation of joy that is brief and delusive, but potent while it lasts\". The phrase \"as a dream doth flatter\" correlates strongly with the Petrarchan view that earthly joys are briefly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22577479", "title": "Flatness (mathematics)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 201, "text": "Flatness in homological algebra and algebraic geometry means, of an object formula_1 in an abelian category, that formula_2 is an exact functor. See flat module or, for more generality, flat morphism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39592780", "title": "Flatline (Mutya Keisha Siobhan song)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 491, "text": "\"Flatline\" is a song by English girl group Mutya Keisha Siobhan, which consists of the original line-up of the group Sugababes. Written by the trio alongside British artist Dev Hynes, who also produced it, it was released via digital retailers on 6 September 2013 by Polydor Records, who signed the band in 2012. It is a synth-pop song in which the drums and the male backing vocals get gradually stronger until a climactic part. Lyrically, it addresses the deterioration of a relationship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11240", "title": "Flatulence", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 669, "text": "Flatulence is defined in the medical literature as \"flatus expelled through the anus\" or the \"quality or state of being flatulent\", which is defined in turn as \"marked by or affected with gases generated in the intestine or stomach; likely to cause digestive flatulence\". The root of these words is from the Latin \"flatus\" – \"a blowing, a breaking wind\". Flatus is also the medical word for gas generated in the stomach or bowels. Despite these standard definitions, a proportion of intestinal gas may be swallowed environmental air, and hence flatus is not totally generated in the stomach or bowels. The scientific study of this area of medicine is termed flatology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "139950", "title": "Flat (music)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 354, "text": "In intonation, flat can also mean \"slightly lower in pitch\" (by some unspecified amount). If two simultaneous notes are slightly out-of-tune, the lower-pitched one (assuming the higher one is properly pitched) is \"flat\" with respect to the other. Furthermore, the verb \"flatten\" means to lower the pitch of a note, typically by a small musical interval.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12756616", "title": "Flat manifold", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 261, "text": "In mathematics, a Riemannian manifold is said to be flat if its curvature is everywhere zero. Intuitively, a flat manifold is one that \"locally looks like\" Euclidean space in terms of distances and angles, e.g. the interior angles of a triangle add up to 180°.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Three-dimensional integrated circuit](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The smallest size possible was thought to be 1 micrometer not so long ago, so any predictions on when the transistor gate length will definitely be too small is a bit early in my opinion. \nArchitectures using silicon and conventional field effect transistors, in theory, can go down to 3nm gate length, 10 times smaller than current technology. At that point, molecular electronics (single molecule channel) could be the stopping point.\nBut, for sure, it will be first easier to go up (stack layers) instead of reducing dimensions to the extreme, so I think in the next years 3D stacked IC will be the next step", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Researchers are also exploring alternative materials to the silicon currently in use for CMOS circuits, such as [graphene](_URL_0_), which could allow faster computing speeds for a given gate dimension.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not really answering the question but possibly of interest:\n\nIntegrated circuits used to be made to last about 100 years. These days this is actually no longer possible. Some may say it's because our culture has adapted to throwing things away and it's not necessary to have the same level of quality as we used to, but actually it's because the tracks that electrons are flowing along inside these integrated circuits are being worn out. They are experiencing \"mechanical\" faults.\n\nAlso not answering the question, but still perhaps interesting:\n\nThe reason that there will be a limit with integrated circuits is that once the tracks become small enough, it's no longer possible to guarantee that the electrons will actually stay inside the tracks.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's a bit of a problem in your phrasing. An Integrated Circuit is just a circuit without discrete components. For example, a microprocessor, or a DAC on an 8pin DIP, or something along those lines. \n\nAn example of a regular circuit is anything from your wall outlet to mains, a PCB with components on it, etc.\n\nThe point being, the materials used in ICs are not relevant; the thing following ICs is... more ICs. Just using smaller form factors, different materials, etc.\n\nOne example is with memristor technology. We think that a single memristor can be used to replace a whole bunch of transistors, such that the size of the circuit can be reduced.\n\nThere are also efforts in making ICs three-dimensional; the problem with this is energy dissipation. But the point is, there are a number of technologies on the way, and none of them are going to change the definition of \"Integrated Circuit\"\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1819403", "title": "65-nanometer process", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 516, "text": "IEDM papers from Intel in 2002, 2004, and 2005 illustrate the industry trend that the transistor sizes can no longer scale along with the rest of the feature dimensions (gate width only changed from 220 nm to 210 nm going from 90 nm to 65 nm technologies). However, the interconnects (metal and poly pitch) continue to shrink, thus reducing chip area and chip cost, as well as shortening the distance between transistors, leading to higher-performance devices of greater complexity when compared with earlier nodes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15150", "title": "Integrated circuit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 619, "text": "Integrated circuits were made practical by technological advancements in MOS (metal-oxide-silicon) semiconductor device fabrication. Since their origins in the 1960s, the size, speed, and capacity of chips have progressed enormously, driven by technical advances that fit more and more MOS transistors on chips of the same size – a modern chip may have many billions of MOS transistors in an area the size of a human fingernail. These advances, roughly following Moore's law, make computer chips of today possess millions of times the capacity and thousands of times the speed of the computer chips of the early 1970s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19377", "title": "Microelectronics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 429, "text": "As techniques have improved, the scale of microelectronic components has continued to decrease. At smaller scales, the relative impact of intrinsic circuit properties such as interconnections may become more significant. These are called parasitic effects, and the goal of the microelectronics design engineer is to find ways to compensate for or to minimize these effects, while delivering smaller, faster, and cheaper devices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3723923", "title": "Active networking", "section": "Section::::Nanoscale active networks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 249, "text": "As the limit in reduction of transistor size is reached with current technology, active networking concepts are being explored as a more efficient means accomplishing computation and communication. More on this can be found in nanoscale networking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19553", "title": "Microprocessor", "section": "Section::::Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 424, "text": "The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of transistors that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can dissipate. