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[ { "answer": "[The Maillard Reaction](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27001", "title": "Smoke", "section": "Section::::Chemical composition.:Visible and invisible particles of combustion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 409, "text": "The naked eye detects particle sizes greater than 7 µm (micrometres). Visible particles emitted from a fire are referred to as smoke. Invisible particles are generally referred to as gas or fumes. This is best illustrated when toasting bread in a toaster. As the bread heats up, the products of combustion increase in size. The fumes initially produced are invisible but become visible if the toast is burnt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2443279", "title": "Compressed tea", "section": "Section::::Consumption.:Beverage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 384, "text": "BULLET::::1. \"Toasting\": A piece was broken from the tea brick and usually first toasted over a fire. This was probably done to sanitize the tea brick and destroy any mold or insect infestation that may have occurred when the bricks were stored uncovered in warehouses and storerooms or in covered jars underground. Toasting also imparted a pleasant flavor to the resulting beverage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1866758", "title": "Tea culture", "section": "Section::::East Asia.:China.:Two periods.:Tea brick phase.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 317, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Toasting\": Tea bricks are usually first toasted over a fire to destroy any mould or insects that may have burrowed into the tea bricks. Such infestation sometimes occurred since the bricks were stored openly in warehouses and storerooms. Toasting likely imparted a pleasant flavour to the resulting tea.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4491426", "title": "Buttered cat paradox", "section": "Section::::In reality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 665, "text": "Toast, being an inanimate object, lacks both the ability and the desire to right itself. A study at Manchester Metropolitan University involving dropping 100 slices under laboratory conditions established that toast typically lands on the floor butter-side-down as a result of the manner in which it is typically dropped from a table, and the aerodynamic drag caused by the air pockets within the bread. The toast is typically butter-side-up when dropped. As it falls, it rotates; given the typical speed of rotation and the typical height of a table, a slice of toast that began butter-side-up on the table will land butter-side-down on the floor in 81% of cases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14093471", "title": "Toast (play)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 305, "text": "Toast is a play written in 1999 by English playwright Richard Bean. It premiered at the Royal Court Theatre, London in 1999. The play tells the story of seven men who all work in a bread factory in Hull. One Sunday night, Nellie is so worn down from a lifetime making dough, he loses his vest in the mix.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "274675", "title": "Maillard reaction", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 365, "text": "The reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning which typically proceeds rapidly from around . Many recipes call for an oven temperature high enough to ensure that a Maillard reaction occurs. At higher temperatures, caramelization (the browning of sugars, a distinct process) and subsequently pyrolysis (final breakdown leading to burning) become more pronounced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37970127", "title": "Buttered toast phenomenon", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 494, "text": "In the past, this has often been considered just a pessimistic belief. A 1991 study by the BBC's television series \"Q.E.D.\" found that when toast is tossed into the air, it lands butter-side down just one-half of the time (as would be predicted by chance). However, several scientific studies have found that when toast is dropped from a table (as opposed to being thrown in the air), it more often falls butter-side down. A study by Robert Matthews won the Ig Nobel Prize for physics in 1996.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You will be burning slightly fewer calories. The reason for this is that all body mass needs to burn calories constantly to maintain normal life processes, but if you put on the vest, the vest would not need to burn calories.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think it would significantly depend on what exercises you're doing and where the added weight is located on your body. For instance, if you have a 20lb vest on while you bench press, you'll likely be burning fewer calories than someone who weighs the full 220 because that weight will be distributed more widely across the body, so some of that 20lbs will be located in their arms and hands, adding some weight to the exercise.\n\nOn the other hand, if you were wearing two 10lb wrist bands while doing a bench press, you'd burn more since someone naturally weighing 220lbs isn't likely to have that full extra 20lbs concentrated in their arms and hands.\n\nAs someone else mentioned, the naturally 220lb person will inherently be expending slightly more calories just because their extra 20 has cellular processes that require energy. So, there may be some situations in which you'd expend slightly more energy on the exercise itself, but they'd burn more calories overall due to their cellular processes. Though,I'd imagine those are rare.\n\nIn general, if you place the weight where it'd increase resistance the most for an exercise, you'll burn more calories.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "54712", "title": "Abdominal obesity", "section": "Section::::Prevention and treatments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 716, "text": "A permanent routine of exercise, eating healthily, and, during periods of being overweight, consuming the same number or fewer calories than used will prevent and help fight obesity. A single pound of fat yields approximately 3500 calories of energy (32 000 kJ energy per kilogram of fat), and weight loss is achieved by reducing energy intake, or increasing energy expenditure, thus achieving a negative balance. Adjunctive therapies which may be prescribed by a physician are orlistat or sibutramine, although the latter has been associated with increased cardiovascular events and strokes and has been withdrawn from the market in the US, the UK, the EU, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Thailand, Egypt and Mexico.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "166394", "title": "Aerobics", "section": "Section::::Benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 206, "text": "Like other forms of exercise, step aerobics helps burn calories and fat. The number of calories burned depends on the speed of movements, step height, length of exercise, and the persons height and weight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6914145", "title": "Dance Factory (video game)", "section": "Section::::Modes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 466, "text": "BULLET::::- Fitness mode is similar to Endurance mode. Weight is entered at the beginning which can be altered to the player's own weight, which can range from 10.00 kg to 200 kg. There is a calorie counter on the screen and mis-stepping displays \"Pork Out\" and \"Gettin' Flabby\" instead of \"Miss\". When a song is finished, the screen shows the number of calories burned and how far one would have to jog, swim or cycle to burn off the same number of calories burnt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7697517", "title": "College health", "section": "Section::::Weight Gain.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 312, "text": "Although students do gain weight in college, they can always burn it off by exercising and eating right. Overall meaning limiting how much they eat out and the junk food they pact into their body system. Students can prevent the ‘freshman 15’ if only they put effort and hard work for a healtheir body or image.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3549164", "title": "Weight cutting", "section": "Section::::Dieting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 353, "text": "In addition to improving performance through healthy eating, some athletes will seek to lose weight through dieting and aerobic exercise. By losing fat they hope to achieve a higher \"strength-to-mass ratio\" or \"lean weight.\" This means more muscle and less fat, and should theoretically give them an advantage against other athletes of the same weight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "400199", "title": "Weight loss", "section": "Section::::Intentional.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 246, "text": "Weight loss is achieved by adopting a lifestyle in which fewer calories are consumed than are expended. According to the UK National Health Service this is best achieved by monitoring calories eaten and supplementing this with physical exercise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13152996", "title": "Tesofensine", "section": "Section::::Clinical trials.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 451, "text": "All participants were instructed to follow a diet with a 300 kcal deficit and to increase their physical activity gradually to 30–60 minutes of exercise per day. The placebo-subtracted mean weight losses were 4.5%, 9.2% and 10.6% in the 0.25 mg, 0.5 mg and 1 mg dose groups, respectively. This is approximately twice the weight loss produced by medications currently approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of obesity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sometimes your eyes have different ratios of the color sensing cone cells. There are even people called unilateral dichromats who are colorblind in one eye but see normally in the other (not to say that is what you seem to be describing).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I get this phenomenon, particularly when laying on my side. I remember learning somewhere that it's caused by different blood pressure in the eyes. Sadly I can't find a cite, so if this falls too much under \"speculation\" feel free to delete it. But experimenting on myself I can reliably see that it's the lower eye that sees warmer colors every time, as reported in some of the comments here:\n\n_URL_0_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My photography expertise is usable here! \n\nSo see this. When you close an eyelid, the sunlight is filtering trough a blood lined flap of skin. This makes the \"warm\"(sub 4300kelvin\" light look even warmer. \n\nSee, our eyes adjust the \"white balance\" of our surroundings. That's why when you walk into a room lit with compact fluorescent bulbs it all seems green but after a few minutes it looks pure white in the room. Our eyes adjust to the color balance and shift to where grey really actual looks grey with no tinge.\n\nSo seeing all this ultra warm light thru your closed eye makes your brain balance the light to with a lot of blue. The blue is apparent when you open your eye and look at a white object. \n\nYour eye that was open, Is perfectly balanced. But when you compare, it seems very warm. \n\nSources: 5 years of photography and 17 years of staring at the sun.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To answer your main question, it would be helpful to be as specific as possible about the exact circumstances. There are two possibilities of what you are actually experiencing:\n\n(1) The color difference is invariant. Your right eye _always_ perceives a warmer color tone in any condition. You have to be careful here because if you always test this the same way, e.g. by closing your left eye first, you could be biasing your own interpretation.\n\n(2) The color difference changes based on which eye you close first or where a given light source is in a room.\n\nSo, first, I don't notice this color temperature difference and am unable to replicate it. Let's assume that this color difference is invariant for conditions, meaning your right is always warmer as I describe in (1). In that case, there has to be a difference between your two eyes. Given that I don't experience it and I doubt that the greater population just \"hasn't noticed\", if this is affecting a subset of the population, it should point to an anatomical difference. Now, this is _not_ medical advice and I am definitely not saying this is disease-related, but if we were to take this to an extreme, we know that for certain optic neuropathies (damage to the optic nerve), there is a known perceptual difference in color perception (often tested by perception of the color red) between the two eyes. Keep in mind that if something subtle were going on here, it could be a slight imbalance that is not disease-related. Someone else suggested an imbalance in the number of cones... I find this doubtful but would need to think about it some more.\n\nOn the other hand, if this is an effect that is based on conditions and it varies which eye is warmer, as in (2), we have several possible explanations. Someone below discussed bleaching of rods -- we could use light adaptation mechanisms to explain such a perceptual effect. A variance in where your eye is relative to a light source, the color temperature of the light source, which eye you close first and for how long -- any of these factors could affect differential color perception. Someone else mentioned that you would presumably be returning to steady-state between tests of a single eye, but you have to be careful here. Let's say you wake up from a nap in a dark room, close one eye, turn on a lamp, stare at it for a while, then open both eyes, then close the other eye. It will take a bit longer for you to fully reach \"steady-state\" for both eyes then maybe you realize, though light adaption is relatively fast (~2-5 minutes, up to 10 minutes) relative to dark adaption (~10-30 minutes, up to 60 minutes). I think a difference in blood flow is unlikely to explain temporary changes.\n\nI hope this helps and let me know if it is unclear.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Do you wear contacts?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36168126", "title": "Iranian traditional medicine", "section": "Section::::Temperaments, basis for Iranian traditional medicine.:Everything has a temperament.:Colors temperament.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 366, "text": "Warm colors (red, orange, and yellow) are signs of warmness and can increase the temperature in a confined area. These colors are associated with danger, threat, warning, and movement and the way they affect the brain they increase metabolism and heat in the body and put it on alert which from Iranian traditional medicine point of view are sign of excessive heat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5183604", "title": "Sweater design", "section": "Section::::Choosing colors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 434, "text": "The \"temperature\" of a color also affects its perceived depth. Warm colors have red or yellow tones (including orange and yellow-green) and are associated psychologically with warmth and energy. Cool colors have more bluish undertones (including purples, aquas and greens) and are associated psychologically with serene, calm personalities. Warm colors tend to advance relative to cool colors, when both are presented simultaneously.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33820", "title": "Wassily Kandinsky", "section": "Section::::Theoretical writings on art.:\"Concerning the spiritual in art\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 721, "text": "The obvious properties we can see when we look at an isolated colour and let it act alone, on one side is the warmth or coldness of the colour tone, and on the other side is the clarity or obscurity of that tone. Warmth is a tendency towards yellow, and coldness a tendency towards blue; yellow and blue form the first great, dynamic contrast. Yellow has an \"eccentric\" movement and blue a \"concentric\" movement; a yellow surface seems to move closer to us, while a blue surface seems to move away. Yellow is a typically terrestrial colour, whose violence can be painful and aggressive. Blue is a celestial colour, evoking a deep calm. The combination of blue and yellow yields total immobility and calm, which is green.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455672", "title": "Color theory", "section": "Section::::Traditional color theory.:Warm vs. cool colors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 715, "text": "The distinction between \"warm\" and \"cool\" colors has been important since at least the late 18th century. The difference (as traced by etymologies in the Oxford English Dictionary), seems related to the observed contrast in landscape light, between the \"warm\" colors associated with daylight or sunset, and the \"cool\" colors associated with a gray or overcast day. Warm colors are often said to be hues from red through yellow, browns and tans included; cool colors are often said to be the hues from blue green through blue violet, most grays included. There is historical disagreement about the colors that anchor the polarity, but 19th-century sources put the peak contrast between red orange and greenish blue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25921922", "title": "Impossible color", "section": "Section::::Chimerical colors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 609, "text": "BULLET::::- Hyperbolic colors: these are impossibly highly saturated. For example, to see \"hyperbolic orange\": staring at bright cyan causes an orange afterimage, then on looking at orange, the resulting orange afterimage seen against the orange background may cause an orange color purer than the purest orange color that can be made by any normally-seen light. Or, staring at something pure magenta in bright sunlight for two minutes or more, thus temporarily making the red and blue cones less sensitive, and then looking at green leaves, may result in briefly seeing an unnaturally pure green afterimage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455672", "title": "Color theory", "section": "Section::::Traditional color theory.:Warm vs. cool colors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 584, "text": "Color theory has described perceptual and psychological effects to this contrast. Warm colors are said to advance or appear more active in a painting, while cool colors tend to recede; used in interior design or fashion, warm colors are said to arouse or stimulate the viewer, while cool colors calm and relax. Most of these effects, to the extent they are real, can be attributed to the higher saturation and lighter value of warm pigments in contrast to cool pigments; brown is a dark, unsaturated warm color that few people think of as visually active or psychologically arousing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36168126", "title": "Iranian traditional medicine", "section": "Section::::Temperaments, basis for Iranian traditional medicine.:Everything has a temperament.:Colors temperament.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 553, "text": "Therefore, those with cold \"Mizaj\" who normally have slow metabolism, and feel sluggish had better use warm color for their clothes and houses while for people with warm \"Mizaj\" the reverse is true. People with warm temperament who are normally vibrant, brisk, lively and stressed should avoid using such colors and use cool colors such as white, blue, and light green. Such cool hues can bring about a more passive reaction in the brain and can make a person feel pleased and relaxed. Accordingly, cool colors do not suit people with cold temperament.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Okay. So. Dimensions. What is a \"dimension?\" If you go by bad science-fiction B-movies, a \"dimension\" is a sort of parallel plane of existence, one that intersects but is distinct from our own.\n\nThis is absolute, unfettered nonsense, so go ahead and put it out of your mind for now.\n\nWhat a \"dimension\" *actually* is is a way of describing the extent of a space. Given a space with *n* dimensions, you can uniquely identify any point in that space using no fewer than *n* numbers. These numbers are called *coordinates.* To identify a spot on a piece of paper, you need just two numbers; a piece of paper represents a two-dimensional surface. To identify a spot on the surface of the Earth, you also only need two numbers: latitude and longitude. So the surface of the Earth can be thought of as two-dimensional. But to uniquely identify a spot *near* the surface of the Earth, you need *three* numbers: latitude, longitude and altitude. So that space is *three-*dimensional.\n\nThe universe in which we exist is *four-*dimensional, because you need a minimum of four numbers to uniquely locate a point: three numbers for space, and *one number for time.*\n\nThink of it as the difference between asking somebody to meet you at 313 West 63rd Street on the 9th floor, and asking somebody to meet you at 313 West 63rd Street on the 9th floor *at ten past noon.*\n\nSo that's what \"dimension\" means. The dimensionality of a space is the minimum number of coordinates needed to locate a point in that space.\n\nWe're going to change gears for a second now to talk about compact versus non-compact dimensions. I want you to imagine a cylinder, infinite in length but with a finite radius. Okay? Like a pencil, say, only infinitely long. The *surface* of that cylinder is two-dimensional: you only need two numbers to uniquely locate a point on that surface. But the two dimensions of the surface are not exactly the same. One of them is infinite — the dimension that runs along the axis of the cylinder. The other of them, though, is finite. If you go far enough in the circumferential dimension, you'll come back to where you started from.\n\nThe axial dimension of the surface of an infinite cylinder is non-compact; it just keeps going and going. The circumferential dimension is compact: eventually it wraps back around onto itself.\n\nThere are some speculative theories in physics that imagine that our universe has, in addition to the three dimensions of space and one of time that we all know and love, extra *compact* dimensions. These dimensions are imagined to be incredibly small in spatial extent; in fact, we know they *must* be, because everything we've ever observed in the universe (so far!) can be adequately explained if we assume these extra dimensions do not exist. If they were very large, the laws of physics we use to understand the universe would break down because we weren't taking everything into account. Because the laws of physics we currently use don't break down, we know that these extra dimensions, if they exist, must be extremely, extremely small. Much smaller than the diameter of a proton.\n\nIt's possible that, someday, we might observe a phenomenon that cannot be explained by the laws of physics currently at our disposal. It's possible that this phenomenon might only be explained by postulating that one or more extra compact spatial dimensions exist, and then finding ways to test that postulate.