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1otv5o | Why can't medical scientists collect data from a group of people and use the same human control group for every medical experiment in the future so that participants in a study don't have to risk taking a placebo? | [
{
"answer": "The major issue with that is it wouldn't be a good control *because* of the lack of a group taking the placebo. When they do most trials they do them double blind. Neither the subject nor the doctor knows who is getting the real drug and who is getting a placebo (until afterwards, of course). ",
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},
{
"answer": "It would eliminate blinding, which is an important measure to control bias. The risk of being in the placebo group is part of being in a clinical trial, as is the risk that the active ingredient won't have the desired effect, or have severe side effects. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7096313",
"title": "Controlling for a variable",
"section": "Section::::Experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "In controlled experiments of medical treatment options on humans, researchers randomly assign individuals to a treatment group or control group. This is done to reduce the confounding effect of irrelevant variables that are not being studied, such as the placebo effect. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "481925",
"title": "Anecdotal evidence",
"section": "Section::::Scientific context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "In medicine, anecdotal evidence is also subject to placebo effects: it is well-established that a patient's (or doctor's) expectation can genuinely change the outcome of treatment. Only double-blind randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials can confirm a hypothesis about the effectiveness of a treatment independently of expectations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26990",
"title": "Social psychology",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Whenever possible, social psychologists rely on controlled experimentation. Controlled experiments require the manipulation of one or more independent variables in order to examine the effect on a dependent variable. Experiments are useful in social psychology because they are high in internal validity, meaning that they are free from the influence of confounding or extraneous variables, and so are more likely to accurately indicate a causal relationship. However, the small samples used in controlled experiments are typically low in external validity, or the degree to which the results can be generalized to the larger population. There is usually a trade-off between experimental control (internal validity) and being able to generalize to the population (external validity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5645049",
"title": "Self-experimentation in medicine",
"section": "Section::::Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1453,
"text": "Another issue that can lead researchers not to take part is whether the researcher would stand to gain any benefit from taking part in the experiment. It is an ethical principle that volunteers must stand to gain some benefit from the research, even if that is only a remote future possibility of treatment being found for a disease that they only have a small chance of contracting. Tests on experimental drugs are sometimes conducted on sufferers of an untreatable condition. If the researcher does not have that condition then there can be no possible benefit to them personally. For instance, Ronald C. Desrosiers in responding to why he did not test an AIDS vaccine he was developing on himself said that he was not at risk of AIDS so could not possibly benefit. Against that, the early stages of testing a new drug are usually focused merely on the safety of the substance, rather than any benefits it may have. Healthy individuals are required for this stage, not volunteers suffering from the target condition, so if the researcher is healthy, he or she is a potential candidate for testing. An issue peculiar to AIDS vaccine research is that the test will leave HIV antibodies in the volunteers blood, causing the person to show HIV positive when tested even if they have never been in contact with an HIV carrier. This could cause a number of social problems for the volunteers (including any self-testers) such as issues with life insurance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59861",
"title": "Experiment",
"section": "Section::::Contrast with observational study.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "To avoid conditions that render an experiment far less useful, physicians conducting medical trials – say for U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval – quantify and randomize the covariates that can be identified. Researchers attempt to reduce the biases of observational studies with complicated statistical methods such as propensity score matching methods, which require large populations of subjects and extensive information on covariates. Outcomes are also quantified when possible (bone density, the amount of some cell or substance in the blood, physical strength or endurance, etc.) and not based on a subject's or a professional observer's opinion. In this way, the design of an observational study can render the results more objective and therefore, more convincing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3105999",
"title": "Confounding",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "In the case of risk assessments evaluating the magnitude and nature of risk to human health, it is important to control for confounding to isolate the effect of a particular hazard such as a food additive, pesticide, or new drug. For prospective studies, it is difficult to recruit and screen for volunteers with the same background (age, diet, education, geography, etc.), and in historical studies, there can be similar variability. Due to the inability to control for variability of volunteers and human studies, confounding is a particular challenge. For these reasons, experiments offer a way to avoid most forms of confounding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9915335",
"title": "HIV Vaccine Trials Network",
"section": "Section::::Community involvement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Typically, researchers conduct clinical research on human subjects by asking volunteers to give informed consent to participate in an experiment by taking drugs that have not always been proven safe or effective in humans, though their safety has been tested (usually in animals) prior to any human trials. At the HVTN, many current vaccine studies are using products with a safety record that has been established in previous human trials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uaf8a | Why do lights dim briefly sometimes when lightning strikes nearby? | [
{
"answer": "If lightning hits a power line or transformer, it could greatly increase the voltage of the lines relative to Earth ground, and a lot of equipment connected to those power lines would be damaged. Varisters or Transorbs are places across power line components to protect them form sudden increases in voltage. While these components are acting, they may prevent the normal flow of electricity.",
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},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5618154",
"title": "Earthquake light",
"section": "Section::::Possible explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1174,
"text": "During the American Physical Society's 2014 March meeting, research was provided that gave a possible explanation for the reason why bright lights sometimes appear during an earthquake. The research stated that when two layers of the same material rub against each other, voltage is generated. The researcher, Professor Troy Shinbrot of Rutgers University, conducted lab experiments with different types of grains to mimic the crust of the earth and emulated the occurrence of earthquakes. \"When the grains split open, they measured a positive voltage spike, and when the split closed, a negative spike.\" The crack allows the voltage to discharge into the air which then electrifies the air and creates a bright electrical light when it does so. According to the research provided, they have produced these voltage spikes every single time with every material tested. While the reason for such an occurrence was not provided, Professor Troy Shinbrot referenced the light to a phenomenon called triboluminescence. Researchers hope that by getting to the bottom of this phenomenon, it will provide more information that will allow seismologists to better predict earthquakes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5618154",
"title": "Earthquake light",
"section": "Section::::Possible explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Another possible explanation is local disruption of the Earth's magnetic field and/or ionosphere in the region of tectonic stress, resulting in the observed glow effects either from ionospheric radiative recombination at lower altitudes and greater atmospheric pressure or as aurora. However, the effect is clearly not pronounced or notably observed at all earthquake events and is yet to be directly experimentally verified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5355609",
"title": "Ashen light",
"section": "Section::::Hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "However, a Monte Carlo simulation program indicates that the lightning hypothesis as the cause of the glow is incorrect, as not enough light could be transmitted through the atmosphere to be seen from Earth. Observers have speculated it may be illusory, resulting from the physiological effect of observing a bright, crescent-shaped object. Spacecraft looking for it have not been able to spot it — leading some astronomers to believe that it is just an enduring myth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19379318",
"title": "Dry thunderstorm",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.:Fires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "In areas where trees or other vegetation are present, there is little to no rain that can prevent the lightning from causing them to catch fire. Storm winds also fan the fire and firestorm, causing it to spread more quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23182078",
"title": "Power-line flicker",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Power-line flicker is a visible change in brightness of a lamp due to rapid fluctuations in the voltage of the power supply. The voltage drop is generated over the source impedance of the grid by the changing load current of an equipment or facility. These fluctuations in time generate flicker. The effects can range from disturbance to epileptic attacks of photosensitive persons. Flicker may also affect sensitive electronic equipment such as television receivers or industrial processes relying on constant electrical power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7541598",
"title": "Cryoseism",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Some reports have indicated the presence of \"distant flashing lights\" before or during a cryoseism, possibly because of electrical changes when rocks are compressed. Cracks and fissures may also appear as surface areas contract and split apart from the cold. The sometime superficial to moderate occurrences may range from a few centimeters to several kilometers long, with either singular or multiple linear fracturing and vertical or lateral displacement possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9910525",
"title": "LED lamp",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "LED lamps may flicker. The effect can be seen on a slow motion video of such a lamp. The extent of flicker is based on the quality of the DC power supply built into the lamp structure, usually located in the lamp base. Longer exposures to flickering light contribute to headaches and eye strain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c34lta | why are animals and fauna no longer as large as they once were? what has changed about our world that mega fauna and mega animals no longer exist? | [
{
"answer": "Cold. Bigger bodies are better at retaining heat in cold climate. As the climate warmed over the past 10-20,000 years smaller bodies that shed heat quickly became more advantageous.",
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},
{
"answer": "We don’t *actually* know but some theories are that temperature of the earth was the major factor for mammals getting so big. If the ambient temperature is lower, the heat/energy of a larger mammal is much easier. \n\nFor insects (and maybe plants), there was a much higher concentrations of oxygen in the atmosphere that helped produce gigantic bugs (we think) and when birds were getting bigger and preying on them (we think) they started to die off (we think)",
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},
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"answer": "I will point out that the blue whale is the biggest animal to have ever existed as far as we know",
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},
{
"answer": "Humans. Look at Australia, Europe, America. Wherever humans spread to, megafauna vanish. They’re either really good food sources or dangerous predators to exterminate, and early humans had zero interest in conservation.",
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},
{
"answer": "The oxygen levels were about 30% as compared to the 20% we live in now ...due to Oxygen rich atmosphere the plants and animals would be larger than those existing today",
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},
{
"answer": "Do you mean fauna and flora? Fauna are animals.",
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},
{
"answer": "First off, it isn't strictly true. \n\nBlue whales are the largest animal by mass ever to exist. \n\nGiant redwood trees are amongst the largest trees ever to exist. \n\nElephants are pretty big too.\n\nBut the world has seen larger insects, fish, birds, reptiles and land animals that is true. So why?\n\nInsects don't have lungs. They breathe through their skin. As size goes up, volume increases faster than surface area so the amount of insect increases faster than the amount of skin it can breathe with. The limit to the size of insects is directly related to the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. \n\nThis was higher in the past. \n\nReptiles and fish - cold blooded. The maximum size depends on temperature and the amount of food available. It was hotter in the past so they could get bigger, and so did the stuff they ate. That's not the full story, as there are many things that will limit the size of an animal, but it a the major difference between today and the dinosaur age.\n\nBirds and land animals - These mega fauna lived not so long ago in the grand scheme of things. Their extinction suspiciously coincides with the arrival of a new breed of predator spreading across the globe. \n\nAnimals such as giant sloths, giant kangaroos, mammoths, moas all survived ice ages and subsequent warm periods before the world plunged into another ice age, again and again. \n\nThen, during the last ice age, they start disappearing. \n\nBecause of us. Humans spread out of Africa and the mammoths of north Europe and Asia started dying out. Humans spread across the Indonesian archipelago to Australia 40000 years ago, and that's when the giant kangaroos died off. 12000 years ago and humans rapidly swarmed through the Americas starting in Alaska down to Patagonia in only a few centuries, driving the extinction of giant sloths and other megafauna southwards with them. \n\nThe big animals living on the Caribbean islands outlived their mainland cousins by a few thousand years until humans reached the islands by boat. \n\nMoas were big flightless birds native to New Zealand. They had lived there for thousands and thousands of years. \n\nThey only had one predator - the Haast Eagle aka the largest eagle ever to exist. \n\nThis was the last major landmass (other than Antarctica) that humans reached. The Maori arrived sometime in the 13th century. \n\nBy 1445, all Moas were dead. Haast eagles followed shortly after. \n\ntl;dr there are big animals, but the planet isn't warm enough or oxygeny enough for big reptiles and insects. Humans ate the rest.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14208",
"title": "Holocene extinction",
"section": "Section::::Defaunation.:Recent extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "A 2019 study published in \"Nature Communications\" found that rapid biodiversity loss is impacting larger mammals and birds to a much greater extent than smaller ones, with the body mass of such animals expected to shrink by 25% over the next century. Over the past 125,000 years, the average body size of wildlife has fallen by 14% as human actions eradicated megafauna on all continents with the exception of Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21424701",
"title": "Defaunation",
"section": "Section::::Drivers.:Habitat destruction and fragmentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Human population growth results in changes in land-use, which can cause natural habitats to become fragmented, altered, or destroyed. Large mammals are often more vulnerable to extinction than smaller animals because they require larger home ranges and thus are more prone to suffer the effects of deforestation. Large species such as elephants, rhinoceroses, large primates, tapirs and peccaries are the first animals to disappear in fragmented rainforests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "41387300",
"title": "Empty forest",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 597,
"text": "Predatory large mammals are important for increasing overall diversity by making sure that smaller predators and herbivores do not become overabundant and dominate. An absence of large predators seems to result in uneven densities of prey species. Even though certain animals may not have become completely extinct, they may have lowered in numbers to the point that they have suffered an ecological extinction. The animals that have most likely suffered an ecological extinction in neotropical forests are the ones who are the most important predators, large seed dispersers, and seed predators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2645668",
"title": "Prehistory of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Advent of fire farming and megafauna extinctions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The changes to the fauna were even more dramatic: the megafauna, species significantly larger than humans, disappeared, and many of the smaller species disappeared too. All told, about 60 different vertebrates became extinct, including the Diprotodon family (very large marsupial herbivores that looked rather like hippos), several large flightless birds, carnivorous kangaroos, \"Wonambi naracoortensis\", a 5-metre snake, a five-metre lizard and \"Meiolania\", a tortoise the size of a small car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11464497",
"title": "Fauna of Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Before the arrival of humans European fauna was more diverse and widespread than today. The European megafauna of today is much reduced from its former numbers. The Holocene extinction drastically reduced numbers and distribution of megafauna. Many of these species still exist in smaller numbers, while others thrive in the developed continent free from natural predators. Many other species became extinct. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22286",
"title": "Oligocene",
"section": "Section::::Fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "Even more open landscapes allowed animals to grow to larger sizes than they had earlier in the Paleocene epoch 30 million years earlier. Marine faunas became fairly modern, as did terrestrial vertebrate fauna on the northern continents. This was probably more as a result of older forms dying out than as a result of more modern forms evolving. Many groups, such as equids, entelodonts, rhinos, merycoidodonts, and camelids, became more able to run during this time, adapting to the plains that were spreading as the Eocene rainforests receded. The first felid, \"Proailurus\", originated in Asia during the late Oligocene and spread to Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55703377",
"title": "2018 in mammal paleontology",
"section": "Section::::Mammals in general.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "BULLET::::- A study on the mammalian extinction selectivity, continental body size distributions, and taxonomic diversity over five time periods spanning the past 125,000 years is published by Smith \"et al.\" (2018), who report evidence indicating that larger species of mammals were at greater risk of extinction following the global expansion of hominins over the late Quaternary, and that the degree of size-selectivity of mammalian extinctions in this period was unprecedented in the past 65 million years of mammalian evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
2o5xzp | why don't 'unincorporated territories of the united states pay taxes? why aren't they considered a state? | [
{
"answer": "Well in the US we have a thing about taxing people who don't have representation in the body that decides what those taxes are. They aren't states either because the don't want to be, or Congress won't admit them, or both.",
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},
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"answer": "They just don't pay *federal* taxes. Since they don't have representation in the federal government, they aren't taxed by it.",
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},
{
"answer": "They do pay taxes, and even some federal ones, like Social Security/Medicare payroll taxes. The exemption is on federal income tax, although most territories will have an income tax of some sort.\n\nThey aren't considered states because Congress hasn't admitted them as states. There are probably a few reasons - tradition, their small size relative to other states, possibly partisan reasons (territories tend to elect Democratic non-voting members of Congress, so if they had full-fledged representation in Congress and the Electoral College, it'd give Democrats a huge boost relative to the population).",
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"answer": "They *could* legally be required to pay taxes like other citizens, but are not. All territories receive far more assistance from the federal gov't than their taxes would provide, so it is kind of counter productive to tax them just to give that money back.\n\n > Why aren't they considered a state?\n\nMost territories just don't have enough people to form a state. The one that does, Puerto Rico, doesn't want to be a state.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "509785",
"title": "Territories of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 597,
"text": "Territories of the United States are sub-national administrative divisions overseen by the federal government. They differ from U.S. states and Native American tribes, which have limited sovereignty. The territories are classified by incorporation and whether they have an \"organized\" government through an organic act passed by Congress. All U.S. territories are part of the United States (because they are under U.S. sovereignty), but unincorporated territories are not considered to be integral parts of the United States, and the U.S. constitution only applies partially in those territories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "30297",
"title": "Tax",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Goods and services.:Sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "A small number of U.S. states rely entirely on sales taxes for state revenue, as those states do not levy a state income tax. Such states tend to have a moderate to large amount of tourism or inter-state travel that occurs within their borders, allowing the state to benefit from taxes from people the state would otherwise not tax. In this way, the state is able to reduce the tax burden on its citizens. The U.S. states that do not levy a state income tax are Alaska, Tennessee, Florida, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas, Washington state, and Wyoming. Additionally, New Hampshire and Tennessee levy state income taxes only on dividends and interest income. Of the above states, only Alaska and New Hampshire do not levy a state sales tax. Additional information can be obtained at the Federation of Tax Administrators website.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "868868",
"title": "State constitution (United States)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The territories of the United States are \"organized\" and, thus, self-governing if the United States Congress has passed an Organic Act. Only two of the 14 territories – Guam and the United States Virgin Islands – are organized. One unorganized territory, American Samoa, has its own constitution. The remaining 13 unorganized territories have no permanent populations and are either under direct control of the U.S. Government or operate as military bases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1197460",
"title": "Tenement (law)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "An interesting side effect of this is that government entities do not pay real estate taxes to other government entities since government entities own the land rather than hold the land. Localities that depend on real estate taxes to provide services are often put at a disadvantage when the state or federal government acquires a piece of land. Sometimes, to mollify local public opinion, the state or federal government may volunteer to make payments in lieu of taxes (PILOT or PILT programs) to local governments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "11607867",
"title": "Unincorporated territories of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "All modern inhabited territories under the control of the federal government can be considered as part of the \"United States\" for purposes of law as defined in specific legislation. However, the judicial term \"unincorporated\" was coined to legitimize the late–19th-century territorial acquisitions without citizenship and their administration without constitutional protections temporarily until Congress made other provisions. The case law allowed Congress to impose discriminatory tax regimes with the effect of a protective tariff upon territorial regions which were not domestic states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3434750",
"title": "United States",
"section": "Section::::Government and politics.:Government finance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Taxes in the United States are levied at the federal, state, and local government levels. These include taxes on income, payroll, property, sales, imports, estates and gifts, as well as various fees. Taxation in the United States is based on citizenship, not residency. Both non-resident citizens and Green Card holders living abroad are taxed on their income irrespective of where they live or where their income is earned. It is the only country in the world, other than Eritrea, to do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232346",
"title": "Unincorporated area",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Some American states have no unincorporated land areas; these include Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York and Rhode Island, although these states all have communities that are not separately incorporated but are part of a larger municipality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8b0buj | Ku Klux Klan's reaction to Hilter | [
{
"answer": "[From a previous answer](_URL_0_):\n\nSo the history of the KKK and the Nazi movement isn't a particularly big one, but given the similarities - being largely centered around ideologies of racial exclusion - it shouldn't be a surprise that they did, occasionally, intersect.\n\nAs far as Nazi Germany itself goes, it isn't entirely clear just how aware Hitler and the Nazi movement even was of the Ku Klux Klan. To start, the Klan itself had a very minimal presence in Germany. A Klan inspired group, the Order of the Knights of the Fiery Cross, was founded in Berlin in 1925 by three Americans, but doesn't seem to have been explicitly connected to the American KKK, and its membership seems to have capped at under 400. IT was quite short-lived, and had no real impact, being just one of many small groups that popped up during the Weimar period. Some members likely went on to join the Nazi Party, but there was no direct connection with the NSDAP.\n\nHitler's associate Ernst 'Putzi' Hanfstaengl claimed that Hitler broached the idea of cooperation with the Klan, but Putzi is not necessarily the most reliable source, as the German-American 'Old Fighter' had a hard fall from grace and later worked for the Americans during the war. Putzi, with his American heritage, would certainly be aware, and others in the Nazi hierarchy made comments on the Klan, such as Alfred Rosenberg, whose Party journal *Der Weltkampf* published several articles which made mention of the Klan in the mid-1920s, but Hitler seems to have left no explicit mentions which would demonstrate his personal familiarity. That said of course, Hitler did make broader public statements which expressed approval for the Jim Crow regime of the American south, and other Nazi publications likewise do disturbingly positively of Southern racism. Grill and Jenkins characterize an article by E. van Elden published in 1927 thus:\n\n > Elden graphically described the burning of a black man who had been accused of raping a white woman in a small Georgia community. The author questioned whether lynching was ever justified and concluded that it was actually essential whenever blacks raped white women. Any other lynching, however, represented only mob rule. Elden easily saw German parallels with the American South because of \"the lust of black beasts in the Rhineland.\" One could not blame southerners, concluded the article, for attempting to protect women from the \"moral depravity of Negroes.\"\n\nSo in short, while explicit praise for the Klan was quite limited within the Nazi party, this likely reflects a lack of familiarity, as there was certainly \"appreciation\" for the kind of extremist racial views that the Klan held. Somewhat Ironically, Americans also saw the similarity, using it to lambast the Klan as the \"nearest approach that any American organization has to the Nazi party in Germany\", as the Birmingham News wrote in 1933. An important thing to keep in mind though is that by the time when the Nazis rose to power and Americans were paying attention to it... the Klan had significantly collapsed, losing its power through the 1920s and having fairly limited influence in the 1930s. The American South was still *rife* with racism and neck deep in Jim Crow, but many Southern newspapers followed the lead of the Birmingham News, vociferously condemning the Nazi movement in the 1930s as similar to the \"extremists\" of the KKK, while entirely missing the irony in condemning Nazi Germany's \"[denial] to a whole class of its people their equal rights as citizens on account of their Jewish descent\" while themselves instituting a regime of racial exclusion against African-Americans. Black publications followed suit in their condemnations of Nazi racial doctrine, but of course took a much more open-eyed stance as they compared it to the situation on their own doorstep, such as with a 1938 editorial in Crisis which stated \"The South approaches more nearly than any other section of the United States the Nazi idea of government by a 'master race' without interference from any democratic process.\"\n\nBut, of course, what about the Klan itself? Simply put, the Klan was cautious, but not entirely opposed, at least prior to the outbreak of war, and there was some interaction between the KKK and the German-American Bund, i.e. the American Nazi Party. As noted, the Klan had been in marked decline by the beginning of the 1930s, and some Klan leaders believed that an alliance could help stem its loss of members, and maybe even bring about new growth. Outreach between the two groups was quite slow, but eventually the result of this was a rally held at the Bund's NJ compound 'Camp Nordland' where a joint meeting between members of the Bund and the KKK - bedecked in their \"regalia\" - occurred on August 18, 1940. The organizers claimed 3,500 attendees, while other estimates claim it was only about 1,000. The KKK participants were a distinct minority of the attendees either way, but certainly numbered at least 100 or so. Regardless of the numbers, the meeting also was emblematic, though, of the decline of the Bund, whose leader, Fritz Kuhn, had recently been sentenced to prison for embezzling Bund funds and tax evasion. So not only did the Klan-Bund combined rally draw protesters who gathered at the camp entrance to picket against both groups, but it also drew protests from within the Bund, as several dozen Kuhn loyalists showed up intent on starting a ruckus over disagreements in leadership, resulting in several arrests for assault.\n\nRegardless though, as for the rally itself, it saw speakers from both groups, with 'Grand Giant of the New Jersey Realm of the Klan', the Rev. Edward E. Young' giving an impassioned speech about the shared values of white supremacy between the two groups, similarly echoed by Bund member, and the principal organizer of the rally, Edward James Smythe, who proclaimed it his \"patriotic duty\" to effect the meeting of the two groups. Grand Dragon of the New Jersey Klan, Arthur Bell, received particularly great applause when he railed about how the Jews were behind attempts to force the US into the war. Asked later about the rally during a Congressional investigation by Rep. Martin Dies Special Committee on Un-American Activities, August Klapprott, one of the Bund leaders, stated \"[O]f course, I welcomed the idea [of] an Americanization rally\" which essentially speaks to the general tenor of how the cooperation was viewed at the time by both groups of participants, namely a rally for their views of what America should be - a country for white men. \n\nTo be sure though, while that was how it was billed, it wasn't how it exactly went. Both before and after, there was much disagreement within the Klan about whether it was a good idea. As noted before, the 'pro-camp' believed that the alliance would be a good move for retaining membership, and they were willing to accept the veneer of Americanization that the Bund tried to project, but many Klansmen were opposed as they didn't accept it, and were much more favorable to the idea that the German-American Bund was nothing more than an ~~front~~ advocate for a foreign power. The Bund, having many first and second generation immigrants, additionally offended the sensibilities of some Klansmen. At its height in the 1920s the Klan had been quite vocal in opposition to German immigrants, but a decade, and necessity, was breaking down at least some members' opposition, although hardly all, especially in the South, where the largest outcry against the Bund came from, published in the Klan publication *The Fiery Cross*.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2154208",
"title": "Union League",
"section": "Section::::South.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "The Ku Klux Klan was a secret organization of whites that resisted what they saw as the excesses of Reconstruction. They sometimes terrorized and even assassinated Union League leadership. Founder Nathan Bedford Forrest grew uneasy about the group’s tendency to lawlessness, and disbanded it in the late 1860’s.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "28358650",
"title": "Radical right (United States)",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Second Ku Klux Klan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1491,
"text": "The Second Ku Klux Klan, which was formed in 1915, combined Protestant fundamentalism and moralism with right-wing extremism. Its major support came from the urban south, the midwest and the Pacific Coast. While the Klan initially drew upper middle class support, its bigotry and violence alienated these members and it came to be dominated by less educated and poorer members. The Klan claimed that there was a secret Catholic army within the United States loyal to the Pope, that one million Knights of Columbus were arming themselves, and that Irish-American policemen would shoot Protestants as heretics. They claimed that the Catholics were planning to take Washington and put the Vatican in power, and that all presidential assassinations had been carried out by Catholics. The prominent Klan leader, D. C. Stephenson claimed that international Jewish bankers were behind the First World War and planned to destroy economic opportunities for Christians. Other Klansmen claimed that the Russian Revolution and Communism were controlled by Jews. The Klan frequently reprinted parts of \"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion\" and New York City was condemned as an evil city controlled by Jews and Catholics. The objects of Klan fear however tended to vary by locale and included Catholics, Jews, African Americans, Wobblies, Orientals, labour unions and liquor. The Klan were also anti-elitist and attacked \"the intellectuals\", seeing themselves as egalitarian defenders of the common man.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2514793",
"title": "Ku Klux Klan members in United States politics",
"section": "Section::::Alleged members of the Klan.:Warren G. Harding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
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"text": "[K]nowing that the some branches of the Shriners were anti-Catholic and in that sense sympathetic to the Ku Klax Klan and that the Klan itself was holding a demonstration less than a half mile from Washington, Harding censured hate groups in his Shriners speech. The press \"considered [it] a direct attack\" on the Klan, particularly in light of his criticism weeks earlier of \"factions of hatred and prejudice and violence [that] challeng[ed] both civil and religious liberty\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "361180",
"title": "Gutzon Borglum",
"section": "Section::::Public life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "Borglum was a member of the Ku Klux Klan. He was one of the six knights who sat on the Imperial Koncilium in 1923, which transferred leadership of the Ku Klux Klan from Imperial Wizard Colonel Simmons to Imperial Wizard Hiram Evans. In 1925, having only completed the head of Robert E. Lee, Borglum was dismissed from the Stone Mountain project, with some holding that it came about due to infighting within the KKK, with Borglum involved in the strife. Later, he stated, \"I am not a member of the Kloncilium, nor a knight of the KKK,\" but Howard Shaff and Audrey Karl Shaff add that \"that was for public consumption.\" The museum at Mount Rushmore displays a letter to Borglum from D. C. Stephenson, the infamous Klan Grand Dragon who was later convicted of the rape and murder of Madge Oberholtzer. The 8x10 foot portrait contains the inscription \"To my good friend Gutzon Borglum, with the greatest respect.\" Correspondence from Borglum to Stephenson during the 1920s detailed a deep racist conviction in Nordic moral superiority and strict immigration policies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "3340918",
"title": "Samuel Bowers",
"section": "Section::::White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Bowers perceived the original Ku Klux Klan as being too passive. On February 15, 1964, at a meeting in Brookhaven, Mississippi, he convinced about 200 members of the original Knights to defect and join his Klan, to be called the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. He became the group's fraternal \"Imperial Wizard.\" Bowers adopted a code of secrecy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24791745",
"title": "1865 in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Events.:October–December.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "BULLET::::- December 24 – The Ku Klux Klan is formed by six Confederate Army veterans, with support of the Democratic Party, in Pulaski, Tennessee, to resist Reconstruction and intimidate \"carpetbaggers\" and \"scalawags\", as well as to repress the freed slaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44962056",
"title": "Ku Klux Klan in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Operations.:Alberta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The Ku Klux Klan received its charter in September 1932, but questions about the organization's funds led to disputes about Maloney's leadership. On 25 January 1933, he was convicted of stealing legal documents from the office of a lawyer who had opposed incorporation of the Ku Klux Klan, and on 3 February he was convicted of insurance fraud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6a6wa7 | how are open-world video game maps designed? | [
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"answer": "Yep, someone draws every inch. Well, \"models\" is the correct term since it's mostly done in 3D programs now, and there are usually entire teams of designers and the work gets split up among them. It takes a long time to build those kinds of worlds.",
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"answer": "They actually do \"draw\" the world piece by piece. It's usually done by groups of people, not just one dude. They first make a rough terrain curves (hills, rivers, canyons...) then they just polish it till it looks really nice. Then they have to add all the props, like trees, buildings, people... \n\nSo yeah, they are actually modeled inch by inch, there's nothing more complicated in it. \n\nException could be randomly generated games like Minecraft, where the game continues to load new piecea of world. It's not really random, the blocks are dependent on their neighbours. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18493095",
"title": "Open world",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay and design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "Some open-world games, to guide the player towards major story events, do not provide the world's entire map at the start of the game, but require the player to complete a task to obtain part of that map, often identifying missions and points of interest when they view the map. This has been derogatorily referred to as \"Ubisoft towers\", as this mechanic was promoted in Ubisoft's \"Assassin's Creed\" series (the player climbing a large tower as to observe the landscape around it and identify waypoints nearby) and reused in other Ubisoft games, including \"Far Cry\", \"\" and \"Watch Dogs\". Other games that use this approach include \"\" and \"\".\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "23976852",
"title": "Metal Saga: Season of Steel",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "Like most role-playing video games, players travel around the world, buy powerful equipment, battle with monsters and save the world. Unlike all predecessors, the world map uses a 45-degree angle view, and using a point instead town or dungeon' pigeon hole, with the only way from a point to a point; once the player completes the task, the next location will appear on the map.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5471006",
"title": "Cabela's Big Game Hunter 2005 Adventures",
"section": "Section::::Maps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The maps in the game are based off real locations at the coordinates given at each level's loading screen and the player's GPS when opened in the area. Eight of the maps have trails, four have at least one building, and all maps contain some type of body of water. Each location is largely different from the other, a huge departure from its predecessor . The in-game guide at the location menu will explain more about each level's geography, history, and flora and fauna. The guides for the animals of each location explain the species' habits, weights, diets, and other details.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "6820290",
"title": "Atomic Punk",
"section": "Section::::Game A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 402,
"text": "The other map locations are those in which the game action takes place. Each area has a set number of rounds that have to be completed to finish the area. With the exception of Faria, these areas can be played in any order, but one area must be completed before moving onto another. Each area, when completed, unlocks a new panel for sale at the My Town store. The panels that can be unlocked include:\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2082145",
"title": "Lux (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Maps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The original maps are numerous and varied, and most of them are made and submitted by players and casual gamers. Some maps are based on historic battles or wars (e.g., there is a map of the Vietnam War), and others are fantasy realms, inspired by other board games (such as \"Monopoluxy,\" or \"Scrabblux\"), or are simply geometric shapes. In addition, the coding allows for one-way connections on a map, meaning a particular \"country\" may be able to attack another, but not the other way around, which allows for unique strategies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "7158133",
"title": "Civilization (series)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Games are played on either pre-defined or procedurally generated maps, creating a world with varied terrain including mountains and oceans. Map generation can be set by several parameters, such as average climate or landmass types. Maps can vary in size, which will affect the number of civilizations that can be played by that map.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "20116156",
"title": "King's Bounty: Armored Princess",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "The world map is broken up into a number of different islands which can be navigated between via ship. Each island generally has troops of certain types and foes of a certain level range, giving each island a distinctive identity. The player can only travel to islands for which the player has discovered a map, and this mechanic is used to slowly provide additional islands for the player to visit as he or she explores the previous islands. At some point during play, the player's mount gains the ability to fly, making dodging enemies and traversing each island easier.\n",
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4eoupv | Battle of Leuctra - the defeat the broke Sparta's power | [
{
"answer": "**1/3: Historiography**\n\nThe Battle of Leuktra (371 BC) is notoriously difficult to reconstruct. As Pritchett once remarked with obvious exasperation, \"there are more reconstructions of Leuktra than of any other ancient battle, and the end is not in sight.\" There are a number of philological and historiographical reasons for the controversy, but the main one is - ironically - that we have so many sources for the battle. Most Classical Greek engagements are known from just one source. For Leuktra, we have four full accounts:\n\n* Xenophon, *Hellenika* 6.4.9-15. This is the only contemporary source, and written by an experienced commander with close ties to the rulers of Sparta.\n* Diodoros of Sicily, *Library of History* 15.55-56. Written in the 1st century BC, possibly using the lost work of the 4th century BC historian Ephoros as a source.\n* Plutarch, *Life of Pelopidas* 23. Written in the 2nd century AD. Plutarch was himself a Boiotian, and possibly used the lost 4th century BC historical accounts of Ephoros and Kallisthenes.\n* Pausanias, *Tour of Greece* 9.13.3-12. Written in the 2nd century AD, presumably based on local traditions.\n\nIn addition, there are numerous anecdotes about Leuktra in both Polyainos' and Frontinus' collections of stratagems. Now, if all these sources were complementary, we would know more about Leuktra than about any other ancient battle. But, of course, they're not. They offer completely incompatible accounts of the battle that get more fanciful the greater the chronological distance form the actual event.\n\n* **Xenophon** describes a simple battle in which a deep Theban phalanx preceded by a cavalry screen crashed directly into a shallower Spartan formation, making the allies of both sides irrelevant to the course of the battle. As attrition mounted and key officers fell, Spartan morale eventually broke.\n* **Diodoros** has it that the Spartans advanced in a crescent formation, hoping to encircle the outnumbered Theban force. Seeing their advance, the Theban commander Epameinondas deployed his army in echelon to keep his weaker troops out of the fight, and concentrated all his strength on one of the pincers of the Spartan crescent.\n* According to **Plutarch**, the Spartans advanced in line, but attempted to extend their line to the right and then wheel inwards to attack the Theban phalanx in the flank. To prevent this, Epameinondas first ordered his elite Sacred Band to charge into the Spartan wing mid-manoeuvre, and then led the main phalanx against their main force as they tried to regain their formation. Plutarch alone mentions the Sacred Band.\n\nWhat are we to make of all this? For centuries, scholars have recognised that they must choose one account over the others, since they will not coexist. They have offered arguments in favour of all 3 accounts, and their reconstructions of the battle have varied accordingly. I won't bore you with the initial blows of this controversy, which involve a lot of Germans and Gothic script; the key modern interpretation is that of J.K. Anderson.^1 \n\nFirst, Anderson pointed out that Diodoros' account perfectly mirrors the solution offered by Diodoros' contemporary, the tactician Onasander, in the event of encountering an enemy in crescent formation. Since the crescent formation is otherwise unheard of in Classical Greece, it seems all too likely that we should dismiss Diodoros' account as a purely theoretical tactical exercise with no basis in historical reality.\n\nSecond, Anderson argued that Xenophon was biased in favour of the Spartans, that he hated the Thebans, and that he was merely writing an apology for the Spartan defeat. He was not the first to assume that Xenophon's account is basically worthless, but he started a trend in recent scholarship (including notable figures like Buckler^2 and Cartledge^3) that starts from the premise that this contemporary source is best ignored.\n\nThird, he made a forceful argument in favour of Plutarch's account. He pointed out that the manoeuvre described in this account is the same as the one the Spartans used to win at the Nemea in 394 BC, and that it is also described in detail in Xenophon's fictional account of the battle of Thymbrara in the *Kyroupaideia*. Of course, Xenophon would not have described such Spartan sophistication at Leuktra, because he wasn't trying to give an honest account; but Plutarch, according to Anderson, preserved the truth. The Spartans were trying to outmanoeuvre the Thebans, but they were caught off guard by Epameinondas' rapid response; they were no match for the combined might of the Sacred Band and the 50-deep phalanx.\n\nThis interpretation has remained dominant until very recently. The revolt began quietly with Devine, who pointed out that Xenophon, as a contemporary source, probably should be taken seriously.^4 But his own reconstruction of the battle is completely mad. The case was made much more forcefully by V.D. Hanson a few years later.^5 Hanson showed how the accounts of Diodoros and Plutarch were themselves based on unreliable sources already discredited in antiquity, and stressed that we should trust Xenophon, the veteran mercenary general, to know what he was talking about. Indeed, for all its simplicity, Xenophon's version perfectly explains how the battle was won and lost. Hanson then makes the crucial point that modern authors are probably hesitant to rely on Xenophon precisely because he suggests *the Spartans were beaten by very crude tactics and Epameinondas did nothing new.* Modern scholars have been guided by their assumption that the Spartan defeat could only be accounted for by spectacular tactical innovations. This led them to favour the less reliable accounts of Plutarch and Diodoros over the actually quite blunt and honest picture sketched by Xenophon.\n\nNow, I said \"very recently\" because it took a long time for Hanson's view to catch on. A lot of scholars probably still favour Anderson and therefore Plutarch; some might even be in the camp of Hammond and therefore Diodoros. But with Hutchinson,^6 Lendon,^7 Wheeler^8 and others now endorsing Hanson's \"simple\" view of Leuktra, it seems Xenophon and Theban brute force are now gaining ground. It fits much better within the tactical context of 4th century BC Greece than the later accounts. New interpretations of the Sacred Band also support the view that they had no decisive role to play at Leuktra. It would take a lot to persuade scholars to return to accounts that are inevitably later and more derivative.\n\n**References**\n\n1. J.K. Anderson, *Military Theory and Practice in the Age of Xenophon* (1970)\n\n2. J. Buckler, 'Plutarch on Leuktra', *Symbolae Osloenses* 55 (1980), 75-93\n\n3. P. Cartledge, *Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta* (1987)\n\n4. A.M. Devine, 'EMBOɅON: a Study in Tactical Terminology', *Phoenix* 37 (1983), 201-217\n\n5. V.D. Hanson, 'Epameinondas, the Battle of Leuktra (371 B.C.) and the \"Revolution\" in Greek Battle Tactics', *Classical Antiquity* 7 (1988), 190-207\n\n6. G. Hutchinson, *Xenophon and the Art of Command* (2000)\n\n7. J.E. Lendon, *Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity* (2005)\n\n8. E.L. Wheeler (ed.), *The Armies of Classical Greece* (2007)\n",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "36487",
"title": "Sparta",
"section": "Section::::History.:Classical Sparta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "During the Corinthian War, Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states: Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos. The alliance was initially backed by Persia, which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia. Sparta achieved a series of land victories, but many of her ships were destroyed at the battle of Cnidus by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens. The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until Conon the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a helot revolt.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "10377130",
"title": "Spartan army",
"section": "Section::::History.:End of Hegemony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "As Sparta's military power waned, Thebes repeatedly challenged its authority. The ensuing Corinthian War led to the humiliating Peace of Antalcidas that destroyed Sparta's reputation as the protector of the independence of Greek city-states. At the same time, Spartan military prestige suffered a severe blow when a \"mora\" of 600 men was decimated by peltasts (light troops) under the command of the Athenian general Iphicrates. Spartan authority finally collapsed after their disastrous defeat at the Battle of Leuctra by the Thebans commanded by Epaminondas in 371 BC. The battle, in which large numbers of Spartiates were killed, resulted in the loss of the fertile Messenia region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "19375990",
"title": "History of Sparta",
"section": "Section::::4th century BC.:Spartan supremacy.:A new civil war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "During the Corinthian War Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states: Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos. The alliance was initially backed by Persia, whose lands in Anatolia had been invaded by Sparta and which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia. Sparta achieved a series of land victories, but many of her ships were destroyed at the battle of Cnidus by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens. The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until Conon the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a helot revolt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "43968120",
"title": "Theban–Spartan War",
"section": "Section::::378 BC – Theban coup.:Battle of Tegyra.:Battle of Leuctra (371 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
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"text": "The victory at Leuctra shook the foundations of the Spartan dominance of Greece to the core. Since the number of Spartiates was always relatively small, Sparta had relied on her allies in order to field substantial armies. However, with the defeat at Leuctra, the Peloponnesian allies were less inclined to bow to Spartan demands. Furthermore, with the loss of men at Leuctra and other battles, the Spartans were not in a strong position to reassert their dominance over their erstwhile allies.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "82489",
"title": "Epaminondas",
"section": "Section::::Political and military career.:Early career.:Battle of Leuctra (371 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The victory at Leuctra shook the foundations of the Spartan dominance of Greece to the core. Since the number of Spartiates was always relatively small, Sparta had relied on her allies in order to field substantial armies. However, with the defeat at Leuctra, the Peloponnesian allies were less inclined to bow to Spartan demands. Furthermore, with the loss of men at Leuctra and other battles, the Spartans were not in a strong position to reassert their dominance over their erstwhile allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "7996519",
"title": "War against Nabis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "As a result of the war, Sparta lost its position as a major power in Greece. Subsequent Spartan attempts to recover the losses failed and Nabis, the last sovereign ruler, was eventually murdered. Soon after, Sparta was forcibly made a member of its former rival, the Achaean League, ending several centuries of fierce political independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11936957",
"title": "Classical Greece",
"section": "Section::::4th century BC.:The fall of Sparta.:Spartan interventionism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "On the other hand, this peace had unexpected consequences. In accordance with it, the Boeotian League, or Boeotian confederacy, was dissolved in 386 BC. This confederacy was dominated by Thebes, a city hostile to the Spartan hegemony. Sparta carried out large-scale operations and peripheral interventions in Epirus and in the north of Greece, resulting in the capture of the fortress of Thebes, the Cadmea, after an expedition in the Chalcidice and the capture of Olynthos. It was a Theban politician who suggested to the Spartan general Phoibidas that Sparta should seize Thebes itself. This act was sharply condemned, though Sparta eagerly ratified this unilateral move by Phoibidas. The Spartan attack was successful and Thebes was placed under Spartan control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2iff24 | why is drinking sea water lethal, but soups with massive sodium content are acceptable? | [
{
"answer": "Because soups with massive sodium content are still much, much, ***MUCH*** less salty than sea water. That's not to say they're healthy, though, Americans eat way too much sodium as it is. \n\nEdit: in fact, salt water is so salty, that getting a mouthful of it is known to cause immediate vomiting. It's happened to me before. We in the SCUBA diving community call it \"feeding the fishes\". (and yes, when it happens, fishes often crowd around your face to eat your vomit. It's disgusting and cool at the same time)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Salty soup is still far less salt than is in sea water. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others said, huge sodium difference. \n\nAlso, if you are in reach of soup, you're probably not dehydrated as it is. If you're stranded in the middle of the ocean, you're already at a disadvantage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The advisory against drinking sea water is made under the assumption it is your only source of hydration. Unless you can get non-saline water to balance your salt/fluid ratio from somewhere else (like you probably can when your're eating salty soup in a civilized context) then the salt content in the sea-water will kill you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sea water is around 3% salt by weight. Brine used for preserving stuff is at 5%. Chicken noodle soup typically has about .3 grams sodium per 240 gram serving, plus about 1.5 parts by weight chlorine per part by weight sodium for a total of around .8 grams salt per 240 grams, or around .3% salt by weight. Guesstimates made by a drunk person to one significant digit to account for instrument error.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25125130",
"title": "Campbell Soup Company",
"section": "Section::::Health controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Many canned soups, including Campbell's condensed and chunky varieties, contain relatively high quantities of sodium and thus are not desirable for those on low-sodium diets. However, Campbell's Chunky, Healthy Request and other soups, as well as their V-8 and Tomato juices, are claimed by Campbell's to contain reduced sodium levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18132000",
"title": "Low sodium diet",
"section": "Section::::Food and drink contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Because large amounts of salts are given out by regenerative water softeners, over 60 cities in Southern California have banned them because of elevated salt levels in ground water reclamation projects. Water labeled as \"drinking water\" in supermarkets contains natural sodium since it is usually only filtered with a carbon filter and will contain any sodium present in the source water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6443319",
"title": "Instillation abortion",
"section": "Section::::Complications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Saline is in general safer and more effective than the other intrauterine solutions because it is likely to work in one dose. Prostaglandin is fast-acting, but often requires a second injection, and carries more side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3628191",
"title": "Salinometer",
"section": "Section::::See also.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "BULLET::::- Saline (medicine) - A saline solution being isotonic with that of human blood is 0.9% w/v, c. 300 mOsm/L (and this being the same as the salinity of the ocean is a common myth. The ocean on average has a much higher concentration of sodium chloride as well as many other salts. This is why ocean water is not suitable for drinking)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57877",
"title": "Sodium hydroxide",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Water treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Sodium hydroxide is sometimes used during water purification to raise the pH of water supplies. Increased pH makes the water less corrosive to plumbing and reduces the amount of lead, copper and other toxic metals that can dissolve into drinking water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51295444",
"title": "Salt poisoning",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms and physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "255244",
"title": "Seawater",
"section": "Section::::Human consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1v7md5 | How genetically dissimilar are different dog breeds? Could a Sheppard donate a kidney to a Lab? Could a Great Dane donate blood to a Chihuahua? | [
{
"answer": "Great question! Both cats of different breeds and dogs of different breeds are of the same species (*Felis catus* and *Canis lupis familiaris* respectively). As such, they can act as donors within their own species of both blood and organs.\n\nThat being said, there are things that you have to watch out for.\n\n1. When it comes to dogs, with organs that can vary drastically in size between breeds, you have to select animals that are of similar dimensions.\n2. As in other donors/recipients it would be nice to try to match [MHC I](_URL_0_) between the donor and the recipient. This is the molecule on cells that tells the immune system that a cell is either self or non-self. Matching makes the organ less likely to be rejected. This is likely not going to happen since it would be very expensive and time consuming, and most veterinary medicine neither has the time nor the money. As a result, the recipient animal will have to be put on [immuno-suppressive drugs](_URL_1_) for life. This procedure takes place in the case of [feline renal transplantation](_URL_3_) at the University of Pennsylvania.\n3. Dogs can, and often do in emergency trauma cases, receive blood transfusions! They have a set of their own [blood types](_URL_2_), although if the animal has never gotten an transfusion before and it is an emergency, any type will do. After that initial transfusion, antibodies toward the new blood type are formed, and subsequent transfusions must be made with matching blood type.\n\nI hope that answers everything! Source: the above references, and I'm a 2nd year student of veterinary medicine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13351284",
"title": "Emerich Ullmann",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Ullmann was a pioneer of renal transplantation research. In 1902, he performed the first successful renal autotransplantation in a dog. Reportedly, the kidney remained functional for five days. Soon afterwards, he was unsuccessful in trying the first renal xenotransplantation (cross-species transplant) between a goat and a dog. Following an unsuccessful attempt to transplant a pig's kidney into a human patient, who was in the final stage of renal disease, he stopped research of kidney transplantation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3813982",
"title": "Lymphoma in animals",
"section": "Section::::Lymphoma in dogs.:Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Allogeneic and autologous stem cell transplantations (as is commonly done in humans) have recently been shown to be a possible treatment option for dogs. Most of the basic research on transplantation biology was generated in dogs. Current cure rates using stem cell therapy in dogs approximates that achieved in humans, 40-50%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4958092",
"title": "Organ replacement in animals",
"section": "Section::::Blood transfusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "For a blood transfusion to take place, the donor and recipient must be of compatible blood types. Dogs have eleven blood types but are born without antibodies in their blood. For this reason, first time transfusions will not have a reaction, but further transfusions will cause severe reactions if the dog has a mismatch in the DEA1.1 blood type. Because the immune systems of dogs are so fierce, cross-match tests must be performed upon each dog blood transfusion. Only about one in every 15 dogs is negative for all antigens and thus, a universal donor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34751695",
"title": "Pedigree Dogs Exposed: Three Years On",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Inbreeding and genetic diversity.:Boxers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "Breeder Sharon McCurdy who had three of those litters and already lost one dog to the disease, contacted geneticist Bruce Cattanach for help. Cattanach is a Boxer breeder and has been the breed's genetics adviser for more than 30 years. Most cases of kidney disease are not inherited but upon reviewing pedigree information of affected dogs, the disease seemed likely to be inherited in a recessive manner, meaning that puppies are at risk only if both parents carry the faulty gene. Close inbreeding increases the likelihood of recessive genes matching up. Cattanach quickly found more than 30 cases of juvenile kidney disease diagnosed between 2007 and 2010, most are now dead and all closely related. The chance of the disease not being an inherited condition now seems remote. In almost half the cases, Gucci was either the puppies' father or grandfather. Because Gucci is a popular stud dog and had sired 894 puppies, the consequences will be worrying if he turns out to be the source of the gene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5716492",
"title": "Blood type (non-human)",
"section": "Section::::Canine blood groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "Dogs that are DEA 1.1 positive (33 to 45% of the population) are universal recipients - that is, they can receive blood of any type without expectation of a life-threatening hemolytic transfusion reaction. Dogs that are DEA 1.1 negative are universal donors. Blood from DEA 1.1 positive dogs should never be transfused into DEA 1.1 negative dogs. If it is the dog's first transfusion the red cells transfused will have a shortened life due to the formation of alloantibodies to the cells themselves and the animal will forever be sensitized to DEA 1.1 positive blood. If it is a second such transfusion, life-threatening conditions will follow within hours. In addition, these alloantibodies will be present in a female dog's milk (colostrum) and adversely affect the health of DEA 1.1 negative puppies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3626600",
"title": "Machine perfusion",
"section": "Section::::History of kidney preservation techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Belzer demonstrated the applicability of his dog experiments to human kidney storage when he reported his experiences in human renal transplantation using the same storage techniques as he had used for dog kidneys. He was able to store kidneys for up to 50 hours with only 8% of patients requiring post operative dialysis when the donor had been well prepared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4958092",
"title": "Organ replacement in animals",
"section": "Section::::Blood transfusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Cats have A, B, and AB blood types with specific factors, but there is no universal donor type Recipient and donor blood must be properly cross-matched. Red cells from the donor are mixed with the serum of the recipient in major cross-matching. In a minor cross-match, the recipient's red cells are compared with the donor's serum. Blood donors must meet specific requirements in order to qualify to donate. They must weigh at least 50 lb for dogs and 10 lb for cats, have high enough blood component values, and have no infectious diseases. One donation could be used by up to two animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
4c1fan | why is it that whats politically correct sometimes isn't the same as the opinion of the majority? | [
{
"answer": "Let's start off with a statement, society evolves towards increased compassion for all members of society. On the forefront of that evolution is radical thought that tends to be less judgemental of others. For example, native Americans are equal humans (1920s), women are equal humans (1940s), Blacks are equal humans (1950), Gays are equal humans (1990). The population in general is conservative, they find radical though scary. Thus social regulation has to be created to help move on society (equal opportunities acts, etc.) This is called \"political correctness\" in that the politics of the time have moved on past the status quo of the population. \n\nOf course, there are always people looking to mock evolution of society because it scares them a lot. This is usually because they are in some way inadequate and need oppression of sectors of society in order to keep their inadequacy \"punching above their weight\". These people use \"political correctness\" as a mocking term. They are trying to undermine a fairer society so that they don't need to address their own failings. \n\nSo, to answer your question, leaders need to create political correctness in order to evolve our society forward to a better place. By that definition PC will always be pushing the majority ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because \"politically correct\" is a term used to describe compliance with a certain set of values -- either liberal/progressive, or highly tolerant/sensitive, or something like that depending on the speaker.\n\nThis set of values is not necessarily held by the majority of people. In fact some firmly oppose these.",
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"answer": "There was an interesting point that my sociology of cultures teacher brought up, that if laws were made to serve the majority, it would lead to up to 49% of the population being marginalized and discriminated against. It leads to a situation of classes and power differentials. Laws are better off made to serve the needs of the minority groups in a community/society. In this way the majority still has their freedoms and rights and will always be more privileged, but no one is left out of the equality. It took me a while to wrap my head around it but I really agree with that position now. \n\nI also believe that there is always a disparity between the speed a society evolves, grows and improves, and the speed at which individual members of society are able to adapt or grow as people. It takes a lot of personal introspection and energy to, for example, change the way you see someone of a different race after a lifetime of believing something that is actually wrong but is the bedrock of your belief system. Change is scary, and shaking the very foundation of what a person has thought their whole life is a scary place for them, so sometimes people have to be pushed a little, and even if they go the rest of their lives believing that change was wrong, it's to be expected and is no reason not to make that change. \n\nThe American civil rights movement is a good example. The majority of voters in places like Alabama were actually against integrating black people into schools and so on, but it was forced upon them since it's clearly the right thing to do. Most people accepted it once it became clear the sky didn't fall. Others will go to their graves never accepting it, and that's their right. As long as their beliefs are no longer infringing on the rights of someone else, they can be as angry as they want. \n\nAnother example is recycling. A lot of communities full of older people just want to throw everything in the garbage. They're having recycling programs forced on them and told they'll be fined if they are caught throwing recyclables in the garbage. They might hate it, but it's the better way to do things and so they'll have to learn to live in a world where we recycle now, or face the consequences. Ultimately their way was hurting other people, (by polluting and causing environmental damage,) so it has to be changed. Change is hard and scary though... ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Because \"politically correct\" is subjective, and for the most part, doesn't really mean anything.\n\nIt is mostly a straw man used to mock those who would use fear of offending others as a tool to silence those who disagree with them.\n\nConsider gay rights. Some people would call getting offended over an anti-gay slur to being \"politically correct\". Others stalk message boards and call people as homophobic if they don't use the exact labels they consider to be correct. \n\nThe whole politically correct thing runs the gamut between the two, and there is no precise, objective definition of what is or is not politically correct. So it is kind of meaningless to say things like \"gay marriage has been politically correct\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "584318",
"title": "Political polarization",
"section": "Section::::Critiques.:Limitations of the two-party system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "By solely acknowledging voting patterns, one cannot make an accurate conclusion as to the presence or absence of political polarization, because in the United States, there is a limited number of presidential candidates in the two-party system. To assume that the majority of voters are mostly or completely in agreement with the plethora of political issues within their party is a false assumption. Despite contrary beliefs, there are many liberal Republicans and conservative Democrats in the U.S. who have differing political beliefs within their parties. However, these voters most often align with their party because of the limited choice of candidates, and to do otherwise (i.e. vote for a third-party candidate) is perceived as a waste of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "23213",
"title": "Political correctness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "Commentators on the political left in the United States contend that conservatives use the concept of political correctness to downplay and divert attention from substantively discriminatory behavior against disadvantaged groups. They also argue that the political right enforces its own forms of political correctness to suppress criticism of its favored constituencies and ideologies. In the United States, the term has played a major role in the \"culture war\" between liberals and conservatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15861184",
"title": "Media of Norway",
"section": "Section::::Media bias.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The notion of political bias based on the sum of individuals' party selection has been criticized. Among others, conservative historian and politician Francis Sejersted holds that the general media is neither left-slanted nor right-slanted, but \"media-slanted\". This means that media across the political spectrum have a tendency to choose the same angle on a case, focusing on personification and dramatic events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39327843",
"title": "Political opportunism",
"section": "Section::::Dilemmas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Since the majority could be quite wrong in regard to particular issues, however, adapting to that majority opinion on those issues might, in a specific context, be an even bigger error than \"keeping one's principles pure\". This is acknowledged in democratic theory to the extent that democracy is normally thought to involve the civil right of dissent from majority opinion, and consequently also the civil right of a minority viewpoint to exist. It implies that \"the majority could be wrong\", and that the minority could be right, something that could never be corrected efficiently, if minority viewpoints were simply silenced. Because in that case, the minority might not be able to become a majority, even if experience proved the minority correct. That is why it is especially important to evaluate criticisms of \"opportunism\" in context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "842911",
"title": "Bipartisanship",
"section": "Section::::In U.S. politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1449,
"text": "In the United States in 2010, however, there was wide disagreement between the Republicans and Democrats because the minority party has been voting as a bloc against major legislation, according to James Fallows in \"The Atlantic\". In 2010, the minority party has the ability to \"discipline its ranks\" so that none join the majority, and this situation in the Congress is unprecedented, according to Fallows. He sees this inability to have bipartisanship as evidence of a \"structural failure of American government.\" Adviser to President Obama, Rahm Emanuel, said the period from 2008–2010 was marked by extreme partisanship. After the U.S. elections of 2010, with sizeable gains by Republicans in the House and Senate, analyst Charles Babington of the Associated Press suggested that both parties remained far apart on major issues such as immigration and Medicare while there may be chances for agreement about lesser issues such as electric cars, nuclear power, and tax breaks for businesses; Babington was not optimistic about chances for bipartisanship on major issues in the next few years. While analyst Benedict Carey writing in \"The New York Times\" agrees political analysts tend to agree that government will continue to be divided and marked by paralysis and feuding, there was research suggesting that humans have a \"profound capacity through which vicious adversaries can form alliances,\" according to Berkeley professor Dacher Keltner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "851927",
"title": "Obscurantism",
"section": "Section::::Appeal to emotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "In the essay \"Why I Am Not a Conservative\" (1960), the economist Friedrich von Hayek said that political conservatism is ideologically unrealistic, because of the conservative person’s inability to adapt to changing human realities and refusal to offer a positive political program that benefits everyone in a society. In that context, Hayek used the term \"obscurantism\" differently, to denote and describe the denial of the empirical truth of scientific theory, because of the disagreeable moral consequences that might arise from acceptance of fact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15299336",
"title": "Political alienation",
"section": "Section::::Content and categories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "In the current election system in the United States, many voters feel that their vote will not matter in their state if they do not agree with the majority of the population. Voters who usually vote Democrat in the general election, but live in a primarily Republican state, often feel less inclined to vote. The same goes for Republicans who live in a primarily Democratic state. In these situations, voters feel as if their vote no longer matters in the electoral college.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
mgxmt | How can paper be sharp enough to cut through human skin? | [
{
"answer": "Microscopically the edge of paper is like a saw blade rather than a razor, it has to slide along the skin in order to make the cut.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Microscopically the edge of paper is like a saw blade rather than a razor, it has to slide along the skin in order to make the cut.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1534065",
"title": "Kitchen knife",
"section": "Section::::Construction.:Material.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "BULLET::::- Plastic blades are usually not very sharp and are mainly used to cut through vegetables without causing discolouration. They are not sharp enough to cut deeply into flesh, but can cut or scratch skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7354493",
"title": "Book scanning",
"section": "Section::::Destructive scanning methods.:Cutting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "A clean cut through a thick stack of paper cannot be made with a traditional inexpensive sickle-shaped hinged paper cutter. These cutters are only intended for a few sheets, with up to ten sheets being the practical cutting limit. A large stack of paper applies torsional forces on the hinge, pulling the blade away from the cutting edge on the table. The cut becomes more inaccurate as the cut moves away from the hinge, and the force required to hold the blade against the cutting edge increases as the cut moves away from the hinge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315320",
"title": "Blade",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:Dulling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Drawing a blade across any material tends to abrade both the blade, usually making it duller, and the cut material. Though softer than glass or many types of stone used in the kitchen, steel edges can still scratch these surfaces. The resulting scratch is full of very fine particles of ground glass or stone which will very quickly abrade the blade's edge and so dull it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "387961",
"title": "Cutting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Implements commonly used for cutting are the knife and saw, or in medicine and science the scalpel and microtome. However, any sufficiently sharp object is capable of cutting if it has a hardness sufficiently larger than the object being cut, and if it is applied with sufficient force. Even liquids can be used to cut things when applied with sufficient force (see water jet cutter).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148105",
"title": "Scarification",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Cutting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Cutting of the skin for cosmetic purposes is not to be confused with self-harm, which is also referred to by the euphemism \"cutting\". There may be cases of self-mutilation and self-scarification for non-cosmetic reasons. Lines are cut with surgical blades. Techniques include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148105",
"title": "Scarification",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Cutting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "BULLET::::- Skin removal/skinning: Cutting in single lines produces relatively thin scars, and skin removal is a way to get a larger area of scar tissue. The outlines of the area of skin to be removed will be cut, and then the skin to be removed will be peeled away. Scars from this method often have an inconsistent texture, although this relies heavily on the experience of the artist and aftercare of the wound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7354493",
"title": "Book scanning",
"section": "Section::::Destructive scanning methods.:Unbinding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1075,
"text": "More precise and less destructive than cutting pages with a paper guillotine or razor or scissors is the technique of meticulous unbinding by hand, assisted with tools. This technique has been successfully employed for tens of thousands of pages of archival original paper scanned for the Riazanov Library digital archive project from newspapers and magazines and pamphlets, varying from 50 to 100 years old and more, and often composed of fragile, brittle paper. Although the monetary value for some collectors (and for most sellers of this sort of material) is destroyed by unbinding, unbinding in many cases actually greatly assists preservation of the physical pages themselves, making them more accessible to researchers and less likely to be damaged when subsequently examined. The down side is that unbound stacks of pages are \"fluffed up\", and therefore more exposed to oxygen in the air, which may in some cases (theoretically) speed deterioration. This can be addressed by putting weights on the pages after they are unbound, and storage in appropriate containers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4exz9i | is gordan ramsay actually a good chef? | [
{
"answer": "There's not really an objective way to answer your question, tastes can certainly vary. His restaurants have earned 16 Michelin stars, which are pretty sought after, so you may take that as an endorsement. At least some of these stars have been earned while he has been head chef at a location. He's undoubtedly technically skilled. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "636344",
"title": "Gordon Ramsay",
"section": "Section::::Public image and reception.:Personality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1145,
"text": "Ramsay's reputation is built upon his goal of culinary perfection, which is associated with winning three Michelin stars. His mentor, Marco Pierre White noted that he is highly competitive. Since the airing of \"Boiling Point\", which followed Ramsay's quest of earning three Michelin stars, the chef has also become infamous for his fiery temper and use of expletives. Ramsay once famously ejected food critic A. A. Gill, whose dining companion was Joan Collins, from his restaurant, leading Gill to state that \"Ramsay is a wonderful chef, just a really second-rate human being.\" Ramsay admitted in his autobiography that he did not mind if Gill insulted his food, but a personal insult he was not going to stand for. Ramsay has also had confrontations with his kitchen staff, including one incident that resulted in the pastry chef calling the police. A 2005 interview reported Ramsay had retained 85% of his staff since 1993. Ramsay attributes his management style to the influence of previous mentors, notably chefs Marco Pierre White and Guy Savoy, father-in-law, Chris Hutcheson, and Jock Wallace, his manager while a footballer at Rangers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14471626",
"title": "Boiling Point (1998 miniseries)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Chef Ramsay is closely followed during eight of the most intense months of his life as he opens his first (and now flagship) restaurant in Royal Hospital Road in Chelsea in September 1998. This establishment would ultimately earn him the highly prestigious (and rare) three Michelin Stars. It also covers his participation in the dinner made at the Palace of Versailles on 11 July 1998 to celebrate the closing of the 1998 World Cup and features young chefs Marcus Wareing and Mark Sargeant at the early stages of their careers, as well as mentor Marco Pierre White.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636344",
"title": "Gordon Ramsay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 571,
"text": "Gordon James Ramsay (born 8 November 1966) is a British chef, restaurateur, writer, television personality and food critic. Born in Johnstone, Scotland, and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, England, Ramsay's restaurants have been awarded 16 Michelin stars in total and currently hold a total of seven. His signature restaurant, Restaurant Gordon Ramsay in Chelsea, London, has held three Michelin stars since 2001. Appearing on the British television miniseries \"Boiling Point\" in 1998, by 2004 Ramsay had become one of the best-known and most influential chefs in the UK.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636344",
"title": "Gordon Ramsay",
"section": "Section::::Awards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Ramsay's flagship restaurant, Restaurant Gordon Ramsay, was voted London's top restaurant in \"Harden's\" for eight years, but in 2008 was placed below Petrus, a restaurant run by former protégé Marcus Wareing. In January 2013, Ramsay was inducted into the Culinary Hall of Fame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3047715",
"title": "The F Word (British TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Controversy and criticism.:Women in the kitchen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Ramsay's findings were met with mixed reactions. While some of his contemporaries, like Nigella Lawson, previously stated similar opinions, other celebrity chefs, like Clarissa Dickson Wright, felt Ramsay's proposition was \"rubbish and about ten years out of date\". Wright felt that these comments undermined the increased enrollment of women at culinary schools across the United Kingdom. It was claimed that his desire was to help women who want to be able to cook but lack the confidence or motivation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636344",
"title": "Gordon Ramsay",
"section": "Section::::Head chef.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "In 1998, Ramsay opened his own restaurant in Chelsea, Restaurant Gordon Ramsay, with the help of his father-in-law, Chris Hutcheson, and his former colleagues at Aubergine. The restaurant gained its third Michelin star in 2001, making Ramsay the first Scot to achieve that feat. In 2011, \"The Good Food Guide\" listed Restaurant Gordon Ramsay as the second best in the UK, only bettered by The Fat Duck in Bray, Berkshire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28830912",
"title": "Ramsay's Best Restaurant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Ramsay's Best Restaurant is a television programme featuring British celebrity chef Gordon Ramsay broadcast on Channel 4. During the series restaurants from all over Britain competed in order to win the \"Ramsay's Best Restaurant\" title. The initial 16 restaurants were selected by Ramsay from a pool of some 12,000 entries submitted by Channel 4 viewers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2tr77m | was Nero (the emperor) crazy from the beginning ? | [
{
"answer": "I wrote [an answer](_URL_0_) to a similar question a few months back. The tl;dr of it is that Nero likely never was crazy, he was just really unfit to be an emperor of Rome.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7840123",
"title": "Nero in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::Anime/comics/video games/visual novels/books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"The Adventures of Nero\": The title character Nero is named after Nero. In his first debut appearance the character believes himself to be the Roman emperor after drinking poisoned beer. Later he regains his sanity, but all characters kept referring to him as \"Nero\" from that moment onwards. In the album \"De Rode Keizer\" (\"The Red Emperor\", 1952) Nero travels back in time to Ancient Rome and actually meets the real emperor Nero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32770618",
"title": "List of characters in mythology novels by Rick Riordan",
"section": "Section::::\"Camp Half-Blood Chronicles\".:Introduced in \"The Trials of Apollo\".:Triumvirate Holdings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 1207,
"text": "BULLET::::- Emperor Nero – Emperor Nero is a legacy of Apollo and the main antagonist of \"The Hidden Oracle\". The last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Nero is infamous for his tyranny and overindulgence in wealth and luxury with little regard to his subjects. He is the deified Roman Emperor, who has survived through the millennia along with two other deified Roman emperors—the Triumvirate. He forms an alliance with Python, who holds Delphi, while he himself controls the other oracles and plans to destroy Dodona. As the Emperor of the East, Nero lives in New York City, where he recruits and trains homeless demigods, and controls the eastern third of North America. He and the other two Roman Emperors have established Triumvirate Holdings. As \"the Beast\", Nero killed Meg's father, but later adopted and trained her in demigod arts so she could eventually lure Apollo into the Grove of Dodona. After Rhea restores the Grove of Dodona at Camp Half-Blood, Nero tries to force Apollo and Meg to burn the trees; failing at that, he sends a giant statue of himself, the Colossus Neronis, which originally stood in Rome, against Camp Half-Blood and Apollo and the Greek demigods defend the camp against it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3798927",
"title": "The Story Keepers",
"section": "Section::::Recurring characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "BULLET::::- Emperor Nero, played by Tim Curry, is the Caesar in Rome during the series. He launches the campaign to wipe Christianity out of the empire. Nero is portrayed in the series as a short, skinny man who likes playing the lyre and singing, but has no skill for either. He is gullible, not recognizing his own favorite baker in disguise. The Storykeepers series promotes the theory that it was Nero who started the fire in Rome on July 18, 64 AD. In the series, this is not the only fire Nero sanctions. In \"Ready, Aim, Fire,\" he allows his centurion Nihilus to launch fire bombs into the merchant district, wanting to clear space to build a pantheon. Unlike the rest of the characters who have typical American accents Nero speaks with a British accent and a Lisp. Nero has Sinus problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "664294",
"title": "The Austere Academy",
"section": "Section::::Cultural references.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "BULLET::::- Vice Principal Nero is a reference to the Emperor Nero, a Roman Emperor whose reign is often associated with tyranny and greed. Emperor Nero allegedly \"fiddled while Rome burned.\" Emperor Nero was also famous for forcing many of his subjects to sit through extended theatrical pieces created and performed by himself. This is reflected in Vice Principal Nero's awful violin recitals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50544339",
"title": "The Hidden Oracle",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.:Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "BULLET::::- Nero: is the main antagonist. He is a legacy of Apollo and a Roman Emperor, infamous for his tyranny and luxury with little regard for his subjects. Alongside the other two Emperors, Nero has influenced many events in history through Triumvirate Holdings, using the company to supply funding for Luke Castellan during \"Percy Jackson & the Olympians\" and Octavian and Camp Jupiter during \"The Heroes of Olympus\". Because of his fame, he has always been worshiped throughout history, so he can not die. He refers to himself as a \"god-emperor\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7840123",
"title": "Nero in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::Anime/comics/video games/visual novels/books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"\": Nero is the emperor of Rome and plays as the antagonist. Contrary to popular belief, his sons portrayed in the game share no kinship with the emperor in real life and were based off real emperors Basil I, Basil II, and Commodus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521555",
"title": "Ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Empire – the Principate.:Julio-Claudian dynasty.:From Tiberius to Nero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of Christians and for the Great Fire of Rome, rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself. In 59 AD he murdered his mother and in 62 AD, his wife Claudia Octavia. Never very stable, he allowed his advisers to run the government while he slid into debauchery, excess, and madness. He was married three times, and had numerous affairs with both men and women, and, according to some rumors, even his mother. A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under Calpurnius Piso failed, but in 68 AD the armies under Julius Vindex in Gaul and Servius Sulpicius Galba in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
4iboh5 | Are there any studies that show other species to be capable of lying/dishonesty? | [
{
"answer": "This was a guestion in AMA with Sir David Attenborough:\n\nIn all your time of shooting nature programs, what is the most human thing you have ever witnessed an animal do?\n\nA chimpanzee does in fact tell lies. If you can believe that. Also, when some Colobus monkeys find a very precious piece of food, it calls the alarm call that it would make if a snake were to arrive, and all the other monkeys run away and it gets the food.",
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"answer": "There was a case where a gorilla blamed a cat for destroying a sink, using limited sign language. So lying seems to be possiblefor animals beside humans. Talking to animals is pretty hard, as you need to raise them while teaching them a form of language, so it might as well be possible for pigs or dolphins to lie, but theres currently no evidence to back that up.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "484942",
"title": "Gelada",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Social structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "Researchers from the University of the Free State (UFS) in South Africa, while observing gelada during field studies, discovered that the monkeys were capable of 'cheating' on their partners and covering up their 'infidelity'. A non-dominant male would mate surreptitiously with a female, suppressing their normal mating cries so as not to be overheard. If discovered, the dominant male would attack the miscreants in a clear form of punishment. It is the first time that evidence of the knowledge of cheating and fear of discovery has been recorded among animals in the wild. Dr. Aliza le Roux of the university's Department of Zoology and Entomology believes that dishonesty and punishment are not uniquely human traits, and that the observed evidence of this behaviour among gelada monkeys suggests that the roots of the human system of deceit, crime and punishment lie very deep indeed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38919300",
"title": "Deception in animals",
"section": "Section::::Tactical deception.:Costs of tactical deception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Withholding information, a form of tactical deception, can be costly to the deceiver. For example, rhesus monkeys discovering food announce their discoveries by calling on 45% of occasions. Discoverers who fail to call, but are detected with food by other group members, receive significantly more aggression than vocal discoverers. Moreover, silent female discoverers eat significantly less food than vocal females. Presumably because of such costs to deceivers, tactical deception occurs rather rarely. It is thought to be more common in forms and species where the cost of ignoring the possibly deceptive act is even higher than the cost of believing. For example, tufted capuchin monkeys sometimes emit false alarm calls. The cost of ignoring one of these calls could be death, which may lead to a \"better safe than sorry\" philosophy even when the caller is a known deceiver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24306844",
"title": "Fish intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Deception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "There are several examples of fish being deceptive, suggesting to some researchers that they may possess a theory of mind. However, most of the observations of deception can be understood as instinctive patterns of behavior that are triggered by specific environmental events, and they do not require a fish to understand of the point of view of other individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5067510",
"title": "Lie detection",
"section": "Section::::General accuracy and limitations of assessment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The cumulative research evidence suggests that machines do detect deception better than chance, but with significant error rates and that strategies used to \"beat\" polygraph examinations, so-called countermeasures, may be effective. Despite unreliability, results are admissible in court in some countries such as Japan. Lie detector results are very rarely admitted in evidence in the US courts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151604",
"title": "Deception",