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29352763", "title": "Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor", "section": "Section::::Introduction and background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 927, "text": "According to Moore's law, the dimensions of individual devices in an integrated circuit have been decreased by a factor of approximately two every two years. This scaling down of devices has been the driving force in technological advances since the late 20th century. However, as noted by ITRS 2009 edition, further scaling down has faced serious limits related to fabrication technology and device performances as the critical dimension shrunk down to sub-22 nm range. The limits involve electron tunneling through short channels and thin insulator films, the associated leakage currents, passive power dissipation, short channel effects, and variations in device structure and doping. These limits can be overcome to some extent and facilitate further scaling down of device dimensions by modifying the channel material in the traditional bulk MOSFET structure with a single carbon nanotube or an array of carbon nanotubes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40345", "title": "MOSFET", "section": "Section::::Scaling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 131, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 131, "end_character": 393, "text": "Producing MOSFETs with channel lengths much smaller than a micrometre is a challenge, and the difficulties of semiconductor device fabrication are always a limiting factor in advancing integrated circuit technology. Though processes such as ALD have improved fabrication for small components, the small size of the MOSFET (less than a few tens of nanometers) has created operational problems:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Some did. The most prominent one in the north was probably Edward Winslow who was one of the political leaders a Plymouth. He was eventually recalled for diplomatic service by the new king. He died on a voyage to the West Indies.\n\nHere's the wiki for some more info.\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, there were several failed colonization attempts, for example the [Scottish colony in Panama](_URL_0_) in the 1690's. The 300 survivors returned to Europe after only two years. From what I understand, a huge amount of money had been invested in the endeavor, and its failure was an economic and political disaster as well as a national tragedy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Early-ish is pretty vague but in the early 19th century as many as one out of three returned to Europe. The Irish were something of an exception averaging only 1/12 returning to Ireland due to unusual circumstances.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the seventeenth century it was pretty common for people to settle in the New World for a few years to fish, trap, or log before returning to Europe. Merchants in particular would often only stay in the New World long enough to set up agents or to collect enough goods to fuel their European operations. Newfoundland in particular was notable for a largely temporary and transient population during the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century as workers, merchants, and planters would often return to Europe after a few seasons. \n\nIt may be unfair to call these people settlers since many of them never set out with the intention of permanently staying in the New World. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It was not unusual for Irish emigrants to go to the US and return home.\n\nIn the 19th century my great gr-gr-grandfather did it. \n\nIt was not unusual for transient workers and there is a book The Hard Road to Klondike by Michael McGowan describing just that. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Quite a few Puritans from the Massachusetts Bay Colony returned to England after their side won the English Civil War.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27905225", "title": "Miami-Dade County, Florida", "section": "Section::::History.:European explorers and settlers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 677, "text": "The first permanent European settlers arrived in the early 19th century. People came from the Bahamas to South Florida and the Keys to hunt for treasure from the ships that ran aground on the treacherous Great Florida Reef. Some accepted Spanish land offers along the Miami River. At about the same time, the Seminole Indians arrived, along with a group of runaway slaves. The area was affected by the Second Seminole War, during which Major William S. Harney led several raids against the Indians. Most non-Indian residents were soldiers stationed at Fort Dallas. It was the most devastating Indian war in American history, causing almost a total loss of population in Miami.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "91674", "title": "Williamson County, Tennessee", "section": "Section::::History.:Pre-Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 439, "text": "European-American settlers arrived in the area by 1798, after the Revolutionary War. Fur traders had preceded them. Scots traders had intermarried with Native American women and had families with them. Both sides thought these relationships could benefit them. Most of the settlers were migrants from Virginia and North Carolina, part of a western movement after the American Revolutionary War. Others came after a generation in Kentucky.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1847199", "title": "Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 366, "text": "Europeans started arriving, among them French, British and American fur traders. Some European colonists stayed and began to compete with the Mille Lacs Band for resources and to encroach on their land. Such settlers continued to violate the treaties and agreements which the Mille Lacs Band made with the United States and British representatives over the decades.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15497847", "title": "European emigration", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 274, "text": "From 1815 to 1932, 60 million people left Europe (with many returning home), primarily to \"areas of European settlement\" in the Americas (especially to the United States, Canada, Brazil, the Southern Cone such as Argentina, and Uruguay), Australia, New Zealand and Siberia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "126824", "title": "Porter, New York", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 217, "text": "Permanent European-American settlement did not take place until after the American Revolution, about 1801, after most of the Iroquois had been forced to cede their lands to New York and had emigrated to Upper Canada.