\n\nBut we're not there yet. Right now, physics works just fine if we assume that no extra compact spatial dimensions exist.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's something in quantum theory called renormalization, which is a mathematical technique where you remove the infinities from your calculations. If you have a string and try to quantize the oscillations on it (ie it can only have certain vibrations), you'll find that this can only be renormalized if the string has 25 dimensions (10 under certain assumptions). This leads to two conclusions: the universe has that many dimensions, or quantized strings don't exist.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4695296", "title": "Many-angled ones", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 406, "text": "The many-angled ones exist in a space with more dimensions than our own; hence, they appear to be \"many angled\". As a result, when they manifest in our universe they appear as disconnected floating body parts of some larger beast that is complete in the higher dimension (similar to how a three dimensional being would appear in flatland as its parts pass through the plane of that two-dimensional world).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8398", "title": "Dimension", "section": "Section::::In physics.:Additional dimensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 855, "text": "In addition to small and curled up extra dimensions, there may be extra dimensions that instead aren't apparent because the matter associated with our visible universe is localized on a subspace. Thus the extra dimensions need not be small and compact but may be large extra dimensions. D-branes are dynamical extended objects of various dimensionalities predicted by string theory that could play this role. They have the property that open string excitations, which are associated with gauge interactions, are confined to the brane by their endpoints, whereas the closed strings that mediate the gravitational interaction are free to propagate into the whole spacetime, or \"the bulk\". This could be related to why gravity is exponentially weaker than the other forces, as it effectively dilutes itself as it propagates into a higher-dimensional volume.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2557627", "title": "Curved space", "section": "Section::::Simple two-dimensional example.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 583, "text": "A very familiar example of a curved space is the surface of a sphere. While to our familiar outlook the sphere \"looks\" three-dimensional, if an object is constrained to lie on the surface, it only has two dimensions that it can move in. The surface of a sphere can be completely described by two dimensions since no matter how rough the surface may appear to be, it is still only a surface, which is the two-dimensional outside border of a volume. Even the surface of the Earth, which is fractal in complexity, is still only a two-dimensional boundary along the outside of a volume.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20406", "title": "M-theory", "section": "Section::::Background.:Number of dimensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 725, "text": "Compactification is one way of modifying the number of dimensions in a physical theory. In compactification, some of the extra dimensions are assumed to \"close up\" on themselves to form circles. In the limit where these curled up dimensions become very small, one obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions. A standard analogy for this is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose. If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance, it appears to have only one dimension, its length. However, as one approaches the hose, one discovers that it contains a second dimension, its circumference. Thus, an ant crawling on the surface of the hose would move in two dimensions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28305", "title": "String theory", "section": "Section::::Fundamentals.:Extra dimensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 725, "text": "Compactification is one way of modifying the number of dimensions in a physical theory. In compactification, some of the extra dimensions are assumed to \"close up\" on themselves to form circles. In the limit where these curled up dimensions become very small, one obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions. A standard analogy for this is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose. If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance, it appears to have only one dimension, its length. However, as one approaches the hose, one discovers that it contains a second dimension, its circumference. Thus, an ant crawling on the surface of the hose would move in two dimensions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17070", "title": "Kaluza–Klein theory", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 495, "text": "In 1926, Oskar Klein gave Kaluza's classical five-dimensional theory a quantum interpretation, to accord with the then-recent discoveries of Heisenberg and Schrödinger. Klein introduced the hypothesis that the fifth dimension was curled up and microscopic, to explain the cylinder condition. Klein suggested that the geometry of the extra fifth dimension could take the form of a circle, with the radius of . Klein also calculated a scale for the fifth dimension based on the quantum of charge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25827630", "title": "Crumpled cube", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 258, "text": "In geometric topology, a branch of mathematics, a crumpled cube is any space in R homeomorphic to a 2-sphere together with its interior. Lininger showed in 1965 that the union of a crumpled cube and an open 3-ball glued along their boundaries is a 3-sphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The Taiping Rebellion started in 1850. It was fairly bloody, even by Chinese standards. The effects of that rebellion also inspired others to rebel and there were associated problems with flooding and famine. _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm assuming you're talking about China & US mid/late 19th century. There was HUGE internal chaos in China at the time; not least the Taiping Rebellion (as elmononenano has pointed out). At the same time, there were a bunch of other rebellions: The Nian Rebellion, which was basically a bunch of bandits roaming around the Jiangsu area pillaging and beating people up, huge muslim rebellions in the Chinese northwest, and separatist movements in Yunnan (the Chinese southwest). These were all happening simultaneously. \n\nMore deeply, however, China had been in sharp decline ever since the end of Qianlong's reign. Systemic corruption, complete degradation of the administrative class and economic disruptions from Imperialism had wrecked China. It was completely chaotic, and hence lots of Chinese people left for the US. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33276200", "title": "Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States", "section": "Section::::Early Chinese immigration to the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 717, "text": "Starting with the California Gold Rush in the middle 19th century, the United States—particularly the West Coast states— enlisted large numbers of Chinese migrant laborers. Early Chinese immigrant worked as gold miners, and later on subsequent large labor projects, such as the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad. The decline of the Qing Dynasty in China, instability and poverty caused many Chinese, especially from the province of Guangdong, to emigrate overseas in search of a more stable life, and this coincided with the rapid growth of American industry. The Chinese were considered by employers as \"reliable\" workers who would continue working, without complaint, even under destitute conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "673347", "title": "Sinophobia", "section": "Section::::Regional antipathy.:Western world and Latin America.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 154, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 154, "end_character": 645, "text": "Starting with the California Gold Rush in the late 19th century, the United States—particularly the West Coast states—imported large numbers of Chinese migrant laborers. Early Chinese immigrant worked as gold miners, and later on subsequent large labor projects, such as the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad. The decline of the Qing Dynasty in China caused many Chinese to emigrate overseas in search of a more stable life, and this coincided with the rapid growth of American industry. The Chinese were considered by employers as \"reliable\" workers who would continue working, without complaint, even under destitute conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "485133", "title": "Gilded Age", "section": "Section::::Immigration.:Chinese immigrants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 90, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 90, "end_character": 752, "text": "Asian immigrants—Chinese at this time—were hired by California construction companies for temporary railroad work. The European Americans strongly disliked the Chinese for their alien life-styles and threat of low wages. The construction of the Central Pacific Railroad from California to Utah was handled largely by Chinese laborers. In the 1870 census, there were 63,000 Chinese men (with a few women) in the entire U.S.; this number grew to 106,000 in 1880. Labor unions, led by Samuel Gompers strongly opposed the presence of Chinese labor. Immigrants from China were not allowed to become citizens until 1950; however, as a result of the Supreme Court decision in United States v. Wong Kim Ark, their children born in the U.S. were full citizens.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "445363", "title": "Chinatown, San Francisco", "section": "Section::::History.:1870s to the 1906 earthquake.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 1060, "text": "The mostly male Chinese immigrants came to the United States with the intent of sending money home to support their families; coupled with the high cost of repaying their loans for travel, they often had to take any work that was available. Fears began to arise among non-Chinese workers that they could be replaced, and resentment towards Chinese immigrants rose. With extensive nationwide unemployment in the wake of the Panic of 1873, racial tensions in the city boiled over into full blown race riots. The two-day San Francisco riot of 1877 raged through Chinatown in July; four were killed and in property damage was done to Chinese-owned businesses. In response to the violence, the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, also known as the Chinese Six Companies, which evolved out of the labor recruiting organizations for different areas of Guangdong, was created to provide the community with a unified voice. The heads of these companies advocated for the Chinese community to the wider business community as a whole and to the city government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2649781", "title": "Asian immigration to the United States", "section": "Section::::History.:Exclusion era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 377, "text": "After exclusion, existing Chinese immigrants were further excluded from agricultural labor by racial hostility, and as jobs in railroad construction declined, they increasingly moved into self-employment as laundry workers, store and restaurant owners, traders, merchants, and wage laborers; and they congregated in Chinatowns established in California and across the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "268802", "title": "Kowloon–Canton Railway", "section": "Section::::History.:1945–1982: Post-war development and electrification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 773, "text": "Although freight demand to China gradually fell, the influx of people from China continued due to the Chinese Civil War. Through-train passenger services to China stopped on 14 October 1949, the day prior to the capture of Canton by the Communists. Passengers and goods then had to be transhipped at the border. Despite the inconvenience that this caused, the railway benefitted by Hong Kong becoming the centre of communications and trade with southern China, especially as much of the traffic that had hitherto gone by sea could no longer do so. Refugees fleeing the new communist government of China also often settled in squatter areas along the railway, and this, together with an increase in the British Army's presence, added to domestic travel demand in Hong Kong.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "261918", "title": "Chinese Canadians", "section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1065, "text": "Many workers from Guangdong Province (mainly Taishanese people and Pearl River Delta peoples) arrived to help build the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 19th century as did Chinese veterans of the gold rushes. These workers accepted the terms offered by the Chinese labour contractors who were engaged by the railway construction company to hire them—low pay, long hours, lower wages than non-Chinese workers and dangerous working conditions, in order to support their families that stayed in China. Their willingness to endure hardship for low wages enraged fellow non-Chinese workers who thought they were unnecessarily complicating the labour market situations. From the passage of the Chinese Immigration Act in 1885, the Canadian government began to charge a substantial head tax for each Chinese person trying to immigrate to Canada. The Chinese were the only ethnic group that had to pay such a tax. Owing to the fear of the \"Yellow Peril\", in 1895 the government of Mackenzie Bowell passed an act forbidding any Asian-Canadian from voting or holding office.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can't seem to find any really solid sources right now, and all my books are still at school (I'm home from college on break right now), but I have studied music history quite a bit, so I can at least give you an answer to your question, even though I can't really give you further places to look currently. I can also give you [this list](_URL_0_) which is pretty accurate despite being from wikipedia\n\nBasically, Mozart had two separate audiences for his operas. Some operas were performed at palaces and sponsored by the archduke or other royalty. Such performances would have been free for the guests of the archduke, but would have been available only to royalty. Other performances took place at public opera houses, which were a new phenomenon at the time. These new public opera houses offered entertainment to the working class at relatively affordable prices- something akin to the price of a movie today.\n\nMozart's time is interesting because it is right around the time when music was transitioning from being sponsored by the aristocracy in Europe to being sponsored by the public. Mozart made most of his money through commissions by the aristocracy, as did all composers before him. He was one of the first composers to experiment with composing music for public consumption- that is, not by commission. He would work with public opera houses to put on performances which he would not be guaranteed to make any money from, because revenue was based on ticket sales, not a commission from a duke or some other noble figure. \n\nI hope this begins to answer your question. Basically, if you were already rich, seeing Mozart's music didn't cost anything, because you would be invited to see it at a palace for free. If you were poor, it was about the cost of a movie ticket today, but it would be standing in a room for up to five hours. And no, it didn't include snacks (though I believe those could be purchased or brought to the theatre)\n\nIf you add any more specific questions as replies to my comment, I am happy to answer as quickly as I can. I will also work on finding some solid sources so you can verify. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's important to note that in Mozart's time, the definition of \"audience\" was much different than it is in today's modern productions. I can't offer you an exact dollar amount for tickets, but it'd be a little unfair to compare ticket prices back then to prices today anyway, because 18th century opera-goers were paying for a completely different experience. For the most part, people went to the opera to distract themselves and socialize, not to actually fully watch the opera. Some would see the show once, then go back night after night to simply not pay attention but hang out. There are accounts that sometimes the amount of drama coming from the chatty women in the audience would overpower the actual drama on stage. Here's a picture of audience dynamic from an excerpt from *Mozart's Operas: A Companion* by Mary Hunter: \"The audience would stay essentially the same for all performances: aristocrats typically rented, or in some places bought, boxes at the theater for the season, and used them as extensions of their homes, entertaining company, eating, talking, playing cards, and sometimes engaging in other less respectable activities. Gambling areas were quite common in many theaters, and helped the theaters break even. The audience would thus pay relatively good attention at the beginning of an opera seria, but then would probably listen more intermittently as the work became more familiar. Daily tickets to the parterre (the seats of the benches on the floor of the theater directly in front of the stage) and to the highest balconies were available, so presumably the audience in those places varied somewhat more than the boxholders. But the boxed aristocrats were the staple audience for opera seria in most places, and it was around their interest and pleasures that most operatic systems were organized.\"\n\nIt wasn't until later in the eighteenth century when Mozart was writing his most famous comic operas (opera buffa) like *Die Entfuhrung aus dem Serail*, *The Marriage of Figaro*, *Cosi Fan Tutte*, and *Don Giovanni*, that the audience dynamic really started to shift. The aristocratic box purchase/rental thing didn't change much, but the increasingly relatable content of these operas attracted more ordinary people (in this case \"ordinary\" meant upper middle class). Opera buffa reintroduced the lower class characters (servants) that had been purged from opera at the beginning of the eighteenth century (in opera seria reforms), and these characters were down to earth, sassy, smart, used more conventional language, were easier for most people to identify with, and their stories and parts were laden with social commentary (gender, sex, class, politics). For example, female servant characters seemed particularly sexually empowered; Mozart could do this with lower class characters, but would have offended a whole lot of important patrons if he used progressive characterization for female characters of nobility. Audiences around this time were naturally paying more attention because they were more literate and more self aware (Industrial Revolution+Enlightenment, etc etc), and scholars like to argue that this was when opera culture truly started to move in the direction of our current \"lights off, sit down, shut up, and listen\" audiences. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Google found me a leaflet for Don Giovanni from 1788:\n_URL_1_\n\nIf I read it correctly the most expensive seat costs 6 Gulden 40 Kreuzer, the cheapest (\"one person on the last seat\") is 10 Kreuzer. (1 Gulden = 60 Kreuzer)\n\n[This report](_URL_0_) (in German) claims that Mozart's yearly income was 5000 Gulden, while his maid only made 12 Gulden/year.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38062", "title": "Die Entführung aus dem Serail", "section": "Section::::Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 248, "text": "Although the opera greatly raised Mozart's standing with the public as a composer, it did not make him rich: he was paid a flat fee of 100 Imperial ducats (about 450 florins) for his work, and made no profits from the many subsequent performances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30418", "title": "The Marriage of Figaro", "section": "Section::::Composition history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 201, "text": "The Imperial Italian opera company paid Mozart 450 florins for the work; this was three times his (low) yearly salary when he had worked as a court musician in Salzburg. Da Ponte was paid 200 florins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33163", "title": "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "section": "Section::::Life and career.:1782–87.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 536, "text": "With substantial returns from his concerts and elsewhere, Mozart and his wife adopted a rather luxurious lifestyle. They moved to an expensive apartment, with a yearly rent of 460 florins. Mozart bought a fine fortepiano from Anton Walter for about 900 florins, and a billiard table for about 300. The Mozarts sent their son Karl Thomas to an expensive boarding school and kept servants. Saving was therefore impossible, and the short period of financial success did nothing to soften the hardship the Mozarts were later to experience.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14597400", "title": "Michael von Puchberg", "section": "Section::::The loans to Mozart.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 478, "text": "However, in 2009 the musicologist Michael Lorenz showed that at the time when Mozart pretended to be in dire straits, he had certainly not reduced his expenses (as claimed in one of his letters to Puchberg), but lived in a spacious apartment on the Alsergrund that cost him 250 Gulden a year. At that time he also owned a carriage and a horse. Thus there is a good case to assume that Mozart might have vastly exaggerated his financial problems just to get money from Puchberg.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38062", "title": "Die Entführung aus dem Serail", "section": "Section::::Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 348, "text": " The opera was a huge success. The first two performances brought in the large sum of 1200 florins, three times what Mozart's salary had been for his old job in Salzburg. The work was repeatedly performed in Vienna during Mozart's lifetime, and throughout German-speaking Europe. In 1787, Goethe wrote (concerning his own efforts as a librettist):\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13129401", "title": "Mozart's Berlin journey", "section": "Section::::Departure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 320, "text": "The journey took place during a difficult period of Mozart's career when he was no longer earning much money from concerts, and his income from the composition of operas had not made up the difference. He was borrowing money, for example from his friend Michael Puchberg, and the financial situation was very worrisome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14073142", "title": "Jahn's Hall", "section": "Section::::Works by Mozart.