"section": "Section::::In psychological research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "Additionally, findings suggest that deception is not harmful to subjects. Christensen's (1988) review of the literature found \"that research participants do not perceive that they are harmed and do not seem to mind being misled\" (p. 668). Furthermore, those participating in experiments involving deception \"reported having enjoyed the experience more and perceived more educational benefit\" than those who participated in non-deceptive experiments (p. 668). Lastly, it has also been suggested that an unpleasant treatment used in a deception study or the unpleasant implications of the outcome of a deception study may be the underlying reason that a study using deception is perceived as unethical in nature, rather than the actual deception itself (Broder, 1998, p. 806; Christensen, 1988, p. 671).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38919300",
"title": "Deception in animals",
"section": "Section::::Tactical deception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1297,
"text": "Deceptive behaviour has been observed in Old World monkeys including baboons (\"Papio ursinus\"). In one of their articles, Byrne and Whiten recorded observations of \"intimate tactical deception\" within a group of baboons, and documented examples that they classified as follows: A juvenile using warning screams to gain access to underground food storages which otherwise would have been inaccessible; an exaggerated \"looking\" gesture (which in an honest context would mean detection of a predator) produced by a juvenile to avoid attack by an adult male; recruitment of a \"fall-guy\" (a third party used by the deceiver to draw attention or aggression); and using one's own movement pattern to draw group-mates away from food caches. Byrne and Whiten also broke these categories into subcategories denoting the modality of the action (e.g. vocalization) and what the action would have signified if observed in an honest context. They noted whether the individual that had been manipulated was in turn used to manipulate others, what the costs had been to the manipulated individual, and whether or not there were additional costs to third parties. Byrne and Whiten expressed concern that these observations might be exceptions, and that such deceptive behaviors might not be common to the species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26990",
"title": "Social psychology",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The practice of deception has been challenged by some psychologists who maintain that deception under any circumstances is unethical, and that other research strategies (e.g., role-playing) should be used instead. Unfortunately, research has shown that role-playing studies do not produce the same results as deception studies and this has cast doubt on their validity. In addition to deception, experimenters have at times put people into potentially uncomfortable or embarrassing situations (e.g., the Milgram experiment and Stanford prison experiment), and this has also been criticized for ethical reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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f5q0u | I was spinning in my chair today (question about centripetal and -fugal forces.) | [
{
"answer": "There could be little subtleties that your brain picked up on, like slight wind resistance in the direction of motion, or the apparent motion of certain light intensities in the room that you could perceive through your eye-lids, etc.\n\nBut you're correct that, under ideal conditions, it should feel exactly the same whether you spin one direction or the other.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The construction of the inner ear (see [semicircular canals](_URL_0_)) allows you to detect the direction of acceleration. Once the turbulence in your inner ear settles, you will perceive yourself to be at rest as long as you don't feel acceleration, ignoring the sorts of small details mentioned in other comments.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From [Wikipedia](_URL_0_):\n > The labyrinth of the inner ear [...] contains i) the cochlea (yellow), which is the peripheral organ of our auditory system; ii) the semicircular canals (brown), which transduce **rotational movements**; and iii) the otolithic organs (in the blue/purple pouches), which transduce linear accelerations.\n\nIt seems that we not only have built-in accelerometers, but also gyroscopes (which tell you your rotation speed and direction)\n\nEdit: formatting",
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"answer": "The Coriolis force can help you decide in which direction and how fast you are spinning, but only if you move something outwards.\n\nFor example you suddenly move your arm forward, if you are spinning clockwise and want your arm to keep the same angular velocity as the chair, i.e. keep it rigid, you will feel a force to the left that you will have to compensate for. Since your arm was at your chest (or whatever) before, it had a lower absolute velocity compared to your fingertips after you stretched out your arm. If you are spinning counter-clockwise, you will feel a force to the right. \n\nIn other words, after you stretch out your arm, your total angular velocity will have decreased, which means there was a phase of deceleration in a certain direction, breaking the symmetry, which you should be able to detect.\n \nThis is why ice figure skater can control their angular velocity by pulling their arms in or stretching them out. I hope I could adequately explain what is going on.\nI could imagine that the human body has some mechanism built in so you don't need to stretch your arms, but I don't know anything about that, so I'll have to refer you to the other posts.",
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"answer": "This might be an inner-ear thing, but this happened to me this weekend:\n\nI was on one of those self-push merry go rounds. With the blue arrow being your body's \"forward,\" coming out of your chest, turn your head 180 degrees. If you switch from looking towards the center to away from it (with your eyes closed), you can convince yourself you went from doing front flips to doing back flips (in addition to getting sick). _URL_0_\n\nFor this to work, I suspect your head can't lie on the axis of revolution, so I don't know if this would be possible in a desk chair.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "19265670",
"title": "Centrifugal force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In Newtonian mechanics, the centrifugal force is an inertial force (also called a \"fictitious\" or \"pseudo\" force) that appears to act on all objects when viewed in a rotating frame of reference. It is directed away from an axis passing through the coordinate system's origin and parallel to the axis of rotation. If the axis of rotation passes through the coordinate system's origin, the centrifugal force is directed radially outwards from that axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "19265670",
"title": "Centrifugal force",
"section": "Section::::History of conceptions of centrifugal and centripetal forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Centrifugal force has also played a role in debates in classical mechanics about detection of absolute motion. Newton suggested two arguments to answer the question of whether absolute rotation can be detected: the rotating bucket argument, and the rotating spheres argument. According to Newton, in each scenario the centrifugal force would be observed in the object's local frame (the frame where the object is stationary) only if the frame were rotating with respect to absolute space. Nearly two centuries later, Mach's principle was proposed where, instead of absolute rotation, the motion of the distant stars relative to the local inertial frame gives rise through some (hypothetical) physical law to the centrifugal force and other inertia effects. Today's view is based upon the idea of an inertial frame of reference, which privileges observers for which the laws of physics take on their simplest form, and in particular, frames that do not use centrifugal forces in their equations of motion in order to describe motions correctly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "23690972",
"title": "History of centrifugal and centripetal forces",
"section": "Section::::Eighteenth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The force in question was perpendicular to both the velocity of an object relative to a rotating frame of reference and the axis of rotation of the frame. Compound centrifugal force eventually came to be known as the Coriolis Force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1209823",
"title": "Rotating reference frame",
"section": "Section::::Centrifugal force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "In classical mechanics, centrifugal force is an outward force associated with rotation. Centrifugal force is one of several so-called pseudo-forces (also known as inertial forces), so named because, unlike real forces, they do not originate in interactions with other bodies situated in the environment of the particle upon which they act. Instead, centrifugal force originates in the rotation of the frame of reference within which observations are made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "23690972",
"title": "History of centrifugal and centripetal forces",
"section": "Section::::Eighteenth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "It wasn't until the latter half of the 18th century that the modern \"fictitious force\" understanding of the centrifugal force as a pseudo-force artifact of rotating reference frames took shape. In a 1746 memoir by Daniel Bernoulli, \"the idea that the centrifugal force is fictitious emerges unmistakably.\" Bernoulli, in seeking to describe the motion of an object relative to an arbitrary point, showed that the magnitude of the centrifugal force depended on which arbitrary point was chosen to measure circular motion about. Later in the 18th century Joseph Louis Lagrange in his \"Mécanique Analytique\" explicitly stated that the centrifugal force depends on the rotation of a system of perpendicular axes. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "19265670",
"title": "Centrifugal force",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "BULLET::::- Centrifuges are used in science and industry to separate substances. In the reference frame spinning with the centrifuge, the centrifugal force induces a hydrostatic pressure gradient in fluid-filled tubes oriented perpendicular to the axis of rotation, giving rise to large buoyant forces which push low-density particles inward. Elements or particles denser than the fluid move outward under the influence of the centrifugal force. This is effectively Archimedes' principle as generated by centrifugal force as opposed to being generated by gravity.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "19265670",
"title": "Centrifugal force",
"section": "Section::::Absolute rotation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Within this view of physics, any other phenomenon that is usually attributed to centrifugal force can be used to identify absolute rotation. For example, the oblateness of a sphere of freely flowing material is often explained in terms of centrifugal force. The oblate spheroid shape reflects, following Clairaut's theorem, the balance between containment by gravitational attraction and dispersal by centrifugal force. That the Earth is itself an oblate spheroid, bulging at the equator where the radial distance and hence the centrifugal force is larger, is taken as one of the evidences for its absolute rotation.\n",
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ewrurj | In the 1970s UK sitcom Fawlty Towers, a few guests are shown to live permanently at the hotel. Was this common during this time? What factors led people to choose life in a hotel, and did this have a long history? | [
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"answer": "Hotel living has a *long* history--the *Eloise* books by Kay Thompson are probably the most famous example. I can talk a little bit about some of the earlier history, specifically, hotel living in Paris!\n\n*(This is adapted from several of my earlier answers with some new stuff thrown in).*\n\nParis is the City of Lights...but it sure wasn't very lit in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when it had one of the lowest electrification rates of any major city. It also had one of the worst housing situations in the Euro-American world, especially given the *doubling* of the population between 1871-1920. As you can imagine, this burden fell mostly on immigrants and the lower classes.\n\nAttempts at mitigating the horrific conditions, like establishing factories in the suburbs instead of the city (with extensive slum settlements building up around them), or even some government-sponsored housing projects, could never come even close to meeting demand.\n\nAs a result, Paris even more so than other cities developed a system of \"hotels.\"\n\nBut these are not what we often talk about in the U.S. at the time--the de facto boarding houses for single men where housekeepers would take care of \"women's work\" for them, or for single working women where they could be watched and \"stay respectable.\"\n\nNo, these were tenements with really lousy--metaphorically and often literally--living conditions.\n\nThe *hotels garnis* resembled very lousy--metaphorically and often literally--versions of our hotels today: single-room \"apartments\" with no kitchen. (Although, sometimes also no bathroom). They even often had a restaurant on the ground floor. So when you hear about Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre spending all their time in cafes...well, guess what.\n\nParisian hotels were filled with transient workers, new immigrants, basically the young and poor--single women and men, single women with children, young couples.\n\n\nTo give you an idea of the conditions of the worse of these: Helmut Gruber describes housing for the working women of Paris (in the slum tenements known as \"insalubrious islands\" and in the hotels garnis) as:\n\n > The majority lived in domiciles lacking indoor water, heat, electricity, daylight, and ventilation, and they shared slovenly sanitary facilities...It is difficult to imagine where and how they actually washed their clothes, and how often...The absence of hygiene is evident from reports by teachers of the lack of cleanliness of children and from the high death rate from tuberculosis and pulmonary disease.\n\nBut despite these conditions, hotel residents weren't all just sitting around cafes philosophizing. Gruber also notes that tenement and hotel residents were *very* active organizing in order to keep rents down to something they could afford on their salaries, protesting to the government to enforce protections for them against landlords/slumlords.\n\n~~\n\n*We used to have a really great answer on the U.S. end of things I mentioned, but that user seems to have deleted it.*",
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"wikipedia_id": "36061113",
"title": "Grand Hotel, Birmingham",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
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"text": "The hotel's heyday was in the early 20th century, when it played host to royalty, politicians and film stars as well as staging many dinners, concerts and dances in the Grosvenor Suites. King George VI, Winston Churchill, Neville Chamberlain, Charlie Chaplin, James Cagney and Joe Louis attended functions or stayed in the hotel at this time. Despite its previous success, as the century continued, the hotel ran into financial difficulties and closed in 1969. Hickmet Hotels took lease of the hotel in 1972, and even after a £500,000 refurbishment, trading conditions proved difficult, and they fell into receivership in 1976.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "41049579",
"title": "Gleneagles Hotel, Torquay",
"section": "",
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"text": "The Gleneagles Hotel was a hotel in Torquay, Devon, England. The 41-bed establishment, which opened in the 1960s, was the inspiration for \"Fawlty Towers\", a British situation comedy first broadcast in the mid-1970s. John Cleese, and his then wife Connie Booth, were inspired to write the series after they had stayed at the hotel and witnessed the eccentric behaviour of its owner, Donald Sinclair (who sold the hotel in 1973). Later the hotel was managed by Best Western. In February 2015 the hotel closed. It will be replaced by retirement apartments.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "31297695",
"title": "Buckingham Hotel",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 653,
"text": "It was common for guests to live permanently at the hotel, including the hotel's president, Walter James Holbrook. Capitalist Ellis Wainwright died in the hotel in 1924, after living there as a recluse. After 1920, the hotel faced stiff competition from the Chase Hotel, just a block north, and declined in significance. In December 1927, a fire in the hotel's annex led to the death of seven people. The Buckingham Realty Company, which operated the hotel, fell into bankruptcy in 1928, and it sealed the fate of the Buckingham Hotel; the intermingled accounts of the Buckingham Hotel Property and the Buckingham Annex constituted part of the problem.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "4456650",
"title": "Strand Palace Hotel",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "Once again, the hotel became an important social venue, as Londoners and war-weary soldiers jived and jitterbugged long into the night. Over the years, many of these service personnel have returned to relive memories, and today their families and relatives still visit the Strand. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "492132",
"title": "Waldorf Astoria New York",
"section": "Section::::Notable residents and tenants.:Celebrities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
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"text": "The hotel has had many well known under its roof throughout its history, including Charlie Chaplin, Ava Gardner, Liv Ullmann, Edward G. Robinson, Gregory Peck, Ray Bolger, John Wayne, Tony Bennett, Jack Benny, Katharine Hepburn, Spencer Tracy, Muhammad Ali, Vince Lombardi, Judy Garland, Sonny Werblin, Greer Garson, Harold Lloyd, Liberace, Burt Reynolds, Robert Montgomery, Cesar Romero, and many others. Due to the number of high-profile guests staying at the hotel at any one time, author Ward Morehouse III has referred to the Towers as a \"kind of vertical Beverly Hills. On any one given night you might find Dinah Shore, Gregory Peck, Frank Sinatra [or] Zsa Zsa Gabor staying there\". Gabor married Conrad Hilton in 1941. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "8586662",
"title": "Ritz-Carlton Montreal",
"section": "Section::::Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "In the years before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the hotel enjoyed a period of great prosperity. In 1918, Lord Birkenhead described it as \"very luxurious and comfortable\" and the American Bankers Association held their annual meetings there. In 1919, the Prince of Wales made the first Royal visit, staying in the seventeen-room \"Royal Suite\". On successive trips to Montreal he stayed in private houses, but always met friends for drinks there. Queen Marie of Romania, Prince Felix of Luxembourg and Prince George, Duke of Kent were also guests in the 1920s. Lillie Langtry stayed, as did movie idols such as Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks. Former US President William Howard Taft and his wife \"entertained lavishly\" in the \"Presidential Suite\" for all of 1921.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "53218242",
"title": "Hôtel des Alpes-Grand Hôtel",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "Among the Hôtel's many notable guests were Elisabeth of Bavaria, who visited four times, and Francis Joseph I of Austria in 1893. The Hôtel built on this success, housing the first telephone in Switzerland. In 1975 it closed and its main hall and dining hall were turned into a theatre, whilst the Grand Hôtel's bedrooms became the National Swiss Audiovisual Museum, though this closed in 2008 and left the premises in 2012 to allow for their renovation. The two buildings are classed as cultural monuments. It suffered fires on 29 January 1984 and 28 September 2012.\n",
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dympbs | Why did 20th amendment required 3/4 of the states to be ratified? | [
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"answer": "I think a couple of things are getting mixed up here. \n\nFor the process of amending the Constitution, as laid out in the 1787 document (Article V), here is the original language:\n\n > The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.\n\nSo what that means: first a Constitutional amendment needs to be passed by two thirds of each house of Congress, or two thirds of the states need to call for a Convention to propose amendments.\n\nHowever, once an Amendment passes this stage, it needs approval by three fourths of the states. This can either come in the form of the state legislatures voting for the amendment, or through special state conventions elected to vote for or against the amendment. \n\nEvery single constitutional amendment to date has been passed through Congress. All of those amendments bar one (the 21st Amendment, repealing the 18th Amendment) were approved by state legislatures, rather than state conventions. \n\nThe method of proposing amendments through a Convention requested by at least two thirds of the states has to date never actually been attempted, and it's not very clear just how this process would even work in practice.\n\nThe notable feature of Section 6 is less the ratification requirement of three fourths of the states, which is constitutionally-required, but the deadline for ratification of seven years. This is a feature for constitutional amendments that was introduced in the 20th century - the 18th, 20th, 21st and 22nd Amendments have deadlines in the text of the amendment, and the 23rd, 24th, 25th and 26th amendments have deadlines in the introductory text of the amendment as passed by Congress. The 27th Amendment notably had no deadline as it was originally approved by Congress as part of the package of Amendments known as the Bill of Rights, was ratified by a few states, and then largely left \"dormant\" until being rediscovered by an undergraduate student at University of Texas Austin, Gregory Watson. His paper on the amendment got a C from his TA, but ultimately his research led to a campaign to get the amendment ratified by three fourths of the states, which happened in 1992.\n\nSo why time limits? Richard F. Hamm's *Shaping the Eighteenth Amendment* gives some clues as to why this particular amendment was the first one to have such a rider successfully attached. Opponents of Prohibition had originally wanted a two year grace period for implementation after ratification, and/or compensation to brewers and distilleries - Congress eventually came up with a one year period. Opponents also saw a seven year window for ratification as \"fair\" - the original proposal from then Ohio Senator Warren Harding was for four years. It was basically a means of weakening attempts to block the passage in Congress by providing a window of time to prevent passage in the states.\n\nOf course, it's not super clear just how constitutional or binding time limits are. In 1921 the Supreme Court heard *Dillon v. Gloss*, in which, to make a long story short, an arrest under the Volstead Act (enforcing alcohol prohibition) was contested under the pretext that adding a time limit to the 18th Amendment invalidated the whole amendment process. The Supreme Court basically said: \"Time limits are fine, we guess.\" But notably the 18th Amendment had been ratified by the necessary states before the time limit was up, so it wasn't necessarily a very tough call to make. \n\nOf course there is a potentially interesting case to be made about the legality of time limits because of the Equal Rights Amendment, passed in Congress in 1972 with a seven year limit, that in 1978 was extended to a ten year limit (ie, to 1982). This ten year limit was set by a resolution voted on by a simple majority, and in any case due to increasing political resistance, it was not passed by the necessary states by 1982 (although four states rescinded their ratifications in the 1970s, and this isn't something provided for or forbidden in the Constitution). Of course several states have since ratified the amendment, with Illinois being the 37th in 2017. If a 38th state ratified the amendment - well, it's not 100% clear just what would happen.\n\nTo go back to Article V, note the two exceptions to the amendment process: no amendment could ban the slave trade before 1808 (when Congress was constitutionally allowed to ban it), and no amendment can change the number of Senators each states has (it's theoretically an un-amendable part of the Constitution, unless each State agrees to it).",
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"wikipedia_id": "70133",
"title": "Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Proposal and ratification.:Ratification by the states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "To become valid as part of the Constitution, the Twenty-third Amendment needed to be ratified by the legislatures of three-quarters of the states (38, following admission of Alaska and Hawaii to the union in 1959) within seven years from its submission to the states by Congress (June 16, 1967). President Eisenhower, along with both major party candidates in the 1960 presidential election, Vice President Richard Nixon and Senator John F. Kennedy from Massachusetts, endorsed the proposal. Amendment supporters ran an effective ratification campaign, mobilizing persons in almost every state to press for its approval.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "9119240",
"title": "United States Bill of Rights",
"section": "Section::::Proposal and ratification.:Ratification process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years. The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise. A century later, on March 6, 1978, the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article. Gregory Watson, a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student, started a new push for the article's ratification with a letter-writing campaign to state legislatures. As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The amendment's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "35487098",
"title": "May 1912",
"section": "Section::::May 13, 1912 (Monday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "BULLET::::- The U.S. House of Representatives voted 237-39 to send the proposed Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution to the 48 states for ratification. The amendment, which provided for U.S. Senators to be elected directly by popular vote, rather than by the state legislatures, followed 86 years worth of rejections. In 1894, 1898, 1900 and 1902, the House had approved an amendment and the Senate had rejected it. The Amendment would be ratified by April 8, 1913, after Connecticut became the 36th of 48 states to give its approval.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "70136",
"title": "Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Proposal and ratification.:Ratification by the states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Having been passed by the 92nd United States Congress, the proposed Twenty-sixth Amendment was sent to the state legislatures for their consideration. Ratification was completed on July 1, 1971, after the amendment had been ratified by the following thirty-eight states:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "70138",
"title": "Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.:Proposal by Congress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "What would become the Twenty-seventh Amendment was listed second among the twelve proposals sent to the states for their consideration on September 25, 1789. Ten of these, numbers 3–12, were ratified fifteen months later and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights. The remaining proposal, the Congressional Apportionment Amendment, has not been ratified by enough states to make it part of the Constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "70134",
"title": "Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Proposal and ratification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Congress proposed the Twenty-fourth Amendment on August 27, 1962. The amendment was submitted to the states on September 24, 1962, after it passed with the requisite two-thirds majorities in the House and Senate. The following states ratified the amendment:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "365185",
"title": "Titles of Nobility Amendment",
"section": "Section::::Legislative and ratification history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "When the proposed amendment was submitted to the states, ratification by 13 states was required for it to become part of the Constitution; 11 had done so by early 1812. However, with the addition of Louisiana into the Union that year (April 30, 1812), the ratification threshold rose to 14. Thus, when New Hampshire ratified it in December 1812, the proposed amendment again came within 2 states of being ratified. No additional states ratified the proposed amendment and when Indiana and Mississippi were established as states (December 11, 1816, and December 10, 1817, respectively) the threshold rose again to 15. Today, with 50 states in the Union, it has climbed to 38 and ratification by 26 additional states would be necessary in order to incorporate the proposed amendment into the Constitution.\n",
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60kzbf | What do we know about the fowl of the roman empire? | [
{
"answer": "Fortunately there is a cook book from the late 4th or early 5th century CE. That book is Apicius. Keep in mind these recipes would have been for the upper class of society. There is a section on fowl which includes chicken, pheasant, goose, duck and doves. It also includes ostrich and peacock along with a few others. If you'd like you can check out the book at the following link from project Gutenberg.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nYou are also correct in turkey being a recent addition to European cuisine. The turkey is among one of the New World foods. ",
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"wikipedia_id": "172716",
"title": "Caltrop",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Caltrops were known to the Romans as \"tribulus\" or sometimes as \"murex ferreus\", the latter meaning 'jagged iron' (literally 'iron jagged thing'). They were also used in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "19131037",
"title": "Cossus cossus",
"section": "Section::::As a food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Pliny reported in \"Natural History\" that a grub which he gives the name \"cossus\" was considered a Roman delicacy after it was fed with flour. Some writers have equated this with \"Cossus cossus\", but Pliny specifies that his \"cossus\" is found in oak trees, which makes this identification unlikely. Pliny's \"cossus\" is more likely to have been the larva of the beetle \"Cerambyx heros\".\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "5855918",
"title": "Archimylacris",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "\"Archimylacris\" lived on the warm, swampy forest floors of North America and Europe 300 million years ago, in the Late Carboniferous times. Like modern cockroaches, this insect had a large head shield with long, curved antennae, or feelers, and folded wings. To a modern observer, it would likely appear as a moderate-sized cockroach, with a \"tail\" (ovipositor) in the female. Presumably, its habits would be cockroach-like, too, scurrying along the undergrowth eating anything edible, possibly falling prey to labyrinthodont amphibians and very early reptiles.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1441273",
"title": "Pigs of the Roman Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Pigs of the Roman Empire is an album by the American alternative metal group Melvins and electronic musician Lustmord, which was released in 2004 through Ipecac Recordings. Adam Jones, guitarist for Tool, also makes substantial contributions to the album. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "59400",
"title": "Rust (fungus)",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Rusts can produce up to five spore types from corresponding fruiting body types during their life cycle, depending on the species. Roman numerals have traditionally been used to refer to these morphological types.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "78452",
"title": "Ceres (mythology)",
"section": "Section::::Cults and cult themes.:The \"mundus\" of Ceres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1253,
"text": "Roman tradition held that the \"mundus\" had been dug and sealed by Romulus as part of Rome's foundation; Plutarch compares it to pits dug by Etruscan colonists, containing soil brought from their parent city, used to dedicate the first fruits of the harvest. Warde Fowler speculates the \"mundus\" as Rome's first storehouse (\"penus\") for seed-grain, later becoming the symbolic \"penus\" of the Roman state. In the oldest known Roman calendar, the days of the \"mundus\" are marked as C(omitiales) (days when the Comitia met). Later authors mark them as \"dies religiosus\" (when no official meetings could be held). Some modern scholars seek to explain this as the later introduction and accommodation of Greek elements, grafted onto the original \"mundus\" rites. The rites of August 24 were held between the agricultural festivals of Consualia and Opiconsivia; those of October 5 followed the \"Ieiunium Cereris\", and those of November 8 took place during the Plebeian Games As a whole, the various days of the \"mundus\" suggest rites to Ceres as the guardian deity of seed-corn in the establishment of cities, and in her function as a door-warden of the afterlife, which was co-ruled during the winter months by her daughter Proserpina, queen-companion to Dis.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "26574",
"title": "Rooster",
"section": "Section::::Emblems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 2116,
"text": "The cockerel was already of symbolic importance in Gaul at the time of the invasion of Julius Caesar and was associated with the god Lugus. Today the Gallic rooster is an emblem of France. The rooster is also an emblem of Wallonia and the Turkish city of Denizli. Among Roman deities, Priapus was sometimes represented as a cock, with its beak as a phallus and its wattles as testicles. The cock or a man with rooster attributes was similarly used as an erotic symbol, \"Priapus Gallinaceus\" The Cockburn clan in Scotland use the cock as their badge. Their canting coat-of-arms is \"Argent three cocks gules\", and their motto is ACCENDIT CANTU (Latin: He rouses us with song). A fighting cockerel on a ball is the symbol of Tottenham Hotspur Football Club. The cockerel wears a pair of spurs which is a reference to the club's nickname. It has been present on their crest and shield since 1901. Additionally, the cockerel is the emblem of Turkish sports club Denizlispor, which was founded in 1966. Also, the supporters of the club are called cockerels. Another soccer club that uses a rooster as its symbol is the Clube Atlético Mineiro, from Brazil. The supporters of the club and the supporters of other Brazilian clubs, often refer to Mineiro as \"Galo\", which means rooster in Portuguese. The \"Crazy Rooster\", a symbol of Clube Atlético Mineiro. In Australia, the Sydney Roosters, who play in the National Rugby League have adopted the cockerel as its emblem. The Roosters' emblem is a cock with its comb fashioned to represent the Sydney Opera House. Jesus College in the University of Cambridge features roosters on its coat of arms, which is a pun on the name of the college's founder, John Alcock. The University of South Carolina features a Gamecock, or fighting cockerel, as its mascot for all athletic programs. The Coat of arms of Kenya features a rooster holding an axe. The emblem of Chianti Classico is a black rooster. A black cockerel was believed in medieval times to be a symbol of witchcraft along with the black cat, with the rooster \"used as symbols of either virtue or vice\" until modern times.\n",
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jjxny | the plot of the legend of zelda series | [
{
"answer": "It's hard to attribute a chronology to Zelda, though some aspects can be assumed ( like Wind Waker seems to be a post-apocalyptic Hyrule, the Great Sea having flooded the world ), and each of the games has similar themes for the most part. Seeing as Link is the \"hero of time\", I always saw the series as two omnipresent \"forces\" that are epitomized by Link and Ganondorf, good and evil, a conflict that reoccurs every century or so. We can be sure all this is happening within the same world, seeing as certain constants exist (the goddesses, zelda, hyrule, termina, deku tree, faeries, etc) but I dont think anyone knows for sure",
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"answer": "[This](_URL_0_) is the best description of the chronology of the Zelda Series I've seen.",
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"answer": "It's hard to attribute a chronology to Zelda, though some aspects can be assumed ( like Wind Waker seems to be a post-apocalyptic Hyrule, the Great Sea having flooded the world ), and each of the games has similar themes for the most part. Seeing as Link is the \"hero of time\", I always saw the series as two omnipresent \"forces\" that are epitomized by Link and Ganondorf, good and evil, a conflict that reoccurs every century or so. We can be sure all this is happening within the same world, seeing as certain constants exist (the goddesses, zelda, hyrule, termina, deku tree, faeries, etc) but I dont think anyone knows for sure",
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"answer": "[This](_URL_0_) is the best description of the chronology of the Zelda Series I've seen.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "165798",
"title": "The Legend of Zelda (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Plot and characters.:Story.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
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"text": "The story of \"The Legend of Zelda\" is described in the instruction booklet and during the short prologue which plays after the title screen: A small kingdom in the land of Hyrule is engulfed by chaos when an army led by Ganon, the Prince of Darkness, invaded and stole the Triforce of Power, one part of a magical artifact which alone bestows great strength. In an attempt to prevent him from acquiring the Triforce of Wisdom, another of the three pieces, Princess Zelda splits it into eight fragments and hides them in secret underground dungeons. Before eventually being kidnapped by Ganon, she commands her nursemaid Impa to find someone courageous enough to save the kingdom. While wandering the land, the old woman is surrounded by Ganon's henchmen, when a young boy named Link appears and rescues her. Upon hearing Impa's plea, he resolves to save Zelda and sets out to reassemble the scattered fragments of the Triforce of Wisdom, with which Ganon can then be defeated.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1788428",
"title": "Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine is an action-adventure video game by LucasArts released in 1999. The first 3D installment in the series, its gameplay focuses on solving puzzles, fighting enemies, and completing various platforming sections. The story is set in 1947, nine years after the events of \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\", and puts the eponymous protagonist, the adventurer Indiana Jones, against the Soviet Union. In a race for a mythological Babylonian power source, he joins forces with the Central Intelligence Agency and collects four pieces of the Infernal Machine, an ancient device that allegedly opens a portal to another dimension.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "891047",
"title": "The Legend of Zelda (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The Legend of Zelda is an American animated series based on the Japanese video game series \"The Legend of Zelda\" by Nintendo. The plot follows the adventures of Link and Princess Zelda as they defend the kingdom of Hyrule from an evil wizard named Ganon. It is heavily based on the first game of the \"Zelda\" series, \"The Legend of Zelda\", but includes some references to the second, \"\". The show was produced by DIC Enterprises and distributed by Viacom Enterprises in association with Nintendo of America, Inc. It comprises thirteen episodes which first aired in North America from September 8, 1989, to December 1, 1989.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "891047",
"title": "The Legend of Zelda (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Show premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Every episode of \"The Legend of Zelda\" follows the adventures of the hero Link and Princess Zelda as they defend the kingdom of Hyrule from an evil wizard named Ganon, who somehow came into possession of the Triforce of Power. Most episodes consist of Ganon (or his minions) either attempting to capture the Triforce of Wisdom from Zelda, kidnap Zelda, or otherwise conquer Hyrule. Curiously, the Triforce of Courage is never seen or even mentioned in the series. In some episodes, Link and Zelda are assisted and accompanied by a fairy-princess, Spryte.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3121019",
"title": "The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!",
"section": "Section::::Premise.:\"The Legend of Zelda\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "The premise of the \"Legend of Zelda\" focused on the hero Link (Jonathan Potts) helping Princess Zelda (Cynthia Preston) to defend the kingdom of Hyrule from the evil wizard Ganon (Len Carlson), by preventing him from acquiring the Triforce through thwarting his schemes or those of his minions. Many elements of the serials were based upon the NES game \"The Legend of Zelda\". It is one of few Zelda productions to feature the character of Link being able to fully talk - the others in the Zelda franchise being the CD-i games, the manga series, the comic series, and episodes of \"\" (the latter following the conclusion of \"The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!\", and based upon the NES game \"\") - with episodes often featuring the character using the sarcastic catchphrase \"Well, excuse me, Princess!\" (which later went on to become a popular meme) and a running gag involving Link failing to get Zelda to kiss him for his heroic deeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "362011",
"title": "Princess Zelda",
"section": "Section::::Appearances.:Other media.:Literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "Created as a serial comic for \"Nintendo Power\" magazine by acclaimed manga author Shotaro Ishinomori, and later collected in graphic novel form, \"The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past\" tells an alternate version of the events from \"A Link to the Past\". Zelda calls to Link and he must rescue her, first from Agahnim, and then from imprisonment at Turtle Rock in the Dark World. She is also instrumental in storming Ganon's floating castle and destroying him. Link and Zelda definitely develop a strong connection, but the relationship is ultimately portrayed as tragic. At the end of the story, Zelda has become queen, and Link is head of the Royal Guard and the Knights of Hyrule. This success is bittersweet, as their duties keep them apart, even though they were once so close, sharing an adventure and even coming together in dreams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "14814",
"title": "Indiana Jones",
"section": "Section::::Appearances.:Video games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
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"text": "Following this, the games branched off into original storylines with Indiana Jones in the Lost Kingdom, \"Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis\", \"Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine\", \"Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb\" and \"Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings\". \"Emperor's Tomb\" sets up Jones's companion Wu Han and the search for Nurhaci's ashes seen at the beginning of \"Temple of Doom\". The first two games were developed by Hal Barwood and starred Doug Lee as the voice of Indiana Jones; \"Emperor's Tomb\" had David Esch fill the role and \"Staff of Kings\" starred John Armstrong.\n",
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] | null |
7tkvqg | What causes the double sonic boom of Falcon rockets landing? | [
{
"answer": "Practically all objects that breaks the sound barrier cause a double sonic boom. First at the front of the object, where it is pushing away the air, and second at the end of the object, where it stops pushing away the air. At both these points there is a big and rapid change in pressure.\n\nThe F9 actually creates three sonic booms though. At the engine, at the landing legs and at the grid fins.",
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"wikipedia_id": "492315",
"title": "Budweiser Rocket",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "According to witnesses no sonic boom was heard. It is claimed that this was because of the short distance between the observers and the deafening sonic waves from the combined liquid and solid-fuel rockets used to propel the vehicle. Standing shock waves in the rocket exhaust produce continuous supersonic shock waves (a continuous \"sonic boom\"). The auditory dynamics of two roaring rocket exhausts, combined with the pounding physical effects of such intense sound waves over the short distance to the observers, made it questionable whether close observers could have differentiated the vehicle's sonic boom from the general cacophony of background noise. No boom was heard at greater distances either, in marked contrast to the runs of ThrustSSC, which generated extensive and well attested sonic booms over a wide area and a clearly visible shockwave.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "43091601",
"title": "Falcon 9 first-stage landing tests",
"section": "Section::::Test flights.:Landing attempts.:Flight 22.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "the rocket's largest payload yet targeting a highly-energetic geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). Consequently, the Falcon 9 first stage followed a ballistic trajectory after separation and re-entered the atmosphere at high velocity with very little fuel to mitigate potential aerodynamic damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "23100502",
"title": "Moonwalk One",
"section": "Section::::Music and sound effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
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"text": "The sound of the Apollo rocket launch is a mix of V2 rocket and atom bomb punctuated by slowed down struck metal which emulates cathedral bells, creating a thread with the slowed down brass in the Stonehenge music which bookends the film and the pipe organ score linking the Apollo 11 rocket flight with micro and macro universes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "26301",
"title": "Rocket",
"section": "Section::::Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Rocket exhaust generates a significant amount of acoustic energy. As the supersonic exhaust collides with the ambient air, shock waves are formed. The sound intensity from these shock waves depends on the size of the rocket as well as the exhaust velocity. The sound intensity of large, high performance rockets could potentially kill at close range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "183824",
"title": "Sonic boom",
"section": "Section::::Perception, noise and other concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The sound of a sonic boom depends largely on the distance between the observer and the aircraft shape producing the sonic boom. A sonic boom is usually heard as a deep double \"boom\" as the aircraft is usually some distance away. However, as those who have witnessed landings of space shuttles have heard, when the aircraft is r \"crack\". The sound is much like that of mortar bombs, commonly used in firework displays. It is a common misconception that only one boom is generated during the subsonic to supersonic transition; rather, the boom is continuous along the boom carpet for the entire supersonic flight. As a former Concorde pilot puts it, \"You don't actually hear anything on board. All we see is the pressure wave moving down the aeroplane - it gives an indication on the instruments. And that's what we see around Mach 1. But we don't hear the sonic boom or anything like that. That's rather like the wake of a ship - it's behind us.\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "22498",
"title": "Orbit",
"section": "Section::::Planetary orbits.:Understanding orbits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "It is worth noting that orbital rockets are launched vertically at first to lift the rocket above the atmosphere (which causes frictional drag), and then slowly pitch over and finish firing the rocket engine parallel to the atmosphere to achieve orbit speed.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "48980006",
"title": "2016 in aviation",
"section": "Section::::Events.:May.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 321,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 321,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "BULLET::::- SpaceX successfully lands the first stage of its Falcon 9 rocket on a platform at sea, the fourth time it has made such a landing. The landing, made aboard a platform in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Florida after launching a communications satellite into orbit, is particularly challenging because of the distance the rocket travels to deliver its payload and the large amount of energy required, subjecting the first stage to extreme speeds and re-entry heating.\n",
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30uqnv | In the UK, how did political power shift away from the nobility? | [
{
"answer": "It was taken from the hands of the nobility in 1999 when Labour removed the rights of peers to sit in the House of Lords, which is the UK's second chamber.\n\n92 hereditary peers are left there today, along with 26 Princes of the Church. The rest are members of political parties that were ushered while their party was in power. Sixteen years later it's still a controversial issue and reeks of corruption to many.\n\nFYI, this subreddit has a rule that excludes everything that happened under twenty years ago. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "24913928",
"title": "House of Commons of England",
"section": "Section::::Development of independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "The influence of the Crown was increased by the civil wars of the late fifteenth century, which destroyed the power of the great noblemen. Both houses of Parliament held little power during the ensuing years, and the absolute supremacy of the Sovereign was restored. The domination of the monarch grew further under the House of Tudor in the early sixteenth century as Henry VII, in his miserly greed grew fiscally independent. The Reformation Parliament, called by Henry VIII after Cardinal Wolsey failed to secure a divorce from Catherine of Aragon and sitting from 1529 to 1536 made laws affecting all aspects of national life, but especially with regard to religious matters previously reserved to the church. Though acting at the behest and under the direction of the King and his leading minister, Thomas Cromwell, Parliament was acquiring universal legal competence and responsibility for all matters affecting the realm. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "967013",
"title": "Early modern Britain",
"section": "Section::::England during the Tudor period (1486–1603).:The rise of the Tudors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The same forces that had reduced the power of the traditional aristocracy also served to increase the power of the commercial classes. The rise of trade and the central importance of money to the operation of the government gave this new class great power, but power that was not reflected in the government structure. This would lead to a long contest during the 17th century between the forces of the monarch and parliament.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "5058739",
"title": "Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:Political history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 712,
"text": "Executive power was historically shared between the King and an aristocratic Privy council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the commoner estates of the Riksdag. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, a parliamentary system was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of constitutional monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. Already during the first of those three periods, the 'Era of Liberty' (1719–72) the Swedish Rikstag had developed into a very active Parliament, and this tradition continued into the nineteenth century, laying the basis for the transition towards modern democracy at the end of that century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "24109",
"title": "Prime minister",
"section": "Section::::History.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In the mid 17th century, after the English Civil War (1642–1651), Parliament strengthened its position relative to the monarch then gained more power through the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights in 1689. The monarch could no longer establish any law or impose any tax without its permission and thus the House of Commons became a part of the government. It is at this point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "437905",
"title": "Politics of England",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-Union politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "After the Hanoverian George I ascended the throne in 1714 through an Act of Parliament, power began to shift from the Sovereign, and by the end of his reign the position of the ministers — who had to rely on Parliament for support — was cemented. Towards the end of the 18th century the monarch still had considerable influence over Parliament, which was dominated by the English aristocracy and by patronage, but had ceased to exert direct power: for instance, the last occasion Royal Assent was withheld, was in 1708 by Queen Anne. At general elections the vote was restricted to freeholders and landowners, in constituencies that were out of date, so that in many \"rotten boroughs\" seats could be bought while major cities remained unrepresented. Reformers and Radicals sought parliamentary reform, but as the Napoleonic Wars developed the government became repressive against dissent and progress toward reform was stalled.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "36632381",
"title": "Why Nations Fail",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:How democracy affects economic performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
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"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "For example, in the case of democratization of Europe, especially in England before the Glorious Revolution, political institutions were dominated by the monarch. However, profits from increasing international trade extended \"de facto\" political power beyond the monarch to commercially engaged nobles and a new rising merchant class. Because these nobles and the merchant class contributed to a significant portion of the economic output as well as the tax income for the monarch, the interaction of the two political powers gave rise to political institutions that increasingly favored the merchant class, plus economic institutions that protected the interests of the merchant class. This cycle gradually empowered the merchant class until it was powerful enough to take down the monarchy system in England and guarantee efficient economic institutions.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "327236",
"title": "New Monarchs",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "New Monarchies, which were very powerful centralized governments with unified inhabitants, began to emerge in the mid-15th century. Factors responsible for this advance were the vast demographic and economic growth. Before these New Monarchies were formed there were many changes the new monarchs had to make: including weakening powerful rivals, increasing revenue, unifying the country, and strengthening the power of the king and his bureaucracy. Two countries successful in strengthening themselves were France and England. England was headed by Henry VII and his son Henry VIII of the Tudor dynasty; France was headed by Louis XI, Louis XII and Frances I of the Valois dynasty. \n",
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eipohz | What's the science behind the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs? Why were they still airborne when they detonated? | [
{
"answer": "Both the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs were devices meant to create a supercritical state in a mass of enriched uranium (Hiroshima) or plutonium (Nagasaki), which allowed for an explosive nuclear fission chain reaction. In more layman's speak, this means that they quickly created the conditions so that [splitting one atom of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 would lead to the splitting of more than one additional atoms](_URL_0_), which over the course of a millisecond of such exponential splitting would release a lot of energy. They used different fuels and were of different designs because of those fuel choices. In the Hiroshima bomb (Little Boy), one piece of enriched uranium was shot into another through a gun barrel using high explosives. This created a brief supercritical mass of uranium. In the Nagasaki bomb (Fat Man), a solid sphere of plutonium-239 was compressed symmetrically from all sides through the use of explosive lenses, which increased its density by a factor of 2 or so, squeezing its atoms closer together. This meant that its existing mass was now supercritical. \n\nThere are many more details involved with making this work in practice, but the basic concept is as described. Atomic bombs are just complex machines made to produce the conditions for the chain reaction. \n\nThe above is totally separate from why they were detonated in the air. The choice of an air bust was made to maximize blast damage to the targets on the ground. When the blast wave proceeds downward from above, it reflects off of the ground. It can then catch up with the rest of the blast wave, increasing its strength. This expands the area of medium/light damage considerably, at the expense of heavier blast damage. For a \"light\" target like a city, this is (clearly) entirely adequate. [You can see a diagram of this reflection here](_URL_1_), and a [photograph of the reflection here](_URL_2_) (the latter is for a weapon with the same yield as the Hiroshima bomb, from the 1950s; those little dark things on the ground are tanks). This technique is sometimes used with conventional explosives as well.",
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"wikipedia_id": "5207123",
"title": "Masao Horino",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "In Europe and America the effects of the atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki were not fully understood. The photos produced by Masao Horino contributed to the world wide cry for the bombs to never be used again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "244601",
"title": "Effects of nuclear explosions",
"section": "Section::::Indirect effects.:Ionizing radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Details of nuclear weapon design also affect neutron emission: the gun-type assembly Hiroshima bomb leaked far more neutrons than the implosion type 21 kt Nagasaki bomb because the light hydrogen nuclei (protons) predominating in the exploded TNT molecules (surrounding the core of the Nagasaki bomb) slowed down neutrons very efficiently while the heavier iron atoms in the steel nose forging of the Hiroshima bomb scattered neutrons without absorbing much neutron energy.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "21790",
"title": "Nagasaki",
"section": "Section::::History.:Atomic bombing of Nagasaki during World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "For 12 months prior to the nuclear attack, Nagasaki had experienced five small-scale air attacks by an aggregate of 136 U.S. planes which dropped a total of 270 tons of high explosive, 53 tons of incendiary, and 20 tons of fragmentation bombs. Of these, a raid of August 1, 1945, was most effective, with a few of the bombs hitting the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, several hitting the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works, and six bombs landing at the Nagasaki Medical School and Hospital, with three direct hits on buildings there. While the damage from these few bombs was relatively small, it created considerable concern in Nagasaki and a number of people, principally school children, were evacuated to rural areas for safety, thus reducing the population in the city at the time of the atomic attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "833011",
"title": "Duck and cover",
"section": "Section::::Efficacy during a nuclear explosion.:Blast effects.:Indoors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
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"text": "According to the 1946 book \"Hiroshima\" and other books which cover both bombings, in the days between the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, some survivors of the first bombing went to Nagasaki and told others what they had done to survive after the initial \"flash\" and informed them about the particularly dangerous threat of imploding window glass. As a result of this timely warning, a number of lives were saved in the initial blast at Nagasaki. However these informed people were the exception and in both Hiroshima and Nagasaki many died while searching the skies, curious to locate the source of the brilliant flash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "9597",
"title": "Enola Gay",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Hiroshima mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on 6 August, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. \"Enola Gay\", piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, in the Northern Mariana Islands, about six hours' flight time from Japan, accompanied by two other B-29s, \"The Great Artiste\", carrying instrumentation, and a then-nameless aircraft later called \"Necessary Evil\", commanded by Captain George Marquardt, to take photographs. The director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., wanted the event recorded for posterity, so the takeoff was illuminated by floodlights. When he wanted to taxi, Tibbets leaned out the window to direct the bystanders out of the way. On request, he gave a friendly wave for the cameras.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24837512",
"title": "Whale Whores",
"section": "Section::::Cultural references.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1129,
"text": "The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are identified as the cause of Japanese whaling. The two Japanese cities were destroyed by atomic weapons during the final stages of World War II under orders by U.S. President Harry Truman, which killed about 220,000 people. In \"Whale Whores\", the Japanese are presented with a doctored picture of the \"Enola Gay\", the B-29 Superfortress bomber that dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. The picture shows a dolphin and a whale piloting the plane to bomb the city. The Miami Dolphins, a National Football League professional football team, are killed along with real dolphins by the whalers in \"Whale Whores\". Near the end of the episode, Stan and the crew of the MY Steve Irwin encounter fishing ship captain Sig Hansen and his crew from the Discovery Channel reality series, \"Deadliest Catch\". The scene with Paul Watson's crew throwing \"stinky butter\" at the whalers refers to Watson and his crew's practice of throwing stink bombs containing butyric acid, an acid found in rancid butter and cheese, at Japanese whaling vessels, including the factory vessel, the \"Nisshin Maru\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4568585",
"title": "Operation Epsilon",
"section": "Section::::Farm Hall transcripts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "All of the scientists expressed shock when informed of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Some first doubted that the report was genuine. They were told initially of an official announcement that an \"atomic bomb\" had been dropped on Hiroshima, with no mention of uranium or nuclear fission. Harteck said that he would have understood the words \"uranium\" or \"nuclear (fission) bomb\", but he had worked with atomic hydrogen and atomic oxygen and thought that American scientists might have succeeded in stabilising a high concentration of (separate) atoms; such a bomb would have had a tenfold increase over a conventional bomb. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
p79ph | what makes facebook so valuable? why would it be a 100 bn $ company? | [
{
"answer": "valuable market research and advertising revenue",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The 800 million users' profile information is theoretically worth twice as much as that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They do have a product they sell, a very valuable one... You.\n\nAll those statuses, all those 'likes', all those location check-ins... That data isn't just there for your friends to see. It is organized and categorized and analyzed and creates an unbelievable source of data for directed advertising. You dump every detail of yourself onto Facebook which tells them exactly what to try and sell you. The ads may be small and seem insignificant, but they are the digital equivalent of real estate on Manhattan Island. Add to that the ads beyond the actual _URL_0_ site itself. The 'like' button you see on virtually every website now, ever wonder why you don't log in every time you use it? A cookie based system is essentially tracking your every online movement while at the same time allowing advertisers to customize ads anywhere based on your FB info. Not just Facebook either: Google, Yahoo, Foursquare, Twitter... All these 'free' products we take for granted as \"Innovative communications tools for the 21st century!\" are vast information fishing nets for well-paying corporate clients.\n\nI always chuckle when the semi-annual \"Facebook is going to start charging a fee!\" outrage kicks up. No they aren't. They have zero need to ever extract a penny from us, more likely they will keep tacking on new free feature after another. When you sell something you charge the fee to the buyer, and we aren't the customer... we're the product.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Facebook is valuable because so many people use it. \n\nPeople tend to include their demographic information (asl) in their profile as well as their interests.\n\nWhen people \"Like\" a topic or post about a topic, Facebook can track this activity. \n\nAll this information is valuable to a lot of industries, advertising companies in particular. \n\n*An example:* You work for a television studio and want to know whether you should release a new buddy sitcom. Facebook has access to statistics on the number of people who have \"Liked\", mentioned, or posted references to similar sitcoms (Big Bang Theory, Always Sunny in Philadelphia, How I Met Your Mother, etc.)With this information, you can gauge what the interest might be in *your* sitcom.\n\nNow, when you release your sitcom you have limited advertising dollars. So you want to make sure your target audience (let's say males 18-30 in the United States) is the primary consumer of your advertising instead of, say, old people. Facebook lets you target this demographic with ads directly on the Facebook site and can tell you which venues are more popular (they've been \"Liked\" or mentioned more) with your targets so you don't waste ad dollars. \n\nFinally, once your sitcom's ad campaign is up and running, Facebook can give you data on how many times people have \"Liked\" or shared your ads as well as mentioning the show in their status or in a wall post to a friend. \n\nFacebook doesn't need to make a product. *You* and your information are the product. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can someone explain where the $80B valuation number comes from? What exactly is worth that amount of money?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically, Facebook's wealth lies in how much information they have on it's users. How do they get this information? We give it to them! While most of this information they sell may not be directly about you, Facebook uses millions of data points to essentially paint a picture of the social network and the world it has created.\n\nBecause so much of the information they have on users is accurate, the picture Facebook paints with its millions of data points is very similar to real world demographics. This concept of metadata or \"data-about-data\" is essentially what Facebook utilizes to create a bridge between companies that want you to buy stuff, and you.\n\nPersonally, I think it would actually be interesting to see how this continues. Imagine if the only ads you saw, were ads that you actually enjoyed. This is slowly becoming a reality. Because of this, the web is essentially being tailored to fit YOU. Google does this with your searches as well. Some say it is convenient, as relevant websites are more easily available. Others suggest this is a soft censorship.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**real answer**\n\nIt isn't. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has hundreds of millions of unpaid workers creating content (us)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They just filed for an IPO and have revealed their financial standing as part of that procedure. Here's a nice, simple explanation:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIn broad strokes, Facebook made $3.71 billion last year. They divide up that revenue as 1. money made from advertising and 2. payments and other fees. The advertising makes up most of the revenue.\n\nBecause they have a big, popular network, investors think that Facebook is a good, safe bet (i.e. it will continue to grow and make money in the next few years). Their thinking is that if it made almost $4 billion last year and seems to have strong, reasonable plans to make more than that next year and the year after, that the company could make at least $80-100 billion over its lifetime.\n\nThis valuation can and will change, especially once it becomes a publicly traded stock. You will be able to see investors' opinion change in near-realtime as the expected value of the company fluctuates.\n\nTo address your question directly:\n\n > Facebook is not making any products/ selling anything.\n\nThey are selling ad space. That's where most of their revenue is generated. Zynga is a big chunk of their income as well -- they get a cut of every real-money transaction that takes place on Facebook.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Thing I don't understand, which was brought up by some new programs I was watching, is how they plan and making MORE money. I mean I assume they use adverts as a large source of income, but how will they increase their worth? I would say a majority of people already use facebook, and there is no real competition, so they won't be gaining a significantly greatly client base. Does anyone know how they plan on increasing their value, if at all?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To be honest this damned facebook IPO is giving me an identity crisis of sorts since I, shockingly, was a computer nerd in high school and thus had a cute nerd friend who later on became one of the first facebook employees. Me? I had a really bad experience with a computer science instructor who basically turned me off of making a career of it. And now I'm here posting at 8AM on reddit after a night shift, six figures in student loan debt wondering whether or not I really made the right life decisions after all. Oh well, I'm sure it'd be a pain in the butt to be a billionaire, amiright?\n\nI could post an actual explanation of why it's fairly valuable but I think everyone else had that covered, though I do think that the valuation based on the IPO is a little optimistic. Their revenue is pretty awesome but to really justify a $100 billion valuation they'd have to keep growing their revenues and profits at insane rates which I find really hard to believe since there's limited advertising dollars out there so it'll get harder and harder to grab more of those dollars. And they're also not in a great position in the Chinese market at this point-right now the Chinese market has limited advertising dollars to earn but the problem is that there are players there cementing their positions for the future where advertising spending will be significantly higher in China. Facebook really has to break into that market for optimal long term revenue growth.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, once they go public and have a board of idiots, won't Facebook become quite shitty like other corporations? Not a lot of faith in publicly traded businesses here. Google's doing OK so far but I think that's only because they are swimming in mountains of money like Scrooge McDuck.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's the power of applied bullshit",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a nutshell, if you're using a service and you're not paying anything for it, then you're not the customer. You're the livestock. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not that valuable. Facebook is really big and they do make money, but like almost every other dotcom they have a grossly inflated market valuation that isn't based on their potential performance as much as fervor and speculation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They made $1B in profit last year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7529378",
"title": "Facebook",
"section": "Section::::Corporate affairs.:Revenue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Facebook ranked No. 76 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by revenue. Most comes from advertising. One analysis of 2017 data determined that the company earned per user from advertising.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35930482",
"title": "Initial public offering of Facebook",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Facebook did accept investments from companies, and these investments suggested fluctuating valuations for the firm. In 2007 Microsoft beat out Google to purchase a 1.6% stake for $240 million, giving Facebook a notional value of $15 billion at the time. Microsoft purchased preferred stock, which meant that the company's actual valuation would be considerably lower than $15 billion. Meanwhile, that valuation dropped to $10 billion in 2009, when Digital Sky Technologies bought a nearly 2% stake for $200 million - a larger stake than Microsoft had purchased at a lower price. An investment report in 2011 valued the company at $50 billion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27951979",
"title": "History of Facebook",
"section": "Section::::Financials.:Switch to profitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "In early 2012, Facebook disclosed that its profits had jumped 65% to $1 billion in the previous year when its revenue, which is mainly from advertising, had jumped almost 90% to $3.71 billion. Facebook also reported that 56% of its advertising revenue comes from the U.S. alone, and that 12% of its revenue comes from Zynga, the social network game development company. Payments and other fees were $557 million up from $106 million the previous year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35930482",
"title": "Initial public offering of Facebook",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.:Valuation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "At $26.81 per share, which Facebook closed at a week after its IPO, Facebook was valued like \"an ultra-growth company,\" according to Robert Leclerc of the Financial Post. Its PE ratio was 85, despite a decline in both earnings and revenue in the first quarter of 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17624247",
"title": "Social network advertising",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Types of advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "In July 2015, during their Q2 earnings call, Facebook revealed that it achieved $2.9B in mobile revenue, amounting to over 76% of its overall quarterly revenue. A large portion of this revenue was from app install ads, of which developers buy on a Cost per Install basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "610532",
"title": "Peter Thiel",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Facebook.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "In September 2010, Thiel, while expressing skepticism about the potential for growth in the consumer Internet sector, argued that relative to other Internet companies, Facebook (which then had a secondary market valuation of $30 billion) was comparatively undervalued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7529378",
"title": "Facebook",
"section": "Section::::History.:2006–2012: Public access, Microsoft alliance, and rapid growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "The company announced 500 million users in July 2010. Half of the site's membership used Facebook daily, for an average of 34 minutes, while 150 million users accessed the site from mobile devices. A company representative called the milestone a \"quiet revolution.\" In November 2010, based on SecondMarket Inc. (an exchange for privately held companies' shares), Facebook's value was $41 billion. The company had slightly surpassed eBay to become the third largest American web company after Google and Amazon.com.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25ev3s | is there an evolutionary benefit to the type of hair you have? | [
{
"answer": "I can tell you that having really curly afro hair in the summer heat means that I can sick my fingers in my hair and it feels like there is a little private AC unit in there. It keeps my head cool, I imagine it does, and has for other afro haired humans who are almost entirely of recent African descent, where it would have been beneficial in the hot environment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "About 70,000(a small time on an evolutionary scale) years ago, the human species was bottlenecked to a small population. That is why we have very little genetic differences between two humans as opposed to other populations. Now these physical traits such as eye color or hair type, were most likely sexually selected among small populations. I think it is still a debate why the traits such as blue eyes were sexually selected, but it is pretty clear that there is no to little economical function that they serve, or else other populations would have evolved them in the same environments.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14776341",
"title": "FGF5",
"section": "Section::::FGF5 and hair growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "It has been hypothesised that, in an alternate type of mutation, positive selection for increased expression of the FGF5 protein was one of the contributing factors in the evolutionary loss of hair in cetaceans as they transitioned from the terrestrial to the aquatic environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4923690",
"title": "Body hair",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Evolution of less body hair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Markus J. Rantala of the Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Finland, said humans evolved by \"natural selection\" to be hairless when the trade off of \"having fewer parasites\" became more important than having a \"warming, furry coat\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45412506",
"title": "Midphalangeal hair",
"section": "Section::::Inheritance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "From a literature review and their own study in Brazil, Saldanha and Guinsburg (1961) suggested that lack of middle phalangeal hair may be determined by a pair of recessive genes, but noted that the occurrence of sex, age, and possibly environmental differences make genetic analysis of the trait difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14776341",
"title": "FGF5",
"section": "Section::::FGF5 and hair growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "In numerous genetic studies of long haired phenotypes of animals it has been shown that small changes in the FGF5 gene can disrupt its expression, leading to an increase in the length of the anagen phase of the hair cycle, resulting in phenotypes with extremely long hair. This has been demonstrated in many species, including cats dogs mice, rabbits, donkeys, sheep and goats, where it is often referred to as the angora mutation. Recently, CRISPR modification of goats to artificially knock out the FGF5 gene, was shown to result in higher wool yield, without any fertility or other negative effects on the goats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "464073",
"title": "Hair follicle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "The function of hair in humans has long been a subject of interest and continues to be an important topic in society, developmental biology and medicine. Of all mammals, humans have the longest growth phase of scalp hair compared to hair growth on other parts of the body. For centuries, humans have ascribed esthetics to scalp hair styling and dressing and it is often used to communicate social or cultural norms in societies. In addition to its role in defining human appearance, scalp hair also provides protection from UV sun rays and is an insulator against extremes of hot and cold temperatures. Differences in the shape of the scalp hair follicle determine the observed ethnic differences in scalp hair appearance, length and texture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19009006",
"title": "Fur",
"section": "Section::::Mammals without fur.:Natural selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Humans are the only primate species that have undergone significant hair loss. The hairlessness of humans compared to related species may be due to loss of functionality in the pseudogene KRTHAP1 (which helps produce keratin) Although the researchers dated the mutation to 240 000 ya, both the Altai Neandertal and Denisovan have the loss-of-function mutation, indicating it is much older. Mutations in the gene HR can lead to complete hair loss, though this is not typical in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8416397",
"title": "Long hair",
"section": "Section::::Biological significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Scientists also view the ability to grow very long hair as a result of sexual selection, since long and healthy hair is a sign of fertility and youth. An evolutionary biology explanation for this attraction is that hair length and quality can act as a cue to youth and health, signifying a woman's reproductive potential. As hair grows slowly, long hair may reveal 2–3 years of a person's health status, nutrition, age and reproductive fitness. Malnutrition, and deficiencies in minerals and vitamins due to starvation, cause loss of hair or changes in hair color (e.g. dark hair turning reddish).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s1066 | when nasa created the golden record that they sent with the voyager probe, how did they know that another intelligent species who found the probe would be able to read/play it? | [
{
"answer": "They printed instructions on how to play the disk in pictograms onto the disk cover.\n\nsee this picture on the explaination of the pictograms\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was also used as a memorial of humanity to be sent through space for when we get extinct. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't know, it's sort of a blind hope. Furthermore, it's pretty unlikely that the probe will ever hit any celestial object, let alone a planet, let alone a planet with life on it, let alone a planet with life on it capable of understanding what it is (imagine an alien probe landing on Earth in dinosaur times). It's a symbolic gesture. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1446835",
"title": "Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Pictorial messages.:Voyager probes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Launched in 1977, the Voyager probes carried two golden records that were inscribed with diagrams depicting the human form, our solar system, and its location. Also included were recordings of images and sounds from Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144386",
"title": "Voyager Golden Record",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "The Voyager Golden Records are two phonograph records that were included aboard both Voyager spacecraft launched in 1977. The records contain sounds and images selected to portray the diversity of life and culture on Earth, and are intended for any intelligent extraterrestrial life form, or for future humans, who may find them. The records are a sort of time capsule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27358495",
"title": "U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps",
"section": "Section::::Pioneer Commemorative Issue of 1975.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "In March 1972, scientists at NASA launched \"Pioneer 10\" to gather scientific data about the Solar System's largest planet, Jupiter, while the vessel was also receiving radio control and guidance signals and other information from Earth. \"Pioneer 10\" was expected to last for 21 months in the Solar System and deliver accurate information over that period of time. The fastest man made object to enter space from Earth, the spacecraft was to begin collecting data at the Asteroid Belt and Jupiter and continue to relay information about other areas and phenomena of the Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3013",
"title": "Ann Druyan",
"section": "Section::::Work in science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "As creative director of NASA's Voyager Interstellar Message Project, Druyan worked with a team to design a complex message, including music and images, for possible alien civilizations. These golden phonograph records affixed to the \"Voyager 1\" and \"Voyager 2\" spacecraft are now beyond the outermost planets of the solar system and \"Voyager 1\" has entered interstellar space. Both records have a projected shelf life of one billion years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11316629",
"title": "Roger Payne",
"section": "Section::::Cultural influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 1977 Roger Payne's recordings of Humpback whales were included in the Voyager Golden Record carried aboard the Voyager program spacecraft, the first human artifacts to leave our Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904807",
"title": "Frederick Cook",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:North Pole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "On December 21, 1909, a commission at the University of Copenhagen, after having examined evidence submitted by Cook, ruled that his records did not contain proof that the explorer reached the Pole. (Peary refused to submit his records for review by such a third party, and for decades the National Geographic Society, which held his papers, refused researchers access to them.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42165878",
"title": "Black Knight satellite conspiracy theory",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "In 1973, Scottish author Duncan Lunan analyzed the long delayed radio echoes received by Hals and others and speculated that they could possibly originate from a 13,000 year old alien probe located in an orbit around the Earth's Moon. He suggested that the probe may have originated from a planet located in the solar system of star Epsilon Boötis. Lunan later retracted his conclusions, saying that he had made \"outright errors\" and that his methods had been \"unscientific\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
89qgl1 | what's a tarif? | [
{
"answer": "A tariff is a tax on imports or exports.\n\nFor example, if you have a 100% tariff on iron, that means someone wanting to import (or export) iron into your country must pay 100% of the value of the iron in taxes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have a lemonade stand and your friend bakes 2 dozen cookies. You let your friend sell their cookies for $1 each at your stand and he sells them all for $24. You ask him to pay you $0.50 each to let you keep selling them tomorrow. He agrees, but now he raises the price to $1.50 so he still makes $1 each cookie.\n\nThe next day you baked cookies too. You sell your $1 cookies right next to his $1.50 cookies. No one wants his and everyone wants yours. You sell 20 cookies and they make $20 and he sells 4. He gives you $2 and he keeps $4 and hates that your cookies are cheaper and he's still paying you for access.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "151694",
"title": "Tar (computing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "In computing, tar is a computer software utility for collecting many files into one archive file, often referred to as a tarball, for distribution or backup purposes. The name is derived from \"(t)ape (ar)chive\", as it was originally developed to write data to sequential I/O devices with no file system of their own. The archive data sets created by tar contain various file system parameters, such as name, time stamps, ownership, file access permissions, and directory organization. The command line utility was first introduced in the Version 7 Unix in January 1979, replacing the tp program. The file structure to store this information was standardized in POSIX.1-1988 and later POSIX.1-2001, and became a format supported by most modern file archiving systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "608992",
"title": "Tarpaulin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "A tarpaulin ( , ), or tarp, is a large sheet of strong, flexible, water-resistant or waterproof material, often cloth such as canvas or polyester coated with polyurethane, or made of plastics such as polyethylene. In some places such as Australia, and in military slang, a tarp may be known as a hootch. Tarpaulins often have reinforced grommets at the corners and along the sides to form attachment points for rope, allowing them to be tied down or suspended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299368",
"title": "Oil sands",
"section": "Section::::History.:Nomenclature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The name \"tar sands\" was applied to bituminous sands in the late 19th and early 20th century. People who saw the bituminous sands during this period were familiar with the large amounts of tar residue produced in urban areas as a by-product of the manufacture of coal gas for urban heating and lighting. The word \"tar\" to describe these natural bitumen deposits is really a misnomer, since, chemically speaking, tar is a human-made substance produced by the destructive distillation of organic material, usually coal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23195",
"title": "Petroleum",
"section": "Section::::Environmental effects.:Tarballs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with tar, which is a man-made product derived from pine trees or refined from petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean. Tarballs are an aquatic pollutant in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for example in the Santa Barbara Channel of California or in the Gulf of Mexico off Texas. Their concentration and features have been used to assess the extent of oil spills. Their composition can be used to identify their sources of origin, and tarballs themselves may be dispersed over long distances by deep sea currents. They are slowly decomposed by bacteria, including \"Chromobacterium violaceum\", \"Cladosporium resinae\", \"Bacillus submarinus\", \"Micrococcus varians\", \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\", \"Candida marina\" and \"Saccharomyces estuari\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140445",
"title": "Religious order",
"section": "Section::::Islam.:Sufis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "A tariqah is how a religious order is described in Sufism. It especially refers to the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking \"ḥaqīqah\" \"ultimate truth\". Such tariqas typically have a \"murshid\" (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. Members and followers of a tariqa are known as \"murīdīn\" (singular \"murīd\"), meaning \"desirous\", viz. \"desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God\" (also called a \"faqīr\" ). Tariqas have silsilas () which is the spiritual lineage of the Shaikhs of that order. Almost all orders trace their silsila back to Prophet Mohammad. Tariqas are spread all over the Muslim world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32966400",
"title": "Kupiah",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "A kupiah is a cap that originates from Aceh, Indonesia. There are two types of kupiahs, the kupiah meukeutob and kupiah riman. Kupiahs are worn by Acehnese men as an everyday wear or specifically in ceremonies such as in a wedding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1566294",
"title": "Tar (string instrument)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Tar () is an Iranian long-necked, waisted instrument, shared by many cultures and countries including Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and others near the Caucasus region. The older and more complete name of the tār is \"čāhārtār\" or \"čārtār\", meaning in Persian \"four string\", (\"čāhār\" frequently being shorted to \"čār\"). This is in accordance with a practice common in Persian-speaking areas of distinguishing lutes on the basis of the number of strings originally employed. Beside the čārtār, these include the \"dotār\" (دوتار, “two string”), \"setār\" (سهتار, “three string”), \"pančtār\" (پنجتار “five string”), and \"šaštār\" or \"šeštār\" (ششتار “six string”). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9vgqii | How does hydrogen peroxide work to remove stains? | [
{
"answer": "It either oxidizes the material responsible for the coloration to the point that it becomes water soluble and rinses away or until it no longer absorbs light in the visible spectrum (organic dyes absorb light in certain color bands based on the energy level of their electrons - adjust the electronics and you adjust the absorbtion band. The process is called bleaching because this is also what bleach does).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8242848",
"title": "Depyrogenation",
"section": "Section::::Inactivation/destruction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Oxidation using hydrogen peroxide is often used as a low cost pyrogen destroying solution. The mechanism for this destruction is unknown, but hydrogen peroxide can easily be removed further downstream in the purification process, and is therefore a useful method of pyrogen removal. However, like acid-base hydrolysis, it is not suitable when purifying proteins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14131172",
"title": "Malate oxidase",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Other illustrative uses that employ the capacity of malate oxidase to yield hydrogen peroxide in the presence of a suitable substrate, including malate, are found in toothpaste to remove bacterial plaque, cleaning compositions for removing blood stains and the like, and in the removal of chewing gum lumps stuck on surfaces by enzymatic degradation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162028",
"title": "Viscose",
"section": "Section::::Manufacture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Aside from regenerated cellulose, acidification gives hydrogen sulfide(HS), sulfur, and carbon disulfide. The thread made from the regenerated cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur is then removed by the addition of sodium sulfide solution and impurities are oxidized by bleaching with sodium hypochlorite solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "709796",
"title": "Hydrogen peroxide - urea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Hydrogen peroxide - urea (also called Hyperol, artizone, urea hydrogen peroxide, and UHP) is a solid composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. This compound is a white crystalline solid which dissolves in water to give free hydrogen peroxide. Often called carbamide peroxide in the dental office, it is used as a source of hydrogen peroxide for bleaching, disinfection, and oxidation. Hydrogen peroxide - urea contains solid and water-free hydrogen peroxide, which offers a higher stability and better controllability than liquid hydrogen peroxide when used as an oxidizing agent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "709796",
"title": "Hydrogen peroxide - urea",
"section": "Section::::Structure and properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "Hydrogen peroxide-urea is a readily water-soluble, odorless, crystalline solid, which is available as white powder or colorless needles or platelets. Upon dissolving in various solvents, the 1:1 complex dissociates back to urea and hydrogen peroxide. So just like hydrogen peroxide, the (erroneously) so-called adduct is an oxidizer but the release at room temperature in the presence of catalysts proceeds in a controlled manner, thus the compound is suitable as a safe substitute for the unstable aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide. Because of the tendency for thermal decomposition, which accelerates at temperatures above 82 °C, it should not be heated above 60 °C, particularly in pure form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37431",
"title": "Solvent",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Explosive peroxide formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Peroxides may be removed by washing with acidic iron(II) sulfate, filtering through alumina, or distilling from sodium/benzophenone. Alumina does not destroy the peroxides but merely traps them, and must be disposed of properly. The advantage of using sodium/benzophenone is that moisture and oxygen are removed as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "414144",
"title": "Sterilization (microbiology)",
"section": "Section::::Chemical sterilization.:Hydrogen peroxide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1610,
"text": "Drawbacks of hydrogen peroxide include material compatibility, a lower capability for penetration and operator health risks. Products containing cellulose, such as paper, cannot be sterilized using VHP and products containing nylon may become brittle. The penetrating ability of hydrogen peroxide is not as good as ethylene oxide and so there are limitations on the length and diameter of the lumen of objects that can be effectively sterilized. Hydrogen peroxide is a primary irritant and the contact of the liquid solution with skin will cause bleaching or ulceration depending on the concentration and contact time. It is relatively non-toxic when diluted to low concentrations, but is a dangerous oxidizer at high concentrations ( 10% w/w). The vapour is also hazardous, primarily affecting the eyes and respiratory system. Even short term exposures can be hazardous and NIOSH has set the IDLH at 75 ppm, less than one tenth the IDLH for ethylene oxide (800 ppm). Prolonged exposure to lower concentrations can cause permanent lung damage and consequently, OSHA has set the permissible exposure limit to 1.0 ppm, calculated as an eight-hour time-weighted average. Sterilizer manufacturers go to great lengths to make their products safe through careful design and incorporation of many safety features, though there are still workplace exposures of hydrogen peroxide from gas sterilizers documented in the FDA MAUDE database. When using any type of gas sterilizer, prudent work practices should include good ventilation, a continuous gas monitor for hydrogen peroxide and good work practices and training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
129g3o | How did the first century Greeks and Romans view women? Further, how was this different from how Christians treated women? | [
{
"answer": "There's an [interesting article on this at _URL_0_](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rodney Stark wrote an interesting article in the mid-90's arguing that as early Christianity attracted a disproportionately large number of female converts, they were therefore accorded a higher status within the subculture than in the society at large. IIRC, he argues that they unlike Greek and Roman societies, the church regularly allowed women to serve in positions of power and authority, especially as deaconesses. ",
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{