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1080344", "title": "History of the Southern United States", "section": "Section::::European colonization.:Spanish exploration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 829, "text": "Among the first European settlements in North America were Spanish settlements in what would later become the state of Florida; the earliest was Tristán de Luna y Arellano's failed colony in what is now Pensacola in 1559. More successful was Pedro Menéndez de Avilés's St. Augustine, founded in 1565; St. Augustine remains the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the continental United States. Spain also colonized parts of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Spain issued land grants in the South from Kentucky to Florida and into the southwestern areas of what is now the United States. There was also a Spanish colony location near King Powhatan's ruling town in the Chesapeake Bay area of what is now Virginia and Maryland. It preceded Jamestown, the English colony, by as much as one hundred years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7299", "title": "Colonialism", "section": "Section::::History.:European empires in the 20th century.:Numbers of European settlers in the colonies (1500–1914).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 358, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 358, "end_character": 1007, "text": "By 1914, Europeans had migrated to the colonies in the millions. Some intended to remain in the colonies as temporary settlers, mainly as military personnel or on business. Others went to the colonies as immigrants. British people were by far the most numerous population to migrate to the colonies: 2.5 million settled in Canada; 1.5 million in Australia; 750,000 in New Zealand; 450,000 in the Union of South Africa; and 200,000 in India. French citizens also migrated in large numbers, mainly to the colonies in the north African Maghreb region: 1.3 million settled in Algeria; 200,000 in Morocco; 100,000 in Tunisia; while only 20,000 migrated to French Indochina. Dutch and German colonies saw relatively scarce European migration, since Dutch and German colonial expansion focused on commercial goals rather than settlement. Portugal sent 150,000 settlers to Angola, 80,000 to Mozambique, and 20,000 to Goa. During the Spanish Empire, approximately 550,000 Spanish settlers migrated to Latin America.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Granite has a very high thermal mass. This means that it takes a lot of heat to change its temperature - much more than a laminate counter top.\n\nSo, you put some cold food on the granite. The heat transfers from the granite to the food, but since it has so much thermal capacity, its temperature does not decrease as quickly as laminate (its heat capacity is not used up as quickly). And since the rate of heat transfer is greater when the temperature difference is greater, his means that the transfer rate remains higher. The laminate, on the other hand, also loses heat to the food, but since it's capacity is much lower, its temperature drops faster, the heat transfer rate goes down more quickly, and as a result, it takes longer to transfer the heat to the food.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31610434", "title": "Granular ice", "section": "Section::::Usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 369, "text": "Due to its properties of rapid cooling/melting, the small size of granular ice is used widely by the process industries, particularly food manufacture for cooling products made in mixers or bowl choppers such as dough or sausage meat, here it is mostly known as \"fine ice\" or \"micro ice\". It is also used in laboratories where it is often referred to as \"crushed ice\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "339605", "title": "Frozen food", "section": "Section::::Quality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 670, "text": "The speed of the freezing has a direct impact on the size and the number of ice crystals formed within a food product's cells and extracellular space. Slow freezing leads to fewer but larger ice crystals while fast freezing leads to smaller but more numerous ice crystals. Large ice crystals can puncture the walls of the cells of the food product which will cause a degradation of the texture of the product as well as the loss of its natural juices during thawing. That is why there will be a qualitative difference observed between food products frozen by ventilated mechanical freezing, non-ventilated mechanical freezing or cryogenic freezing with liquid nitrogen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1227097", "title": "Clarence Birdseye", "section": "Section::::Early life and education.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 474, "text": "Conventional freezing methods of the time were commonly done at higher temperatures, thus the freezing occurred much more slowly, giving ice crystals more time to grow. It is now known that fast freezing produces smaller ice crystals, which cause less damage to the tissue structure. When 'slow' frozen foods thaw, cellular fluids leak from the ice crystal-damaged tissue, giving the resulting food a mushy or dry consistency upon preparation. Birdseye solved this problem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10646", "title": "Food", "section": "Section::::Classifications and types of food.:Frozen food.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 720, "text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "339605", "title": "Frozen food", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 720, "text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "339605", "title": "Frozen food", "section": "Section::::Preservatives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 439, "text": "Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3644514", "title": "Soft serve", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 409, "text": "In the US, soft serve ice cream is not sold prepackaged in supermarkets, but is common at fairs, carnivals, amusement parks, restaurants (especially fast food and buffet), and specialty shops. All ice cream must be frozen quickly to avoid crystallization. With soft serve, this is accomplished by a special machine that holds pre-mixed product at a very low, but non-frozen temperature, at the point of sale.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Encryption is the application of complex math to make files look like gibberish to computers and people.\n\nHackers don't just do encryption, your bank does, the NSA does, the Army does, and when you do online transactions, so does your browser.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Encryption is mixing up the message, such that it can only be made readable again with a key.\n\nTo explain what hackers do, It might be easier to use an example:\nLet's say you want to send a book to a friend on the other side of the country, but you don't want anyone else to see it.\nYou could stick the book in a box, and send it to your friend.\nA hacker, could intercept the box, open it, and access the book.\n\nYou can also put the book in a box with a padlock on it, and send it to your friend, and send the key in another box.\nHowever, if the hacker grabs both the locked box, and the key, he can open it anyway.\n\nThe last option, is that your friend first sends you a padlock, and keeps the key. You can now put your book in a box, lock it with the padlock your friend sent you, and then send it back.