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 340, "text": "BULLET::::- The first public performance of Mozart's Requiem took place in the hall on 2 January 1793. This was a benefit concert on behalf of Mozart's widow Constanze, organized by Mozart's patron Gottfried van Swieten; it raised \"more than 300 golden ducats\" (about 1350 florins, a substantial sum) to support Constanze and her two sons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "These insects, among quite a few others are doing something called over wintering. I'm short, they are looking for shelter. Homes/buildings are about the best fit for that. So as the temp drops they look for these places to survive. You'll actually end up seeing activity change with temp, sometimes with recurrences!\n\nThis is actually a pretty big topic that gets complicated fast. Especially when it comes to helping prevent these pests.\n\nI'm a certified pest control technician. \n\nEdit: you living in a new house has nothing to do with it. You can caulk and seal holes to help reduce activity, and residual pesticide treatments in key areas before the first real good drop in temp can help.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42907044", "title": "Minuscule: Valley of the Lost Ants", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1008, "text": "A newly hatched ladybug is bullied by group of flies and attempts to fly away, but the flies chase after it. The ladybug crashs and breaks off a wing. Unable to locate its family, the ladybug shelters in a tin for the night. The tin is full of sugar cubes, part of an abandoned picnic. In the morning, various bugs are carrying off the spoils of the picnic. A foraging patrol of black ants find the sugar and start carrying off the tin, with the ladybug still inside, to their nest. The ants encounter a patrol of red ants and give them a sugar cube as a peace offering, but the red ants pursue them for the rest of the sugar. The black ants escape by sliding down an embankment and into a stream on the tin. The ladybug falls overboard and the ants rescue it from becoming a hungry fish's lunch. The red ants pursue them down stream in a soda can. They all go over a waterfall and the tin washes up on the shore down stream. The black ants pick up the sugar cubes and start hauling them back to their nest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "531218", "title": "Harmonia axyridis", "section": "Section::::Biology and behavior.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 590, "text": "They often congregate in sunlit areas because of the heat available, so even on fairly cold winter days, some of the hibernating beetles will \"wake up\" because of solar heating. These large populations can be problematic because they can form swarms and linger in an area for a long time. These beetles can form groups that tend to stay in upper corners of windows. This beetle has been also found to be attracted to dark screening material for its warmth. This beetle has good eyesight; it will return from a location to which it is removed, and is known to give a small bite if provoked.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "872241", "title": "Boxelder bug", "section": "Section::::As pests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1541, "text": "During certain times of the year boxelder bugs cluster together in large groups while sunning themselves on warm surfaces near their host tree (e.g. on rocks, shrubs, trees, and man-made structures). This is especially a problem in the fall when they are seeking a warm place to overwinter. Large numbers are often seen congregating on houses seeking an entry point. Once they have gained access, they remain inactive behind siding and inside of walls while the weather is cool. Once the home's heating system becomes active for the season, the insects may falsely perceive it to be springtime and enter inhabited parts of the home in search of food and water. Once inside inhabited areas of a home, their excreta may stain upholstery, carpets, drapes, and they may feed on certain types of house plants. In the spring, the bugs leave their winter hibernation locations to feed and lay eggs on maple or ash trees. Clustered masses of boxelder bugs may be seen again at this time, and depending on the temperature, throughout the summer. Their outdoor congregation habits and indoor excreta deposits are perceived as a nuisance by many people, therefore boxelder bugs are often considered pests. However, boxelder bugs are harmless to people and pets. The removal of boxelder trees and maple trees can help control boxelder bug populations. Spiders are minor predators, but because of the boxelder bug's chemical defenses few birds or other animals will eat them. Boxelder bug populations are not affected by any major diseases or parasites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11043051", "title": "Insect winter ecology", "section": "Section::::Locations of hibernating insects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 894, "text": "Insects are well hidden in winter, but there are several locations in which they can reliably be found. Ladybugs practice communal hibernation by stacking one on top of one another on stumps and under rocks to share heat and buffer themselves against winter temperatures. The female grasshopper (family Tettigoniidae [long-horned]), in an attempt to keep her eggs safe through the winter, tunnels into the soil and deposits her eggs as deep as possible in the ground. Many other insects, including various butterflies and moths also overwinter in soil in the egg stage. Some adult beetles hibernate underground during winter; many flies overwinter in the soil as pupae. Other methods of hibernation include the inhabitance of bark, where insects nest more toward the southern side of the tree for heat provided by the sun. Cocoons, galls, and parasitism are also common methods of hibernation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2294750", "title": "Tule fog", "section": "Section::::Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 513, "text": "Tule fog is characteristically confined mainly to the Central Valley due to the mountain ranges surrounding it. Because of the density of the cold air in the winter, winds are not able to dislodge the fog and the high pressure of the warmer air above the mountaintops presses down on the cold air trapped in the valley, resulting in a dense, immobile fog that can last for days or at times for weeks undisturbed. Tule fog often contains light drizzle or freezing drizzle where temperatures are sufficiently cold.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28203358", "title": "Martian polar ice caps", "section": "Section::::South polar cap.:Starburst channels or spiders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 537, "text": "Research, published in January 2010 using HiRISE images, found that some of the channels in spiders grow larger as they go uphill since gas is doing the erosion. The researchers also found that the gas flows to a crack that has occurred at a weak point in the ice. As soon as the sun rises above the horizon, gas from the spiders blows out dust which is blown by wind to form a dark fan shape. Some of the dust gets trapped in the channels. Eventually frost covers all the fans and channels until the next spring when the cycle repeats.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2103026", "title": "Heat burst", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 359, "text": "Although this phenomenon is not fully understood, it is theorized that the event is caused when rain evaporates (virga) into a parcel of cold, dry air high in the atmosphere- making the air denser than its surroundings. The parcel descends rapidly, warming due to compression, overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface, similar to a downburst.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Can't remember specifics but something about nuns creating a shape that looked like children folding arms.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "213589", "title": "Pretzel", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 359, "text": "A pretzel () () () is a type of baked bread product made from dough most commonly shaped into a twisted knot. The traditional pretzel shape is a distinctive symmetrical form, with the ends of a long strip of dough intertwined and then twisted back into itself in a certain way (a pretzel loop). In modern times, pretzels come in a range of different shapes. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213589", "title": "Pretzel", "section": "Section::::Geography.:Upper German-speaking regions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1219, "text": "The pretzel shape is used for a variety of sweet pastries made of different types of dough (flaky, brittle, soft, crispy) with a variety of toppings (icing, nuts, seeds, cinnamon). Around Christmas, they can be made of soft gingerbread (\"Lebkuchen\") with chocolate coating. In southern Germany and adjoining German-speaking areas, pretzels have retained their original religious meanings and are still used in various traditions and festivals. In some areas, on January 1, people give each other lightly sweetened yeast pretzels for good luck and good fortune. These \"New Year's pretzels\" are made in different sizes and can have a width of and more. Sometimes children visit their godparents to fetch their New Years pretzel. On May 1, love-struck boys used to paint a pretzel on the doors of the adored. On the other hand, an upside-down pretzel would have been a sign of disgrace. Especially Catholic areas, such as Austria, Bavaria, or some parts of Swabia, the \"Palm pretzel\" is made for Palm Sunday celebrations. Sizes can range from up to and they can weigh up to . An old tradition on Palm Sunday dating back to 1533 is the outdoor pretzel market (\"Brezgenmarkt\") in the Hungerbrunnen Valley near Heldenfingen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "214049", "title": "Bagel", "section": "Section::::Similar breads.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 231, "text": "German \"pretzels\" (which are soft and formed into rings or long rectangular shapes) are somewhat similar to bagels in texture, the main exceptions being the shape and the alkaline water bath that makes the surface dark and glossy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213589", "title": "Pretzel", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 808, "text": "There are numerous unreliable accounts regarding the origin of pretzels, as well as the origin of the name; most assume that they have Christian backgrounds and were invented by European monks. According to legend, as cited by several sources, including \"The History of Science and Technology\", by Bryan Bunch and Alexander Hellemans, in 610 AD \"... [a]n Italian monk invents pretzels as a reward to children who learn their prayers. He calls the strips of baked dough, folded to resemble arms crossing the chest, 'pretiola' (\"little reward[s]\")\". However, there is no known historical evidence to verify this claim. Another source locates the invention in a monastery in southern France. In Germany, there are stories that pretzels were the invention of desperate bakers held hostage by local dignitaries. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213589", "title": "Pretzel", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 295, "text": "The pretzel has been in use as an emblem of bakers and formerly their guilds in southern German areas since at least the 12th century. A 12th-century illustration in the \"Hortus deliciarum\" from the southwest German Alsace region (today France) may contain the earliest depiction of a pretzel. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213589", "title": "Pretzel", "section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 313, "text": "The pretzel has become an element in popular culture, both as a food staple, and its unique knotted twist shape which has inspired ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena. Although historically, the pretzel has influenced culture, it has recently been heavily influenced by mass media.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213589", "title": "Pretzel", "section": "Section::::Geography.:United States.:Pennsylvania.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1052, "text": "Hard pretzels originated in the United States, where, in 1850, the Sturgis bakery in Lititz, Pennsylvania, became the first commercial hard pretzel bakery. Snack food hard pretzels are made in the form of loops, braids, letters, little pretzels, or sticks around thick and long; they have become a popular snack in many countries around the world. A thicker variety of sticks can be thick; in the U. S. these are called Bavarian pretzels or pretzel rods. Unlike the soft pretzels, these were durable when kept in an airtight environment and marketable in a variety of convenience stores. Large-scale production began in the first half of the 1900s, more so during 1930 to 1950. A prime example was in 1949, when highly innovative American Machine and Foundry Co., of New York City, developed the \"pretzel bender\": a new automatic crispy-styled baked pretzel-twisting machine that rolled and tied them at the rate of 50 a minute—more than twice as fast as skilled hand twisters could make them—and conveyed them through the baking and salting process. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Computer programs ALWAYS have bugs, it's the nature of programming as software is usually so complicated with thousands upon thousands of lines of code, some situations weren't thought about or someone just made a mistake when making it. Little bugs often exist that cause programs to become unstable over time, and there isn't anything built into the software to detect that it's unstable and fix the problem on it's own. Restarting the program clears out everything and starts fresh, as it was before it got into that unstable state. As far as restarting your computer, everything on your computer is software, and is included in the above description including your operating system (windows, mac, linux) and your drivers which are software that lets your operating system talk to the hardware and accessories it's working with.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When a program runs for a while it creates a lot of \"work product\" which is it's internal state and if there are bugs then that state can get corrupted. On the other hand when you start a program, and maybe open a file with it, it's usually the most well thought out and tested thing you can do with software so it rarely fails.\n\nSo it's a case of using more of the programs code for a longer time (more bugs can be encountered and errors can/will accumulate) versus running a smaller part of the code once.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the same circumstances, yes. But there are lots of moving parts -- did you click on that button before or after it finished loading some file in the background? Programs use things called \"threads\" for multiple tasks -- the user interface thread and a worker thread definitely will not ever have exactly the same timing relative to each other on different runs. Since the OS switches threads, it depends on what computational loads other programs are putting on the system. Which depends on external factors -- the exact timing of the network depends on your ISP, the user is pressing keys and moving the mouse at unpredictable times.\n\nYou're almost never running the program \"in the same circumstances\" twice if it has multiple threads.\n\nFor programmers, random crashes are the hardest problems to solve. Normally the first step to fixing a bug in your program is to reproduce the \nproblem. If it's a random freeze or crash, it's hard to get past that first step. There might be something that the user's doing with the program, or something in the user's system environment -- OS, hardware, specific versions of all related programs, unrelated programs interfering somehow...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1389274", "title": "Crash-only software", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 530, "text": "Crash-only software also has benefits for end-users. All too often, applications do not save their data and settings while running, only at the end of their use. For example, word processors usually save settings when they are closed. A crash-only application is designed to save all changed user settings soon after they are changed, so that the persistent state matches that of the running machine. No matter how an application terminates (be it a clean close or the sudden failure of a laptop battery), the state will persist.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1389274", "title": "Crash-only software", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 530, "text": "Crash-only software refers to computer programs that handle failures by simply restarting, without attempting any sophisticated recovery. Correctly written components of crash-only software can microreboot to a known-good state without the help of a user. Since failure-handling and normal startup use the same methods, this can increase the chance that bugs in failure-handling code will be noticed, except when there are leftover artifacts, such as data corruption from a severe failure, that don't occur during normal startup.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1906495", "title": "Software rot", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Rarely updated code.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 257, "text": "Normal maintenance of software and systems may also cause software rot. In particular, when a program contains multiple parts which function at arm's length from one another, failing to consider how changes to one part affect the others may introduce bugs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38411", "title": "Regression testing", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 755, "text": "As software is updated or changed, or reused on a modified target, emergence of new faults and/or re-emergence of old faults is quite common. Sometimes re-emergence occurs because a fix gets lost through poor revision control practices (or simple human error in revision control). Often, a fix for a problem will be \"fragile\" in that it fixes the problem in the narrow case where it was first observed but not in more general cases which may arise over the lifetime of the software. Frequently, a fix for a problem in one area inadvertently causes a software bug in another area. Finally, it may happen that, when some feature is redesigned, some of the same mistakes that were made in the original implementation of the feature are made in the redesign.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "279631", "title": "Crash (computing)", "section": "Section::::Application crashes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 523, "text": "An application typically crashes when it performs an operation that is not allowed by the operating system. The operating system then triggers an exception or signal in the application. Unix applications traditionally responded to the signal by dumping core. Most Windows and Unix GUI applications respond by displaying a dialogue box (such as the one shown to the right) with the option to attach a debugger if one is installed. Some applications attempt to recover from the error and continue running instead of exiting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1157143", "title": "Page fault", "section": "Section::::Invalid conditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 776, "text": "If the program receiving the error does not handle it, the operating system performs a default action, typically involving the termination of the running process that caused the error condition, and notifying the user that the program has malfunctioned. Recent versions of Windows often report such problems by simply stating something like \"this program must close\" (an experienced user or programmer with access to a debugger can still retrieve detailed information). Recent Windows versions also write a minidump (similar in principle to a core dump) describing the state of the crashed process. UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems report these conditions to the user with error messages such as \"segmentation violation\", or \"bus error\", and may also produce a core dump.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12271117", "title": "Software aging", "section": "Section::::Proactive management of software aging.:Software aging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 922, "text": "Software failures are a more likely cause of unplanned systems outages compared to hardware failures. This is because software exhibits over time an increasing failure rate due to data corruption, numerical error accumulation and unlimited resource consumption. In widely used and specialized software, a common action to clear a problem is rebooting because aging occurs due to the complexity of software which is never free of errors. It is almost impossible to fully verify that a piece of software is bug-free. Even high-profile software such as Windows and macOS must receive continual updates to improve performance and fix bugs. Software development tends to be driven by the need to meet release deadlines rather than to ensure long-term reliability. Designing software that can be immune to aging is difficult. Not all software will age at the same rate as some users use the system more intensively than others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The limit of Speed of Light only applies to particles moving through spacetime, it does not apply to spacetime itself. Two points in spacetime can be pushed apart by the expansion of the universe faster than the speed of light. The further any two points in spacetime are from each other, the faster they move apart based on the expansion of the universe, so for every point in the universe, there is horizon beyond which all points are moving away from it faster than the speed of light, and no light emitted from those points over the horizon will ever reach the former.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Now if all observable mass blew apart from this singularity, any objects whose relative velocity vectors were less than the speed of light would be able to observe eachother from the start\n\nYou are fundamentally misunderstanding the Big Bang. It was not all mass exploding outward from a central point. Instead it was **space** expanding everywhere at once. All **places** were closer together during the singularity and when the Big Bang happened space itself began to expand causing all *locations* to become more distant from each other. Matter itself didn't obtain a velocity through space.\n\nThe speed of light then applies to things moving through space, it doesn't govern the rate at which new space can appear between two locations. In fact given a sufficient distance between two points then any expansion of space, however small, will eventually add up to exceeding the speed of light.