"answer": "This is mainly about the upper classes, as a necessity mandated by our sources. But an extremely brief summary: Greek and Roman medical theory believed that women had not received enough heat in the womb, and thus had failed to mature into full humans, i.e. men. So women are considered inherently biologically inferior. Women were expected to get married, get married early (~14), produce children, and re-marry if their husband died in order to produce more children. Remaining unmarried was highly anomalous, even religious virgins (such as the vestals) generally only remained virgins for a set period (for example until 30). The production of children was considered absolutely vital to the future of the state, community, and family. It was also hugely dangerous. Marriage was understood as one of the core institutions of the Empire, vital to maintaining it. Men were the unquestioned head of the household, all the property, etc. Women essentially passed from the control of their fathers/older brothers to husband.\n\nChristianity, on the other hand, brings with it a strong focus on bodily asceticism, of which sexual renunciation (and given above, extremely visible) was an important part. Christians both encourage consecrated virginity among young women, but they also support widows who wish to remain unmarried. Both of these allowed women to escape the societal strictures of the time, and to at least a limited degree the control of men, and to avoid the terrifying (we can see this in their literature) dangers of childbirth. Also vitally, it enables widows to retain control of their deceased husband's property, which for the upper class could be quite substantial (some of the widows who corresponded with Jerome in the 4th century were among the richest people in the world at the time). This is all pretty problematic from the point of view of prevailing society. Thus, in Late Antiquity it is Christianity which is accused of being anti-family. \n\nIt's also important to note that many, if not most, Roman religious practices excluded women, whereas Christianity did not. Perhaps not unsurprisingly, Christianity was very popular with women. \n\nA lot of this comes from Peter Brown's *Body and Society* which is a really excellent study of this sort of thing. \n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24439012",
"title": "Women in Church history",
"section": "Section::::Apostolic age.:Early spread of Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Whereas neither the Jewish, nor the Roman family would warm the hearts of a modern feminist, the early Christians were sympathetic to women. Paul himself insisted in his early writings that men and women were equal. His letter to the Galatians was emphatic in defying the prevailing culture, and his words must have been astonishing to women encountering Christian ideas for the first time: 'there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Jesus Christ'. Women shared equally in what is called the Lord's Supper or Eucharist, a high affirmation of equality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1813235",
"title": "The woman question",
"section": "Section::::History.:First use and traditional debate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Religious justifications were not the only sources of information regarding woman's nature. As Renaissance humanism developed, there was great interest in returning to classical Greek and Roman philosophy. Classical philosophy held that women were inferior to men at a physical level, and this physical inferiority made them intellectually inferior as well. While the extent of this inferiority was hotly debated by the likes of Christine de Pizan and Moderata Fonte, women continued to be understood as inherently subordinate to men, and this was the basis for preventing women from attending universities or participating in the public sphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15587087",
"title": "Role of Christianity in civilization",
"section": "Section::::Politics and law.:From persecuted minority to state religion.:Women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Rome had a social caste system, with women having \"no legal independence and no independent property.\" Early Christianity, as Pliny the Younger explains in his letters to Emperor Trajan, had people from \"every age and rank, and both sexes.\" Pliny reports arresting two slave women who claimed to be 'deaconesses' in the first decade of the second century. There was a rite for the ordination of women deacons in the Roman Pontifical, (a liturgical book), up through the 12th century. For women deacons, the oldest rite in the West comes from an eighth-century book, whereas Eastern rites go all the way back to the third century and there are more of them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24439012",
"title": "Women in Church history",
"section": "Section::::Patristic age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "During the early centuries of Christianity, there is evidence of a great deal of activity by women in the life of congregations. Women served as deacons and ladies of means like Lydia of Philippi acted as financiers. Women probably constituted the majority of Christians. Blainey notes that by around AD 300, women had become so influential in the affairs of the church that the pagan philosopher Porphyry \"complained that Christianity had suffered because of them\". Nevertheless, by the close of the Patristic era, a male hierarchy had established itself over church affairs, with priests and bishops running the congregations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24745263",
"title": "Women in the Catholic Church",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.:Early Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "According to historian Geoffrey Blainey, women were probably the majority of Christians in the 1st century after Christ. The 1st century Apostle Paul emphasised a faith open to all in his Letter to the Galatians: \"There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Jesus Christ.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22985586",
"title": "Sex and gender roles in the Catholic Church",
"section": "Section::::Historical overview.:Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1184,
"text": "Social structures at the dawn of Christianity in the Roman Empire held that women were inferior to men intellectually and physically and were \"naturally dependent\". Athenian women were legally classified as children regardless of age and were the \"legal property of some man at all stages in her life.\" Women in the Roman Empire had limited legal rights and could not enter professions. Female infanticide and abortion were practiced by all classes. In family life, men, not women, could have \"lovers, prostitutes and concubines\" and it was not rare for pagan women to be married before the age of puberty and then forced to consummate the marriage with her often much older husband. Husbands, not wives, could divorce at any time simply by telling the wife to leave. The spread of Christianity changed women's lives in many ways by requiring a man to have only one wife and keep her for life, condemning the infidelity of men as well as women and doing away with marriage of prepubescent girls. Because Christianity outlawed infanticide and because women were more likely than men to convert, there were soon more Christian women than men whereas the opposite was true among pagans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3500056",
"title": "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code",
"section": "Section::::Religious disputes.:Sacred feminine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "Early Christian devotion to female martyrs (such as Perpetua and Felicity) and the apocryphal writings about figures like St. Thecla seem to indicate that women did play a role in the early Church, far more than either Brown or some modern critics of Christianity acknowledge, though historical evidence does not suggest men and women shared \"all\" roles of office. The Catholic and Orthodox Churches particularly venerate the Virgin Mary, who gave birth to Jesus, but the book deems this a desexualised aspect of femininity that suppresses the sacred feminine. Brown echoes scholars such as Joseph Campbell in saying this image of Mary derives from Isis and her child Horus. Meisel and Olson counters that the \"Mother and child\" symbol, as a universal part of the general human experience, can be found in other faiths; so Christianity did not copy this element from Egyptian mythology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
qpxrf | what went down in the ows subreddit? | [
{
"answer": "What is the OWS subreddit?",
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},
{
"answer": "I only have a tenuous grasp of the situation, but what I gathered was that some dick (username: [TheGhostOfNoLibs](_URL_0_)) finagled his way into a moderator spot on [/r/occupywallstreet](/r/occupywallstreet). Several people were complaining that he directly opposes just about everything the OWS movement stands for, has a war hawkish disposition, and regularly makes inflammatory and offensive comments. A lot of people were banned from the OWS subreddit for pointing out that this guy is an asshole and has no business being anywhere near an OWS community. Evidently he was stripped of his position recently. [source](_URL_1_)",
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{
"answer": "This doesn't really need to be ELI5, does it? Sorry I can't answer because I'm unaware, but this seems like a pretty simple question more fitting of ask reddit. \n\nEDIT: See Not_Me's reply. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here's](_URL_0_) a link to r/subredditdrama explaining the situation\n\n\nHope this helps :)\n\nEdit: [And Here's](_URL_1_) a thread from [/r/worstof](/r/worstof) discussing what happened",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43853589",
"title": "OWS Media Group",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "OWS Media Group, Inc. is a group of the Occupy Wall Street movement, which achieved media attention after filing a lawsuit to re-obtain control over the Twitter account, @OccupyWallStNYC, which was hijacked by one of tweetboat's former members and password holders, Justin Wedes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35920721",
"title": "Ellen Pao",
"section": "Section::::Exit from Reddit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "On June 10, 2015, a post on Reddit, signed by Pao and two other executives, announced that five subreddits were being banned for fostering off-site harassment. One such community had over 150,000 subscribers. Multiple change.org petitions calling for Pao's resignation were created by displeased Reddit users and the most popular one reached 10,000 signatures in the days following the change. Some users began posting hateful comments and images about Pao on Reddit and other websites. Other complaints about the site focused on inadequate moderation tools and the fact that some posts critical of Ellen Pao's lawsuit had been deleted by moderators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2268379",
"title": "Break.com",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "In March 2018, Break.com inexplicably disabled all comments, user uploads and user pages on their site, putting an end to any kind of user interaction or participation. Before this, their Alexa ranking had already been in a steady decline, but this major change of removing all comments and discussions brought about a steeper decline during March/April in their page ranking, as can be seen on the Alexa rankings. Many users stopped visiting the website and they have dropped (as of September 2018) to 3414th most visited website in USA, losing a significant amount of their popularity since being ranked #248 in 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49273972",
"title": "Alt-right",
"section": "Section::::History.:After Trump's election: 2016–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "In 2016, Twitter began closing alt-right accounts it regarded as engaging in abuse or harassment; among those closed were the accounts of Spencer and his NPI. In February 2017, Reddit then closed down the \"r/altright\" sub-reddit after its participants were found to have breached its policy prohibiting doxing. Facebook followed by shutting down Spencer's pages on its platform in April 2018. In January 2017, Spencer launched a new website, \"AltRight.com\", which combined the efforts of the Arktos publishing company and the Red Ice video and radio network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1691376",
"title": "Amazon Web Services",
"section": "Section::::History.:Significant service outages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "BULLET::::- On February 28, 2017, AWS experienced a massive outage of S3 services in its Northern Virginia region. A majority of websites which relied on AWS S3 either hung or stalled, and Amazon reported within five hours that AWS was fully online again. No data has been reported to have been lost due to the outage. The outage was caused by a human error made while debugging, that resulted in removing more server capacity than intended, which caused a domino effect of outages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52248941",
"title": "ExtraTorrent",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "On 17 May 2017, ExtraTorrent voluntarily ceased operations out of the blue. The entire website was replaced with a message from the administrator, stating that the website was to shut down permanently (as well as all mirror domains), and wipe all data relating to the website and its content. The website was already down for days due to an emergency maintenance situation, just two days before the website shut down permanently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37538883",
"title": "IsAnybodyDown?",
"section": "Section::::Shutdown of website.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "On April 4, 2013, Brittain announced via Twitter that \"As of today Is Anybody Down is over.\" Although Brittain's tweets were interpreted to mean that the site would be shut down entirely, Brittain transferred the content of the site to a new domain, ObamaNudes.com. This lasted from April 5 to at least April 15. By June 11, 2013, ObamaNudes redirected to another service called DIYspies, hosted on a Facebook page. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20r2xz | Why is it human nature to enjoy the pain of others? | [
{
"answer": "It is not human nature to enjoy the suffering of others, quite the opposite in fact. Empathy is the one of the very important reasons our society functions well. \n\nSometimes however, the relief that we are not the ones suffering can be mistaken for enjoyment. \n\nIn modern day it can be seen as weak or soft to be empathetic, leading to a growing tendency for people to stifle or repress their feelings of empathy. However if this keeps happening, society as we know will start to deconstruct, as everyone will become overwhelmingly selfish at the expense of others.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "What you are referring to is known as schadenfreude, and while humans may seem to enjoy it all, it isn't necessarily embedded into human nature to enjoy the pain of others.\n\nBecause human behavior tends to be inconsistent, we are not always pleased when we see that misfortune has befallen another (unless you completely lack empathy, in which case you may be a psychopath). Social comparison theory suggests that we evaluate ourselves by the comparison of others. Being a graduate student, I would compare myself to other graduate students. In that case, I would be very happy to learn that a classmate of mine failed a test if I received an A because that makes me look smarter, i.e., better.\n\nHowever, going back to empathy, if the classmate was a good friend of mine, I would feel sad because I empathize with her misfortune. Also, I would not experience schadenfreude if I found out a graduate student in another program failed a test. I cannot evaluate myself compared to that person since they are in another program, so I don't care. [link](_URL_0_)\n\n**TL;DR Humans don't always enjoy misfortune of others, but when we do, it's probably to make us feel better about ourselves.**",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53403353",
"title": "Good and evil",
"section": "Section::::Theories of the intrinsically good.:Welfarist theories.:Subjective theories of well-being.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "A benefit of tracing good to pleasure and pain is that both are easily understandable, both in oneself and to an extent in others. For the hedonist, the explanation for helping behaviour may come in the form of \"empathy\"—the ability of a being to \"feel\" another's pain. People tend to value the lives of gorillas more than those of mosquitoes because the gorilla lives and feels, making it easier to empathize with them. This idea is carried forward in the ethical relationship view and has given rise to the animal rights movement and parts of the peace movement. The impact of sympathy on human behaviour is compatible with Enlightenment views, including David Hume's stances that the idea of a self with unique identity is illusory, and that morality ultimately comes down to sympathy and fellow feeling for others, or the exercise of approval underlying moral judgments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52499440",
"title": "Animal grief",
"section": "Section::::What is Animal Pain?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Bernard E. Rollin says that the ability to experience pain is something we have to feel to be considered moral (Rollin, 2010). It can result from something such as a wound or abuse causing physical pain. Animals can also experience pain mentally, such as experiencing grief as well as sadness due to anxiety. Animal pain can be understood once we understand the nature of a certain animal. For example, when somebody is caring for a dog as a pet the individual understands their actions, their traits and emotions. While taking care of an animal we are then able to understand that specific animal and their way of grieving or their happiness per se.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1586691",
"title": "Pain and pleasure",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary hypotheses for the relationship between pain and pleasure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Dr. Kringelbach suggests that this relationship between pain and pleasure would be evolutionarily efficient, because it was necessary to know whether or not to avoid or approach something for survival. According to Dr. Norman Doidge, the brain is limited in the sense that it tends to focus on the most used pathways. Therefore, having a common pathway for pain and pleasure could have simplified the way in which human beings have interacted with the environment (Dr. Morten Kringelbach, personal communication, October 24, 2011).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "17174577",
"title": "David Benatar",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical work.:Asymmetry between pain and pleasure.:Implications for procreation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Benatar argues that bringing someone into existence generates both good and bad experiences, pain and pleasure, whereas not doing so generates neither pain nor pleasure. The absence of pain is good, the absence of pleasure is not bad. Therefore, the ethical choice is weighed in favor of non-procreation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12239",
"title": "Guilt (emotion)",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.:Causes.:Social psychology theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "When we see another person suffering, it can also cause us pain. This constitutes our powerful system of empathy, which leads to our thinking that we should do something to relieve the suffering of others. If we cannot help another, or fail in our efforts, we experience feelings of guilt. From the perspective of group selection, groups that are made up of a high percentage of co-operators outdo groups with a low percentage of co-operators in between-group competition. People who are more prone to high levels of empathy-based guilt may be likely to suffer from anxiety and depression; however, they are also more likely to cooperate and behave altruistically. This suggests that guilt-proneness may not always be beneficial at the level of the individual, or within-group competition, but highly beneficial in between-group competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "24261150",
"title": "Pain in animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Pain negatively affects the health and welfare of animals. \"Pain\" is defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain as \"an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage.\" Only the person experiencing the pain can know the pain's quality and intensity, and the degree of suffering. However, for non-human animals, it is harder, if even possible, to know whether an emotional experience has occurred. Therefore, this concept is often excluded in definitions of pain in animals, such as that provided by Zimmerman: \"an aversive sensory experience caused by actual or potential injury that elicits protective motor and vegetative reactions, results in learned avoidance and may modify species-specific behaviour, including social behaviour.\" Non-human animals cannot report their feelings to language-using humans in the same manner as human communication, but observation of their behaviour provides a reasonable indication as to the extent of their pain. Just as with doctors and medics who sometimes share no common language with their patients, the indicators of pain can still be understood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3248911",
"title": "Loviatar (Forgotten Realms)",
"section": "Section::::Dogma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "The world is filled with pain and torment, and the best that one can do is to suffer those blows that cannot be avoided and deal as much pain back to those who offend. Kindnesses are the best companions to hurts, and increase the intensity of suffering. Let mercy of sudden abstinence from causing pain and of providing unlooked-for healing come over you seldom, but at whim, so as to make folk hope and increase the Mystery of Loviatar's Mercy. Unswerving cruelty will turn all folk against you. Act alluring, and give pain and torment to those who enjoy it as well as to those who deserve it most or would be most hurt by it. The lash, fire, and cold are the three pains that never fail the devout. Spread Loviatar's teachings whenever punishment is meted out. Pain tests all, but gives strength of spirit and true pleasure to the hardy and the true. There is no true punishment if the punisher knows no discipline. Wherever a whip is, there is Loviatar. Fear her—and yet long for her.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
]
}
] | null |
7p2l5u | Is there an auditory processing disorder that is similar to dyslexia? | [
{
"answer": "There is a disorder literally called Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) that is similar to Dyslexia. It is an abnormality in the processing of sound in the central auditory nervous system and it affects the brain’s ability to filter and process sounds and words. Most people that have Dyslexia also tend to have this disorder as well.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8305",
"title": "Dyslexia",
"section": "Section::::Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "Dyslexia is thought to have two types of cause, one related to language processing and another to visual processing. It is considered a cognitive disorder, not a problem with intelligence. However, emotional problems often arise because of it. Some published definitions are purely descriptive, whereas others propose causes. The latter usually cover a variety of reading skills and deficits, and difficulties with distinct causes rather than a single condition. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke definition describes dyslexia as \"difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding\". The British Dyslexia Association definition describes dyslexia as \"a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling\" and is characterized by \"difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "40621603",
"title": "Linguistic intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Disorders affecting linguistic intelligence.:Other disorders affecting language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "Some disorders cause a wide array of effects, and language impairment is merely one of many possible symptoms. The two major disorders of this type are autism spectrum disorder and epilepsy. Autism and other autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are disorders in which the patient suffers from decreased social skills and lowered mental flexibility. As a result, many patients suffering from ASDs also have language problems, arising from both the lack of social interaction and lowered mental flexibility. Epilepsy is a disorder where electrical malfunctions or mis-communications in the brain cause seizures, leading to muscle spasms and activation of other organs and systems of the body. Over time, epilepsy can lead to cognitive and behavioral decay. This mental decay can eventually lead to a loss of language and communication skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "43527201",
"title": "Usha Goswami",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1095,
"text": "Dyslexia is a disorder in which the person affected has difficulty reading due to the reversal of letters in the brain that isn't linked to intelligence. In people with dyslexia, the brain processes certain signals in a specific way making it a very specific learning difficulty. Dr. Goswami's research is concerned with focusing on dyslexia as a language disorder rather than a visual disorder as she has found that the way that children with dyslexia hear language is slightly different than others. When sound waves approach the brain, they vary in pressure depending on the syllables within the words being spoken creating a rhythm. When these signals reach the brain they are lined up with speech rhythms and this process doesn't work properly in those with dyslexia. Goswami is currently researching whether or not reading poetry, nursery rhymes, and singing can be used to help children with dyslexia. The rhythm of the words could allow the child to match the syllable patterns to language before they begin reading as to catch them up to where children without the disability might be.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "8305",
"title": "Dyslexia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Associated conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "BULLET::::- Auditory processing disorder – A listening disability that affects the ability to process auditory information. This can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research indicates that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "23141005",
"title": "Characteristics of dyslexia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "The causes of dyslexia are not agreed upon, although the consensus of neuroscientists believe dyslexia is a phonological processing disorder and that dyslexics have reading difficulties because they are unable to see or hear a word, break it down to discrete sounds, and then associate each sound with letter/s that make up the word. Some researchers believe that a subset of dyslexics have visual deficits in addition to deficits in phoneme processing, but this view is not universally accepted. In any case, there is evidence that dyslexics literally \"see\" letters backward or in reverse order within words.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23033439",
"title": "Dyslexia research",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Phonological deficit theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The phonological deficit theory proposes that people with dyslexia have a specific sound manipulation impairment, which affects their auditory memory, word recall, and sound association skills when processing speech. The phonological theory explains a reading impairment when using an alphabetic writing system which requires learning the grapheme/phoneme correspondence, the relationship between the graphic letter symbols and speech sounds which they represent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23085583",
"title": "Orthographies and dyslexia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "Furthermore, recent evidence has found that there are certain genes responsible for causing dyslexia. Research also suggests a clear genetic basis for developmental dyslexia with abnormalities in certain language areas of the brain. However, there is also evidence that orthography, the correspondence between the language's phonemes (sound units) and its graphemes (characters, symbols, letters), plays a significant role in the type and frequency of dyslexia's manifestations. Some psycholinguists believe that the complexity of a language’s orthography (whether it has a high phoneme-grapheme correspondence or an irregular correspondence in which sounds don’t clearly map to symbols) affects the severity and occurrence of dyslexia, postulating that a more regular system would reduce the number of cases of dyslexia and/or the severity of symptoms.\n",
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1p3ndq | How did James Maxwell determine that electromagnetic waves create their own medium? | [
{
"answer": "To get the speed of light, you can take Maxwell's equations, assume there are no charges anywhere, and 'pluck' the electric or magnetic field and watch what happens. The solution to these assumptions is a wave propagating through the EM field at the speed *c*. Maxwell proposed that light might be an EM wave because this behavior matched what was known about light at the time.\n\nOriginally, it was thought that this wave was propagating in a 'luminiferous aether', as these charge-free EM fields were assumed to be mathematical constructs, not physical things (because the only known way to measure the field was with charges or magnets.) The [Michelson-Morley experiment](_URL_2_), along with the analysis provided by Einstein, convincingly demonstrated that no such thing exists. Further measurement of the properties of light and results like the derivation of [Snell's law](_URL_1_) and the equations of [diffraction](_URL_0_) from Maxwell's equations cemented the idea that light was an electromagnetic phenomena.\n\nEM Fields were then taken to be fundamental, essentially taking the electromagnetic field itself as the medium for the propagation of light. The electromagnetic field could be measured without the use of charges by measuring light.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "199304",
"title": "Ampère's circuital law",
"section": "Section::::Extending the original law: the Maxwell–Ampère equation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
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"text": "With the addition of the displacement current, Maxwell was able to hypothesize (correctly) that light was a form of electromagnetic wave. See electromagnetic wave equation for a discussion of this important discovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "13445",
"title": "Heinrich Hertz",
"section": "Section::::Scientific work.:Electromagnetic waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
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"text": "In 1864 Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell proposed a comprehensive theory of electromagnetism, now called Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's theory predicted that coupled electric and magnetic fields could travel through space as an \"electromagnetic wave\". Maxwell proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of short wavelength, but no one had been able to prove this, or generate or detect electromagnetic waves of other wavelengths. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "9426",
"title": "Electromagnetic radiation",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:Theory.:Maxwell’s equations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "James Clerk Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations, thus uncovering the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields and their symmetry. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the measured speed of light, Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave. Maxwell's equations were confirmed by Heinrich Hertz through experiments with radio waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "28989696",
"title": "James Clerk Maxwell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "With the publication of \"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field\" in 1865, Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space as waves moving at the speed of light. He proposed that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. The unification of light and electrical phenomena led his prediction of the existence of radio waves. Maxwell is also regarded as a founder of the modern field of electrical engineering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "39304805",
"title": "History of Maxwell's equations",
"section": "Section::::The term \"Maxwell's equations\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "Maxwell's contribution to science in producing these equations lies in the correction he made to Ampère's circuital law in his 1861 paper \"On Physical Lines of Force\". He added the displacement current term to Ampère's circuital law and this enabled him to derive the electromagnetic wave equation in his later 1865 paper \"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field\" and to demonstrate the fact that light is an electromagnetic wave. This fact was later confirmed experimentally by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. The physicist Richard Feynman predicted that, \"From a long view of the history of mankind, seen from, say, ten thousand years from now, there can be little doubt that the most significant event of the 19th century will be judged as Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electrodynamics. The American Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance in comparison with this important scientific event of the same decade.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1105907",
"title": "Spark-gap transmitter",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The other was research by physicists to confirm the theory of electromagnetism proposed in 1864 by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, now called Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's theory showed that a combination of oscillating electric and magnetic fields could travel through space as an \"electromagnetic wave\". Maxwell proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of short wavelength, but no one knew how to prove this, or generate or detect electromagnetic waves of other wavelengths. By 1883 it was known that accelerated electric charges could produce electromagnetic waves, and George Fitzgerald had calculated the output power of a loop antenna. Fitzgerald in a brief note published in 1883 suggested that electromagnetic waves could be generated practically by discharging a capacitor rapidly; the method used in spark transmitters, however there is no indication that this inspired other inventors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5951576",
"title": "History of electromagnetic theory",
"section": "Section::::19th century.:Maxwell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
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"end_character": 753,
"text": "Maxwell extended this view of displacement currents in dielectrics to the ether of free space. Assuming light to be the manifestation of alterations of electric currents in the ether, and vibrating at the rate of light vibrations, these vibrations by induction set up corresponding vibrations in adjoining portions of the ether, and in this way the undulations corresponding to those of light are propagated as an electromagnetic effect in the ether. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light obviously involved the existence of electric waves in free space, and his followers set themselves the task of experimentally demonstrating the truth of the theory. By 1871, he presented the \"Remarks on the mathematical classification of physical quantities\".\n",
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186039 | Does the electromagnetic spectrum abruptly stop at gamma rays.. or are there higher energy/shorter wavelengths out there? | [
{
"answer": "No, there is no sharp cut off, though we don't have a standard term for super-high energy photons. Typical gamma rays from nuclear have energies of 10^(5) to 10^(7) eV. Astronomical sources can yield energies around 10^(13) eV, indicating that they coming from processes other than radioactive decay. If you can find a way to create a high energy photon, it will have more energy.\n\nIn fact, the notion of a photon's energy is dependent on the frame of reference of the observer. The fastest particle every observed was a cosmic ray (likely a proton) with an energy of 3x10^(20) eV. Imagine that that cosmic ray was observing a gamma ray that we observed as traveling towards the cosmic ray and, in our frame, with an energy E. To the cosmic ray, that gamma ray would have an energy that was between 10^(11) and 10^(12) times bigger. That means, if things were lined up right, nuclear gamma rays we observed at 10^(7) eV or astrophysical gamma rays that we observed at 10^(13) eV would, to this cosmic ray, have energies of over 10^(18) or 10^(24) eV, respectively.",
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"answer": "Some in the lattice gauge theory community have seriously(-ish) considered [_URL_0_] the possibility that spacetime is discretized; if this is the case then the fundamental lattice spacing would impose a limit on the minimum wavelength. Any physical quantity dependent on momentum would be periodic in 2pi/a, where a is the lattice spacing.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "206919",
"title": "Seyfert galaxy",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Emissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
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"text": "In the few radio-loud Seyfert galaxies that have been observed, the radio emission is believed to represent synchrotron emission from the jet. The infrared emission is due to radiation in other bands being reprocessed by dust near the nucleus. The highest energy photons are believed to be created by inverse Compton scattering by a high temperature corona near the black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "25856",
"title": "Radiation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
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"text": "Gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of ultraviolet light constitute the ionizing part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The word \"ionize\" refers to the breaking of one or more electrons away from an atom, an action that requires the relatively high energies that these electromagnetic waves supply. Further down the spectrum, the non-ionizing lower energies of the lower ultraviolet spectrum cannot ionize atoms, but can disrupt the inter-atomic bonds which form molecules, thereby breaking down molecules rather than atoms; a good example of this is sunburn caused by long-wavelength solar ultraviolet. The waves of longer wavelength than UV in visible light, infrared and microwave frequencies cannot break bonds but can cause vibrations in the bonds which are sensed as heat. Radio wavelengths and below generally are not regarded as harmful to biological systems. These are not sharp delineations of the energies; there is some overlap in the effects of specific frequencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "883560",
"title": "Gamma-ray spectrometer",
"section": "Section::::Gamma-ray spectroscopy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
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"text": "Because the energy level spectrum of nuclei typically dies out above about 10 MeV, gamma-ray instruments looking to still higher energies generally observe only continuum spectra, so that the moderate spectral resolution of scintillation (often sodium iodide (NaI) or caesium iodide, (CsI) spectrometers), often suffices for such applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18616290",
"title": "Gamma ray",
"section": "Section::::Distinction from X-rays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "Due to this broad overlap in energy ranges, in physics the two types of electromagnetic radiation are now often defined by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons (either in orbitals outside of the nucleus, or while being accelerated to produce bremsstrahlung-type radiation), while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus or by means of other particle decays or annihilation events. There is no lower limit to the energy of photons produced by nuclear reactions, and thus ultraviolet or lower energy photons produced by these processes would also be defined as \"gamma rays\". The only naming-convention that is still universally respected is the rule that electromagnetic radiation that is known to be of atomic nuclear origin is \"always\" referred to as \"gamma rays\", and never as X-rays. However, in physics and astronomy, the converse convention (that all gamma rays are considered to be of nuclear origin) is frequently violated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "43532331",
"title": "Ultra-high-energy gamma ray",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Ultra-high-energy gamma rays are gamma rays with photon energies higher than 100 TeV (0.1 PeV). They have a frequency higher than 2.42 × 10 Hz and a wavelength shorter than 1.24 × 10 m. The existence of these rays were confirmed in 2019 . The highest energy astronomical sourced gamma rays detected are very-high-energy gamma rays, with the center of the Crab Nebula (thought to contain a rapidly spinning neutron star, or 'pulsar') being the source of the highest energy rays detected as of 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "13632049",
"title": "Gamma-ray burst emission mechanisms",
"section": "Section::::Dust extinction and hydrogen absorption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "At very high frequencies (far-ultraviolet and X-ray) interstellar hydrogen gas becomes a significant absorber. In particular, a photon with a wavelength of less than 91 nanometers is energetic enough to completely ionize neutral hydrogen and is absorbed with almost 100% probability even through relatively thin gas clouds. (At much shorter wavelengths the probability of absorption begins to drop again, which is why X-ray afterglows are still detectable.) As a result, observed spectra of very high-redshift GRBs often drop to zero at wavelengths less than that of where this hydrogen ionization threshold (known as the Lyman break) would be in the GRB host's reference frame. Other, less dramatic hydrogen absorption features are also commonly seen in high-z GRBs, such as the Lyman alpha forest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "43532331",
"title": "Ultra-high-energy gamma ray",
"section": "Section::::Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Ultra-high-energy gamma rays are of importance because they may reveal the source of cosmic rays. Discounting the relatively weak effect of gravity, they travel in a straight line from their source to an observer. This is unlike cosmic rays which have their direction of travel scrambled by magnetic fields. Sources that produce cosmic rays will almost certainly produce gamma rays as well, as the cosmic ray particles interact with nuclei or electrons to produce photons or neutral pions which in turn decay to ultra-high-energy photons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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7kz79d | Monday Methods | An Indigenous Pedagogy | [
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"answer": "This is incredibly interesting as a way to approach teaching. Do you know if this is implemented in non-indigenous settings too or is it something that is a process within specifically indigenous settings?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Another very fascinating write-up, thank you. I actually have a few questions.\n\nIn most threads on indigenous or marginalized/subaltern peoples of any kind, there is a common caveat that accompanies any historical answer on this subreddit. For example, from a recently excellent answer about Native American perceptions of dinosaur bones:\n\n > This is my general notice that \"Native American\" encompasses two vast continents filled with innumerable people in the various landscapes of those continents, whose thoughts, traditions, and cultures were not static, but evolved and flourished over a period of thousands of years.\n\nYet, in our current thread, your post is written about \"Indigenous peoples\" and \"Indigenous pedagogy\". Essentially, I'm curious, are these methods specific to certain indigenous groups? Is this a kind of generalization (i.e. for a United Statesian context)? A better question might be: What is the historiography of indigenous historical methodology? Is this a post-colonial construction, or did the pre-colonial Aztecs and the Algonquin peoples share fundamental educational values which could be summed up as \"Indigenous pedagogy\"?\n\nAddendum to this: is \"Western\" a kind of misnomer, in this case? Do pedagogical systems in China or the Middle-East fall under this purview? I just fear that there may be a less Eurocentric way to frame the divide. \n\nSecondly;\n > These benefits also extend beyond Indigenous students and can be applied to non-Indigenous students alike, those who, in my opinion, do not benefit from many Western methods of teaching as previously thoughts \n\nThis was interesting to me, because I usually encounter criticisms of educational paradigms through a self-fulfilling lens; education systems help student navigate educational systems and a workforce based on those educational systems. That is, the system serves itself, and society at all levels is shaped by and for people which went through the system. In this sense, a radical departure from Western educational paradigms could potentially undermine Indigenous attempts at prosperity, equality, and agency, despite the equal (if not greater) value of the pedagogical system itself. \n\nEssentially, if an indigenous student goes through an undergraduate degree with a more indigenous pedagogy, would they be at a disadvantage in moving on to medical school and being forced to navigate a less-familiar Western pedagogical system? \n\nAnd finally:\n > Thus, the words of elders to relate what happened in the past has as much authority as the written word (if we are putting Indigenous peoples and Western societies on level playing fields, that is).\n\nThis may be outside the scope of the thread, so feel free to link to a previous answer on the subject. My understanding of both the academic consensus on psychology and criminology is such that human memory is far, far more fallible than generally believed. Not that written sources are infallible or anything of the sort, I'm just curious, is that an uncontroversial statement to make (written word having as much authority as the spoken)? I understand the social and political reasons to avoid civilizational arguments for the superiority of literate texts, but from a historiographical perspective, is this opinion shared by scholars working outside indigenous contexts (givenn that all human cultures still maintain some oral elements, i.e. folklore and whatnot)? \n\nSorry for all the questions, I'm really diving into unknown territory for myself here. ",
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"wikipedia_id": "29189764",
"title": "Indigenous education",
"section": "Section::::Pedagogical approaches to Indigenous Education.:Critical Indigenous Pedagogy.\n",
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"text": "Critical Indigenous Pedagogy focuses on resisting colonization and oppression through education practices that privilege indigenous knowledge and promote indigenous sovereignty. Beyond schooling and instruction, CIP is rooted in thinking critically about social injustices and challenging those through education systems that empower youth and teachers to create social change. The goal of teachers and educators under CIP is to guide indigenous students in developing critical consciousness by creating a space for self-reflection and dialogue as opposed to mere instruction. This form of pedagogy empowers Indigenous youth to take charge and responsibility to transform their own communities. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55551095",
"title": "Human Science Pedagogy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "Human Science Pedagogy is the branch of the Human Sciences concerned with education, upbringing, teaching and individual growth or formation (\"Bildung\"). It is oriented to teaching and learning practice, to the relational experience of the teacher and student, to questions of ethics, history and to what it is to be human. It was the dominant approach to educational scholarship teacher education, and the philosophy of education, and in Germany from the Weimar Era to the late 1960s. Human Science Pedagogy is based on the educational work of Friedrich Schleiermacher, which was integrated by Wilhelm Dilthey into his conception of a multidisciplinary human science. It was subsequently consolidated by Herman Nohl and developed further by Otto Friedrich Bollnow, Theodore Litt, Jakob Muth and others. Human science pedagogy has endured in the work of Klaus Mollenhauer, Max van Manen and other recent and contemporary scholars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "742316",
"title": "Critical pedagogy",
"section": "Section::::Developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "One of the major texts taking up the intersection between critical pedagogy and Indigenous knowledge(s) is Sandy Grande's, \"Red Pedagogy: Native American Social and Political Thought\" (Rowman and Littlefield, 2004). In agreement with this perspective, Four Arrows, aka Don Trent Jacobs, challenges the anthropocentrism of critical pedagogy and writes that to achieve its transformative goals there are other differences between Western and Indigenous worldview that must be considered. Approaching the intersection of Indigenous perspectives and pedagogy from another perspective, critical pedagogy of place examines the impacts of place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20638862",
"title": "Cultural Studies Association",
"section": "Section::::Divisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The pedagogy division includes a focus on culture and education, cultural pedagogy, and the curriculum of cultural studies. Pedagogy, broadly conceived and critically understood in this context concerns a wide range of issues taken up in cultural studies including but not limited to mass media, popular culture, subculture, public culture, nationhood, postcolonialism, political economy, identity, race, class, gender, sexuality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29189764",
"title": "Indigenous education",
"section": "Section::::Pedagogical approaches to Indigenous Education.:Culturally relevant pedagogy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Culturally Relevant pedagogy involves curriculum tailored to the cultural needs of students and participants involved. Culture is at the core of CRP and teachers and educators aim for all students to achieve academic success, develop cultural competence, and develop critical consciousness to challenge the current social structures of inequality that affect indigenous communities in particular. Culturally relevant Pedagogy also extends to \"culturally sustaining and revitalizing pedagogy\" which actively works to challenge power relations and colonization by reclaiming, through education, what has been displaced by colonization and recognizing the important of community engagement in such efforts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41359234",
"title": "Sunnybrook School (Toronto)",
"section": "Section::::Curriculum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Twenty-first century pedagogy includes a focus on concepts, learning through inquiry and learning skills and dispositions that are transferable and enduring, leading to lifelong learning. Sunnybrook School applies this pedagogy, using the methods and ideas of current educational thought leaders, including David Perkins, Heidi Hayes Jacobs, Lynne Erickson and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19533214",
"title": "The Mosaic Project",
"section": "Section::::Curriculum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Various teaching methods are used, including kinesthetic learning. Students are taught self-respect and respect of others, as well as ethnic awareness. The pedagogy is supported by social science research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b1gyrh | why are some seasonal fruits, like apples, available all year round, but others aren't? | [
{
"answer": "Seasonal fuits are grown in both the northern and southern hemispheres and shipped all over the world. A lot of summer fruits that are available in grocery stores in the winter in northern countries are grown in Chile, Argentina, New Zealand etc. The same is true of winter fruits that are available in grocery stores in the summer in northern countries. \n\nFruits that cannot be shipped and stored easily are not available out of season. Apples, for example, are very easy to ship because they are hard and so do not bruise easily, and they can be stored in refrigerators for months. Strawberries, on the other hand, are too delicate to ship long distances or to store for months because they will bruise and rot quickly. \n\nSome of these more delicate seasonal fruits can be grown out of season in greenhouses, but they tend to be very expensive. They can also be grown in more temperate regions like California and Mexico, which have much longer growing seasons, but they still still have to be shipped on trains and trucks. Avoiding bruising and spoilage is a difficult process. \n\nTropical fruits like bananas, pineapples, and papayas are grown year-round in tropical climates. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2566958",
"title": "Gala (apple)",
"section": "Section::::Season.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "While the season usually lasts only 9 or 10 months, they are able to last all year round. However, due to some apples continuing to be grown in some orchards, and the fact that they can be refrigerated for some months, leads to the availability of the Gala apple year-round in some Australian markets. These usually taste different (slightly less sweet) from those in season. The UK season begins in late summer (August). Storage makes the UK fruit available nearly year-round as with fruit from other origins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "948976",
"title": "Lithuanian cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Fruit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Apples, plums, and pears, which grow well in Lithuania, are the most commonly used fruit. Because they cannot tolerate frost, tropical fruit such as citrus, bananas and pineapples must be imported, and hence were used less often in the past; however, these fruits are now becoming more typical and are widely consumed. During the autumn harvest, fruit is often simmered and spiced to create fruit stews (kompots). Gooseberries (\"agrastai\") and currants (\"serbentai\") are widely cultivated; they are sweetened, made into jams and baked goods, and provide a piquant touch to desserts. Small local producers make fine fruit wines from raspberries, and especially blackcurrants; apple icewine is also produced. Apple cheese is very popular in autumn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361993",
"title": "Ripening",
"section": "Section::::Ripening agents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "They allow many fruits to be picked prior to full ripening, which is useful, since ripened fruits do not ship well. For example, bananas are picked when green and artificially ripened after shipment by being gassed with ethylene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25439687",
"title": "Agriculture in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Crops.:Fruit and wine farming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Fruits, including grapes for wine, earn as much as 40 percent of agricultural export earnings in some years. (Fresh fruit finds a good market in Europe because it matures during the northern hemisphere's winter.) Deciduous fruits, including apples, pears, and peaches, are grown primarily in areas of the Western Cape and the Eastern Cape, where cold winters and dry summers provide ideal conditions for these crops. Almost 1 million tons of deciduous fruits were sold fresh locally or were exported each year in the early 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10811383",
"title": "Jatropha curcas",
"section": "Section::::Botanical features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fruits : fruits are produced in winter, or there may be several crops during the year if soil moisture is good and temperatures are sufficiently high. Most fruit production is concentrated from midsummer to late fall with variations in production peaks where some plants have two or three harvests and some produce continuously through the season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3049",
"title": "Autumn",
"section": "Section::::Associations.:Harvest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "In North America, while most foods are harvested during the autumn, foods particularly associated with the season include pumpkins (which are integral parts of both Thanksgiving and Halloween) and apples, which are used to make the seasonal beverage apple cider.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41890662",
"title": "Srigufwara",
"section": "Section::::Fauna and Flora.:Flora.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Apple and walnut are the prominent fruits grown in the area. Apple season starts from Mid September and people sell the produce across various fruit Markets of the India especially the Jammu fruit market in the state itself. Apples are also used for extraction of pulp and juice for preparation of Jams and jellies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4js7a2 | how do they fake apps/operating systems in movies/tv | [
{
"answer": "Usually you would want to do it in post-production because screens don't film well due to different refresh rates. They may have prompts on the screen if the scene calls for it though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "These days the screens as filmed are all green screens, and the contents of the screens are added in post.\n\n[Generally like this](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simulated screens can be created with graphic design and editing programs. Then the fake program - which is now just a collection of images, video or a mix of the two - can either be put on a device/computer OR it can be put into the original footage (an actor sitting at a computer with a blank screen) to make it look like its running on that system.\n\nFor some background, I've worked in the film industry both in front of and behind the camera for the last 12 years.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are people who are paid by studios to create the \"OS\" that are seen in movies and shows. [Mark Coleran](_URL_1_) is one such person. The idea is to tell the story of what the character is doing with the computer in a way that can be understood by the audience en masse. Most of the time, this is usually done in real time. The actor \"psuedointerfaces\" with the computer via a dummy keyboard and mouse while the images on the display are triggered off camera by an operator. \n\nAs a side note, I recalled that [The Matrix Reloaded](_URL_0_) was praised back in the day for its semi-realistic portrayal of hacking, with Trinity running nmap to find an open SSHv1 port, utilizing [a known exploit](_URL_2_), then logging into the remote system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7739729",
"title": "Influencer marketing",
"section": "Section::::Virtual influencers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Virtual influencers are sometimes considered fake influencers too, given their profiles do not correspond to real individuals. It can be argued, however, their presence and role on the platform are different, in the sense they are not automated (bots) nor implemented with the purpose of generating fake likes, fake comments, fake followers or in any way tampering with the platforms where they are created. Simply put, virtual influencers are virtual characters purposefully designed by 3D artists to look like real-life people attending real-life events or situations. Most of these characters' publications are easily distinguished as computer graphics, but some users may be caught off-guard by better polished images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56641018",
"title": "Deepfake",
"section": "Section::::Deepfake software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "In January 2018, a proprietary desktop application called FakeApp was launched. The app allows users to easily create and share videos with faces swapped. The app uses an artificial neural network and the power of the graphics processor and three to four gigabytes of storage space to generate the fake video. For detailed information, the program needs a lot of visual material from the person to be inserted in order to learn which image aspects have to be exchanged, using the deep learning algorithm based on the video sequences and images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20830069",
"title": "Association for the Scientific Study of Anomalous Phenomena",
"section": "Section::::Current activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Carrie Searley explained to paranormal researcher Ben Radford that '\"fake ghost photography is in the minority, however, it does occur... It is purely down to us to educate ourselves with the up and coming new photo apps that are being offered on the market'\". And ASSAP asked the public for its help to catalog the known fake images for smartphones. Though the charity still analyses ghostly photographs, in 2011 it ceased to study smartphone pictures, as apps became available for the specific purpose of faking ghostly figures.The charity asked members to send before and after pictures using the applications to help weed out fakes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1968876",
"title": "Video game clone",
"section": "Section::::Video games.:Legal aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1382,
"text": "More recently, with the popularity of social and mobile game stores like Apple's App Store for iOS system and Google Play for Android-based systems, a large number of likely-infringing clones have begun appearing. While such storefronts typically include a review process before games and apps can be offered on them, these processes do not consider copyright infringement of other titles. Instead, they rely on the developer of the work that has been cloned to initiate a complaint regarding the clone, which may take time for review. The cloned apps often are purposely designed to resemble other popular apps by name or feel, luring away purchasers from the legitimate app, even after complaints have been filed. Apple has released a tool to streamline claims of app clones to a team dedicated to handle these cases, helping to bring the two parties together to try to negotiate prior to action. While Apple, Google, and Microsoft took steps to stem the mass of clones based on \"Swing Copters\" after its release, experts believe it is unlikely that these app stores will institute any type of proactive clone protection outside of clear copyright violations, and these experts stress the matter is better done by the developers and gaming community to assure the original developer is well known, protects their game assets on release, and gets the credit for the original game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14286866",
"title": "Virtual actor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "In general, virtual humans employed in movies are known as synthespians, virtual actors, vactors, cyberstars, or \"silicentric\" actors. There are several legal ramifications for the digital cloning of human actors, relating to copyright and personality rights. People who have already been digitally cloned as simulations include Bill Clinton, Marilyn Monroe, Fred Astaire, Ed Sullivan, Elvis Presley, Bruce Lee, Audrey Hepburn, Anna Marie Goddard, and George Burns. Ironically, data sets of Arnold Schwarzenegger for the creation of a virtual Arnold (head, at least) have already been made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15637214",
"title": "Craft Director Tools",
"section": "Section::::Interactivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Today there are several different computer programs that simulate things like cars and airplanes. An obvious example is a flight simulator, another would be video games where players drive cars. But neither of these tools is designed to help movie makers and content-creators to make editable, recorded animation material. None of those technologies are an aid for Maya and 3ds Max.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531619",
"title": "3D Movie Maker",
"section": "Section::::Releases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "BULLET::::- Demo versions: these only feature the studio, do not allow the opening or saving of movies and only feature two actors and one prop. They are Bongo, Nakita and a red car for 3D Movie Maker, while they are Ren, Stimpy and a spaceship for Nickelodeon 3D Movie Maker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
az97nm | why do game consoles not need a 3 prong plug with a ground wire but things like amplifiers and pcs do? | [
{
"answer": "The 3rd prong is just an added safety precaution. To be approved by the UL anything with an exposed metal case needs to have the 3rd prong so if a wire inside the device comes loose and into contact with the case the current will go down the ground prong and not to you if you touch it. game consoles have plastic cases, computers have metal cases around their power supplies which is exposed on most systems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60508",
"title": "Pinball",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing process.:Solenoids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Historically, pinball machines have employed a central fixed I/O board connected to the primary CPU controlled by a custom microcontroller platform running an in-house operating system. For a variety of reasons that include thermal flow, reliability, vibration reduction and serviceability, I/O electronics have been located in the upper backbox of the game, requiring significant custom wiring harnesses to connect the central I/O board to the playfield devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26230192",
"title": "Cheater plug",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "A cheater plug, AC ground lifter or three-prong/two-prong adapter is an adapter that allows a NEMA 5-15P grounding-type plug (three prongs) to connect to a NEMA 1-15R non-grounding receptacle (two slots). They are needed to allow appliances with 3-wire power cords to plug into legacy ungrounded (two slot) receptacles found in older buildings. The use of such an adapter avoids the need to replace receptacles, but is potentially hazardous if the grounding tab is not connected to electrical ground. These adapters are illegal in some jurisdictions, in particular throughout Canada. A safer and more reliable alternative identified in the US and Canadian electrical codes is to replace the outlet with a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) breaker outlet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26230192",
"title": "Cheater plug",
"section": "Section::::Use in residences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Three-prong plugs do not fit into the older, two-prong receptacles. When used as intended, the ground pin of the 3-wire receptacle is to be connected to the grounded cover screw, or to an external ground. In 1969 Underwriters Laboratories mandated three-prong plugs on major appliances for safety. At that time, only half of the receptacles in US homes were three-prong. Wiring in most homes did not include a grounding wire. The screws and outlet boxes were either connected to the neutral, or connected to nothing. Only in rare jurisdictions where non-metallic cable was prohibited and armored cable required (and still in good condition), do cheater plugs work as intended. In 1971, the US National Electrical Code (NEC) required grounded receptacles in all locations of the home (effective January 1, 1974).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206882",
"title": "Chapman Stick",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.:Electronics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The Stick can be plugged into any standard guitar or bass amplifier, to good effect. However, because of the very high impedance of the passive pickups, an instrument preamp is often employed, especially for full-range amplification systems (PA, keyboard amps, etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5405950",
"title": "Super Monkey Ball Deluxe",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Some people also thought that the control sticks used in the PS2 & Xbox controllers made the essential precision a little bit harder to achieve in the long run due to the smooth edges and deadzone, whereas those of the Gamecube controller had octagonal edges and no deadzones at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5551009",
"title": "NEMA connector",
"section": "Section::::Non-locking connectors.:NEMA 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "This \"2-prong\" design, with two flat parallel non-coplanar blades and slots, is used in most of North America and on the east coast of South America on lamps; consumer electronics such as clocks, radios, and battery chargers; and other double insulated small appliances that don't require grounding (earthing).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8203606",
"title": "Multi-purpose stadium",
"section": "Section::::Replacement and retention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1328,
"text": "The widespread adoption of FieldTurf and similar modern artificial turfs beginning in the early 2000s also has had a role in the decline of the multipurpose stadium. While first-generation, short-pile turfs such as AstroTurf lent themselves well to multiple sports (one could have a turf for football, roll it up and replace it with one for baseball, association football, or lacrosse), this was not the case with FieldTurf and its competitors. Modern artificial turf requires a more permanent installation, including sand and rubber base and/or infill that is not easily removed, thus does not lend itself well to multipurpose stadiums. Because of such turfs' superiority in other features compared to the earlier turfs, it has been seen as easier to build new stadiums for each sport rather than attempt to share an inflexible turf installation among multiple sports. (Some 21st-century multi-purpose stadiums, such as Tottenham Hotspur Stadium and State Farm Stadium, have developed a more elaborate method of placing an entire playing surface, such as a grass surface for association football and an artificial turf one for gridiron football, on a slab and towing the slab in and out of place for each sport. Because of the expense of using this method, it is generally only used for the highest-level professional sports.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rvx41 | How does the rate at which a star burns up scale with temperature? | [
{
"answer": "Just taking some of the relationships from [here.](_URL_0_) We have:\n\n- Lifespan is proportional to M^-2.5 \n- L is proportional to M^3.5 \n- L is also proportional to T^4\n\n(where L is luminosity, T is temperature and M is mass). So combining all of these, we get lifespan is proportional to T^-10/3.5 or T^-20/7 .",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26808",
"title": "Star",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production of its core and by its radius, and is often estimated from the star's color index. The temperature is normally given in terms of an effective temperature, which is the temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star. Note that the effective temperature is only a representative of the surface, as the temperature increases toward the core. The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2695089",
"title": "RV Tauri variable",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The pulsations cause the star to be hottest and smallest approximately halfway from the primary minimum towards a maximum. The coolest temperatures are reached near to a deep minimum. When the brightness is increasing, hydrogen emission lines appear in the spectrum and many spectral lines become doubled, due to a shock wave in the atmosphere. The emission lines fade a few days after maximum brightness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32051963",
"title": "Var 83",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Temperature estimates for the star range from around 18,000K to well over 30,000K. The hotter temperatures found from fitting the spectral energy distribution (SED) are consistent with the calculated luminosity of an LBV in the quiescent stage, but the spectrum is that of a cooler star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1460629",
"title": "Effective temperature",
"section": "Section::::Star.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Stars have a decreasing temperature gradient, going from their central core up to the atmosphere. The \"core temperature\" of the Sun—the temperature at the centre of the Sun where nuclear reactions take place—is estimated to be 15,000,000 K.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5571489",
"title": "Instability strip",
"section": "Section::::Pulsations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "When the star contracts, the density and temperature of the He II layer increases. He II starts to transform into He III (second ionization). This causes the opacity of the star to increase and the energy flux from the interior of the star is effectively absorbed. The temperature of the star rises and it begins to expand. After expansion, He III begins to recombine into He II and the opacity of the star drops. This lowers the surface temperature of the star. The outer layers contract and the cycle starts from the beginning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1575168",
"title": "Subgiant",
"section": "Section::::Subgiant branch.:Mass above.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The core contraction and envelop expansion is very rapid, taking only a few million years. In this time the temperature of the star will cool from its main sequence value of 6,000–30,000 K to around 5,000 K. Relatively few stars are seen in this stage of their evolution and there is an apparent lack in the H–R diagram known as the Hertzsprung gap. It is most obvious in clusters from a few hundred million to a few billion years old.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "15192512",
"title": "Thermal time scale",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In astrophysics, the thermal time scale or Kelvin-Helmholtz time scale is the approximate time it takes for a star to radiate away its total kinetic energy content at its current luminosity rate. Along with the nuclear and free-fall (aka dynamical) time scales, it is used to estimate the length of time a particular star will remain in a certain phase of its life and its lifespan if hypothetical conditions are met. In reality, the lifespan of a star is greater than what is estimated by the thermal time scale because as one fuel becomes scarce, another will generally take its place – hydrogen burning gives way to helium burning, which is replaced by carbon burning.\n",
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s0rih | how is downloading movies/books online any different than going to your local library to check out movies/books for free? | [
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"answer": "First sale doctrine applies to libraries, video rental outfits, etc.\n\nFrom [Wikipedia](_URL_0_)\n\n > The doctrine allows the purchaser to transfer (i.e., sell, lend or give away) a particular lawfully made copy of the copyrighted work without permission once it has been legally obtained. This means that the copyright holder's rights to control the change of ownership of a particular copy ends once ownership of that copy has passed to someone else, as long as the copy itself is not an infringing copy.\n\nThey purchased the copy legally, so they can lend, sell, or rent it out as they see fit so long as they're not duplicating it. ",
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"answer": "Books traditionally do not have licensing rights attached to second hand distributions. Music, video, and software (among other things) do have licensing rights.\n\nIn Copyright Law, the owner of the copyright has ultimate say-so in the copy, distribution, and licensing of the work she owns.\n\nWhen you buy a book (or check out from the library) you do not own the text. You only own the medium in which the text is imprinted (like the pages of the book, or the disk a digital book is written to), but not the content. The rights to that content is still reserved by the copyright holder.\n\nWhen you download content (legally) you are downloading the availability of the content, and through some agreement, you have permission to do so.\n\nWhen you download content (illegally) you are bypassing the rights of the copyright holder and in effect \"stealing\" her opportunity to capitalize on the content.",
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"answer": "Libraries have a limited number of copies, so only a small number of licensed volumes are available at a time which are paid for with taxes. Even with eBooks they have a set number of copies that can be checked out based on the amount of license they have purchased.",
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"answer": "Essentially, I figured it's because libraries pay for the books or films you borrow. If you don't return the book or film, you're charged an overdue fee or eventually a replacement fee. \n\nWhen you download something online for free (illegally), nobody is paying for it.",
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"answer": "I think the most interesting thing about this point is the fact that its unlikely the library system could be established the way that copyright law is currently written.",
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"answer": "(I'm assuming US law)\n\nThe concept of the public library is ancient and (until recently) so well accepted that it had occupied a special place in copyright law. Digital downloads are a new phenomenon and more vulnerable to the industries' efforts to restrict it. As more library content becomes digitized, this will threaten the library's ability to fulfill its mission.\n\nNote that when someone illegally torrents digital content, they most often are not just downloading the files but also uploading (pieces of) them to other users. The penalties for illegally distributing content are very steep compared to the penalties (if any?) for merely obtaining it. Thus we end up with situations where massive media conglomerates are able to pressure common citizens using statutory penalties that were originally intended for professional pirates.",
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"answer": "The clue is in the word *copyright*. A copyright is the right to make a copy.\n\nWhen you're checking a book out of a library you're not making a copy which doesn't require permission from the person who owns the copyright (the \"rightsholder.\") On the other hand, when you download something you're making a new copy.\n\nIn order to legally make a copy you require permission from the rightsholder. In order to get permission, you have to do whatever the rightsholder says, which is usually to pay a fee.",
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"answer": "I wouldn't mind \"renting\" a movie from TPB for free and then \"returning\" it. I don't need to keep my movie files, who wants to develop a free, literal, online library that utilizes the notion of the \"first sale doctrine\"? I'd subscribe.",
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"answer": "In my opinion, morally, they are not any different.",
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"answer": "TIL (after reading through the comments) that no one really understands all the this shit, especially all us 5-year olds. ",
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"answer": "Librarian *and* bookseller here:\n\nPublishers are getting less and less happy with allowing libraries to purchase and loan downloadable ebooks (which have special DRM to prevent transfer, and \"expire\" on your device after a specific length of time), because there is no **\"friction\"** with downloadable content. **\"Friction\" = \"The inconvenience of actually borrowing a physical object, and having to return it\"**. To loan a physical object requires two trips to the library: one to pick it up, and one to return it. Anyone can download an ebook or eaudiobook from their home computers, and because it is so easy they are borrowing lots and lots of them, more than they would have if they had to actually visit the library building. ",
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"answer": "Actual ELI5 answer: WTF are you doing downloading things on the internet! You're going to pick up tons of viruses, and see things you shouldn't be seeing yet! You're grounded. \n\nAnswer you were looking for: \n\nThe Library is OK because: \n\n1. Someone bought the books for the library to use in the first place.\n2. The rights to use materials from the library are restricted to the local residents. \n3. The library only holds a specific amount of copies to share within the community. \n\nThe internet is a different animal since it may or may not have been purchased ever, and is open to the entire world instead of just the local township. Also, software's non-physical nature means that infinite copies can be shared instead of just the 2-3 per municipality. \n\nI'd be interested to see what would happen if the Library of Congress scanned/transcribed everything they have and opened it's internet doors to the municipality of America. I imagine it'd make a pretty interesting supreme court case. ",
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"answer": "Duplication is the key difference. It would be illegal to take said book from the library, photocopy it and hand out copies to friends.",
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"answer": "When a library lends a copy of a physical book, they are within their rights under the first-sale doctrine. They do not violate the rights of the copyright holder.\n\nDownloading them online (illegally, I presume) violates the rights of reproduction, duplication, and public performance.",
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"answer": "Short version: copying is the difference\n\nIf you checked out a book from the library, and you (somehow) made an exact copy of it and kept the copy, it would be the exact same thing as pirating movies/etc online",
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"answer": "The library purchases the material, and is essentially lending the material in a \"one at a time\" scenario. The library uses your tax dollars, so you are still paying for it. This is logically equivalent to anyone else purchasing material and lending it to their friends one at a time, which the media producer should expect to happen anyway. There is still a bottleneck of availability that was enabled by a purchase. At worst the media producer makes a profit from each copy bought (this depends on demand) for each library where the media becomes available.\n\nWhen you download movies, the argument is that you are breaking this paradigm and performing a one to many distribution. The cost is paid once, and a potentially unlimited number of people have simultaneous access to that media. This changes the economics in a way that removes the profit associated with the inefficient distribution system of the library.\n\n/ELI5\n\nRant about copyrights, trademarks, patents, etc begin:\n\nI don't think stretched comparisons is the right way to argue this. We have to be honest and realize that \"downloading\" is a different paradigm. And the real argument is about availability, efficiency and cultural enrichment (from remixing, for example) that downloading enables versus the one sided economics of the old publishing paradigms.\n\nThe old guard argues that good works are only produced by the incentives that exist with their economically based system. However, the easy counter argument is to observe that this is a monopoly (over each particular work), and that reduces choices like any other monopoly. Take a look at the film: \"This films is not yet Rated\" or \"Orgasmo\" (or the recent movie about Bullying whose name escapes me at the moment) -- the MPAA uses its censorship powers to prevent those films from getting better distributions for no other reason than their own corporate driven agenda. It blocks culture that can be formed from remixing or other unlicensed usages of the media. And wikipedia is proof that economic funding is not the only way to incentivise the production of valuable media.\n\nThink about rage comics for a second. Can you imagine if the heavy hand of copyright was applied to them? People suing each other because their joke was too similar, others copyrighting/tradmarking certain characters, people trademarking \"derp\", etc. It would absolute wreck the whole concept of rage comics. Remixing, reusing, a blatantly ripping off others is what makes rage comics work, and its what makes them so good. I feel that the best rage comics are pretty much at the same level of the best Newspaper comics -- and that should surprise nobody. After all, how did wikipedia become as high quality, if not higher than Britanica?\n\nDownload and remix is the not some marginal fringe thing. And who cares if nobody makes money off of media based culture? Who says that the existence of such media giants is a good thing? You can't just rattle off a list of good media and claim it was all due to the economic media monopoly system -- you don't have anything to compare against. What would people have produced if the copyright regime were not enforced? Would the aggregate creativity of people go down because there was no media conglomerate to pay for a few high quality pieces? The lesson of wikipedia, rage comics, musical sample based remixes, redubbed videos, autotune, etc is that entertaining media is just a matter of giving people an outlet and just letting the art happen.\n\n",
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"answer": "**Why Libraries Are Different From Piracy**\n\n*by John Green*\n\n(Sorry if this is to complicated for a five year old)\n > Yesterday on twitter, I expressed annoyance with the hundreds of people who send me emails or tumblr messages or whatever to let me know that they illegally downloaded one of my books, as if they expect me to reply with my hearty congratulations that they are technologically sophisticated enough to use google or whatever. (I dislike it when people pirate my books. I know that not all authors feel this way, but I do. As I’ve discussed before, I think copyright law is disastrously stupid in the US, but I don’t think piracy is an appropriate response to that stupidity.*)\n\n > I then pointed out that my books are already available for free at thousands of public libraries not just in the US, but also in Europe, South America, Australia, Canada, Mexico, South Africa, the UK, etc., to which many people replied, What’s the difference between pirating a book and checking it out from the library?\n\n > * 1) Libraries are broadly collecting institutions curated by experts. The curation facet of a library is hugely important: We train these librarians to organize information based not solely on what is popular (which is what piracy does), but also on what is good. The truth is you can’t get “anything” via piracy; there are hundreds of thousands of books you can’t get, because they aren’t yet popular. American public and school libraries play a huge role in preserving the breadth of American literature by collecting and sharing books that are excellent but may not be written by YouTubers with large bulit-in audiences.\n\n > Libraries improve the quality of discourse in their communities in ways that piracy simply does not. And if it weren’t for the broad but carefully curated collection practices of libraries, the world of American literature would look a lot like the world of American film: Instead of hundreds of books being published every week, there would be four or five.\n\n > * 2) Libraries buy books. Lots of them. And there are tens of thousands of libraries around the country. That is good for me and good for my book. (Like, the average library copy of The Fault in Our Stars might get checked out 100 times, or even a thousand, but single files of Looking for Alaska have been illegally downloaded more than 50,000 times.)\n\n > * 3) For the more than 100 million Americans without Internet access at home, libraries are the only free places to use the web to search for jobs or connect with family or buy t-shirts at _URL_0_. I am very happy if my books can help add value to institutions that facilitate such important services. I do not feel the same way about BitTorrent.\n\n > * 4) And this is the most important: I believe that creators of books should have control over how their work is distributed. If, for instance, a musician doesn’t want her songs played during Rick Santorum rallies, then Rick Santorum should not be allowed to use them. I don’t want my books to be available for free download (unless you borrow an e-copy from a library, that is). I just don’t. It’s not because I’m a greedy bastard or want to keep my books from people who might otherwise read them. It’s because I believe books are valuable. Right now, on Amazon, my brand new hardcover book costs about $10, which represents 1.2 hours of work at the federal minimum wage. I believe books are worth 1.2 hours of work. \n\n > One last thing: A lot of people compare the world of books with the world of music. I think this comparison is unfair. For one thing, CDs were overpriced before Napster. I really don’t believe that books—at least my books—are currently overpriced**. More importantly, most musicians have a secondary source of income: They can charge for live performances. Writers—or at least the vast majority of writers—can’t do this. The book is The Thing. The book is all we have to offer.\n\n > And in my opinion, libraries preserve the integrity and the value of the book in ways that piracy simply does not.\n\n > Based on how many of you have already seen Season 2 of Sherlock, I realize that most of you disagree with me. And I’m happy to acknowledge that I might be wrong. I welcome your thoughts and responses on these complicated questions.\n\n > * The whole argument that piracy is some kind of civil disobedience in response to unfair copyright laws is ridiculous and indicates to me that not enough people are reading Civil Disobedience, or even the wikipedia article about it.\n\n > * As pointed out by no less an authority than John Darnielle, CDs weren’t overpriced by many independent record labels. Also, I should add that many books—particularly literary fiction hardcovers published for adults—are overpriced, sometimes dramatically. I think this is a bad and discouraging trend, which is one of the (many) reasons why I like publishing my books the way I do: It’s still possible for a hardcover to cost less than $20, and if you adjust for inflation, it always should be.",
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"answer": "Cause having fun isn't hard, when you've got a library card.",
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"answer": "The biggest difference is the ease of doing it. I guess from the text of the post that's not what you meant though. \n\nAs lots of people have said, the difference is that content distributors get paid for each physical copy and, the library is only able to supply one person at once so, to supply everyone that wants the content, we need lots of library copies. Also, the inconvenience of having to go to the library to borrow it every time you want to use it makes you more likely to purchase it. \n\nPersonally, I am very dissatisfied with copyright law as-is. I think most people would be given the facts. I don't have any faith that it can be sorted out by our current political system (I live in the UK but, I think the same is true in the US and practically anywhere). I also don't really accept the validity of imposing laws like this, that limit people's freedoms without protecting someone else's, on someone who disagrees with them, just because the majority believes they are ok so, I wouldn't really accept the moral validity of copyright law even if I did think it was democratic. I'm also pretty pissed of with how the content industries have acted and curtailed my freedoms to protect their arbitrary and artificial rights. All in all, I don't feel that there is any moral problem with me flouting copyright law. I know that if everyone did, there would be a problem without some reform but, I hope more people do so that it makes reform more urgent for the content industries. ",
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"wikipedia_id": "22564045",
"title": "Used bookstore",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Used bookstores can range in size offering from several hundred to several hundred thousands of titles. They may be brick-and-mortar stores, internet-only stores, or a combination of both. A book town is a locale where numerous bookstores are located and serve as the town's main attraction to tourists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "6398527",
"title": "Huntington Beach Public Library",
"section": "Section::::Central Library and branches.:Virtual branch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "The library system offers many information services to home users via the Internet such as electronic databases and downloadable audiobooks and ebooks. From the convenience of home, library patrons have access to a wealth of authoritative factual information that is not freely available on the Internet. Students can obtain homework help, research newspaper and magazine articles, and search for historical pamphlets and clippings. Consumers can shop for the best rated products by reading Consumer Reports articles online. School children can access links to educational games and homework help sites without having to leave home. Buyers can purchase used books through the Friends of the Library's Amazon store.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "34945826",
"title": "Access Books",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Access Books acquires new books via donations from publishers and distributors or buying them at a discount with grants from charities, businesses, or wealthy individuals. Recipient libraries may request specific titles that are of particular interest to their communities. Used books mostly come from individual donations and book drives by ad hoc groups or local organizations such as middle-class suburban and private schools. Access Books encourages partnerships between schools that have resources and those needing them, as with a book drive led by two students at Oaks Christian School, a private school in Westlake Village. This drive yielded over 11,000 books for new charter schools in North Hollywood and downtown L.A.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46392863",
"title": "St. Petersburg Library System",
"section": "Section::::Programs and Services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "In addition to borrowing books, DVDs, CDs, and other items, patrons have many other resources and services available through the St. Petersburg Library System. Each branch location offers free Wi-Fi and desktop computers for patron use, as well as printing, faxing, and copying services for a small fee. Patrons can download and stream digital resources, such as ebooks, audiobooks, and movies, using the Cloud Library, Hoopla, Overdrive, RBdigital, and Tumblebooks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218232",
"title": "ITunes Store",
"section": "Section::::Features and restrictions.:Pricing model.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "At the Macworld 2008 keynote, Steve Jobs, who was Apple's CEO at the time, announced iTunes movie rentals. Movies are available for rent in iTunes Store on the same day they are released on DVD, though iTunes Store also offers for rental some movies that are still in theaters. Movie rentals are only viewable for 24 hours (in the US) or 48 hours (in other countries) after users begin viewing them. iTunes Store also offers one low-priced movie rental a week: in the United States, this rental costs 99 cents. Movie rentals are not yet available in all countries but it is available in the United States, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "9366137",
"title": "Download to own",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Download to own is a concept of legally downloading movies to your computer via a network such as the internet. Generally to obtain movies this way a user must have a broadband connection and an account from an internet distribution company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23341246",
"title": "Basel University Library",
"section": "Section::::Borrowing information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "The library is open to anyone older than 14, as well as people who live and work in Switzerland and cross-border regions, members of the university and the EUCOR-universities. Registration and use of the library are free of charge. Books can be ordered online. If the book is either borrowed or not in the stacks, it can directly be taken from the self-service section.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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21rgzl | what would happen if somebody broke the nato treaty? | [
{
"answer": "Sending military support is only one way NATO countries can show support. They can also provide financial aide, legal aide, or advisory aide.\n\nUnless one NATO country attacked another, I can't imagine a situation where the other NATO countries wouldn't provide some sort of support, no matter how indirect.",
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"wikipedia_id": "22107",
"title": "Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons",
"section": "Section::::History.:United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "At the time the treaty was being negotiated, NATO had in place secret nuclear weapons sharing agreements whereby the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended \"unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling\", so there is no breach of the NPT. These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including the Soviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57927278",
"title": "History of NATO",
"section": "Section::::Détente and escalation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "During most of the Cold War, NATO's watch against the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact did not actually lead to direct military action. On 1 July 1968, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons opened for signature: NATO argued that its nuclear sharing arrangements did not breach the treaty as US forces controlled the weapons until a decision was made to go to war, at which point the treaty would no longer be controlling. Few states knew of the NATO nuclear sharing arrangements at that time, and they were not challenged. In May 1978, NATO countries officially defined two complementary aims of the Alliance, to maintain security and pursue détente. This was supposed to mean matching defences at the level rendered necessary by the Warsaw Pact's offensive capabilities without spurring a further arms race.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24166896",
"title": "Exercise Armageddon",
"section": "Section::::Critique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "BULLET::::- All members of NATO are bound by the North Atlantic Treaty to oppose a military incursion on a member state; this would probably force the United States and the rest of the NATO members to intervene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4407761",
"title": "Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty",
"section": "Section::::Status.:Signed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Four states did not sign the treaty when they joined NATO, despite a preliminary agreement to do so: Slovenia and the three Baltic states: Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia. These states are unable to do so because the treaty cannot be joined until all the original signatories have ratified it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22107",
"title": "Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons",
"section": "Section::::Leaving the treaty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "NATO states argue that when there is a state of \"general war\" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATO nuclear weapons sharing policy, but a troubling one for the logic of the treaty. NATO's argument is based on the phrase \"the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war\" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding. Many states do not accept this argument. See United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11059581",
"title": "2004 Istanbul summit",
"section": "Section::::Reviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "NATO's 2004 Istanbul summit was also remarkably silent on the subject of nuclear weapons policy and non-proliferation, as opposed to pre-summit diplomacy and earlier post-Cold War NATO summits and contrary to the demonstrations going on in Istanbul. In June 2004, shortly before the summit, NATO issued two fact sheets on nuclear policy, portraying the developments within NATO in a favourable light in the run up to the 2005 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Review Conference. In practice, no real changes since the end of the Cold War were implemented, as since the 1994 US Nuclear posture review the number of US nuclear weapons based in Europe remained unchanged, and as Cold War nuclear sharing arrangements dating back to the 1960s remained in force. Additionally, no changes were made to Alliance nuclear policy since the 1999 Strategic Concept.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4622226",
"title": "NATO Double-Track Decision",