\nEven if the hacker intercepts the box, he cannot open the padlock, and he cannot intercept any keys, since they are not being sent.\n\nYour friend can then receive the box, and open it.\n\nOn the internet, the box, would be a message, and the padlock+keys an encryption.\n\nIn RSA-encryption, one of the most used encryptions today, the padlock and key are both huge numbers, chosen specially.\nWhile the key-number is kept secret and the numbers are long enough, the encryption is impossible to break. (It can be broken, but doing so would take longer than the universe has existed)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It uses a code to transform your file so that it cannot be read unless you know the key.\n\nA simple code would be the classic A=1, B=2, C=3 etc code.\n\nYour file might say \"Hello\" then when you encrypt it, it becomes \"8 5 12 12 15\"\n\nWhen someone who doesn't know the code tries to read it, it just appears as numbers, but to the person who uses the correct code it turns the file back into \"Hello\"\n\nObviously actual encryption uses far more complex codes than this example. When they talk about how many \"bits\" encryption is (128 bit/256bit etc), it's actually referring to the length of the passkey. In simple terms the longer the passkey (the more bits in it) the more complex the formula for the code and the harder it is to break.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7622727", "title": "Anti-computer forensics", "section": "Section::::Data hiding.:Encryption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 285, "text": "File level encryption encrypts only the file contents. This leaves important information such as file name, size and timestamps unencrypted. Parts of the content of the file can be reconstructed from other locations, such as temporary files, swap file and deleted, unencrypted copies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1997617", "title": "Information security audit", "section": "Section::::The audited systems.:Specific tools used in network security.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 479, "text": "The process of encryption involves converting plain text into a series of unreadable characters known as the ciphertext. If the encrypted text is stolen or attained while in transit, the content is unreadable to the viewer. This guarantees secure transmission and is extremely useful to companies sending/receiving critical information. Once encrypted information arrives at its intended recipient, the decryption process is deployed to restore the ciphertext back to plaintext.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7066791", "title": "Disk encryption", "section": "Section::::Transparent encryption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 493, "text": "With transparent encryption, the files are accessible immediately after the key is provided, and the entire volume is typically mounted as if it were a physical drive, making the files just as accessible as any unencrypted ones. No data stored on an encrypted volume can be read (decrypted) without using the correct password/keyfile(s) or correct encryption keys. The entire file system within the volume is encrypted (including file names, folder names, file contents, and other meta-data).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10294", "title": "Encryption", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 932, "text": "In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding a message or information in such a way that only authorized parties can access it and those who are not authorized cannot. Encryption does not itself prevent interference, but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor. In an encryption scheme, the intended information or message, referred to as plaintext, is encrypted using an encryption algorithm – a cipher – generating ciphertext that can be read only if decrypted. For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a pseudo-random encryption key generated by an algorithm. It is in principle possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key, but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required. An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1055437", "title": "Deniable encryption", "section": "Section::::Forms of deniable encryption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 701, "text": "Normally, ciphertexts decrypt to a single plaintext that is intended to be kept secret. However, one form of deniable encryption allows its users to decrypt the ciphertext to produce a different (innocuous but plausible) plaintext and plausibly claim that it is what they encrypted. The holder of the ciphertext will not be able to differentiate between the true plaintext, and the bogus-claim plaintext. In general, decrypting one ciphertext to multiple plaintexts is not possible unless the key is as large as the plaintext, so this is not practical for most purposes. However, some schemes allow decryption to decoy plaintexts that are close to the original in some metric (such as edit distance).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37196658", "title": "Database encryption", "section": "Section::::Application-level encryption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 453, "text": "In application-level encryption, the process of encrypting data is completed by the application that has been used to generate or modify the data that is to be encrypted. Essentially this means that data is encrypted before it is written to the database. This unique approach to encryption allows for the encryption process to be tailored to each user based on the information (such as entitlements or roles) that the application knows about its users.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2840574", "title": "CBC-MAC", "section": "Section::::Attack methods.:Allowing the initialization vector to vary in value.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 515, "text": "When encrypting data using a block cipher in cipher block chaining (or another) mode, it is common to introduce an initialization vector to the first stage of the encryption process. It is typically required that this vector be chosen randomly (a nonce) and that it is not repeated for any given secret key under which the block cipher operates. This provides semantic security, by means of ensuring the same plain text is not encrypted to the same cipher text, allowing an attacker to infer a relationship exists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A little while ago, there we had [a thread](_URL_0_) concerning this rather obscure topic. Perhaps you want to take a look at it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "606589", "title": "Paragraph 175", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 332, "text": "The statute drew legal influence from previous measures, including those undertaken by the Holy Roman Empire and Prussian states. It was amended several times. The Nazis broadened the law in 1935; in the prosecutions that followed, thousands died in concentration camps as a widespread social persecution of homosexuals took place.