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Hubble Constant is about 74 km/second per megaparsec. That means that the comoving velocity of something 1 megaparsec away from us is about 74 km/s (pointed away from us) due to the expansion of space. \n\nAs an example, the most \"distant galaxy\" you'll see reported as 13.4 billion light years. What this really means is that the light we observed today was emitted from this galaxy when it was less than 13.4 billion light years away. However, due to the expansion of space, we expect this same galaxy is now actually over 50 billion light years from us. The universe simply isn't old enough for anything over ~13.4 billion light years of travel time to have reached us yet (the universe is ~13.8 billion years old, but for various reasons we would not expect galaxies to have formed during the early portion). \n\nFinally, it's worth noting that you shouldn't view the Big Bang as a singularity exploding from a central point. That simply isn't the model of it that's ever been proposed. Rather, the Big Bang refers to a point in time about 13.8 billion years ago where the energy density of the universe was infinite. One Planck time after the Big Bang, there is no evidence that the universe was not *infinite* in diameter. In other words, the expansion of space may be a change in the density of the universe, but in terms of actual size we're just going from infinite to ... well, infinite.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Imagine a big, flat rubber sheet. That'll be our universe. \n\nImagine a magical marble that moves forward all by itself, at a fixed speed of 1 inch per second. That'll be our light particle. \n\nIf you sit down anywhere on the sheet, and someone puts the marble down anywhere and aims it at you, it'll reach you eventually, right? Ok, cool.\n\nNow let's add a catch. You sat on the sheet, and someone put that marble down and aimed it at you again...but then people grabbed all the edges of the sheet and started pulling *it* at a speed of 6 inches per second. Now, even though that marble is still zooming towards you, the sheet itself it stretching out *faster* than the marble is moving, so the end result is that you and the marble are moving further and further *apart* even though it's still moving towards you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "251399", "title": "Observable universe", "section": "Section::::The universe versus the observable universe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1892, "text": "Some parts of the universe are too far away for the light emitted since the Big Bang to have had enough time to reach Earth or its scientific space-based instruments, and so lie outside the observable universe. In the future, light from distant galaxies will have had more time to travel, so additional regions will become observable. However, due to Hubble's law, regions sufficiently distant from the Earth are expanding away from it faster than the speed of light (special relativity prevents nearby objects in the same local region from moving faster than the speed of light with respect to each other, but there is no such constraint for distant objects when the space between them is expanding; see uses of the proper distance for a discussion) and furthermore the expansion rate appears to be accelerating due to dark energy. Assuming dark energy remains constant (an unchanging cosmological constant), so that the expansion rate of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a \"future visibility limit\" beyond which objects will \"never\" enter our observable universe at any time in the infinite future, because light emitted by objects outside that limit would never reach the Earth. (A subtlety is that, because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can be cases where a galaxy that is receding from the Earth just a bit faster than light does emit a signal that reaches the Earth eventually.) This future visibility limit is calculated at a comoving distance of 19 billion parsecs (62 billion light-years), assuming the universe will keep expanding forever, which implies the number of galaxies that we can ever theoretically observe in the infinite future (leaving aside the issue that some may be impossible to observe in practice due to redshift, as discussed in the following paragraph) is only larger than the number currently observable by a factor of 2.36.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "894139", "title": "Causal contact", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 567, "text": "The only objects not in causal contact are those for which there is no event in the history of the universe that could have sent a beam of light to both. For example, if the universe were not expanding and had existed for 10 billion years, anything more than 20 billion light-years away from the earth would not be in causal contact with it. Anything less than 20 billion light-years away \"would\" because an event occurring 10 billion years in the past that was 10 billion light-years away from both the earth and the object under question could have affected both. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16786863", "title": "Ant on a rubber rope", "section": "Section::::Metric expansion of space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 345, "text": "By thinking of photons of light as ants crawling along the rubber rope of space between the galaxy and us, we can see that just as the ant can eventually reach the end of the rope, so light from distant galaxies, even some that appear to be receding at a speed greater than the speed of light, can eventually reach Earth, given sufficient time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16786863", "title": "Ant on a rubber rope", "section": "Section::::Metric expansion of space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 412, "text": "This puzzle has a bearing on the question of whether light from distant galaxies can ever reach us given the metric expansion of space. The universe is expanding, which leads to increasing distances to other galaxies, and galaxies that are far enough away from us will have an apparent relative motion greater than the speed of light. It might seem that light leaving such a distant galaxy could never reach us.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19167840", "title": "Chronology of the universe", "section": "Section::::Early universe.:Recombination, photon decoupling, and the cosmic microwave background (CMB).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 437, "text": "Just before recombination, the baryonic matter in the universe was at a temperature where it formed a hot ionized plasma. Most of the photons in the universe interacted with electrons and protons, and could not travel significant distances without interacting with ionized particles. As a result, the universe was opaque or \"foggy\". Although there was light, it was not possible to see, nor can we observe that light through telescopes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1411100", "title": "Introduction to general relativity", "section": "Section::::Astrophysical applications.:Gravitational lensing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 730, "text": "Since light is deflected in a gravitational field, it is possible for the light of a distant object to reach an observer along two or more paths. For instance, light of a very distant object such as a quasar can pass along one side of a massive galaxy and be deflected slightly so as to reach an observer on Earth, while light passing along the opposite side of that same galaxy is deflected as well, reaching the same observer from a slightly different direction. As a result, that particular observer will see one astronomical object in two different places in the night sky. This kind of focussing is well known when it comes to optical lenses, and hence the corresponding gravitational effect is called gravitational lensing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34107810", "title": "Original Goodness (book)", "section": "Section::::Topics covered.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 279, "text": "\"I have spoken at times of a light in the soul, a light that is uncreated and uncreatable... to the extent that we can deny ourselves and turn away from created things, we shall find our unity and blessing in that little spark in the soul, which neither space nor time touches.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The others posting here have done a really good job of explaining so far, but I'll fill in with a little more information.\n\nThe ACL is most commonly torn when the knee bends backwards too far, or moves too far to the side. This is easily something you can do yourself, simply by turning sharply, stopping, any number of non-contact movements that create flexion at the knee can result in a torn ACL.\n\nThe [wiki](_URL_0_) here is actually surprisingly good in comparison to most orthopedic wiki's.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "231479", "title": "Brachial plexus", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Injury.:Sports injuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 867, "text": "One sports injury that is becoming prevalent in contact sports, particularly in the sport of American football, is called a \"stinger.\" An athlete can incur this injury in a collision that can cause cervical axial compression, flexion, or extension of nerve roots or terminal branches of the brachial plexus. In a study conducted on football players at United States Military Academy, researchers found that the most common mechanism of injury is, \"the compression of the fixed brachial plexus between the shoulder pad and the superior medial scapula when the pad is pushed into the area of Erb's point, where the brachial plexus is most superficial.\". The result of this is a \"burning\" or \"stinging\" pain that radiates from the region of the neck to the fingertips. Although this injury causes only a temporary sensation, in some cases it can cause chronic symptoms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47677332", "title": "ACL injuries in the Australian Football League", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 719, "text": "In the Australian Football League (AFL) injuries are now very common and consistent due to the game been a contact sport. The Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) knee injury is one of the three major and common injuries that occur in the AFL. The ACL injury has long-term effects on the player, not only in physical activity but also in their own daily lives in the future. Studies have attempted to understand and work out a prevention for ACL injuries but it is too complicated. Once a player has injured their ACL, there is a very high possibility that the injury can occur again to the same knee. There is even the chance of the opposite knee been injured due to the fact the player protecting the reconstructed knee.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5811552", "title": "Anterior cruciate ligament injury", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Female predominance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 254, "text": "Female athletes are two to eight times more likely to strain their ACL in sports that involve cutting and jumping as compared to men who play the same particular sports. NCAA data has found relative rates of injury per 1000 athlete exposures as follows:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47677332", "title": "ACL injuries in the Australian Football League", "section": "Section::::Cause of injury.:Angle of the Knee.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 275, "text": "The process of an ACL injury where no contact from a player is applied is mostly due to the player landing on the surface after going up for a mark. Dependent on the hardness of the surface or the quality of the grass and how well the player lands will impact on the injury.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10669", "title": "Football player", "section": "Section::::Health issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 468, "text": "Patellar tendinitis (knee pain) is considered an overused injury that also happens to other athletes of virtually every sport. It is a common problem that football players develop and can usually be treated by a quadriceps strengthening program. Jumping activities place particularly high strains on the tendon and with repetitive jumping, tearing and injury of the tendon can occur. The chronic injury and healing response results in inflammation and localized pain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47677332", "title": "ACL injuries in the Australian Football League", "section": "Section::::Cause of injury.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 681, "text": "AFL is said to be a contact sport, which it is, but not every Anterior cruciate ligament injury occurs due to contact. Studies show that out of 34 ACL injuries assessed, 56% of injuries were due to no contact situations. These studies showed that ACL injuries occur most of the time due to type of movement, change of direction resulting in the knee to give way, speed of player, angle of the knee when landing and the lack of stability the player has. All AFL footballers wear boots with studs at the bottom of them; this creates grip and friction with the player and the surface. Although boots help the player play football, it creates an increase in risk of injury to the ACL.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "578923", "title": "Anterior cruciate ligament", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Injury.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 2544, "text": "An ACL tear is one of the most common knee injuries, with over 100,000 tears occurring annually in the US. Most ACL tears are a result of a non-contact mechanism such as a sudden change in a direction causing the knee to rotate inward. As the knee rotates inward additional strain is placed on the ACL, since the femur and tibia, which are the two bones that articulate together forming the knee joint, move in opposite directions causing the ACL to tear. Most athletes will require reconstructive surgery on the ACL, in which the torn or ruptured ACL is completely removed and replaced with a piece of tendon or ligament tissue from the patient (autograft) or from a donor (allograft). Conservative treatment has poor outcomes in ACL injury since the ACL is unable to form a fibrous clot as it receives most of its nutrients from the synovial fluid which washes away the reparative cells making it difficult for new fibrous tissue to form. The two most common sources for tissue are the patellar ligament and the hamstrings tendon. The patellar ligament is often used, since bone plugs on each end of the graft are extracted which helps integrate the graft into the bone tunnels, during reconstruction. The surgery is arthroscopic, meaning that a tiny camera is inserted through a small surgical cut. The camera sends video to a large monitor so that the surgeon can see any damage to the ligaments. In the event of an autograft, the surgeon will make a larger cut to get the needed tissue. In the event of an allograft, in which material is donated, this is not necessary since no tissue is taken directly from the patient's own body. The surgeon will drill a hole forming the tibial bone tunnel and femoral bone tunnel, allowing for the patient's new ACL graft to be guided through. Once the graft is pulled through the bone tunnels, two screws are placed into the tibial and femoral bone tunnel. Recovery time ranges between one and two years or longer, depending if the patient chose an autograft or allograft. A week or so after the occurrence of the injury, the athlete is usually deceived by the fact that he/she is walking normally and not feeling much pain. This is dangerous as some athletes start resuming some of their activities such as jogging which, with a wrong move or twist, could damage the bones as the graft has not completely become integrated into the bone tunnels. It is important for the injured athlete to understand the significance of each step of an ACL injury to avoid complications and ensure a proper recovery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yay, a question where I actually have some level of cursory expertise!\n\nTL;DR at the end. Sorry for typos, didn't proof before submitting.\n\nTo begin understanding how Mormonism was allowed to flourish requires a brief understanding of the Protestant melting pot that was 19th-century America. Joseph Smith (founder of Mormonism) was born into what was known as the \"burned-over district\" during the Second Great Awakening, a veritable hotbed of theological and religious development. Other notable religions cropping up from the same area are Seventh-Day Adventists, Disciples of Christ, Millerites, etc. {The Making of a Prophet, Vogel}\n\nCampbellite theology was making its way into popular religious culture and influencing theological discussions with public debates with Campbellite leaders like Alexander and Barton Stone. Young Joseph Smith (1805-44) grew up likely attending local revival meetings.\n\nFor a boy of a family of 12 with a vagabond father and no sustainable income or regular education opportunities, you can imagine his eyes bulging as he saw the collection plates passed around these congregations after sermons. A relevant piece of Smith's personality should be noted here; Smith was a charismatic man. Charisma has its benefits and weaknesses. He was polarizing, non-committal, and had a malleable set of beliefs and convictions which could quickly adapt to setting and audience. One can see how such a personality would do well as a magnetic religious leader.\n\nThe set of factors which caused Smith to claim he had an ancient record of Native American Jews is a rabbit hole too deep to dive into with this question, but suffice it to say, eventually he claimed to have such a record written on Gold Plates, which he \"translated\" into The Book of Mormon. {Early Mormonism and the Magic World View, Quinn}\n\nApril 6, 1830, the first meeting of the Church of Christ was called in New York; \"Joe Smith\" had his own church of \"Mormonites\". Smith also had a bit of a sordid reputation in New York. Eventually, circumstances led to Smith fleeing the state and heading for greener pastures in Kirtland, Ohio. {Rough Stone Rolling, Bushman}\n\nUpon his arrival to Kirtland, Smith teamed up with an ex-Campbellite preacher named Sidney Rigdon. Rigdon was a preacher with multiple congregations and hundreds of parishioners at the time. There were roughly 5-7 families who were adherents to Mormonism in New York, but once Rigdon converted, many of his followers were also baptized into Mormonism, which provided a much-needed lifeline to keeping the young religion alive. \n\nA few notable converts were Newell K. Whitney, Isaac Morley, and John Johnson, quite wealthy people with significant land and business holdings in the area. Smith quickly provided leadership roles for these men to fulfill their need to \"serve the Lord,\" which manifested by them donating large sums of money, as well as various business ventures, to the church. {No Man Knows My History, Brodie}\n\nConcomitant with the rising of Mormonism in Ohio was a concerted effort to settle \"on the border with the Lamanites\" (Missouri). Missouri was still the wild frontier west in the 1830s and seized land from Native Americans was cheap. Mormonism established a foothold there and eventually the Missouri congregations outnumbered that back at HQ in Kirtland.\n\nVarious factors led to Smith's excommunication from the Kirtland congregation. He fled in the middle of the night to escape vigilante justice by his previous parishioners and made it to Missouri. \n\nMissouri in 1838, for Smith, was a place where he could finally put his theocratic motivations into practice. He formed an extra-military group, known as the Danites, to insure the security of the various Mormon settlements, numbering roughly 6-8,000 ppl at the time. After escalating conflict between the Mormons and Missourians, the Mormons raided and pillaged a few nearby settlements and razed them to the ground. Missouri militias responded by massacring the Mormons at a grain mill (Haun's Mill Massacre). Outnumbered and surrounded by multiple state militias, Smith and the Mormons surrendered. They were \"exterminated\" from the state of Missouri and found refuge in Illinois on the banks of the Mississippi. {The 1838 Mormon War in Missouri, LeSueur}\n\nNauvoo, Illinois became the new Mormon stronghold. Smith had learned from mistakes in Ohio and Missouri, resulting in his cultivating relationships with prominent politicians in Illinois. The city of Nauvoo was granted their own private militia which eventually outnumbered the militia of nearly any state in the Union at the time.\n\nBrigham Young rose to prominence here. He, and the other apostles, went on a proselytizing mission to Europe in 1839, selling promises of American prosperity to any Englander willing to listen. Young established an immigration fund with a privately chartered ship, costing each European person a mere 4 pounds to immigrate to the Mormon settlement on the Mississippi. This resulted in thousands of converts making their way to the states. {Nauvoo, Kingdom on the Mississppi, Flanders}\n\nMormonism was a force to be reckoned with.\n\nAt the height of his career, Smith ran for POTUS in 1844 and was assassinated while being held in a jail. Nauvoo was roughly 12-20,000 Mormons (estimates are all over the place and real numbers are really hard to nail down) at this time, the population of Chicago, the next largest city in Illinois, was ~7-9,000 but growing fast.\n\nSmith's death incited a schism crisis. A handful of men claimed to have the rightful authority to be the next one-true prophet. Smith's oldest son was 11 at the time so it wasn't reasonable for him to be the next prophet quite yet (see history of RLDS for further information). {Origins of Power, Quinn}\n\nSome themes to tease out before an overview of Utah Mormonism: 1) persecution, 2) uniqueness, 3) galvanization. \n\n1) Persecution works like fertilizer. Too little and the followers don't have a common enemy, too much and the movement is snuffed out (Catholicism pre-1550). But, just the right amount of fertilizer and the movement will grow and flourish. Mormonism hit that perfect sweet spot.\n\n2) Uniqueness, Mormonism was wacky. Search newspaper databases for articles on Mormonism 1833-45 and many bear a title invoking \"Deluded Fanatics,\" \"Gold Bible Mormonites,\" or something of a similar derisive nature. Smith's claim as not just a preacher, but a prophet, a \"mouthpiece of God,\" made Mormonism really stand out beyond most congregations.\n\n3) Galvanization. Mormonism continued to make media headlines and Smith, along with other leaders, was able to turn that press into a persecution narrative, citing suffering in 1838 Missouri as their real-world examples of how real that persecution really was. A common group with a common enemy lives and dies together.\n\nUtah Mormonism presents an interesting set of factors which caused Mormonism to become what it is today. Brigham Young rose to prominence during the schism crisis and took his group of 6-7,000 Mormons to an area where the U.S. Government would stop bothering them, Mexico. Utah Territory was carved out as a result of the Compromise of 1850, and the new Mormon theocracy had a place to flourish.