"section": "Section::::Decision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "The European NATO members saw in the mobile launching platform-mounted SS-20 missiles no less a threat than the strategic intercontinental missiles, and on December 12, 1979, took on the so-called \"NATO Double-Track Decision\". This decision intended the deployment of 572 equally mobile American middle-range missiles (Pershing II and Gryphon BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile) to rebuild the state of Mutual Assured Destruction. NATO offered immediate negotiations with the goal to ban nuclear armed middle-range missiles from Europe completely, with the provision that the same missiles could be installed four years later if negotiations failed. The Soviets were critical that neither French nor British nuclear weapons were considered in this treaty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mbz84 | Why are Hydrogen(1) and Helium(2) highly abundant in the universe, while Lithium(3) and Beryllium(4) not that much? | [
{
"answer": "Production of lithium from helium is highly *Endothermic*, meaning that it consumes massive amounts of energy instead of creating it. Secondly the fact that it's endothermic results in a significant *Energy Barrier* that needs to be overcome, on top of the powerful electrical repulsion between nuclei.\n\nThe most likely way one would assume lithium would be produced is from a hydrogen nucleus colliding with a helium-4 nucleus. (2 protons and two neutrons), producing Li-5. *However Li-5 is extremely unstable (half life = 3.7 × 10^−24 s) and almost instantly decays back into helium-4, spitting the proton right back out.*\n\nLi-6, the first stable isotope, would need to be produced by fusion of deuterium (Hydrogen-2) with helium-4. Deuterium in the sun is only about 23 parts per million, because it tends to fuse more easily into highly stable helium, than bare hydrogen-1. So it's consumed almost as fast as it's produced.\n\nAdditionally producing Li-6 runs up against the *energy barrier* mentioned earlier, making this process astronomically rare. \n\nIn fact the majority of the lithium in the sun has probably been there since the sun's formation. Lithium, Berylium, and Boron are among the rarest elements in the sun.\n\nLi,Be,and B are probably produced in outer space by [Cosmic Ray Spallation](_URL_0_) from much more common, heavier elements. Not produced by fusion in stars.\n\nBerylium is likely produced from lithium-7 by neutron capture via the [S-Process.](_URL_1_) (PDF)\n\nIn fact, lithium-7 is much more common than lithium-6, because the latter is much better at absorbing neutrons.\n\nCertain reaction in the sun involving hydrogen isotopes, end up producing high-energy neutrons. These neutrons may be absorbed by heavy elements in the sun. In some situations this converts them into higher elements through successive beta decays. In other cases this may produce lighter elements plus helium by triggering alpha decay.\n\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "17561",
"title": "Lithium",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence.:Astronomical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
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"text": "According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of the three elements synthesized in the Big Bang. Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon, for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a \"cosmological lithium discrepancy\" in the universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more. The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the \"mixing\" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed, while lithium is produced in younger stars. Though it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than current computations would predict in later-generation stars.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "17561",
"title": "Lithium",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Isotopes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
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"text": "Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, Li and Li, the latter being the more abundant (92.5% natural abundance). Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon (compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table, helium and beryllium); lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission. The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than deuterium and helium-3. As a result of this, though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements. Seven radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being Li with a half-life of 838 ms and Li with a half-life of 178 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is Li, which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.6 × 10 s.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "17561",
"title": "Lithium",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence.:Astronomical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
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"text": "Though it was synthesized in the Big Bang, lithium (together with beryllium and boron) is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements. This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium, along with a lack of common processes to produce it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "13256",
"title": "Helium",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence and production.:Natural abundance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
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"text": "Although it is rare on Earth, helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe, constituting 23% of its baryonic mass. Only hydrogen is more abundant. The vast majority of helium was formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis one to three minutes after the Big Bang. As such, measurements of its abundance contribute to cosmological models. In stars, it is formed by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in proton-proton chain reactions and the CNO cycle, part of stellar nucleosynthesis.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "392828",
"title": "Abundance of the chemical elements",
"section": "Section::::Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe; helium is second. However, after this, the rank of abundance does not continue to correspond to the atomic number; oxygen has abundance rank 3, but atomic number 8. All others are substantially less common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "102193",
"title": "Nonmetal",
"section": "Section::::Abundance and extraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
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"text": "Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up approximately 99 per cent of all ordinary matter in the universe. Less than five per cent of the Universe is believed to be made of ordinary matter, represented by stars, planets and living beings. The balance is made of dark energy and dark matter, both of which are poorly understood at present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "392828",
"title": "Abundance of the chemical elements",
"section": "Section::::Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up roughly 74% and 24% of all baryonic matter in the universe respectively. Despite comprising only a very small fraction of the universe, the remaining \"heavy elements\" can greatly influence astronomical phenomena. Only about 2% (by mass) of the Milky Way galaxy's disk is composed of heavy elements.\n",
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e0a1gy | why does putting the air conditioner on 25°c in a cooling mode feel different from the same 25°c in heating mode? | [
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"answer": "In cooling mode, the thermostat will wait until the temperature goes over 25°C and then turn on the AC until it falls back under 25°C. This produces a 'spike' of cold air when the AC is on, followed by the temperature slowly drifting up toward warm.\n\nIn heating mode, the thermostat will wait until the temperature goes under 25°C, then turn on the heater until it is back over 25°C. This produces a 'spike' of hot (and dry!) air when the heater comes on, followed by the temperature slowly dropping back down toward cold.\n\nNaturally, these feel different from one another.",
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"answer": "The unit isn't putting out air at 25 C.\n\nIf it's in cooling mode, it's putting out very cold air until the ambient temperature reaches 25 C. \n\nIf it's in heating mode, it's putting out very warm air until the ambient temperature hits 25 C.",
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"answer": "Humidity is also important. \n\nAir can hold a certain amount of water. The closer it is to capacity, the less additional water it can absorb and the more humid it feels. The farther from full capacity it is, the more water it will absorb and the drier the air feels.\n\nHot air can hold more water than cold air, and the A/C doesn’t change the amount of water in the air, it just adjusts the temperature.\n\nSo if you start with cold air, there will be very little water in it, because it can’t hold much, but because it can’t hold much, that little bit of water gets it most of the way to full, so it doesn’t feel very dry. If you heat that air up, there is now a lot more room for water in the air, but it is still only holding that little bit of water, so now it’s going to feel very dry.\n\nIf you start with hot air, it has more room for water, so it will be holding a good amount of water. Cool it down, and now it has less room for water, but is still holding that larger amount, so it feels more humid.\n\nIf you’re heating the air to 25C, the end result is going to feel drier than if you’re cooling the air to 25C, because the amount of water in the air to start with is likely to be different depending on which direction you’re coming from temperature-wise.",
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"answer": "Top tip: if the day is t too hot but it’s really humid, some air cons have a ‘dry’ mode. Use this to remove the moisture front he air and the air will ‘feel’ cooler whilst using less energy",
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"answer": "An AC is designed to put out air 20F cooler than the ambient temp. Doesn’t matter if you set the thermostat to 25 or 0, same temp will come out. It will just stop once it reaches the temp you set.\n\nSo the air you are feeling isn’t 25C",
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"answer": "It is mentioned else on this thread that the output temperature is going to be different whether you are in cooling or heating. In addition, the air has a different level of humidity between in heating or cooling. When in cooling the dew point is like 54F. In heating it can be much much lower. The lower dew point will feel colder because it more readily allows moisture to evaporate.",
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"answer": "I would have had to pay the difference of the previous month’s electricity bill to get my grandpa to keep the temperature at 25C",
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"answer": "Humidity. If you heat to 25, chances are it is colder outside and dryer, so the humidity is lower and it feels colder. If you cool to 25, the opposite is in effect.",
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"answer": "Holy moly I thought this would be covered already... your body loses/ gains heat by radiant heating/cooling according to the heat differential between you and the walls. If the walls and windows are cold (I.e. you’ve got the heat set to 75) you’re going to feel the heat loss. Same thing if you’ve got the A/C set to 75, that means the outside is probably hotter than 75 and you’re gaining heat from radiation.",
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"answer": "Also to add on to this, why does it feel different inside when it could be the very same temperature outside? I feel dumb for this but I have wondered forever.",
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"answer": "Don’t forget: you perceive the average radiant temperature of your surroundings. \nIn summer with HVAC at 25C, the walls might be 28C so you feel warm. \nIn winter with the HVAC set at 25C, the walls could be 18C, so you feel chilled.\n\nAlso, HVAC is always playing catch up- if the unit is on in summer, the air is warmer than 25, if it’s in in winter the the air is cooler than 25.",
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"answer": "Moisture/humidity. Key factor to get to the standard \"comfort zone\" in heating and air design. Combine latent temp with actual temp at the standard levels and as long as the unit is properly sized and removing the moisture during summer you feel comfortable. In winter the heat is dominate with less moisture so often it \"feels\" different to different people. The standard is pretty close for most people though. If you add a humidifier to your system you can control the psychometrics and feel more or less the same year round indoors if you wanted to go that far.",
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"answer": "Mean radiant temperature also plays a part, a heated room will have colder walls and you will feel less radiant heat from them. A cooled room will have warmer walls radiating more heat towards you.",
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"answer": "This actually has more to do with the humidity of the air. When your unit is cooling mode, the air’s humidity is reduced. With the reduction in humidity it is easier for our bodies to evaporate sweat, carrying off some of your heat. Heating increasing the humidity of the air, which will slow down the rate of sweat evaporation, making you feel warmer. Most people like a humidity of 40-60%.",
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"answer": "Air conditioners also work buy lowering humidity, heating doesn’t so in addition to temp, there could be a measurable change in humidity.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1251508",
"title": "Geothermal heating",
"section": "Section::::Ground-source heat pumps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Switching the direction of heat flow, the same system can be used to circulate the cooled water through the house for cooling in the summer months. The heat is exhausted to the relatively cooler ground (or groundwater) rather than delivering it to the hot outside air as an air conditioner does. As a result, the heat is pumped across a larger temperature difference and this leads to higher efficiency and lower energy use.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "30938449",
"title": "Ice storage air conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Air conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The air conditioning chillers' efficiency is measured by their coefficient of performance (COP). In theory, thermal storage systems could make chillers more efficient because heat is discharged into colder nighttime air rather than warmer daytime air. In practice, heat loss overpowers this advantage, since it melts the ice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "750772",
"title": "Cooling tower",
"section": "Section::::Classification by use.:Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "An HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) cooling tower is used to dispose of (\"reject\") unwanted heat from a chiller. Water-cooled chillers are normally more energy efficient than air-cooled chillers due to heat rejection to tower water at or near wet-bulb temperatures. Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the higher dry-bulb temperature, and thus have a lower average reverse-Carnot cycle effectiveness. In areas with a hot climate, large office buildings, hospitals, and schools typically use one or more cooling towers as part of their air conditioning systems. Generally, industrial cooling towers are much larger than HVAC towers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2893444",
"title": "Building automation",
"section": "Section::::Infrastructure.:Air handlers.:Variable volume air-handling units.:Air Handling unit (AHU) Discharge Air Temperature control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Air Handling units (AHU) and Roof Top units (RTU) that serve multiple zones should vary the DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE SET POINT VALUE automatically in the range 55 F to 70 F. This adjustment reduces the cooling, heating, and fan energy consumption. When the outside temperature is below 70 F, for zones with very low cooling loads, raising the supply-air temperature decreases the use of reheat at the zone level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "478933",
"title": "Energy conservation",
"section": "Section::::Consumer products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "In warm climates where air conditioning is used, any household device that gives off heat will result in a larger load on the cooling system. Items such as stoves, dish washers, clothes dryers, hot water and incandescent lighting all add heat to the home. Low-power or insulated versions of these devices give off less heat for the air conditioning to remove. The air conditioning system can also improve in efficiency by using a heat sink that is cooler than the standard air heat exchanger, such as geothermal or water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "13337091",
"title": "Water chiller",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "In air conditioning, chilled water is often used to cool a building's air and equipment, especially in situations where many individual rooms must be controlled separately, such as a hotel. A chiller lowers water temperature to between 40° and 45°F before the water is pumped to the location to be cooled. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68316",
"title": "Heat pump",
"section": "Section::::Performance considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "When there is a high temperature differential (e.g., when an air-source heat pump is used to heat a house with an outside temperature of, say, 0 °C (32 °F)), it takes more work to move the same amount of heat to indoors than on a milder day. Ultimately, due to Carnot efficiency limits, the heat pump's performance will decrease as the outdoor-to-indoor temperature difference increases (outside temperature gets colder), reaching a theoretical limit of 1.0 at −273 °C. In practice, a COP of 1.0 will typically be reached at an outdoor temperature around −18 °C (0 °F) for air source heat pumps.\n",
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1r281s | land bridges | [
{
"answer": "Here's a NOAA map of the last ice age sea levels at their peak (trough) _URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It depends on what land bridge and when. The Bering straits land bridge connecting Modern day Alaska to Russia is said to be at one point 1000 miles wide. But as Ice melts and sea levels rise, it shrinks into nothing so your friend is technically correct if people/animals were making the pass when the water was starting to rise above it.\n\nTL;DR Sea freezes water levels drop, crossing possible. Ice melts sea rises crossing disappears. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "76483",
"title": "Land bridge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "A land bridge, in biogeography, is an isthmus or wider land connection between otherwise separate areas, over which animals and plants are able to cross and colonise new lands. A land bridge can be created by marine regression, in which sea levels fall, exposing shallow, previously submerged sections of continental shelf; or when new land is created by plate tectonics; or occasionally when the sea floor rises due to post-glacial rebound after an ice age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "361123",
"title": "Intermodal freight transport",
"section": "Section::::Transportation modes.:Land bridges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The term \"landbridge\" or \"land bridge\" is commonly used in the intermodal freight transport sector. When a containerized ocean freight shipment travels across a large body of land for a significant distance, that portion of the trip is referred to as the \"land bridge\" and the mode of transport used is rail transport. There are three applications for the term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44974650",
"title": "Puente de Occidente",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "The bridge is a single suspension span supported from four pyramidal towers - two on each bank of the river - with each tower anchoring two cables. The span has a main central section which cars and smaller trucks can cross, and two pedestrian paths on either side of the central roadway. All three paths have wood upper surfaces. Construction started in 1887, under the direction of engineer , after authorization by Marcelino Vélez, governor of Antioquia. The cables and other steel parts were purchased from England, while the towers were constructed of local materials. The Puente de Occidente was initially open only to pedestrian traffic; later, vehicles were allowed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1284867",
"title": "Wiehltal bridge",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The bridge is 30.25 m wide, 705 m long and has a bridge surface of 21,326 m². The highest point above ground is 60 m. It consists completely of a steelwork construction, whose rolling-element bearing rests on concrete pillars. In contrast to similar bridges, the roadways of both driving directions are carried by continuous elements. Construction of the bridge was completed in 1971.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "141828",
"title": "Isthmus",
"section": "Section::::Isthmus vs land bridge vs peninsula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "\"Isthmus\" and \"land bridge\" are related terms with isthmus having a broader meaning. A land bridge is an isthmus connecting the Earth's major landmasses. The term \"land bridge\" is usually used in biogeology to describe land connections that used to exist between continents at various times and were important for migration of people, and various species of animals and plants, e.g. Bering Land Bridge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "16066687",
"title": "Swanport Bridge",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The bridge itself is one kilometre in length with two lanes, one for each direction of traffic, and no separating median. It is constructed from prestressed concrete. There is a footpath on the northern side, with no barrier from the roadway, signposted as being for emergency use only. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17396111",
"title": "Division Street Bridge (Rhode Island)",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "The Division Street Bridge is a nine-span stone and brick structure, with a total length of about . Each of its spans consists of a segmented arch of about in length. The road bed is wide, and there are sidewalks on either side. The mean height of the bridge above the water is . The piers of the bridge are constructed of coursed granite ashlar and the voussoirs are dressed granite with single keystones. The spandrels, the space between the arches, are filled with mortared granite rubble, and the arch barrels are constructed with an estimated 550,000 bricks. The original roadway was made of granite blocks, the seams of which were filled with tar, but this has been modified with modern asphalt paving and with the piers being modified with the addition of reinforced concrete sheathing for the river piers. The iron walkways, produced by Crowell and Sisson, project over both the sides of the bridge with iron brackets.\n",
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qvtve | what's the deal with tuxes, blazers, etc, when is each appropriate, what kind of occasions? | [
{
"answer": "In descending order of fanciness:\n\n- **[White Tie](_URL_2_)**, otherwise known as Evening Dress or Top Hat And Tails.\nThis is as formal as it gets in Western fashion, and is generally restricted to very high occasions like state dinners, royal functions or very formal balls and evening weddings. White Tie is strictly to be worn after 6 PM, though many agree that anytime after dark is fine. For events of similar importance during the day, [Morning Dress](_URL_0_) is the thing.\n\n- **[Black Tie](_URL_1_)** is for any highly formal occasion for which White Tie is not required; charity galas, formal weddings, awards ceremonies. It is generally considered good etiquette for the host of an event to indicate on the invitations whether or not Black Tie is appropriate, or whether Formal Wear will suffice.\n\n- **Formal Wear** is sometimes called \"informal attire\" to set it apart from Black Tie, but as often as not that ends up with Bob from Accounting showing up in khakis and a Hawaiian shirt. Formal wear is pretty basic, just a suit and tie. Lots of leeway here in terms of colour, fashionable cut, accessories etc., if you want to know more about this in detail I think it's done in detail on GQ's website.\n\nThe only big things to keep in mind with Formal Wear are that one should always wear black or very dark grey to a funeral, and one should never wear black to a wedding unless the event itself is listed as Black Tie. While we're talking funerals, even if the only black suit you own is a tuxedo, never wear it to a funeral as Black Tie is considered to be for celebrating.\n\n- Below Formal you might see \"Smart Casual\" or \"Business Casual\"; the former usually refers to some variation on a blazer and dress pants, while the latter is a nightmarishly vague reference to \"any pants nicer than jeans, paired with virtually any shirt with a collar and no logos\". When to wear either of these gives many men great difficulty; if in doubt, ask your host or employer in advance.\n\n",
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"answer": "Tuxedos are super formal. You'll look really out of place in a tuxedo in anything other than an event that *specifically* states it's a black tie (or white tie). Basically you never want to be the only one in a tuxedo because you'll look like a goof. Tuxedos absolutely require matching pants and a bow tie. If you're wearing a neck tie you're doing it wrong.\n\nA blazer is a jacket, similar to a suit jacket, but it does not have matching pants. They are more casually cut so they have features likes flap-less or patch pockets, metal buttons, and are made of heavier clothe. They can be worn with a tie or without, and tend to be used in less formal settings.\n\nA blazer is similar, but not exactly the same thing as a sports jacket, or a boating jacket. The terms are used somewhat interchangeably. Blazers tend to be solid colours, while sports coats tend to be patterned clothe like tweed, herringbone, etc.",
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"wikipedia_id": "1378845",
"title": "Blazer",
"section": "Section::::Wearing a blazer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Blazers are worn with a wide variety of other clothes, ranging from a dress shirt and necktie to an open-necked polo shirt, or even just a plain T-shirt. They are seen with trousers of all colours and fabrics, from the classic white cotton or linen, to grey flannel, to brown or beige chinos, and also jeans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1378845",
"title": "Blazer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "A blazer's cloth is usually durable, as it is intended as outdoor wear. Blazers are often part of a uniform that denotes, for example, an airline's employees, pupils of a particular school, members of sports clubs, or sportsmen and women on a particular team.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1378845",
"title": "Blazer",
"section": "Section::::Wearing a blazer.\n",
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"text": "Blazers, in a wide range of colours, are worn as part of school uniforms by many schools across the Commonwealth, and are still daily wear for most uniformed pupils in Britain, Australia and New Zealand. These are blazers in the traditional sense: single-breasted, and often of bright colours or with piping. This style is also worn by some boat clubs, such as those in Cambridge or Oxford, with the piped version used only on special occasions such as a boat club dinner. In this case, the piping is in college colours, and college buttons are worn. This traditional style can be seen in many films set in the Edwardian era, such as \"Kind Hearts and Coronets\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2624624",
"title": "Headband",
"section": "Section::::Fashion.:Materials and uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Novelty headbands can be used for holidays and may have decorations attached such as bunny ears, reindeer ears, Santa Claus hats and others. Headbands are often part of a larger fashion statement — they can be colour-coded and matched accordingly to one's outfit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7219104",
"title": "Greenfield Community College, Newton Aycliffe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Blazers to be worn all year round, rumours escalated around parents early 2018 with the warm weather regarding wearing blazers indoors. With request students can remove blazer for lessons but MUST be worn in between when walking around the school to next lesson or lunch and break times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1378845",
"title": "Blazer",
"section": "Section::::Wearing a blazer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Blazers, once commonly worn playing or attending traditional \"gentlemen's sports\", persist in only some games now, such as occasional use by tennis players, or in cricket, where in professional matches, such as international test matches, it is considered customary for the captain to wear a blazer with the team's logo or national coat of arms on the breast pocket – at least during the coin toss at the beginning of the match.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18451635",
"title": "Gaff (clothing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "A gaff is a piece of fabric, usually augmented by an elastic, such as a rubberband that is designed to hide male genitalia. It is usually worn by men with body dysmorphia, trans women or male cross-dressers. Since the 2010s, underwear manufacturers have begun to design underwear with the same function as gaffs. Home-made gaffs are usually by cutting the ends off a single sock, and then placing a pair of elastic loops through them. The main function of gaffs or underwear that duplicates gaffs is to make the male groin appear smoother and flatter in order hide the male crotch bulge, also sometimes referred to by the slang terms \"moose-knuckle\" or \"man-bulge\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
r077h | How do weather satellites measure barometric pressure in the atmosphere from space? | [
{
"answer": "Satellite radar systems can correlate a specific band of the electromagnetic spectrum with surface pressure, but according to my relatively limited knowledge of remote sensing, this technique is not commonly in use. Surface pressure is generally recorded in the ocean by anchored buoys, or potentially by [dropsondes](_URL_0_) in the case of a special mission to record pressure fields in tropical storms.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "This is a good question. Theoretically, I think you could indirectly \"measure\" the surface pressure by estimating total column density. If you know the solar spectrum very precisely, and the surface properties, by measuring the reflected solar radiation you can estimate how much absorption occurred and that tells you how much gas was along the radiation path. Assuming hydrostatic balance, the surface pressure can be estimated just as the weight of the air column multiplied by the gravitational constant.\n\nThat being said, I'm almost positive that is never done in practice, because the errors would be far too large for that method to be useful - surface pressure does not vary by a lot, and I'm sure the errors would be much larger than the small surface pressure you are trying to estimate.\n\nSo, how this actually works in practice is that a weather forecast model is predicting the pressure field in data sparse regions. The simplest way to think about it, is that the pressure field out in the ocean is an interpolation from from all other available data, using physics-based methods; this interpolation is much better than just a mathematical interpolation because it takes into account all the dynamics of the way the atmosphere moves. In addition, estimates of temperature and winds are continually made over the oceans by satellites, and that helps guide the pressure and wind field of the forecast model. And, as dijitalbus mentioned, there are measurements from ships, buoys, etc, which can also be \"ingested\" by the forecast model to improve the interpolation.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "47488",
"title": "Barometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, pressure systems and frontal boundaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47476",
"title": "Altimeter",
"section": "Section::::Pressure altimeter.:Use in aircraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "In aircraft, an aneroid barometer measures the atmospheric pressure from a static port outside the aircraft. Air pressure decreases with an increase of altitude—approximately 100 hectopascals per 800 meters or one inch of mercury per 1000 feet near sea level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390949",
"title": "Nimbus program",
"section": "Section::::Contributions.:Weather forecasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "At the time of its launch, the idea that intangible properties such as air pressure could be observed using a satellite orbiting hundreds of miles above the Earth was revolutionary. With each Nimbus mission, scientists broadened their ability to collect atmospheric characteristics that improved weather forecasting, including ocean and air temperatures, air pressure, and cloudiness. Beginning with the Nimbus 3 satellite in 1969, temperature information through the atmospheric column began to be retrieved by satellites from the eastern Atlantic and most of the Pacific Ocean, which led to significant forecast improvements. The global coverage provided by Nimbus satellites made accurate 3–5 day forecasts possible for the first time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47488",
"title": "Barometer",
"section": "Section::::Equation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "When atmospheric pressure is measured by a barometer, the pressure is also referred to as the \"barometric pressure\". Assume a barometer with a cross-sectional area \"A\", a height \"h\", filled with mercury from the bottom at Point B to the top at Point C. The pressure at the bottom of the barometer, Point B, is equal to the atmospheric pressure. The pressure at the very top, Point C, can be taken as zero because there is only mercury vapor above this point and its pressure is very low relative to the atmospheric pressure. Therefore, one can find the atmospheric pressure using the barometer and this equation:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202899",
"title": "Atmosphere",
"section": "Section::::Pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Atmospheric pressure at a particular location is the force per unit area perpendicular to a surface determined by the weight of the vertical column of atmosphere above that location. On Earth, units of air pressure are based on the internationally recognized standard atmosphere (atm), which is defined as 101.325 kPa (760 Torr or 14.696 psi). It is measured with a barometer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "848057",
"title": "Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation",
"section": "Section::::Principles of operation.:Modeling station locations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Since many of these effects are weather-related, and also affect the more common satellite laser ranging, ranging stations traditionally include weather stations, measuring local temperature, pressure, and relative humidity. APOLLO will measure all these, plus measure local gravity very precisely, using a precision gravimeter. This instrument is capable of sensing vertical displacements as small as 0.1 mm, by measuring the change in gravity as the observatory moves closer to or farther from the Earth's center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36139328",
"title": "Electron precipitation",
"section": "Section::::Measurement Methods.:Satellite measurements.:SABER.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) is a measurement instrument aboard NASA's Thermal Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics Dynamics (TIMED) satellite. The instrument measures ozone (and other atmospheric conditions) through an infrared radiometer (with a spectral range from 1.27 µm to 17 µm).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rf7tn | Volume of Earths atmosphere? | [
{
"answer": "The volume of Earth's atmosphere, using the [accepted definition of the edge of the atmosphere](_URL_0_) is approximately 5.18*10^19 m^3 . Not very useful without something to compare it to, but it's a place to start.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "202899",
"title": "Atmosphere",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The composition of Earth's atmosphere is largely governed by the by-products of the life that it sustains. Dry air from Earth's atmosphere contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen, helium, and other \"noble\" gases (by volume), but generally a variable amount of water vapor is also present, on average about 1% at sea level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The atmospheric pressure at Earth's sea level averages , with a scale height of about . A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% nitrogen, 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% argon, and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules. Water vapor content varies between 0.01% and 4% but averages about 1%. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between at the poles to at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41288",
"title": "Inverse-square law",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 965,
"text": "In 1663–1664, the English scientist Robert Hooke was writing his book \"Micrographia\" (1666) in which he discussed, among other things, the relation between the height of the atmosphere and the barometric pressure at the surface. Since the atmosphere surrounds the earth, which itself is a sphere, the volume of atmosphere bearing on any unit area of the earth's surface is a truncated cone (which extends from the earth's center to the vacuum of space; obviously only the section of the cone from the earth's surface to space bears on the earth's surface). Although the volume of a cone is proportional to the cube of its height, Hooke argued that the air's pressure at the earth's surface is instead proportional to the height of the atmosphere because gravity diminishes with altitude. Although Hooke did not explicitly state so, the relation that he proposed would be true only if gravity decreases as the inverse square of the distance from the earth's center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47463",
"title": "Thermosphere",
"section": "Section::::Neutral gas constituents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "The density of the Earth's atmosphere decreases nearly exponentially with altitude. The total mass of the atmosphere is M = ρ H ≃ 1 kg/cm within a column of one square centimeter above the ground (with ρ = 1.29 kg/m the atmospheric density on the ground at z = 0 m altitude, and H ≃ 8 km the average atmospheric scale height). 80% of that mass is concentrated within the troposphere. The mass of the thermosphere above about 85 km is only 0.002% of the total mass. Therefore, no significant energetic feedback from the thermosphere to the lower atmospheric regions can be expected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202898",
"title": "Atmosphere of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1330,
"text": "The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Besides argon, already mentioned, other noble gases, neon, helium, krypton, and xenon are also present. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1994795",
"title": "Scale height",
"section": "Section::::Scale height used in a simple atmospheric pressure model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "In Earth's atmosphere, the pressure at sea level \"P\" averages about 1.01×10 Pa, the mean molecular mass of dry air is 28.964 u and hence 28.964 × 1.660×10 = 4.808×10 kg, and \"g\" = 9.81 m/s². As a function of temperature the scale height of Earth's atmosphere is therefore 1.38/(4.808×9.81)×10 = 29.26 m/deg. This yields the following scale heights for representative air temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "558685",
"title": "Natural environment",
"section": "Section::::Atmosphere, climate and weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon and other inert gases, such as carbon dioxide. The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor and suspensions of water droplets and ice crystals seen as clouds. Many natural substances may be present in tiny amounts in an unfiltered air sample, including dust, pollen and spores, sea spray, volcanic ash, and meteoroids. Various industrial pollutants also may be present, such as chlorine (elementary or in compounds), fluorine compounds, elemental mercury, and sulphur compounds such as sulphur dioxide [SO].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
21hsv3 | why do stores offer cash-out, if it seems like they don't make any profit off it. (they charge your card, and give you that amount in cash) | [
{
"answer": "The store benefits by getting rid of physical money and using electronic funds transfer - less money to transport in an armoured truck, less loss if they are robbed",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "4368047",
"title": "Debit card cashback",
"section": "Section::::Coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The combination of these two factors means that the retailer can save money by offering the cashback service. It does not cost the retailer more in commission to add cashback to a debit card purchase, but in the process of giving cashback, the retailer can \"offload\" cash which they would otherwise have to pay to deposit at the bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "4368047",
"title": "Debit card cashback",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "This benefits the store as it reduces the amount of cash banking the store has to do. Many customers find it a useful way to obtain cash as it avoids them having to use a cash machine, which may incur additional fees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4368047",
"title": "Debit card cashback",
"section": "Section::::Fees, operation and advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Cashback can have benefits for the customer in many scenarios. In locations where there are no cash machines nearby, or the nearby machines are out of order or empty, a local retailer may be able to supply the required cash instead and to offer more flexibility in note denominations. Sometimes it is simply more convenient to combine the transactions at the retailer and ATM into a single cashback transaction with the retailer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "950315",
"title": "Cheque fraud",
"section": "Section::::Combating cheque fraud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "While there may still be some room for retail kiting, security measures taken by retail chains are helping reduce such incidents. Increasingly, more chains are limiting the amount of cash back received, the number of times cash back can be offered in a week or a given period of time, and obtaining transactional account balances before offering cash back, thereby denying it to those with low balances. For example, Walmart's policy is to determine account balances of those obtaining cash back, and some Safeway locations will not offer cash back on any accounts with balances under $250, even when funds are sufficient to cover the amount on the cheque. Customers who are noted to obtain cash back frequently are also investigated by the corporation to observe patterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8263541",
"title": "Mobile phone cashback",
"section": "Section::::Aims and origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "In addition, cashback offers may help to combat fraud on high value contracts. Where up-front inducements are used to incentivise sales, such as instant cashback or free merchandise, criminals may use fraud to gain access to the incentives. When the customer defaults on the contract, the network will recall the commission paid to the retailer and the retailer is out-of-pocket. Cashback deals paid over time allow the retailer to provide an incentive on condition that the consumer sticks to the terms of the contract, thereby securing the retailers' commission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60895424",
"title": "Short Term European Paper (STEP)",
"section": "Section::::Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "When buyers borrow money from the issuers, which means that they lend their money out, it is possible that the issuers do not pay the money back at the end when their profitability goes down due to reasons like worse economic environment or industry environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12282037",
"title": "Check kiting",
"section": "Section::::Retail-based kiting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Another version of this scheme involves purchasing an item from a place of retail with a check, and returning it promptly for a cash refund, followed by depositing that cash into the transactional account. This is more difficult these days, as more places of retail will delay a refund on purchases made by check.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rgf8v | Why does a single gas molecule which is hot rise above another one which is cool? | [
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"answer": "Metrics such as temperature describe the behavior of a system that is made up of components. These types of properties are termed emergent properties because they are derived from the behavior of the system as a whole and are not observable if you were to look only at the components.\n\nSo, for your specific question, individual molecules do not have temperature. They are not \"hot\" or \"cool\" exactly, although they do have energy that is zipping them around their surroundings. Molecules with more energy will move faster and collide with other matter more frequently and with more force. It is only when you begin to look at a system of molecules that ideas such as temperature start to be meaningful. In that sense, a group of molecules with a certain amount of energy will correspond to a certain temperature. If these molecules are \"hotter\" than other molecules, then they will be moving about much more rapidly and they will be less dense than the latter group of molecules. Properties such as temperature and density are emergent from the system of molecules interacting with each other and interacting with their surroundings.",
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"answer": " > an area of hot air becomes less dense, and so it rises above colder areas of air. \n\nFirst, you need to look at it the other way around - hot air doesn't rise, cold air sinks. As it sinks, it forces the hotter air upwards.\n\nNow, think of a mess (and I do mean 'mess' for the imagery, not 'mass') of cold air, with the molecules fairly still and fairly dense. Then, something heats up a bit of it near the bottom - what's going to happen?\n\nThe molecules of hot air will bounce around a lot more than the cold, and sometimes they're going to bounce up. When they do, the less active cold air is more likely to fall into the gap than to move in another direction, and now there's nowhere for that hot air molecule to go because it will only bounce off the cold air molecule if it bounces downward again. (Transferring some heat in the process, but we can ignore that for the purposes of this explanation)\n\nMultiply this by unimaginable numbers of interactions, and you end up with a column of hot air rising while all the cold air around it rushes in to fill the gap at the bottom.",
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"answer": " > > But what if there was a single constituent molecule from that wood existing in the water? Would it float? It is neither densely nor sparsely aggregated, existing all by itself.\n\nMy reaction to this is no not really - a single molecule would have dynamical behavior that isn't familiar like the bouyant force example you gave. I have no idea how to describe what that situation *would* be like - but I'm positive it would be invalid to treat it like a whole plank of wood floating.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "20647050",
"title": "Temperature",
"section": "Section::::Kinetic theory approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Molecules, such as oxygen (O), have more degrees of freedom than single spherical atoms: they undergo rotational and vibrational motions as well as translations. Heating results in an increase in temperature due to an increase in the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules. Heating will also cause, through equipartitioning, the energy associated with vibrational and rotational modes to increase. Thus a diatomic gas will require more energy input to increase its temperature by a certain amount, i.e. it will have a greater heat capacity than a monatomic gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1867005",
"title": "Joule expansion",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Real gases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "It is theoretically predicted that, at sufficiently high temperature, all gases will warm during a Joule expansion The reason is that at any moment, a very small number of molecules will be undergoing collisions; for those few molecules, repulsive forces will dominate and the potential energy will be positive. As the temperature rises, both the frequency of collisions and the energy involved in the collisions increase, so the positive potential energy associated with collisions increases strongly. If the temperature is high enough, that can make the total potential energy positive, in spite of the much larger number of molecules experiencing weak attractive interactions. When the potential energy is positive, a constant energy expansion reduces potential energy and increases kinetic energy, resulting in an increase in temperature. This behavior has only been observed for hydrogen and helium; which have very weak attractive interactions. For other gases this \"Joule inversion temperature\" appears to be extremely high.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "28420",
"title": "Specific heat capacity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The specific heat of a substance, especially a gas, may be significantly higher when it is allowed to expand as it is heated (specific heat \"at constant pressure\") than when is heated in a closed vessel that prevents expansion (specific heat \"at constant volume\"). These two values are usually denoted by formula_1 and formula_2, respectively; their quotient formula_3is the heat capacity ratio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1701722",
"title": "Physical change",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Heating and cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Many elements and some compounds change from solids to liquids and from liquids to gases when heated and the reverse when cooled. Some substances such as iodine and carbon dioxide go directly from solid to gas in a process called sublimation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7725386",
"title": "Backdraft (drink)",
"section": "Section::::Backdraft physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1731,
"text": "When a gas is heated, its volume increases. It will displace cooler gases as it expands. If this is done in a partially enclosed space, and the vessel allowed to be full of hot gas, when the heat is taken away, the gases cool and as they do, the amount of liquids that the gas can hold will decrease. Therefore, most of the moisture and alcohol held in the gas will condense. As the gas cools, it decreases in volume, and the pressure drops. Thus when the flaming alcohol in a backdraft is covered with a pint glass over a saucer, the dense, cold air is replaced with less dense, warm air with a lot of alcohol vapour held in it. As the oxygen flow to the fire is restricted, the remaining oxygen is used up and the fire in the pint glass goes out, removing the heat source. The alcohol-laden warm air now in the glass cools and begins to create a pressure difference. The air outside the pint glass forces its way into the partially evacuated pint glass and is responsible for pushing any liquid at the outside bottom of the pint glass further inside (as the seal of the glass and the saucer is not perfect) as it begins to equalise the pressure difference. Once the majority of the liquid is inside the upside down pint glass, sometimes further air can be seen to bubble up into the glass. At some point an equilibrium will occur, where the pressure difference between inside and outside of the glass is equal to the pressure of the column of liquid held up inside, and this will hold the liquid inside the glass. Sometimes, when a good seal is made, the pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the glass exerts a great enough force that when the glass is lifted, the saucer will remain stuck to its underside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15417",
"title": "Intermolecular force",
"section": "Section::::Effect on the behavior of gases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "When a gas is compressed to increase its density, the influence of the attractive force increases. If the gas is made sufficiently dense, the attractions can become large enough to overcome the tendency of thermal motion to cause the molecules to disperse. Then the gas can condense to form a solid or liquid, i.e., a condensed phase. Lower temperature favors the formation of a condensed phase. In a condensed phase, there is very nearly a balance between the attractive and repulsive forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "15417",
"title": "Intermolecular force",
"section": "Section::::Effect on the behavior of gases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "In a gas, the distances between molecules are generally large, so intermolecular forces have only a small effect. The attractive force is not overcome by the repulsive force, but by the thermal energy of the molecules. Temperature is the measure of thermal energy, so increasing temperature reduces the influence of the attractive force. In contrast, the influence of the repulsive force is essentially unaffected by temperature.\n",
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ciy7p9 | how was space x able to build better rockets than nasa having less budget and experience? | [
{
"answer": "They haven't really. \n\n1) They utilized all of the science that NASA learned thus they \"had\" the same experience level as NASA. \n\n2) NASA has never had a massive budget. Even during the Space Race their budget was relatively small. Companies like Space X's budgets are comparable in size. \n\n3) NASA stopped designing new Rockets for a time when they were operating the shuttle. When they retired the shuttle they started designing new Rockets again and will be constructing them for the upcoming missions.",
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"answer": "Aside from using known published resources from NASA and likely the old Soviet era, technology has changed dramatically since the 60s. \n\nThey’re able to run many simulations in a short time period that would have been impossible for NASA back in the day. \n\nThere’s likely less politics involved too. \n\nComputer technology I’d guess been the key difference that has allowed them to do things like reusable components. I’d assume material science has had a big change since the 60s too. \n\nIn all fairness, NASA built the shuttle which was a pretty damn impressive bit of tech. Not without it’s issues but it was cutting edge.",
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"answer": "To build a new rocket, lots of design and testing is needed. Problems will be found, so how quickly these are found and fixed decides how quickly a new rocket can be completed.\nBecause of restrictions due to it being run by the state, Nasa can't adapt anywhere near as quick as spacex; for example, when spacex realised carbon fibre wasn't the way to go for the BFR, they fired all the workers working on carbon fibre designs. This was necessary, but would not be possible in Nasa.\n\nThe fact that they have to be acting in the best interests of the country means that designs from Nasa are dictated by created jobs, and less by the actual advantages of the design, leading to many issues that are delaying many programs.\n\nThey also have major direction changes with each election, meaning that they work towards one goal for 5 years, then a new leadership tells them they want a different project doing, so they cancel the first one, and end up getting nowhere.",
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"answer": "A point I do not see mentioned yet is that SpaceX does not need to please any governors in different states, so they can have their production wherever they want, and basically SpaceX can do whatever they want in that regard. In comparison, Nasa has widespread production and facilities, and is a much older organization.\n\nIf Nasa were to be completely wiped and restarted, I doubt that they would not be able to do similar things to what SpaceX has done.",
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"answer": "NASA is heavily regulated, risk avoiding, and making decisions by committee.\n\nSpaceX has been able to build on all of NASA's experience, as well as take advantage of more modern underlying technology. The other big innovator in this field is Elektron, in my opinion.\n\nI think the elephant in the room is nothing to do with NASA, but rather ULA. Why is SpaceX able to build such a better business model than ULA, who has the years of experience and the resources?",
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"answer": "I think the other people have missed the critical element here.\n\nThe critical element was the shift from disposable to reusable rockets. Now, to their great credit, NASA did make that move in the 70s with the space shuttle, but it was a bit too early, and the whole shuttle project was a bit of a logistical and political shitshow. \n\nBy the time SpaceX came along, technology had advanced considerably. Here's a great talk by Raffaello D’Andrea explaining it [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nIn short, between the Space Shuttle and the Falcon 9, feedback control got good enough, and cheap enough, that the idea of landing an otherwise traditional rocket vertically was very feasible. By this point, the Shuttle was seen as a failure - technologically impressive, but economically unviable, and increasingly outdated. So NASAs focus was off of reusability and onto cheap disposability. In that environment, dumping money into R & D is a bit pointless if you have designs from the 60s that are reliable and well understood. They'll only fly once, and the cost of space flight is really in the minimization of failures. So, advances in engines and control systems largely stopped. \n\nSpaceX saw things differently. Believing they could take what looked like a conventional rocket and land and refly it, meant they could change the economic model. Launches were rare because the cost of disposing a rocket each time was high, and because the cadence was low - there was no incentive to build out production lines that could spit out a rocket every two weeks. But if you could reuse the rocket, even just one more time, you'd need half as many of them. Refly it 4 times, and you need to build only 20% as many. So, SpaceX went for a commodity strategy - build one really really good motor to serve first and second stage, rely on modern control electronics to regulate 9 motors operating together in the first stage, and engineer for reusability, and get your reliability that way, and dramatically cut costs to fly the rocket and use that money to pay for the new R & D. Digital feedback control wasn't the only thing that had dramatically advanced since the 70s, so had manufacturing techniques and materials engineering. So SpaceX could build simpler rockets that performed better than was possible in the 70s. \n\nNASA didn't want these rockets, believing in their tried and true approach, but private companies did want them and with time SpaceX won them over. Bezos saw the same opportunities, as did others. Existing companies didn't see the opportunity because their value was in their tried and true methods, their decades of engineering experience at this, their detailed knowledge of how these old system worked, which made them reliable. \n\nThis is also a story of why established companies rarely pivot their business model to adapt to changes, and why startups and other new entrants are key to advancing industries. They can take these risks, they can invest in the new technology and not invest in the legacy technology. Had SpaceX failed, we wouldn't even be talking about them - so there's some survivors bias baked in here too.",
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"answer": "SpaceX has a few advantages, but I'd say the core thing here comes down to two main factors. \n\nFirst, big NASA rocket projects (and by this I mean something like the Shuttle or SLS), which are not exactly made by NASA but are designed and built by them in cooperation with oldspace companies like Boeing and Rockwell, have to answer to a large number of competing interests. The companies of course want to make a profit and NASA wants their science, but also congressmen want some of the contracts for building these rockets to go to their states, and sometimes the military wants specific capabilities, and sometimes the system needs to be designed to use a specific set of preexisting resources or expertise, etc. And since all this stuff is subject to funding bills, etc, it can't be easily or cheaply changed. SpaceX, in contrast, is more or less answerable only to themselves (except when fulfilling a specific contract). If they need to switch an approach or try a new thing or whatever, they can just decide to do it. This gives them a lot more flexibility and helps them do things for a lower price.\n\nThe second is the drive of necessity/lack of money/lack of being established. Oldspace companies (who are a better comparison here than NASA, which doesn't really build Falcon style rockets) have been launching rockets for ages and were dominant in the market. Sure, their rockets were expensive, but they got the job done effectively and all their customers were willing to pay the price and no one was undercutting them. Spending a lot of research money to make it possible to build rockets for cheaper and maybe even reuse them just didn't make sense to them. Why take the risk and expense when life was already good? But SpaceX didn't have that option. If they wanted to survive at all, they had to be able to figure out a way to undercut the competition and win their contracts. That means taking risks and working hard to make rockets for cheap, using more cost efficient manufacturing. That was the first revolution of SpaceX, and more important to their past success than reusable landings (though that will be more important going forward). There have been other new rocket companies that tried this and failed..it is a risky approach, but SpaceX made it work. Worth noting that this is not limited to the rocket industry, many industries have had established players get overturned by new upstarts who were better because only a better company could break into the market in the first place. It's not even limited to industry for that matter.\n\nA factor I _don't_ think is as important: technology...the stuff SpaceX is doing is impressive but not due to any particular unique technological breakthrough on their part. It was within the capacity of NASA or ULA or Boeing or whoever to do the same thing if they chose to put in the engineering work. They couldn't have done it in the 60's (and SpaceX probably couldn't have existed at all back then) but they could have done it when SpaceX was doing it.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2647515",
"title": "Falcon 9",
"section": "Section::::Development history.:Conception and funding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Congressional testimony by SpaceX in 2017 suggested that the unusual NASA process of \"setting only a high-level requirement for cargo transport to the space station [while] leaving the details to industry\" had allowed SpaceX to design and develop the Falcon 9 rocket on its own at substantially lower cost. \"According to NASA's own independently verified numbers, SpaceX's development costs of both the Falcon 1 and Falcon 9 rockets were estimated at approximately in total.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "832774",
"title": "SpaceX",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ownership, funding and valuation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "Congressional testimony by SpaceX in 2017 suggested that the NASA Space Act Agreement process of \"setting only a high-level requirement for cargo transport to the space station [while] leaving the details to industry\" had allowed SpaceX to design and develop the Falcon 9 rocket on its own at substantially lower cost. \"According to NASA's own independently verified numbers, SpaceX’s development costs of both the Falcon 1 and Falcon 9 rockets were estimated at approximately in total. \"In 2011, NASA estimated that it would have cost the agency about to develop a rocket like the Falcon 9 booster based upon NASA's traditional contracting processes\". The Falcon 9 launch system, with an estimated improvement at least four to ten times over traditional cost-plus contracting estimates, about $400 million vs. $4 billion in savings through the usage of Space Act Agreements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40707762",
"title": "Falcon 9 v1.0",
"section": "Section::::Development history.:Funding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "While SpaceX spent its own money to develop its first launch vehicle, the Falcon 1, the development of the Falcon 9 was accelerated by the purchase of several demonstration flights by NASA. This started with seed money from the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program in 2006. SpaceX was selected from more than twenty companies that submitted COTS proposals. Without the NASA money, development would have taken longer, Musk said.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738178",
"title": "Orbital spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Orbital launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "From 2015 SpaceX have demonstrated significant progress in their more incremental approach to reducing the cost of orbital spaceflight. Their potential for cost reduction comes mainly from pioneering propulsive landing with their reusable rocket booster stage as well as their Dragon capsule, but also includes reuse of the other components such as the payload fairings and the use of 3D printing of a superalloy to construct more efficient rocket engines, such as their SuperDraco. The initial stages of these improvements could reduce the cost of an orbital launch by an order of magnitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34666187",
"title": "SpaceX reusable launch system development program",
"section": "Section::::Economics of rocket reuse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "If SpaceX is successful in developing the reusable technology, it is expected to significantly reduce the cost of access to space, and change the increasingly competitive market in space launch services. Michael Belfiore wrote in \"Foreign Policy\" in 2013 that, at a published cost of per launch to low Earth orbit, \"Falcon 9 rockets are already the cheapest in the industry. Reusable Falcon 9s could drop the price by an order of magnitude, sparking more space-based enterprise, which in turn would drop the cost of access to space still further through economies of scale.\" Even for military launches, which have a number of contractual requirements for additional launch services to be provided, SpaceX's price is under .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43450436",
"title": "Space launch market competition",
"section": "Section::::2019 and beyond.:Competition for the American heavy-lift market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Space journalist Eric Berger extrapolated: \"Trump seems to be siding with commercial space advocates, who say that, while rockets like the Falcon Heavy may be slightly less capable than the SLS, they come at a drastically reduced price that will enable much quicker, broader exploration of the Solar System.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "832774",
"title": "SpaceX",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "On the flight home, Musk realized that he could start a company that could build the affordable rockets he needed. According to early Tesla and SpaceX investor Steve Jurvetson, Musk calculated that the raw materials for building a rocket actually were only three percent of the sales price of a rocket at the time. By applying vertical integration, producing around 85% of launch hardware in-house, and the modular approach from software engineering, SpaceX could cut launch price by a factor of ten and still enjoy a 70% gross margin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
1c0opv | Is it true that there have been 29 years free of war in all of human history? | [
{
"answer": "It rather depends how you define things. If you count tribal disputes as wars, then it is unlikely there was ever a year without war. If you don't count tribal disputes, only formal armies, then the majority of human existence was without war. Mind you, most of human existence was before history.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44340",
"title": "Steven Pinker",
"section": "Section::::Popularization of science.:\"The Better Angels of Our Nature\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "BULLET::::4. \"The Long Peace\" – The powers of 20th Century believed that period of time to be the bloodiest in history. This led to a largely peaceful 65-year period post World War I and World War II. Developed countries have stopped warring (against each other and colonially), adopted democracy, and this has led a massive decline (on average) of deaths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18938115",
"title": "21st century",
"section": "Section::::Transitions and changes.:Culture and politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "War and most kinds of crime and violence have declined considerably compared to the 20th century; such a period of \"relative peace\" between major powers has not been documented in human history since the Roman Empire. Malnourishment and poverty are still widespread globally, but fewer people live in the most extreme forms of poverty, relative to recorded history. In 1990 one-in-four people were malnourished, nearly 36% of the world's population lived in extreme poverty; in 2015 this percentage dropped to one-in-eight and 10%, respectively. If current trends hold, the United Nations projects the eradication of famine and extreme poverty by the end of this century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33158",
"title": "War",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Largest by death toll.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Three of the ten most costly wars, in terms of loss of life, have been waged in the last century. These are the two World Wars, followed by the Second Sino-Japanese War (which is sometimes considered part of World War II, or as overlapping). Most of the others involved China or neighboring peoples. The death toll of World War II, being over 60 million, surpasses all other war-death-tolls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33158",
"title": "War",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Military and civilian casualties in recent human history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Human history had numerous wars coming and going, but the average number of people dying from war has fluctuated relatively little, being about 1 to 10 people dying per 100,000. However, major wars over shorter periods have resulted in much higher casualty rates, with 100-200 casualties per 100,000 over a few years. While conventional wisdom holds that casualties have increased in recent times due to technological improvements in warfare, this is not generally true. For instance, the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) had about the same number of casualties per capita as World War I, although it was higher during World War II (WWII). That said, overall the number of casualties from war has not significantly increased in recent times. Quite to the contrary, on a global scale the time since WWII has been unusually peaceful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5612881",
"title": "List of revolutions and rebellions",
"section": "Section::::1850–1899.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 301,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 301,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1851–64: The Taiping Rebellion by the God Worshippers against the Qing dynasty of China. In total between 20 and 30 million lives had been lost, making it the second deadliest war in human history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61099",
"title": "Crimes against humanity",
"section": "Section::::20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "Sources say the 20th century can be considered the bloodiest period in global history. Millions of civilian infants, children, adults, and elderly people died in warfare. One civilian perished for every combatant killed. Efforts of the International Committee of the Red Cross, humanitarian laws, and rules of warfare were not able to stop these crimes against humanity. These terminologies were invented since previous vocabulary was not enough to describe these offenses. War criminals did not fear prosecution, apprehension, or imprisonment before World War II. Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill favored the outright execution of war criminals. The United States was more lenient and called for a just trial. The British Government was convinced to institute the Nuremberg Trial which left several legacies. These are worldwide jurisdiction for severe war crimes are, creation of international war crime tribunals, judicial procedures that documented history of colossal crimes effectively, and success of UN courts in holding impartial trials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27976180",
"title": "Year 6000",
"section": "Section::::Rishonim and Acharonim.:Esther Jungreis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Every day was a thousand years. This world, as we know it today, cannot last beyond 6,000 years. Right now, we are in the year 5769, which means it's Erev Shabbos of the world. By the year 6,000, Mashiach has to be here. He could come much earlier. But by the year 6,000, he has to be here. ... the Vilna Gaon said that the last war, Milchemet Gog uMagog, is going to last only 12 minutes because they are going to have such weapons...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
3ijh7x | Why didn't Hitler tell Mussolini about his plans to invade the USSR? | [
{
"answer": "This one is kind of complex. \n\n[Operation Barbarossa](_URL_2_) was the operation the Axis had planned to invade the Soviet Union. Nazi Germany had started to amass troops and equipment and had a pretty substantial force at the border in February of 1941. The original plan for the operation was to take place in May of 1941. There really was no shock, Stalin knew of the amassing of German troops and was warned by Soviet military leaders of an impending attack.\n\nMussolini and the Italian Military were fighting the [Greco-Italian War](_URL_3_) in Greece and making no headway. This is considered the start of the [Balkan Campaign](_URL_6_). The stalling of Italy in Greece lead to Hitler start [Operation Marita](_URL_4_) which was the German invasion of Greece, which coincided with the Italian invasion of Greece, which had stalled. Hitler had no intentions of invading Greece at this point, but was forced into action by Mussolini.\n\nTo sum it up quickly at this point. Italy tried to invade Greece from Albania, without Hitler and a lot of other important Italian leaders knowing, and failed. Greece actually pushed back and started taking ground in Albania. Hitler pushed forward with Italy to invade and defeat Greece.\n\nThe failure of Italy to defeat Greece on their own meant that some of the troops and materials for Operation Barbarossa were used in The Balkan Campaign. Which, with some other weather related issues lead to Operation Barbarossa being delayed. The delays are questionable at this point, there is some speculation that the Operation could have continued, even with the Germany military being deployed in Greece. \n\nPrior to the entire Greek campaign, Italian forces under Mussolini had dealt with setbacks in the North African Campaign. Which lead to Rommel being deployed to Africa to aid the Italians in that campaign.\n\nThe relationship between Hitler and Mussolini was complex and stressed. Mussolini never felt like an equal and the invasion of Greece was not advised by Hitler, rather performed by Mussolini to impress Hitler. Which basically lead to Hitler having to bail him out. Hitler commonly didn't communicate with Mussolini, so not knowing about the invasion of the USSR isn't odd.\n\nSo to answer your first question. Mussolini already had his hands full with the Greco-Italian war. Aiding Hitler at the border of the USSR would have been near impossible. Hitler delayed Operation Barbarossa to aid Mussolini in Greece. \n\nAnecdotally, I would assume that there was some irritation on Hitler's part with Mussolini. From everything I have read about the relationship between Hitler and Mussolini, Hitler never viewed Mussolini as an equal and Mussolini never felt like an equal. Even prior to any invasions. \n\nSo while both Italy and Germany had signed the [Pact of Steel](_URL_0_), both countries had trouble with meeting the obligations of the pact.\n\nAs to when did the Italians get into the USSR? The [Italian Expeditionary Corps](_URL_1_) were deployed to the USSR in July of 1941. Later the expeditionary corps were upscaled to a full sized army unit in [July of 1942](_URL_5_)\n\nOperation Barbarossa had started in June of 1941, so the assistance of the Italian military had come less than a month after the campaign started.\n\nThen you get into the whole invasion of Northern Italy. Hitler had basically set up a puppet government and put Mussolini in charge of Northern Italy after Southern Italy was retaken by the Allied forces. Mussolini and his mistress trying to escape to the Swiss border, being captured by allied Italian fighters, both of them being shot and then their bodies were hung in a park in Milan and defaced by many, many Italian citizens.\n\n\n\n\n\n",
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"answer": "In general the two Axis powers did not have a productive or coordinated relationship. Though they'd bonded in the mid 30s over Abyssinia and Spain, Hitler never clued Mussolini on big decisions like the Anschluss with Austria or the invasion of Czechia, and cracks began to emerge as Hitler pushed for war in 1939. Mussolini had promised to stand with Germany when the time came, but he had anticipated a conflict in the mid 40s and when things got serious he had to tell Adolf that Italy wasn't ready. This was a big blow to Mussolini's prestige, made worse when the Wehrmacht bowled France over the following May. Italy's hasty and embarrassing declaration of war on France followed. \n\nAs a result, Mussolini started to look distinctly unreliable, and Italy a decidedly second rate ally. This made Hitler, never the most consultative person, even less likely to share major plans. In late 1940, envious of Hitler's triumphs and unhappy with Italy being sidelined to the North African theatre Mussolini decided to recapture some status by invading Greece. \n\nThis was a terrible idea that rapidly became an absolute disaster, not only because Italian troops got their arses handed to them by a smaller, poorer nation. It threw off the timetable for the North African campaign at a point where Britain was scrambling to defend Egypt, it as good as invited the Allies to send forces to the Balkans, it upset Stalin and meant that forces would have to be diverted from Barbarossa preparations. It was in this context that Hitler met Mussolini in January 1941 and gave no hint that he was preparing to invade Russia.\n\nSources: \n\nKershaw *Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions that Changed the World 1940-1941*, 2007\n\nKershaw *Hitler 1936-1945: Nemesis*, 2000",
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"answer": "I can't answer your central question \"why didn't Hitler tell him\" completely, but here's some relevant context:\n\nThere wasn't a lot of consultation between German and Italian leaderships regarding plans for the war to begin with - when Germany attacked Poland (September 1st 1939), Mussolini had only known about the plan to do so less than a week before (August 25th). \n\nRegarding plans to attack the USSR in 1941, the Germans couldn't expect much help from Mussolini's Italy anyway - the Italian military hadn't been prepared for a new war of aggression like the German had, and it was just going through a kind of consolidation phase (remember, the late 30s had been a phase of military activity for Italy, the Italo-Abyssinian War and the occupation in Africa as well as the intervention in Spain had already used up resources when Germany attacked Poland).\n\nIt's also important to consider how the relationship between Germany and Italy had changed between 1939 and 1941: before that, there was *some* kind of at least political and symbolic equity between the two regimes. When the war began, Italy wasn't ready for the kind of Europe-wide war Hitler wanted (to put it bluntly, somebody might want to add nuance to that). \n\n* Italy stayed out of Poland in 1939,\n\n* rushed into France in June 1940 when the Germans made visible progress, but showed a lack of military planning and equipment, losing lives and time for small and insignificant gains of ground in the Alps,\n\n* started a war against Greece in October 1940, partly because Mussolini wanted to repair the damage to his and Italy's reputation that had come out of the embarassment in France (his standing as *duce del fascismo* relied partly on military success, which was an important motivator for him to rush into the next aggression despite the considerable strain already on Italy's military and also despite the Germans trying to get him off the idea); \n\n* and lost out again and again against the British in Africa between December 1940 (in Egypt) and May 1941 (when Italy lost its colonies in East Africa).\n\nThat was Italy's military track record in 1941. Mussolini had attempted to lead a \"parallel war\" to Germany, and had pretty much failed. The balance within the Axis had shifted heavily towards Germany.\n\nWhen the attack on the USSR began, the Germans (especially Keitel, the Wehrmacht's chief of staff) tried to convince the Italians not to send troops. They changed this stance only after their own war against the USSR had begun to stall. Hitler wrote a personal letter to Mussolini in December 1941 in which he basically greenlighted Italian participation in Russia. So regarding the second part of your question: Italy got into the war in Spring 1942 with up to 220 000 soldiers at one point, which is a considerable number regarding the circumstances. However, they weren't really equipped for the climate, didn't have much heavy artillery and would also not effectively work together with the Germans since German and Italian leaderships couldn't agree on combining command structures.\n\nSources: Wolfgang Schieder, Der italienische Faschismus (and less directly Brunello Mantelli, Kurze Geschichte des italienischen Faschismus). Both of these books are short oversight monographs, not extensive academic works (although both written by historians with a reputation for that specific topic).",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19283178",
"title": "Benito Mussolini",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Path to defeat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 1261,
"text": "Mussolini first learned of Operation Barbarossa after the invasion of Soviet Union had begun on 22 June 1941, and was not asked by Hitler to involve himself. Mussolini took the initiative in ordering an Italian Army Corps to head to the Eastern Front, where he hoped that Italy might score an easy victory to restore the Fascist regime's luster, which had been damaged by defeats in Greece and North Africa. On 25 June 1941, he inspected the first units at Verona, which served as his launching pad to Russia. Mussolini told the Council of Ministers of 5 July that his only worry was that Germany might defeat the Soviet Union before the Italians arrived. At a meeting with Hitler in August, Mussolini offered and Hitler accepted the commitment of further Italian troops to fight the Soviet Union. The heavy losses suffered by the Italians on the Eastern Front, where service was extremely unpopular owing to the widespread view that this was not Italy's fight, did much to damage Mussolini's prestige with the Italian people. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941. A piece of evidence regarding Mussolini's response to the attack on Pearl Harbor comes from the diary of his Foreign Minister Ciano:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21619085",
"title": "Soviet Union in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Termination of the pact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "During the early morning of 22 June 1941, Hitler terminated the pact by launching Operation Barbarossa, the Axis invasion of Soviet-held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front Before the invasion, Stalin thought that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain. At the same time, Soviet generals warned Stalin that Germany had concentrated forces on its borders. Two highly placed Soviet spies in Germany, \"Starshina\" and \"Korsikanets\", had sent dozens of reports to Moscow containing evidence of preparation for a German attack. Further warnings came from Richard Sorge, a Soviet spy in Tokyo working undercover as a German journalist who had penetrated deep into the German Embassy in Tokyo by seducing the wife of General Eugen Ott, the German ambassador to Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3300212",
"title": "Life and Fate",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "Hitler and Stalin had previously signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact which, on the face of it seemed to be advantageous to both. However, on 22 June 1941, Hitler unilaterally terminated the pact by invading the Soviet Union. There has been much speculation on the Soviet response. But, whatever the reason for this response, they were not ready for what took place; the army had been seriously weakened by Stalin's purges of the army of the late 1930s, and the intelligence that was getting through to Stalin was filtered by their fear of having to tell Stalin things that he did not want to hear. So, though they had increased military spending, they did not yet have an army that could benefit from this. This was compounded by the change in command structure that Stalin initiated in the wake of the 1937 purges and maintained for large periods up to 1942. Political commissars operated alongside military commanders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3001244",
"title": "Military history of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Second World War (1939–45).:Operation Barbarossa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 1573,
"text": "Hitler made the fateful decision to invade Russia in early 1941, but was delayed by the need to take control of the Balkans. Europe was not big enough for both Hitler and Stalin, and Hitler realized the sooner he moved the less risk of American involvement. Stalin thought he had a long-term partnership and rejected information coming from all directions that Germany was about to invade in June 1941. As a result, the Russians were poorly prepared and suffered huge losses, being pushed back to Moscow by December before holding the line. Hitler imagined that the Soviet Union was a hollow shell that would easily collapse, like France. He therefore had not prepared for a long war, and did not have sufficient winter clothing and gear for his soldiers. Weinberg (1994) argues that decisions concerning the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 must be understood in the broader context of Hitler's ideological motivations and long-term goals. Although Hitler had decided to invade the Soviet Union as early as 1940, German resources never reflected this; armaments production, tank and aircraft construction, and logistical preparations focused on the West. Diplomatic activity was similarly skewed; Hitler granted Stalin any territory he wanted (such as Lithuania), knowing they would soon be at war and Germany would reclaim it anyway. Hitler, blinded by his racist prejudices against Slavs, believed the Eastern campaign would be quick and easy. His real strategic concern was Great Britain and the United States, and his planning consistently demonstrated this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22618",
"title": "Operation Barbarossa",
"section": "Section::::Soviet preparations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1218,
"text": "In the Soviet Union, speaking to his generals in December 1940, Stalin mentioned Hitler's references to an attack on the Soviet Union in \"Mein Kampf\" and Hitler's belief that the Red Army would need four years to ready itself. Stalin declared \"we must be ready much earlier\" and \"we will try to delay the war for another two years\". As early as August 1940, British intelligence had received hints of German plans to attack the Soviets only a week after Hitler informally approved the plans for \"Barbarossa\" and warned the Soviet Union accordingly. But Stalin's distrust of the British led him to ignore their warnings in the belief that they were a trick designed to bring the Soviet Union into the war on their side. In early 1941, Stalin's own intelligence services and American intelligence gave regular and repeated warnings of an impending German attack. Soviet spy Richard Sorge also gave Stalin the exact German launch date, but Sorge and other informers had previously given different invasion dates that passed peacefully before the actual invasion. Stalin acknowledged the possibility of an attack in general and therefore made significant preparations, but decided not to run the risk of provoking Hitler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2025378",
"title": "Greco-Italian War",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Analysis.:Impact on \"Barbarossa\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 1108,
"text": "Hitler blamed Mussolini's \"Greek fiasco\" for his failed campaign in Russia. \"But for the difficulties created for us by the Italians and their idiotic campaign in Greece\", he commented in mid-February 1945, \"I should have attacked Russia a few weeks earlier,\" he later said. Hitler noted that, the \"pointless campaign in Greece\", Germany was not notified in advance of the impending attack, which \"compelled us, contrary to all our plans, to intervene in the Balkans, and that in its turn led to a catastrophic delay in the launching of our attack on Russia. We were compelled to expend some of our best divisions there. And as a net result we were then forced to occupy vast territories in which, but for this stupid show, the presence of our troops would have been quite unnecessary\". \"We have no luck with the Latin races\", he complained afterwards. Mussolini took advantage of Hitler's preoccupation with Spain and France \"to set in motion his disastrous campaign against Greece\". Andreas Hillgruber has accused Hitler of trying to deflect blame for his country's defeat from himself to his ally, Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21475858",
"title": "Nazi–Soviet economic relations (1934–41)",
"section": "Section::::Late Soviet attempts to improve relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 1201,
"text": "Stalin did not know that Hitler had been secretly discussing an invasion of the Soviet Union since summer 1940, and that Hitler had ordered his military in late 1940 to prepare for war in the East regardless of the parties talks of a potential Soviet entry as a fourth Axis Power. He had ignored German economic naysayers, and told Hermann Göring \"that everyone on all sides was always raising economic misgivings against a threatening war with Russia. From now onwards he wasn't going to listen to any more of that kind of talk and from now on he was going to stop up his ears in order to get his peace of mind.\" This was passed on to General Georg Thomas, who had been preparing reports on the negative economic consequences of a Soviet invasion—that it would be a net economic drain unless it was captured intact. Given Hitler's latest demands regarding negative advice, Thomas revised his report. Reich Finance Minister Schwerin-Krosigk also opposed an invasion, arguing that Germany would lose grain because of Soviet scorched-earth policies, lack of effective Soviet transport and the loss of production labor with a German attack in the East. Schnurre agreed with the economic loss assessment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
qsuob | what is cancer? (specifically leukemia) | [
{
"answer": "You, my ELI5 friend, are made of cells. Billions and billions of them, and they all have special jobs, shapes, and grow a different rates.\n\nSometimes we want cells to grow and divide a lot, like skin cells. And sometimes we don't want cells to grow and divide a lot, like brain cells. Each cell knows, because it is in the DNA, when to stop dividing. \n\nBut the biochemical machines that run cells don't always work properly, and sometimes a cell doesn't stop growing. The reasons why are complex and varied (i'll go into them if you want but it's not very ELI5ish). \n\nThis broken cell keeps growing and dividing, consuming resources from surrounding cells, and getting bigger, which will cause harm to surrounding organs. This is called a tumor.\n\nCancer is named from what kind of cell it arises from. Leukemia is a special kind of cancer, where the broken cell is a white blood cell or leukocyte. Leukemia doesn't usually have a tumor, but can be found in the bone marrow (where all blood cells are 'born') and will destroy the bone there. ",
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},
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"answer": "Sounds like a great question for [/r/ExplainLikeAPro](/r/ExplainLikeAPro). I am going to x-post this there. :)",
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},
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"answer": "Not-so-shameless plug: A gamer acquaintance of mine (redditor, too, I think) has leukemia and [we're doing our part to spread word about marrow donation](_URL_2_). If you live within an hour of New Castle, PA, you should go there March 24^th to get swabbed!\n\nOr, head over to [_URL_0_](http://_URL_0_), where you can sign up to be mailed a free cheek swab kit. You might save a life!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "uncontrolled cell growth",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16106907",
"title": "Vaccine therapy",
"section": "Section::::Cancer vaccines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Cancer is a group of fatal diseases that involves abnormal cell growth that can invade or spread to other parts of the body. They are usually caused by the accumulation of mutations in genes that regulate cell growth and differentiation. Majority of cancer, about 90-95%, are due to genetic mutations from environmental and lifestyle factors – including age, chemicals, diet, exercise, viruses, and radiation. The remaining 5-10% are due to inherited genetics. Some of the cancers may be difficult to treat by conventional means such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, but may be controlled by the stimulation of the immune response of the body with the help of cancer vaccines. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59627363",
"title": "Cancer selection",
"section": "Section::::Diversity is a selective advantage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Cancer is a disease which is highly diverse not only its pathology, but in the initiation and progression from non-cancerous tissue to malignant tumor tissue . Cancer is considered to be stochastic in nature, in that there are many variables and probabilities that contribute to how a cell or tissue progresses from a state of non-cancerous, to cancerous, and eventually to metastasis. Cancer differs from many other diseases due to the uniquely long lifespan of the disease which contributes to the diversity of cancer cells both within a tumor and between related tumors in a host. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements. While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they can also have other causes. Over 100 types of cancers affect humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7172",
"title": "Chemotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of cells coupled with malignant behaviour: invasion and metastasis (among other features). It is caused by the interaction between genetic susceptibility and environmental factors. These factors lead to accumulations of genetic mutations in oncogenes (genes that control the growth rate of cells) and tumor suppressor genes (genes that help to prevent cancer), which gives cancer cells their malignant characteristics, such as uncontrolled growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13059707",
"title": "List of cancer types",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "This is a list of cancer types. Cancer is a group of diseases that involve abnormal increases in the number of cells, with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Not all tumors or lumps are cancerous; benign tumors are not classified as being cancer because they do not spread to other parts of the body. There are over 100 different known cancers that affect humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299654",
"title": "Carcinoma",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Cancer occurs when a single progenitor cell accumulates mutations and other changes in the DNA, histones, and other biochemical compounds that make up the cell's genome. The cell genome controls the structure of the cell's biochemical components, the biochemical reactions that occur within the cell, and the biological interactions of that cell with other cells. Certain combinations of mutations in the given progenitor cell ultimately result in that cell (also called a cancer stem cell) displaying a number of abnormal, malignant cellular properties that, when taken together, are considered characteristic of cancer, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22191575",
"title": "Thyroid cancer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Thyroid cancer is cancer that develops from the tissues of the thyroid gland. It is a disease in which cells grow abnormally and have the potential to spread to other parts of the body. Symptoms can include swelling or a lump in the neck. Cancer can also occur in the thyroid after spread from other locations, in which case it is not classified as thyroid cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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3zxi88 | why are neanderthals always depicted with caucasian features? | [
{
"answer": "Because when you take the bones and perform the same reconstructive methods used on modern skeletons, they end up looking like some old Polish people. They were, generally, European.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most, if not all, skeletons found of Homo neanderthalensis were found in Europe, especially places like France. As you may know, the people native to most places in Europe are Caucasian, including people like the Gauls (the tribe whose descendents make up a quite large percentage of native French people).",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Europeans often have a decent amount of Neanderthal DNA, and it appears as though there was significant interbreeding in Europe.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI'm told that redheads in particular often have a higher percentage of Neanderthals, and I'd call red hair a pretty Caucasian feature.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The genes for pale skin, light colored red or blond hair, and being particularly hairy compared to most of the rest of the world, are traits Europeans probably [**picked up from Neanderthals**](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's speculative. Historically older species of hominid were often given vaguely African features, in accordance with the scientific racist notion that black people are less evolved than white or Asian people. This is countered in modern times, partly based on DNA studies that show some or all Neanderthals had fair hair (blonde or ginger), and partly as acknowledgement of the fact that they lived in Europe for well over 100,000 years - significantly longer than Homo Sapiens who developed white skin in a much shorter evolutionary time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4241514",
"title": "Dance of the Tiger",