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "218116", "title": "Enabling Act of 1933", "section": "Section::::Consequences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 936, "text": "Under the Act, the government had acquired the authority to pass laws without either parliamentary consent or control. These laws could (with certain exceptions) even deviate from the Constitution. The Act effectively eliminated the Reichstag as active players in German politics. While its existence was protected by the Enabling Act, for all intents and purposes it reduced the Reichstag to a mere stage for Hitler's speeches. It only met sporadically until the end of World War II, held no debates and enacted only a few laws. Within three months of the passage of the Enabling Act, all parties except the Nazi Party were banned or pressured into dissolving themselves, followed on 14 July by a law that made the Nazi Party the only legally permitted party in the country. With this, Hitler had fulfilled what he had promised in earlier campaign speeches: \"I set for myself one aim ... to sweep these thirty parties out of Germany!\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32981167", "title": "Wehrkraftzersetzung", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 679, "text": "\"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" was \"de facto\" abolished in 1945 after Nazi Germany's defeat, but text from the penal code continued to be used by the Federal Republic of Germany. On 25 August 1998 and 23 July 2002, after lengthy debate, the Bundestag removed the Nazi-era sentences from the German criminal justice system and all Nazi military sentencing for conscientious objection, desertion, and all other forms of \"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" were repealed as unjust. Current German military law neither contains the term \"undermining the military\" nor its extensive rules, but a few offences included under the umbrella of \"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" remain on the statute books in a vague form.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21212", "title": "Nazi Germany", "section": "Section::::History.:Nazi seizure of power.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1350, "text": "In March 1933, the Enabling Act, an amendment to the Weimar Constitution, passed in the Reichstag by a vote of 444 to 94. This amendment allowed Hitler and his cabinet to pass laws—even laws that violated the constitution—without the consent of the president or the Reichstag. As the bill required a two-thirds majority to pass, the Nazis used intimidation tactics as well as the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to keep several Social Democratic deputies from attending, and the Communists had already been banned. On 10 May, the government seized the assets of the Social Democrats, and they were banned on 22 June. On 21 June, the SA raided the offices of the German National People's Party – their former coalition partners – and they disbanded on 29 June. The remaining major political parties followed suit. On 14 July 1933 Germany became a one-party state with the passage of a law decreeing the NSDAP to be the sole legal party in Germany. The founding of new parties was also made illegal, and all remaining political parties which had not already been dissolved were banned. The Enabling Act would subsequently serve as the legal foundation for the dictatorship the NSDAP established. Further elections in November 1933, 1936, and 1938 were Nazi-controlled, with only members of the NSDAP and a small number of independents elected.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32981167", "title": "Wehrkraftzersetzung", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 631, "text": "\"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" was enacted in 1938 by decree as Germany moved closer to World War II to suppress criticism of the Nazi Party and \"Wehrmacht\" leadership in the military, and in 1939, a second decree was issued extending the law to civilians. \"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" consolidated and redefined paragraphs already in the military penal code to punish \"seditious\" acts such as conscientious objection, defeatist statements, self-mutilation, and questioning the \"Endsieg\". Convictions were punishable by the death penalty, heavy sentences in military prisons, concentration camps, and forced mobilization in combat or penal units.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39010627", "title": "Lex Heinze", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 609, "text": "The Lex Heinze (Latin: \"Heinze Law\") was a controversial law of 1900 amending Germany's Reich Criminal Code, named after the Berlin pimp Heinze, who was accused and convicted of committing \"bodily injury resulting in death\". It censored the public display of the \"immoral\" in artworks, literature and theatre and made pimping a criminal offence. After numerous public protests and resistance by several circles within the liberal middle class and the Social Democrats, the Reichstag passed a looser version of the draft law and added a \"morality clause\" into the Reich Criminal Code as a compromise proposal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50485574", "title": "Rudolf Klug", "section": "Section::::Life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 985, "text": "The Nazis took power nationally in January 1933 and lost little time in converting the German state into a one-party dictatorship. Party political activity (unless in support of the Nazi party) became illegal. Early on Klug spoke out in public against the rapid withdrawal of human rights. Under the provisions of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (\"\"Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service\"\") which had been in force since 7 April 1933 Klug was identified for permanent exclusion from the schools service on 17 June 1933. The law in question is generally cited as a device for removing Jews from public service, but there was also scope for applying it to other public servants, including teachers, who fell out of official favour for non race-based political reasons. Klug's name appeared in an advertisement in several Hamburg which listed a number of teachers \"on leave from the schools service\" (\"\"\"aus dem Schuldienst beurlaubt\"\"\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Students for a Democratic Society](_URL_0_) was one of the most popular and powerful of the \"New Left\" student groups. SDS was founded in 1960, and permitted Communist party members within their ranks (this was a change from previous leftist student groups). SDS campaigned against the Cold War and militarism. They became the primary student opposition group to the Vietnam war, and grew immensely as that conflict developed. SDS didn't engage in overtly pro-Soviet activities (though they did allow Communists to march with them), but they were widely seen as being sympathetic to the Communist cause and agenda. \n\n\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "AFAIK it was common for left-wing intellectuals to not only be \"any less hostile\" but actually be _sympathetic_ to the Soviet ( [see Angela Davis](_URL_0_) ) up to 1973 when [The Gulag Archipelago](_URL_1_) turned the public opinion of the left-wingers against the Soviets.