\n\nLife in Utah wasn't great for the Mormons in the beginning. It was an unsettled badland ruled by people with different beliefs, cultures, and skin color than them. Best estimates put Native American population in the territory around 20,000 when the Mormons got there.\n\nWhile this issue is much more nuanced than a reddit post will justify, the Mormon/Native conflicts (1849-70s) resulted in near extinction of Native American people in Utah. It was only in 1980 when Native populations in Utah reached their pre-Mormon level of ~20,000 ppl. During this growing phase of Utah Mormonism, the European immigration fund remained successful. From 1847-1860, tens of thousands of European converts made the trek across the plains and settled with the growing Mormon settlement. Thousands of white religious fanatics flooding in while conflicts with Native raged and resulted in repeated decimation of the native tribes. These Europeans interbred and created their own self-contained economy with bartering and proprietary money; everybody relied on their neighbor to survive. {Indian Depredations, Gottfriedson}\n\nBrigham Young was king of Utah. He was first Governor of the territory, director of the Office of Indian Affairs, and prophet of the Church; a trifecta of religious and government authority all held by one of the wealthiest Americans living at the time. {Blood of the Prophets, Bagley}\n\nPolygamy also factors into Utah Mormonism more than we can imagine. It created a source of conflict with the U.S. Government that increased the impact of the 3 factors previously discussed. That, coupled with the geographic isolation of Utah, created a system where Mormonism couldn't help but flourish. It was the only authority in a land with dwindling Native populations and European religious fanatics that was well above the critical mass required to grow. {Origins of Power, Quinn}\n\nEventually, the United States Government disincorporated the Church and seized all assets > $50,000 until the practice of polygamy was officially renounced by the religion. It was {Official Declaration 1} and Utah was granted statehood in 1896. It only continued to grow from that point forward.\n\nTL;DR Mormonism was started by a wacky and charismatic guy. Due to a number of complex factors, it had just the right algorithm to flourish into a major religion and build multiple theocracies. Once it attained the crucial \"critical mass\" of followers, nothing could stop it from continuing to grow.\n\nCred: independent researcher and podcaster of Mormon history.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18925", "title": "Mormons", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern times.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 277, "text": "Partly to counter this, Mormons put an even greater emphasis on family life, religious education, and missionary work, becoming more conservative in the process. As a result, Mormons today are probably less integrated with mainstream society than they were in the early 1960s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23883848", "title": "Mormonism and Christianity", "section": "Section::::Doctrinal comparison.:Early Joseph Smith era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 378, "text": "Mormonism arose in the 1820s during a period of radical reform and experimentation within American Protestantism, and Mormonism is integrally connected to that religious environment. As a form of Christian primitivism, the new faith was one among several contemporary religious movements that claimed to restore Christianity to its condition at the time of the Twelve Apostles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5942", "title": "History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "section": "Section::::Modern era (c. 1890–1994).:Mormon involvement in national politics.:Mormonism and the national debate over socialism and communism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 908, "text": "While religious and secular socialism gained some acceptance among Mormons, the church was more circumspect about Marxist Communism, because of its acceptance of violence as a means to achieve revolution. From the time of Joseph Smith, the church had taken a favorable view as to the American Revolution and the necessity at times to violently overthrow the government, however the church viewed the revolutionary nature of Leninist Communism as a threat to the United States Constitution, which the church saw as divinely inspired to ensure the agency of man ( Mormonism believes God revealed to Joseph Smith in Chapter 101 of the Doctrine and Covenants that \"the laws and constitution of the people ... I have suffered to be established, and should be maintained for the rights and protection of all flesh, according to just and holy principles\"). In 1936, the First Presidency issued a statement stating:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21023", "title": "Mormonism", "section": "Section::::Theological divisions.:Mormon fundamentalism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 435, "text": "Mormon fundamentalists believe that these principles were wrongly abandoned or changed by the LDS Church, in large part due to the desire of its leadership and members to assimilate into mainstream American society and avoid the persecutions and conflict that had characterized the church throughout its early years. Others believe that it was a necessity at some point for \"a restoration of all things\" to be a truly restored Church.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23001091", "title": "Christianity in the 19th century", "section": "Section::::American trends.:Mormonism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 559, "text": "The Mormon faith emerged from the Latter Day Saint movement in upstate New York in the 1830s. After several schisms and multiple relocations to escape intense hostility, the largest group, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), migrated to Utah Territory. They established a theocracy under Brigham Young, and came into conflict with the United States government. It tried to suppress the church because of its polygamy and theocracy. Compromises were finally reached in the 1890s, allowing the church to abandon polygamy and flourish.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "444486", "title": "Mormon fundamentalism", "section": "Section::::Distinctive doctrines and practices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 373, "text": "Mormon fundamentalists believe both that these principles were accepted by the LDS Church at one time, and that the LDS Church wrongly abandoned or changed them, in large part due to the desire of its leadership and members to assimilate into mainstream American society and avoid the persecutions and conflict that had characterized the church throughout its early years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23883848", "title": "Mormonism and Christianity", "section": "Section::::Mormon engagement with broader Christianity.:Downplaying of differences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 402, "text": "Patricia Limerick suggests that future historians may conclude that, in the last four decades of the 20th, the general authorities of the LDS Church \"undertook to standardize Mormon thought and practice\". According to Limerick, this campaign of standardization has led to a retreat from the distinctive elements of Mormonism and an accentuation of the church's similarity to conventional Christianity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "We honestly don't know accurately, it's mostly educated guesses and deduction, some will be higher than reality and some will be lower than the true number. It's just like with most things in history, I will give an example, with The Battle of the Nile, we know how many British were involved, how many died and how many were wounded due to the quality of records. Whereas we have very little idea how many casualties the French suffered. So without adequate record keeping we have to try and piece it together although we will likely never know the true number.\n\nEDIT: Battle of the Nile example", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The book Mao's Last Revolution is a thoroughly researched and sourced book about the events of the cultural revolution. It is hard to say exactly how many people died, but academics who say that these numbers were exaggerated tend to have their own agenda they're pushing. What exactly are your sources on this?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, one major reason that you see so many wildly conflicting estimates is that it's hard to know who should count as being \"killed by\" the regime. Clearly people directly executed count, but what about people who merely starve to death or die from preventable/curable diseases? \n\nIt can be hard to know whether these people died from incompetence (like when communists seized farms), from external factors (you can't blame everything on those in power) or if it was an intentionally fabricated disaster. Usually in a crisis, most of the people will be dying from starvation and disease, not violence.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the case of Stalin's Soviet Union, there is enough archival data that pinpoints a minimum of those arrested/executed/exiled, etc. From incidents like collectivization, industrialization, famine, dekulakization, it gets much harder, there you rely on demographic data and at best it is still guesswork. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7720531", "title": "Criticism of communist party rule", "section": "Section::::Areas of criticism.:Mass killings.:Estimates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 407, "text": "The number of people killed under Mao's rule in the People's Republic of China has been estimated at 19.5 million by Wang Weizhi, 27 million by John Heidenrich, between 38 and 67 million by Kurt Glaser and Stephan Possony, between 32 and 59 million by Robert L. Walker, 50+ million by Steven Rosefielde, 65 million by \"The Black Book of Communism\", well over 70 million by \"\" and 77 million by R.J. Rummel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7720531", "title": "Criticism of communist party rule", "section": "Section::::Areas of criticism.:Mass killings.:Estimates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 548, "text": "The number of people killed under Joseph Stalin's rule in the Soviet Union by 1939 has been estimated as 3.5–8 million by G. Ponton, 6.6 million by V.V. Tsaplin and 10–11 million by Alec Nove. The number of people killed under Stalin's rule by the time of his death in 1953 has been estimated as 1–3 million by Stephen G. Wheatcroft, 6–9 million by Timothy D. Snyder, 13–20 million by Steven Rosefielde, 20 million by \"The Black Book of Communism\", 20 to 25 million by Alexander Yakovlev, 43 million by R.J. Rummel and 50 million by Norman Davies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2252692", "title": "Political repression in the Soviet Union", "section": "Section::::Loss of life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 607, "text": "Estimates of the number of deaths attributable to Joseph Stalin vary widely. Some scholars assert that record-keeping of the executions of political prisoners and ethnic minorities are neither reliable nor complete, others contend archival materials contain irrefutable data far superior to sources utilized prior to 1991, such as statements from emigres and other informants. Those historians working after the Soviet Union's dissolution have estimated victim totals ranging from approximately 3 million to nearly 9 million. Some scholars still assert that the death toll could be in the tens of millions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23849734", "title": "Mass killings under communist regimes", "section": "Section::::States where mass killings have occurred.:Soviet Union.:Stalin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 548, "text": "Estimates on the number of deaths brought about by Stalin's rule are hotly debated by scholars in the field of Soviet and Communist studies. Prior to the collapse of the USSR and the archival revelations, some historians estimated that the numbers killed by Stalin's regime were 20 million or higher. Michael Parenti writes that estimates on the Stalinist death toll vary widely in part because such estimates are based on \"anecdotes\" in absence of reliable evidence and \"speculations by writers who never reveal how they arrive at such figures\". \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "356324", "title": "Rudolph Rummel", "section": "Section::::Research.:Democide.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 233, "text": "In his book, \"Death by Government\" published in 1987, Rummel estimated that 148 million were killed by communist governments from 1917 to 1987. The list of communist countries with more than 1 million victims included the following:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23849734", "title": "Mass killings under communist regimes", "section": "Section::::Estimates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 389, "text": "BULLET::::- According to Benjamin Valentino in 2005, the number of non-combatants killed by communist regimes in the Soviet Union, People's Republic of China and Cambodia alone ranged from a low of 21 million to a high of 70 million. Citing Rummel and others, Valentino stated that the \"highest end of the plausible range of deaths attributed to communist regimes\" was up to 110 million\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "356324", "title": "Rudolph Rummel", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 650, "text": "Rummel estimated the total number of people killed by all governments during the 20th century at 212 million, and he estimated that 148 million were killed by communist regimes from 1917 to 1987. To give some perspective on these numbers, Rummel pointed out that all domestic and foreign wars during the twentieth century killed in combat around 41 million. His figures for Communist regimes are higher than those given by most other scholars, which range from 60 to 100 million. In his last book, Rummel increased his estimate to over 272 million innocent, non-combatant civilians who were murdered by their own governments during the 20th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Just how far over your head are we talking? Do you have any sort of math background? Do you know what a computer is?\n\nYou might try to start with some sort of interactive tutorial like [Code Academy](_URL_0_) or a book that's meant to teach everything from the ground up.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24185", "title": "Pseudocode", "section": "Section::::Application.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 497, "text": "A programmer who needs to implement a specific algorithm, especially an unfamiliar one, will often start with a pseudocode description, and then \"translate\" that description into the target programming language and modify it to interact correctly with the rest of the program. Programmers may also start a project by sketching out the code in pseudocode on paper before writing it in its actual language, as a top-down structuring approach, with a process of steps to be followed as a refinement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33448777", "title": "European Certification and Qualification Association", "section": "Section::::Skill acquisition strategy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 279, "text": "You start with a self-assessment against the skills. Then you can sign into an online course. Here you are guided by a tutor and do a homework which is being corrected by the tutor. Finally the homework and real work done in your project is sufficient to demonstrate the skills.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "159032", "title": "Lead programmer", "section": "Section::::Qualifications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 413, "text": "Lead programmers are usually trained in software programming, although do not necessarily hold formal degrees in the subject, and may learn management responsibilities either on the job or through short courses. Because their primary training is usually technical rather than managerial, lead programmers traditionally see themselves as part of the technical staff of a company rather than as part of management.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3350103", "title": "ProgramByDesign", "section": "Section::::Functional programming, computing, and algebra.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 342, "text": "The starting point of ProgramByDesign is the observation that students act as computers in primary school courses on arithmetic, and in middle school and secondary school courses on pre-algebra and algebra. Teachers program them with rules and run specific problems via exercises. The key is that students execute purely functional programs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48323672", "title": "IMC Process Guide", "section": "Section::::Differences between EPSS and e-learning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 206, "text": "In contrast to conventional formal learning, the user is not uniquely trained before using software, but receives hints, tips and help as soon as a problem occurs when applying a software in everyday work.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6442040", "title": "Master and Pupil", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 430, "text": "A boy trying to get himself hired is asked by a man if he can read who rejects him when the boy says he can even though his duties would only be to dust the man's books. The boy runs ahead of the man and asks again for a job and this time claims he cannot read. The man accepts the boy and while he dusts the books he reads them. As his master is a wizard, the boy learns some magic and is then able to transform into any animal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48348168", "title": "Ubi de Feo", "section": "Section::::Teaching.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 442, "text": "Regarding the “From 0 to C”outcomes, de Feo explains, \"The scope of this primer is not teaching you to be the best coder or hacker, but to be one who knows what you are dealing with and has a better attitude towards problem solving.\" \"After learning the ins and outs of how stupid computers actually are, [Ubi]’s students then learn the syntax of a language of their choice (C, JavaScript, or Python, for example), and write a few programs.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "1. Could you please specify what era you're interested in? In 2006, 50.3% of people living in the Northwest Territories identified themselves as Aboriginal Canadians (First Nations, Metis, Inuit, or multiple/other Aboriginal identities), along with 20% of people in Yukon and 85% of people in Nunavut. Their methods of dealing with winter, and reasons for living where they do (or rather, in 1997) will obviously be quite different from 1957 or 1857 or 1657.\n\n2. This is a little sideways, but: if you're interested in pre-colonial or early colonial era, I have an [earlier answer](_URL_1_) on how Jesuit missionaries in 17th century Quebec confronted winters. It talks a lot about what/how the Jesuits learned from the Montagnais nation (and in some cases, what the Montagnais knew and did that the Jesuits didn't or couldn't do).\n\nI'll excerpt some of the relevant portions and add in more details:\n\n~~\n\n*The \"Jesuit Relations\" of the 17th and 18th centuries have a lot to say about the challenges and benefits faced by early European settlers--in this case, Jesuit missionaries--in the deep of winter in \"these wretched lands.\" A theme that emerges, over and over, is that winter makes travel easier and being indoors harder.*\n\nFr. Paul le Jeune, arriving in Quebec in 1632, describes learning how to walk with snowshoes from the local Montagnais--he was so sure he was going to fall on his face at first, with every step he took--but he had grown quite skilled (though not as good as the Montagnais).\n\nIn 1640, Fr. Joseph Marie Chaumonot wrote back to Rome...[the Jesuits] probably used snowshoes as well--Chaumonot tells us that among the Hurons, snowshoe-making is very specifically the women's task. Le Jeune describes the Montagnais using their snowshoes to shovel, but I'm not sure whether the Jesuits adopted that practice. For transportation across unfrozen waterways, like the St. Lawrence River, the Montagnais would use their canoes as in summer. Over the snow, they pulled sleighs or sleds made of wood.\n\n...[The Jesuits] weren't hunters, so while (writes Le Jeune enviously) the Montagnais were chowing down on moose, the Jesuits ate dried eel (which, yes, they had known to eat--and maybe were getting from?--Native women). Le Jeune writes that winter actually *aided* the Montagnais in catching eels:\n\n > This work is done entirely by the women, who empty the fish, and wash them very carefully, opening them, not up the belly but up the back; then they hang them in the smoke, first having suspended them upon poles outside their huts to drain. They gash them in a number of places, in order that the smoke may dry them more easily. The quantity of eels which they catch in the season is incredible.\n\nWinter was also the season for moose hunting (and hence, eating):\n\n > On the 19th [of December], the snow being already very deep, they captured eight elks or moose. About that time one of them, named Nassitamirineou, and surnamed by the French Brehault, told them that he had dreamed that they must eat all of those Moose; and that he knew very well how to pray to God, who had told him that it was his will that they should eat all, and that they should give none of them away, if they wanted to capture others. [The Montagnais] believed him, and did not give a piece to the Frenchmen.\n\nFather de Noue, another Jesuit, told Le Jeune his experiences of traveling with a group of (I think) Montagnais:\n\n > The inns found on the way are the woods themselves, where at nightfall they stop to camp; each one unfastens his snowshoes, which are used as shovels in cleaning the snow from the place where they are going to sleep. The place cleaned is usually made in the form of a circle; a fire is made in the very middle of it, and all the guests seat themselves around it, having a wall of snow behind them, and the Sky for a roof.\n\n > The wine of this inn is snow, melted in a little kettle which they carry with them, provided they do not wish to eat snow in lieu of drink. Their best dish is smoked eel. As they must carry their blankets with them for cover at night, they load themselves with as few other things as possible.\n\nAnd modern practice to the contrary, drinking chocolate is actually a *Central* American tradition.\n\n~~\n\nThe *Jesuit Relations* are available [for free online in English translation](_URL_0_)! I suggest opening a few volumes and searching for snow, ice, and related terms if you're further interested in this particular topic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'll add in a few things - often mass snow dumps and cold weather don't go hand in hand. Normally when I see it snowing that's a sign that it's warm. People did and do a lot of things to survive in winter in weather down to much colder than -30.