"section": "Section::::Depictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Neanderthals are depicted as white-skinned, while Cro-Magnons are dark. Kurtén's skin color identification for both populations appears to agree with recent DNA studies, including those proposing the African origin of modern humans. His racial presentation of the Cro-Magnon is in contrast to Jean M. Auel's view in her \"Earth's Children\" series. Auel's initial book, published a few years later than \"Dance of the Tiger\", portrayed Neanderthals as light-skinned and Cro-Magnons as more racially varied, either light or dark-skinned. The author himself says \"The book is not intended to be a 'theory about interaction between Neanderthals and Modern Humans', it is just a fictive description of one possible scenario among several that might have taken place\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28066528",
"title": "Neanderthal anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Distinguishing physical traits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The following is a list of physical traits that distinguish Neanderthals from modern humans. However, not all of them distinguish specific Neanderthal populations from various geographic areas, evolutionary periods, or other extinct humans. Also, many of these traits are present in modern humans to varying extent due to both archaic admixture and the retention of ancestral hominid traits shared with Neanderthals and other archaic humans. Nothing is certain (from unearthed bones) about the shape of soft parts such as eyes, ears, and lips of Neanderthals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27298083",
"title": "Neanderthal",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Neanderthals have been portrayed in popular culture including appearances in literature, visual media and comedy. Early 20th century artistic interpretations often presented Neanderthals as beastly creatures, emphasising hairiness and a rough, dark complexion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26206554",
"title": "Vindija Cave",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "The hominid specimens at level 3G are regarded as unquestionably Neanderthal in overall morphology but exhibit a number of traits that sit closer to anatomically modern Europeans than to the traditional Neanderthal. These include a thinner and less projecting brow ridge, reduced facial size, and narrower front teeth. Though some have put these differences down to the small size of the Vindija individuals, a study conducted in 1995 established that the Vindija Neanderthals, though small, were of comparable size to more morphologically classic Neanderthals such as \"La Ferassie 2\", \"Shanidar 1\" and \"4\", and \"Tabun 1\". More likely, the Vindija Neanderthals were in transition from the classic robust form to a more gracile one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28066528",
"title": "Neanderthal anatomy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Neanderthal anatomy differed from modern humans in that they had a more robust build and distinctive morphological features, especially on the cranium, which gradually accumulated more derived aspects, particularly in certain isolated geographic regions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188824",
"title": "Thracians",
"section": "Section::::Physical appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Nevertheless, academic studies have concluded that people often had different physical features from those described by primary sources. Ancient authors described as red-haired several groups of people. They claimed that all Slavs had red-hair, and likewise described the Iranic Scythians as red haired. According to Dr. Beth Cohen, Thracians had \"the same dark hair and the same facial features as the Ancient Greeks.\" On the other hand, Dr. Aris N. Poulianos states that Thracians, like modern Bulgarians, belonged mainly to the Aegean anthropological type.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27298083",
"title": "Neanderthal",
"section": "Section::::Interbreeding with archaic and modern humans.:Pre-2010 interbreeding hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Until the early 1950s, most scholars thought Neanderthals were not in the ancestry of living humans. Nevertheless, in 1904 Thomas H. Huxley saw among Frisians the presence of what he suspected to be Neanderthaloid skeletal and cranial characteristics as an evolutionary development from Neanderthal rather than as a result of interbreeding, saying that \"the blond long-heads may exhibit one of the lines of evolution of the men of the Neanderthaloid type,\" yet he raised the possibility that the Frisians alternatively \"may be the result of the admixture of the blond long-heads with Neanderthal men,\" thus separating \"blond\" from \"Neanderthaloid.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
182pco | Urban abandonment during late antiquity and the middle ages. | [
{
"answer": "In the case of the Roman empire, there are several possibilities:\n\n- The loss of North Africa to the Vandals. North Africa was the breadbasket of the Western Roman Empire, and without it, huge cities could no longer be supported. There was a similar but less dramatic depopulation of Constantinople after Egypt was lost to the Arabs in the 7th century. This is probably the most important reason.\n\n- In the waning days of the western empire, invading Germanic tribes cut the supply of water into Rome and only the Aqua Virgo, which ran completely underground, continued to deliver water. In other words, large Roman cities were dependent on proper maintenance of aqueducts, and if they were destroyed for any reason, it would be difficult to continue to support a large population.\n\n- There were several severe and protracted plagues, combined with a long period of invasions and conflicts.\n\n- It has been speculated that the deforestation of the Western Mediterranean might have been an important cause. I really can't say how well accepted this argument is at the moment.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50903732",
"title": "Aequum Tuticum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "However, there are traces of a resettling in the Middle Ages (12th century), when the ancient Roman walls were incorporated into those of a building forming part of the new inhabited hamlet also called \"Saint Eleuterio\", then in turn abandoned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4209088",
"title": "Palatinate Forest",
"section": "Section::::History.:History of settlement.:Abandoned villages, over-exploitation and depletion (14th-18th centuries).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1189,
"text": "This development took place in the Late Middle Ages (13th to 15th centuries) and Early Modern Period (16th to 18th century), because disease (e.g. The Plague) and famine led to a significant decline in population and the total number of settlements fell sharply (leaving abandoned villages), as a result of wars and economic circumstances. Thus, during the colonization of the mountains, areas were often cleared that, because of the nutrient-poor sandy soils, were unsuitable for farming and had to be abandoned after a short period because of overuse and overexploitation. Also, the use of the forest to obtain firewood and timber did not follow the principles of sustainability. On the one hand, the production of straw (foliage as bedding for cattle) and wood pasture damaged the soils and forests; on the other hand the manufacture of iron, glass and potash, which needed a lot of wood, led for centuries to the overuse and destruction of the forest and thus to the further impoverishment of the population. Occupations that the forest itself supported, such as lumberjacks, charcoal burners, rafters, resin burners (pitch boilers) and ash burners, supported only a meagre existence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180882",
"title": "Kingdom of Kent",
"section": "Section::::Decline of Romano-British Kent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "There is evidence that over the fourth and early fifth centuries, rural villas were abandoned, suggesting that the Romano-British elite were moving to the comparative safety of fortified urban centres. However, urban centres also witnessed decline; Canterbury evidenced a declining population and reduced activity from the late third century onward, while Dover was abandoned by the end of the fourth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "32493988",
"title": "1920 Garfagnana earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Previous events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Despite being inhabited since ancient times, the region experienced rapid colonization in the Middle Ages, thanks to agricultural techniques allowing the exploitation of the steep hills and to the new wealth acquired by the nearby Republic of Florence.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3254218",
"title": "Saepinum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "The presence of tombs from the 4th century, within the city walls, suggests that the city had been largely abandoned by that time. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Saepinum was taken in 882 by Saracens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3202895",
"title": "Gnatia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The city, an early bishopric (see below), was abandoned in the Middle Ages due to the spread of malaria in the area, or to Vandal and Saracen attacks, or even given the last blow by Holy Roman Emperor Louis II of Italy (who also conquered Bari on Byzantium in 871).\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "6516600",
"title": "Luceria",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "After Luceria was abandoned, it was repeatedly spoliated, as common in the Middle Ages, for valuable building materials to be reused in new constructions (the place was called \"Predàro\" until the 18th century).). Thus the settlement disappeared from view and, in time, from local memory too. \n",
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2vgf5t | why doesn't the us military replace the m9. i'm sure there are better pistols out there. | [
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"answer": "The US Army is actually looking at replacing the Beretta. Probably within the next two years.",
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{
"answer": "They're in the process of evaluating new pistols. As I understand it the current M9, even with updates, is already out of the running...I don't think they were invited to participate.",
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"answer": "Some folks have reportedly reverted to the ancient 1911 pistol. I'm not too familiar with firearms, but the logic is simple enough - for a backup weapon, reliability and durability are the way to go. \n\nMeanwhile, in the Air Force...",
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"answer": "Military firearms tend to have a long life. They like to standardize. When you've got a million of *anything* it's a big deal.\n\nThat said, they're [currently looking into a replacement](_URL_0_). These things can take time. Since handguns haven't fundamentally changed in decades, there's no major rush.",
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"answer": "If which pistol your troops are using matters, you have already lost the war. Modernizing pistols just isn't much of a strategic priority.\n\nThat said, I believe they are in the early rounds of picking a successor.\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "2814165",
"title": "Beretta M9",
"section": "Section::::Replacement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The U.S. Army and Air Force are seeking to replace their M9s through the Modular Handgun System program. The House Armed Services Committee wants to terminate the program in favor of upgrading the M9. Program officials say buying a new pistol is the better option due to advances in handgun designs, the difficulty in addressing all of the M9's issues, other pistols being less expensive to produce and maintain, and the low confidence soldiers have in the M9. A three-year engineering, manufacturing, and development (EMD) phase is to begin in early 2014. Commercial off-the-shelf pistols will be tested for capabilities such as accuracy, dispersion, compatibility, and corrosion resistance under extreme weather and extreme combat conditions. The pistol's service life is expected at 25,000 rounds. The M9 is required to fire 5,000 rounds, while data from Beretta shows the average reliability of the M9 pistol to be 17,500 rounds without a stoppage.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2814165",
"title": "Beretta M9",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "The M9 was scheduled to be replaced under a United States Army program, the \"Future Handgun System\" (FHS), which was merged with the \"SOF Combat Pistol\" program to create the \"Joint Combat Pistol\" (JCP). The JCP was renamed \"Combat Pistol\" (CP), and the number of pistols to be bought was drastically cut back. The U.S. Army and Air Force are seeking to replace their M9s through the Modular Handgun System program, which has chosen the SIG Sauer P320.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "29098840",
"title": "XM17 Modular Handgun System competition",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 671,
"text": "The Federal Bureau of Investigation and certain police forces have reversed earlier decisions to replace their 9mm pistols with ones chambered for .40 S&W because the heavier bullet and greater recoil caused excessive wear and frame damage. Law enforcement personnel have found that even marginally larger pistol rounds are still too underpowered to kill a person with one shot, and that smaller rounds allow for better shot placement when firing rapidly. Beretta has submitted changes and product improvements to the M9 system, like the M9A1 accepted by the U.S. Marine Corps in 2006, but the Army has maintained that the M9 system does not meet their MHS requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "29098840",
"title": "XM17 Modular Handgun System competition",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "The main reason for the program is the same as the Colt M1911A1 replacement by the Beretta M9 previously: the pistols were at the end of their service life and wearing out. All firearms have a finite life cycle. While parts such as the barrel, grips, springs, pins, and others can be replaced, the frame cannot and eventually becomes unserviceable. The M9, in service since the late 1980s, is approaching this limit. Examples in service are showing signs of terminal wear, and rather than replacing them with newly built M9s, the Army decided to opt for a new weapon to address design weaknesses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "14664934",
"title": "Glock",
"section": "Section::::Variants.:.380 ACP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The first two .380 ACP models are primarily intended for markets which prohibit civilian ownership of firearms chambered in military calibers such as 9×19mm Parabellum. Despite this they are legally prohibited from being sold to civilians in the United States due to being manufactured in Austria and not meeting the import restrictions based on its caliber, they are also prohibited from ownership in Canada due to not meeting minimum barrel length requirements for handguns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29098840",
"title": "XM17 Modular Handgun System competition",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 977,
"text": "Testing and evaluation of replacement pistols were expected to begin in early 2014. The new pistol will also be carried by more soldiers, namely squad and team leaders. A three-year test and evaluation will determine if a commercial off-the-shelf contender can replace all 239,000 M9s, as well as the concealable M11. The program was in conjunction with the Air Force. The House Armed Services Committee was pushing to upgrade the M9 rather than pursue a new program. Project officers believed buying a new pistol would be cheaper than improving and maintaining the M9 and offers designs that outperform it. The three-year engineering, manufacturing, and development (EMD) phase will test a variety of capabilities including accuracy, dispersion, compatibility, and corrosion resistance. Pistols will be tested in extreme weather and extreme combat conditions. A Request for Proposals (RFP) was expected to be issued in January 2014. The Army plans to buy 265,000 new pistols.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "26797524",
"title": "MP-448 Skyph",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Although, since 2003 Russian military and law enforcement have switched to the more powerful 9×19mm Parabellum and as such are purchasing larger, more powerful and higher capacity pistols such as the MP-443 Grach (also manufactured by IzhMech).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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12zv9c | Hello AskHistorians, what are the most interesting or important books within your specialty, and what are they about? I am a teacher, creating a recommended/optional reading list for highly motivated students. Thank you! | [
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"answer": "To answer my own question, in case anyone is curious, some of my own favorite books to recommend are the following:\n\nWW2\nSurvival in Auschwitz, by Primo Levi\nWith the Old Breed, by Eugene Sledge \n\nEconomics/Society\nFreakonomics and Superfreakonomics, by Levitt and Dubner\nThe Tipping point, and Blink, by Malcom Gladwell\nConfessions of an Economic Hitman, by John Perkins (not really strict history, but a fascinating book)\n\nUS history:\nLies my Teacher Told me by James Loewage \nHoward Zinn's \"A People's History\"\n\nWorld: \nA History of the World in 6 Glasses by Tom Standage \nGuns Germs and Steel (surprise surprise)",
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"answer": "Egyptian History:\n\n1. The Literature of Ancient Egypt, by W. K. Simpson and others. Offers a really wide range of great stories/texts/hymns/poems etc, with a little blurb for each discussing where it comes from/why it's important etc.\n\n2. Ian Shaw [editor] The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Covers everything up to the Roman period, in solid detail, but in an inherently accessible manner.\n\n3. Aidan Dodson - Amarna Sunset and Poisoned Legacy. Two very accessible yet thorough discussions covering Egypt's Late New Kingdom - from the heresy of Akhenaten to the decline of the Ramesside Era. Really interesting stuff that doesn't often appear in popular knowledge, and includes some recognisable names eg Tutankhamun, Ramesses II etc.\n\n4. Miroslav Verner, The Complete Pyramids: the story of Egypt's Old Kingdom told through the medium of the great monuments. Is written by one of the foremost scholars on that period, and discusses the history of Egyptology at the same time as talking about the monuments and people of the time.",
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"answer": "Modern China: * Oracle Bones* by Peter Hessler. I recommend it to everyone! ",
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"answer": "Vincent Cronin's *Napoleon.* It is a biography about none other than the first Emperor of the French, and it is one of the best available.\n\nFor something much denser and with more of a pure military focus, there is David Chandler's *The Campaigns of Napoleon,* which I cannot recommend enough for anyone interested in the period. It is a rarer and more expensive book, but it is more than worth the cost.",
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"answer": "Updating a list I wrote earlier for a request for resources on North Korea and the Kim regime:\n\n - **Refugee account:** *The Aquariums of Pyongyang* by Chol-Hwan Kang and Pierre Rigoulout. A terrifying account of the Yodok concentration camp where the families of political prisoners are/were sent for punishment. Yodok was actually fairly high on the pecking order of North Korean camps, and the reason the book exists in the first place is that Kang is among the few who not only survived but was released. The book gained widespread recognition in the West after it ended up on George Bush's reading list and its authors were invited to the White House. Victor Cha (see below) comments on this and the effect it had on Bush's view of Kim Jong-Il.\n - **Overview of propaganda:** *The Cleanest Race: How North Koreans See Themselves and Why It Matters* by B.R. Myers. Not everyone is on board with the author's conclusions -- he's extremely harsh to the generation of South Korean politicians behind the Sunshine Policy, which he considered both an ethical problem and a strategic blunder -- but it's a thorough look at the toxic ideology that is approved for mass entertainment and journalism in North Korea. This is what they say to themselves when no one is looking, although perhaps it might be more accurate to describe it as what you can say in North Korea without getting arrested or shot. \n - **Statistical accounts:** *Famine in North Korea: Markets, Aid, and Reform* by Stephen Haggard and Marcus Noland, and *Witness to Transformation: Refugee Insights into North Korea* by the same guys. By necessity, these are somewhat drier accounts of what's going on in North Korea, but it's a mindfuck to read what statisticians *think* is going on in the country and what later refugee accounts corroborate. For example, Haggard and Noland arrive at the conclusion that the true roots of the North Korean famine probably started in the late 1980s when the Soviet Union started to fall, and stopped giving a shit about paying to support the ridiculously inefficient NK economy. Then you read Demick's book (see below) and see accounts from housewives in North Korea who say that they started getting shortchanged by the public distribution system at the exact same time. *Witness to Transformation* will give you some background on who is most likely to escape North Korea in the first place and what happens to them afterwards, with accompanying commentary (none of it terribly optimistic) about what this implies should the NK government eventually fall.\n\nAs an aside, reading the *Markets, Aid, and Reform* study was what convinced me that B.R. Myers was probably right about the damage that South Korea did to nuclear negotiations during the Six-Party talks. \n\n - **Mixed bag o' topics:** *North of the DMZ: Essays on Daily Life in North Korea* by Andrei Lankov. This one's unique, as it's a series of essays written by a Russian writer who went to school in North Korea back during the 1980s, and that's a perspective that the Western world rarely sees. Lankov's articles are not only a valuable window into how the North Koreans were seen by their allies -- or more appropriately, \"allies\" -- but he also comments on a very wide variety of topics not usually addressed by scholars. Interestingly, his time in North Korea predates Andrew Holloway's (see below) by only a few years, and the NK that he writes about from that era is both recognizably the same NK that Holloway describes and an interesting contrast to the changes you'll see in the society as the Kims tried to prove that they could have co-hosted the 1988 Seoul Olympics. \n - **If you read nothing else, read this:** *Nothing to Envy: Ordinary Lives in North Korea* by Barbara Demick. Demick was a Los Angeles Times reporter who was assigned to the Seoul bureau for several years and spent a lot of time interviewing North Koreans who'd escaped the country before it became somewhat common. This one really brings home to you the number of personal and family tragedies that the regime has caused, and why everyone who helped Kim il-Sung on his rise to power should have been shot. A finalist for the National Book Award in 2010.\n - **And after you read Demick -- or maybe before you do:** *Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader: North Korea and the Kim Dynasty* by Bradley K. Martin. This one gives a lot of background into the stuff you'll see in Demick's book, and interestingly also gives some insight into academic arrogance in the Western world concerning the Korean peninsula. The popular narrative on Korean history as written by vanguards like Bruce Cumings was far kinder to the Kim regime than it deserved, and Martin was given a lot of crap for writing about the concentration camps and the famine.\n - **An American diplomat's perspective on the Six-Party talks and international relations in Asia:** *The Impossible State* by Victor Cha. This was published within the past year and, like Lankov's perspective, it's unique. Cha was the Director for Asian Affairs for the NSC under Bush and saw a lot of Japanese, Russian, Chinese, South Korean, and North Korean diplomats for his job. This isn't the book to read if you want an in-depth history of North Korea, but it's an incredibly cogent commentary on why NK is popularly known as \"The Land of Lousy Options\" in diplomatic circles, and what the American perspective was during the talks. There's also several behind-the-scenes stories from both the White House and the diplomatic world, including Bush's drop-in on a visiting group of Chinese generals and an interesting insight into the North Koreans' (correct) interpretation of Japanese politicking concerning aid.\n - **The true believer turned hopeless cynic:** *[A Year in Pyongyang](_URL_0_)* by Andrew Holloway. Holloway was a Brit who lived in Pyongyang editing NK's English-language propaganda for a year, and he wrote the book as a way to keep from going insane while trapped in a fairly boring and extremely controlled city. If nothing else, I find it an absolutely fascinating meta-commentary on what one person can see of a society even when that society is determined not to let him see anything. As he says, he was a Marxist who was sympathetic to what appeared to be the underlying goals of North Korean society, but he managed to figure out that the wool was being pulled over his eyes despite a fairly regimented year. \n\nThere's still some heartbreaking assumptions, though -- mainly his firm belief that, whatever the Kim regime's mistakes, they would never commit the atrocities he had seen in more capitalist countries elsewhere, that NK just wasn't that kind of society. Turns out NK was *exactly* the kind of society that would ship people off to death camps. Holloway's account has many mistakes, but they were honestly made, they reflect what the Western world knew of North Korea at the time, and he obviously struggled with his portrayal of a society that he genuinely wanted to like due to his personal beliefs, but knew was deeply flawed. ",
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"answer": "World War One! *Check it*.\n\n**Lead-Up and Causes**\n\n- Barbara Tuchman's *The Guns of August* (1962) is a marvelously accessible narrative history of the early days of the war. It does a good job of situating the conflict within the waning era of the Empires, and its combination of solid research and exhilarating prose has more than accounted for the acclaim it has received.\n\n- However, you might also fruitfully check out Tuchman's *The Proud Tower* (1966), which gives an account of the world and its tenor in the years immediately prior to the war (1890-1914 is the scope, if I recall correctly). It's more of a collection of essays than a sustained narrative, but every last one of them is fascinating and useful.\n\n- Richard Hamilton and Holger Herwig (who is awesome) have put together *The Origins of World War I* (2003), which makes as good a run at being the definitive treatment of this subject as any text has yet achieved.\n\n- Similarly, Herwig's *The Marne: 1914* (2011) is an excellent account of the war's astounding opening battles. Provides a sound, easily comprehensible description of why the war was not \"over by Christmas [of 1914]\", and for how the static system of trench warfare at last came to be.\n\n- Fritz Fischer's *Griff nach der Weltmacht* (1961) is an essential -- though controversial -- work describing the manner in which Germany instigated the war and asserts that her war aims were essentially predatory from the start. The debate over this work is enormous, but Fischer's claims must be contended with by anyone who seriously hopes to understand what the war was about.\n\n- Annika Mombauer's hotly-anticipated documentary anthology, *The Origins of the First World War: Diplomatic and Military Documents*, comes out in March of next year. There've been a number of similar volumes over the years, but if the advance buzz on hers is anything to go by it will easily eclipse them all. In any event, this or something like it will provide a very useful background against which to view the developments of the summer and autumn of 1914.\n\n**General Histories**\n\nJohn Keegan's *The First World War* is a fine single-volume introduction, but not the only one. There are others:\n\n- Hew Strachan's *The First World War* (2004) offers a remarkably international view of the conflict, and in a compact single volume at that. This was meant as a companion piece to the (also quite good) television documentary series of the same name which he oversaw. Still, if you want more, look to his much larger *The First World War - Vol. I: To Arms* (2003) -- the first of a projected three volumes and absolutely staggering in its depth. This first volume alone runs to 1250 pages.\n\n- Sir Martin Gilbert offers *The First World War: A Complete History* (2nd Ed. 2004). The title is a bit of a lie, but this work from Winston Churchill's official biography is as lucid and sensitive as anything else he's written.\n\n**Famous General Histories**\n\nThese volumes have become subjects of study in their own right, but are still well worth reading for the student determined to tackle this conflict in depth:\n\n- Winston Churchill's *The World Crisis, 1911-1919* is a work in 5 volumes that contentiously holds the title of the \"most comprehensive\" history of the war. A modern abridgment (clocking in at around 850 pages) is readily available, and well worth a look. There are significant debates within WWI historiography about Churchill's judgments and biases, so it would be worth looking into them as well before taking everything within the book at face value.\n\n- John Buchan's twenty-four volume *Nelson's History of the War* began being released before the war was even over (in 1915, if I recall correctly), and remains a thoroughly lucid, readable account of it. Anyone reading it must always bear in mind that most of its volumes were written without knowing what would happen next -- this lends the work a striking degree of immediacy, but also harms its ability to contextualize events in the light of stuff that would come later.\n\n- C.R.M.F. Crutwell's enormous volume, *A History of the Great War, 1914-1918* was published in 1934. It has become the subject of historical inquiry in its own right, and the gigantic Strachan volumes I noted above were commissioned as a replacement for it.\n\n- The *History of the Great War Based on Official Documents* (finally completed in 1948) is the official British history of the war as compiled by Sir James Edmonds with the help of Cyril Falls, F.J. Moberly and others. It runs to twenty-nine volumes and is predicated upon the conveyance of straightforward information rather than any kind of narrative whatsoever.\n\n**The British**\n\n- Richard Holmes' *Tommy: The British Soldier on the Western Front, 1914-1918* (2004) is a work I cannot recommend too highly or too often. It is thick, ferociously well-sourced, entertaining and comprehensive. Holmes was one of the best we had until his untimely death last year, and *Tommy* finds him firing on all cylinders.\n\n- Paddy Griffith's *Battle Tactics of the Western Front: The British Army's Art of Attack, 1916-1918* (1996) is one of the more provocative and influential texts in the \"learning curve\" movement, which maintains that the British army experienced a sharp uptick in the quality of its tactics thanks to the lessons learned on the Somme. Griffith is a somewhat irascible figure well known in the table-top war-gaming world, but this remains an essential work.\n\n**The French**\n\nA regretable gap in my general knowledge of the war's historiography. I'll do some poking around and try to update this later.\n\n**The Germans**\n\nIn addition to the Fischer book I already mentioned above, you should consider these:\n\n- Holger Herwig's (yes, him again) *The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary, 1914-1918* (1996) is arguably *the* modern text on the subject of how the Central Powers conducted their end of the war and what the cultural impact of it upon them was. A sometimes heartbreaking work, but all the better for it.\n\n- Christopher Duffy's *Through German Eyes: The British & The Somme, 1916* (2006) is a remarkable and necessary work that offers a recontextualization of the Somme Offensive -- so often viewed as a thoroughly British tragedy -- from the perspective of those troops against whom wave after wave of Englishmen advanced in the summer and fall of 1916. Seeing this event from the other side paints a somewhat different view of it than is typically enjoyed, and I cannot recommend it highly enough.\n\n- Norman Stone's *The Eastern Front: 1914 - 1917* (1975) is a very readable account of the German army's efforts against its Russian counterpart. It has also benefited from a recent republication by Penguin, and as such is very readily available.\n\n**The Canadians** \n\nI have to get the oar in for my own people here, so I'll recommend Tim Cook's marvelous, modern two-part analysis of the Canadians at war: *At the Sharp End: 1914-1916* (2007) and *Shock Troops: 1917-1918* (2008). Dr. Cook is a good man to share a beer with, and en even better writer -- these are well worth a look even for those who are not immediately interested in Canada's involvement.\n\n**Specific Engagements**\n\n- Herwig's work on the Battle of the Marne was already mentioned above.\n\n- Gordon Corrigan has a good single-volume appraisal of the Battle of Loos in 1915 (*Loos 1915: The Unwanted Battle*, 2005). Something of a prelude to the Somme Offensive of the following year, it is most popularly remembered now (which says a lot, and I don't know if anything good) as the battle that killed Rudyard Kipling's son.\n\n- There are too many books on the Somme Offensive to name, so I'll settle for William Philpott's *Bloody Victory: The Sacrifice on the Somme* (2009), which commendably combines absurd expansiveness with a novel thesis. A highly necessary (and fucking welcome) antidote to the otherwise all-prevailing \"absolute tragedy thesis\" that seems to mark the rest of the major writings on this campaign.\n\nWith regard to the Ludendorff Offensive in the Spring of 1918:\n\n- Martin Middlebrook has a penchant for taking a single day and using it as the basis for a broader historical inquiry. Just as he did with the First Day on the Somme, so has done in *The Kaiser's Battle: 21 March 1918 - The First Day of the German Spring Offensive* (1983). It focuses primarily on the one day, but has frequent recourse to the campaign as a whole.\n\n- John Terraine's *To Win a War: 1918, the Year of Victory* (1978) remains a classic account of the war's final year, and has much to say about the circumstances that caused the Spring Offensive to fail and the Hundred Days Offensive to succeed.\n\n- David Zabecki's *The German 1918 Offensives. A Case Study in the Operational Level of War* (2006) is admirably focused but without sacrificing breadth.\n\n**Conscientious Objectors and Pacifists**\n\n- Adam Hochschild's *To End All Wars* (2011) is an admirable attempt to integrate the story of objectors, resisters, pacifists and the like into the already well-established tableau of the war's history. It is a less than objective work, to put it mildly -- the tone is often one of outrage rather than dispassionate provision of facts. Still, the war seems to bring this out in people in a way that others do not, so this is scarcely a surprising feature. It's still a good start, though; broadly focused on Great Britain and British colonies.\n\n- Louisa Thomas' *Conscience: Two Soldiers, Two Pacifists, One Family* (2011) examines the tensions involved in non-combatant decisions on the American home front, with particular focus upon her great grandfather, Norman Thomas, who refused to fight at a time when two of his brothers had chosen otherwise. More of a meditation than an outright history book, but still quite interesting.\n\n- Peter Englund's fascinating narrative history, *The Beauty and the Sorrow* (2011), contains about twenty interwoven accounts of the war from a variety of perspectives, many of them on the home front. It's more determinedly international than the other two books I've mentioned, and is focused on a variety of different cases (not all of them strictly relevant to the title heading above).\n\n**Interesting, Quirky Case Studies**\n\nIt's a coincidence (I think!) that both of the following are set within a naval context, but there it is:\n\n- Giles Foden's *Mimi and Toutou Go Forth* (2004) tells the absolutely insane story of the Battle of Lake Tanganyika in Central Africa, 1915. A gang of British eccentrics dragged two boats through the jungle to do battle with the German *Graf von Gotzen*, and a more motley band of people has seldom been assembled. Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, their commander, is the kind of man who makes one feel intensely inadequate.\n\n- Richard Guillatt and Peter Hohnen's *The Wolf* (2005) is the remarkable tale of how a state-of-the-art German warship was disguised as a merchant freighter and then taken around the world in a multi-year campaign of piracy and destruction that was nevertheless marked by the absolute chivalrous gallantry of its captain and crew. The *Wolf* was forced to survive only on what it could capture from other ships, and by the time it returned to Kiel it carried over 400 passengers from 25 different countries, the bulk of whom had become great friends with one another and with their courteous German captors.\n\n**Commendable Fiction and Autobiography**\n\nThere have been rather a lot of novels and pseudo-memoirs written by veterans of the war and others; not all are equally worth one's time. These, however, are:\n\n- Frederic Manning's *The Middle Parts of Fortune* (1929): A moving, honest and finely-wrought account of the career of a deeply intellectual and sensitive man who is nevertheless content to remain among the lower ranks. For my money, this is the best of the works produced during the \"war books boom\" of 1927-33.\n\n- Ernst Jünger's *Storm of Steel* (1920) . For convenience's sake I'll just point you to the appraisal [I wrote of it here](_URL_0_).\n\n- Cecil Lewis' *Sagittarius Rising* (1936) is one of the few major books from this period that focuses on the war in the air, and it's pretty damned good at that. Lewis went on to co-found the BBC and win an Oscar (in separate incidents), for whatever that's worth, but his book would be worth reading even apart from that.\n\n- A.O. Pollard's *Fire-Eater: Memoirs of a V.C.* (1932) is one of the more bracing and positive memoirs to come out of the war, and the fact that it was written by a guy whom his superiors suspected of almost recklessly enjoying the war might account for this.\n\n- Rebecca West's *The Return of the Soldier* (1918) has little to do with the war beyond using it as a backdrop for a very sad, beautiful little story. It takes no time at all to read, but is so completely worth it.\n\nThere are plenty of other such works (I could go on about them in a post as long again as this one), but there are limits!\n\n**To Be Avoided (For Now)**\n\n- Paul Fussell's *The Great War and Modern Memory* (1975) is probably the most influential and important work on the subject of the war's history and remembrance ever written, and it is just... disgustingly poor. It's very well-written, certainly, but it is so limited in its scope, so biased in its perspective, so cavalier with its deployment of historical fact, so bitchy in its tone and so basically useless to anyone who wants some idea of what was actually going on that I frankly wish I could go back in time and punch the then-still-living Fussell in the kidneys until he agreed to write something else. I go into more detail on this [here](_URL_1_).\n\n- A.J.P. Taylor's *The First World War: An Illustrated History* (1963) is highly accessible and entertaining, but the author's casual disdain is absolutely insufferable and frequently harms his objectivity. Worth reading primarily to demonstrate that a book this inadequate was not only once tolerated but actually praised.\n\nI'd also warn against anything by John Laffin, Alan Clark or Julian Putkowski, for the time being.",
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"answer": "I highly recommend Benedict Anderson's 'Under Three Flags: Anarchism and the Anti-colonial Imagination' (Verso, 2007) It situates the more radical and liberal events in philippine history during the late nineteenth century in the larger setting of worldwide radical movements at that time. I used this as a source in my final paper. You would have to have some knowledge of Philippine history beforehand though.",
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"answer": "Latin American History:\n\nMatthew Restall, \"Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest\"\n\nBasically a historian goes over 7 (actually 8) popular myths that people hold about the Spanish conquest of the Americas. Using historical evidence, he shows why they are wrong. Its popular history, so its a pretty light read compared to most stuff you'll see.\n\n\nAmerican History:\n\nElija Gould, \"Among the Powers of the Earth\"\n\nBasically situates the American struggle for independence from 1756-1823 in the context of the world. Interesting read, and its global focus brings up a lot of interesting stuff you probably wouldn't have known before reading it.",
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"answer": "Here is my modest contribution with some WWII suggestions. If students in your area are like the high school students here, they can't get enough of WWII literature.\n\nK.H. Frieser, *The Blizkrieg Legend: The 1940 Campaign in the west*. This book gives some fascinating insights on the Blizkrieg. It states it was not a thought-through strategy and shows how the improvised campaign succeeded. It also goes a long way to breaking the myth of a overpowered German army at the start of the war. \n\n_URL_1_\n\nIf you're interested in the Japanese side of the story I can highly recommend *Soldiers of the sun: the rise and fall of the Imperial Japanese army*. This book describes in great detail the way Japanese society and its army was shaped from the 19th century to the Second World War. It is incredibly interesting and sometimes really moving. I was really touched reading this. \n\n_URL_0_\n",
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"answer": "It's late, so only one book for now. \n\n*Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933-1956*, by Jason Scott Smith. \n\nIt's my favorite book simply because it puts a numerical face on the PWA and WPA. Sure you've heard about the post offices, bridges, and roads, but the numbers are just staggering and impressive. For example, the PWA completed projects in 3,068 of 3,071 counties in the United States, including 7,488 schools, 388 bridges or viaducts, and the aircraft carrier USS *Yorktown*. The WPA built a total of 40,000 new public buildings and imporived 85,000 others. Much of the infrastructure our post-war boom grew on was built during the New Deal. ",
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"answer": "Environmental history, particularly US:\n\nChanges in the Land, William Cronon. Early, preeminent work in the field -- and short enough to be readable by students. It began life as a grad school seminar paper, so it's fairly tight in scope. Describes the environmental impact of the colonies, and vice-versa. Certainly shorter than\n\nNature's Metropolis, by William Cronon. Fascinating book; fairly big, though. Might be too big for a high school student to tackle. If I had to recommend something easy to digest, I might go with\n\nFlight Maps, Jennifer Price. Getting old now, but still a great introduction to how we deal with nature in a consumer culture.\n\nCrimes Against Nature, Karl Jacoby. Particularly if your high school is in rural america, this or one of the other recent histories of hunting might be interesting to your students.\n\nAnd then there's all the many environmental histories of cities; if you live in a major city in the US, there's been a recent book about it. Rawson on Boston; Klingle on Seattle; Colton on New Orleans. Many more.",
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"answer": "Late 19th Early 20th Century Paris: *Spectacular Realities: Early Mass Culture in Fin de Siecle Paris* by Vanessa Schwartz. Far too often we miss little clues as what the average person found entertaining. The lighter side of the reading will give you a really fun read about different forms of entertainment that are only 100 years old but seem completely foreign to us (the Paris Morgue, for instance, was a tourist destination). The heavier discussion that takes place asks questions about the individual in the crowd, and the construction of the world's first \"modern\" city.\n\nI find that a lot of people have jumped to conclusions on the Arab Spring, but that has also led to a lot of interest in modern Middle Eastern History: *Being Modern in the Middle: Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class* by Keith David Watenpaugh is a fantastic book detailing the rise of a middle class in Syria. For a long time these kinds of histories focused on 'notable' men who 'pushed history forward'. Watenpaugh does a great job of constructing a middle class that, by it's very nature, seeks to be modern. The real question lies in what do non-western cultures consider to be modern? \n\nI'm not going to burden you down with my whole bibliography, but those are my two favourite books in my areas of expertise. These are both really good reads, they flow well and can help students become interested in scholarly reading. Also they're both relatively short with Schwartz topping out around 200 pages and Watenpaugh arough 300. ",
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"answer": "The book list I organized is specifically geared towards \"advanced laymen\".\n\nAlso, I am about to hit the character limit for that list. I can make a new list, or someone who feels capable can do so. Just let me know.",
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"answer": "The AskHistorians Master Book List is [here](_URL_10_). You may find it very useful. \n\n**American Civil War**\n\n* Shelby Foote's massive three volume work [*The Civil War: A Narrative*](_URL_14_)\n\n* Ulysses S. Grant's [*Memoirs*](_URL_13_). One of the absolute best memoirs of a war-time general ever. \n\n* Sherman's [*Memoirs*](_URL_4_) Not quite as good as Grant's, but still very, very good. \n\n* [*Blue-Eyed Child of Fortune: The Civil War Letters of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw*](_URL_0_) Collected letters of Shaw (Colonel of the 54th Massachusetts). May prove to be particularly interesting to fans of the movie *Glory*. \n\n* [*This Hallowed Ground*](_URL_15_) by Bruce Catton. Excellent one volume account of the Civil War. \n\n**American Revolutionary War**\n\n* [*Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire: 1775-1783*](_URL_12_) Excellent account of the politics of Britain concerning the Revolutionary War. \n\n* [*Redcoats and Rebels: The American Revolution Through British Eyes*](_URL_7_). Another account of the war from a British perspective. \n\n* [*Washington's Crossing*](_URL_2_) by David Hackett Fischer. Thoroughly researched account of the Trenton campaign that completely debunks the myth that Washington killed a bunch of soldiers who were drunk and asleep. \n\n* [*The First Salute*](_URL_6_) by Barbara Tuchman. Tuchman takes the title from the action of the governor of St. Eustatius. The focus is on the naval aspect of the war, particularly the interactions of Holland, France and England. \n\n**Random Reading**\n\n* [*Agincourt: Henry V and the Battle That Made England*](_URL_17_). Top notch account of Agincourt, but also does a great job covering that entire campaign. \n\n* [*Empires of the Sea: The Siege of Malta, the Battle of Lepanto, and the Contest for the Center of the World*](_URL_9_). Account of the siege of Malta in 1521 that was fought to control the Mediterranean. \n\n* [*Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water*](_URL_8_) Reisner's eye opening account of the history of dam building and water usage in the West.\n\n* [*The Last Indian War: The Nez Perce Story*](_URL_1_). Elliott West does a great job of explaining the history of the Nez Perce, the conflicts with white settlers, and then covers the war. \n\n* [*Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time*](_URL_16_). Dava Sobel's popular history of John Harrison's quest to build the perfect clock and thus win the Longitude Prize. \n\n* [*The Pirate Coast: Thomas Jefferson, the First Marines, and the Secret Mission of 1805*](_URL_5_) Richard Zacks' account of the Barbary coast pirates and the man who was tasked with stopping it. \n\n* [*Hero: The Life and Legend of Lawrence of Arabia*](_URL_11_) Korda writes a comprehensive biography of Lawrence. Many biographies of Lawrence are focused mostly on the war years, but Korda goes well beyond that. \n\n* [*An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942-1943*](_URL_3_) Very well written and researched look at the US Army's role in the invasion of North Africa. ",
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"title": "LID Publishing",
"section": "Section::::Series.:Concise Advice Series.\n",
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"text": "Expert authors dissect, simplify and explain each topic to help readers achieve greater success in their business and home lives. Each book is short, snappy and easy-to-read, yet bursting with instantly actionable takeaways.\n",
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"text": "The books cover a wide range of topics, many to do with crafts, tools, music and other aspects of traditional life skills and culture in Appalachia. These include making apple butter, banjos, basket weaving, beekeeping, butter churning, corn shucking, dulcimers, faith healing, Appalachian folk magic, fiddle making, haints, American ginseng cultivation, long rifle and flintlock making, hide tanning, hog dressing, hunting tales, log cabin building, moonshining, midwives, old-time burial customs, planting \"by the signs\", preserving foods, sassafras tea, snake handling and lore, soap making, spinning, square dancing, wagon making, weaving, wild food gathering, witches, and wood carving.\n",
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"text": "The Ultimate Book Guides are an award-winning series of reading guides for children and teenagers. The guides are edited by Leonie Flynn, Daniel Hahn, and Susan Reuben and published in the U.K. by A&C Black. The reading guides comprise book recommendations written by children's authors and illustrators including Jacqueline Wilson, Terry Pratchett, Quentin Blake, Susan Cooper, and Dick King-Smith.\n",
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"text": "The book is divided into 101 short chapters. Each chapter offers solutions and suggestions to face some of the difficult problems of life and develop one's personality and personal skills. Some of the suggestions mentioned in this book are— carrying goal cards, learning from good movies, seeing a day as an entire life, learning how to walk, importance of planting trees etc.\n",
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"text": "BULLET::::- Book collection includes bestsellers, fiction and non-fiction for a wide variety of research and recreational purposes as well as large-print books, audiobooks, music, DVDs and videos, magazines, language kits, adult literacy materials, talking books for the visually and/or physically challenged and braille books for children.\n",
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"text": "Its publisher's website describes it by saying \"Throughout the book, friendly explanations and scaffolded questions help students connect to readings and — even more important — develop knowledge about writing they can use at work, in their everyday lives, and in college.\" \n",
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"text": "BULLET::::- Enjoy reading materials for all your information & recreation needs including bestsellers, large print books, audiobooks, music, DVDs and videos for all ages, magazines, language kits, adult literacy materials, talking books for the visually and physically challenged and braille books for children.\n",
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34tpp6 | apparently there are tens of thousands of illegal immigrants from ireland in places like new york. isn't life very difficult for them? how do they earn money? can they get things like houses, driving licenses, healthcare, etc? | [
{
"answer": "The same way that the millions of illegal immigrants from other countries living in other places do those things. Some get a stolen social security number. More often they just pay in cash, get paid in cash, drive without a license or don't drive at all (or live in a state that allows illegal immigrants to get drivers licenses), and wait for medical problems to get bad enough to go to the ER. ",
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"answer": "Housing: rent and pay cash. Find landlord that doesn't care if you're illegal.\n\nDriver license, just don't get one. Take bus or subway. Or drive illegally and not get pulled over.\n\nHealthcare, go to emergency room, pay in cash or don't pay at all",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5044573",
"title": "Illegal immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
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"text": "There are however numerous incentives which draw foreigners to the US. Most illegal immigrants who come to America come for better opportunities for employment, a greater degree of freedom, avoidance of political oppression, freedom from violence, famine, and family reunification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "56746068",
"title": "Human trafficking in South America",
"section": "Section::::Illegal immigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
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"text": "Some people go to traffickers looking to be brought into a new country, typically illegally. The most common countries people are brought to are The United States, Britain, Italy, Canada, Spain and The Netherlands. These countries have come to rely on migrant workers doing jobs in agriculture, construction, manufacturing and domestic service for low paying wages. Because of a concern about job competition, security and many other issues related to taking in large amounts of foreign-born populations, this has caused many of these countries to strengthen and tighten their border security. Though this has only caused a rise in illegal immigration. Many people from Guatemala and Belize travel though Mexico to get to the United States border. Because of the increasing security along the borders, smugglers will take more dangerous routes, which makes the smuggling more costly. To pay for this, smugglers will force the migrants into forced labor or prostitution.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "50940463",
"title": "Border Angels",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
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"text": "While critics complain of \"illegal immigration,\" Morones maintains current U.S. immigration laws make it impossible for most people from Mexico and Central America to enter the United States with documentation through a port of entry. “The biggest myth out there is that these people should ‘get in line’ and come here legally,” Morones said. “There is no line. These people do not qualify for visas. There is no legal way for these people to come into the country.” Morones also notes that rather than being a financial burden, immigrants contribute greatly to the U.S. economy through work and taxes.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1612223",
"title": "Irish immigration to Puerto Rico",
"section": "",
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"text": "Many Irish who fled their homeland because of the Potato Famine of the 1840s (over one million people died as a result of this famine) immigrated to the United States. A significant number of them went to Puerto Rico after being turned away at American ports because of epidemic outbreaks on board the ships on which they sailed. Many of these Irish settlers were instrumental in the development of the island's hugely successful sugar industry. Said industry was vital to the growing local economy.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "5044573",
"title": "Illegal immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Economic incentives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
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"text": "Economic reasons are one motivation for people to illegally immigrate to the United States. United States employers hire illegal immigrants at wages substantially higher than they could earn in their native countries. A study of illegal immigrants from Mexico in the 1978 harvest season in Oregon showed that they earned six times what they could have earned in Mexico, and even after deducting the costs of the seasonal migration and the additional expense of living in the United States, their net U.S. earnings were three times their Mexican alternative. In the 1960s and early 70s, Mexico's high fertility rate caused a large increase in population. While Mexican population growth has slowed, the large numbers of people born in the 1960s and 70s are now of working age looking for jobs.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "41759486",
"title": "Bangladesh–Ireland relations",
"section": "Section::::Migrants.\n",
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"text": "There is small Bangladeshi migrant group in Ireland. 99 Bangladeshis applied for asylum in Ireland in 2014 and 2015 the number rose to 231. Some of the Bangladeshis are illegal immigrants. Bangladesh-born Maksuda Akter won Ms. Ireland Beauty Pageant 2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5044573",
"title": "Illegal immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::Profile and demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
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"text": "Illegal immigrants work in many sectors of the U.S. economy. Illegal immigrants have lower incomes than both legal immigrants and native-born Americans, but earnings do increase somewhat the longer an individual is in the country.\n",
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q092n | If our moon causes our tides, and considering the size, wouldn't moons around a planet the size of Jupiter have tides that would flood entire continents? | [
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"answer": "An interesting question, but it turns out that most moons are tidally locked to their planets, so the same side is always facing the planet, just like our Moon. However, the process that causes this is actually identical to the process that causes tides, except that it is not oceans that are moving, it is the surface of the moon itself.",
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"answer": "When you say around a planet the size of jupiter...do you mean a moon that is literally the size of jupiter, or, the regular sized moons around the planet jupiter?",
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"answer": "(not my field of expertise) The moons of Jupiter have huge tidal forces. For instance take Io, it's the closest large satelite of Jupiter and it's tidal forces are so extreme that they heat the core of the moon, causing volcanos with plumes hundreds of kilometers high!\n\n_URL_0_\n\n(I remembered all of this from Arthur C Clarke's 2010)\n\n",
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"answer": "It also depends on the mass of the planet and the moon, because both spheres enact the same amount of force on one another. \n\nI suppose it's all relative. The Earth is very small compared to Jupiter. ",
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"answer": "I was watching \"Wonders of the Solar System\" - Brian Cox a while ago. And I recall seeing an episode where he mentioned that the gravitational pull of larger planets, such and Saturn/Jupiter would be so great in some cases that it would cause tides in the rock / ice of these moons. In other words there would be walls of rock rising and falling just like the tides of liquid ocean on earth. \n\nI found that amazing and a testament to the sheer force of the gravitational pull the parent planets exceed on their moons.\n\nedit: I am currently on my lunch break at work, so I will try find more sources / which episode it's in later tonight if anyone is interested (or perhaps someone could shed more light on this)",
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"wikipedia_id": "827792",
"title": "Rare Earth hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Requirements for complex life.:A large moon.\n",
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"text": "If the Earth had no Moon, the ocean tides resulting solely from the Sun's gravity would be only half that of the lunar tides. A large satellite gives rise to tidal pools, which may be essential for the formation of complex life, though this is far from certain.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "10151726",
"title": "Atmospheric tide",
"section": "Section::::Lunar atmospheric tides.\n",
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"text": "Atmospheric tides are also produced through the gravitational effects of the Moon. \"Lunar (gravitational) tides\" are much weaker than \"solar (thermal) tides\" and are generated by the motion of the Earth's oceans (caused by the Moon) and to a lesser extent the effect of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the atmosphere.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2592906",
"title": "Planetary habitability",
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"text": "In the case of the Earth, the sole Moon is sufficiently massive and orbits so as to significantly contribute to ocean tides, which in turn aids the dynamic churning of Earth's large liquid water oceans. These lunar forces not only help ensure that the oceans do not stagnate, but also play a critical role in Earth's dynamic climate.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "51143",
"title": "Giant-impact hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties.:Lack of a Venusian moon.\n",
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"text": "If the Moon was formed by such an impact, it is possible that other inner planets also may have been subjected to comparable impacts. A moon that formed around Venus by this process would have been unlikely to escape. If such a moon-forming event had occurred there, a possible explanation of why the planet does not have such a moon might be that a second collision occurred that countered the angular momentum from the first impact. Another possibility is that the strong tidal forces from the Sun would tend to destabilize the orbits of moons around close-in planets. For this reason, if Venus's slow rotation rate began early in its history, any satellites larger than a few kilometers in diameter would likely have spiraled inwards and collided with Venus.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "602678",
"title": "Extraterrestrial skies",
"section": "Section::::Uranus.\n",
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"text": "None of Uranus's moons would appear as large as a full moon on Earth from the surface of their parent planet, but the large number of them would present an interesting sight for observers hovering above the cloudtops. The angular diameters of the five large moons are as follows (for comparison, Earth's moon measures on average 31′ for terrestrial observers): Miranda, 11–15′; Ariel, 20–23′; Umbriel, 15–17′; Titania, 11–13′; Oberon, 8–9′. Unlike on Jupiter and Saturn, many of the inner moons can be seen as disks rather than starlike points; the moons Portia and Juliet can appear around the size of Miranda at times, and a number of other inner moons appear larger than Oberon. Several others range from 6′ to 8′. The outer irregular moons would not be visible to the naked eye.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "60162",
"title": "Tidal locking",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence.:Moons.\n",
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"text": "Most major moons in the Solar System − the gravitationally rounded satellites − are tidally locked with their primaries, because they orbit very closely and tidal force increases rapidly (as a cubic function) with decreasing distance. Notable exceptions are the irregular outer satellites of the gas giants, which orbit much farther away than the large well-known moons.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "30718",
"title": "Tide",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:Amplitude and cycle time.\n",
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"text": "The theoretical amplitude of oceanic tides caused by the Moon is about at the highest point, which corresponds to the amplitude that would be reached if the ocean possessed a uniform depth, there were no landmasses, and the Earth were rotating in step with the Moon's orbit. The Sun similarly causes tides, of which the theoretical amplitude is about (46% of that of the Moon) with a cycle time of 12 hours. At spring tide the two effects add to each other to a theoretical level of , while at neap tide the theoretical level is reduced to . Since the orbits of the Earth about the Sun, and the Moon about the Earth, are elliptical, tidal amplitudes change somewhat as a result of the varying Earth–Sun and Earth–Moon distances. This causes a variation in the tidal force and theoretical amplitude of about ±18% for the Moon and ±5% for the Sun. If both the Sun and Moon were at their closest positions and aligned at new moon, the theoretical amplitude would reach .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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46rb6a | why do most aeroplane hangars have curved roofs regardless of their size? | [
{
"answer": "Actually it is for strength. An arch is incredibly strong and puts far less strain on the materials than a flat surface. ",
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},
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"answer": "Since most of the curved type of hangars are military or government use, it often comes down to one factor. Price. The engineering of these large building is already done and tested, they can be prefabbed and moved with the pieces stacked into each other so that part is cheap, and they can be assembled without specialized construction techniques so they can use fewer highly trained workers to put them together. ",
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"answer": "Everyone seems to be hitting around it, but *technically* it's to optimize load-strength-per-unit-weight and -per-unit-cost. For all of the reasons mentioned. Just sayin.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The tallest part of the aircraft is the tail. A dome-shaped hangar would have to be much larger to fit the same airplane.",
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"answer": "Dome is indeed stronger that arch, its also significantly more expensive, longer, and harder to build, while the need for such extra durability is aren't exist.\n\nyou gonna need so many stuff in order to build a dome hangar such as extra heavy lifting, extra precision, and extra professionals help.\n\nWhile arch just need little effort to build compared to dome, and all contractors can to build it.\n\nConstructing flat roof hangar as easy and cheap as constructing arc roof, but flat roof significantly weaker. You gonna need extra funds for reinforce beam truss to have the same result as the arch beams.\n\nThus, the most optimum option for those hangar between those three are arch.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Apart from the structural benefits of an arch it allows rain water to run off it and not pool.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2651095",
"title": "Meridian Regional Airport",
"section": "Section::::Facilities and aircraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The rectangular hangar accommodates 10 planes, and is still in use today. The building is made of brick and has a concrete foundation. The roof is gabled, and the walls are parapeted. The end walls are capped by pent roofs and decorative brick panels framed by stucco. The north and south ends contain eight large sliding metal doors, which open to allow planes to roll in. The interior has a concrete floor, unfinished brick walls, and an unfinished ceiling with exposed steel trusses. There is a small office and washroom on the east end, and a staircase leads to a narrow second floor room that overlooks the workroom and hangar storage area. Located on the east side of the hangar, the Powerhouse is a one-story, one-by-one bay building with another gabled roof and parapeted walls. Entrance is gained through a door on the south side of the building, and the only other openings are a metal window on the east side, and a small vent on the west side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "75127",
"title": "Monoplane",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:High wing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
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"text": "An advantage of the high-wing configuration is that the fuselage is closer to the ground which eases cargo loading, especially for aircraft with a rear-fueslage cargo door. Military cargo aircraft are predominently high-wing designs with a rear cargo door.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1396249",
"title": "Airplane",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Wings.:Wing structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 217,
"text": "Airplanes have flexible wing surfaces which are stretched across a frame and made rigid by the lift forces exerted by the airflow over them. Larger aircraft have rigid wing surfaces which provide additional strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "3328651",
"title": "Vickers Type 432",
"section": "Section::::Design and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "The aircraft's elliptical wing was built using a unique stressed-skin structure, designed by Barnes Wallis for lightness. The top and bottom were manufactured separately, and then clamped together at the leading and trailing edges, this being named \"peapod\" or \"lobster-claw\" structure. This allowed a large internal space unobstructed by ribs, hence capable of housing large fuel tanks (similar to Wallis's geodetic designs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "75127",
"title": "Monoplane",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:High wing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 381,
"text": "A high wing has its upper surface on or above the top of the fuselage. It shares many advantages and disadvantages with the shoulder wing, but on a light aircraft, the high wing has poorer upwards visibility. On light aircraft such as the Cessna 152, the wing is usually located on top of the pilot's cabin, so that the centre of lift broadly coincides with the centre of gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "191711",
"title": "Flying wing",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Engineering design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 541,
"text": "A wing that is made deep enough to contain the pilot, engines, fuel, undercarriage and other necessary equipment will have an increased frontal area, when compared with a conventional wing and long-thin fuselage. This can actually result in higher drag and thus lower efficiency than a conventional design. Typically the solution adopted in this case is to keep the wing reasonably thin, and the aircraft is then fitted with an assortment of blisters, pods, nacelles, fins, and so forth to accommodate all the needs of a practical aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "363204",
"title": "Dihedral (aeronautics)",
"section": "Section::::Anhedral and polyhedral.:Polyhedral.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Most aircraft have been designed with planar wings with simple dihedral (or anhedral). Some older aircraft such as the Vought F4U Corsair and the Beriev Be-12 were designed with gull wings bent near the root. Modern polyhedral wing designs generally bend upwards near the wingtips (also known as \"tip dihedral\"), increasing dihedral effect without increasing the angle the wings meet at the root, which may be restricted to meet other design criteria.\n",
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2wqylg | What is the mythological precedent for Jesus's single resurrection? | [
{
"answer": "'The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt' by Toby Wilkinson describes how \"original sin [and] final judgement before a great god, and the promise of a glorious resurrection\" (p143-144) are already devised during the reign of pharaoh Pepi 2 (around 2250 BC). Although initially the resurrection was for Kings only, this eventual resurrection would soon be adopted by all the royal family and shortly after anyone who could afford a coffin.\n\nTo be fair: Egyptian Theology kept changing in these centuries, but if we can believe this way of thinking, based on inscriptions on millenia old burial sites, this idea of Judgement Day is unbelievably old indeed. Much older than the Greek civilisation.",
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"answer": "To quote Mettinger's [The Riddle of Resurrection](_URL_0_), which is probably the best survey of ANE gods and resurrection (Baal, Dumuzi-Tammuz, Adonis, Melqart-Heracles, Osiris, Eshmun-Ascelpius):\n\n > The dying and rising gods were closely related to the seasonal \ncycle. Their death and return were seen as reflected in the changes of \nplant life. The death and resurrection of Jesus is a one-time event, not \nrepeated, and unrelated to seasonal changes.\n\nand\n\n > There is, as far as I am aware, no prima facie evidence that the death \nand resurrection of Jesus is a mythological construct, drawing on the \nmyths and rites of the dying and rising gods of the surrounding world. While studied with profit against the background of Jewish resurrection belief, the faith in the death and resurrection of Jesus retains its unique 1 character in the history of religions. The riddle remains.",
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"answer": " > Ancient religions were full of \"dying gods,\" gods and goddesses who died and then rose in a specific cycle. We have Adonis, Persephone, and Dionysus, and that's just in Greek mythology. The list is massive, but these all have the idea of a cycle in common. They'll die again, and come back again, forever.\n\nI think I'd better point out that there's a pretty gigantic hole in your assumption, here. Ancient religions aren't nearly as full of this trope as 19th century naturalist interpreters of religion would have you believe. Ancient religions aren't all *that* full of dying gods (there are quite a few, but they're all complicated and different from each other), and annual cycles usually only appear if you look at liturgical practice.\n\nIf you ignore practically everything about Adonis and Persephone, then yes, they start to look a little bit similar. But they're certainly not \"gods and goddesses who died and then rose in a specific cycle\". Adonis dies once and once only. Persephone and Dionysus don't die. Dionysus gets *born* twice (and twice only). Adonis has a regular seasonal residence while he's alive, and Persephone continues to have a seasonal residence, but that's just about the least important thing about them.\n\nThe reason someone like Adonis gets caricatured as \"the dying god\" is because his death was celebrated and reenacted with a regular liturgy on an annual basis. But exactly the same is true of Jesus: go to a church on 30 March-18 April this year, and you'll see a reenactment of his entry into Jerusalem, veneration of the torture device on which he died, and hear accounts of his death. Go again on 20-26 March 2016 and you'll see exactly the same thing again. Does that make Jesus a god who dies and then rises in a specific cycle?",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "370442",
"title": "Karl Rahner",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Christology.:Death and resurrection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
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"text": "Rahner states that the death and the resurrection of Jesus are two aspects of a single event not to be separated, even though the resurrection is not a historical event in time and place like the death of Jesus. What the Scripture offers are powerful encounters in which the disciples come to experience the \"spirit\" of the risen Lord Jesus among them, provoking a resurrection faith of the disciples as \"a unique fact\". The resurrection is not a return to life in the temporal sphere, but the seal of God the Father upon all that Jesus stood for and preached in his pre-Easter life. \"By the resurrection... Jesus is vindicated as the absolute saviour\" by God: it means \"this death \"as\" entered into in free obedience and \"as\" surrendering life completely to God, reaches fulfillment and becomes historically tangible for us only in the resurrection\". Thus, in the resurrection, the life and death of Jesus are understood as \"the cause of God's salvific will\" and open the door to our salvation: \"we are saved because this man who is one of us has been saved by God, and God has thereby made his salvific will present in the world historically, really and irrevocably\". In this sense, Jesus of Nazareth becomes a God-Man, the absolute saviour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "823743",
"title": "Jewish Christian",
"section": "Section::::Early Jewish Christianity.:Beliefs.:Resurrection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "According to the New Testament, some Christians reported that they encountered Jesus after his crucifixion. They argued that he had been resurrected (belief in the resurrection of the dead in the Messianic Age was a core Pharisaic doctrine), and would soon return to usher in the Kingdom of God and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "4684760",
"title": "Post-Resurrection appearances of Jesus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The post-resurrection appearances of Jesus are the earthly appearances of Jesus to his followers after his death and burial. Believers point to them as proof of his resurrection and identity as Messiah, seated in heaven on the right hand of God (the doctrine of the Exaltation of Christ). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "33982027",
"title": "Historicity and origin of the resurrection of Jesus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "The historicity and origin of the resurrection of Jesus has been the subject of historical research and debate, as well as a topic of discussion among theologians. The accounts of the Gospels, including the empty tomb and the appearances of the risen Jesus to his followers, have been interpreted and analyzed in diverse ways, and have been seen variously as historical accounts of a literal event, as accurate accounts of visionary experiences, as non-literal eschatological parables, and as fabrications of early Christian writers, among various other interpretations. It has been suggested, for example, that Jesus did not die on the cross, that the empty tomb was the result of Jesus' body having been stolen, or, as was common with Roman crucifixions, that Jesus was never entombed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26414",
"title": "Resurrection of Jesus",
"section": "Section::::Historicity and origin of the resurrection of Jesus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "The historicity and origin of the resurrection of Jesus has been the subject of historical research and debate, as well as a topic of discussion among theologians. The accounts of the Gospels, including the empty tomb and the appearances of the risen Jesus to his followers, have been interpreted and analyzed in diverse ways, and have been seen variously as historical accounts of a literal event, as accurate accounts of visionary experiences, as non-literal eschatological parables, and as fabrications of early Christian writers, among various other interpretations. It has been suggested, for example, that Jesus did not die on the cross, that the empty tomb was the result of Jesus' body having been stolen, or, as was common with Roman crucifixions, that Jesus was never entombed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "823743",
"title": "Jewish Christian",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Jesus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "According to Christian denominations the bodily resurrection of Jesus after his death is the pivotal event of Jesus' life and death, as described in the gospels and the epistles. According to the gospels, written decades after the events of his life, Jesus preached for a period of one to three years in the early 1st century. His ministry of teaching, healing the sick and disabled and performing various miracles culminated in his crucifixion at the hands of the Roman authorities in Jerusalem. After his death, he appeared to his followers, resurrected from death. After forty days he ascended to Heaven, but his followers believed he would soon return to usher in the Kingdom of God and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "823743",
"title": "Jewish Christian",
"section": "Section::::Early Jewish Christianity.:Beliefs.:Resurrection.:Resurrection experiences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "According to Johan Leman, the resurrection must be understood as a sense of presence of Jesus even after his death, especially during the ritual meals which were continued after his death. His early followers regarded him as a righteous man and prophet, who was therefore resurrected and exalted. In time, Messianistic, Isaiahic, apocalyptic and eschatological expectations were blended in the experience and understanding of Jesus, who came to be expected to return to earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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smy23 | Since pi is irrational, is there a point in pi's decimals where there are 1 billion subsequent threes? | [
{
"answer": "Probably, but not just because it's irrational. For example, the [Liouville constant](_URL_1_) is irrational but has only 0's and 1's in its decimal expansion.\n\nHowever, pi is strongly conjectured to be a [normal number](_URL_0_). If this is the case, you certainly can find a billion 3's in a row in its decimal expansion—in fact, you'd find this infinitely many times. Of course, the first occurrence would be *very* deep, but it would be there.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "21690",
"title": "Number",
"section": "Section::::Main classification.:Real numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "as it sometimes is, the ellipsis does not mean that the decimals repeat (they do not), but rather that there is no end to them. It has been proved that is irrational. Another well-known number, proven to be an irrational real number, is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "12792547",
"title": "Proof that π is irrational",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In the 1760s, Johann Heinrich Lambert proved that the number (pi) is irrational: that is, it cannot be expressed as a fraction \"a\"/\"b\", where \"a\" is an integer and \"b\" is a non-zero integer. In the 19th century, Charles Hermite found a proof that requires no prerequisite knowledge beyond basic calculus. Three simplifications of Hermite's proof are due to Mary Cartwright, Ivan Niven, and Nicolas Bourbaki. Another proof, which is a simplification of Lambert's proof, is due to Miklós Laczkovich.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46802",
"title": "Continued fraction",
"section": "Section::::Other continued fraction expansions.:A property of the golden ratio φ.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Because the continued fraction expansion for φ doesn't use any integers greater than 1, φ is one of the most \"difficult\" real numbers to approximate with rational numbers. Hurwitz's theorem states that any irrational number can be approximated by infinitely many rational with\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "23601",
"title": "Pi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Being an irrational number, cannot be expressed as a common fraction (equivalently, its decimal representation never ends and never settles into a permanently repeating pattern). Still, fractions such as 22/7 and other rational numbers are commonly used to approximate . The digits appear to be randomly distributed. In particular, the digit sequence of is conjectured to satisfy a specific kind of statistical randomness, but to date, no proof of this has been discovered. Also, is a transcendental number; that is, it is not the root of any polynomial having rational coefficients. This transcendence of implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass and straightedge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "12386",
"title": "Golden ratio",
"section": "Section::::Mathematics.:Irrationality.:By irrationality of.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Another short proof—perhaps more commonly known—of the irrationality of the golden ratio makes use of the closure of rational numbers under addition and multiplication. If formula_15 is rational, then formula_16 is also rational, which is a contradiction if it is already known that the square root of a non-square natural number is irrational.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19196523",
"title": "Randomness",
"section": "Section::::In science.:In mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Pi certainly seems to behave this way. In the first six billion decimal places of pi, each of the digits from 0 through 9 shows up about six hundred million times. Yet such results, conceivably accidental, do not prove normality even in base 10, much less normality in other number bases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "3143591",
"title": "Euclid's theorem",
"section": "Section::::Proof using the irrationality of.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "If there were finitely many primes this formula would show that is a rational number whose denominator is the product of all multiples of 4 that are one more or less than a prime number, contradicting the fact that is irrational.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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1t9hqt | how are the nsa intercepting my data? | [
{
"answer": " > Assuming I am US, by what method did the NSA just get hold of either/both the credit card details and travel information?\n\nSo the NSA is a spying agency, that also is involved in technical standards. They have court oversight through FISA, who can issue warrants that compel companies to turn over data. \n\nLets walk through what you just did.\n\n > I submitted my credit card details online\n\nYou sent communications over a telecoms channel. The NSA has (literally) secret black closets in telecom company centres. If it's running over telecoms is most of the world they can intercept it, either via submarine cables, collaborating agencies or their own equipment in big telecom company centres. \n\n > encrypted\n\nSince the early days of encryption standards the NSA has been involved in, and deliberately weakening crytographic standards. Kinda. This is a bit complex, but the NSA, since the DES days, has wanted encryption that is strong enough that you need to be a big organized outfit to break. That sounds contradictory but isn't. Imagine you came up with a trivially bad encryption system - well then anyone could break it. That's not any good. But imagine you came up with an encryption system that required 100 million dollars in hardware to break efficiently. Ah, that's secure enough for most things, but vulnerable enough for an intelligence agency. With DES they shortened the key to make it vulnerable to brute force attacks, but eliminated an exploit that would have made it much easier to break. More recently they put an (obviously ridiculous) random number generator into standards that was bizarre in how sloppy it was at trying to be a back door. \n\n > gmail\n\nThe NSA has had people working for them from inside Google for some time, particularly communication between data centres, some officially and some not. So they could easily be looked at your data inside the google data centres network. Your data is only useful if it can be read after all, so there has to be a recoverable form and key. \n\n > Assuming I am US\n\nIf you are a US citizen they can spy on you to be sure you aren't also an agent of a foreign power, or they could get a FISA warrant to see what you are up to. \n\nBack in June Yahoo's efforts to fight a FISA warrant were revealed. In short. Yahoo lost.\n\n > credit card.... US\n\nThe NSA is a US government agency, with courts who virtually never say no. You should presume that if the government ever wants access to anything about you stored with a company then there is nothing you can do to prevent that. \n\n\n\nMost likely the NSA is not spying on your random credit card transactions. They don't need to. For that they can get metadata about your transaction history from the banks. But if someone there is specifically trying to track what you're up to, then there's an issue. The NSA doesn't really need (or want) to decrypt or credit card details - that they have access to anyway. \n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "40292204",
"title": "Ragtime (code name)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "All intercepted data go to the NSA headquarters in Fort Meade, Maryland, where a program called XKeyscore processes them and sending them to different so-called \"production lines\" that deal with targets, like counterterrorism or specific countries. These processed data are stored in different NSA databases like PINWALE for internet content and MARINA for internet metadata, which is generally stored for five years. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "41909781",
"title": "Timeline of global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)",
"section": "Section::::December 2013.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The Washington Post also reported that the NSA makes use of location data and advertising tracking files generated through normal internet browsing i.e. tools that enable Internet advertisers to track consumers from Google and others to get information on potential targets, to pinpoint targets for government hacking and to bolster surveillance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "41211324",
"title": "Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:2014.:August.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 230,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 230,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "\"The Intercept\" reported that the NSA is \"secretly providing data to nearly two dozen U.S. government agencies with a 'Google-like' search engine\" called ICREACH. The database, \"The Intercept\" reported, is accessible to domestic law enforcement agencies including the FBI and the Drug Enforcement Administration and was built to contain more than 850 billion metadata records about phone calls, emails, cellphone locations, and text messages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "41909781",
"title": "Timeline of global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)",
"section": "Section::::August 2014.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 183,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 183,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "\"The Intercept\" reported that the NSA is \"secretly providing data to nearly two dozen U.S. government agencies with a 'Google-like' search engine\" called ICREACH. The database, \"The Intercept\" reported, is accessible to domestic law enforcement agencies including the FBI and the Drug Enforcement Administration and was built to contain more than 850 billion metadata records about phone calls, emails, cellphone locations, and text messages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "39936650",
"title": "XKeyscore",
"section": "Section::::Scope and functioning.:According to Snowden and Greenwald.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "He added that the NSA's databank of collected communications allows its analysts to listen \"to the calls or read the emails of everything that the NSA has stored, or look at the browsing histories or Google search terms that you've entered, and it also alerts them to any further activity that people connected to that email address or that IP address do in the future\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "41227816",
"title": "Global surveillance",
"section": "Section::::Targets and methods.:Collection of metadata and other content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "In the United States, the NSA is collecting the phone records of more than 300 million Americans. The international surveillance tool XKeyscore allows government analysts to search through vast databases containing emails, online chats and the browsing histories of millions of individuals. Britain's global surveillance program Tempora intercepts the fibre-optic cables that form the backbone of the Internet. Under the NSA's PRISM surveillance program, data that has already reached its final destination would be directly harvested from the servers of the following U.S. service providers: Microsoft, Yahoo!, Google, Facebook, Paltalk, AOL, Skype, YouTube, and Apple Inc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40280591",
"title": "Secure instant messaging",
"section": "Section::::Traits of a secure instant messenger.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Recent news events have revealed that the NSA is not only collecting emails and IM messages but also tracking relationships between senders and receivers of those chats and emails in a process known as metadata collection. Metadata refers to the data concerned about the chat or email as opposed to contents of messages. It may be used to collect valuable information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6prw04 | why does increased air flow extinguish flames? wouldn't you be adding the necessary ingredients? | [
{
"answer": "Fire requires fuel, oxygen, and heat. When you know out a flame, you're removing the heat necessary to continue the self-sustaining combustion reaction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: Why can air both extinguish and stoke up a fire? ](_URL_2_)\n1. [ELI5: Why does blowing air on a small flame put it out, but doing the same on a big fire only fuels it? ](_URL_1_)\n1. [ELI5: Why does blowing on a flame put it out, but glowing on coals makes them brighter? ](_URL_4_)\n1. [ELI5: If fire thrives on oxygen, then why does wind blow a fire out? ](_URL_5_)\n1. [ELI5 Why does a flame (like on a match, lighter, etc.) go out when you blow on it but when I blow on an ember it intensifies? ](_URL_3_)\n1. [ELI5: How does wind blow out fire, like on a match? ](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55453598",
"title": "Oxygen firebreak",
"section": "Section::::Home oxygen fires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Oxygen is not flammable, but when it is present in increased concentrations it will enable fires to start much more easily. Once a fire has started, if supplemental oxygen is present it will burn more fiercely, based on the principle of the fire triangle. Materials that do not burn in ambient air may burn when there is a greater concentration of oxygen present than there is in air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32024255",
"title": "Condensed aerosol fire suppression",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "The extinguishing performance of condensed aerosol fire suppressants is dependent on the density of aerosol particulates in the immediate vicinity of the flame. As with gaseous fire suppression systems, the faster the agent can build around the flame, the more efficient the extinguishing agent will be in terminating the flame’s combustion process. The extinguishing and design densities of aerosol fire suppression agents are generally expressed in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m^3). Thus, the efficiency of aerosol extinguishing agents varies depending on a number of factors, such as the location of the aerosol relative to the flame, the proximity of other combustible flammable materials, the type of fuel involved, etc. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26551",
"title": "Raku ware",
"section": "Section::::Reduction process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "Reduction firing is when the kiln atmosphere, which is full of combustible material, is heated up. \"Reduction is incomplete combustion of fuel, caused by a shortage of oxygen, which produces carbon monoxide\" (Arbuckle, 4) Eventually, all of the available oxygen is used. This then draws oxygen from the glaze and the clay to allow the reaction to continue. Oxygen serves as the limiting reactant in this scenario because the reaction that creates fire needs a constant supply of it to continue; when the glaze and the clay come out hardened, this means that the oxygen was subtracted from the glaze and the clay to accommodate the lack of oxygen in the atmosphere. Consequently, the Raku piece appears black or white, which depends upon the amount of oxygen that was lost from each area of the piece. The empty spaces that occur from the reduction of oxygen are filled in by carbon molecules in the atmosphere of the container, which makes the piece blacker in spots where more oxygen was retracted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "855608",
"title": "Firefighting",
"section": "Section::::Science of extinguishment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Using water is one common method to extinguish a fire. Water extinguishes a fire by cooling, which removes heat because of water’s ability to absorb massive amounts of heat as it converts to water vapor. Without heat, the fuel cannot keep the oxidizer from reducing the fuel in order to sustain the fire. Water also extinguishes a fire by smothering it. When water is heated to its boiling point, it converts to water vapor. When this conversion takes place, it dilutes the oxygen in the air above the fire, thus removing one of the elements that the fire requires to burn. This can also be done with foam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3715184",
"title": "Firescale",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Attempts to reduce this problem include preventative and curative ones. Firestain can be largely prevented by heating the object in an atmosphere in which the oxygen has been replaced with another combustive gas such as hydrogen or ammonia. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32024255",
"title": "Condensed aerosol fire suppression",
"section": "Section::::Methods of fire extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 910,
"text": "Condensed aerosols’ primary extinguishing mechanism involves the fourth element of the fire tetrahedron by means of chemical reactions with the free radicals of the flame, therefore interfering with the combustion process of the fire. Typically, condensed aerosol particulates consist of potassium carbonate (K2CO3)) that are produced from the thermal decomposition of a solid aerosol-forming compound that includes potassium nitrate as an oxidizer. As the aerosol particles surround and come into contact with the flame, the particulates absorb the flame heat energy, breaking down and releasing large concentrations of potassium radicals (K+) (ions with an unpaired electron). The potassium radicals bond with the hydroxide (OH+), hydrogen (H+) and oxygen (O+) free radicals which sustain flame's combustion process, producing harmless by-product molecules such as potassium hydroxide (KOH) and water (H2O).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "855608",
"title": "Firefighting",
"section": "Section::::Use of water.:Closed volume fire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Modern methods for extinguishing an urban fire dictate the use of a massive initial water flow, e.g. 500 L/min for each fire hose. The aim is to absorb as much heat as possible at the beginning to stop the expansion of the fire and to reduce the smoke. If the flow is too low, the cooling is insufficient, and the steam that is produced can burn firefighters (the drop of pressure is too small and the vapor is pushed back in their direction).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hmxgz | why do people feel comfortable with themselves in the mirror, but hate themselves in flipped pictures? | [
{
"answer": "Short answer: Because mirrors show a mirrored version of your face that you are used to/comfortable seeing. Photographs show a \"correct\" version of your face where it is not mirrored and it looks off to the person who perceives sees their face in a mirror on a regular basis\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's similar in a way to how people hate hearing audio recordings of their voices. We have an internal visualization of how we look and sound that we have grown accustomed to. To see or hear it presented differently than that makes us uncomfortable because it's not what is expected. In a mirror, or a photograph of ourselves, we have expectations of how we would look. Our brains already anticipate the image being flipped, so when we see the opposite of that, it triggers anxiety in our brains because we know something is off. We may quickly be able to reason out that \"Oh the image is just flipped\" but our cognitive process in our brain tends to be a bit slower than our reactionary processes, so it's already too late to stop the uncomfortable feeling of anxiety from happening because it's triggered almost instantly based off the sensory input.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3499728",
"title": "Venus effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "This psychological effect is often used in the cinema, where an actor will be shown apparently looking at himself or herself in the mirror. What viewers see is different from what the actor sees, because the camera is not right behind the actor, but the position of the actor is often chosen so that his or her image is nicely framed in the mirror for the camera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45603070",