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "35597854", "title": "Political psychological rationalization", "section": "Section::::Use during the Cold War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 2331, "text": "As for the PPR on American side, some examples are also present. Between 1946 to 1956, there was a censorship campaign against schools and libraries in an effort to remove literature, described as 'radical'. The political move was explained through the danger that such literature was posing to the American democracy. During 1950s the members of the Communist party and supporters of their ideas were persecuted and faced hostilities and rejection both by the side of the government and the society. The anti-Soviet sentiment in America during the first half of the Cold War was measured to be greater than in European countries that were directly facing the consequences of the communist ideology. The anti-Soviet campaign that led to the ban of many literary works during the Cold War entailed similar consequences for the modern art, described as an outlet of communist influence as well. Prominent artists that were allegedly having ties to communist supporters and thus presumably sharing sentiments to Communism suffered significant consequences as a result of their affiliation. The U.S. authorities decided for works of such artists that \"no matter how innocuous the subject matter, be banned from publicly supported arts institutions and most especially from federally sponsored cultural exchange\". This political move was intended to portray America as a non-materialist society that deeply cares for the culture and the arts and is ready to exchange ideas with other countries that share the same values. The American Cold War culture enjoyed much more independence than the artists in the East due to the numerous checks that the works had to go through in order to ensure compliance with the goals of the state policies. At the same time, the literature and the arts in the U.S. were still influenced to a large extent by the ideological war between capitalism and communism. Critical theorists in International Relations see the period of the Cold War as a time-frame of intensive building and confirmation of the state's identity. It is achieved through the construction of an \"enemy\" in the eyes of the public while at the same time a real material threat was not present to an extent to which the undertaken measures would be justified by concrete facts about the strategic interests of the U.S. or its security.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33287010", "title": "Rowland Brown", "section": "Section::::Reputation.:Red rumors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1557, "text": "In the early 1930s, the country had seen what many believed to be the failure of capitalism. Banks were failing; the high unemployment rate resulted in bread lines and the dust bowl resulted in a great westward migration of homeless and desperate farm families, as a consequence, many Americans, whether intellectuals, artists or factory workers had their eyes on the Soviet Union, thinking it was possible that an economy based on something other than \"free enterprise\" might lead to a more stable society. Many American writers and artists joined the Communist Party. In his 1956 paperback, \"The Left Side of the Screen\", Bob Herzberg described Rowland Brown as \"an angry and short-tempered Communist\" who \"punched out a Fox producer in the early 1930s.\" Brown was neither a member of the Communist Party, nor a fellow traveler,\" but because of the implied critique of capitalism some found in his gangster movies, he was suspected. Brown, himself, furthered that reputation by announcing that he had sent a congratulatory telegram to the U.S.S.R. on the anniversary of the Russian Revolution. Furthermore, Brown and his brother, Gilson Brown, had accepted a Soviet invitation to make a film in Russia. They got as far as New York before changing their minds and turning back. Neither of the brothers was included on the Hollywood blacklist during the McCarthy Era. Even though Samuel Ornitz, who had worked with Brown on \"Hell's Highway,' was one of The Hollywood Ten, Brown was never called to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1963021", "title": "New Politics (1950s)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 802, "text": "The domestic policies advocated by the adherents of the New Politics movement stressed strong support for civil rights legislation, while in foreign affairs the movement favored a less aggressive posture toward the Soviet Union (criticizing \"Cold War liberals\" within the party such as Harry Truman and Dean Acheson), prompting its critics to accuse it of being \"soft on Communism.\" Younger adults accounted for many of its members, and provided it with an aura of youthful vibrance — this fact leading some opponents to attempt to link it to so-called \"beatniks\" (that term having been coined in 1958 by \"San Francisco Chronicle\" columnist Herb Caen). However, this may not have been accurate as most of the prominent \"Beat\" writers of that era expressed little if any interest in electoral politics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39645216", "title": "Komsomol", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 921, "text": "This came about because of conflict and disillusionment among Soviet youth who romanticised the spontaneity and destruction characteristic of War Communism (1918-1921) and the Civil War period. They saw it as their duty, and the duty of the Communist Party itself, to eliminate all elements of Western culture from society. However, the NEP had the opposite effect: after it started, many aspects of Western social behavior began to reemerge. The contrast between the \"Good Communist\" extolled by the Party and the capitalism fostered by NEP confused many young people. They rebelled against the Party's ideals in two opposite ways: radicals gave up everything that had any Western or capitalist connotations, while the majority of Russian youths felt drawn to the Western-style popular culture of entertainment and fashion. As a result, there was a major slump in interest and membership in the Party-oriented Komsomol.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "436031", "title": "Back in the U.S.S.R.", "section": "Section::::Political controversy and cultural significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 345, "text": "Like \"Revolution\" and \"Piggies\", \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\" prompted immediate responses from the New Left and the Right. Among the latter, the John Birch Society's magazine cited the song as further evidence of the Beatles' supposed pro-Soviet sentiments. The line \"You don't know how lucky you are, boys\" left many anti-communist groups stunned. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5332957", "title": "League of Revolutionary Struggle (Marxist-Leninist)", "section": "Section::::History of Communism in the US.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 530, "text": "CPUSA came after attack following World War II when anti-communist sentiment was on the rise. The party's steadfast support for the Soviet Union was not received well. Coupled with anti-Soviet sentiment in the US, communism became increasingly unwelcome in the United States. CPUSA historically took its power from labor unions. However, as these unions were dispelled in 1949 and 1950, the party did not have a solid support system to rely on. Furthermore, left wing organizations were faced with McCarthyism in the early 1950s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2389810", "title": "Toward Soviet America", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 665, "text": "Toward Soviet America is a book written by Communist Party, USA Chairman William Z. Foster in 1932. The book documented the rise of socialism in the Soviet Union, the crisis facing capitalism, the need for revolution, and a vision of what a socialist society would be like. The book also attacks social-democrats and liberals calling them \"Social Fascists\" because they seek to give the masses concessions in order to calm them and prevent communist revolution. The book was reprinted in 1961 by the House Un-American Activities Committee as an exposé of the purported communist conspiracy. The book remains popular among orthodox Marxist-Leninists and Stalinists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Look up what they did in the Netherlands. They were very effective in gathering intelligence before the invasion, trained, supplied and provided information for the Brandenburgers who took vital bridges during the Invasion of May 1940, and managed to capture almost all Allied spies active in the Netherlands between 1940 and 1943, as part of Operation Northpole.