\n\n - people gathered in houses with fires in them. \n - In many places the majority of the food for the winter was gathered during the summer. This includes fish, berries, nuts, and roots, all staples of diet. In communities that lived along almost every river in British Columbia (most of the communities, all of this seasonal harvesting constituted the majority of food, and was done in generally fixed locations at fixed times. Meat as well was often seasonal - think of the caribou and buffalo migrations/hunts by various Dene and Inuit groups in the far north, and by various buffalo hunting groups in the prairies. In particular the Metis big hunt was done once a year, with thousands participating, and going back much further in time we have numerous examples of stationary hunting locations that caught herds at specific points on their yearly migrations. These did not take place in the winter, and people preserved meat by smoking or sun-drying (more smoking the less predictable the water was i.e. closer to the coast). Men did hunt in the winter in almost all cultures, especially after trapping became a major economic force, but it often wasn't as necessary for survival as it later became when people began to be involved in more economic activities during the summer. For example along the coast, midwinter was ceremony season. In addition, my grandfather survived a lot of his childhood by snaring a lot of food close by wherever he was camping, and having your snares out every night or checking your snares every day is a pretty easy way of getting some food. Snaring food was/is a common way for kids to start trapping, and rabbits and squirrels snared are a normal part of many winter diets. These are still generalities, as Inuit for example hunted a lot in the winter, and resources vary a lot from place to place. Winter hunting was always an important fall back when accidents happened, and the men being gone a lot was also a fairly useful form of birth control.\n\n - people were skilled at building shelters of all kinds. In the north (north of the tree line) in Inuit country people built igloos, travel igloos, snow caves, or even just wind breaks out of snow. This is of course when they are on the land and not in permanent settlements which often had permanent houses made of turf as well as igloos. These could be heated by body heat and seal-oil lamps, generally with multiple wicks. In places such as the Mackenzie delta, despite there being no trees there could be lots of driftwood and fires were fine, in fact some people still heat their houses with wood today using driftwood entirely in the area. Further south in British Columbia people lived in pit houses and hide houses, and could make many kinds of shelters easily and quickly, as well as fires. Harlan Smith lists eight types of houses used just by the Nuxalk, and other first nations as well built a range of shelters for various functions and needs. By and large these houses would be as warm or warmer than our houses, they just might take more wood to keep that way Having spent time in a long house, a good fire in the middle can warm a very large building quite quickly. That said, people who spend a lot of time in the cold can get used to it through acclimation. For example, I camp in winter with a sleeping bag, groundpad, and warm clothing. My cousin hikes in jeans, and will wrap up in a tarp in freezing weather and just go to sleep. I don't recommend it, but when you're used to it, a person can function in very cold weather. This includes adaptations like hunter's reflex where many Inuit can work all day barehanded in minus thirty weather pulling in nets, without their hands freezing because their body will pump blood to their fingers every little while to keep them warm.\n - people had very good clothing, much of it still the equal to technical clothing made today. Fur-lined well made clothing is really quite warm. Also, the snow doesn't really make you that wet if you have good clothing on. It's well enough insulated that body heat doesn't make the snow melt, and if its cold enough, even more so. In particular people were careful of overexerting themselves and getting wet as a result. Caribou skin parkas are still used, sealskin leggings and mukluks are still used, and fur-lined clothing is still used today and is considered very adequate.\n - If you sent me out in my coat, with a blanket and food, I do know how I would survive, and I that's the primary difference. Just like today, in the past people knew how to survive, and that made it normal. First Nations went in to areas that had resources, and they used the technologies and education needed to survive in those areas. Warmer areas were more populated, and with the right technologies, you could move in to places where nobody else was living and have abundance. That said, almost all of Canada's first nations people have migrated north to south, not the other way around, so if anything it's been warm weather tech that people have had to develop over the years.\n\nRelevant sources - for a really detailed description of plant use, see Nancy Turner's two volume set on the topic, covering Northwestern North America.\n\nTurner, Nancy (2014). Ancient Pathways, Ancestral Knowledge: Ethnobotany and Ecological Wisdom of Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America.\n\nYou can get Harlan Smith's books from the Canadian Museum of Civilization. Almost any collection of northern stories will tell you a lot about survival methods, as will writing by early explorers who analyzed the methods as they learnt them and often wrote about how not to die. One book in particular I enjoyed was the following:\n\nMishler, Craig, ed. Neerihiinjìk: We Traveled from Place to Place: the Gwich’in Stories of Johnny and Sarah Frank. 2nd ed. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, 2001.\n\nthis book really tells a lot about survival in the North, and I can't recommend it too highly, though my primary interest in it is because of the cultural information.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34345932", "title": "Hill 57", "section": "Section::::Native American presence.:Hill 57 camp.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 369, "text": "Winters at the Hill 57 camp were incredibly harsh. While many Native American families survived during the summer by picking food, clothing, and firewood out of the town garbage dump, snow and ice precluded such scavenging during the winter. Many families turned to the county government during the winter, and received minimal assistance that enabled them to survive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27731272", "title": "Global storm activity of 2008", "section": "Section::::Events of 2008.:March.:March 3–5.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 417, "text": "Heavy snow and local ice pellets and freezing rain fell throughout much Eastern Canada with the heaviest snow from north of the Great Lakes to north of the Saint Lawrence River from Toronto to eastern Quebec. From of snow fell with the highest amounts in the Ottawa area. The blizzard conditions also forced a one-day delay for a ceremony at CFB Trenton in memory of a Canadian soldier who was killed in Afghanistan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36786", "title": "Little Ice Age", "section": "Section::::Geophysical and social impact by region.:North America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 796, "text": "Early European explorers and settlers of North America reported exceptionally severe winters. For example, according to Lamb, Samuel Champlain reported bearing ice along the shores of Lake Superior in June 1608. Both Europeans and indigenous peoples suffered excess mortality in Maine during the winter of 1607–1608, and extreme frost was reported in the Jamestown, Virginia, settlement at the same time. Native Americans formed leagues in response to food shortages. The journal of Pierre de Troyes, Chevalier de Troyes, who led an expedition to James Bay in 1686, recorded that the bay was still littered with so much floating ice that he could hide behind it in his canoe on 1 July. In the winter of 1780, New York Harbor froze, allowing people to walk from Manhattan Island to Staten Island.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27731272", "title": "Global storm activity of 2008", "section": "Section::::Events of 2008.:October.:October 29.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 100, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 100, "end_character": 409, "text": "The first snowfall in Eastern Canada dumped up to 15 cm of wet snow in Northwestern and southwestern Quebec and the neighboring regions of eastern Ontario, knocking electricity out for some 70,000 people and forcing the closure of several schools and school boards. The same depression also caused worries in Gaspésie due to rainfall. Portions of New York and Pennsylvania received as much as 1-foot of snow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12524364", "title": "History of the Tlingit", "section": "Section::::Tlingit migration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 620, "text": "One version begins with the Athabaskan (Ghunanaa) people of interior Alaska and western Canada: a land of lakes and rivers, of birch and spruce forests, moose and caribou. Life in its continental climate was harsh, with bitterly cold winters and hot summers. One year the people had a poor harvest, and it was obvious that the winter would bring many deaths from starvation. The elders gathered and decided that a group of explorers would be sent to find a land rumored to be rich in food, a place where one did not have to hunt. Although the group was never heard from again, they became the Navajo and Apache nations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27067390", "title": "St. John River Campaign", "section": "Section::::Consequences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 408, "text": "Because the British campaign destroyed their supplies, the few surviving Acadians in the area suffered famine. Canada's Governor Vaudreuil reported 1600 Acadians immigrated to Québec City in 1759. During this same winter, Quebec also suffered a famine and a smallpox epidemic broke out, killing over 300 Acadian refugees. Some returned to St. John only to be imprisoned on Georges Island in Halifax Harbour.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46724995", "title": "January 1947", "section": "Section::::January 30, 1947 (Thursday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 136, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 136, "end_character": 298, "text": "BULLET::::- A ten-day blizzard began in the Canadian Prairies that would be remembered as one of Canada's worst winter storms of the 20th century. Towns and trains from Winnipeg to Calgary were buried under snow while some rural roads and railways in Saskatchewan would remain closed until spring.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "_URL_0_\n\nIt is a problem in boxing, although today's boxers and trainers know more about it and boxers have adopted a much more defensive style (lots of clinching, few face-to-face brawls) that prevents them getting punched in the head as much. See any recent Klitschko fight or the Mayweather - Pacquiao fight to see this defensive style.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To add to flipmode_squad's comment, boxers also only fight a few times a year. Sometimes only once. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23251810", "title": "Musti-yuddha", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 537, "text": "Aspiring boxers undergo years of apprenticeship, toughening their fists against stone and other hard surfaces, until they are able to break coconuts and rocks with their bare hands. Any part of the body may be targeted, except the groin, but the prime targets are the head and chest. Techniques incorporate punches, kicks, elbows, knees and grabs. Boxers wear no form of protection and fight bare-fisted. Matches may be one-on-one, one against a group, or group against group. Victory can be attained by knockout, ringout or submission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19525", "title": "Muay Thai", "section": "Section::::Conditioning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 606, "text": "Due to the rigorous training regimen (some Thai boxers fight almost every other week) professional boxers in Thailand have relatively short careers in the ring. Many retire from competition to begin instructing the next generation of Thai fighters. Most professional Thai boxers come from lower economic backgrounds, and the purse (after other parties get their cut) is sought as means of support for the fighters and their families. Very few higher economic strata Thais join the professional Muay Thai ranks; they usually either do not practice the sport or practice it only as amateur Muay Thai boxers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26211544", "title": "Weight class (boxing)", "section": "Section::::Culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 355, "text": "A boxer may fight different bouts at different weight classes. The trend for professionals is to move up to a higher class as they age. Winning titles at multiple weight classes to become a \"multiple champion\" is considered a major achievement. In amateur boxing, bouts are much shorter and much more frequent, and boxers fight at their \"natural\" weight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4243", "title": "Boxing", "section": "Section::::Boxing styles.:Definition of style.:Boxer/out-fighter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 674, "text": "A classic \"boxer\" or stylist (also known as an \"out-fighter\") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler. Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3122606", "title": "Fight Night Round 2", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 276, "text": "BULLET::::- Clinching: Any boxer may attempt to clinch his opponent at any time. If successful, both boxers will regenerate health and stamina faster as long as they are clinched. Clinching too often, however, will result in point deductions and eventually, disqualification.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6822383", "title": "Boxing styles and technique", "section": "Section::::Boxing Styles.:Primary styles.:Out-boxer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1443, "text": "The out-boxer (out-fighter, boxer) is the opposite of the swarmer. The out-boxer seeks to maintain a gap from their opponent and fight with faster, longer range punches. Out-boxers are known for being extremely quick on their feet, which often makes up for a lack of power. Since they rely on the weaker jabs and straights (as opposed to hooks and uppercuts), they tend to win by points decisions rather than by knockout, although some out-boxers can be aggressive and effective punchers. Bare-knuckle boxer Daniel Mendoza was the first to ever use this boxing style. Out-boxers such as Benny Leonard and Larry Holmes can still have many notable knockouts and punching power, but usually preferred to wear down their opponents and outclass them rather than just knock them out. Out-boxers also cross over frequently with counter-punch and/or swarming techniques, such as Naseem Hamed, who used his speed on his feet to avoid injury and his precision and power to carve his opponents down. Notable out-boxers include Gabriel Elorde, Wilfred Benitez, Cecilia Brækhus, Ezzard Charles, Kid Chocolate, Billy Conn, James J. Corbett, George Dixon, Chris Eubank, Tiger Flowers, Tommy Gibbons, Holly Holm, Jack Johnson, Amir Khan, Tony Harrison, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Philadelphia Jack O'Brien, Willie Pep, Barney Ross, Michael Spinks, Gene Tunney, Jersey Joe Walcott, and Pernell Whitaker. The fictional boxer Apollo Creed is considered an out-boxer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35529755", "title": "Boxing in Japan", "section": "Section::::Professional boxing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 616, "text": "In Japan, every professional boxer must contract with a manager under the JBC rules, and is required to belong to a boxing gym which has exclusive management rights for boxers as a member of each regional subsidiary body of Japan Pro Boxing Association under the Japan's conventional gym system. Two professional boxers belonging to the same gym have not been allowed to fight against each other unless one of them transfers to other gym, because it might disrupt the gym system. However, it is often quite difficult for boxers to transfer between the gyms due to the matters on transfer fees, match fees and so on.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Looking around, there are various estimates online of the total circulating US money supply, [this](_URL_0_) source estimates about $3.5 trillion in bills and coins, which would indicate the inflation caused by adding $15 trillion to the money supply should be around 500%. That's definitely just an order-of-magnitude estimate, since inflation is affected by other factors besides just number of bills actually circulating, and estimates of the total money supply vary considerably, but I think 500% is a reasonable ballpark figure.\n\nedit: from [wikipedia](_URL_1_), it appears that by broad measures of the money supply there are more like $10 trillion in circulation, which would give a slightly more reasonable inflation figure of about 150%. Still, as I said before these are just order-of-magnitude estimates, the actual observed inflation could be dramatically different.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I suggest you read this [article about hyperinflation during the Weimar Republic](_URL_0_). Germany started printing money so that they could pay back their WWI reparations and shit hit the fan. One of the highlights of the article: A medal commemorating Germany's 1923 hyperinflation. The engraving reads: \"On 1st November 1923 1 pound of bread cost 3 billion, 1 pound of meat: 36 billion, 1 glass of beer: 4 billion.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The direct effect on the rate of inflation will be dwarfed by the indirect consequences of the loss of credibility this will cause for the Federal Reserve, and therefore the US Treasury bonds. The financial system is based on a notion of a \"risk-free\" rate. Traditionally, this has been Treasury bonds. If there's nothing you can invest in risklessly, almost all major financial models come crashing down. The CAPM and the Black-Scholes formula, two of the most fundamental financial equations, don't work without a risk-free rate. The economy will crash, the dollar will become worthless almost immediately, and life as we know it will end for decades.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your question would be extremely hard to answer, even by most economists because we are talking about a dynamic system. Inflation is based as much on availability of money as it is on the expectations and behavior of people based on their belief about its future availability.\n\nOn top of that, you need to be very careful about how you define these things - the $15 trillion you quote is ~$10 trillion in public debt and $5 trillion in internal debt. The internal $5T can be squared off at any time without printing a single bank-note. Credit the SS account for $5T and debit the treasury account for $5T. Voila. Debt disappears. The consequence of course is that you just defunded SS which means... I don't know.. what does it mean? It's all guess work from there. How would people react to SS being defunded? Would they chant on twitter? Burn down congress? Make love on the streets? I don't know.\n\nThe remaining $10T is known as public debt. This is debt held by various player outside the government. If you see _URL_0_, you'll see that the federal reserve holds about $1.6T in treasuries (it's a bit higher than normal because the fed is currently trying to flush banks with cash through open market operations - it was closer to 10% in 2005). Now, the thing you must understand is that the US govt doesn't print money. The Fed does. Yes - the US dollar is printed by a private corporation (under stewardship of the US govt of course... if you can call what congress does stewardship). This is not a crazy conspiracy theory - it's just how debt based money works. The way the US govt gets money is by selling a bunch of govt debt to the federal reserve and in exchange, getting currency back. Now it is entirely unclear to me how the US govt would go about \"asking the fed to print money\" to offset any debt that the fed itself holds... that just seems stupid. So instead, let's just say that the US govt asks the fed to just... ignore the current debt it holds (hint: it already does that - when US debt matures, the US govt simply sells the fed new debt equivalent to the maturity value and has the fed erase the old debt using the money just created).\n\nOk. Now we have about $8.4T to worry about. I don't know it currently stands but a good fraction of this - wikipedia claims about $3T is held by foreign sources. US debt is usually in the form of a bond with a fixed maturity period and fixed interest payments (ignore TIPS and the like.. stay with me here). Here is the kicker.. the US govt *can't* repay these debts right now even if it wanted to. US debt is not a callable bond - the govt can't simply decide to call in its debt. But pretend for now that somehow we're in bizarro world where it can do that. How does it do it? It asks the fed to print some money and takes that cash to pay off the foreign held debt. But in printing that money, the US has created an equivalent amount of domestic debt that is being held in the federal reserve. What has changed is that the foreign markets are now being flooded with US bank notes and the US govt has lost any control over how that money is going to be spent. If a good fraction of this foreign debt was being held by foreign governments (or state controlled entities), then it would be in their best interest to not flood the market with US currency because it would cause the US currency to weaken (inflate) relative to their currency making their products more expensive in the US markets. China for one, due to its currency manipulation to keep the yuan cheap, would never release excess currency into the market. In essence - nothing would have changed.