"title": "Girl before a Mirror",
"section": "Section::::Interpretations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The reflection in the mirror is distorted and discolored, possibly representing the woman's dislike for herself. The colors used here are dark and make her look very old. Instead of the happiness reflected in the real girl, the reflected girl seems distraught. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9875832",
"title": "Mirroring (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Empathy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "The inability to properly mirror other individuals may strain the child's social relationships later in life. This strain may exist because others may feel more distant from the child due to a lack of rapport, or because the child may have a difficult time feeling empathy for others without mirroring. Mirroring helps to facilitate empathy, as individuals more readily experience other people's emotions through mimicking posture and gestures. This empathy may help individuals create lasting relationships and thus excel in social situations. The action of mirroring allows individuals to believe they are more similar to another person, and perceived similarity can be the basis for creating a relationship. As such, mirroring values is also important.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3223840",
"title": "Oculesics",
"section": "Section::::Nonverbal Communication.:Communicating Emotions.:Lists of Emotions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "BULLET::::- Eyes up - Different people look up for different reasons. Some look up when they are thinking. Others perform that action in an effort to recall something from their memory. It may also be a way for people to subconsciously display boredom. The head position can also come into play, however, as an upwards look with a lowered head can be a coy, suggestive action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9875832",
"title": "Mirroring (psychology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Mirroring can establish rapport with the individual who is being mirrored, as the similarities in nonverbal gestures allow the individual to feel more connected with the person exhibiting the mirrored behavior. As the two individuals in the situation display similar nonverbal gestures, they may believe that they share similar attitudes and ideas as well. Mirror neurons react to and cause these movements, allowing the individuals to feel a greater sense of engagement and belonging within the situation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20545",
"title": "Mirror",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Fine art.:Paintings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Painters depicting someone gazing into a mirror often also show the person's reflection. This is a kind of abstraction—in most cases the angle of view is such that the person's reflection should not be visible. Similarly, in movies and still photography an actor or actress is often shown ostensibly looking at him- or herself in the mirror, and yet the reflection faces the camera. In reality, the actor or actress sees only the camera and its operator in this case, not their own reflection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1941913",
"title": "Self-knowledge (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Motives that guide our search.:Consistency.:Self-verification theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- We feel more comfortable and secure when we believe that others see us in the same way that we see ourselves. Actively seeking self-verifying feedback helps people avoid finding out that they are wrong about their self-views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2nm0xs | If I could fly and I flew upwards really slowly, could I escape the earths atmosphere? | [
{
"answer": "There is no minimum speed required to reach space, just a minimum speed to stay up there. What your probably thinking about is Escape velocity, and it is an actual speed, speed that is needed to attain a geosynchronous orbit or to escape earths gravitational pull without putting in any more energy. Once you've floated into space, say, as far away as the moon, what's to stop you from falling back to the earth once you stop flying? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The term escape velocity refers to the speed you need to never fall back down to the Earth, assuming you stop pushing on your craft. If you can somehow continue to travel with a constant force away from the Earth, there is nothing stopping you from coming back down. Real craft will eventually run out of fuel, and thus must reach escape velocity before that happens, otherwise they will either orbit or fall back down to Earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4228385",
"title": "Bodyflight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "As a tool for learning to control the body flight, there is a vertical wind tunnel, which makes it possible to fly in the air, simulating free fall due to the created air flow (on average, about 190 km/h).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37913",
"title": "Escape velocity",
"section": "Section::::Scenarios.:Practical considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "In most situations it is impractical to achieve escape velocity almost instantly, because of the acceleration implied, and also because if there is an atmosphere, the hypersonic speeds involved (on Earth a speed of 11.2 km/s, or 40,320 km/h) would cause most objects to burn up due to aerodynamic heating or be torn apart by atmospheric drag. For an actual escape orbit, a spacecraft will accelerate steadily out of the atmosphere until it reaches the escape velocity appropriate for its altitude (which will be less than on the surface). In many cases, the spacecraft may be first placed in a parking orbit (e.g. a low Earth orbit at 160–2,000 km) and then accelerated to the escape velocity at that altitude, which will be slightly lower (about 11.0 km/s at a low Earth orbit of 200 km). The required additional change in speed, however, is far less because the spacecraft already has significant orbital velocity (in low Earth orbit speed is approximately 7.8 km/s, or 28,080 km/h).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80825",
"title": "Free fall",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "Near the surface of the Earth, an object in free fall in a vacuum will accelerate at approximately 9.8 m/s, independent of its mass. With air resistance acting on an object that has been dropped, the object will eventually reach a terminal velocity, which is around 53 m/s (195 km/h or 122 mph) for a human skydiver. The terminal velocity depends on many factors including mass, drag coefficient, and relative surface area and will only be achieved if the fall is from sufficient altitude. A typical skydiver in a spread-eagle position will reach terminal velocity after about 12 seconds, during which time he will have fallen around 450 m (1,500 ft).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16701473",
"title": "Paper plane launched from space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "Some 30 to 100 planes had been considered to make the descent, each gliding downward over what was expected to be the course of a week to several months. If one of the planes survived to Earth, it would have made the longest flight ever by a paper plane, traversing the 250 mi./400 km. vertical descent. In a test in Japan in February 2008, a prototype about 2.8 inches long and 2 inches wide survived Mach 7 speeds and temperatures reported to be 200°C in a hypersonic wind tunnel for 10 seconds. Materials designed for use in conventional reentry vehicles, including ceramic composites, withstand temperatures on the order of 2200°C. The 30 cm planes were to have been made from heat-resistant paper treated with silicon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "907521",
"title": "Albert Cushing Read",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Later in 1919, upon returning to the U.S., Read predicted: \"It soon will be possible to drive an airplane around the world at a height of 60,000 feet and 1,000 miles per hour.\" The next day, \"The New York Times\" ran an editorial in reaction, stating: \"It is one thing to be a qualified aviator, and quite another to be a qualified prophet. Nothing now known supports the Lieutenant Commander’s forecast. An airplane at the height of 60,000 feet would be whirling its propellers in a vacuum, and no aviator could live long in the freezing cold of interstellar space.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390970",
"title": "Mars Polar Lander",
"section": "Section::::Mission profile.:Intended operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Traveling at approximately 6.9 kilometers/second and 125 kilometers above the surface, the spacecraft entered the atmosphere and was initially decelerated by using a 2.4 meter ablation heat shield, located on the bottom of the entry body, to aerobrake through 116 kilometers of the atmosphere. Three minutes after entry, the spacecraft had slowed to 496 meters per second signaling an 8.4-meter, polyester parachute to deploy from a mortar followed immediately by heat shield separation and MARDI powering on, while 8.8 kilometers above the surface. The parachute further slowed the speed of the spacecraft to 85 meters per second when the ground radar began tracking surface features to detect the best possible landing location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34443631",
"title": "List of fastest production motorcycles by acceleration",
"section": "Section::::By 0–60 mph, 3.5 seconds or less.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Notes specify if test was or . For comparison, an object in free fall, without any air resistance, near the Earth's surface accelerates from 0–100 km/h in 2.83 seconds and from 0–60 mph in 2.73 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9meyt9 | American WW1 vet grave markings. | [
{
"answer": "That's his unit. Company A, 13th Machine Gun Battalion.\n\nSee page 76 of this PDF\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi there! The MG BN probably stands for Machine Gun Battalion. You might find our [resources on locating military records](_URL_0_) useful, and if you know his name and the cemetery he is buried in then it might be possible to find more information through them, although I'm not sure if the US has an equivalent of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "159895",
"title": "Doolittle Raid",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Fate of the missing crewmen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "When their remains were recovered after the war, Farrow, Hallmark and Meder were buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. Spatz was buried with military honors at National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44467526",
"title": "Morningside Cemetery, Edinburgh",
"section": "Section::::War graves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "The cemetery is an official Commonwealth War Grave Cemetery containing 48 memorials from World War I and 32 from World War II. The dead largely represent those dying of wounds following repatriation, linking to the nearby City Hospital. The Cross of Remembrance stands in the north-east section of the cemetery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1877614",
"title": "Zachary Taylor National Cemetery",
"section": "Section::::Today.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The cemetery is the burial site of two Medal of Honor recipients, Sergeant Willie Sandlin (World War I), United States Army, and Sergeant John C. Squires (World War II), United States Army. Also, United States Air Force Lieutenant General Roscoe Charles Wilson is buried there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40829494",
"title": "United Nations Memorial Cemetery",
"section": "Section::::History.:Temporary battlefield cemeteries and remains recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "At the beginning of the war, the nearest U.S. Army mortuary affairs unit was the 108th Graves Registration Platoon in Yokohama, Japan, which was searching for the remains of missing World War II American airmen. The 108th was reconfigured as the 114th Graves Registration Company and deployed to establish temporary cemeteries at Hungnam, Pyongyang, and Suchon as the fighting continued. Supporting the 2nd Infantry Division was the Graves Registration Section of the 2nd Quartermaster Company, which collected the remains of Allied and American soldiers to be further processed by the 148th Graves Registration Company. When UN forces launched the Inchon Invasion in September 1950, a platoon from the 565th Graves Registration Company accompanied them. Other mortuary affairs units included the 293rd Graves Registration Company, activated in April 1951. It was difficult to recover remains and conduct burials in Korea, due to the rugged geography and harsh climate, and the threat of unexploded ordnance and booby-traps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10602874",
"title": "Lodge Hill Cemetery",
"section": "Section::::War graves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "The cemetery also has a large number of war graves from both the First and Second World Wars, maintained and recorded by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC). This includes 498 graves of soldiers, who mostly died from their wounds at local hospitals during the First World War, and particularly those from when the University of Birmingham acted as the 1st Southern & General Military Hospital, most of whom are buried in the war graves plot in section B10, where a Screen Wall memorial running around three sides of the plot lists those buried in the plot and in graves elsewhere in the cemetery that could not be individually marked. The section is easily identifiable by the Cross of Sacrifice and stone plinth with the words \"Their name liveth for evermore\". Each panel on the screen wall is represented by a number stone plaque set into the grass in the middle of the plot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33446352",
"title": "Ute Cemetery",
"section": "Section::::Grounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Approximately 175 graves have been identified at the cemetery, of which 125 are in the western half, in an apparently random pattern. In contrast, the 50 graves to the east are primarily Civil War veterans, buried in two long rows with government-issued markers, the only aspect of the cemetery indicating any planning. Among the other graves, only 25 have markers identifying the deceased. Some are surrounded by iron fences or stone walls, while others are indicated by small cobblestone coping or are just depressions in the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14994293",
"title": "Eugene Pioneer Cemetery",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Notable burials in the cemetery include Louis Renninger who was awarded the Medal of Honor in the American Civil War. Renninger is one of one hundred forty-five Civil War veterans buried in the cemetery. There is also section for Spanish–American War veterans and there are many veterans from World War I and World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s5wdf | -if lance armstrong and his generation were doped to the gills how is it that this generation of cyclists is breaking their records absent significant technology advances and without drugs. | [
{
"answer": "It's not just about speed, it's about consistency.\n\nArmstrong won event after event for a very long time, if he weren't cheating he'd unquestionably be history's greatest cyclist when held up against today's.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The riders today are not absent of technological advances. Carbon fiber is much better than it was when lance was in his prime. Components on bikes have made huge strides as well with electronic shifting, lighter and more accurate sensors/ computers, and not to mention the advancements in the science of training and nutrition. Riders today shave ALOT more than the guys 10 years ago did. \n\n\nEdit: hahahah I meant HAVE not shave. They have alot more. They might shave a lot more too but I haven't given it much thought :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Modern high-performance athletic competitions are as much about circumventing drug testing mechanisms as they are about human endurance. It's getting to the point of ludicrousness, to be honest. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to the fact that the riders are not now and never will be clean, as time goes on, the goalposts for what counts as clean also moves a bit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they are too?\n\nIt's very easy to find out where the drugging starts. The first big gap between bikers.\n\nYou cannot keep up with doped byciclists, so if you do, you are no prodigy. You are doped. Very simple.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "They made an example out of Lance, while at the same time going all-in on his observation that the sport had cleaned up when he made his comeback. Pretty hypocritical of the UCI. Riders are still doping, that is how a climber like Nibali is rocketing across cobblestones and dropping a Pro Tour FIELD.\n\nDrugs-wise, I think riders are using the same drugs in smaller amounts and with better timing. You don't see the out-of-this-galaxy performances you used to see, but you still see feats that are pushing the limit of what is humanly possible on the best day ever....at the end of a 3-week race. \n\nAlso, I don't think Lance was as heavily doped as his competitors, which is how he was able to be at that level consistently for his 7 tour wins. The campaign against Armstrong is both a lot of truth and a lot of hyperbole. \n\nThe thing you should focus on is how cycling is at least doing SOMETHING...at the very least cycling is at a place where an athlete who does drugs to an extent that they risk their health/life WILL be found-out. No more U23 development kids dying in their sleep from syrup-blood. We also still have exciting racing, but the hero's are no longer invincible! ",
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"answer": "What records are being broken?\n\nIts hard to compare in cycling because race routes are different every year. You also have strategic reasons that not everyone is setting their best possible time all the time. The closest thing we have to comparable segments are the most famous mountain climbs that are reused every few years. [This article gives times](_URL_0_) for two of them. \n\nNo one recently is anywhere near record times. The top times are all from the doping era. Does this prove the top riders of today are clean? Nope. But I just don't see what records you are talking about being broken today. ",
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"answer": "what records are you referring to exactly? if we're talking about the time it takes to climb Ventoux or Alpe d'Huez, [those times have actually gotten markedly worse since the doping crackdown](_URL_2_). in both cases, the best certifiably clean result isn't in the top 10 times up those climbs. or the top 20 (i'm looking at Sanchez's 2011 and Froome's 2013 attempts, Sastre is still a bit questionable in my opinion). this doesn't seem surprising at all in context--not doping should cause the time it takes to ride these climbs to increase. they certainly aren't record breaking. i'm mentioning this because this is the only sort of record Armstrong would really have been able to take, as this was kind of his forte.\n\nhow about a one-day race then? paris-roubaix is (arguably) the most important of these. [the fastest average speed was set in 1964](_URL_3_). though i give credit to cancellara for an excellent ride in 2013, there are plenty of fast editions of this race that have been ridden over the years--they don't seem to be concentrated on a particular time period.\n\nok, so maybe you mean the [hour record](_URL_1_)? the hour record rules have been officially changed in the last year. several people have attempted or are planning on attempting to beat it. it's a brand new metric, and it isn't comparable to either of the old hour record definitions, which top level cyclists largely ignored.\n\nrecords in track racing? sure. those get beaten at an incremental rate. but then again, doping doesn't really seem to have hit the track discipline quite as hard as it did with road, [as evidenced by the amount of doping cases in either](_URL_0_).\n\n**tl;dr** this generation of cyclists really *aren't* beating records, at least not on the road.",
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"answer": "They aren't. As pointed out by several people here, there are no records being broken by today's records. The 20 fastest times for fastest ascent up the Alp d'Huez were all in 1994 or 1996. \n\nThe only notable record broken recently is the hour time trial. And there's a simple technological reason for that--before this year, the record had to be done on a specific bike with 1970s technology. As soon as they opened the record to modern bikes, the record was broken.",
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"answer": " > Is there any way this is remotely possible without drugs?\n\nNoop!",
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"answer": "I thought Lance Armstrong wasn't using drugs but \"blood doping\".... which is just where you filter your own blood with 100% oxygenated blood that makes it harder for your muscles to burn out and you can just keep going for longer periods.\n\nIs that true or did he use some drugs like HGH or something?",
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"answer": "Someone should photoshop a what a cyclist would look like if he could dope all he wanted. The ideal cyclist. Powerfull ripped legs. Aerodynamic body and arms. Huge barrel chest for heart and lungs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone in professional sports uses some doping. Some more than others but just because a test doesn't pop means nothing. Dopers stay ahead of the testing curve.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What makes you think they do it without drugs? They use drugs to do it and you have to be crazy to think otherwise. There are always ways around tests. Always. ",
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},
{
"answer": "what records? lol\nNibili was climbing around 5-6 minutes slower than patani/armstrong era guys in the tour and he was still winning. ",
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},
{
"answer": "Testing also found that the other top ten cyclists were doping too, so I wouldn't be so sure to say it's all \"un-aided\" now\n \nAs Bill Burr said \"Our doped up guys beat their doped up guys\"",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I would bet they are using newer drugs/techniques that the authorities haven't discovered yet....its a cat-mouse game and the dopers will always be a step (or pedal) ahead",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "40082155",
"title": "The Armstrong Lie",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In 2009 director Alex Gibney set out to film \"The Road Back\", a documentary on cyclist Lance Armstrong's comeback year after a four-year retirement from the sport. Three years later, on October 2012, a doping investigation led to his lifetime ban from competition and the stripping of his seven Tour de France titles, and the documentary was shelved. On January 14, 2013, three hours after his appearance on \"Oprah\", Armstrong went back to Gibney to set the record straight about his career.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "23243880",
"title": "Lance Armstrong",
"section": "Section::::Career.:US Postal/Discovery: 1998–2005.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Armstrong's cycling comeback began in 1998 when he finished fourth in the Vuelta a España. In 1999 he won the Tour de France, including four stages. He beat the second place rider, Alex Zülle, by 7 minutes 37 seconds. However, the absence of Jan Ullrich (injury) and Marco Pantani (drug allegations) meant Armstrong had not yet proven himself against the biggest names in the sport. Stage wins included the prologue, stage eight, an individual time trial in Metz, an Alpine stage on stage nine, and the second individual time trial on stage 19.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "23561164",
"title": "2008 Astana season",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 376,
"text": "Just as the team's competitive season was nearing its end, Lance Armstrong announced that he planned to return to competitive cycling in 2009 after a four-year absence. As Bruyneel was Armstrong's team manager for all seven of his Tour de France victories, there was much speculation immediately that Armstrong would sign with Astana in his comeback, which he eventually did.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "20976912",
"title": "2009 in men's road cycling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "In 2009 a number of prominent riders returned to professional cycling. Ivan Basso, Floyd Landis and Michele Scarponi had finished a suspension. Bjorn Leukemans was without a team for over a year due to doping-related allegations, which were proven to be ungrounded. Most notably, seven time Tour de France winner Lance Armstrong returned after a three-and-half year break, starting his season as a -rider in the Tour Down Under.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2210189",
"title": "Bob Roll",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "As the accounts of the now legendary story go, in 1998 a young Lance Armstrong, continuing to recover from testicular cancer remediation, had recently dropped out of the Paris–Nice cycling race. Armstrong's training coach, Chris Carmichael, invited the affable and entertaining Roll to journey to Boone, North Carolina, to talk with Lance and do training rides with the young Armstrong for several days. Armstrong was extremely discouraged by his recent European cycling results, and Carmichael believed Armstrong had lost his career focus and was on the verge of fully retiring from professional cycling. Almost out of desperation, Carmichael talked Armstrong into doing one last series of intensive training rides, with \"Bobke\" as his riding partner. Roll was up to the challenge. Armstrong was a promising future cycling talent and his cycling career was in jeopardy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "277780",
"title": "General classification in the Tour de France",
"section": "Section::::Scandal in yellow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "In 2012, Lance Armstrong was stripped of his seven Tour de France titles by UCI, following a report by the United States Anti-Doping Agency revealing that Armstrong had systematically used performance-enhancing drugs for much of his career, including all seven Tour victories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23243880",
"title": "Lance Armstrong",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Comeback.:Astana Pro Team: 2009.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Australian ABC radio reported on September 24, 2008, that Armstrong would compete in the UCI Tour Down Under through Adelaide and surrounding areas in January 2009. UCI rules say a cyclist has to be in an anti-doping program for six months before an event, but UCI allowed Armstrong to compete. He had to retire from the 2009 Vuelta a Castilla y León during the first stage after crashing in a rider pileup in Baltanás, Spain, and breaking his collarbone. Armstrong flew back to Austin, Texas, for corrective surgery, which was successful, and was back training on a bicycle within four days of his operation.\n",
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"meta": null
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] | null |
cojrh6 | why do people think that jeffrey epstein’s death seems like a coincidence? | [
{
"answer": "At this point he was ready to bring down the people around him with him. He was a liability for all of the guilty elites that took advantage of his services. He already almost died once due to a cop beating him senseless, so this isn’t that big of a surprise.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "the only reason it took so long was every government agency, elite assassin, paramilitary group, and illuminati sleeper cell on the planet was outside his jail cell fighting over him for two weeks",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He may have done it himself.but he was placed on suicide watch which means someone is actually watching you 24/7 to prevent it.. why was that person not doing their job",
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},
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"answer": "There’s been a lot of evidence brought to light in the last month or so, mostly showing Epstein’s shady connections to very powerful people across the world.\nThe idea among some of the more suspicious folk eyeing this case is that such powerful people will do anything to ensure they aren’t found to be complicit in any potential crimes associated with Epstein. \nSeeing as he is dead, the idea is that he isn’t in a position to bargain with prosecutors for a deal anymore. There’s literally no incentive left for Epstein to provide evidence of other powerful pedophiles.\n\nI’m also seeing comments that he was on suicide watch as well, so I suppose that adds to the suspicion.\n\nEpstein’s suicide has been a running joke on a lot of threads since the day he was arrested, so it’s a little unnerving to see it all play out so coincidentally.\n\nFeel free to school me, or add any information to my comment. I’m not 100% informed on the entire situation, but that’s the general idea I’ve been able to formulate so far.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Because he was an ultra-high profile prisoner who had already attempted suicide. \n\nSo he would have been stripped of anything dangerous and watched very closely..\n\nSo how did this happen?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "$$$ = power. You can buy people with very little money; equivalent to pennies to the rich and powerful that were potentially going to get ratted out by Epstein.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a few factors:\n\n1. He was on suicide watch already. He was [found unconscious with neck injuries](_URL_1_) not long ago. This means he should not have had any means to kill himself, and would be getting checked on constantly to make sure he hadn't found an unexpected way to hurt himself.\n\n2. There was a batch of names of co-consprators [released recently](_URL_0_)\n\n3. The names released so far are theorised to just be the small players.\n\nSo the overall theory is that some *very* powerful people were about to be implicated, and they had him killed in prison. \n\nThere's a slight chance he killed himself, but that would only really happen if the guards were incompetent (possible, but unlikely given how high-profile the case is), or they were paid to look the other way while someone provided Jeffrey the means to kill himself, or they provided those means themselves. So either they killed or helped kill him, or they let someone in that killed him.\n\nIt's pretty fucky whichever way you want to call it.",
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"answer": "I know that the answer to this question may seem obvious, and that is due to said high profile people not wanting him to squeal on them, but surely him dying of suicide while under 24/7 suicide watch makes it all seem too coincidental? Won’t the prison guards and others close to him now be investigated? The circle of people that they can investigate just grows every time someone new is introduced (aka a prison guard paid to “look after” him).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Dude, trailer park moms have the resources to successfully hire hitmen to kill people. There isn't a single billionaire that **doesn't** have the power and resources to whack him.\n\nThe only reason I think Epstein even lived this long is because all of the hitmen kept tripping over each other and fucking up each others' plans. Hell, the prison guards probably were taking bribes from half a dozen sources and kept getting confused.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Imagine you have $200,000.00 in the bank. And someone has information that could potentially mess your life up for good and they have nothing else to lose. Now imagine for $200.00 you could silence them and your problem forever . For 1/1000 of what you own, you could make a potential life altering problem disappear. Now instead of 200,000 assume you are worth 10,000 to 20,000 times that much money but would still lose it all. What would you be willing to do to make sure it never sees the light of day? Now imagine if you have 100 friends in the same boat as you, all of who could be destroyed by the same single problem, a problem that you and your friends have almost unlimited resources to take care of, if you decided to. Would you just sit Idly by and say well I deserve this outcome, or would you perhaps try and fight for what you currently have. Now hypothetically, an inmate on suicide watch who is the center of one of the biggest scandals of the century, who is ready to give up everyone would have literal round the clock guards. Yet, he was able to hang himself in a room that should have been literally empty, wearing a fabric that can’t be torn up, with check-ins every 15 minutes, that’s some major good luck to a bunch of billionaires and powerful ppl who had a lot to lose potentially and very hypothetically of course",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Hopefully there's enough evidence already to take down many of Jeffrey's peers. Not that the justice system will want to punish their own.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "129194",
"title": "Brian Epstein",
"section": "Section::::Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Epstein died of an overdose of Carbitral, a form of barbiturate or sleeping pill, in his locked bedroom on 27 August 1967. He was discovered after his butler had knocked on the door and then, hearing no response, asked the housekeeper to call the police. Epstein was found on a single bed, dressed in pyjamas, with various correspondence spread over a second single bed. At the statutory inquest his death was officially ruled an accident, caused by a gradual buildup of Carbitral combined with alcohol in his system. It was revealed that he had taken six Carbitral pills in order to sleep, which was probably normal for him, but in combination with alcohol they reduced his tolerance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "179643",
"title": "Cilla Black",
"section": "Section::::Music career.:Before August 1967.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Epstein died of an accidental drug overdose in August 1967, not long after negotiating a contract with the BBC for Black to appear in a television series of her own. Relations between Epstein and Black had somewhat soured during the year prior to his death, largely because he was not paying her career enough attention and the fact that her singles \"A Fool Am I\" (UK No. 13, 1966) and \"What Good Am I?\" (UK No. 24, 1967) were not big successes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1504584",
"title": "Howie Epstein",
"section": "Section::::Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "On February 23, 2003, Epstein died from complications related to drug use. MTV News reported that Epstein's death was caused by a heroin overdose. He was 47. Investigators were told Epstein had been using heroin. On the day of his death, Howie was driven to St. Vincent Hospital in Santa Fe, New Mexico by his girlfriend, who described him as \"under distress\". Epstein was taking antibiotics for an illness and had recently suffered from influenza, stomach problems, and an abscess on his leg, friends said. Additionally, it was reported that he had been extremely distraught over the death of his 16-year-old dog a few days earlier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1504584",
"title": "Howie Epstein",
"section": "Section::::Career.:The Heartbreakers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "On September 1, 1982, he made his live debut at the Santa Cruz Civic Auditorium in Santa Cruz, California, on the tour to promote the album, \"Long After Dark\". Epstein was a member of the Heartbreakers until his departure due to his failing health caused by his heroin addiction. He made his final appearance with the band when they were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in March 2002.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "57858",
"title": "Fifth Beatle",
"section": "Section::::Business, management, and production.:Brian Epstein.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Epstein's death in essence marked the beginning of the Beatles' dissolution, as Lennon admitted later. Because he was not creatively involved with the band, Epstein was only infrequently called the \"fifth Beatle\", but over the years he and producer George Martin have been recognised as the two inner-circle members who most profoundly affected the band's career. In an interview in the 1990s describing Epstein's involvement in the band's rise to fame, Martin declared, \"He's the fifth Beatle, if there ever was one.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "158991",
"title": "Barbara Windsor",
"section": "Section::::Career.:\"EastEnders\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "A debilitating case of the Epstein-Barr virus forced a two-year absence from the role between 2003 and 2005, although Windsor was able to make a two-episode guest appearance in 2004. She rejoined the cast full-time in the summer of 2005.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "129194",
"title": "Brian Epstein",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "McCartney summarised the importance of Epstein when he was interviewed in 1997 for a BBC documentary about Epstein, saying, \"If anyone was the Fifth Beatle, it was Brian.\" In his 1970 \"Rolling Stone\" interview, Lennon commented that Epstein's death marked the beginning of the end for the group: \"I knew that we were in trouble then ... I thought, 'We've had it now.'\" In 2006 Cynthia Lennon said: \"I think Brian's one of the forgotten people. It's almost as if he's been written out of the [Beatles] story. I don't think they'd have got anywhere without Brian.\" The first contract between the Beatles and Epstein was auctioned in London in 2008, fetching £240,000.\n",
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3h9x19 | why do bad smells seem to be so much more resilient than good ones? | [
{
"answer": "I would assume that it is because bad smells are most often things that can negatively affect our health, like feces and rotting food and we should avoid as long as it is around. \n\nThe running shoes example doesn't exactly fit, although that may be due to cultural/evolutionary distance from apes in the same way that sweaty stinky men don't attract women like pheromones do in other animals.\n\nOn the other hand, good smells like flowers and fresh fruit are often not directed at humans specifically but other mammals and birds that the plants \"want\" their seeds/pollen spread by which likely have stronger senses of smell.\n\n(I can expand on it more if it isn't ELI5 enough)",
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"answer": "To me it is like taste. Say you were making a sauce, it is difficult to get it tasting 'nice' because there must be a delicate balance of different flavours. Similarly 'nice' smells are a delicate blend of aromas. However if the sauce contains an unpleasant ingredient (rotten egg for example), like your room with the running shoes, the balance is lost and the whole thing loses all appeal. \nAs for the power of smells, some things are just more pungent than others. It is not a case of bad things smelling more than nice things, since things like perfume and deodorant are extremely powerful. No it is more that bad smells are more pervasive since they overpower anything nice. Someone with a more science-oriented education may be able to explain the details of smell particles and what makes one things smell more than another. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14315108",
"title": "Dysosmia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Smell disorders can result in the inability to detect environmental dangers such as gas leaks, toxins, or smoke. In addition to safety, nutritional and eating habits can also be affected. There is a loss of appetite because of unpleasant flavor and fear of failing to recognize and consuming spoiled food. A decreased or distorted sense of smell therefore results in a decreased quality of life. Distortions are believed to have a greater negative impact on people than the complete loss of smell because they are constantly reminded of the disorder and the distortions have a greater effect on eating habits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "3074546",
"title": "The Genesis According to Spiritism",
"section": "Section::::The Genesis.:Good and Evil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Good and evil are seen as inherent to human nature because they are both manifestations of our pursuit of perfection. \"Good\" things come from the use of intellect while \"bad\" things come from the prevalence of instinct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "674639",
"title": "Neophobia",
"section": "Section::::Food neophobia.:Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Another cause includes being more sensitive than average to bitter tastes, which may be associated with a significant history of middle ear infection or an increased perception of bitter foods, known as a supertaster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1251240",
"title": "Aesthetics of music",
"section": "Section::::21st century aesthetics of music.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Frith gives three common qualities attributed to bad music: inauthentic, [in] bad taste (see also: kitsch), and stupid. He argues that \"The marking off of some tracks and genres and artists as 'bad' is a necessary part of popular music pleasure; it is a way we establish our place in various music worlds. And 'bad' is a key word here because it suggests that aesthetic and ethical judgements are tied together here: not to like a record is not just a matter of taste; it is also a matter of argument, and argument that matters\" (p. 28). Frith's analysis of popular music is based in sociology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23731243",
"title": "Differential susceptibility hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Differential susceptibility versus diathesis-stress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "The idea that individuals vary in their responsivity to negative qualities of the environment is generally framed in diathesis-stress or dual-risk terms. That is, some individuals, due to their biological, temperamental and/or behavioral characteristics (i.e., \"diathesis\" or \"risk 1\"), are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of negative experiences (i.e., \"stress\" or \"risk 2\"), whereas others are relatively resilient with respect to them (see , an adaptation of Bakermans-Kranenburg and van IJzendoorn's (2007) Figure 1). A fundamentally different, even if not competing view, of the very same phenomenon is central to Belsky's \"differential susceptibility hypothesis\" and Boyce and Ellis' (2005) related notion of \"biological sensitivity to context\": Individuals do not simply vary in the degree to which they are vulnerable to the negative effects of adverse experience but, more generally, in their developmental plasticity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5476650",
"title": "John Garcia (psychologist)",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Garcia's discovery, conditioned taste aversion, is considered a survival mechanism because it allows an organism to recognize foods that have previously been determined to be poisonous, hopefully allowing said organism to avoid sickness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "567772",
"title": "Simon Frith",
"section": "Section::::\"Bad music\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "He later gives three common qualities attributed to bad music: inauthentic, [in] bad taste (see also: kitsch), and stupid. He argues that \"The marking off of some tracks and genres and artists as 'bad' is a necessary part of popular music pleasure; it is a way we establish our place in various music worlds. And 'bad' is a key word here because it suggests that aesthetic and ethical judgements are tied together here: not to like a record is not just a matter of taste; it is also a matter of argument, and argument that matters.\" (p. 28)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
3akn2d | when i bend my little finger, why do my other fingers also move? | [
{
"answer": "[This page](_URL_0_) has a pretty good explanation of it. In some cases, it's because the part of your brain that controls the movement isn't fine-tuned to only move that one finger, so the signal to bend get sent to the other fingers as well. The index finger and thumb are the most used fingers of each hand (dominant and non-dominant), so your brain has refined control of those fingers, and only moves that specific finger when your brain sends the command.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "What happens between the pinky and ring finger is nerve signals sent to the pinky get picked up by the ring finger because your brain can't actually control the pinky very accurately so to do more it sends signals intended for the ring finger. All of your fingers do this to a degree. Try extending all your fingers, and then closing the last 3 while keeping the index finger pointed. You can't do it. It will try to close and after your fingers close then you will be able to straighten it back out.\n\nNow with other fingers, like your index finger closing all the way forces the middle one to go down, involve tendon lengths and muscle connection.\n\nGenerally, if it's the top knuckle moving any restrictions are muscular but the second knuckle movement restrictions are nervous.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1010460",
"title": "Thumb twiddling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Thumb twiddling is an activity that is done with the hands of an individual whereby the fingers are interlocked and the thumbs circle around a common focal point, usually in the middle of the distance between the two thumbs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "631995",
"title": "Sign of the cross",
"section": "Section::::Gesture.:Sequence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "727002",
"title": "Pen spinning",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental tricks.:Thumb Around Normal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "A Thumb Around is performed by pushing a pen using any finger (usually the middle finger if done in isolation) except the thumb to initiate the pen to spin around the thumb one time, then catching it between the thumb and a finger. Before the pen spinning community became significantly organized, the Thumb Around Normal was known by a multitude of names, including 360 Degree Normal, Forward, Normal, and Thumb Spin (now the name of a separate trick).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221536",
"title": "Right-hand rule",
"section": "Section::::Coordinates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "For right-handed coordinates the right thumb points along the Z axis in the positive direction and the curl of the fingers represents a motion from the first or X axis to the second or Y axis. When viewed from the top or Z axis the system is counter-clockwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37618",
"title": "Finger",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Muscles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Each finger may flex and extend, abduct and adduct, and so also circumduct. Flexion is by far the strongest movement. In humans, there are two large muscles that produce flexion of each finger, and additional muscles that augment the movement. Each finger may move independently of the others, though the muscle bulks that move each finger may be partly blended, and the tendons may be attached to each other by a net of fibrous tissue, preventing completely free movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45475",
"title": "Marfan syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Revised Ghent nosology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The thumb sign (Steinberg's sign) is elicited by asking the person to flex the thumb as far as possible and then close the fingers over it. A positive thumb sign is where the entire distal phalanx is visible beyond the ulnar border of the hand, caused by a combination of hypermobility of the thumb as well as a thumb which is longer than usual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1738394",
"title": "Stevens technique",
"section": "Section::::The grip.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Interval changes are accomplished by moving the inside and outside mallets independently of one another, as described in Stevens' book, \"Method of Movement for Marimba.\" As the interval widens, the inside mallet rolls between the thumb and index finger, such that the index finger moves from underneath to the side of the shaft, and the middle finger becomes the fulcrum of the cantilever. The outside mallet is moved principally with the little and ring fingers, although the first section of the middle finger follows along and remains in light contact. When properly used, this grip causes no tension on the hand muscles. This grip is primarily used with light mallets and movements that are close to the keyboard. When this grip is used with heavy mallets or with large movements, muscle strain and tendonitis can occur if small changes are not made to reduce stress in the hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zy2p1 | If the gene that causes dwarfism is dominant why is it that the percentage of the general population that have this dominant gene is not higher? | [
{
"answer": "Inheriting two copies of the gene usually leads to death in infancy [1], and a lot of achrondroplasic dwarfs have chronic pain, which would cause a general decrease in \"fitness\" (in the Darwinian sense). It seems fair to say it probably puts people at a pretty serious sexual disadvantage as well. \n\n1. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "533214",
"title": "Dwarfing",
"section": "Section::::Animals.:Purposeful dwarfing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "As the genetic mutations that cause dwarfing occur in many species, dwarf animals can be the offspring of normal-appearing animals. Even in breeds which have not been selected for dwarfing, some genetic lines may show a tendency to produce dwarfs, which may be encouraged by deliberate breeding. This often takes the form of in-breeding to concentrate recessive genes, and can result in other genetic abnormalities being established in the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533214",
"title": "Dwarfing",
"section": "Section::::Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "In animals, including humans, dwarfism has been described in several ways. Shortened stature can result from growth hormone deficiency, starvation, portal systemic shunts, renal disease, hypothyroidism diabetes mellitus and other conditions. Any of these conditions can be established in a population through genetic engineering, selective breeding, or insular dwarfism, or some combination of the above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "138301",
"title": "Dwarfism",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Many types of dwarfism are currently impossible to prevent because they are genetically caused. Genetic conditions that cause dwarfism may be identified with genetic testing, by screening for the specific variations that result in the condition. However, due to the number of causes of dwarfism, it may be impossible to determine definitively if a child will be born with dwarfism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369236",
"title": "Hereford cattle",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Dwarfism is known to be prevalent in Hereford cattle and has been determined to be caused by an autosomal recessive gene. Due to equal occurrence in heifers and bulls, dwarfism is not considered a sex-linked characteristic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "138301",
"title": "Dwarfism",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Serious chronic illnesses may produce dwarfism as a side effect. Harsh environmental conditions, such as malnutrition, may also produce dwarfism. These types of dwarfism are indirect consequences of the generally unhealthy or malnourished condition of the individual, and not of any specific disease. The dwarfism often takes the form of simple short stature, without any deformities, thus leading to proportionate dwarfism. In societies where poor nutrition is widespread, the average height of the population may be reduced below its genetic potential by the lack of proper nutrition. Sometimes there is no definitive cause of short stature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6352",
"title": "Congenital iodine deficiency syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Dwarfism may also be caused by malnutrition or other hormonal deficiencies, such as insufficient growth hormone secretion, hypopituitarism, decreased secretion of growth hormone-releasing hormone, deficient growth hormone receptor activity and downstream causes, such as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) deficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "138301",
"title": "Dwarfism",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "In men and women, the sole requirement for being considered a dwarf is having an adult height under and it is almost always classified with respect to the underlying condition that is the cause of the short stature. Dwarfism is usually caused by a genetic variant; achondroplasia is caused by a mutation on chromosome 4. If dwarfism is caused by a medical disorder, the person is referred to by the underlying diagnosed disorder. Disorders causing dwarfism are often classified by proportionality. Disproportionate dwarfism describes disorders that cause unusual proportions of the body parts, while proportionate dwarfism results in a generally uniform stunting of the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4i9wvs | Can a strong enough electric field penetrate Faraday cage? | [
{
"answer": "A Faraday cage works because the electrons in the cage respond to an external electric field and re-arrange themselves naturally to create an equal and opposite field.\n\nHypothetically, if you had a large enough externally applied field that all the free electrons moving from one side to the other does not produce a large enough counter-field then your Faraday cage would fail to block it. However, my feeling is such a strength of field would be very unrealistic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a quote from the [relevant Wikipedia article on Faraday cages](_URL_0_). It's not exactly what you're asking but a cool little note very similar to your question:\n\n\"A common misconception is that a Faraday cage provides full blockage or attenuation; this is not true. The reception or transmission of radio waves, a form of electromagnetic radiation, to or from an antenna within a Faraday cage is heavily attenuated or blocked by the cage. However, a Faraday cage has varied attenuation depending on wave form, frequency or distance from receiver. Near field High powered frequency transmissions like HF RFID are more likely to penetrate. Solid steel cages provide better attenuation over mesh cages.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From the standpoint of classical electrostatics, no. The result of complete shielding of external fields in the static limit comes from application of [Gauss' Law](_URL_0_), which in turn is based on Coulomb's Law, which has been [shown to hold](_URL_1_) over a large range of length scales. \n\nIn the static limit , the amplitude of the external field doesn't matter. For time-varying fields, some finite penetration can occur depending on frequency, cage wall thickness , and cage material properties.\n\nIf the external field was strong enough, it might be possible to cause buckling in the structure of the cage itself due to the applied internal stress from the induced external charge distribution, but dielectric breakdown would probably happen first.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "151590",
"title": "Faraday cage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1240,
"text": "Faraday cages cannot block stable or slowly varying magnetic fields, such as the Earth's magnetic field (a compass will still work inside). To a large degree, though, they shield the interior from external electromagnetic radiation if the conductor is thick enough and any holes are significantly smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. For example, certain computer forensic test procedures of electronic systems that require an environment free of electromagnetic interference can be carried out within a screened room. These rooms are spaces that are completely enclosed by one or more layers of a fine metal mesh or perforated sheet metal. The metal layers are grounded to dissipate any electric currents generated from external or internal electromagnetic fields, and thus they block a large amount of the electromagnetic interference. See also electromagnetic shielding. They provide less attenuation of outgoing transmissions than incoming: they can block EMP waves from natural phenomena very effectively, but a tracking device, especially in upper frequencies, may be able to penetrate from within the cage (e.g., some cell phones operate at various radio frequencies so while one cell phone may not work, another one will).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151590",
"title": "Faraday cage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "A Faraday cage operates because an external electrical field causes the electric charges within the cage's conducting material to be distributed so that they cancel the field's effect in the cage's interior. This phenomenon is used to protect sensitive electronic equipment (for example RF receivers) from external radio frequency interference (RFI) often during testing or alignment of the device. Faraday cages are also used to enclose devices that produce RFI, such as radio transmitters, to prevent their radio waves from interfering with nearby sensitive equipment. They are also used to protect people and equipment against actual electric currents such as lightning strikes and electrostatic discharges, since the enclosing cage conducts current around the outside of the enclosed space and none passes through the interior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151590",
"title": "Faraday cage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "A common misconception is that a Faraday cage provides full blockage or attenuation; this is not true. The reception or transmission of radio waves, a form of electromagnetic radiation, to or from an antenna within a Faraday cage is heavily attenuated or blocked by the cage; however, a Faraday cage has varied attenuation depending on wave form, frequency or distance from receiver/transmitter, and receiver/transmitter power. Near-field high-powered frequency transmissions like HF RFID are more likely to penetrate. Solid cages generally attenuate fields over a broader range of frequencies than mesh cages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151590",
"title": "Faraday cage",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Faraday cage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Faraday cages are Faraday shields which have holes in them and are therefore more complex to analyze. Whereas continuous shields essentially attenuate all wavelengths shorter than the skin depth, the holes in a cage may permit shorter wavelengths to pass through or set up \"evanescent fields\" (oscillating fields that do not propagate as EM waves) just beneath the surface. The shorter the wavelength, the better it passes through a mesh of given size. Thus to work well at short wavelengths (i.e., high frequencies), the holes in the cage must be smaller than the wavelength of the incident wave. Faraday cages may therefore be thought of as high pass filters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60455",
"title": "Line-of-sight propagation",
"section": "Section::::Mobile telephones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "A Faraday cage is composed of a conductor that completely surrounds an area on all sides, top, and bottom. Electromagnetic radiation is blocked where the wavelength is longer than any gaps. For example, mobile telephone signals are blocked in windowless metal enclosures that approximate a Faraday cage, such as elevator cabins, and parts of trains, cars, and ships. The same problem can affect signals in buildings with extensive steel reinforcement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "467804",
"title": "Partial discharge",
"section": "Section::::Discharge detection and measuring systems.:Field testing methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Field measurements preclude the use of a Faraday cage and the energising supply can also be a compromise from the ideal. Field measurements are therefore prone to noise and may be consequently less sensitive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3966982",
"title": "Noise (electronics)",
"section": "Section::::Coupled noise.:Mitigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "BULLET::::1. Faraday cage – A Faraday cage enclosing a circuit can be used to isolate the circuit from external noise sources. A faraday cage cannot address noise sources that originate in the circuit itself or those carried in on its inputs, including the power supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gov32 | Why is steel stronger than pure iron? | [
{
"answer": "It all comes down to grain structure. Neither steel nor iron is a completely homogenous solid. A single crystal of metal can deform easily along the crystal axes; but if your metal is made up of a large number of small crystalline regions that are oriented randomly, they can't all deform in the same way and the bulk material is stronger.\n\nAdding or removing various impurities (like carbon) changes the crystal grain structure because it changes how the metal freezes from the melt. As the molten metal cools, it separates into multiple distinct phases (like if you freeze salt water, it'll separate into pure-ish ice and brine, and if you get it cold enough it'll end up as chunks of ice separated by frozen brine). If you have the right ratios of impurities, you can control how the metal solidifies and get a grain structure that's especially strong.\n\nThis is also what happens when you're tempering, annealing, or work-hardening a piece of metal, fundamentally— you're changing the grain structure, making the grains smaller or larger or differently organized.\n\n[Here's a link to the iron-carbon phase diagram](_URL_0_). It's fairly complicated, and it gets even more complicated when you add other alloying elements (there are tons: chromium, molybdenum, manganese, nickel, vanadium, and on and on). Plus you can get different results by cooling the metal differently (tempering, quenching, etc), since it actually takes time for various individual phases to separate, for crystal grains to grow, etc. This is what makes metallurgy interesting.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29432015",
"title": "Productivity improving technologies",
"section": "Section::::Major sources of productivity growth in economic history.:New materials, processes and de-materialization.:Iron and steel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Steel has much higher strength than wrought iron and allowed long span bridges, high rise buildings, automobiles and other items. Steel also made superior threaded fasteners (screws, nuts, bolts), nails, wire and other hardware items. Steel rails lasted over 10 times longer than wrought iron rails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14734",
"title": "Iron",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:As structural material.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Iron is the most widely used of all the metals, accounting for over 90% of worldwide metal production. Its low cost and high strength often make it the material of choice material to withstand stress or transmit forces, such as the construction of machinery and machine tools, rails, automobiles, ship hulls, concrete reinforcing bars, and the load-carrying framework of buildings. Since pure iron is quite soft, it is most commonly combined with alloying elements to make steel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27058",
"title": "Steel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and sometimes other elements. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, it is a major component used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305335",
"title": "Steel casting",
"section": "Section::::Impact and wear resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Most steels offer a good balance of strength and ductility, which makes them extremely tough. This allows them to withstand significant stress and strain without fracturing. Steel can also be fairly wear-resistant. Alloy additions can increase both impact and wear resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15880710",
"title": "Window shutter hardware",
"section": "Section::::Shutter and hardware terminology.:Blacksmiths' terms about iron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Steel - basically a mixture of iron and carbon, although other metals may be added to change the characteristic of the steel (add chrome, get stainless steel; add nickel, get armor plate). The carbon content of steel is closely controlled in its manufacture - the more carbon the \"stronger\" the steel. Steel varies from iron in that it can be hardened. Heat steel red-hot and quench it and it gets hard, heat iron red hot and quench it and it gets cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "633593",
"title": "Carbon steel",
"section": "Section::::Type.:Mild or low-carbon steel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.25% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19042",
"title": "Metal",
"section": "Section::::Lifecycle.:Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making them useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys can be engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. However the same metal can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use or from sudden stress failure when a load capacity is exceeded. The strength and resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad tracks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8mjf9h | in court how do they compensate swearing the oath on bibles for people who arent religious or are not christian? | [
{
"answer": "You don't have to swear on a Bible, or swear at all. You can simply affirm that you will tell the truth. As you noted non-religious or non-Christian people may have an issue with swearing on the Bible. Likewise some Christian denominations do not believe in swearing or oath-taking and aslo affirm/attest rather than swear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the US, very few jurisdictions have people swear on bibles anymore. Those that do offer alternates to non-Christians. Some religions, like the Jehovah's Witnesses, who do not allow swearing, are allowed to affirm instead.\n\nNote there is no legal significance to swearing on the bible or any religious book, it is purely symbolic. All the swearing process means is that you are promising to tell the truth and acknowledging that you can be charged with perjury if you do not. Any religious trappings are legally irrelevant to that purpose.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "By not swearing the oath on bibles. I've seen several courtroom oaths and taken a few, and have never seen a prop offered or used. In places that do still want a prop, you can replace it with some other religious book, a non-religious book like a law book or simply blank pages in a black binding. Heck, you could use the phone-book (if you can still find one), it wouldn't change your legal obligations. Or take an affirmation with no prop at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The most common place to see someone swearing an oath on a Bible is on a TV show. Very few places in the US administer oaths in this manner, and even when it was commonplace, the witness has had the opportunity to affirm instead of swear the oath if that makes a difference to them. Under the law, it makes no difference at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Good answers here; it's worth adding that \"some people don't want to swear on a Bible\" is not a new problem, and the US constitution has avoided it from the very start. In the American colonial era, the Quakers were a common religious group that thought swearing an oath was forbidden. So the constitution requires the president and congress to \"swear **or affirm**\" that they will obey the Constitution.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You do not have to swear on a bible. You just have to swear an oath or affirm that you are telling the truth. You can do this without anything, with any religious text you want, with a book of law or copy of the constitution, etc. You could even swear on a comic book if you wanted to do so. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I recently was called as a witness in a grand jury proceeding and while I wasb's terribly surprised that no Bible was offered, I was a little taken aback that the oath the foreman read didnt even contain \"so help me God.\" As an atheist who isn't hung up on such things but still feels it's important not to particpate in civil religion, I had given some thought to how I should respond and in the end it didnt matter.\n\nI was a little amused that I was asked to \"swear or affirm\" but didn't really have a choice (I didn't have to repeat the oath, just say \"yes\" or \"I do\") so only God knows if I was swearing or affirming.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Canadian courts they have a stack of holy books for the person to chose from and the option of none at all. When I was in jury selection, I counted 8 holy books. Only about 3 of the 12 jurors chose a book.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In my jurisdiction the courts have a bible, Torah and Quran. You pick whichever text you want to touch, if any. The judge then says “do you swear or affirm” and ends with “so help you God or whatever you personally believe in”. In addition to Jehovah, some Jews won’t swear and never on the Sabbath, and a few other religions don’t allow swearing at some times of the year, etc. \n\nBut legally all you would need to say is that you agree under penalty of perjury to tell the truth. The religious element doesn’t have any basis in my local law and it’s more tradition that anything. \n\nLocals expect it when they sit on a jury (tv will do that to you) so the lawyers (hi!) ask for the swearing on the book so the jury doesn’t misjudge the witness as a dirty atheist (hi again!) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've given evidence as a witness in court and also been a jury member. Both times, I affirmed which is pretty much promising to tell the truth (\"I do solemnly and sincerely and truly declare and affirm that the evidence I shall give shall be the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth.\") and to determine if the defendant was guilty or not guilty fairly when I was a jury member (\"I solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm that I will faithfully try the defendant and give a true verdict according to the evidence.\")\n\nFor other religions, I understand courts generally have the holy books of major religions. I ought to point out that I'm referring entirely to the English and Welsh court system here. I expect other countries have different wordings but with similar meanings.",
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"answer": "I work in a courthouse so I can answer this! This is particular to Canada.. \n\nWhen a witness is sworn in, they are given the option of swearing an oath on the bible or making a solemn affirmation. The ladder is essentially a promise to the court that they will tell the truth, the whole truth, etc., rather than a religious oath. If either party (prosecutor, defence, plaintiff, whatever) is planning on calling a witness that prefers to swear in their own religion, they make arrangements with the court staff prior to the trial. The courthouse I work in has options for several different religions. For example, for Sikhs, we would administer the oath on their holy script, and provide them with a head covering, water to wash their hands, and allow them to remove their shoes. The script that we recite (the “do you swear to tell the truth..”) is also different according to the religion. ",
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"answer": "I’m a notary public so I can provide some insight.\n\nThere are oaths and affirmations. They’re functionally the same thing, but they’re worded differently. The point is to make them understand that what they’re saying needs to be true, to the best of their knowledge, or they’ll face criminal penalty.\n\nHere’s what each sounds like (may be different in different states or contexts):\n\nOATH: \"Do you solemnly swear that the statements contained herein are true to the best of your knowledge and belief, so help you God?\"\n\nAFFIRMATION: “Do you solemnly and sincerely affirm and declare that the statements contained herein are true to the best of your knowledge and belief, under pains and penalties of perjury or false statement?”\n\nBoth are equally valid legally and lying after taking an oath or affirmation does subject you to being penalized for perjury. There are other kinds of oaths, like oaths of office, but the same thing applies. Neither oaths nor affirmations require a bible or any sacred text for them to be legally binding. The usual custom is for the person taking the oath to raise their right hand.\n\nHere’s what an oath of office sounds like... \"You solemnly swear that you will faithfully discharge, according to law, your duties as.......to the best of your ability, so help you God?\"\n",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9066446",
"title": "American Civil Liberties Union of North Carolina v. North Carolina",
"section": "Section::::Superior Court.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "On May 24, 2007, Superior Court Judge Paul Ridgeway ruled that people of non-Christian faiths must be allowed to use religious texts other than the Christian Bible when being sworn in as jurors or witnesses in state court proceedings. Though the state had 30 days to decide to appeal the ruling, it took no action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177413",
"title": "Schleitheim Confession",
"section": "Section::::Doctrine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Oath: No (oaths) should be taken because Jesus prohibited the taking of oaths and swearing. Testifying is not the same thing as swearing. When a person bears testimony, they are testifying about the present, whether it be good or evil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22258",
"title": "Oath of office",
"section": "Section::::Finland.:General oath of office..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Those who do not want to swear the religious oath may give an affirmation. In this case, the words \"promise and swear before almighty and all-knowing God\" are replaced by \"promise and affirm by my honor and by my conscience\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9066446",
"title": "American Civil Liberties Union of North Carolina v. North Carolina",
"section": "Section::::Mateen as witness in 2003.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "North Carolina's state law \"allows witnesses preparing to testify in court to take their oath in three ways: by laying a hand over 'the Holy Scriptures', by saying 'so help me God' without the use of a religious book, or by an affirmation using no religious symbols\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58160483",
"title": "Raising hands",
"section": "Section::::In law.:Oath-taking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "In a courtroom, jurors and witnesses are required to swear an oath before partaking in a trial. This involves the individual raising his or her right hand, often placing the other hand on an object of ceremonial importance, such as the Bible, and vowing, as a juror, that he or she will give a “true” verdict based on the evidence or, as a witness, that he or she will tell the truth. Up to the 13th century in northern Europe, oaths were sworn “on the threshold”. When a Bible was unavailable, the person taking the oath would place one hand on the doorframe or door ring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33579650",
"title": "Perjury in Nigeria",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Oath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Many of those who take a religious oath do so largely as a matter of form (or) because they think they are more likely to be believed if they take the oath, the oath ‘is only too often regarded as a necessary formality and rattled off with little outward sign of sincerity or understanding of its implications…We therefore think the time has come for the oath in its present form to be abolished and replaced by a form of undertaking which is more meaningful, more generally acceptable and more likely to serve the cause of justice. All witnesses should be required to make same solemn affirmation so that there is no distinction in the respect that is accorded them.’\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26166365",
"title": "Juror's oath",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "In the United Kingdom, each juror can opt either to swear an oath on the holy book of their choice (provisions are made for Christians, Muslims, Sikhs, and Hindus) or to affirm. The oath typically takes the form \"I swear [by almighty God/by Allah/by Waheguru/on the Gita] that I will faithfully try the defendant and give a true verdict according to the evidence.\" Affirmation, which was made available to Quakers and Moravians by the Quakers and Moravians Act 1838 and later extended to anybody who chooses to do so, takes the form \"I solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm that I will faithfully try the defendant and give a true verdict according to the evidence.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bcgkcp | What is it about Jamaican culture - opposed to other Caribbean nations - that produced so much extraordinary music? | [
{
"answer": "Not to stifle discussion, but /u/hillsonghoods wrote [some fantastic replies to a similar question](_URL_0_) of mine which I'd recommend checking out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9297589",
"title": "Jamaican Americans",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Dances and songs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Jamaica's most popular musical forms are reggae and dancehall. There are also others such as \"dub poetry\" or chanted verses, Ska, and Rocksteady, with its emotionally charged, celebrative beat. Jamaican Americans also listen to a great variety of other music such as: jazz, calypso, soca, ska, rap, classical music, gospel, and \"high-church\" choirs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4083182",
"title": "LGBT rights in Jamaica",
"section": "Section::::Pop culture.:Portrayal of LGBT people in popular Jamaican music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Jamaica's popular culture has a strong tradition of music, including reggae and dancehall. As a consequence, performers are high profile, both influencing popular opinion and reflecting it. The United States Department of State said that in 2012 \"through the songs and the behavior of some musicians, the country's dancehall culture helped perpetuate homophobia.\" In its 2011 review of Jamaica for compliance with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Human Rights Committee expressed regret over \"virulent lyrics by musicians and entertainers that incite violence against homosexuals\" and recommended that Jamaica investigate, prosecute, and sanction persons who do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "418839",
"title": "Mento",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "\"In Jamaica, we call our music 'mento' until very recently. Today, 'calypso' is beginning to be used for all kinds of West Indian music. This is because it's become so commercialized there. Some people like to think of West Indians as carefree natives who work and sing and play and laugh their lives away. But this isn't so. Most of the people there are hard working folks, and many of them are smart business men. If the tourists want \"calypso\", that's what we sell them.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242801",
"title": "Music of Trinidad and Tobago",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "The music of Trinidad and Tobago is best known for its calypso music, soca music and steelpan. Calypso's internationally noted performances in the 1950s from native artists such as Lord Melody, Lord Kitchener and Mighty Sparrow. The art form was most popularised at that time by Harry Belafonte. Along with folk songs and African- and Indian-based classical forms, cross-cultural interactions have produced other indigenous forms of music including soca, rapso, parang, chutney, and other derivative and fusion styles. There are also local communities which practice and experiment with international classical and pop music, often fusing them with local steelpan instruments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9713579",
"title": "Music of the African diaspora",
"section": "Section::::Caribbean.:Former British West Indies and the Lesser Antilles.:Jamaica.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Early forms of Afro-Caribbean music in Jamaica was Junkanoo (a type of folk music now more closely associated with The Bahamas), the quadrille (a European dance) and work songs were the primary forms of Jamaican music at the beginning of the 20th century. These were synthesized into mento music, which spread across the island. In the 20th century, influences from the United States were fused to create the uniquely Jamaican forms dancehall and ska. Subsequent styles include reggae, rocksteady and raggamuffin. (Mical 1995)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245041",
"title": "List of Caribbean music genres",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "The divisions between Caribbean music genres are not always well-defined, because many of these genres share common relations and have influenced each other in many ways and directions. For example, the Jamaican mento style has a long history of conflation with Trinidadian calypso. Elements of calypso have come to be used in mento, and vice versa, while their origins lie in the Afro-Caribbean culture, each uniquely characterized by influences from the Shango and Shouters religions of Trinidad and the \"Kumina\" spiritual tradition of Jamaica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172379",
"title": "Music of Jamaica",
"section": "Section::::Calypso.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "As in many Anglo-Caribbean Caribbean islands, the calypso music of Trinidad & Tobago has become part of the culture of Jamaica. Jamaica's own local music mento is often confused with calypso music. Although the two share many similarities, they are separate and distinct musical forms. During the mid-20th century, mento was conflated with calypso, and mento was frequently referred to as \"calypso\", \"kalypso\" and \"mento calypso\"; mento singers frequently used calypso songs and techniques. As in calypso, mento uses topical lyrics with a humorous slant, commenting on poverty and other social issues. Sexual innuendos are also common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
3zj9k6 | What do we know about the Helots before they were enslaved by the Dorians/Spartiates? Did they ever manage to liberate themselves? | [
{
"answer": "The ancient sources for helots are of such paucity and quality that scholars keep getting to diametrically opposite conclusions about who they were, what was their servial status, and the timing of their servitude. If you're interested in Helotry, I'd recommend this [collection of essays](_URL_0_), edited by Susan E. Alcock and Nino Luraghi. It's a fascinating book and great because many of the authors hold completely contradicting views, reflecting how 'thorny' the whole topic is. Following is a brief outline of the basic facts that most academics (well, me at least!) agree with. \n\nAs the holy *Oxford Classical Dictionary* reminds me, other Greek states than Sparta had servile populations which were not privately owned *douloi*, but, because their status seemed superior in important respects, came to be categorized as ‘between free men and *douloi*' (Pollux 3. 83). When discussing non-Doric states, we might call them serfs etc.; 'helots' is specific to Laconia and Messenia. 'Helots' were thus not an oppressed ethnic group, but rather a term referring to a certain social class. Helots could be manumitted (although at least in Sparta, in only exceptional circumstances) and thus 'stop' being helots. Our best sources to helots are about Spartan helots - I cannot say to what extent the Spartan example can be generalized into other Doric city-states. In Sparta, helots had some property rights, unlike slaves (which weren't very common in classical Sparta, mind), and whereas slaves were always considered as a personal property of one individual, helots were sort of considered to be the property of the citizen community as a whole. Spartan helots had some military obligations, too, whereas slaves did not; their main responsibility, however, was to provide their Spartan masters and mistresses with a fixed quota of natural produce. \n\nTo answer your question, what do we know about helots before they were helots; not much, really. It is believed that the classical helots are descendants of those Greek peoples that the Dorians enslaved during the [Dorian invasion](_URL_2_), somewhere between the 7th and 10th centuries. The word 'helots' (*heilōtai*) is most likely derived from a root that means *to capture*, and the helots certainly 'enjoyed' the position of being ritually demeaned and considered as a sort of the 'enemy within' in the Spartan state (J. Ducat in his *Spartan education* stresses this 'ritual demeaning' of helots), on top of the very real fear of a helot revolt (e.g. [Thucydides 4.80](_URL_1_)). Every year, the Spartan [ephors](_URL_3_) ritually declared a war against the helots, and Spartans could guilt-free kill helots. The ancient sources suggest that this was to keep the massive helot population in check, which the ancient authors believed to by far outnumber the citizen population. Not that it made any sense for the Spartans to kill helots on everyday basis; the helots were basically the bedrock of the Spartan states as their main source of agricultural labour. The most famous example of the helot oppression is of course the infamous *krypteia* institution, which was an initiation rite for young Spartan men where they went to the countryside in groups to randomly kill helots with daggers (well, this is the picture Aristotle paints; e.g. Plato described it a bit differently). \n\nHelotry survived as an institution well into Hellenistic era, and it wasn't the helots who freed themselves in the end. Helots survived as a self-perpuating body until Theban general Epaminondas freed the Messenians from the Spartan league in 369, and the remaining Laconian helots weren't freed until early 2nd century B.C. A revolutionary chap called Nabis seized the Spartan crown around 207 B.C., and he put under way some badly needed modernizations, including effectively ending the status of helots, and also the *periokoi* class of citizens was practically abolished later during his reign. \n\nEDIT: spelling",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15022813",
"title": "Dorus (Deucalionid)",
"section": "Section::::Mythology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "In the \"Bibliotheke\", \"Dorus received the country over against Peloponnese and called the settlers Dorians after himself.\" According to Karl Kerenyi, the Dorians recalled that three times Heracles had aided their \"oldest king\", Aigimios, \"under whom they had not yet emigrated to the Peleponnesos.\" Kerenyi's source is the \"Bibliotheca\" (II.7.7), who though he is late, was working with ancient materials lost to us.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36487",
"title": "Sparta",
"section": "Section::::Structure of Classical Spartan society.:Non citizens.:Helots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The helots were originally free Greeks from the areas of Messenia and Lakonia whom the Spartans had defeated in battle and subsequently enslaved. In contrast to populations conquered by other Greek cities (e.g. the Athenian treatment of Melos), the male population was not exterminated and the women and children turned into chattel slaves. Instead, the helots were given a subordinate position in society more comparable to serfs in medieval Europe than chattel slaves in the rest of Greece.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53534326",
"title": "Iron Age Greek migrations",
"section": "Section::::Movements within mainland Greece.:The Dorian Invasion of the Peloponnese.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "After their consolidation in the area of Stereas the Dorians organized a campaign against the wealthy and powerful kings of Achaea in the Peloponnese. They were joined in their campaign by two neighboring tribes, the Aetolians and the Boeotians who either simply fought alongside the Dorians or else found themselves under their authority in that period. In the middle of the 12th century BCE, the Dorians attacked the Peloponnese, crossing Strait of Rion with their fleet. According to the tradition they crossed into the Peloponnese at the narrows of Rion-Antirion, and from that arrival (by \"naus\", \"ship\"), the city of Naupactus (modern pronunciation \"Nafpaktos\") took its name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30871308",
"title": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Usurpation of Eucratides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Back in Bactria, Eucratides, either a general of Demetrius or an ally of the Seleucids, managed to overthrow the Euthydemid dynasty and establish his own rule around 170 BC, probably dethroning Antimachus I and Antimachus II. The Indian branch of the Euthydemids tried to strike back. An Indian king called Demetrius (very likely Demetrius II) is said to have returned to Bactria with 60,000 men to oust the usurper, but he apparently was defeated and killed in the encounter:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77681",
"title": "Hyllus",
"section": "Section::::Mythology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "The Heracleidae ruled in Lacedaemon until 221 BC, but disappeared much earlier in the other countries. This conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, commonly called the \"Return of the Heracleidae,\" is represented as the recovery by the descendants of Heracles of the rightful inheritance of their hero ancestor and his sons. The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek tribes in claiming as ancestor for their ruling families one of the legendary heroes, but the traditions must not on that account be regarded as entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of Peloponnesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven southward from their original northern home under pressure from the Thessalians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8216",
"title": "Dorians",
"section": "Section::::Ancient traditions.:Plato.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "In the Platonic work \"Laws\" is mentioned that the Achaeans who fought in the Trojan War, on their return from Troy were driven out from their homes and cities by the young residents, so they migrated under a leader named Dorieus and hence they were renamed \"Dorians\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435387",
"title": "Tiefling",
"section": "Section::::Fictional history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1229,
"text": "In the setting of \"Dungeons & Dragons\" 4th Edition, the tieflings trace their origins to the ancient human Empire of Bael Turath. In the Empire, the noble class was completely obsessed with preserving and gaining power. Rumors of their schemes and obsession with power reached a realm called the Nine Hells, located around the Astral Sea. The devils that resided in the Nine Hells gave the ruling classes of Bael Turath visions while they slept, containing the directions for a grisly, month-long ritual that would extend their rule into eternity. The details of the ritual have been left unclear in the books from the \"Player's Handbook\" series describing the events, though it is described as being very horrible. As the ritual demanded the participation of every noble house, those that refused were wholly slaughtered. Once this was done, the ruling class began their ritual. Afterwards, devils from the Nine Hells began to appear, and the nobles gladly made pacts with them. These pacts gave power to the nobles and their descendants forever, but also gave them the devilish features of horns, non-prehensile tails, sharp teeth, and red skin. From that point forward, the former humans were the race known as the tieflings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
azfq5l | how do we get propane and other gases from the ground? | [
{
"answer": "We refine crude oil which contains gases in the oil(similar to carbonated beverages but less fizzy) and can undergo chemical reactions which will take bigger molecules and break them down into smaller molecules, like propane, which we then seperate out. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Propane is a product of the refining process of crude oil. The longer hydrogen carbon chains are cracked into smaller ones, propane, hexane and benzine are common products.\n\nNatural gas is different, it formed naturally is often found in pockets above crude oil and I think coal ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "639",
"title": "Alkane",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Propane and butane are gases at atmospheric pressure that can be liquefied at fairly low pressures and are commonly known as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). Propane is used in propane gas burners and as a fuel for road vehicles, butane in space heaters and disposable cigarette lighters. Both are used as propellants in aerosol sprays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23643",
"title": "Propane",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Propane is produced as a by-product of two other processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, and large amounts of ethane from the raw gas, in order to prevent condensation of these volatiles in natural gas pipelines. Additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23643",
"title": "Propane",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Motor fuel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Propane is also used as fuel for small engines, especially those used indoors or in areas with insufficient fresh air and ventilation to carry away the more toxic exhaust of an engine running on gasoline or Diesel fuel. More recently, there have been lawn care products like string trimmers, lawn mowers and leaf blowers intended for outdoor use, but fueled by propane in order to reduce air pollution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22364466",
"title": "Timeline of United States discoveries",
"section": "Section::::Twentieth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "BULLET::::- Propane is a three-carbon alkane, normally a gas, but compressible to a transportable liquid. It is derived from other petroleum products during oil or natural gas processing. It is commonly used as a fuel for engines, barbecues, portable stoves, and residential central heating. Propane was first identified as a volatile component in gasoline by Dr. Walter O. Snelling of the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1910.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23643",
"title": "Propane",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Propane () is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula . It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is commonly used as a fuel. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases (LP gases). The others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "626455",
"title": "Alternative fuel",
"section": "Section::::Propane autogas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Propane is a cleaner burning, high-performance fuel derived from multiple sources. It is known by many names including propane, LPG (liquified propane gas), LPA (liquid propane autogas), Autogas and others. Propane is a hydrocarbon fuel and is a member of the natural gas family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12249109",
"title": "Sustainable automotive air conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Arguments.:Arguments against non-CO refrigerants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Butane and propane are very flammable petroleum products; they are used as fuels for gas barbecue grills, disposable lighters, etc. Like gasoline, to which it chemically is closely related, propane has a tendency to explode if mixed with oxygen and ignited in an enclosed container.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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] | null |
q2dh3 | Does picking up a radio signal with a antenna reduce the power of the signal, even minimally? | [
{
"answer": "I'm not a professional, but I actually did this as part of a project in my University.\n\nThe answer to your first question is no, absorbing waves in point x does not reduce the power of a radio wave at point y. We were able to charge a hydrogen fuel cell, not very efficiently I might add, with a D.I.Y magnetic coil connected to it. We estimated about 80% of the power from the source was lost which was in close proximity, but 20% is quite a lot of power and considering the amount of radio transmission that is going on and that we had quite a bad coil as it was wound up / made by ourselves. It's enough to charge your phone over a couple days plugged in, basically.\n\nIt could be used in portable solutions for low power things... say clocks, watches, remote controls. They would never need recharging. But it would be more expensive than batteries (atleast initially).\n\nTo explain the science, think of a wave in water. Light and radio waves behave the exact same way.\n\nDrop a penny into calm water and watch the circle of the wave disperse and you'll see how it gets weaker as it travels. This is due to the wave dispersing over a larger distance / as the circumference of the circle gets larger the wave spreads out over a larger distance: \n_URL_0_\n\nThus the further from the source, the less power you receive from a wave, especially considering that waves like these work in 3 dimensions as opposed to water which is 2. \n\nAnyway, when you absorb power from a wave you only take in what is at that point / the rest of the wave is still there to propagate through bouncing around the walls and such. \n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "In layman terms, a receiving antenna is a piece of wire \"converting\" an electromagnetic wave into an electric potential difference (voltage) between its terminals due to [electromagnetic induction](_URL_0_).\n\nThe circuitry in the receiver amplifies, filters, and eventually demodulates said electric signal, thus allowing a VERY tiny current to circulate along the antenna rod.\nSome of the em field gets absorbed because it has been converted into electric energy (some current circulates anyway, in fact grounding the antenna can be even better to that effect).\nThe antenna is casting a (somewhat irregular and faint) electro-magnetic \"shadow\"\n\nNow imagine surrounding yourself with a tall fence made of thousands of parallel grounded antennas.\nYou just mentally build a Faraday's Cage and if the rods are close together enough (as a rule of thumb, closer than the smaller wave length you want to stop) you won't be able to use your mobile phone while inside it.\n\nThe amount of energy in received radio signals is so tiny (intensity drops at a rate proportional to the squared distance from the source) that in the early days of radio, amplifying them enough to make filtering viable was an engineering challenge.\n\nYou would need a gigantic array to extract any significant amount of energy, and as a side effect you'd most likely create an EM barrier blocking many radio frequencies people would rather use to transmit information.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Substitute \"radio signal\" with \"sunlight\" and \"antenna\" with \"solar cell\".\n\nYou assume that there's such thing as _the_ power of the signal, as a property of the emitter that everyone has direct access to. No, radio waves are not fundamentally different from light, so what you have instead is independent power of the signal in various places; receiving the signal with an antenna removes it from that particular region of space and creates a radio shadow behind it.\n\nSo for example to black out a radio emitter you have to build a [Faraday cage](_URL_0_) around it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, you can convert that energy and use it. It's the principle of [crystal radios](_URL_0_) that convert it to sound. \n\nHere is a video of an LED powered by a Crystal Radio: _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer can be provided in two ways. First, absorbing the electromagnetic wave does reduce the energy of the wave at that point. However, you will not know you have reduced the energy unless you measure the wave energy. Energy cannot be created or destroyed only converted. Therefore, measuring the wave energy converts some of the energy to the instrument or radio. Second would be to transmit an electromagnetic wave inside a Faraday cage. The cage acts as the antenna with infinite coverage. The result is the energy is converted and the signal is lost beyond the antenna. This is the principle of the microwave oven. The microwave energy is absorbed by the shielding (antenna) and directed to the ground preventing the signal from passing. Therefore, the signal is reduced when it interacts with the antenna, albeit dependent on the efficiency of the conversion.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2159451",