\n\nMy source: Kingdom of the Netherlands during WW2, Loe de Jong", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Their legacy is a rather muddled one as it turns out. From 1935-1944 the chief of the Abwehr, Wilhelm Canaris, never appears to be wholeheartedly committed to the Nazi cause and would eventually be executed for high treason. \n\nWithout a doubt, there were likely some diehard Nazi's in the Abwehr but when the chief of the organization is...less than enthusiastic, I cannot imagine getting many results. For instance, he contributed to Francos' decision to refuse German access to Spanish land by providing arguments that Franco would later utilize. He assisted several jews in fleeing the country and made several connections to M16.\n\nSource - Bassett, Richard (2005). Hitler's Spy Chief: The Wilhelm Canaris Mystery. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "German case officers were given a lot of free reign over their agents and operations. The control was much more decentralized than British Intelligence. \n\nThe careers of German case officers were also much more dependent on the success or failure of the agents each officer personally ran. This meant that even if they had private doubts about an agent (such as suspicions of being a double), they were obligated to keep supporting them as if nothing was wrong. \n\nThere were even case officers who nearly lost their lives based on their agent's operations. The case officer who ran double agent Eddie Chapman (\"Zigzag\" to the allies, \"Fritz\" to the Germans) was an Abwehr officer living the good life in occupied France. After Fritz was sent to the UK and disappeared for a few weeks, the case officer was transferred to the hell of the Eastern front in wintertime. After Fritz reappeared, the case officer was transferred back - but a shadow of his former self. \n\nWhereas the credit or blame for successes and failures of British agents was shared throughout the agency. This allowed the British to run larger, more complicated operations such as the Double Cross and Operation Fortitude. \n\nsource: the Ben Macintyre books: Double Cross, Agent Zigzag, and Operation Mincemeat.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5218470", "title": "Friesack Camp", "section": "Section::::Immediate context.:Genesis of the idea.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1087, "text": "\"Abwehr II\" was a section of German Intelligence which amongst its other duties was tasked with seeking out the disaffected and anti-authoritarian in opposing nations to give arms, assistance, or whatever means to increase disharmony. Following the successful 1940 campaign to defeat France, and the capture of British Army personnel throughout the period, a decision was taken within the \"Abwehr\" to sound out captured enemy soldiers in POW camps as to whether they would consider fighting for the German Army and/or German Intelligence. While it is likely that this was normal procedure for the \"Abwehr\", the decision may have been influenced by Seán Russell, then IRA Chief of Staff, who had suggested a new \"Irish Brigade\" during his meetings with German Intelligence and the Foreign Ministry in Berlin during the summer of 1940. These attempts were made through the German Stalag network. The training and the induction of Irish-nationality POW's into German service was attempted at Friesack Camp. Attempts such as these were also tried amongst other POW groups with some success.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5247607", "title": "Irish Republican Army–Abwehr collaboration", "section": "Section::::Context.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 223, "text": "Nazi Germany used intelligence gathering to help inform its decisions. Intelligence gathering is not an exact science and the Abwehr was not a particularly professional organisation until after it was reorganised in 1938. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14093807", "title": "Counterintelligence failures", "section": "Section::::UK counterespionage failures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 514, "text": "British intelligence also suffered from internal suspicion that may or may not have been directed at the right targets, but caused suspicion to be thrown at the highest counter-intelligence officers, with severe effects on morale. Peter Wright, while later extremely controversial about revelations his 1987 book, \"Spycatcher: The Candid Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Officer\", also developed techniques that allowed the UK to track numerous Soviet clandestine agents, and agents under diplomatic cover .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17069227", "title": "Eberstadt Report", "section": "Section::::Recommendations.:Other recommendations.:Professionalism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 467, "text": "The report also questioned the quality of military intelligence professionals. Specifically, the report criticized the “somewhat haphazard method employed by the services in the selection of officers for important intelligence posts.” The report pointed out that in recent years, several chiefs of Army intelligence lacked previous experience. The committee also suggested that the military services should establish intelligence careers as an option for serviceman.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18950834", "title": "Abwehr", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 725, "text": "The Abwehr () was the German military intelligence service for the Reichswehr and Wehrmacht from 1920 to 1945. Despite the fact that the Treaty of Versailles prohibited the Germans altogether from establishing an intelligence organization of their own, they formed an espionage group in 1920 within the Ministry of Defense, calling it the \"Abwehr\". The initial purpose of the \"Abwehr\" was defense against foreign espionage—an organizational role which later evolved considerably. Under General Kurt von Schleicher the individual military services' intelligence units were combined and, in 1929, centralized under his Ministry of Defense, forming the foundation for the more commonly understood manifestation of the \"Abwehr\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23748337", "title": "Technical intelligence", "section": "Section::::Collection techniques at the national level.:Issues in national policy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 753, "text": "He counters the argument that \"lack of direct knowledge of a certain business or its technology has been cited as a significant obstacle to intelligence services engaging in economic espionage. Yet during the Cold War, intelligence services spent significant amounts of time and energy, with some success, trying to obtain intelligence on various complex military technologies of which the case officers would not have had a profound knowledge. If intelligence services were trusted to obtain such information, a shift of focus to complex commercial technologies and intelligence would not be unthinkable. The same techniques used to obtain military secrets could be turned to complex commercial technologies or strategies without too much difficulty.