\n\nNow, it's the private debt holders that are problematic. Somehow the US manages to pay them all of (read: transfer their debt to the federal reserve). Now everyone has a boat load of money. If people were smart/rational/robots, they'd realize that this was just a completely dumb idea in the first place and would do nothing with this new money. But people are none of those above things - they're panicky and stupid and we'll probably get a great amount of inflation. How much... that would be hard to say - it would depend on what else happens. The fed could simply refuse to sit by and \"pretend the govt's debt didn't exist\" and start selling such debt, unwinding all this excess currency in the market (in essense, doing the reverse of what it's currently doing where it's buying debt to stimulate the markets during a credit crunch). Or it could do nothing... or... I don't know.. this is all just stupid crazy land at this point. It makes no economic sense. No sensible economy should have gotten to this point. This is like asking how expensive of a speeding ticket you would receive for driving a nuclear powered rocket car on the I90 at 500mph. Like... it should have never gotten to this point. It would just be colossally stupid for someone to go \"Oh, that's a nuclear jet car. I'll just wait for it to start speeding before I ticket it.\" \n\nAs you can see from above, you may begin to realize the government debt is a very very very different creature when compared to household debt. They are not the same thing *at all*. Paying off govt debt is *nothing* like paying off your loans or your mortgage. If the government never got into debt, you'd never have money in the first place. So I suggest you stop thinking of govt debt in such terms. Govt debt is never going to get repaid fully. NEVER! We haven't repaid our debt from WW2 and we NEVER will. It's simply not a sensible proposition. There will always be govt debt. The important things to consider are the debt/GDP ratio and the GDP growth rate. I'm not an economist, so I can't tell you the exact relationships between these and inflation - not much more beyond wikipedia and introductory macro econ textbooks. Hopefully someone else here will pick this up and correct me where I am wrong.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "322221", "title": "National debt of the United States", "section": "Section::::Risks and debates.:Credit default.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 350, "text": "In April 1979, however, the United States may have technically defaulted on $122 million in Treasury bills, which was less than 1% of U.S. debt. The Treasury Department characterized it as a delay rather than as a default, but it did have consequences for short-term interest rates, which jumped 0.6%. Others view it as a temporary, partial default.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2300854", "title": "Boskin Commission", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 501, "text": "The report was important because inflation, as calculated by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, is used to index the annual payment increases in Social Security and other retirement and compensation programs. This implied that the federal budget had increased by more than it should have, and that projections of future budget deficits were too large. The original report calculated that the overstatement of inflation would add $148 billion to the deficit and $691 billion to the national debt by 2006.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8096220", "title": "Public image of George W. Bush", "section": "Section::::Domestic perception of Bush.:Domestic policy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 650, "text": "A \"Harper's\" magazine column by Linda Bilmes, a lecturer in Public Finance at Harvard's Kennedy School of Government, and Joseph Stiglitz titled \"The $10 trillion hangover: Paying the price for eight years of Bush\", \"estimate that the cost of undoing the Bush administration's economic choices, from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan to the collapse of the financial system, soaring debt and new commitments to interest payments and Medicare, all add up to over $10 trillion\". See also National Debt Graph: Bush Sets 50-Year Record. The National debt from George Washington to the beginning of Ronald Reagan's term totaled about one trillion dollars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3902571", "title": "Economic history of Nicaragua", "section": "Section::::Sandinista Era, 1979–90.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 226, "text": "After 1985 the government chose to fill the gap between decreasing revenues and mushrooming military expenditures by printing large amounts of paper money. Inflation skyrocketed, peaking in 1988 at more than 14,000% annually.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7048889", "title": "Debt buyer (United States)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 546, "text": "As a result of the 2008 economic downturn, prices for the best accounts fell from the 2007-2008 high of 14 cents on the dollar to 4–7 cents. According to the Payments Source 2009 webpage, depending on the age and history of the debt, a buyer typically paid between 3 and 20 percent of the face value of the debt. Accounts that come directly from the original creditor without having been placed with a collection agency have the highest value, with prices decreasing based on the amount of time that has passed since the account has charged off.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32442495", "title": "United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011", "section": "Section::::Implications of not raising the debt ceiling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 537, "text": "Some argued that the worst outcome would be if the US failed to pay interest and/or principal on the national debt to bondholders, thereby defaulting on its sovereign debt. Former Treasury Secretary Lawrence Summers warned in July 2011 that the consequences of such a default would be higher borrowing costs for the US government (as much as one percent or $150 billion/year in additional interest costs) and the equivalent of bank runs on the money markets and other financial markets, potentially as severe as those of September 2008.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18717338", "title": "United States dollar", "section": "Section::::Value.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 119, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 119, "end_character": 444, "text": "Over the thirty-year period from 1981 to 2009, the U.S. dollar lost over half its value. This is because the Federal Reserve has targeted not zero inflation, but a low, stable rate of inflation—between 1987 and 1997, the rate of inflation was approximately 3.5%, and between 1997 and 2007 it was approximately 2%. The so-called \"Great Moderation\" of economic conditions since the 1970s is credited to monetary policy targeting price stability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I doubt anyone can answer that for the case of the Earth as it is far too complicated. Tides on the Earth are subject to the topography of the ocean bed and so vary throughout the oceans.\n\nI think even for a homogeneous fluid body this might not be a straightforward question either. You can evaluate the tidal force through the body quite simply but the response of the fluid is a lot more complex. If you let the fluid be convective then I know for a fact that no one can answer this question for an arbitrary plan/star.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "All of it, it's not that one piece of water gets pulled towards the sun while the other doesn't. It's not even all water, the whole planet gets squashed and stretched by them. Water just makes it apparent to the naked eye because it tends to flow around easily.\n\nOr I am misunderstanding the question and you are asking what the volume change in a particular location is.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41044068", "title": "Long period tide", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1627, "text": "Long-Period tides are gravitational tides, typically with amplitudes of a few centimeters or less and periods longer than one day, generated by changes in the Earth's orientation relative to the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter. The distance between a reference point on the surface of the Earth relative to these objects can be expressed as an infinite combination of periods and, as the distance changes, so does the tidal forcing. An analysis of the changing distance by Pierre-Simon de Laplace in the 18th century shows that these periods at which gravity varies cluster into three species, the semi-diurnal and diurnal tide constituents which have periods of a day or less, and the long period tidal constituents (see also tide). Long period tidal constituents with relatively strong forcing include the lunar fortnightly (Mf) and monthly (Ms) as well as the solar semiannual (Ssa) and annual (Sa) constituents. In addition to having periods longer than a day-long period tidal forcing is distinguished from that of the first and second species by being zonally symmetric. The long period tides are also distinguished by the way in which the oceans respond. In contrast to the first and second species, the long period tidal forcings occur sufficiently slowly that they do not excite surface gravity waves. This property of exciting surface gravity waves is responsible for the high amplitude semi-diurnal tides in the Bay of Fundy, for example. In contrast, the ocean responds to long period tidal forcing with a combination of an equilibrium tidal response along with a possible excitation of barotropic Rossby wave normal modes \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10151726", "title": "Atmospheric tide", "section": "Section::::General characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 393, "text": "At ground level, atmospheric tides can be detected as regular but small oscillations in surface pressure with periods of 24 and 12 hours. However, at greater heights, the amplitudes of the tides can become very large. In the mesosphere (heights of ~ 50–100 km) atmospheric tides can reach amplitudes of more than 50 m/s and are often the most significant part of the motion of the atmosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16686748", "title": "Outline of oceanography", "section": "Section::::Physical Oceanography.:Tides.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 1667, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1667, "end_character": 227, "text": "BULLET::::- Long period tide – Gravitational tides, typically with amplitudes of a few centimetres or less and periods longer than one day, generated by changes in the Earth's orientation relative to the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "801420", "title": "Atmospheric physics", "section": "Section::::Atmospheric tide.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 592, "text": "At ground level, atmospheric tides can be detected as regular but small oscillations in surface pressure with periods of 24 and 12 hours. Daily pressure maxima occur at 10 a.m. and 10 p.m. local time, while minima occur at 4 a.m. and 4 p.m. local time. The absolute maximum occurs at 10 a.m. while the absolute minimum occurs at 4 p.m. However, at greater heights the amplitudes of the tides can become very large. In the mesosphere (heights of ~ 50 – 100 km) atmospheric tides can reach amplitudes of more than 50 m/s and are often the most significant part of the motion of the atmosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11544856", "title": "Burntcoat Head, Nova Scotia", "section": "Section::::Highest tides in the world.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 259, "text": "“The Natural World, Greatest Tides: The greatest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy... Burntcoat Head in the Minas Basin, Nova Scotia, has the greatest mean spring range with 14.5 metres (47.5 feet) and an extreme range of 16.3 metres (53.5 feet).”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "413559", "title": "Cook Inlet", "section": "Section::::Resources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 888, "text": "Turnagain Arm is one of only about 60 bodies of water worldwide to exhibit a tidal bore. The bore may be more than six feet high and travel at 15 miles per hour on high spring tides and opposing winds. Turnagain Arm sees the largest tidal range in United States, with a mean of 30 feet (9.2 m), and the fourth highest in the world, behind Bay of Fundy (11.7m), Ungava Bay (9.75m), and Bristol Channel (9.6m). The ocean's natural 12-hour 25-minute tidal cycle is close to Turnagain Arm's natural resonance frequency, which then reinforces the tide similar to water sloshing in a bathtub. Tidal fluctuations in the main body of Cook Inlet, while not as extreme as the shallow and narrow Turnagain Arm, regularly reach or more and exhibit currents in excess of at full tidal flow. The inlet and its arms have been proposed as a potentially attractive site for the generation of tidal power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "145753", "title": "Hydrosphere", "section": "Section::::Water cycle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 621, "text": "\"Every year the turnover of water on Earth involves 577,000 km of water. This is water that evaporates from the oceanic surface (502,800 km) and from land (74,200 km). The same amount of water falls as atmospheric precipitation, 458,000 km on the ocean and 119,000 km on land. The difference between precipitation and evaporation from the land surface (119,000 - 74,200 = 44,800 km/year) represents the total runoff of the Earth's rivers (42,700 km/year) and direct groundwater runoff to the ocean (2100 km/year). These are the principal sources of fresh water to support life necessities and man's economic activities.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "there is nothing quick about it, this economy has been producing about 140,000 new jobs every month this year.\n\nBovernment employment has been going down steadily for the last few years and is one of the reasons for weak job growth overall. \n\nAccording the the BLS the jobs are primarily in the service sector, meaning retail sales and things like that so they are not even the result of government projects", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They are private-sector jobs.\n\nHowever, some of them may have been spurred by the federal government's discretionary investments in the economy.\n\nFor example, let's say the Department of Transportation gave a hypothetical $1 million grant to build a bridge. The engineering plans for the bridge had already been approved by the city, and the city just needed this last piece of financing to actually afford to build it. A private company put in a competitive bid to actually build that bridge and its build was accepted because it offered to build it at the lowest cost. The private company then hired 1 engineer, 4 supervisors, and 20 construction workers to then build the bridge. That government investment created 25 private sector jobs.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nA more detailed description of those jobs created this month is available on the Bureau of Labor Statistics or Department of Labor website (report here: _URL_1_). The report states the following:\n\n\n\"Total nonfarm payroll employment increased by 162,000 in July, with gains in retail trade, food\nservices and drinking places, financial activities, and wholesale trade.\n\nRetail trade added 47,000 jobs in July and has added 352,000 over the past 12 months. In July, job\ngrowth occurred in general merchandise stores (+9,000), motor vehicle and parts dealers (+6,000),\nbuilding material and garden supply stores (+6,000), and health and personal care stores (+5,000).\n\nWithin leisure and hospitality, employment in food services and drinking places increased by 38,000\nin July and by 381,000 over the year.\n\nFinancial activities employment increased by 15,000 in July, with a gain of 6,000 in securities,\ncommodity contracts, and investments. Over the year, financial activities has added 120,000 jobs.\n\nEmployment increased in wholesale trade (+14,000) in July. Over the past 12 months, this industry\nhas added 83,000 jobs.\n\nEmployment in professional and business services continued to trend up in July (+36,000). Within\nthe industry, job growth continued in management of companies and enterprises (+7,000) and in\nmanagement and technical consulting services (+7,000). Employment in temporary help services\nchanged little over the month.\n\nManufacturing employment was essentially unchanged in July and has changed little, on net, over\nthe past 12 months. Within the industry, employment in motor vehicles and parts rose by 9,000\nin July.\n\nEmployment in health care was essentially unchanged over the month. Thus far in 2013, health\ncare has added an average of 16,000 jobs per month, compared with an average monthly increase\nof 27,000 in 2012.\n\nEmployment in other major industries, including mining and logging, construction, transportation\nand warehousing, and government, showed little change in July.\"\n\n\nAlso see: _URL_0_\n\nSecretary of Labor Tom Perez issued the following statement about the July 2013 Employment Situation report:\n\n“Today's report shows that our economy continues to improve, modestly but steadily. The unemployment rate inched downward to 7.4 percent, the 11th straight month under 8 percent and the lowest level in more than four and a half years, since December 2008. The private sector added 161,000 new jobs in July, marking the 41st straight month of private-sector job growth and a total of 7.3 million new private-sector jobs added over that time period.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Many of them are part-time](_URL_1_).\n\nPerhaps even more to the point, [they are often replacing full-time jobs](_URL_0_). The number of full-time jobs has declined in many sectors, so that's *part* of your answer. Fire your full-time employees, hire two part-timers for the same position, et voila - you don't increase your payroll, actually save money on pesky things like benefits, and *still* \"double\" the workforce.\n\nNot saying that this accounts for *all* of the increase, but just be careful when you cite numbers like \"165,000 new jobs\" - they can be quite misleading.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "59533691", "title": "2019 in the United States", "section": "Section::::Events.:January.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 222, "text": "BULLET::::- January 4 – Government data reveals that the U.S. economy added 312,000 jobs in December, far ahead of predictions of 177,000, and that manufacturing ended 2018 with the most jobs added in one year since 1997.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41222249", "title": "2014 in the United States", "section": "Section::::Events.:October.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 221, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 221, "end_character": 266, "text": "BULLET::::- October 3 – The United States Department of Labor reports that in September 2014, employers added 248,000 new jobs to the U.S. economy, setting the unemployment rate to 5.9%, the lowest since July 2008 at the onset of the 2008 global financial meltdown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28688759", "title": "Unemployment in the United States", "section": "Section::::Fiscal and monetary policy.:Fiscal policy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 599, "text": "As part of the economic policy of Barack Obama, the United States Congress funded approximately $800 billion in spending and tax cuts via the February 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act to stimulate the economy. Monthly job losses began slowing shortly thereafter. By March 2010, employment again began to rise. From March 2010 to September 2012, over 4.3 million jobs were added, with consecutive months of employment increases from October 2010 to December 2015. As of December 2015, employment of 143.2 million was 4.9 million above the pre-crisis peak in January 2008 of 138.3 million.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25325879", "title": "Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration", "section": "Section::::Responding to the Great Recession.:Trends in employment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 553, "text": "Measured from the month following his inauguration in January 2009, the U.S. added 11.6 million private sector jobs from February 2009 to January 2017. Measured from the crisis trough in February 2010, the U.S. added a total of 16.1 million private sector jobs over the remaining 83 months of the Obama presidency — the longest continuous period of private sector job creation on record. By comparison, no net jobs were added during the 2000–2009 period including the crisis impact, while 18 to 22 million jobs were added each decade from 1970 to 1999.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21312676", "title": "Timeline of the Great Recession", "section": "Section::::2011.:May.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 219, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 219, "end_character": 309, "text": "The US Department of Labor stated 244,000 jobs were created in April, with 235,000 added in February and 221,000 in March, but unemployment continued to grow, reaching 9%. For unemployment to be reduced to 6%, 13 million private sector jobs must be added over 3 years, meaning annual growth of 4-5% required.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28311794", "title": "99ers", "section": "Section::::Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 288, "text": "The Economic Policy Institute, using data provided by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, has verified that, as of September 2010, the U.S. economy would need to add 11.5 million jobs to make up for the shortfall due to the recession. In September 2010, the private sector added 64,000 jobs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23074252", "title": "NAFTA's effect on United States employment", "section": "Section::::Job creation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 433, "text": "U.S. employment increased over the period of 1993–2007 from 110.8 million people to 137.6 million people. Specifically within NAFTA's first five years of existence, 709,988 jobs (140,000 annually), were created domestically. The mid to late nineties was a period of strong economic growth in the United States. When a country is experiencing economic growth (i.e. GDP is increasing), there is usually also an increase in employment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "To my knowledge the Emperor wasn't praised as a god via rituals as that would go against their religion to their many gods, it would have been seen as an insult.\n\nIn the early 20th century/WW2 era the Emporer was often thought to be a Demi-god or higher being, someone who has unquestionable reign over the entire nation. Many actions during the war and in Japanese society were said to be done in the name of the Emperor, be it kamikaze bombers or some form of societal advancement back in Japan.\n\nTo my knowledge in schools children tended to be thought that the Emporer was the ultimate ruler with an all seeing eye. However, do not quote me on this, I am just trying to remember back to my Japanese studies in school which was some time ago, but I hope this helps. I still encourage a qualified 20th century historian to give you a better answer.