"title": "Loop antenna",
"section": "Section::::Small loops.:Small receiving loops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "So much wasted power is not acceptable in a transmitting antenna, however in a receiving antenna the inefficiency is not important at frequencies below about 15 MHz. At these lower frequencies, atmospheric noise (static) and man-made noise (radio frequency interference) even in the weak signal from an inefficient antenna are far above the internal \"thermal\" or \"Johnson noise\" present in the radio receiver's circuits, so the weak signal from a loop antenna can be amplified without degrading the signal-to-noise ratio. (CCIR 258; CCIR 322.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "272510",
"title": "Transmitter power output",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The radio antenna's design \"focuses\" the signal toward the horizon, creating gain and increasing the ERP. There is also some loss (negative gain) from the feedline, which reduces some of the TPO to the antenna by both resistance and by radiating a small part of the signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "491851",
"title": "Radio receiver",
"section": "Section::::How receivers work.:Filtering, amplification, and demodulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "BULLET::::- Amplification: The power of the radio waves picked up by a receiving antenna decreases with the square of its distance from the transmitting antenna. Even with the powerful transmitters used in radio broadcasting stations, if the receiver is more than a few miles from the transmitter the power intercepted by the receiver's antenna is very small, perhaps as low as picowatts. To increase the power of the recovered signal, an amplifier circuit uses electric power from batteries or the wall plug to increase the amplitude (voltage or current) of the signal. In most modern receivers, the electronic components which do the actual amplifying are transistors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23275402",
"title": "Amateur radio",
"section": "Section::::Licensing.:Privileges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "The point at which power output is measured may also affect transmissions. The United Kingdom measures at the point the antenna is connected to the signal feed cable, which means the radio system may transmit more than 400 W to overcome signal loss in the cable; conversely, Germany measures power at the output of the final amplification stage, which results in a loss in radiated power with longer cable feeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1105907",
"title": "Spark-gap transmitter",
"section": "Section::::History.:Non-syntonic transmitters.:Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "The average power output of these transmitters was low, because due to its low capacitance and inductance the antenna had very low Q factor, it was a highly damped oscillator. During each spark the energy stored in the antenna was quickly radiated away as radio waves, so the oscillations decayed to zero quickly. The radio signal consisted of brief pulses of radio waves separated by long intervals of no output. The power radiated was dependent on how much electric charge could be stored in the antenna before each spark, which was proportional to the capacitance of the antenna. To increase their capacitance to ground, antennas were made with multiple parallel wires, often with capacitive toploads, in the \"harp\", \"cage\", \"umbrella\", \"inverted-L\", and \"T\" antennas characteristic of the \"spark\" era. The only other way to increase the energy stored in the antenna was to charge it up to very high voltages. However the voltage that could be used was limited to about 100 kV by corona discharge which caused charge to leak off the antenna, particularly in wet weather, and also energy lost as heat in the longer spark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "582127",
"title": "Antenna tuner",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1121,
"text": "Antenna tuners are particularly important for use with transmitters. Transmitters are typically designed to feed power into a resistive load of a specific value, very often 50 ohms. However the antenna and feedline impedance can vary depending on frequency and other factors. If the impedance seen by the transmitter departs from this design value, the output power of the transmitter can be reduced due to the failure to obtain a conjugate match. In addition to reducing the power radiated by the antenna, this can cause distortion of the signal, and in high power transmitters may overheat the transmitter. Because of this, ATUs are a standard part of almost all radio transmitting systems. They may be a circuit incorporated into the transmitter itself, or a separate piece of equipment connected between the transmitter and the antenna. In transmitting systems with an antenna separated from the transmitter and connected to it by a transmission line (feedline), there may be another matching network (or ATU) where the feedline connects to the antenna, that matches the transmission line's impedance to the antenna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "582127",
"title": "Antenna tuner",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Use in transmitters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "High power transmitters like radio broadcasting stations have a matching unit that is adjustable to accommodate changes in the frequency, the transmitter, the antenna, or the antenna's environment. Adjusting the ATU to match the transmitter to the antenna is an important procedure which is done after any work on the transmitter or antenna occurs. The effect of this adjustment is typically measured using an instrument called an SWR meter, which indicates the degree of mismatch between a reference impedance (typically 50 + \"\" 0 Ohms) and the complex impedance at the point of insertion of the SWR meter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a6vibu | Does running through the rain make you more or less dry than walking? | [
{
"answer": "If you look at this problem by trying to figure out your wetness as you walk through the falling rain, then it can be pretty tough. But it actually becomes easier if you look at it from the frame of reference of the falling rain. In this reference frame, the rain is just sitting there, still, and the ground is moving up through it with you moving along. Then, as you move through it, you will carve out a tunnel through the rain and how wet you get will be proportional to the volume of this tunnel.\n\nTo get the volume of this tunnel you can simplify it further by noting that it's basically just a thickened line, and so the volume will be roughly proportional to the length of this line. The slope of this line will depend on how fast you go. If you go really, really, slow, then the line will be very steep, as you are going more up through the rain than forward. It will be very, very shallow if you go really fast, as the ground hardly has time to move up before you're done. In general, then, this line traced out by your path is the hypotenuse of a right triangle. The bottom leg of this triangle is just the distance that you have to go across the ground, L, and the height of this triangle is basically the amount of time you spend in the rain, T (well, proportional to it depending on how fast the rain is falling). The length of this line, and the subsequent volume of rain you carve out, is then given by the Pythagorean theorem as the square root of L^(2)+T^(2). \n\nSo how wet you get is then basically proportional to sqrt(L^(2)+T^(2)). Since L doesn't change the only way you can make this less is to make T smaller, which means running faster. \n\n[MinutePhysics](_URL_0_) has a more well put together presentation of this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Running will never make you more wet. \n\nWhen you get to the point that you are running at the same speed the rain is falling, you have achieved 'minimum wetness'. If you run slower than that, you will be in the rain for longer and get rained on more.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26032",
"title": "Running",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of running.:Mental health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Running is an effective way to reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and tension. It helps people who struggle with seasonal affective disorder by being more outside running when it's sunny and warm. Running can improve mental alertness and also improve sleep which is needed for good mental health. Both research and clinical experience have shown that exercise can be a treatment for serious depression and anxiety even some physicians prescribe exercise to most of their patients. Running can have a longer lasting effect than anti-depressants. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3657365",
"title": "Inquiry",
"section": "Section::::Example of inquiry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "A man is walking on a warm day. The sky was clear the last time he observed it; but presently he notes, while occupied primarily with other things, that the air is cooler. It occurs to him that it is probably going to rain; looking up, he sees a dark cloud between him and the sun, and he then quickens his steps. What, if anything, in such a situation can be called thought? Neither the act of walking nor the noting of the cold is a thought. Walking is one direction of activity; looking and noting are other modes of activity. The likelihood that it will rain is, however, something \"suggested\". The pedestrian \"feels\" the cold; he \"thinks of\" clouds and a coming shower. (John Dewey, \"How We Think\", 1910, pp. 6-7).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66728",
"title": "Trail",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Segregated trail.:Footpath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "BULLET::::- Jogging or running paths. Many runners also favor running on trails rather than pavement, as giving a more vigorous work-out and better developing agility skills, as well as providing a more pleasant exercise environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40172612",
"title": "Assured clear distance ahead",
"section": "Section::::Derivations.:Seconds of distance to stop rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The dry rule does allow one to travel faster in dry weather, but expect emergency deceleration to be a bit uncomfortable. If one desires to remember only one rule, use the wet one. However, because the difference between wet and dry is half-a-second at 30 MPH and one second at 60 MPH, and because dividing by two is easier than three, we can use a correctable rule of thumb:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175476",
"title": "Pedestrian",
"section": "Section::::Health benefits and environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Regular walking is important both for human health and for the natural environment. Frequent exercise such as walking tends to reduce the chance of obesity and related medical problems. In contrast, using a car for short trips tends to contribute both to obesity and via vehicle emissions to climate change: internal combustion engines are more inefficient and highly polluting during their first minutes of operation (engine cold start). General availability of public transportation encourages walking, as it will not, in most cases, take one directly to one's destination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26032",
"title": "Running",
"section": "Section::::Running injuries.:High impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Some runners may experience injuries when running on concrete surfaces. The problem with running on concrete is that the body adjusts to this flat surface running, and some of the muscles will become weaker, along with the added impact of running on a harder surface. Therefore, it is advised to change terrain occasionally – such as trail, beach, or grass running. This is more unstable ground and allows the legs to strengthen different muscles. Runners should be wary of twisting their ankles on such terrain. Running downhill also increases knee stress and should, therefore, be avoided. Reducing the frequency and duration can also prevent injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9512700",
"title": "Surfside Beach Marathon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Running on sand may result in slower times, approximately 30 seconds per mile more than the your usual pace, but others say the sand is easier than pavement running and great for long runs. In 2007, Stephen Baumgartner was the first runner to break the 3 hour mark finishing in 2 hours, 55 minutes, and 44 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
499dxh | why do stenographers use those tiny typewriters? | [
{
"answer": "They're [stenotypes](_URL_0_) which are much faster than typing, but don't transcribe speech directly into readable English but into a form of shorthand.\n\nWhy? It's quicker - the words are formed with \"chords\" rather than letter at a time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44365",
"title": "Typewriter",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Typewriter conventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "A number of typographical conventions originate from the widespread use of the typewriter, based on the characteristics and limitations of the typewriter itself. For example, the QWERTY keyboard typewriter did not include keys for the en dash and the em dash. To overcome this limitation, users typically typed more than one adjacent hyphen to approximate these symbols. This typewriter convention is still sometimes used today, even though modern computer word processing applications can input the correct en and em dashes for each font type. Double hyphens are also standard in Western comics lettering despite historically being done by hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44365",
"title": "Typewriter",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early innovations.:Index typewriter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "The index typewriter was briefly popular in niche markets. Although they were slower than keyboard type machines they were mechanically simpler and lighter, they were therefore marketed as being suitable for travellers, and because they could be produced more cheaply than keyboard machines, as budget machines for users who needed to produce small quantities of typed correspondence. The index typewriter's niche appeal however soon disappeared, as on the one hand new keyboard typewriters became lighter and more portable and on the other refurbished second hand machines began to become available. The last widely available western index machine was the Mignon typewriter produced by AEG which was produced until 1934. Considered one of the very best of the index typewriters, part of the Mignon's popularity was that it featured both interchangeable indexes and type, allowing the use of different fonts and character sets, something very few keyboard machines allowed and only at considerable added cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143856",
"title": "Space (punctuation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Typesetting uses spaces of varying length for specific purposes. The typewriter, on the other hand, can accommodate only a limited number of keys. Most typewriters have only one width of space, obtained by pressing the space bar. Following widespread acceptance of the typewriter, some spacing and other typewriter conventions, which were based on the typewriter's mechanical limitations, have influenced professional typography other designers of printed works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513332",
"title": "Stenotype",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "A stenotype, stenotype machine, shorthand machine or steno writer is a specialized chorded keyboard or typewriter used by stenographers for shorthand use. In order to pass the United States Registered Professional Reporter test, a trained court reporter or closed captioner must write speeds of approximately 180, 200, and 225 words per minute (wpm) at very high accuracy in the categories of literary, jury charge, and testimony, respectively. Some stenographers can reach 300 words per minute. The website of the California Official Court Reporters Association (COCRA) gives the official record for American English as 375 wpm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1014735",
"title": "Monotype Imaging",
"section": "Section::::History.:Monotype System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "The typesetting machines were continually improved in the early years of the 20th century, with a typewriter style keyboard for entering the type being introduced in 1906. This arrangement addressed the need to vary the space between words so that all lines were the same length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48560797",
"title": "Pitch (typewriter)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The most widespread fonts in typewriters are 10 and 12 pitch, called \"pica\" and \"elite\", respectively. There may be other font styles with various width: condensed or compressed (17–20 cpi), italic or bold (10 pitch), enlarged (5–8 cpi), and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7489",
"title": "Collation",
"section": "Section::::Radical-and-stroke sorting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "The radical-and-stroke system, or some similar pattern-matching and stroke-counting method, was traditionally the only practical method for constructing dictionaries that someone could use to look up a logograph whose pronunciation was unknown. With the advent of computers, dictionary programs are now available that allow one to handwrite a character using a mouse or stylus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
n3rh6 | how did the wwii enigma code machines work? | [
{
"answer": "It's pretty cool, actually. I'll start with the basics. Each letter on the keyboard is connected, or paired, to another letter. So, if you press the A key, for example, you might see K light up. Similarly, if you press K, you'll see A light up. So, if you were to press H-E-L-L-O, you might get something like T-W-I-I-M. You send the new message \"twiim\" to the recipient. The recipient's machine is wired the same as yours, so pressing T-W-I-I-M will result in the letters H-E-L-L-O. Make sense so far?\n\nHere's where it gets interesting. On each Enigma Machine is three rotors that can each be set by the user. Each rotor has a setting from A to Z. So, when I'm using my Enigma, I can set the three rotors to anything I like, such as: G-E-K. The rotors basically take all the letter pairs and scramble them; all the wires that go from and to each letter are shuffled depending on each rotor setting. Imagine a railroad junction where the track can switch between two paths; it's like that, but with 26 different options, 3 different times in a row.\n\nHowever, if I were to type a message scrambled in this way, it would be very easy to crack because each letter just corresponds with a different letter. If somebody were to intercept the message, he/she could just guess which letters are which and eventually come up with the original message. In fact, this is so simple that newspapers publish puzzles with this encryption format, sometimes known as a CryptoQuip. [Try it yourself!](_URL_0_)\n\nThis is where the brilliance of the Enigma machine comes in. Every time you press a letter on the keyboard, the rotors turn. (kachunk!) So, the letter pairings are completely rescrambled with every letter you choose. Suppose my rotors were set to: G-E-K. After I press a single key, the rotors will shift to: G-E-L, and so on, until G-E-Z, and then G-F-A. Anybody who intercepts the message won't be able to pair up letters because every single character uses a different pairing schematic as defined by the rotor setting. Even if the interceptor has an Enigma Machine, he/she can't decode the message unless the rotors are set the same way. The rotor settings can't efficiently be guessed by hand because there are 26 * 26 * 26 = 17,576 different settings to try. This, combined with the plugboard settings for each letter, and the option of shuffling the rotor order, means there are about 10^21 possible combinations to go through. (Modern computers can do this with some work.)\n\nSo, as long as the sender and receiver use the same rotor settings, the letter pairs are matched. Plus, each time a key is pressed, the rotors rotate, including for the receiver. So, the receiver's rotors stay in sync with the sender's, allowing for total encryption and decryption for both parties.\n\nFun Fact: The Enigma was cracked not because its encryption method was flawed, but because radios were very poor quality. The protocol was to repeat certain key letters to make sure that the receiver didn't miss any info, but the extra information made the messages mathematically feasible to crack.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nice try, Time Hitler.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's pretty cool, actually. I'll start with the basics. Each letter on the keyboard is connected, or paired, to another letter. So, if you press the A key, for example, you might see K light up. Similarly, if you press K, you'll see A light up. So, if you were to press H-E-L-L-O, you might get something like T-W-I-I-M. You send the new message \"twiim\" to the recipient. The recipient's machine is wired the same as yours, so pressing T-W-I-I-M will result in the letters H-E-L-L-O. Make sense so far?\n\nHere's where it gets interesting. On each Enigma Machine is three rotors that can each be set by the user. Each rotor has a setting from A to Z. So, when I'm using my Enigma, I can set the three rotors to anything I like, such as: G-E-K. The rotors basically take all the letter pairs and scramble them; all the wires that go from and to each letter are shuffled depending on each rotor setting. Imagine a railroad junction where the track can switch between two paths; it's like that, but with 26 different options, 3 different times in a row.\n\nHowever, if I were to type a message scrambled in this way, it would be very easy to crack because each letter just corresponds with a different letter. If somebody were to intercept the message, he/she could just guess which letters are which and eventually come up with the original message. In fact, this is so simple that newspapers publish puzzles with this encryption format, sometimes known as a CryptoQuip. [Try it yourself!](_URL_0_)\n\nThis is where the brilliance of the Enigma machine comes in. Every time you press a letter on the keyboard, the rotors turn. (kachunk!) So, the letter pairings are completely rescrambled with every letter you choose. Suppose my rotors were set to: G-E-K. After I press a single key, the rotors will shift to: G-E-L, and so on, until G-E-Z, and then G-F-A. Anybody who intercepts the message won't be able to pair up letters because every single character uses a different pairing schematic as defined by the rotor setting. Even if the interceptor has an Enigma Machine, he/she can't decode the message unless the rotors are set the same way. The rotor settings can't efficiently be guessed by hand because there are 26 * 26 * 26 = 17,576 different settings to try. This, combined with the plugboard settings for each letter, and the option of shuffling the rotor order, means there are about 10^21 possible combinations to go through. (Modern computers can do this with some work.)\n\nSo, as long as the sender and receiver use the same rotor settings, the letter pairs are matched. Plus, each time a key is pressed, the rotors rotate, including for the receiver. So, the receiver's rotors stay in sync with the sender's, allowing for total encryption and decryption for both parties.\n\nFun Fact: The Enigma was cracked not because its encryption method was flawed, but because radios were very poor quality. The protocol was to repeat certain key letters to make sure that the receiver didn't miss any info, but the extra information made the messages mathematically feasible to crack.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nice try, Time Hitler.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "615354",
"title": "Bombe",
"section": "Section::::The Enigma machine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "In the lead up to World War II, the Germans made successive improvements to their military Enigma machines. By January 1939, additional rotors had been introduced so that there was a choice of three from five (i.e. 60 wheel orders) for the army and airforce Enigmas, and three out of eight (336 wheel orders) for the navy machines. In addition, ten leads were used on the plugboard leaving only six letters unsteckered. This meant that the airforce and army Enigmas could be set up 1.5×10 ways. In 1941 the German navy introduced a version of Enigma with rotatable reflector (the M4 or Four-rotor Enigma) for communicating with its U-boats. This could be set up in 1.8×10 different ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304403",
"title": "Siemens and Halske T52",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "While the Enigma machine was generally used by field units, the T52 was an online machine used by Luftwaffe and German Navy units, which could support the heavy machine, teletypewriter and attendant fixed circuits. It fulfilled a similar role to the Lorenz cipher machines in the German Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196223",
"title": "Rotor machine",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Enigma machine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "As with other early rotor machine efforts, Scherbius had limited commercial success. However, the German armed forces, responding in part to revelations that their codes had been broken during World War I, adopted the Enigma to secure their communications. The \"Reichsmarine\" adopted Enigma in 1926, and the German Army began to use a different variant around 1928.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1180404",
"title": "Peter Twinn",
"section": "Section::::Cryptography.:World War II.:Enigma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "In December 1938 the Germans added additional rotors (up to six) and the number of combinations increased dramatically. The Germans believed that messages sent on their most sophisticated Enigma machines were so well coded that they could not be decoded. But Twinn and his colleagues proved them wrong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "872175",
"title": "Cryptanalysis of the Enigma",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:German Naval Enigma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The German Navy used Enigma in the same way as the German Army and Air Force until 1 May 1937 when they changed to a substantially different system. This used the same sort of setting sheet but, importantly, it included the ground key for a period of two, sometimes three days. The message setting was concealed in the indicator by selecting a trigram from a book (the \"Kenngruppenbuch\", or K-Book) and performing a bigram substitution on it. This defeated the Poles, although they suspected some sort of bigram substitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3155420",
"title": "Grill (cryptology)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "The German navy started using Enigma machines in 1926; it was called \"Funkschlüssel C\" (\"Radio cipher C\"). By 15 July 1928, the German Army (\"Reichswehr\") had introduced their own version of the Enigma—the \"Enigma G\"; a revised \"Enigma I\" (with plugboard) appeared in June 1930. The Enigma I used by the German military in the 1930s was a 3-rotor machine. Initially, there were only three rotors labeled \"I\", \"II\", and \"III\", but they could be arranged in any order when placed in the machine. Rejewski identified the rotor permutations by , , and ; the encipherment produced by the rotors altered as each character was encrypted. The rightmost permutation () changed with each character. In addition, there was a plugboard that did some additional scrambling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4349420",
"title": "Marian Rejewski",
"section": "Section::::Enigma machine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "The Enigma machine was an electromechanical device, equipped with a 26-letter keyboard and 26 lamps, corresponding to the letters of the alphabet. Inside was a set of wired drums (rotors and a reflector) that scrambled the input. The machine used a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, and the encipherment varied from one key press to the next. For two operators to communicate, both Enigma machines had to be set up in the same way. The large number of possibilities for setting the rotors and the plugboard combined to form an astronomical number of configurations, and the settings were changed daily, so the machine code had to be \"broken\" anew each day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4upyg4 | the lean six sigma methodology | [
{
"answer": "LEAN and 6sigma address two different aspects of factory production.\n\nLEAN applies analysis to find the minimal cost steps needed to produce the item. It could mean the difference between giving a power tool to a worker instead of a manual tool. or having a conveyer delivery belt move the component to the worker instead of the worker walking around the factory to get the components from their bins. all of it centers on the methods to measure and reduce the cost of the production in both time and money (which boils down to same thing).\n\n6sigma is concerned about whether items that come out of production all meet quality control standards. bad items are categorized as errors vs defects. errors are caught inside the production area. defects make it out of production area. the total cost of an error is the time and cost to remanufacture the item within the production area. the total cost of a defect is error cost PLUS defect management overhead cost PLUS potential customer impacts. 6sigma goals is to measure the existing rates and find ways to reduce the rates. \n\n1sigma is 69% mistakes. \n\n2sigma is 30% mistake.\n\n3sigma is 6.68%.\n\n4sigma is 0.6%\n\n5sigma is 0.0233%\n\n6sigma is 0.00034%",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18248544",
"title": "Lean Six Sigma",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "Lean Six Sigma is a synergized managerial concept of Lean and Six Sigma. Lean traditionally focuses on the elimination of the eight kinds of waste/\"Muda\" classified as defects, over-production, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and extra-processing. Six Sigma seeks to improve the quality of process outputs by identifying and removing the causes of defects (errors) and minimizing variability in (manufacturing and business) processes. Synergistically, Lean aims to achieve continuous flow by tightening the linkages between process steps while Six Sigma focuses on reducing process variation (in all its forms) for the process steps thereby enabling a tightening of those linkages. In short, Lean exposes sources of process variation and Six Sigma aims to reduce that variation enabling a virtuous cycle of iterative improvements towards the goal of continuous flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22709668",
"title": "Lean IT",
"section": "Section::::Complementary methodologies.:Six Sigma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Whereas Lean IT focuses on customer satisfaction and reducing waste, Six Sigma focuses on removing the causes of defects (errors) and the variation (inconsistency) in manufacturing and business processes using quality management and, especially, statistical methods. Six Sigma also differs from Lean methods by introducing a special infrastructure of personnel (e.g. so-called “Green Belts” and “ Black Belts”) in the organization. Six Sigma is more oriented around two particular methods (DMAIC and DMADV), whereas Lean IT employs a portfolio of tools and methods. These differences notwithstanding, Lean IT may be readily combined with Six Sigma such that the latter brings statistical rigor to measurement of the former’s outcomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23159516",
"title": "Lean services",
"section": "Section::::Aspects of Lean service.:Lean Six Sigma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "In recent years, some practitioners have combined Lean and Six Sigma principles to yield a methodology commonly known as Lean Six Sigma. One of the earliest adopters of this is Honeywell, which calls its program Six Sigma Plus. Like some other practitioners, GE has developed a very rigorous Lean Six Sigma training program in which certain employees are chosen to become certified in this area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18248544",
"title": "Lean Six Sigma",
"section": "Section::::History.:2000s-2010s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The first concept of Lean \"Six Sigma\" was created in 2001 by a book titled \"Leaning into Six Sigma: The Path to Integration of Lean Enterprise and Six Sigma\" by Barbara Wheat, Chuck Mills, Mike Carnell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18248544",
"title": "Lean Six Sigma",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Lean Six Sigma uses the DMAIC phases similar to that of Six Sigma. IASSC does not provide Lean Six Sigma related training,mentoring,coaching or consulting services. Lean Six Sigma projects comprise aspects of Lean's waste elimination and the Six Sigma focus on reducing defects, based on critical to quality characteristics. The DMAIC toolkit of Lean Six Sigma comprises all the Lean and Six Sigma tools. \"Lean Six Sigma\" unites tools and techniques from Lean and Six Sigma methodologies to produce real results. The belt personnel is designated as white belts, yellow belts, green belts, black belts and master black belts, similar to judo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28252181",
"title": "Lean integration",
"section": "Section::::Lean integration principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The principles of Lean Integration may at first glance appear similar to that of Six Sigma but there are some very clear differences between them. Six-Sigma is an \"analytical technique\" that focuses on quality and reduction of defects while Lean is a \"management system\" that focuses on delivering value to the end customer by continuously improving value delivery processes. Lean provides a robust framework that facilitates improving efficiency and effectiveness by focusing on critical customer requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222448",
"title": "Six Sigma",
"section": "Section::::Difference from lean management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Lean management and Six Sigma are two concepts which share similar methodologies and tools. Both programs are Japanese-influenced, but they are two different programs. Lean management is focused on eliminating waste using a set of proven standardized tools and methodologies that target organizational efficiencies, while Six Sigma's focus is on eliminating defects and reducing variation. Both systems are driven by data though Six Sigma is much more dependent on accurate data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cds2jn | how do the "check to ensure you're not a robot" things actually work? what prevents computers from "clicking all pictures with a car"? i'm especially confused with the ones that dont require you to do anything except check the box. does somebody have an explaination? | [
{
"answer": "It checks the way that the person clicks the button (path, speed, etc) to determine if the clicker is indeed a human",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's some secret sauce behind these tests, but they check a lot of things.\n\n1. How your mouse moves; if you move in straight lines at a constant speed or instantly jump from place to place, you're probably a robot. There's an amount of random motion they expect from a human.\n\n2. If you click the correct things; computer vision and object recognition is one of the hardest practical problems in computer science today, so it's virtually guaranteed that you haven't written a bot better than the absolute giants of the tech industry throwing millions of dollars a year at the problem.\n\n3. Your IP address; if you're coming to a website from somewhere that has historically had users up to no good, the system is more suspicious of you.\n\n4. Cookies; if you have cookies (small files websites place on your computer that let you save your settings or login status) on your computer that look like a normal person's, the system is more likely to think you're a real person.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The ones that require to click all pictures with a car are/were being actively used to train computers to do the task. They're cases that computers have trouble with so a computer can't just click on the pictures. \n\nthe ones that require you to just check a box rely on an advanced algorithm to determine if you're a bot or not. The details of how it works aren't publicly available (for obvious reasons).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4422892",
"title": "Machine-check exception",
"section": "Section::::Possible causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Machine checks are a hardware problem, not a software problem. They're often the result of the overclocking or overheating, causing errors, or hitting a thermal limit where the CPU must shut itself down to avoid permanent damage. But they can also be caused by bus errors introduced by other failing components, including memory, i/o devices and i/o controllers. Possible causes include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430422",
"title": "Built-in self-test",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Electronics.:Computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The typical personal computer tests itself at start-up (called POST) because it's a very complex piece of machinery. Since it includes a computer, a computerized self-test was an obvious, inexpensive feature. Most modern computers, including embedded systems, have self-tests of their computer, memory and software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161905",
"title": "Program analysis",
"section": "Section::::Static program analysis.:Model checking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Model checking refers to strict, formal, and automated ways to check if a \"model\" (which in this context means a formal model of a piece of code, though in other contexts it can be a model of a piece of hardware) complies with a given specification. Due to the inherent finite state nature of code, and both the specification and the code being convertible into logical formulae, it is possible to check if the system violates the specification using efficient algorithmic methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2050378",
"title": "Lean thinking",
"section": "Section::::Lean thinking practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Autonomation: In any contemporary setting, every one uses either machines or software to do any work. Yet, this automated work still requires specific human judgments to be done right. As a result, many machines can't be left alone to work because they're likely to go wrong if someone doesn't watch them all the time. Autonomation is the practice of progressively imparting human judgement to a system so that it self-monitors and stops and calls a human when it feels it went wrong, just as a desktop computer will flag a virus alert if it feels under attack. Autonomation is essential to separate people from machines and not have humans doing machine work and vice versa. Automation teaches lean thinking by revealing new ways of designing lighter, smarter machines with less capital expenditure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "555534",
"title": "T-52 Enryu",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics of T-52 Enryu.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The Robot does not have a program installed in it, need to be taught how to operate, or has any sensors to help it see because the human controls it. It does have a camera to help the human see where it is going when the human is using a remote to control it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5994421",
"title": "Lego Mindstorms NXT",
"section": "Section::::Sensors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The sensors come assembled and programmed. In the software (see Programming above), people can decide what to do with the information that comes from the sensors, such as programming the robot move forward until it touches something. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41145357",
"title": "Automation bias",
"section": "Section::::Errors of commission and omission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Automation bias can take the form of commission errors, which occur when users follow an automated directive without taking into account other sources of information. Conversely, omission errors occur when automated devices fail to detect or indicate problems and the user does not notice because they are not properly monitoring the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34oxaj | how did mayweather win that fight? | [
{
"answer": "Mayweather is the greatest defensive boxer of all time. I don't like him, but he is a clever boxer. \n\nI wish neither him or manny played it safe, but that is the way it is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mayweather outboxed Pacquiao. He threw less punches and connected more and Pacquiao wasn't nearly active enough to make up the difference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pacquiao was the aggressor for most of the fight, and he swung a lot more. The crowd was clearly on his side, and Mayweather rarely drove forward. \n\nBut these things don't matter to the judges, or at least they shouldn't. Who was better at landing punches, who dictated the pace, who did the most damage, these things matter. And Mayweather did all those things. He threw less, but landed more. His hits were doing more damage. It was very rare that Mayweather ever seemed trapped, even buried in the corner. \n\nPacquiao need a lot more of those flurry pieces, and he didn't get through Mayweather's defense most of those times. \n\nEDIT: it's been brought to my attention that MW actually threw MORE punches as well. Paq threw more power punches but MW threw more total punches. Thank you fellow redditor for pointing that out. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Winning a round scores you 10 points. A close loss of a round will normally score 9 points. Penalties (no penalties were awarded in the match) will deduct from your final score. Mayweather won more rounds. I believe one scorecard was 8 round Mayweather to Manny's 4 rounds. Winning 8 rounds out of 12 is 116 points. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because just because you are the more aggressive fighter doesn't mean you are the fighter that deserves to win (and rightfully so) Mayweather landed many more punches/power punches despite being much more defensive and it paid off",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mainly his defensive skill.\n\n\nPacquiao was more offensive indeed, threw a lot of punches, did flashy combos and was a victim of lots of pace killing clinches.\n\nBut he didnt land that many clean hits. Most of his punches hit Mayweather's guard or the air. \n\n\nMayweather not only is great at defending and setting the pace, but also in counter punching. He scored a lot of points with those shitty counter jabs he kept throwing.\n\n\nIn the end its all about punches thrown and punches landed ratios. And Mayweather landed more clean hits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ELI5: What is clinching and why's it allowed in boxing? Opponent is trying to punch me? Let me subdue it by hugging him.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wasn't too big on boxing before this fight. Definitely not a fan of it after.\n\nIn my little knowledge of boxing, it seemed pretty clear that Mayweather's strategy was to avoid as much contact as possible, and issue a few counter punches.\n\nHe executed his plan to perfection and made Manny statistically look bad, which I assume won him the fight. As for actual fighting, though, I feel that Manny participated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you look at the stats Mayweather landed ~140 punches were as Manny only landed ~80. I think they threw about the same #. A lot of Manny's flurries didn't connect and refs will sometimes discount that as well. Manny also did not adjust well and was getting hit all night with the jab. Mayweather is a defensive genius ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "he threw more punches and landed a higher percentage of punches. I really don't understand how an unbias person could watch this fight and not see Floyd winning it. Too many people see boxers rush in and throw 5 - 7 punches while only landing like 1 or 2 and assume it's hurting them and having some sort of effect.\n\nManny had only one or two moments of decent success while Floyd would just picking him off and countering him the entire fight in the centre of the ring. This is boxing. The art is hitting the opponent and not getting hit. If you want to watch a brawl go watch UFC, or even better head down to your local bar on a friday evening.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Remember that fully and partially blocked punches do not count. Pacqiao didn't land near as many scoring blows as Mayweather. Ring generalship also went to Mayweather in most rounds as he was controlling the pace of many of them.\n\nYou can't expect to win when the judges only remember you going for it when your opponent is on the ropes -- it's just not enough. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Boxing isn't fighting. Its a sport. The only sport that comes close to true fighting is MMA, and even that isn't a perfect comparison. Just because Pacquiao was more aggressive and impressive doesn't mean he did a better job of boxing. Mayweather was the greater boxer, and the lesser man.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fights are somewhat loosely scored on several criteria I'll try to address each. \n\nClean Punching- Put simply who land the most punches on scoring areas, Floyd has an unparralleled defence and very rarely takes hits to scoring area deflecting or avoiding most shots thrown at him, he did this effectively in this fight. \n\nThe stats for punches: _URL_1_ \n\nYou'll see that Mayweather threw more and landed a lot more punches. One point I've seen floated is about his light touch jabs but please also note he also landed more power punches. \n\nPretty clear win for Floyd on this one. \n\n\nEffective Aggression- This one is really a matter of opinion Pacquiao did come forward a lot but probably not enough to counter the natural style of Floyd to any extent, it appeared as if Floyds counter punches caused more damage than people give them credit for and Pacquiao was hesitant about pushing forward too much but at this stage it is like much of boxing scoring, opinion. I would perhaps tentatively say that Pacquiao takes this category. \n\nRing Generalship- This refers to dictating the pace and nature of the fight. The general discomfort with the result seems to be that Floyd turned it into anti boxing with his movement and clinching. The fact that people see this as an issue at all basically proves that Floyd was dictating the flow of the fight giving him this category also. \n\nDefence- This is basically the opposite of the clean punches and refers to making sure your opponent cannot score. Whilst people may call Mayweathers movement and clinching \"hugging and running\" and that it shouldn't score him points the important aspect is it prevents Pacquiao from scoring. You might not call Floyd a winner in this category but he certainly inhibited Pacquiao's ability to score. \n\nFinally so you can get an idea of how this all transpired to the ultimate result here are the judges scorecards: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same thing happened between Sugar Ray Leonard and Roberto Duran in the 80s.\n\nLeonard was a dancing clown and Duran was a man. But in boxing, dancing clowns win. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Staunch Pacman supporter here. Take it for what you will...\n\nIn a word, reach. Mayweather controlled that fight from the start. Other than his 5\" reach advantage, which severely hampered Pacman, he controlled the tempo of the bout. Pacquiao lost that fight partially due to corner mistakes and misinterpretation (bias) of his performance...\n\nTo the people giving Money shit about bouncing around: Did you watch the same bout I did? Did you see the surgical precision that Mayweather exacted on Pac in the first few rounds? That can't be ignored...\n\nPac did what he could against an adversary who commanded something he obviously didn't have enough respect for, and lost. Pure and simple. He put up a hell of a fight. Even with the bullshit lack of calls early, I doubt he would have caught up on the cards. I saw this as Pac in 8...\n\nI did appreciate that both of them were very classy afterwards. But, damn. Money won this bout, fair and square, and it fucking sucks...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lets think of it like riding a bike, Manny was pedalling hard but the chain came loose so he wasn't going anywhere (lots of swings but nothing connected). Mayweather only pedalled 20 times or so per round but most of those helped propel the bike forward. In the end Mayweather won the distance travelled race. Scored 116-112 meaning Mayweather won 8 rounds and Pacquiao won 4.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "basically, he kept his percentage and points high by landing a bunch of sissy love taps, and a few good punches, then running away, dodging and hugging. just as far as points go, I agree he \"won\". but he looked like a pussy. I want a rematch in Manilla, Philippines ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "and this is why no likes boxing. mayweather pretty much ran away...waited till pacquiao got aggressive and got hits in when he was off balance. i feel sorry for the people that paid $100 for this fight. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The simplest explination... look at punch count.\n\nThey threw an almost identical amount of punches... mayweather landed 5x as many... \n\nThats all it comes down to. People complaining dont know what they are talking about..there ARE measurables in boxing..and Floyd dominated the measureables... chasing a guy around a ring isnt \"controlling\" it..if you never actually hit him, and are constantly getting popped in the face.\n\nPeople saying it was a bad fight or was Mayweather \"running away\" just dont know shit about boxing or strategy...\n\nMayweather knows if he keeps a shorter, heavier fisted opponent at a distance..he CANT lose... so thats exactly what he did.. he didnt try to out-brawl a boxer who prefers to brawl...\n\nIt was a strategically brilliant fight from Floyd... play it EXTREMELY safe in the first 5,6 rounds. Once you KNOW he no longer has the power/speed to knock you out on a single combo, due to exhaustion, you can start making small exchanges, pick him apart, and take the win.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Boxing is like those David Copperfield magic shows that used to be on tv. They'd build it up for weeks like it was going to be the best thing ever. At the end a plane would disappear and we'd all feel ripped off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If mayweather had lost this fight, subsequent fight would probably not be worth as much and make less money right?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll just add, because it's implied but not spelled out,\n\nDodging someone like Manny for 12 rounds like that is NOT easy. People seem to think that being a defensive fighter is some simple process that just requires you to run away, but it's really not. He's excellent at dodging and blocking punches, and then being accurate on counters. Seriously accuracy is king in these lower weight divisions where people can really move, and that's not just why he won, but honestly why he deserved to win (and I wanted him to get his teeth knocked out).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Where were the chairs? And nun-chucks?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wait is this the first time most of you guys have watched boxing? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ELI5 what's the big deal about this match, and why is everyone suddenly interested (or pretending to be interested) in boxing?",
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{
"answer": "He's a counter puncher. Manny moving forqard was only to his own detriment. Good fight by both, they both fought their fight. Floyd proves why he will most likely remain unbeaten. Hes hard to tocuh and even harder to get inside on. Good night for boxing I dont care what all these People say. Anyone who is a true boxing fan knows this fight played out exactly as expected.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The goal of any boxing match or any fight in general is not to knock someone out, but to win that fight. You survive by any means necessary. Floyd is great at that he picks his punches and he deflects and dodges the rest. Manny needed to throw a lot more punches and land them in order to win and he just didn't have that in him.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Mayweather was more efficient in throwing his punches. The art of boxing is to punch and to not get punched. When scoring, the judges award you points for making a clean hit which Floyd was able to do better than Manny. Although it looked like Manny was punching more, he simply was throwing ineffective punches because none of them hurt Floyd albeit a couple and most were blocked and deflected by Mayweathers standard highly defensive strategy. Another thing that sways your opinion is listening to the crowd and commentators. The crowd was anti Floyd and everytime Manny threw combinations the crowd was cheering, but the punches he was throwing weren't effective. Alot of boxing fans watch a fight on mute to get rid of factors that may skew your judgment.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Boxing is such a lame sport. Run around the edges of the ring while dodging punches. Then after 12 rounds, collect your absurd paychecks and go home without even a cut on your faces. That fight was incredibly boring. The only way I'll ever watch another goofy-ass boxing match is if they remove the damn judges and just let them fight until one of them goes down from exhaustion or a K.O. I'd rather watch a 30 round actual fight than the crap that was going on in that ring tonight.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Just look at it like a game of Mortal Kombat...you maybe throwing all kind of combos but if you never make contact...it doesn't matter the life bar will stay the same for the opponent!\n\n...I play to many damn video games...smh",
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{
"answer": "You know how when you're playing a fighting game, and no one get's knocked out in time, so the winner is who had the most health? That's pretty much what boxing is like. Manny threw more punches, but didn't do a whole lot of damage overall. Mayweather connected much more and landed more good punches. Liu Kang threw a bunch of punches at a blocking Scorpion, but Scorpion landed three Spear Throw to Uppercut combos.\n\nGot [the comment](_URL_0_) from /u/PatriArchangelle.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Mayweather sticks his head out and pulls back in order to lure Pacquiao to throw punches. He then uses his extra reach to connect jabs when his opponent closes in. He then re establishes distance through footwork manoeuvring or clinches. Eventually he tires Pacquiao to a point where he starts to make more mistakes. More counter power punches can be taken when this happens. A pretty straight foreward strategy.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "He was clearly the best fighter. His head movement was amazing, his footwork was great and his punches landed. Pac man only landed 18 of 189 jabs. He was not as accurate and focused as Mayweather. Just because the other guy was liked more is not an excuse for judges to have decided anything else",
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{
"answer": "Not a huge Mayweather fan but he deserves his props. His first 35 fights produced 24 knockouts. His last 13 fights only two knockouts. When mayweather got older and lost his punching power he changed styles. When other champions got older and had diminished punching power they lost fights. ",
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{
"answer": "Because moneyman knew this fight is 5 years to late for pacquiao ,\nbut the perfect moment to cash in ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Movies have ruined boxing for people. NOT getting hit is much more important than hitting your opponent. Floyd avoided being hit and dealt more damage with the punches he threw, it's that simple. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I personally think Floyd is a insufferable douche. He might think he doing an Ali type head game, but Ali was funny, Floyd is just ignorant. He is however a smart boxer. The days of slug fest boxing is pretty much over. No one want to end up punchy. Yeah I see how it can how it can be boring, but seeing the technical aspects might help people find enjoyment. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I came to a conclusion today after seeing the decision...Admittedly, I am more of a fan of UFC over the past few years. I used to be more of a boxing fan prior, but it finally hit me that I was holding boxing to the standard of UFC from an entertainment and physicality standpoint. I personally felt that Pacquiao fought better just because he appeared to have a bunch of powerful flurries and was more aggressive throughout the fight...However, in the boxing world, those things don't dictate the winner and the loser. The more technical boxer typically wins. And in this fight, Mayweather was the more technical fighter. Based on the way he skirted around the ring, dodged punches, and chose his punches more wisely...He was the better fighter. \n\nBut in my eyes, Pacquiao was more exciting to watch. It was very frustrating to see Mayweather dodge and hug whenever things got tough, but he did in a way that is more \"Technically sound\". In comparison to UFC, we are always looking for the knockout punch or the crushing blow that allows the aggressor to get in a full mount and go to town. \n\nSo in conclusion, make sure we are looking at the winner and loser from the perspective of a boxer rather than UFC. This conclusion became obvious very soon into the fight just by listening to the announcers, who are obviously more knowledgable about the sport of boxing than I am. The entire time they were seemingly \"sucking Mayweather's dick\" by constantly talking him up, even during an aggressive flurry from PacMan. Initially I thought it was unfair but I suppose it is just the technical ability of Mayweather that someone like myself may not be able to see, IMO of course. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Mayweather is the best defensive boxer in the world. He's too quick to hit, and unfortunately that means he won last night. If he'd gone toe to toe and trading blows with Pacquiao it could've been different.\n\nHowever, there have been times where he took more of a beating and the judges have still scored it as a unanimous decision when it should've been much closer, but most people agree boxing is corrupt and Mayweather has the judges in his pocket.\n\nUnfortunately, that style also makes him incredibly boring to watch, which made for a terrible fight and ruined it. Buy hey, he got his $180m so who gives a shit about the fans. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Is there a stream for the replay, or at least a video with highlights? \n",
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{
"answer": "As someone who actually boxes (amateur featherweight/lightweight): All these armchair Mayweather advocates are full of shit. Congratulations, you know the rules of scoring. Nobody is fucking impressed, we all know how this idiot won. In no way does the fact that Mayweather (notice his shills refer to him as 'Money') fights like a terrified robot make this a clear victory. Pacquiao deserved this win, and had enough power hits connect on target that would have resulted in a strong KO if this fight's entire ruleset weren't meticulously decided by Mayweather.\n\nThose gloves didn't allow a KO to be part of the equation, and Pacquiao sure as shit knew that. Listen to his post-match interview, the dude has never been that angry. Mayweather spent more time running than he did fighting, including counters. He never ONCE got deducted for clinching, which he was doing entirely too much, as per usual.\n\nFucking apologists are making me sick. Good job everyone, you're helping to ruin boxing further. I don't even want to fight knowing that it's no different than fencing at this point. The only people interested in modern boxing all seem to think it's fucking hip or meta to back Mayweather, like they're on some secret level knowledge because they understand how rounds are scored.\n\nFucking annoying. Glad I didn't buy this fight, knew it'd come to a decision and that Mayweather would take it handily due to A) rigging the contest from the start and B) Pacquiao having no answer for the inevitable penalty-free clinch escape from every corner play.\n\ninb4 b-b-but Manny had a lower % of punches land!! I'm through watching this sport at a professional level. Fuck it. There isn't a reason to both with this boring fuck Mayweather at the top. RIP Sweet Science. Wish I hadn't seen this coming.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Nah the real winner here was both the boxers, the boxing promoters, the celebrities who got their few seconds of me time and the companies. The biggest loser here is folks like us. I seriously could have just donated the money to charity at least I would have felt good about that.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Floyd won a boxing match. The key is hit the other guy and don't be hit yourself. It's a sport not a fight to the death.\n\nAll the people criticising him and all those booing when it was over aren't boxing fans. If you just want to see two guys slug it out just wait outside a night club on a Friday evening, 2 drunk idiots are bound to give you what you want to see.\n\nWanting Pacquiao to win and supporting him is fine, but show some respect to Mayweather. He won fair and square.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This fight was so boring. the only time I've ever truly enjoyed watching boxing was with Mike Tyson in the ring. He had no gears. It was either 100 mph or a knockout in the first 3 rounds. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's my own fault really, I should have stayed off reddit.\n\nnewsflash, not everyone can watch stuff live...",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Because about 30 years ago, they secretly changed boxing to Tag. \n\nFloyd \"Tag, You're It!\" Mayweather is the undisputed Tag champion.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "How he won, by scoring points within the rules of boxing, period. You get points for landing hits on the face and body cleanly. And he landed more, he always does, and if you analyse the tapes you can see he landed about 75% more punches. In other words, he completely dominated this fight. And the judges saw that and awarded him between 8 and 10 of the 12 rounds.\n\nNow punches landed, that goes into scoring. But it's difficult to see when a punch takes a fraction of a second. So subjective things like pace, aggression, poise etc all play a non-official role in scoring. Here we see Mayweather dictate the pace of the fight and showing ring leadership. We perceive aggression from Pacquiao because he comes forward more, the key way in which aggression is measured. But aggression can also be measured in punches thrown, although it's less striking as you can punch while backing up (like Mayweather does), and here we surprisingly see that it's Mayweather who threw more punches by a very tiny margin. While Pacquiao was clearly more aggressive, he threw nowhere near the normal rate he usually does, which gets him the win.\n\nSo why not? What prevented Pac from throwing volume? Mayweather is a master of defence, and has the physical advantage of length and more reach. This allows him to hit at a distance where Pac can't hit him, requiring Pac to lunge in and punch from a relatively less stable position. Mayweather can anticipate and counter, or move away. When he did get pinned down on the ropes, he carefully timed his exit and pivoted around Pac towards the center of the ring, where he can dictate the range of the fight. If Pac came in with too many angles preventing Mayweather from escaping, he'd go in for the clinch and pivot. After they break up, he's center ring again. By doing this, Pac's offence was neutralised.\n\nThat's mostly it. There are details, but that's the gist of it. \n\nMost people don't like watching Mayweather fight, they want to see a slapfest while Mayweather plays chess. Mayweather barely does combinations because combinations put you at risk of getting hit. Instead, he takes potshots, controls distance, his stamina, his position in the ring etc. That's why May's KO percentage is relatively low and why many consider him to be a boring fighter. The people that watch him do so because 1) he is unbeaten and they want to see if he'll get defeated or worse, KTFO 2) some are starstruck by his earnings and think he must be interesting to watch 3) he's a very complete and tactical boxer. Number (3) is pretty rare among mainstream people who watch one or two boxing matches a year, but it's the reason he is considered the pound for pound best fighter active today.\n\nAt the end of the day this is boxing, a sport with certain rules, within which he thrives. He's not the most exciting or powerful fighter, not the one who brutally beats people up. He is unbeatable by today's fighters within the parameters of the sport of boxing, but loses out within the parameters of most spectators. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Why is everyone saying Mayweather ran all night? He threw as many punches, landed more, and out boxed Pacquiao. Pacquiao didn't show up for this fight, plain and simple, which sucks because I would have loved for him to pound the shit out of Mayweather.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "If two boxers faced off against each other both utilizing Mayweather's strategy would there even be a fight? ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Even a tap to the stomach is counted as a \"punch\", Mayweather did a lot of his \"scoring\" punches on the Body. \nPacman looked more aggressive because, well he was more aggressive, but also he was aiming for more upper punches and harder punches too.\n\nMayweather fought NOT to lose, he back pedaled, jabbed whilst on a defensive stance, Pacman went forward almost 80% of the time. \n\nEntertainment wise, Pacman delivered... but judges look for the punches... Mayweather blocked a lot of Pac's punches too... whilst he connected with a lot of body shots... even if those were weak punches... they count. \n\nBasically, Mayweather's strategy was to win via jabs and decision all along... he had the reach advantage. Pacman was going for the knock out.. sadly he allowed Mayweather to put him in a range where Mayweather got a lot of jabs in.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Calling it a fight is kind of misleading in the first place and can often confuse people, it happens in MMA as well. He won a boxing match.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Reading all these top comments proves that boxing did not do their job of turning new people on to the sport. ",
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{
"answer": "Remember when the winner was the guy not flat on his back?",
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{
"answer": "He basically won because he threw more punches throughout each round. Last I heard he threw like 120 punches while pacman only threw like 110. ",
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{
"answer": "And people wonder why the sport of boxing is on life support. Yes, I know this event was a huge draw but it was obviously and rather predictably a disappointment to people looking to watch a fight. Instead they saw the sport's reigning champion do what he does best, that is dodge and win on points. It's an effective strategy to win the fight but it's little more than that. The sport needs a Tyson and Maywether and Manny are not, and have never been it. Great boxers they are, but last night was not a great boxing match, it was about fat paychecks and fighting not to lose.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Boxing fan here backing up /u/ArthurRiot\n\nThe fight is scored by 3 different judges using a 10 Point Must system. Every round, each fighter starts with 10 points. Who ever the judge sees landing more punches wins that round, keeping his full 10 points. The other fighter gets deducted 1 point so he scores a 9 for that round.\n\n\nThe rounds are scored separately meaning the scoring or activity does not carry over from previous rounds and shouldn't affect future rounds.\n\n\nAs a Manny Pacquiao fan, it was obvious to me Mayweather won the fight. In 9 out of 12 rounds, Mayweather landed more shots. Floyd Mayweather is an elite boxer and has figured out low risk strategies that pull him through rounds.\n\nWhen scoring fights, you have to make sure you don't put your emotion into it. Just because Pacquiao was throwing more and being more aggressive does not mean he wins that round if Mayweather landed more. The crowd in the arena usually erupt when Pacquiao throws combinations even if they all miss. You need to ignore that and not let it affect your scoring.\n\nNow, speaking as a Pacquiao fan, I was disappointed with his punch output. He usually throws double the amount of punches per round in other fights. Here may be an explanation why he was throwing less. _URL_0_\n\n\nWas it boring? To a casual viewer, yes. Even as a boxing fan it didn't look very exciting. But the right \"fighter\" was awarded the victory.\n\n*On scoring a round, a fighter can also gets a point get deducted if they get knocked down or if they foul the other fighter and the referee decides to penalise them.*\n\n\nEDIT: Ahh shit wrong link haha. Thanks /u/ChildishFiasco\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "He won because he landed more punches. More clean and effective punches. He made Manny miss a lot. Actually as well he stayed true to his style at times with counter punching which apparently according to post-fight Manny said felt a bit like Margarito's punches so it had a little bit of power, this of course made Manny hesistant to throw. Look at the CompuBox stats if you want to see the accuracy. It was a boxing match not a match of who can keep coming forward. Although, had Pacquiao taken the old Maidana route and thrown his hands more it wouldve been more competitive",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I feel like Floyd Mayweather is the Chelsea FC of boxing. Is that somewhat accurate?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Landing clean punches is the most important criteria when judging boxing and frankly, Mayweather was streets ahead on that count. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This fight was easy to judge. Mayweather hands down won. Pacquiao had the exciting moments in the fight but Mayweather completely controlled it. This is Mayweathers script. It is boring but effective. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I thought the Mayweather win was obvious. He's the only one who landed a significant number of punches. I had Manny winning three rounds and one of those was just because I wanted him to and I was probably bias. Mayweather was a standoff boxer but he executed flawlessly while Pacman scraped and flailed for the points he got.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I hate this whole \"running\" bullshit people are saying. What Floyd was doing was not running it was something extremely dangerous. He draws Manny into the corner than defends, counters, and moves away. Manny had the advantage every single time but Mayweather's defense and counters were almost perfect. It seems most people here don't actually know what boxing is. If they did they would've seen a master that perfected his craft with skill and calculation instead of a guy \"running\" which is pretty far from what really happened. Mayweather is pure boxing at its finest. That near perfect performance last night puts Floyd among legends. Its clear 95% of peeps commenting have no idea what they are talking about and have never seen a Mayweather fight. Its sad that people don't get it.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I was actually surprised when all 3 judges scored in favor of Floyd. Thought at least 1 would call it in favor of Manny. God those last 2 rounds were brutal for a Manny fan to watch...",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Might not be exciting but there was no chance at all that Pacquiao could have won that fight.\n\nMayweather is boring as fuck but his technical play and defense are basically perfect it is frustrating to watch. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "He out Boxed Manny. He made Manny miss while Mayweather connected at a higher percentage. They threw roughly the same amount of punches but Mayweather landed more. Thats pretty much why he won. I only gave Manny one round, i think it was the fifth or fourth. The 2 other rounds that Harold Lederman? (if i remember correctly) gave Pacquiao could be argued about but im pretty sure those were the rounds where Mayweather put his hands up and let Pacquiao throw punches at him. And while yes Pacquiao was obviously connecting he was not connecting on body parts where he could score points like the body or the head. Instead almost all those punches that he threw landed on Mayweathers arms and elbows. He also could have wom those rounds on aggressiveness but Mayweather still landed more in those rounds so i gave it to him. Even if those rounds were given to Pacquiao Mayweather still would have won the fight. He won a guaranteed 9 out of the 12 rounds. But could be argued that he won 11 out of the 12 like i had him at.\n\nThats really it, Pacquiao just got out boxed and couldnt land on Mayweather. Mayweather spent his time moving and landing at a higher percentage. Most casual Boxing fans call what Mayweather did as, \"running,\" but what its really called is Boxing, the art of hit without being hit back.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This is why boxing fails. The way it is \"scored\" encourages pansy-asses like Floyd Mayweather not to take any risks at all, not to try to finish the fight in any way, but rather to play the entire fight \"safe\" and \"touch\" his opponent with punches that have no power, no significance beyond the fact that they \"touch\" the opponent. This is why MMA will always be superior to boxing. Boxing is out-dated and archaic, like fencing. No one gives a damn about it anymore, and last night's fight was a perfect illustration of why.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Because Floyd came into the fight with the advantage of being taller, stronger, faster, greater reach, better technique, all of which lend him more power.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I'll add that from the beginning to the end, Mayweather was using a ton of subtle psychology* to throw off his opponent. I'll give some examples:\n\n* For the first 6 rounds, the round would end with MW hugging Pac which was a neutralising tactic in showing that Pac's offense \"wasn't doing much\".He would also add in some \"good round\" talk too...which is also another psych out tactic.\n\n* Often, MW would lower his guard and push his neck out taunting Pac to try and hit him. It had two advantages, one, it would tire out Pac quicker(from him trying to punch MW) hopefully leading to a KO and two, there was a counter waiting for Pac if he tried.\n\n* MW often put himself in a corner so that when Pac came in to punish the supposed \"cornered\" foe, he would easily escape. This helped neuter Pac's thoughts on being offensive.\n\n* Clenches are a big part of MW's game as it stops whatever pace or form his opponent can make. Whenever Pac was about to lay some punches in, MW would instantly neutralise them with a clench.Important as the first 6 rounds were basically laying the foundation for the rest of the match so Pac's strategy might have changed because of how those rounds went.\n\n* Before the match ended, MW put up his hands signalling that he KNEW he won. Pac never done that till the bell rung, but even then Pac knew he didn't win but couldn't hide it. To make things worse, MW went up on the top rope to shout to both fans and haters that he was declaring his victory and even went to Pac's corner for another hug. Not sure if the judges noticed this but this all helped create the atmosphere that MW had won which was important.\n\n* One time, Pac got MW into the ropes and gave him a flurry of punches. It DEFINETELY did damage to MW but when Pac had to back off, MW shoulder shrugged as if to say \"didn't do anything\" even though it clearly did because MW stopped doing the \"come to me, I'm at the ropes\" tactic.\n\nThat, combined with MW's excellent agility and stamina ensured that Pac never got the decisive hit he needed. \n\n*(Subtle psychology may not be subtle)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I just dont understand how everyone is so mad if you know Mayweather, that's exactly how he fights and how he wanted the fight to go, its no surprise.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Mayweather's what's known as a technical boxer, meaning that, in a way, he exploits boxing's rule set rather than physically dominating his opponent. When you're only concerned with the numbers on the scorecards, there's no need to burn yourself out after four rounds. He outlasts and chips away at them, luring them into launching clumsy volleys of blows that lower their hit percentages. All the while he patiently dances about, throwing fewer punches but connecting more often.\n\nThis intrinsically defensive approach has also granted him a much longer career than many of his contemporaries. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because Mayweather landed about 60 more punches than Pacquiao did, with a roughly equal number of punches thrown. He was far more efficient and accurate, and his timing was far superior as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They both loss that fight in my opinion.. They should go 15 rds in title fights .. Or more they didn't even break a sweat .. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Step 1: Delay the match by six years so you won't have to face your opponent in his prime, like the coward you are, Floyd, and you damn well know it.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I think it's interesting how many people were surprised by this being a snoozefest. Mayweather is constantly billed as one of the greatest defensive fighters of all time, and add to that the fact that both men are in their upper to late 30s. I don't know what people were expecting. From a technical standpoint, that was a beautiful fight by Mayweather.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "how can this even be a question, it was clear Mayweather landed more blows. He played fantastic defence and shut down Pacman. Not the way I wanted it to go but he pretty much put on a clinic on how to play defence.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Seemed like this fight was judged more on Olympic rules where the number of punches landed outweighs the total quality of the fight ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Because technically mayweather won, and that is all that matters. The rules are not tailored to produce the most exciting fight, they are based on who landed more punches.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "To those complaining about the 'boring' fight. Real Boxing is nothing like you see in movies like Rocky.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Summary of this entire thread :\n\nMayweather won because he knew how to game the points, not because he was a showman or a passionate fighter, so, it's not their fault the match was shitty, the match was shitty because box is shitty. \n\nDon't pay $$$ for this shit anymore! ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Problem was, Pacman wasn't aggressive enough. Although he tried to corner Mayweather, Mayweather would run away escaping the myriad of punches. This was basically the whole fight.\n\nBut in comparison regarding the strategy, to be the only one that's the aggressor for 12 rounds (Pacquiao)..that's more tough and you expend more energy than being a defensive fighter/counter for 12 rounds. Therefore if you continue to choose the path of extreme offense, you'll also be vulnerable to an elite defensive fighter (Mayweather).\n\nWhat this fight was missing as in all Mayweather fights is the purpose of 2 fighters \"boxing\" vs chasing. It's always at Mayweathers pace. Fans want to see boxers going at it heads up, Mayweather doesn't engage in a fight like that. Therefore Mayweather doesn’t care about boxing lol he doesn't care about pleasing or catering to the fans of boxing, he's all about his legacy and money.\n\nMayweather is a business fighter and pacman is a show fighter ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I'm by no means a Mayweather fan but he fought the fight everyone knew he was going to fight. He slowed the pace down and used footwork to avoid Manny's punches in bunches. A lot of people are mad at him for running and yes his fights can be boring but he's a defensive genius, he uses the shoulder roll to counter perfectly, and even when he did take shots he covered up and rolled to his right...something he ALWAYS does. Be disappointed in Manny because he knew Floyd was going to do all these things and he did nothing to combat them. Floyd fought the same fight he always fights so if you thought he was going to stand in the pocket and trade shots with a fighter like Pac I can see where your frustration would be.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I fully agree mayweather won but all this taught me is how shitty of a sport boxing is. $100 for that \"Fight of a lifetime\" pssshhh",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "He won by avoiding an actual fight. Anytime Pac got good hits in May would just clinch him to end it. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "He threw more punches. He landed more punches. He landed more power punches. He did this in 9 of 12 rounds. He completely dominated because he hit manny and barely let manny hit him.\n\nThe casual boxing fan has no business watching any weight class other than heavyweight, casual fans wanna see knockouts. mayweather is an elite boxer but 150lb guys don't beat each other to death. they avoid being hit if they're smart and they land precision punches. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This thread, TLDR:\n\nCasual: Wow, that was a superfight? Boxing is super boring.\n\nBoxing fan: MAYWEATHER OUTBOXED PACQUIAO!!\n\nCasual: Yes. Boxing is boring.\n\nBoxing fan: But Mayweather OUTBOXED him!!! \n\nCasual: It looked like a lot of running away and hugging.\n\nBoxing fan: IT'S REALLY __HARD__ TO RUN AWAY AND HUG LIKE THAT!\n\nDana White: lol",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Mayweather and Pacquio threw almost the same amount of punches... (Pac 6 more) Mayweather landed 148 of them and Pacquio 81... Pac could barely touch floyd. Floyd dodged and countered all night. it wasn't close. Pacquio got destroyed. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Pacquiao landed around 10 good head shots & everything else was blocked. Are you kidding me?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This is why Boxing is and has been a dying sport. Big fights are questioned by the public but then nothing is done, because everyone just forgets about it within a week. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Defensive boxing. You win points by counter punching and controlling he fight. Manny never landed any real shots while Floyd controlled him with jabs and counters. Though Manny was the aggressor, Floyd won by fighting his usual style.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "easy he outpointed him, mayweather's style is defensive outboxing he keeps his distance, chips away at his opponent and scores points from landed punches while avoiding his opponent's punches.\n\n_URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Easily. \nTo hit out, avoid being hit back. \nProtect oneself, while dictating the fight. \n\n20years unbeaten, never taken damage, record earnings that's the ultimate boxing display. \n\nStyles make or break matches, there are fighters and there are boxers ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mayweather kept landing those jabs and counters, that theatrically don't look at appealing to fans, compared to Pacquiao's combinations, which rarely landed. \n\nI'm pretty sure just like the bar I was in for the fight, the place erupted anytime Pacman busted out a combination but you could clearly see he wasn't landing them that much..\n\nMayweather was surgical like always and boring like he always is. ",
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"answer": "Because he landed more punches.\n\n\n| | Mayweather | Pacquiao |\n|:-----------|:------------:|:------------:|\n| Punches thrown | 435| 429 \n| Punches landed | 148| 81 \n| Jabs thrown | 267| 193\n| Jabs landed |67|18 \n\nSource: _URL_0_",
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"answer": "Pretty much like playing whack a mole it only counts if you land a hit and the more hits you land the more points you get.",
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{
"answer": "Pacquiao is most damaging when he gets in close and lands a flurry of punches, and Mayweather negated that strategy by keeping his distance (which he had the reach advantage to do) and landing mostly long bombs *and* by counterpunching effectively when Pacquiao did throw punches.\n\nIt was a classic case in boxing of one overall strategy winning out over the other.\n\nMy biggest disappointment in the fight, however, was not seeing Pacquiao's mom trying to put a hex on Mayweather, like she did against her son's last opponent.",
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"answer": "On points. Pacman made more attempts at punches, mayweather made more connections. He wasnt running and bobbing for no reason lol",
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{
"answer": "At it's simplest, boxing is about hitting the other guy without being hit. Pac looks good when he throws in bunches but if you pay close attention or watch it frame by frame most of his shots land on the arms or shoulders of Mayweather... they don't count. Meanwhile Mayweather is lighting him up with straight right hands without setup or left hooks when Pac starts considering coming in.\n\nMayweather actually lands the same amount of power punches that Pac lands TOTAL. Then factor in all the jabs.\n\nThere's also another thing that judges base decisions on which is basically who controls the fight more. This can be broken down into a few parts, who sets the pace / dictates the fight / pushes forward.\n\nSo each of these is judged based on a per round basis. Mayweather consistently dictates the fight by establishing the jab which keeps Pac at range. Then about half the time Pac comes in he gets caught with one of those two shots and Mayweather pivots away back to the center of the ring. Most of the time Pac doesn't get caught he still cant generate anything before he gets tied up in a clench or Mayweather ducks under and pivots out. (I'll also note here that in the first third or half of the fight Pac was clenching more than Mayweather)\n\nTo illustrate how smothering the counterpunching and defense is, Pac averages landing 35% of his punches. This fight he landed 19%. Typically fighters against Pac land about 25% of punches. Manny usually throws something like 650 punches. \n\nMayweathers averages? His landing average is 43% and he only takes about 19% of his opponents punches.\n\nIn this fight, Pac landed only 19% of his punches and was lit up by 38% of Mayweathers. And he only threw 430. Why the significant difference? He throws a lot less because of how often he got caught on the way in. Getting punched in the face sucks. Getting punched in the face while your moving INTO the punch sucks a lot more. It makes you kind of hesitant to keep doing so. And when he picks his spots to move forward and doesn't get caught he can't land through Mayweathers defense.\n\nSo looking at the match, looking at all the numbers Mayweather controlled the fight by boxing. He made the next best fighter in the entire world look like just any other \"average\" fighter. A lot of people deride Mayweather as not having ever fought anybody good. What if he just makes good people look.... average? \n\nLast note, Pac didn't even do best against Mayweather. Maidana did a lot better.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "39826001",
"title": "Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Manny Pacquiao",
"section": "Section::::Recap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 561,
"text": "Having recovered from Pacquiao's big hit in the previous round, Mayweather won the early exchanges of the fifth round. Pacquiao remained on the offensive, but was unable to land any big punches. Mayweather upped his activity and won the round in the eyes of the three judges. Pacquiao came out aggressive in the sixth, forcing Mayweather to the ropes. Pacquiao successfully landed a couple of combinations, but Mayweather appeared to be unfazed. All the judges gave the round to Pacquiao, making the overall score Mayweather 58–56 (4–2 by rounds) on all cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26447483",
"title": "Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Shane Mosley",
"section": "Section::::The fight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
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"text": "Mayweather ending up losing only the second round, according to the judges' scorecards, winning the 12 round fight by unanimous decision. Two judges had the final margin at 119–109, while the third had it at 118–108. The win improved Mayweather to 41–0 in his career, while dropping Mosley to 46–6.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39826001",
"title": "Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Manny Pacquiao",
"section": "Section::::Recap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Mayweather came out swinging in the eleventh round, landing just below his highest volume of the fight. The action then stalled as Pacquiao struggled to land much on a defensive-minded Mayweather, who ducked the attacks. Pacquiao forced Mayweather to the corner, but Mayweather landed a clean hit on Pacquiao's chin. However, Pacquiao still managed to hit solid punches in a fast pace. The judges unanimously scored the round in favor of Mayweather. In the final round, Pacquiao attempted to attack with Mayweather mostly looking to avoid his punches by running across the ring. Mayweather kept the fight in the center of the ring, but Pacquiao did land some inside counters. All three judges gave the round to Mayweather.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1388019",
"title": "Floyd Mayweather Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Professional boxing career.:Welterweight unification.:Mayweather vs. Pacquiao.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 1720,
"text": "Mayweather fought Manny Pacquiao, after negotiations spread over a number of years, on May 2, 2015, inside MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas. Mayweather dictated the pace early, controlling range with the jab. His deft movement and pivoting made Pacquiao, who landed only 19% of his punches, consistently miss. Mayweather was able to counter Pacquiao with his right hand constantly throughout the fight and won via unanimous decision with the scorecards reading 118–110, 116–112, and 116–112. The vast majority of media outlets (16/18) scored the bout in his favor. In the days following the fight, many casual observers felt the match failed to live up to expectations. Pacquiao told the media after the match that he was limited in the fight due to an injured right arm. \"Sports Illustrated\" reported that Pacquiao fought through a torn rotator cuff in his right shoulder, which will require surgery. Bob Arum revealed Pacquiao's injury to have been a persistent one dating back to 2008. Additionally Pacquiao's camp never requested a cortisone injection, which is allowed by the US Anti-Doping Agency, but rather a last minute toradol injection, which was declined by the Nevada State Athletic Commission. Mayweather, who originally had no plans on a rematch with Pacquiao, told ESPN's Stephen A. Smith in a text that he would be open to a rematch after Pacquiao recovers from shoulder surgery, however , Mayweather stated \"Did I text Stephen A. Smith and say I will fight him again? Yeah, but I change my mind. At this particular time, no, because he's a sore loser and he's a coward.\" On July 6, 2015, the World Boxing Organization (WBO) stripped Mayweather of his welterweight championship on technical grounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1388019",
"title": "Floyd Mayweather Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Professional boxing career.:Light middleweight.:Mayweather vs. De La Hoya.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "At one time, Floyd Mayweather Sr. negotiated to train Oscar De La Hoya and be in his corner during the fight, but De La Hoya decided to train with Freddie Roach. Mayweather won the fight by a split decision in 12 rounds, capturing the WBC title. However, many analysts and ringside observers felt Mayweather should have received a unanimous decision. During the early rounds De La Hoya had some success cutting off the ring, attempting to pound Mayweather on the inside. Despite his activity on the inside, however, many of De La Hoya's punches were ineffective and landed on Mayweather's arms or shoulders. By the middle of the fight, it was seen as an even bout by the announcers. Mayweather turned the tide in the middle and late rounds, often hitting De La Hoya at will. Official scorecards read 116–112 (Mayweather), 115–113 (Mayweather), and 115–113 (De La Hoya). CompuBox had Mayweather out-landing De La Hoya 207–122 in total punches and 134–82 in power punches, with better accuracy throughout the fight. After the bout Mayweather contemplated retirement, saying he had nothing left to prove in the boxing world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39826001",
"title": "Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Manny Pacquiao",
"section": "Section::::Recap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Mayweather changed tactics at the start of the seventh round, becoming the aggressor for a second and forcing Pacquiao on to the ropes. He threw a double jab, then a right-handed punch, landing none, before Pacquiao counterattacked with an unsuccessful combo. Mayweather stayed aggressive in the eighth round, landing jabs that kept Pacquiao off balance. Pacquiao went on the attack, opening up and landing some bigger punches. The round went to Mayweather on the official scorecards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1388019",
"title": "Floyd Mayweather Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Professional boxing career.:Comeback.:Mayweather vs. Mosley.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Mosley started the fight well, landing two solid right hands in round two which caused Mayweather's knees to buckle. Mayweather recovered well and went on to dominate the remainder of the fight, out-boxing Mosley and showing more aggression than in his previous recent fights. Mayweather eventually won a unanimous decision, with the judges scoring the fight 119–109, 119–109, and 118–110. In round four CompuBox found Mosley throwing seven power punches without taking any, making Mayweather the second boxer (after Roy Jones Jr.) to go an entire round without being hit by a power punch. After the fight, president of Golden Boy Promotions Oscar De La Hoya stated that he believed Mayweather was the best in the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27om2o | at the large hadron collider, how do the scientists get the 'right' protons into the machine? | [
{
"answer": "You're overthinking the way it actually works.\n\nWhat happens is they use a source that generates literally billions and billions of protons, these are all then accelerated around the machine and then finally allowed to crash into each other. Most of them don't even hit each other and are just absorbed. If the scientists are really, really lucky some of the protons WILL hit each other, if they're luckier still then when they hit each other they'll decay into simpler particles, and if it's the scientists' best day ever they'll decay into the exact simpler particles they've been looking for.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "9687983",
"title": "Proton Synchrotron Booster",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 703,
"text": "The Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB) is the first and smallest circular proton accelerator (a synchrotron) in the accelerator chain at the CERN injection complex, which also provides beams to the Large Hadron Collider. It contains four superimposed rings with a radius of 25 meters, which receive protons with an energy of from the linear accelerator Linac 2 and accelerate them up to , ready to be injected into the Proton Synchrotron (PS). Before the PSB was built in 1972, Linac 1 injected directly into the Proton Synchrotron, but the increased injection energy provided by the booster allowed for more protons to be injected into the PS and a higher luminosity at the end of the accelerator chain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53297",
"title": "DESY",
"section": "Section::::Particle accelerators, facilities and experiments.:HERA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "HERA was the only accelerator in the world that was able to collide protons with either electrons or positrons. To make this possible, HERA used mainly superconducting magnets, which was also a world first. At HERA, it was possible to study the structure of protons up to 30 times more accurately than before. The resolution covered structures 1/1000 of the proton in size. In the years to come, there were made many discoveries concerning the composition of protons from quarks and gluons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "37351",
"title": "CERN",
"section": "Section::::Particle accelerators.:Current complex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS), a circular accelerator with a diameter of 2 kilometres built in a tunnel, which started operation in 1976. It was designed to deliver an energy of 300 GeV and was gradually upgraded to 450 GeV. As well as having its own beamlines for fixed-target experiments (currently COMPASS and NA62), it has been operated as a proton–antiproton collider (the SpS collider), and for accelerating high energy electrons and positrons which were injected into the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP). Since 2008, it has been used to inject protons and heavy ions into the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1239298",
"title": "Super Proton Synchrotron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "The Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is a particle accelerator of the synchrotron type at CERN. It is housed in a circular tunnel, in circumference, straddling the border of France and Switzerland near Geneva, Switzerland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31883870",
"title": "U-70 (synchrotron)",
"section": "Section::::Description of the accelerator complex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A project for the UNK accelerator-storage complex, a proton-proton collider with an energy of 3 × 3 TeV, started in the mid 1980s. It was planned that U-70 becomes an injector for the collider ring, but the project was stopped because of the dissolution of the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1239321",
"title": "HERA (particle accelerator)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Protons were obtained from originally negatively charged hydrogen ions and pre-accelerated to 50 MeV in a linear accelerator. They were then injected into the proton synchrotron \"DESY-III\" and accelerated further to 7 GeV. Then they were transferred to PETRA where they were accelerated to 40 GeV. Finally, they were injected into their storage ring in the HERA tunnel and reached their final energy of 920 GeV. The proton storage ring used superconducting magnets to keep the protons on track.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44932",
"title": "Carlo Rubbia",
"section": "Section::::Career and research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1268,