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "83938", "title": "French Resistance", "section": "Section::::Activities.:Intelligence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 191, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 191, "end_character": 393, "text": "The intelligence networks were by far the most numerous and substantial of Resistance activities. They collected information of military value, such as coastal fortifications of the Atlantic Wall or Wehrmacht deployments. The BCRA and the different British intelligence services often competed with one another to gather the most valuable information from their Resistance networks in France.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Matching words with words it knows from various languages. Also what characters you input. Like, if you were to input the Kanji lettering for the term \"Horse stuffer\", it'd detect that it was Kanji first, then what words it is, then makes the connection.\n\nOr for other roman lettering, it just knows what words belong to what language. Such as \"Pferd Stuffer\" it knows there's no word in english that's spelled Pferd, so it checks it's database and sees that Pferd matches a word in German.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Same way you would. You recognizance that the words in this sentence are English words, so you guess that I'm in fact writing in English. Och du ser att orden i den här meningen inte är engelska, eftersom att de är svenska (and you see that the words in this sentence are not English, as they are Swedish)\n\nAnd google can confuse langues sometimes if it only has a limited number of words to work with and the words happen to be the same as words in another language.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3235536", "title": "Google Translate", "section": "Section::::Features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 847, "text": "Google Translate can translate multiple forms of text and media, including text, speech, images, sites, or real-time video, from one language to another. It supports over 100 languages at various levels and , serves over 500 million people daily. For some languages, Google Translate can pronounce translated text, highlight corresponding words and phrases in the source and target text, and act as a simple dictionary for single-word input. If \"Detect language\" is selected, text in an unknown language can be automatically identified. If a user enters a URL in the source text, Google Translate will produce a hyperlink to a machine translation of the website. Users can save translations in a \"phrasebook\" for later use. For some languages, text can be entered via an on-screen keyboard, through handwriting recognition, or speech recognition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46740076", "title": "Yandex.Translate", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 436, "text": "The service uses a self-learning statistical machine translation, developed by Yandex. The system constructs the dictionary of single-word translations based on the analysis of millions of translated texts. In order to translate the text, the computer first compares it to a database of words. The computer then compares the text to the base language models, trying to determine the meaning of an expression in the context of the text.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19980", "title": "Machine translation", "section": "Section::::Translation process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 460, "text": "Behind this ostensibly simple procedure lies a complex cognitive operation. To decode the meaning of the source text in its entirety, the translator must interpret and analyse all the features of the text, a process that requires in-depth knowledge of the grammar, semantics, syntax, idioms, etc., of the source language, as well as the culture of its speakers. The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to re-encode the meaning in the target language.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3235536", "title": "Google Translate", "section": "Section::::Method of translation.:Statistical Machine Translation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 335, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 335, "end_character": 591, "text": "Although, Google deployed a new system called “Neural Machine Translation” for better quality translation, there are languages that still use the traditional translation method called “Statistical Machine Translation.” It is a “rule-based” translation method that utilizes predictive algorithms to guess ways to translate texts in foreign languages. It aims to translate whole phrases rather than single words then gather overlapping phrases for translation. Moreover, it also analyzes bilingual text corpora to generate statistical model that translates texts from one language to another.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3235536", "title": "Google Translate", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 954, "text": "Launched in April 2006 as a statistical machine translation service, it used United Nations and European Parliament transcripts to gather linguistic data. Rather than translating languages directly, it first translates text to English and then to the target language. During a translation, it looks for patterns in millions of documents to help decide on the best translation. Its accuracy has been criticized and ridiculed on several occasions. In November 2016, Google announced that Google Translate would switch to a neural machine translation engine - Google Neural Machine Translation (GNMT) - which translates \"whole sentences at a time, rather than just piece by piece. It uses this broader context to help it figure out the most relevant translation, which it then rearranges and adjusts to be more like a human speaking with proper grammar\". Originally only enabled for a few languages in 2016, GNMT is gradually being used for more languages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "287801", "title": "Hypermedia", "section": "Section::::Language learning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 694, "text": "Hypermedia has found a place in foreign language instruction as well. Hypermedia reading texts can be purchased or prepared so that students can click on unfamiliar words or phrases in a foreign language and then access all the information needed to understand the word or phrase. Information can be in any medium, for example, text-based translations, definitions, grammatical explanations, and cultural references. Also, audio recordings of the pronunciation as well as images, animations and video for visualization. Some of the innovations in this area were the original products from Transparent Language as well as Ottmar Foelsche's Annotext and Thom Thibeault's hypermedia editor, FLAn.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3235536", "title": "Google Translate", "section": "Section::::Method of translation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 330, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 330, "end_character": 329, "text": "When Google Translate generates a translation, it looks for patterns in hundreds of millions of documents to help decide on the best translation. By detecting patterns in documents that have already been translated by human translators, Google Translate makes intelligent guesses as to what an appropriate translation should be.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]