"text": "In 1976, he suggested adapting CERN's Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) to collide protons and antiprotons in the same ring — the Proton-Antiproton Collider. Using Simon van der Meers technology of stochastic cooling, the Antiproton Accumulator was also built. The collider started running in 1981 and, in early 1983, an international team of more than 100 physicists headed by Rubbia and known as the UA1 Collaboration, detected the intermediate vector bosons, the W and Z bosons, which had become a cornerstone of modern theories of elementary particle physics long before this direct observation. They carry the weak force that causes radioactive decay in the atomic nucleus and controls the combustion of the Sun, just as photons, massless particles of light, carry the electromagnetic force which causes most physical and biochemical reactions. The weak force also plays a fundamental role in the nucleosynthesis of the elements, as studied in theories of stars evolution. These particles have a mass almost 100 times greater than the proton. In 1984 Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer were awarded the Nobel Prize \"for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2dwd63 | What was the origin and meaning behind the haircuts of Medieval Japan? | [
{
"answer": "Frankly I only know of the common topknot (\"Chonmage\") which was mostly done as a way to ensure that the kabuto helmet would fit snugly on one's head. The idea was that the topknot would be able to fit through a small hole in the helmet. Over time, while this tradition was forgotten, as the bushi and local daimyo began to take power, they continued using topknots as it was a sign of their military prowess.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52401",
"title": "Hairstyle",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory and history.:Early modern history.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "In the early 1870s, in a shift that historians attribute to the influence of the West, Japanese men began cutting their hair into styles known as jangiri or zangiri (which roughly means \"random cropping\"). During this period, Asian women were still wearing traditional hairstyles held up with combs, pins and sticks crafted from tortoise, metal, wood and other materials, but in the middle 1880s, upper-class Japanese women began pushing back their hair in the Western style (known as sokuhatsu), or adopting Westernized versions of traditional Japanese hairstyles (these were called yakaimaki, or literally, soirée chignon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1026376",
"title": "Kanzashi",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "During the Nara period, a variety of Chinese cultural aspects and items were brought to Japan, including \"zan\" (written with the same Chinese character as \"kanzashi\") and other hair ornaments. During the Heian period, the traditional style of putting hair up was changed to wearing it long, tied back low. It was at this time that \"kanzashi\" began to be used as a general term for any hair ornament, including combs and hairpins. During the Azuchi-Momoyama period, the hairstyles changed from the , or long straight hair, to the wider variety of which made more use of hair ornaments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1048051",
"title": "Chonmage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "The is a form of Japanese traditional topknot haircut worn by men. It is most commonly associated with the Edo period and samurai, and in recent times with sumo wrestlers. It was originally a method of using hair to hold a samurai helmet steady atop the head in battle, and became a status symbol among Japanese society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1530",
"title": "Ainu people",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Traditional Ainu culture was quite different from Japanese culture. Never shaving after a certain age, the men had full beards and moustaches. Men and women alike cut their hair level with the shoulders at the sides of the head, trimmed semicircularly behind. The women tattooed their mouths, and sometimes the forearms. The mouth tattoos were started at a young age with a small spot on the upper lip, gradually increasing with size. The soot deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark was used for colour. Their traditional dress was a robe spun from the inner bark of the elm tree, called \"attusi\" or \"attush\". Various styles were made, and consisted generally of a simple short robe with straight sleeves, which was folded around the body, and tied with a band about the waist. The sleeves ended at the wrist or forearm and the length generally was to the calves. Women also wore an undergarment of Japanese cloth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3770495",
"title": "Curtained hair",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "It is unclear when this style became fashionable in East Asia, but evidence of it in Japanese media can be seen from before the 1990s. Many anime characters, such as \"Dragon Ball Z's\" Trunks, James from \"Pokémon's\" Team Rocket, \"Fullmetal Alchemist's\" Edward Elric and Naruto's Sasuke and his older brother, Itachi Uchiha have this haircut. Japanese video game characters with this haircut include James Sunderland from \"Silent Hill 2\", Sothe from , and Leon S. Kennedy from \"Resident Evil 4\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1048051",
"title": "Chonmage",
"section": "Section::::In modern fashion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1123,
"text": "Outside Japan, so-called \"samurai buns\" have been worn by a minority of young British, Australian, Canadian, European, and American men during the mid-2010s. Unlike the traditional chonmage, the hair on top of the head is kept long, and the back and sides are shaven This hairstyle, reminiscent of the samurai topknots in jidaigeki movies, was popularised by celebrities including Orlando Bloom, Jared Leto, Zayn Malik, TOWIE's Joey Essex, Harry Styles, and Brent Burns. Although this haircut is somewhat similar to the Japanese topknot, it is visually more closely related to the topknots worn by western barbarians, such as the Lombards, Vikings, and Cumans. The medieval historian Paul the Deacon, in his description of the traditional barbarian style of the Lombard nation, describes their hair thus so, \"they uncovered the flesh of their heads by shaving all around the neck, sides, and back of the head until the nuchal zone. The hair on the top, left long, was parted in the middle and hung down to the corners of their mouths.\" (HL IV.22). This perfectly describes the modern western top knot as it appears untied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12027380",
"title": "Nihongami",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Nihongami (日本髪), is one of many traditional Japanese hairstyles, dating to the Edo period, today most often seen on \"maiko\" (geisha apprentices). Traditionally, two sides of the hair stick out until it curves to the back. The hair is pulled in the back as well in the front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ldjjq | (if your country has them) why do drinks in king-size cans cost less than the normal cans? | [
{
"answer": "There are a lot of fixed costs in packaging drinks and the price of a bigger or smaller can may not make much difference. Most of an items price has nothing to do with the size.\n\nI designed labels for a big box store once and learned that the difference in cost to make a 16oz can of soda and a 32oz can is often less than 1 cent per can.\n\nNaturally, even if it is priced less than the smaller cans, there's still room for profit. \n\nHere's an example of all of the math involved. Hope this helps!\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "383115",
"title": "Drink can",
"section": "Section::::Standard sizes.:Capacity in countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "In both Malaysia and Singapore, the most commonly found cans are 300 ml for non-carbonated drinks and 325 ml for carbonated drinks. Larger 330 ml/350 ml cans are limited to imported drinks where it would usually cost a lot more than local ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383115",
"title": "Drink can",
"section": "Section::::Standard sizes.:Capacity in countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "250 ml cans are the most common for soft drinks, but when accompanying take out food (such as pizza or chicken), a short 245 ml can is standard. Recently, some 355 ml cans which are similar to North American cans are increasingly available, but are limited mostly to Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper, and beer cans are available in 500 ml.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383115",
"title": "Drink can",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "A drink can (or beverage can) is a metal container designed to hold a fixed portion of liquid such as carbonated soft drinks, alcoholic drinks, fruit juices, teas, herbal teas, energy drinks, etc. Drink cans are made of aluminium (75% of worldwide production) or tin-plated steel (25% worldwide production). Worldwide production for all drink cans is approximately 370 billion cans per year worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "282620",
"title": "Pond Inlet",
"section": "Section::::Transportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Because of such great distances the cost of food and other materials such as construction supplies can be much higher than that of southern Canada. Milk is approximately $3.75/L, and carbonated drinks can be as much as $4.50/can.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14674199",
"title": "White Star (cider)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "It is available in 500 ml cans, as well as 1- and 2-litre bottles and is traditionally served over ice. As of 2010, in some off licences it could be purchased for £0.69 per can, a rate of only 18.4 pence per UK unit of alcohol. Today, its current price is £1.00 per can.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "661061",
"title": "Malt liquor",
"section": "Section::::Forty-ounce.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "At least for a brief period in the mid-1990s, some brands of malt liquor, including Olde English 800, Colt 45, and Mickey's, were available in even larger, 64-ounce glass bottles. Forty-ounce bottles are not permitted in some US states, such as Florida, where the largest container that a malt beverage may be sold at retail is 32 US fluid ounces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383115",
"title": "Drink can",
"section": "Section::::Standard sizes.:Capacity in countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "South African standard cans are 330 ml (reduced in the early 2000s from the up-until-then ubiquitous 340 ml) and the promotional size is 440 ml. There is also the 500 ml can. A smaller 200 ml can is used for \"mixers\" such as tonic or soda water. It has a smaller diameter than the other cans. In September 2018, a 300 ml can was introduced as an alternative to the 330 ml can in a continued effort to reduce the amount of sugar consumed in soft drinks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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8iacl3 | 4 continuous hours in the sun results in a sunburn, but 4 hours broken up into 15 minutes chunks does not. | [
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"answer": "Light is radiation. Radiation is like a really tiny bullet that can shoot through important stuff in your cells (like your DNA). Damaged DNA can cause cancer. When your body detects that the DNA in a cell has been damaged, the cell kills itself for the greater good of the body. No cell, no potential cancer. \n\nNow think of a tinted window in a car. Not as much light gets through it, right? Like a tinted window, your body releases a “tint” called melanin which is what makes you darker when you’ve been in the sun. Your body does this to avoid as many radiation “bullets” passing into skin cells and making them commit suicide. \n\nIf you expose yourself to 4 hours in a row, you don’t give your body time to release the melanin to protect your cells so they die and cause sunburn.\n\nIf you give your body enough time, it can tint your skin to protect you and you don’t burn (or not as severely).\n\nEdit: \nI could go into detail about basal reversal repairs and the issue with double helix breaks, but would it be an ELI5? I’m not going to explain enzyme metabolic rates n shit to a 5 year old. The melanin vector is easiest (and is one of the primary factors).",
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"answer": "Something I think folks are missing is how much the sun's power depends depends on time of day- if that four hour window includes noon-2PM, you are getting way more light intensity than 15 minutes at 8 AM or 10 AM.",
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"answer": "Imagine having to drink 5 gallons of water in one hour. Now imagine have to drink 5 gallons of water over the course of a week. Same amount of water, different amount of time. You're giving your body more time to process the 5 gallons of water.",
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"answer": "The explanations so far are not correct. 4 continuous hours of sunlight will give your damaged cells less time to repair DNA and less time to apoptose (safely die without causing inflammation).\n\n4 hours spread out over increments gives your cells time to repair DNA and, if need be, apoptose irreparable cells in-between exposures.\n\nIf you do not have this break time in-between exposures, cells will become damaged so badly that they cannot die in a safe, organized manner (apoptosis). Instead, they die quicker and release their proteins into the space between cells. Nearby cells sense this, freak out and release chemicals that cause inflammation and pain.\n\nAdditionally, immune cells in skin undergoing DNA damage from UV may directly contribute to inflammation.\n\nFun fact: When you feel heat, when you are out in the sun, it’s from infrared light. A lot of people have the misconception that they aren’t feeling the heat from the sun, so they aren’t getting burned. The “heat” (really just pain) from a sunburn will come on much later, and is produced by inflammation and hypersensitive nerve endings.\n\nEdit: I should add. Even if your 4 hours is broken up into increments, if you’re fair-skinned, you’ll probably still get burned.",
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"answer": "Vary basicly spoken. \nIts the same as if you wave your hand trough a candle light flame for 1 secund 60 times, or keep your hand in the flame for a full minute in 1 go. \n The warmt/heat/radiation will be spread over longer time or not.",
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"answer": "Put your hand in 130 degree water for 10 seconds, take a 10 minute break, and redo 10 times. Now put your hand in 130 degree water for 100 seconds and see which hurts more and damages more. \n\nIt’s the same concept. Your body has time to reset and recover if there are breaks in between. ",
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"answer": "UV when it come into contact with cells messes with alignment of DNA. This DNA has 4 possible things it could be ACGT (adenosine, cytosine, guanine, thymine) these 4 nucleotides in a order make up our genetic make up and have a complimentary antiparallel strand holding them for stability. when UV touches a part of DNA with 2 Ts together they break their bond with the antiparallel partner and bond with the other T. This is a thymine diaper this causes DNA damage. The body has the ability to fix this but over time these diapers build up and eventually cells have to go kaplooey. When you do tests between UV and nonUV your body has time to fix these diapers and not constantly bombarded (think like those cartoons with leaks and how everytime Tom plugged a hole another leak would be sprung, that's what happens to DNA except each leak is another TT diamer.",
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"answer": "Exactly the same thing as running for exemple, It’s not hard to run 15 minutes, rest? and do it 16 times.\nOn the other hand, it’s extremely hard to run 4 hours.\n\nThe simple answer is that, in the second case, your body gets to recover.\nThe more detailed answer is already in the comments. ",
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"answer": "This seems like a good time to remind everyone that May is Skin Cancer Awareness month, and folks in the states can get a free skin cancer check courtesy of the American Academy of Dermatology. Find your nearest screening here: _URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "ELI5: You regenerate. You don't regenerate fast enough to maintain 4 continuous hours of sun. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "60 seconds underwater results in death but 60 seconds broken up into 10-second chunks does not. \n\nSunburn is a result of cell death, let them recover and you can bombard your cells with UV again. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Touch a hot stove for 1 second and pull you hand away before it burns it. You can repeat that a dozen times as long as there's a break inbetween.\n\nMeanwhile, touch a hot stove and hold you hand on it for 10 seconds, you're going to burn your hand.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Holding your hand to a stove for 5 seconds burns you, poking the stove once every 10 seconds does not",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "4 hours? I was thinking more along the lines of 4 minutes. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "4 hours? You haven't experienced sun until you can't go out for more than 7 minutes without protection or staying in the shade.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Nurse here with related topic: I just completed a Skin Check clinic with an MD. We saw 55 people in 6 hours. Our job was to do a quick skin check, and refer them to their primary MD or a dermatologist if we found something suspicious.\n\n11 people had something that needed to be addressed, but wasn't urgent. \n\n5 people had something that was very likely skin cancer. In two of those people, the condition had progressed due to lack of diagnosis and care. One of those was almost certainly melanoma, but a biopsy would be needed for any diagnosis to be sure. They were all urged to get to an MD asap.\n\n1 case of undiagnosed psoriasis, lots of eczema, and acne, and a whole host of other skin conditions.\n\nThis is what I have learned as a nurse and as someone with a history of squamous cell skin cancer: get yourself checked out. Yearly. The things that you are worried about? Probably nothing. The things that you aren't worried about? Might very well be something.\n\nMake sure your MD is doing a thorough check... you have to get nude, and you have to part cheeks. If your MD wants to rush through the body check, get another MD. Better yet, go to a dermatologist. Dermatologists are best, because skin conditions are so nebulous, even a primary MD might not know what they're looking at. \n\nRemember: most of the really scary skin stuff is caused by sun exposure, so be aware of that! Everyone thinks of the beach, but consider gardening/yard work, outdoor exercise, walking to and from your car, even driving (your left arm is almost always exposed to the sun because it's against the window). Beaches and snow reflect the sun. Don't play outside between 10 and 4. \n\nSo: sun screen, sun screen, sun screen. Reapply every 2 hours, even if you don't get wet. Hats. Long sleeved shirts. No sunburns allowed! Wanna look good as you age? Avoid the sun and don't smoke.\n\nFinally: go online and learn the ABC's of skin cancer. It could save your life, or the life of someone you know and love.\n\nedit: words, and then some more words.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "A few second of water down your throat is drinking. A few minutes of water down your throat is drowning. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "20647810",
"title": "Sunburn",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Duration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Sunburn can occur in less than 15 minutes, and in seconds when exposed to non-shielded welding arcs or other sources of intense ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, the inflicted harm is often not immediately obvious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "3125085",
"title": "Polymorphous light eruption",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Recurring yearly, the eruption can sometimes last longer than a few days if persistent and repeated sun exposure occurs. However, the \"hardening\" effect, with respite during the later summer, frequently occurs with gradual exposure of sunlight, eventually leading to significant improvement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "4762233",
"title": "Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017",
"section": "Section::::Eye damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Short-term damage includes solar keratitis, which is similar to sunburn of the cornea. Symptoms usually occur within twenty-four hours and include eye pain and light sensitivity. Long-term or permanent damage includes solar retinopathy, which occurs when the sun burns a hole in the retina, usually at the fovea (the focus of the retina). Symptoms can occur as long as several weeks after the incident, and can include loss of central vision and/or other vision, as well as eye pain and light sensitivity, afterimages, and changes in color vision. Depending on the severity of damage, vision problems can last for several months or be permanent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "20647810",
"title": "Sunburn",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Duration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "After the exposure, skin may turn red in as little as 30 minutes but most often takes 2 to 6 hours. Pain is usually strongest 6 to 48 hours after exposure. The burn continues to develop for 1 to 3 days, occasionally followed by peeling skin in 3 to 8 days. Some peeling and itching may continue for several weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1871740",
"title": "Ultraviolet index",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The UV Index is designed as an open-ended linear scale, directly proportional to the intensity of UV radiation that causes sunburn on human skin. For example, if a light-skinned individual (without sunscreen) begins to sunburn in 30 minutes at UV Index 6, then that individual should expect to sunburn in about 15 minutes at UV Index 12 – twice the UV, twice as fast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647810",
"title": "Sunburn",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Minor sunburns typically cause nothing more than slight redness and tenderness to the affected areas. In more serious cases, blistering can occur. Extreme sunburns can be painful to the point of debilitation and may require hospital care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2544267",
"title": "Radiation burn",
"section": "Section::::Beta burns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "If the exposure to beta radiation is intense, the beta burns may first manifest in 24–48 hours by itching and/or burning sensation that last for one or two days, sometimes accompanied by hyperaemia. After 1–3 weeks burn symptoms appear; erythema, increased skin pigmentation (dark colored patches and raised areas), followed by epilation and skin lesions. Erythema occurs after 5–15 Gy, dry desquamation after 17 Gy, and bullous epidermitis after 72 Gy. Chronic radiation keratosis may develop after higher doses. Primary erythema lasting more than 72 hours is an indication of injury severe enough to cause chronic radiation dermatitis. Edema of dermal papillae, if present within 48 hours since the exposition, is followed by transepidermal necrosis. After higher doses, the malpighian layer cells die within 24 hours; lower doses may take 10–14 days to show dead cells. Inhalation of beta radioactive isotopes may cause beta burns of lungs and nasopharyngeal region, ingestion may lead to burns of gastrointestinal tract; the latter being a risk especially for grazing animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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7pq8nz | what are these new-age solid-state batteries? how are they different from conventional batteries? | [
{
"answer": "They're batteries that use solid electrodes or electrolytes instead of liquid.\n\nThey have potentially higher energy density, and are safer since they're not flammable. They also have longer lifespans and don't produce as much heat.\n\nI think the problem at the moment is that they're not ready to be mass produced and so they're expensive.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "21227685",
"title": "Solid-state battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 512,
"text": "A solid-state battery is a battery technology that uses solid electrodes and a solid electrolyte, instead of the liquid or polymer gel electrolytes found in lithium-ion or lithium polymer batteries. Materials proposed for use as solid electrolytes in solid-state batteries include ceramics (e.g. oxides, sulfides, phosphates), and solid polymers. Solid-state batteries have found use in pacemakers, RFID and wearable devices. They are potentially safer, with higher energy densities, but at a much higher cost..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21227685",
"title": "Solid-state battery",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "In the late 1950s, efforts were made to develop a solid-state battery. The first solid-state batteries utilized a silver ion conducting electrolyte, had low energy density and cell voltages, and high internal resistance. A new class of solid-state electrolyte, developed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the 1990s, was later incorporated into certain thin film lithium-ion batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42601555",
"title": "Research in lithium-ion batteries",
"section": "Section::::Electrolyte.:Solid-state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "While no solid-state batteries have reached the market, multiple groups are researching this alternative. The notion is that solid-state designs are safer because they prevent dendrites from causing short circuits. They also have the potential to substantially increase energy density because their solid nature prevents dendrite formation and allows the use of pure metallic lithium anodes. They may have other benefits such as lower temperature operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "14199",
"title": "Handheld game console",
"section": "Section::::History.:Beginnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Modern game systems such as the Nintendo DS and PlayStation Portable have rechargeable Lithium-Ion batteries with proprietary shapes. Other seventh-generation consoles such as the GP2X use standard alkaline batteries. Because the mAh rating of alkaline batteries has increased since the 1990s, the power needed for handhelds like the GP2X may be supplied by relatively few batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1611987",
"title": "Plug-in hybrid",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Electric power storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled; Toyota, for example, has a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US$200 credit for each battery returned. However, plug-in hybrids typically use larger battery packs than comparable conventional hybrids, and thus require more resources. Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) has suggested that utilities could purchase used batteries for backup and load leveling purposes. They state that while these used batteries may be no longer usable in vehicles, their residual capacity still has significant value. More recently, General Motors (GM) has said it has been \"approached by utilities interested in using recycled Volt batteries as a power storage system, a secondary market that could bring down the cost of the Volt and other plug-in vehicles for consumers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "29009444",
"title": "N battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Rechargeable N-size batteries are also available, in nickel-cadmium (\"KR1\") and nickel-metal hydride (\"HR1\") chemistries. However, these are far less common than other rechargeable sizes. Rechargeable N-Series batteries may be charged in an AA charger using a makeshift adapter (such as a small metal slug or a spring). Some universal battery chargers (with spring-loaded contacts) are also able to charge N size batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24429024",
"title": "Lithium–air battery",
"section": "Section::::Design and operation.:Electrolyte.:Solid state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "A solid-state battery design is attractive for its safety, eliminating the chance of ignition from rupture. Current solid-state Li–air batteries use a lithium anode, a ceramic, glass, or glass-ceramic electrolyte, and a porous carbon cathode. The anode and cathode are typically separated from the electrolyte by polymer–ceramic composites that enhance charge transfer at the anode and electrochemically couple the cathode to the electrolyte. The polymer–ceramic composites reduce overall impedance. The main drawback of the solid-state battery design is the low conductivity of most glass-ceramic electrolytes. The ionic conductivity of current lithium fast ion conductors is lower than liquid electrolyte alternatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
65f3qw | When I think of the legacy of dueling, I picture it as an exclusively male enterprise. Is this really the case? Or are there records of women dueling as well? | [
{
"answer": "Not discouraging any new answers coming in, but you better believe that /u/Georgy_K_Zhukov wrote about [this topic already](_URL_0_). Hope it helps!",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "6531362",
"title": "Battle of the Sexes (tennis)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "In tennis, \"Battle of the Sexes\" is a term that has been used to describe various exhibition matches played between a man and a woman (or, in one case, a doubles match between two men and two women). Most famously, the term is used for a nationally televised match in 1973, held at the Houston Astrodome, between 55-year-old Bobby Riggs and 29-year-old Billie Jean King, which King won in three sets. The match attracted massive attention and was viewed by an estimated 90 million people around the world. King's win is considered a milestone in public acceptance of women's tennis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "153833",
"title": "Duel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The duel was based on a code of honor. Duels were fought not so much to kill the opponent as to gain \"satisfaction\", that is, to restore one's honor by demonstrating a willingness to risk one's life for it, and as such the tradition of dueling was originally reserved for the male members of nobility; however, in the modern era it extended to those of the upper classes generally. On occasion, duels with pistols or swords were fought between women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "522241",
"title": "Timeline of Ontario history",
"section": "Section::::Upper Canada, 1791 to 1840.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1790s–1840s – Dueling is common among the elite, government officials, lawyers, and to military officers; they used dueling as a form of extralegal justice to assert their superior claims to honour. However, a new ethic was emerging that opposed dueling and rejected the hyper-masculinity embodied by the code of the duelist. This opposition was part of growing opposition to hierarchic dominance by the elite; opponents valued the bourgeois husband and father and separated male honour from physical violence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5257280",
"title": "Duela Dent",
"section": "Section::::Villainous parentage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "Duela is originally depicted as the daughter of Two-Face and his estranged wife, Gilda Dent. Creator Bob Rozakis stated, \"It didn't take too long to decide whose daughter she would turn out to be. After all, the only married villain was Two-Face. I convinced [editor Julius Schwartz and associate editor E. Nelson Bridwell, the acknowledged keeper of DC's historical consistency] that Harvey and Gilda Dent had a daughter, that Harvey had been disappointed because she wasn't a twin, and that they'd named her Duela\". Rozakis, upon being asked his thought regarding the current insane version of Duela Dent, who claims to be the daughter of multiple supervillains, replied: \"I got a laugh out of it when I first saw it, but I thought they wasted the character. I realize that Marv and company didn't want her around anymore and felt they had to explain her away because of continuity, but they could have just as easily ignored her. Actually, I consider Harley Quinn to be a reincarnation of Duela\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "153833",
"title": "Duel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two people, with matched weapons, in accordance with agreed-upon rules. Duels in this form were chiefly practiced in early modern Europe with precedents in the medieval code of chivalry, and continued into the modern period (19th to early 20th centuries) especially among military officers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "14807583",
"title": "Mundo Estranho",
"section": "Section::::Sections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "BULLET::::- Duel: it is a competition between any two subjects. The magazine's team establishes five topics for each duel and compares the weak and the strong points, later deciding who wins, with the possibility of a tie. Some fights featuring famous characters or franchises were partially voted by the readers, like \"Harry Potter X The Lord of the Rings\", \"Gandalf X Professor Dumbledore\", \"Bill Gates X Carlos Slim\" and \"X-Men X The Avengers\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153833",
"title": "Duel",
"section": "Section::::Western traditions.:Americas.:Colonial North America and United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 972,
"text": "European styles of dueling established themselves in the colonies of European states in North America. Duels were to challenge someone over a woman or to defend one's honor. In the US, dueling was used to deal with political differences and disputes and was the subject of an unsuccessful amendment to the United States Constitution in 1838. It was fairly common for politicians at that time in the United States to end disputes through duels, such as the Burr–Hamilton duel and the Jackson-Dickinson duel. Dueling has become outdated in the north since the early-19th century. Dueling in the US was not uncommon in the south and west, even after 1859, when 18 states outlawed it, but it became a thing of the past in the United States by the start of the 20th century. To this day, anyone sworn into any statewide or county office or judgeship in Kentucky must declare under oath that he or she has not participated in, acted as a second or otherwise assisted in a duel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
23auwm | how does a bike roll down a hill (balance) with no assistance? | [
{
"answer": "Conservation of angular momentum. The wheels of the bike are spinning on a particular plane, and they naturally \"want\" to continue spinning on that plane, so they resist any change in that motion. In this case they resist the bike tipping over due to gravity. The faster they are spinning (meaning the more momentum they have) the more they will resist a change in that momentum. Once they slow down and lose momentum the bike will tip over.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1581009",
"title": "Track stand",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "A cyclist executing a basic track stand holds the bicycle's cranks in a horizontal position, with his or her dominant foot forward. Track stands executed on bicycles with a freewheel usually employ a small uphill section of ground. The uphill needs to be sufficient to allow the rider to create backward motion by relaxing pressure on the pedals, thus allowing the bike to roll backwards. Once the track stand is mastered, even a very tiny uphill section is sufficient: e.g. the camber of the road, a raised road marking, and so on. Where no such uphill exists, or even if the gradient is downhill, a track stand can be achieved on a freewheeling bicycle by using a brake to initiate a backwards movement. If a fixed-gear bicycle is being used, an uphill slope is not needed since the rider is able to simply back pedal to move backwards. In both cases forward motion is accomplished by pedalling forwards. The handlebars are held at approximately a 45 degree angle, converting the bike's forward and back motion into side-to-side motion beneath the rider's body. This allows the rider to keep the bike directly below their center of gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "183340",
"title": "Bicycle brake",
"section": "Section::::Braking technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 168,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 168,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "BULLET::::- Very loose surfaces (such as gravel and loose dirt): In some loose-surface situations, it may be beneficial to completely lock up the rear wheel in order to slow down or maintain control. On very steep slopes with loose surfaces where any braking will cause the wheel to skid, it can be better to maintain control of the bicycle by the rear-brake more than one would normally. However neither wheel should stop rotating completely, as this will result in very little control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "13251472",
"title": "Sideways bike",
"section": "Section::::Bicycle design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The sideways bike is different in many ways from a conventional diamond-framed bicycle. The rider controls direction by steering with both front and back handlebars. This means that the bicycle can maneuver effectively in congested conditions, weaving in and out of cars and performing tight turns. It also means that the rider can move the bike sideways, as the name suggests, such that the movement is perpendicular to the direction in which the frame points. Although this is possible, it is very difficult, as it is necessary for the rider to have extremely good balance and coordination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5343488",
"title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Even when staying relatively motionless, a rider can balance a bike by the same principle. While performing a track stand, the rider can keep the line between the two contact patches under the combined center of mass by steering the front wheel to one side or the other and then moving forward and backward slightly to move the front contact patch from side to side as necessary. Forward motion can be generated simply by pedaling. Backwards motion can be generated the same way on a fixed-gear bicycle. Otherwise, the rider can take advantage of an opportune slope of the pavement or lurch the upper body backwards while the brakes are momentarily engaged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3973",
"title": "Bicycle",
"section": "Section::::Technical aspects.:Dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "A bicycle stays upright while moving forward by being steered so as to keep its center of mass over the wheels. This steering is usually provided by the rider, but under certain conditions may be provided by the bicycle itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "5343488",
"title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
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"text": "If the steering of a bike is locked, it becomes virtually impossible to balance while riding. On the other hand, if the gyroscopic effect of rotating bike wheels is cancelled by adding counter-rotating wheels, it is still easy to balance while riding. One other way that a bike can be balanced, with or without locked steering, is by applying appropriate torques between the bike and rider similar to the way a gymnast can swing up from hanging straight down on uneven parallel bars, a person can start swinging on a swing from rest by pumping their legs, or a double inverted pendulum can be controlled with an actuator only at the elbow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5343488",
"title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "A bike remains upright when it is steered so that the ground reaction forces exactly balance all the other internal and external forces it experiences, such as gravitational if leaning, inertial or centrifugal if in a turn, gyroscopic if being steered, and aerodynamic if in a crosswind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
66hq9v | why (in the u.s) we are taxed twice, and in many cases a third time, on the same income? | [
{
"answer": "There's nothing illegal for different taxation at different levels of government for different purposed. Different taxes are for different governing bodies, some are more regressive, some more progressive, some go to specific uses while others go to general revenue streams. The amount needed to be collected is the same, so whether it was a 50% state income tax that also got distributed to cities and the Federal gov't or paying 3 different levels of taxes don't change the totals... in fact they might be higher, because different levels have different types of credits, etc. Like you might lose mortgage interest deduction if you didn't pay the Feds directly.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "30297",
"title": "Tax",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 218,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 218,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Taxes are most often levied as a percentage, called the \"tax rate\". An important distinction when talking about tax rates is to distinguish between the marginal rate and the effective tax rate. The effective rate is the total tax paid divided by the total amount the tax is paid on, while the marginal rate is the rate paid on the next dollar of income earned. For example, if income is taxed on a formula of 5% from $0 up to $50,000, 10% from $50,000 to $100,000, and 15% over $100,000, a taxpayer with income of $175,000 would pay a total of $18,750 in taxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "912407",
"title": "Corporate tax",
"section": "Section::::Taxation of shareholders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Some systems tax some or all dividend income at lower rates than other income. The United States has historically provided a dividends received deduction to corporations with respect to dividends from other corporations in which the recipient owns more than 10% of the shares. For tax years 2004–2010, the United States also has imposed a reduced rate of taxation on dividends received by individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "9337763",
"title": "Ordinary income",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "Another case where income is not taxed as ordinary income is the case of qualified dividends. The general rule taxes dividends as ordinary income. A change allowing use of the same tax rates as is used for long term capital gains rates for qualified dividends was made with the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003. Qualified dividends are dividends paid by domestic corporations or by corporations from foreign countries that have a tax treaty with the United States. This rule applies under the condition that the corporation has included the dividends in its own taxable income. Thus pass-through corporations like REITs and REMICs would not distribute qualified dividends, and the dividends from those entities would be taxed at the ordinary income rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8083250",
"title": "Tax deferral",
"section": "Section::::Income tax deferral.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "In jurisdictions where tax rates are progressive - meaning that income taxes as a percentage of income are higher for higher incomes or tax brackets, resulting in a higher marginal tax rate - this often results in lower taxes paid, regardless of the time value of money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9337763",
"title": "Ordinary income",
"section": "Section::::Rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "In the United States, ordinary income is taxed at the marginal tax rates. As of 2006, there are six \"tax brackets\" ranging from 10% to 35%. Ordinary income is taxed within the particular tax bracket listed on the rate schedules or tax tables as a percentage for each dollar within that bracket. However, after the 2003 Tax Cut, qualified dividends and long-term capital gains are taxed at the same rate of 15% (up to 20% after 2012).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5663992",
"title": "South Australia v Commonwealth",
"section": "Section::::Decision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The Income Tax Act 1942, was held to be valid despite the fact the rate was so high as to preclude the states from imposing income tax. As taxation is a non-purposive power, regardless of the object of the law, the subject matter was taxation, and hence valid under section 51(ii) of the Constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30552",
"title": "Taxation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Income tax.:State variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Forty-three states and many localities in the U.S. impose an income tax on individuals. Forty-seven states and many localities impose a tax on the income of corporations. Tax rates vary by state and locality, and may be fixed or graduated. Most rates are the same for all types of income. State and local income taxes are imposed in addition to federal income tax. State income tax is allowed as a deduction in computing federal income, but is capped at $10,000 per household since the passage of the 2017 tax law. Prior to the change, the average deduction exceeded $10,000 in most of the Midwest, most of the Northeast, as well as California and Oregon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
2jwufu | the "internet" to someone from the 1950s | [
{
"answer": "Think about it this way; you get your newspaper every morning, you sit down, and you read the headline story. Let's say it's a story about a car crash; you get an idea of what happened, who was involved, etc.\n\nNow imagine that instead of just reading *one* report, you could read several different reports with different opinions, all without going out and buying a whole stack of papers. *That's* what the Internet is.",
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"answer": "Basically just go over the history of computers so that each step is easy enough to imagine from the last:\n\nYou know adding machines? Well we've made them better. Much better. Instead of being mechanically constructed to do sums or other things with numbers we enter with some buttons we've extended them to be able to do all that calculating from instructions written on 'punch cards'. The punch cards specify what numbers to work on and how. This way we can, without needing a human to press all the buttons or work it all out, get this computer to perform complex calculations. It can count up all the numbers fed into it by the punch cards or get the ratio of how many of the values are above or below 5 or something, etc. Basically we replaced the buttons on the adding machine for pre-made punch cards that let you do the same thing without needing a human to push all the buttons. By putting census data or something on the punch cards we can feed it data and cards quickly without a human punching it all in manually.\n\nNext we started advancing it further - instead of punch cards we made electricity the 'card'. Just like in a radio a current is used to make the speakers vibrate differently - and thus make noise - we can use a current to signify data or instructions to the computer. Varying voltage is used rather than holes in cards. This lets us feed things into the computer much faster.\n\nAdditionally we found ways to store the data without the cards. It's possible to make extremely small 'marks' on special-made disks. It's almost like grammophone records. We mark these disks and can read them back with a very small head.\n\nThis lets us store data and instruction sets on these disks which are far smaller than punch-cards and can be fed in more quickly.\n\nWe then took these so-called 'drives' and integrated them into the computer directly so we didn't have to load every instruction set or data set in disk by disk. Now you could save commonly-used instruction sets to the computer and the computer had a mechanism added so you could just ask it to load these programs from the drive. This meant we no longer needed to load the new instruction set every time we wanted to do different things; an operator could switch what it was doing quickly.\n\nNext we made typewriter like 'keyboards' for the computers that let us start interacting with the computer. Special instruction sets were made to react to things we typed into it. If I typed in 'echo 5 + 5' the special instruction set would get the computer to add 5 and 5, then put the result on the monitor. (The monitor being like a TV that the computer can control to produce images for us.)\n\nIn time these computers were connected to the phone networks. Now computers could place calls to one another and exchange data using the phone network. This let us share things between computers. People started making centralized centres of knowledge for all sorts of things and we could ask our computer to call them to see this data on our own computer. \n\nEventually the phone-line system was replaced with a dedicated cable network just for computer to talk to one another.",
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"answer": "It's like a telephone that can call anyone, anywhere, and you can see through it like a television. You can choose what you want to see, like visiting a library, but you never have to leave your house. There are classifieds like in a newspaper, business listings like the yellow pages, movies like in a theater, and a seemingly endless library of magazines, journals, and bulletin boards. You can use it to buy things like you would from a catalog, and you can even see what other people who bought that item think about it. And you can write to other people looking at the internet, like a letter, but it's delivered almost in an instant. ",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13692",
"title": "History of the Internet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 650,
"text": "The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s. Initial concepts of wide area networking originated in several computer science laboratories in the United States, United Kingdom, and France. The U.S. Department of Defense awarded contracts as early as the 1960s, including for the development of the ARPANET project, directed by Robert Taylor and managed by Lawrence Roberts. The first message was sent over the ARPANET in 1969 from computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to the second network node at Stanford Research Institute (SRI).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "520231",
"title": "Melpar",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "The 1990s saw the development of the Internet, and its emphasis on computer science, information systems, and software technology. During the 1970s and 1980s a similar fervor was experienced in the telecommunications and biotechnology sectors. However, during the 1950s and 1960s the most exciting technical place to advance the knowledge was the fledgling aerospace and electronics industry. The 1950-60's had many new firms and people readily working long hours. A unique feature of the 1950s, however, was that the US government, not the commercial marketplace, was the prime source of funding of new technologies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34059213",
"title": "Mass media in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Electronic Mass Media in Canada.:Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "In the 1950s and 1960s, with the creation of computers, is where the history of the Internet begins. In 1969 came the invention of Arpanet, the first network to run on packet-switching technology. These were the first hosts on what would one day become the Internet. The concept of email was first created by Ray Tomlinson in 1971, and this innovation was followed by Project Gutenberg and eBooks. Tim Berners-Lee is considered the inventor of the World Wide Web; he implemented the first successful communication between a HyperText Transfer Protocol client and a server.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11357820",
"title": "Internet in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 275,
"text": "The Internet in the United States grew out of the ARPANET, a network sponsored by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the U.S. Department of Defense during the 1960s. The Internet in the United States in turn provided the foundation for the worldwide Internet of today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58229836",
"title": "F International",
"section": "Section::::History.:Founding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "At the start, in the 1960s, there were no accessible data communications services and no Internet, but in the 1970s the business attracted interest from academics and futurists as an example of what became known as teleworking or telecommuting. The Harvard Business School documented the F International business in a number of case studies. The business was the subject of several other international academic studies of homeworking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1002038",
"title": "Robert Taylor (computer scientist)",
"section": "Section::::Computer career.:ARPA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "In 1968, Licklider and Taylor published \"The Computer as a Communication Device\". The article laid out the future of what the Internet would eventually become. It began with a prophetic statement: \"In a few years, men will be able to communicate more effectively through a machine than face to face.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "23797577",
"title": "The Daily Telegraph",
"section": "Section::::Sister publications.:Website.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The website was launched, under the name \"electronic telegraph\" at midday on 15 November 1994 at the headquarters of \"The Daily Telegraph\" at Canary Wharf in London Docklands. It was Europe's first daily web-based newspaper. At this time, the modern internet was still in its infancy, with as few as 10,000 websites estimated to have existed at the time – compared to more than 100 billion by 2009. In 1994, only around 1% of the British population (some 600,000 people) had internet access at home, compared to more than 80% in 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
32hj6h | I was told that there is so much historical proof of jesus' ressurection that you can't claim it didn't happen, how true is this? | [
{
"answer": "**Commenters:** Please keep our commenting rules in mind as you respond to this. We've already had to remove a lot of comments that weren't up to the standards of the subreddit.\n\n**OP:** We actually have this question asked from time to time, or questions like it. You might be interested in these previous posts:\n\n* [So, what do we actually know about the life, existence, etcetera of the man called Jesus Christ?](_URL_0_)\n\n* [What do we really know about Jesus Christ?](_URL_5_)\n\n* [How is it that we can have so much concrete information on Ancient philosophers like Parmenides and Plato, yet so little on Jesus?](_URL_6_)\n\n* [What are your views on the mentioning of Jesus in Josephus' histories? Added later by people copying it down or authentic?](_URL_3_)\n\n* [I'd like a real historians critique of American Biblical scholar Joseph Atwill's \"new discovery\": ancient confessions recently uncovered now prove that the New Testament was written by first-century Roman aristocrats and that they fabricated the entire story of Jesus Christ.](_URL_4_)\n\n* [What do we actually know about Jesus?](_URL_2_)\n\n* [How much evidence is there for a historical jesus christ besides the bible?](_URL_1_)\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "24679208",
"title": "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour",
"section": "Section::::Ancient understanding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Many testified falsely against Jesus, but their statements did not agree. At last two witnesses said they had heard Him saying He would destroy that temple and in three days built another, not made with hands, (He really had meant the resurrection of His body, as a temple of the Holy Spirit, destroyed by others but raise it up by Him). Yet even about this their testimony did not agree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "4625952",
"title": "Messianic Secret",
"section": "Section::::Analysis and interpretation.:Other explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1513,
"text": "The theological explanation was proposed by Wrede: it was not yet the proper time for him to be revealed as such. He knew when he had to go to the court and then be crucified. In Mark 8:30 Jesus, \"Then strictly warned them that they should tell no one about Him.\" Jesus' messianic mission cannot be understood apart from the cross, which the disciples did not yet understand (vs. 31–33 and ch. 9 vs. 30–32). This theological explanation is supported by Matthew's explicit link between Pharisaic conspiracy to \"destroy\" Jesus and the latter's command to his followers \"not to make him known.\" Aware of the plot against him, Jesus \"withdrew from there\" and continued his healing ministry. Matthew goes one step ahead and claims that Jesus' conscious decision to fulfil his ministry by avoiding untimely conflict was a fulfilment of Isaiah's prophecy, Behold, my servant whom I have chosen, my beloved with whom my soul is well pleased. ... He will not quarrel or cry aloud, nor will anyone hear his voice in the streets; a bruised reed he will not break, and a smoldering wick he will not quench, until he brings justice to victory; and in his name the Gentiles will hope.The literary explanation theory has it that Mark made a conscious effort to identify Jesus with Odysseus, a Greek hero with whom Mark's gentile audience would certainly have been familiar. Odysseus, on his return home, has to disguise his identity to avoid his enemies, and in Mark the messianic secret could serve the same purpose for Jesus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "909512",
"title": "Historical background of the New Testament",
"section": "Section::::The divergence of early Christians and Rabbinic Jews.:The Emergence of Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "Paula Fredriksen, in \"From Jesus to Christ\", has suggested that Jesus' impact on his followers was so great that they could not accept this failure. According to the New Testament, some Christians believed that they encountered Jesus after his crucifixion; they argued that he had been resurrected (the belief in the resurrection of the dead in the messianic age was a core Pharisaic doctrine), and would soon return to usher in the Kingdom of God and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment. Others adapted Gnosticism as a way to maintain the vitality and validity of Jesus' teachings (see Elaine Pagels, \"The Gnostic Gospels\"). Since early Christians believed that Jesus had already replaced the Temple as the expression of a new covenant, they were relatively unconcerned with the destruction of the Temple, though it came to be viewed as symbolic of the doctrine of supersessionism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "2646111",
"title": "Criticism of Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Scripture.:Internal consistency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "While consideration of the context is necessary when studying the Bible, some find the accounts of the Resurrection of Jesus within the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, difficult to reconcile. E. P. Sanders concludes that the inconsistencies make the possibility of a deliberate fraud unlikely: \"A plot to foster belief in the Resurrection would probably have resulted in a more consistent story. Instead, there seems to have been a competition: 'I saw him,' 'So did I,' 'The women saw him first,' 'No, I did; they didn't see him at all,' and so on.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61325916",
"title": "John 20:25",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "when confronted with the resurrection account. Thomas' emphatic disbelief of the disciples' testimony intensified his resolution to seek physical evidence to convince him that the risen Jesus was the Jesus he had known. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "14709906",
"title": "Mara bar Serapion on Jesus",
"section": "Section::::Historical analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
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"text": "This means that it is impossible to infer if Mara believed the resurrection happened or not, and leaves it up to speculation whether he was a Christian or a non-Christian who agreed with Christians as regarding Jesus as a \"wise king\" according to the Gospels. Given that the gospel portraits of Jesus' crucifixion place much of the blame for the execution of Jesus on the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate (with the Jewish mob merely acting as agitators), some Gospels do agree with the Jews being to blame. And referring to \"king of the Jews\" rather than the Savior or Son of God indicates that the impressions of Bar-Serapion were not formed by Christian sources, although Jewish Christians did call him the king of the Jews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "823743",
"title": "Jewish Christian",
"section": "Section::::Early Jewish Christianity.:Beliefs.:Resurrection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "According to the New Testament, some Christians reported that they encountered Jesus after his crucifixion. They argued that he had been resurrected (belief in the resurrection of the dead in the Messianic Age was a core Pharisaic doctrine), and would soon return to usher in the Kingdom of God and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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] | null |
2juf49 | Can we create artificial atmospheres? | [
{
"answer": "It's hard, because planets are big. \n\nThink about what an atmosphere is. It's an razor thin envelope of gas that wraps around the surface of a rocky planet. There's no way to *fake* that. You don't want an *artificial* atmosphere, so much as you are actually asking for a real *bona fide* atmosphere.\n\nTo give the moon an atmosphere, you would literally need to come up with all of those gas molecules, the whole billion megatons of them. For perspective, [the mass of the earth's atmosphere is about 5x10^18 kg.](_URL_0_) I don't even know the SI prefix for that amount of mass- is that an exagram? Like a million billion kilograms? Good luck. \n\nFor the moon, there's just no way to come up with that amount of matter. But there's a bigger problem: the low gravity and the lack of a magnetic field. The moon's magnetic field is basically nonexistant compared to the earth, and it's smaller mass makes it less able to hold onto any gas at it's surface. This means it has no way to hold onto what it has or really shield itself from the solar wind, which is the wall of charged particles and radiation the sun is throwing out in every direction. This will strip the planet of any atmosphere in no time. \n[Edit: Astromike saves the day again, please see his comment below for a more accurate account of this.](_URL_1_)\n\nMars, similarly, has this problem. Mars is no longer tectonically active, and it's magnetic field has largely died. If Mars once had water, there isn't much of it left in the atmosphere. The water molecules, without the shielding of an ozone layer and magnetic field, would get broken up by the high energy rays from the sun into separate hydrogen and oxygen, and that hydrogen would float up to the top of the atmosphere (because less dense things like to be on top of more dense things, like oil on water), and would get stripped by the sun. Any Martian water that survived this dessication is either locked up in the polar ice caps, or underground.\n\nSo in an *xkcd-eqsue* what-if scenario, what if we wanted to make Mars habitable? Well there's a large science fiction literature about that, called terraforming. Terraforming involves processing the natural atmosphere of a planet or moon into one that is more earth like. In the case of Mars, you would want to add green house gasses to warm the planet. \n\nPossible mechanisms include: \n\n1. Bringing in large amounts of ammonia from comets to serve as green house gases to melt the polar ice caps. But how do you get them there? It's hard enough getting people to the ISS, let alone doing astronomical construction projects. \n\n2. Set up solar panels that will use the energy they generate to break the Martian CO2 atmosphere into carbon and oxygen. But CO2 is really stable and carbon needs something to bond with, so where are you going to come up with that material to serve as your carbon sink? And if this was so easy, why not do it on earth and solve global warming?\n\n3. Put a satellite with a mirror in orbit to focus light onto the polar ice caps, melting them. But you'll need a really fucking big mirror to even make a dent. Annual difference due to solar weather will make more of a difference than your mirror. \n\nRemember, the sum of humanity has been pumping carbon dioxide into the earth's atmosphere for the better part of 200 years, and the effects have been slow to appear, so slow that's it's still hard to convince Americans it matters. So now how do you get a small team of scientists to do it on a planet we haven't even set foot on yet?",
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"answer": "The [Biosphere project](_URL_0_) aimed to do just that, to test whether you could create a self sustaining atmosphere and ecosystem inside an airtight greenhouse. They weren't completely successful, but a lot of useful lessons were learnt from the project.\n\nYou can't add an atmosphere directly to the moon because it doesn't have enough gravity to hold on to it, but you could create an artificial atmosphere in large airtight structures like Biosphere.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18896",
"title": "Human spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Safety concerns.:Mechanical hazards.:Artificial atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen in an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen-oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for extravehicular activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4816",
"title": "Biosphere",
"section": "Section::::Extraterrestrial biospheres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "It is also possible that artificial biospheres will be created during the future, for example on Mars. The process of creating an uncontained system that mimics the function of Earth's biosphere is called terraforming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28462507",
"title": "Electrostatic fluid accelerator",
"section": "Section::::Physical principles.:Ionization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "It is possible to ionize air artificially, and there are many methods for doing so, as is done for example in arc welding and light bulbs. However many of the methods known to science do not operate in conditions which are conducive to everyday uses; for example, very high temperatures or very low pressures might be required. Or as in light bulbs, specialized materials and gases may be used and extraneous light and heat might be produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290472",
"title": "Artificiality",
"section": "Section::::Distinguishing natural objects from artificial objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "It is generally possible for humans, and in some instances, for computers, to distinguish natural from artificial environments. The artificial environment tends to have more physical regularity both spatially and over time, with natural environments tending to have both irregular structures and structures that change over time. However, on close observation it is possible to discern some mathematical structures and patterns in natural environments, which can then be replicated to create an artificial environment with a more natural appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55797400",
"title": "Design studies",
"section": "Section::::Issues and Concepts in Design Studies.:Concepts.:The Artificial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Clive Dilnot goes further and clarifies that the artificial is by no means confined to technology. Today, it is combination of technical systems, the symbolic realm, including mind and the realm of our transformations and transmutations of nature. He gives the example of a genetically modified tomato that is neither purely natural nor purely artificial. It belongs rather to the extended realms of living things that are, as human beings ourselves are, a hybrid between these conditions – Neither nature nor the artificial nor the human are today pure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50506253",
"title": "Locomotion in space",
"section": "Section::::Technology used to compensate for the negative effects.:Artificial gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Several studies have suggested that artificial gravity might be an adequate countermeasure for prolonged space flight, especially if combined with other countermeasures. A conceptual design entitled ViGAR (Virtual Gravity Artificial Reality) was proposed in 2005 by Kobrick et al. and it details a device that combines artificial gravity, exercise and virtual reality to counter the negative effects of prolonged spaceflight. It includes a bicycle on a centrifuge as well as an integrated virtual reality system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46758047",
"title": "Bigger Than Worlds",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "Niven can conceive of four ways of generating artificial gravity in a spaceship: (1) centrifugal force; (2) adding mass, e.g. neutronium or a black hole (this would incur serious penalties in fuel consumption); (3) gravity waves; and (4) continuous linear acceleration to the midway point of a journey, followed by continuous deceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
71tztk | why do space craft enter the atmosphere at full velocity, requiring heat shields and risking burning up? | [
{
"answer": "Extra fuel is extra weight. Extra weight requires more fuel to lift it and slow it down. More economical to use the atmosphere as a brake",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"at the expense of additional fuel\"\n\nThat's a really big expense, both in cost and weight. Its just literally not economically viable right now to do it that way. Though things like space x are starting to work on it.\n\nRight now it makes most economic sense to just let it burn and crash and rebuild it, because thats how much more expensive that extra fuel is.",
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"answer": "The reverse thrusters would increase the total fuel required for the trip by over 2x! You need the fuel to slow down from 8 km/s which is going to be almost your full starting fuel load, *AND* the fuel required to lift all that fuel into orbit and speed it up to 8 km/s\n\nAny additional weight results in a significant increase in fuel requirements which requires a bigger rocket. It took a Saturn V rocket to get the Apollo mission to the moon, to use retrorockets to slow the command module for reentry would likely have doubled the payload mass requiring an even bigger rocket, bigger than any rocket ever made by anyone ever! Its just not feasible, a heat shield works pretty damn good and is pretty reliable and light",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "A spacecraft like The Shuttle or The Soyuz cannot physically carry enough fuel to slow it down enough to where it will not require a heat shield when it enters the atmosphere. Think about how freakin big the rocket was just to get it up there in the first place. Now when in orbit, your speed is directly related to how high the craft flies over the planet. Add additional speed and your craft will fly higher and vice versa. If you slow your craft down too much, it will enter the atmosphere at a very steep angle, this is bad. Heat shields can only handle so much and diving through the thicker layers of the atmosphere at sub-orbital velocity is a great way to burst into flames. The easiest and cheapest way to land a spacecraft is to slow it down just enough to dip into the higher layers of the atmosphere. Then using these thin, upper layers to slow the craft down. That way the heat shield can take the heat and you don't have to spend so much fuel slowing down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone else here has given great explanations. If you want to see how fuel, weight, and all of that interact, go download a copy of Kerbal Space Program. You'll get to see what all it takes to get things into orbit and back down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People are saying that it would take much more fuel, but I want to try to quantify that a little bit. This isn't exactly ELI5 but I feel that it's illustrative. You can skip the maths and just read the conclusion, if you want.\n\nThe relevant equation for changing the speed of a rocket is the imaginatively named [rocket equation](_URL_0_), which looks like this\n\nΔv = v_exhaust * ln((m_fuel + m_rocket)/m_rocket)\n\nwhere Δv (pronounced delta-v) is how much your rocket can change its velocity, v_exhaust is the exhaust velocity of your rocket engine, m_fuel is the mass of all the fuel you're starting with, and m_rocket is the weight of your rocket with no fuel in.\n\nRearranging a bit gives us \n\nm_fuel = m_rocket * (e^(Δv/v_exhaust) - 1)\n\nWe can plug some values in from a real rocket now to get a sense of how much more fuel we'd have to carry to completely slow down before entering the atmosphere.\n\nThe Space Shuttle weighs about 69 tons empty, and its engines have an exhaust velocity of about 4.4 kilometres per second. If it were coming back from, say, the International Space Station, and we wanted to completely slow down then it would need about 7.7 kilometres per second of delta-v. Plugging these values for v_exhaust, m_rocket and Δv into our equation gives us \n\nm_fuel = 69 tons * (e^(7.7/4.4) - 1)\n\nYou work that out, and you'll find it's almost 330 tons of fuel. That's almost *5 times* the weight of the Space Shuttle itself. You can clearly see that this is a wildly unrealistic amount of fuel. Conversely, slowing down just enough to be able to use the atmosphere for aerobraking takes only on the order of 100 m/s of Δv, which is easily achievable.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "233740",
"title": "Heat shield",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Spacecraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Spacecraft that land on a planet with an atmosphere, such as Earth, Mars, and Venus, currently do so by entering the atmosphere at high speeds, depending on air resistance rather than rocket power to slow them down. A side effect of this method of atmospheric re-entry is aerodynamic heating, which can be highly destructive to the structure of an unprotected or faulty spacecraft. An aerodynamic heat shield consists of a protective layer of special materials to dissipate the heat. Two basic types of aerodynamic heat shield have been used:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37913",
"title": "Escape velocity",
"section": "Section::::Scenarios.:Practical considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "In most situations it is impractical to achieve escape velocity almost instantly, because of the acceleration implied, and also because if there is an atmosphere, the hypersonic speeds involved (on Earth a speed of 11.2 km/s, or 40,320 km/h) would cause most objects to burn up due to aerodynamic heating or be torn apart by atmospheric drag. For an actual escape orbit, a spacecraft will accelerate steadily out of the atmosphere until it reaches the escape velocity appropriate for its altitude (which will be less than on the surface). In many cases, the spacecraft may be first placed in a parking orbit (e.g. a low Earth orbit at 160–2,000 km) and then accelerated to the escape velocity at that altitude, which will be slightly lower (about 11.0 km/s at a low Earth orbit of 200 km). The required additional change in speed, however, is far less because the spacecraft already has significant orbital velocity (in low Earth orbit speed is approximately 7.8 km/s, or 28,080 km/h).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37167420",
"title": "Sharp Edge Flight Experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "During re-entry of spacecraft into the earth's atmosphere, the high velocity of the spacecraft together with friction and displacement of air molecules leads to temperatures of over 2000 °C. In order to not burn up, spaceships need very expensive and sometimes failing heat shields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738178",
"title": "Orbital spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Deorbit and re-entry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Intentional aerobraking is achieved by orienting the returning space craft so as to present the heat shields forward toward the atmosphere to protect against the high temperatures generated by atmospheric compression and friction caused by passing through the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds. The thermal energy is dissipated mainly by compression heating the air in a shockwave ahead of the vehicle using a blunt heat shield shape, with the aim of minimising the heat entering the vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455201",
"title": "Spaceplane",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.:Atmospheric reentry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Orbital spacecraft reentering the Earth's atmosphere must shed significant velocity, resulting in extreme heating. For example, the Space Shuttle thermal protection system (TPS) protects the orbiter's interior structure from surface temperatures that reach as high as , well above the melting point of steel. Suborbital spaceplanes fly lower energy trajectories that do not put as much stress on the spacecraft thermal protection system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155758",
"title": "Gravity assist",
"section": "Section::::Limits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Another limitation is the atmosphere, if any, of the available planet. The closer the spacecraft can approach, the faster its periapsis speed as gravity accelerates the spacecraft, allowing for more kinetic energy to be gained from a rocket burn. However, if a spacecraft gets too deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's gravity. On the other hand, the atmosphere can be used to accomplish aerobraking. There have also been theoretical proposals to use aerodynamic lift as the spacecraft flies through the atmosphere. This maneuver, called an aerogravity assist, could bend the trajectory through a larger angle than gravity alone, and hence increase the gain in energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45294",
"title": "Atmospheric entry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Ballistic warheads and expendable vehicles do not require slowing at reentry, and in fact, are made streamlined so as to maintain their speed. Furthermore, slow-speed returns to Earth from near-space such as parachute jumps from balloons do not require heat shielding because the gravitational acceleration of an object starting at relative rest from within the atmosphere itself (or not far above it) cannot create enough velocity to cause significant atmospheric heating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
6dksc3 | the earth is about 4.5 billion years old, but at what physical point do scientists classify a planet's age as 0? | [
{
"answer": "When it started to be a planet.\n\nTo be a planet, it needs to fit three criteria:\n\nA planet is an object in orbit around the Sun with a diameter greater than 2000 km.\n\nA planet is an object in orbit around the Sun whose shape is stable due to its own gravity.\n\nA planet is an object in orbit around the Sun that is dominant in its immediate neighbourhood.\n\nSo, basically, it needed to coalesce into a stable shape and clear out the immediate neighbourhood.\n\nThere's no hard-and-fast answer of when it \"became\" a planet. There's no point where you can say \"Before this instant, it was not a planet, but now it is.\"\n\nJust like how if you have a pile of seeds, and then take one seed away at a time, you can't say there's a specific time when taking away a single seed made it from a pile into something that isn't a pile anymore. Obviously if you have only one seed, it isn't a pile. Is two seeds a pile of seeds? Probably not.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "49256",
"title": "Age of the Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The age of the Earth is estimated to be 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years This age may represent the age of the Earth's accretion, of core formation, or of the material from which the Earth formed. This dating is based on evidence from radiometric age-dating of meteorite material and is consistent with the radiometric ages of the oldest-known terrestrial and lunar samples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40836275",
"title": "Cosmic age problem",
"section": "Section::::1950–1970.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The age of the Earth (actually the Solar System) was first accurately measured around 1955 by Clair Patterson at 4.55 billion years, essentially identical to the modern value. For H ~ 75 (km/s)/Mpc, the inverse of H is 13.0 billion years; so after 1958 the Big Bang model age was comfortably older than the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34558",
"title": "20th century",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "BULLET::::- The age of the solar system, including Earth, was determined, and it turned out to be much older than believed earlier: more than 4 billion years, rather than the 20 million years suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1862.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56516812",
"title": "20th century in science",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy and space exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "BULLET::::- The age of the solar system, including Earth, was determined, and it turned out to be much older than believed earlier: more than 4 billion years, rather than the 20 million years suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1862.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12967",
"title": "Geologic time scale",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The geology or \"deep time\" of Earth's past has been organized into various units according to events which took place. Different spans of time on the GTS are usually marked by corresponding changes in the composition of strata which indicate major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other groups of life. Older time spans, which predate the reliable fossil record (before the Proterozoic eon), are defined by their absolute age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Cultural and historical viewpoint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old. The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the Apollo program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12207",
"title": "Geology",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Much of 19th-century geology revolved around the question of the Earth's exact age. Estimates varied from a few hundred thousand to billions of years. By the early 20th century, radiometric dating allowed the Earth's age to be estimated at two billion years. The awareness of this vast amount of time opened the door to new theories about the processes that shaped the planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hm5n2 | How much body heat do you lose in your legs compared to your arms? And in your hands and feet? | [
{
"answer": "heat loss is fairly uniform throughout the body.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9688617",
"title": "Parkland formula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The burn percentage in adults can be estimated by applying the Wallace rule of nines (see total body surface area): 9% for each arm, 18% for each leg, 18% for the front of the torso, 18% for the back of the torso, and 9% for the head and 1% for the perineum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1496755",
"title": "Yakitate!! Japan",
"section": "Section::::Techniques and special terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Normally, extremities such as the hands are lower in temperature than the rest of the body, but if one can increase blood flow to the hands, that difference decreases. In France, those that possess this ability are said to have \"Solar Hands\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4233295",
"title": "Wall sit",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "BULLET::::- As the participant gains strength, they can increase their holding time by small increments such as 10 seconds. While a burning feeling in the quadriceps muscles is normal, if the participant feels even a little pain in their knee or kneecap, they should be advised to immediately stop the activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13955557",
"title": "Mechanostat",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "For example, a patient in a wheel chair who is using his arms but due to his paraplegia not his legs will suffer massive muscle and bone loss only in his legs due to the lack of usage of the legs. However the muscles and bones of the arms which are used every day will stay the same or might even be increased depending on the usage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77538",
"title": "Perspiration",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Hyperhidrosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "In some people, the body's mechanism for cooling itself is overactive—so overactive that they may sweat four or five times more than is typical. Millions of people are affected by this condition, but more than half never receive treatment due to embarrassment or lack of awareness. While it most commonly affects the armpits, feet, and hands, it is possible for someone to experience this condition over their whole body. The face is another common area for hyperhidrosis to be an issue. Sweating uncontrollably is not always expected and may be embarrassing to sufferers of the condition. It can cause both physiological and emotional problems in patients. It is generally an inherited problem that is found in each ethnic group. It is not life-threatening, but it is threatening to a person's quality of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7174190",
"title": "Circulatory anastomosis",
"section": "Section::::Physiologic.:Arterio-venous.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Superficial arterio-venous anastomoses open when the body reaches a high temperature, and enable the body to cool itself. As warm arterial blood passes close to the surface it will decrease in temperature. This occurs together with sweating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1558987",
"title": "Erb's palsy",
"section": "Section::::Presentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "The lack of development to the circulatory system can leave the arm with almost no ability to regulate its temperature, which often proves problematic during winter months when it would need to be closely monitored to ensure that the temperature of the arm was not dropping too far below that of the rest of the body. However the damage to the circulatory system also leaves the arm with another problem. It reduces the healing ability of the skin, so that skin damage takes far longer than usual to heal, and infections in the arm can be quite common if cuts are not sterilized as soon as possible. This will often cause many problems for children since they often injure themselves in the course of their childhoods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1c1m2n | Theoretically could you implant cones into your eyes that would allow you to see colors you could previously not see? | [
{
"answer": "Perhaps. Experiments have been done where new visual pigment proteins have been introduced into red-green colorblind monkeys, and afterwards the monkeys could distinguish colors that they were not able to previously. However, these experiments did not implant new cones into the monkey retinas. Instead new proteins were expressed in previously existing cones, and the circuitry already in place adapted to the new spectral properties of the photopigments.\n\nSee the [Neitz Lab website](_URL_0_) or their [published paper](_URL_1_) for more info.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24455494",
"title": "Jay Neitz",
"section": "Section::::Possibility of turning human trichromats into tetrachromats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Neitz further states that since apparently \"the neural circuits can handle even higher dimensions of color vision that could come from artificially adding a fourth cone type, it is possible that gene therapy could also be used to extend normal human color vision\", making human trichromats into tetrachromats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27108706",
"title": "Gene therapy for color blindness",
"section": "Section::::Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Experiments using a variety of mammals (including primates) demonstrated that it is possible to confer color vision to animals by introducing an opsin gene that the animal previously lacked. Using a replication-defective recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) as a vector, the cDNA of the opsin gene found in the L or M cones can be delivered to some fraction of the cones within the retina via subretinal injection. Upon gaining the gene, the cone begins to express the new photopigment. The effect of therapy lasts until the cones die or the inserted DNA is lost within the cones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49492650",
"title": "Blue cone monochromacy",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "A previous important result shows that in adult primates it is possible to restore colour vision through an AAV gene therapy that introduced a new opsin in the primate retina. A mouse model of blue cone monochromacy has been treated with gene-based therapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7397",
"title": "Color blindness",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Lenses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Optometrists can supply colored spectacle lenses or a single red-tint contact lens to wear on the non-dominant eye, but although this may improve discrimination of some colors, it can make other colors more difficult to distinguish. A 1981 review of various studies to evaluate the effect of the X-chrom contact lens concluded that, while the lens may allow the wearer to achieve a better score on certain color vision tests, it did not correct color vision in the natural environment. A case history using the X-Chrom lens for a rod monochromat is reported and an X-Chrom manual is online.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12197667",
"title": "Corneal tattooing",
"section": "Section::::Alternative methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "An alternative way to permanently change the color of the eye is called bright ocular, and is achieved by placing an artificial silicon lens on top of the original iris. The clients can choose from a variety of colors and different designs and images. The method also makes it possible to remove the implant later in life to get the original eye color back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25921922",
"title": "Impossible color",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "BULLET::::1. Colors that would be seen if the output strengths of the human eye retina's three types of cone cell (red, green, blue) could be set to values which cannot be produced by exposing the eye in normal seeing conditions to any possible combination of strengths of the frequencies of visible light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3252994",
"title": "Ocularist",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Traditionally ocularists hand paint the iris and sclera of an artificial eye. In the 1990s some ocularists began to use digital printing to enhance the natural appearance of the artificial eye. Digital artificial eyes are only made in a few ocularist offices. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34gqic | Was Russia/Stalin truly hoping to share the Europe with Germany/Hitler or was Stalin playing a waiting game? | [
{
"answer": "First of all let me say that Stalin didn't leave a diary so we can't exactly say what his emotions or personal thoughts were with confidence. That said, he was probably neither of those things. \n\nThe idea that he locked himself in a room for 3 days is certainly not true. We do have a record of his itinerary of the first day after the German invasion. Stalin spent the entire day meeting senior officials and generals, from before 6am to after midnight. He continued to have a fairly busy schedule that entire week. Nor could we say that he was really \"shocked\". Under a cover of military exercises, the Red Army began to mobilize before the Germans had invaded and certain units were ordered to move toward the border. A special directive was issued to the troops that an imminent attack was likely. All of these steps were significantly belated - mobilization should have began nearly a month prior. To say that Stalin was completely shocked would be misleading. Also to say that Stalin and Hitler were \"friends\" is a bit preposterous - the two have never met or even interacted directly. \n\nThat said you COULD make a case that Stalin fell into a state of despair or panic slightly later, about a week after the war began, when it became clear that things were developing catastrophically, the city of Minsk had fallen, and that war might be lost. He retreated to his dacha outside of Moscow, and didn't see people for a period of 3 days. Stalin is described as depressed. When several senior officials came to visit Stalin, upon seeing him he supposedly thought they came to arrest him. However this hypothesis, too, is tenuous. Stalin frequently worked in his dacha, so him being there isn't really evidence of him trying to hide. Almost all evidence comes down to memoirs of a single person, Anastas Mikoyan. Unlike several people who later wrote about Stalin's possible depression, such as Khrushchev, Mikoyan was the only one actually on the scene. It is certainly possible that Stalin was feeling down after receiving terrible news from the front. Anthony Beevor writes that Stalin even floated the idea to offer huge swaths of western USSR (including Ukraine and Belarus) to Hitler in exchange for peace but was then dissuaded of this. In short, it seems that Stalin was more affected by how poorly the war was going rather than the start of the war itself. Beyond that, there isn't a whole lot of evidence to go on, beyond a couple memoirs and speculations of Stalin's associates. \n\nLastly, there is the idea that Stalin himself was about to invade Germany and that Hitler just preempted him. This hypothesis was popularized by a former Soviet spy who wrote under a pseudonym Viktor Suvorov. However, almost no reputable Russian or western historian supports this idea. While it is definitely possible that Stalin planned to eventually attack Germany, it is extremely unlikely that would have happened that year. The Soviet military was undergoing wide-sweeping reforms and reorganization and was in no shape for a major war at the time. \n\nEDIT: My first gold ever - thank you kind sir/lady!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Isn't it true that Stalin made several attempts to form alliances with the Western powers against the radically anti-communist Hitler and was rejected every time? And the pact with Hitler was really a temporary last ditch effort to protect the USSR?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1452225",
"title": "Foreign relations of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::1917–1939.:Alliance with France?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 930,
"text": "The Soviet Union was not invited to the critical Munich conference in late September 1938, where Britain, France and Italy appeased Hitler by giving in to his demands to take over the Sudetenland, a largely German-speaking area of Western Czechoslovakia. Distrust was high in all directions. Leaders in London and Paris felt that Stalin wanted to see a major war between the capitalist nations Germany on the one hand, and Britain and France on the other, in order to advance the prospects of a working-class revolution in Europe. Meanwhile, Stalin felt the Western Powers were plotting to embroil Germany and Russia in war in order to preserve bourgeois capitalism. After Hitler took over all of Czechoslovakia in 1939, proving appeasement was a disaster, Britain and France tried to involve the Soviet Union and a real military alliance. Their attempts were futile because Poland refused to allow any Soviet troops on its soil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9758820",
"title": "November 1940",
"section": "Section::::November 26, 1940 (Tuesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the wake of the German–Soviet Axis talks, Vyacheslav Molotov told the German ambassador to the Soviet Union that the USSR was willing to join a four-power pact with Germany, Italy and Japan if new Soviet territorial demands were met, including expansion into the Persian Gulf and the annexation of Finland. Hitler called Stalin a \"cold-blooded blackmailer\" and refused to make any response to the Soviet proposal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159203",
"title": "Munich Agreement",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Joseph Stalin was upset by the results of the Munich conference. The Soviets, who had a mutual military assistance treaty with Czechoslovakia, felt betrayed by France, who also had a mutual military assistance treaty with Czechoslovakia. The British and French, however, mostly used the Soviets as a threat to dangle over the Germans. Stalin concluded that the West had actively colluded with Hitler to hand over a Central European country to the Nazis, causing concern that they might do the same to the Soviet Union in the future, allowing the partition of the USSR between the western powers and the fascist Axis. This belief led the Soviet Union to reorient its foreign policy towards a rapprochement with Germany, which eventually led to the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in 1939.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47246185",
"title": "History of socialism",
"section": "Section::::The Post-war era (1945–1985).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "As a result of the failure of the Popular Fronts and the inability of Britain and France to conclude a defensive alliance against Hitler, Stalin again changed his policy in August 1939 and signed a non-aggression pact, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, with Nazi Germany. Shortly afterwards World War II broke out, and within two years Hitler had occupied most of Europe, and by 1942 both democracy and social democracy in central Europe fell under the threat of fascism. The only socialist parties of any significance able to operate freely were those in Britain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. But the entry of the Soviet Union into the war in 1941 marked the turning of the tide against fascism, and as the German armies retreated another great upsurge in left-wing sentiment swelled up in their wake. The resistance movements against German occupation were mostly led by socialists and communists, and by the end of the war the parties of the left were greatly strengthened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4107999",
"title": "Anglo-Polish military alliance",
"section": "Section::::Failed Soviet-Franco-British alliance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Meanwhile, Stalin simultaneously was secretly negotiating with the Germans. He was attracted to a much better deal by Hitler, the control of most of Eastern Europe, and decided to sign the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1452225",
"title": "Foreign relations of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::1917–1939.:Non-Aggression Pact with Germany (1939–1941).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "In 1938–39, the Soviet Union attempted to form strong military alliances with Germany's enemies, including Poland, France, and Great Britain. The effort failed. Stalin and Hitler were quietly negotiating all the while, and Hitler offered Russian control of a large swath of Eastern Europe, including the Baltic countries, and half of Poland, as well as other territories. The agreement provided for large sales of Russian grain and oil to Germany, while Germany would share its military technology with the Soviet Union. The ensuing Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact astonished the world and signaled the war would start very soon. French historian François Furet says, \"The pact signed in Moscow by Ribbentrop and Molotov on 23 August 1939 inaugurated the alliance between the USSR and Nazi Germany. It was presented as an alliance and not just a nonaggression pact.\" Other historians dispute the characterization of this treaty as an \"alliance,\" because Hitler secretly intended to invade the USSR in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "865825",
"title": "Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Mid-1941 relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Stalin felt that there was a growing split in German circles about whether Germany should initiate a war with the Soviet Union. Stalin did not know that Hitler had been secretly discussing an invasion of the Soviet Union since the summer of 1940, and that Hitler had ordered his military in late 1940 to prepare for war in the east regardless of the parties' talks of a potential Soviet entry as a fourth Axis Power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
Subsets and Splits