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The idea that the Emperor is was considered a god is only semi-accurate, in that none of the many kinds of mythological/supernatural beings in Japanese lore exactly match what we would think of as a \"god\" in the west. Many other elements of religion that we would take for granted are also absent. A good example is your question about getting into paradise. The answer is no, because in Japanese religion there is no concept similar to paradise/heaven.\n\nThe exact position of Emperor might be best summed up as something like the spiritual embodiment of the nation. He was a kind of demi-god - not because he had any supernatural powers, but because he was the direct descendant of Amaterasu, the Goddess (or *kami*) of the Sun, as well as the patron Goddess of the Japanese people. In the *Kojiki* and the *Nihon Shoki*, two ancient Japanese texts that give an account of the legendary period of Japanese history, Amaterasu appears to her human descendant called Jimmu, and informs of his divine ancestry. She also tells him that his people, the Japanese, are her chosen people and that she is offering them her holy islands (the islands of Japan) for their home. Because of this myth, the Japanese's status as the chosen people of the Sun Goddess became an important of the Japanese nationalism that flourished in the latter part of the 19th century, and the Emperor was honoured as a crucial part of that link/relationship.\n\nThe Emperor was not prayed to as such, though he was treated with extreme reverance. There were shrines to the Emperor, but the function of praying there was to pay respects or pray for the health of the Emperor, not petition him directly. As for the infamous fanaticism of Japanese in WW2, dying in battle was more a civic/patriotic duty than a religious one. It was also a product of the Japanese mindset, which tended to emphasis group interests over individualism. Dying in battle, or in suicide attacks, wasn't done for any particular reward but because it was seen as honourable.\n\nI can't really think of any direct parallels in other religions. Perhaps the closest I can think of would be something like the Pope i.e. not inherently divine but a kind of conduit to the divine. However, even this is a pretty bad comparison. It's also worth saying that most of this only applies to roughly the period 1868-1945. Before this the Emperor was far less important to the national psyche (the Shogun was the central figure), and after the end of WW2 the Showa Emperor (also known as Hirohito) declared that he was not descended from Amaterasu, severing this divine connection.\n\nSources: The *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki* - traditional Japanese texts\n\n*The Making of Modern Japan* - Marius Jansen", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "17428541", "title": "Horror in the East", "section": "Section::::Part One - Turning Against the West.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1334, "text": "Like the rest of the country, the Japanese monarchy was changing too - but not in a way that made it resemble Western royalty. In the 1920s the Japanese were being taught that their emperor, living in a park in central Tokyo, was more than just a mere human being - he was called a living god. Children were educated to think of the emperor as a god in the form of a human being. In Japan it was in the interests of one group more than any other that the emperor be perceived as an all powerful living god - the armed forces. Only ultimately accountable to their supreme commander Hirohito, as long as they acted in the name of their 'divine' emperor, elected Japanese politicians found it almost impossible to control them - and by the late 1920s many within the army thought that Japan should act decisively, and expand. Masatake Okumiya (Japanese Imperial Navy): \"Japan's population was increasing - its natural resources could not sustain such an increase. Ideally we hoped to receive co-operation from other countries to solve the problem but, back then, the world was under the control of the west and a peaceful solution seemed impossible. We decided, as Britain, America and France had done in the past from time to time, to \"use force to solve the problem.\"\" By the early 1930s western countries had colonized much of Asia. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36015322", "title": "Ho an den", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 485, "text": "In Imperial Japan, between the 1910s and 1945, a was a small shrine- or temple-like building that housed a photograph of the incumbent Emperor and Empress (Emperor Meiji, Emperor Taishō, Emperor Shōwa, Empress Shōken, Empress Teimei and Empress Kōjun) together with a copy of the Imperial Rescript on Education. A Hō-an-den was typically installed at elementary schools, though also at a number of other institutions. This served as a place for the veneration of the Emperor of Japan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3208806", "title": "National Foundation Day", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1748, "text": "In its original form, the holiday was named . The national holiday was supported by those who believed that focusing national attention on the emperor would serve an unifying purpose, holding the \"kokutai\" together with all Japanese people united by their love of the god-emperor. Publicly linking his rule with the mythical first emperor, Jimmu, and thus the Sun Goddess Amaterasu, the Meiji Emperor declared himself the one, true ruler of Japan. The claim that the emperors of Japan were gods was based upon their supposed descent from Amaterasu, the most important of the Shinto gods and goddesses. With large parades and festivals, in its time, \"Kigensetsu\" was considered one of the four major holidays of Japan. The holiday of \"Kigensetsu\" featured parades, athletic competitions, the public reading of poems, the handing out of sweets and buns to children, with the highlight of the \"Kigensetsu\" always being a rally where ordinary people would kowtow to a portrait of the emperor, which was followed up by the singing of the national anthem and patriotic speeches whose principal theme was always that Japan was a uniquely virtuous nation because of its rule by the god-emperors. \"Kigensetsu\" provided the model for school ceremonies, albeit on a smaller scale, as classes always began in Japan with the students kowtowing to a portrait of the emperor, and school graduations and the opening of new schools were conducted in a manner very similar to how \"Kigensetsu\" was celebrated. When students graduated in Japan, the principal and the teachers would always give speeches to the graduating class on the theme that Japan was a special nation because its emperors were gods, and it was the duty of every student to serve the god-emperor. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48209546", "title": "Death and funeral of Hirohito", "section": "Section::::Protests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 683, "text": "The late emperor's funeral, like the man it honored, was dogged by bitter memories of the past. Many Allied veterans of World War II regarded Hirohito as a war criminal and called upon their countries to boycott the funeral. Nevertheless, of the 166 nations invited to send representatives, all but three accepted. Some Japanese, including a small Christian community, constitutional scholars and opposition politicians, denounced the pomp at the funeral as a return to past exaltation of the emperor and contended that the inclusion of Shinto rites violated Japan's post-war separation of church and state. Some groups, opposed to the Japanese monarchy, also staged small protests.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "147729", "title": "Hinamatsuri", "section": "Section::::Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 566, "text": "During the Meiji period as Japan began to modernize and the emperor was restored to power, Hinamatsuri was deprecated in favor of new holidays that focused on the emperor's supposed bond with the nation, but it was revived. By focusing on marriage and families, it represented Japanese hopes and values, and as the dolls were said to represent the emperor and empress, it also fostered respect for the throne. The holiday then spread to other countries via the Japanese diaspora, although it remains confined to immigrant Japanese communities and their descendants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20960029", "title": "Emperor Meiji", "section": "Section::::Reign.:Political reform.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 608, "text": "The Japanese take pride in the Meiji Restoration, as it and the accompanying industrialization allowed Japan to become the preeminent power in the Pacific and a major player in the world within a generation. Yet, Emperor Meiji's role in the Restoration, as well as the amount of personal authority and influence he wielded during his reign, remains debatable. He kept no diary, wrote almost no letters (unlike his father) and left \"no more than three or four\" photographs. The accounts of people who had met or were close to him usually contain little substantial information or are mutually contradictory. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3208806", "title": "National Foundation Day", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 2810, "text": "In the Meiji period, the government of Meiji Japan designated the day as a national holiday because of the modernization of Japan by the Meiji Restoration. Under the \"bakufu\", people in Japan had worshiped the emperors as living gods, but regional loyalties were just as strong as national loyalties with most people feeling an equal or a stronger loyalty to whatever \"daimyō\" (\"lord\") that ruled over their province as they did to the shōgun who ruled from distant Edo, let alone the emperor who reigned in the equally distant city of Kyoto. Moreover, Shintoism has a number of deities, and until the Meiji Restoration, the emperors were just one of many Shinto gods, and usually not the most important. During the Meiji period, the government went out of its way to promote the imperial cult of emperor-worship as a way of ensuring that loyalty to the national government in Tokyo would outweigh any regional loyalties. Moreover, the process of modernization in Meiji era Japan was intended only to ensure that Japan adopted Western technology, science and models of social organization, not the values of the West; it was a recurring fear of the government that the Japanese people might embrace Western values like democracy and individualism, which led the government to rigidly insist upon all Japanese were to hold the same values with any form of heterodoxy viewed as a threat to the \"kokutai\". The American historian Carol Gluck noted that for the Japanese state in the Meiji era, \"social conformity\" was the highest value, with any form of dissent considered a major threat to the \"kokutai\". Up to 1871, Japanese society was divided into four castes: the samurai, the merchants, the artisans and the peasants. The samurai were the dominant caste, but the sort of aggressive militarism embraced by the samurai were not embraced by the other castes, who legally speaking were not allowed to own weapons. One of the Meiji era reforms was the introduction of conscription with all able-bodied young men to serve in either the Army or the Navy when they turned 18, which required promoting the ideology of \"Bushido\" (\"the way of the warrior\") to people who historically speaking had been encouraged to see war as the exclusive concern of the samurai. The imperial cult of emperor-worship was promoted both to ensure that everyone would be a part of the \"kokutai\" and to ensure that all men embraced \"Bushido\", and would willingly serve in the military. After conscription was introduced in 1873, a group of teenage rickshaw drivers and shop clerks were ordered to attend a lecture where they were informed that \"Now that all men are samurai\" that they were to show \"manly obedience\" by enlisting in the Army at once, which many objected to under the grounds that they did not come from samurai families. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A CPU is essentially made from switches. Tiny areas on a piece of silicon - a microchip - can be created such that they allow electricity to pass from one place to another when there is electricity supplied at a third point and not otherwise; or the inverse, they prevent electricity from passing through when there is electricity applied to the control point and not otherwise. These are then wired together by making areas of the chip conductive, or by just layering metal on top of the chip. All logic is built out of these. (Good things to Google for are pnp / npn junctions, logic gates, flip flop, half adder, ALU, VLSI if you want to read more about this stuff).\n\nAt this level, electricity isn't always \"fully on\" or \"fully off\". The switches take time to switch. When the inputs change, the output takes a while to settle down to a stable level. When a bunch of switches are wired together into a circuit, the whole thing takes time to settle down.\n\nHuman programmers working with the CPU need to be able to reason about its behaviour as a whole. It is easiest to reason about a system that, as a whole, goes from one well-documented stable state to another in response to some input and has no unpredictable behaviours.\n\nFor this purpose we introduce the idea of a clock: something that regularly pulses electricity. \n\nWe design all the various circuits such that, when a clock pulse starts and only then, they latch onto their inputs and all the switching starts; this means that as all the switching happens and all of the various outputs fluctuate before settling into the resulting states, we can ignore this fluctuation since the things the outputs are wired to won't look at them before the next clock pulse. \n\nThe closer together we space the clock pulses, the faster we can go from one state to another, and so the faster we can do work. But we have to wait at least as long between them as it takes for the part of the CPU that takes the longest to settle to a new state when something changes to do that.\n\nThis rate at which we decide to run the clock - the clock speed, the number of pulses per second, or Hertz - is the MHz (megahertz, million hertz, million pulses per second) figure you are asking about.\n\nThere are alternative ways of designing a CPU; e.g. \"dual rail logic\" allows each circuit that makes up the CPU to individually tell the things reading its outputs when its outputs are ready, so no overall clock is needed and each part can potentially run at its own speed.\n\nThis makes the system as a whole much more complex and harder to reason about, and so is rarely done.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Anything that has a repeating cycle can be measured in Hertz. CPUs utilize a small crystal that creates an electric pulse billions of times a second to synchronize its various operations. The rate of that pulse is what we measure. For many years it would be somewhere in the MHz range, but these days many processors use a clock in the GHz range. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "403326", "title": "66 (number)", "section": "Section::::In computing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 438, "text": "66 (more specifically 66.667) megahertz (MHz) is a common divisor for the front side bus (FSB) speed, overall central processing unit (CPU) speed, and base bus speed. On a Core 2 CPU, and a Core 2 motherboard, the FSB is 1066 MHz (~16 × 66 MHz), the memory speed is usually 666.67 MHz (~10 × 66 MHz), and the processor speed ranges from 1.86 gigahertz (GHz) (~66 MHz × 28) to 2.93 GHz (~66 MHz × 44), in 266 MHz (~66 MHz × 4) increments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4806958", "title": "CPU-Z", "section": "Section::::Features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 419, "text": "CPU-Z has an ability to directly detect hardware features, such as the ability to access, read, and display the SPD data (including manufacturer, manufacture date, and part number) from memory modules, which can be invaluable to those looking to add or replace memory. The ability to document clock speed makes it a tool for motherboard overclockers, as a way of proving the CPU speeds achieved by various experiments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8192994", "title": "ATI video card suffixes", "section": "Section::::Descriptions/Common Features.:HM (HyperMemory).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 308, "text": "The MHz of the core clock measures the rate at which the GPU processes, higher core clock in turn is a contributing factor to the clarity of the graphics due to faster processing, the loading of images, the differential of colors and shades, the sharpness, brightness, texture, motion, distance capture etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4120803", "title": "CDC 6000 series", "section": "Section::::Hardware.:Central processor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 846, "text": "Both the 6400 and 6600 CPUs had a cycle time of 100 ns (10MHz). Due to the serial nature of the 6400 CPU, its exact speed was heavily dependent on instruction mix, but generally around 1 MIPS. Floating-point additions were fairly fast at 11 clock cycles, however floating-point multiplication was very slow at 57 clock cycles. Thus its floating point speed would depend heavily on the mix of operations and could be under 200 kFLOPS. The 6600 was, of course, much faster. With good compiler instruction scheduling, the machine could approach its theoretical peak of 10 MIPS. Floating-point additions took four clock cycles, and floating-point multiplies took 10 clocks (but there were two multiply functional units, so two operations could be processing at the same time.) The 6600 could therefore have a peak floating point speed of 2-3 MFLOPS.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7593", "title": "Calculator", "section": "Section::::Internal workings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 326, "text": "Clock rate of a processor chip refers to the frequency at which the central processing unit (CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured in \"clock cycles per second\" or the SI unit hertz (Hz). For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred hertz to the kilohertz range.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14121", "title": "Hertz", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Computers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 892, "text": "In computers, most central processing units (CPU) are labeled in terms of their clock rate expressed in megahertz (10 Hz) or gigahertz (10 Hz). This specification refers to the frequency of the CPU's master clock signal. This signal is a square wave, which is an electrical voltage that switches between low and high logic values at regular intervals. As the hertz has become the primary unit of measurement accepted by the general populace to determine the performance of a CPU, many experts have criticized this approach, which they claim is an easily manipulable benchmark. Some processors use multiple clock periods to perform a single operation, while others can perform multiple operations in a single cycle. For personal computers, CPU clock speeds have ranged from approximately 1 MHz in the late 1970s (Atari, Commodore, Apple computers) to up to 6 GHz in IBM POWER microprocessors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13951", "title": "Hitachi 6309", "section": "Section::::Differences from the Motorola 6809.:Clock Speed.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 549, "text": "The 6309 has B (2 MHz) versions as the 6809 does. However, a \"C\" speed rating was produced with either a 3.0 or 3.5 MHz maximum clock rate, depending on which datasheet is referenced. (Several Japanese computers had 63C09 CPUs clocked at 3.58 MHz, the NTSC colorburst frequency, so the 3.5 rating seems most likely). Anecdotal and individual reports indicate that the 63C09 variant can be clocked at 5 MHz with no ill effects. Like the 6809, the Hitachi CPU comes in both internal and external clock versions (HD63B/C09 and HD63B/C09E respectively)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It seems to me that you assume that if there is hunger and some political chaos that all the institutions stop functioning? Germany before WWI was one of the most advanced countries on the planet, they won the most Nobel prices in the sciences up to that point. WWI was 4 years and after it was over the scientists or institutions didn't just disappear. \n\nThey might have been destitute right after the war but they still had one of the biggest economies in the world plus the institutional memory and tradition in the sciences, engineering didn't vanish.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI hosted the spreadsheet on my Google docs if that is easier:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThere GDP took hits in those years but they never got below France there level and overtook England in the inter war period. GDP is a flawed way to look at the economy but it's useful to illustrate my point that they weren't as destitute as you might have thought.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Leading up to World War 1 Germany looked like an academic and industrial juggernaut. Their universities were numerous and the best in the world. Their factories produced more and better goods than anyone else. They appeared to be accelerating as well because foreign leaders were quite worried about the rise of Germany into a continental juggernaut. David Fromkin goes into the specifics of their ascension and the perceptions of it from elsewhere in the beginning of \"Europe's Last Summer\". \n\nThen despite the heavy cost of the war there was little destruction in Germany proper outside of malnutrition and some starvation as a result of the Allied blockade. This meant that that superiority in academics and manufacturing largely remained intact. In the last years of the war and until 1924 the German economy was in shambles but there was a golden period until 1929 when everyone tanked. Germany then came out of the Depression a little earlier than most countries so they really had favorable conditions between the wars to maintain their advanced status.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "hi! You may be interested in these posts\n\ngeneral background\n\n* [When did \"German Engineering\" become a thing and how did it come about?](_URL_2_) - includes links to a few more posts\n\nthe run-up to WWII\n\n* [Was Germany more advanced technologically than the allies during WWII? How did they progress faster?](_URL_5_)\n\n* [Prior to WWII, why were German scientists so good at what they did?](_URL_3_)\n\n* [Why was Germany so far ahead technologically prior and during World War II?](_URL_4_)\n\n* [What kinds of technology and doctrine came out of the naval arms race between Great Britain and Germany prior to WW1?](_URL_6_)\n\n* [Was Germany far ahead technologically in World War 2?](_URL_0_)\n\n* [Was Germany more advanced technologically than the allies during WWII? How did they progress faster?](_URL_5_)\n\n* [How were the Germans able to field such a large and technologically advanced army during WW2?](_URL_1_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Any information of the Investment in public education system under Bismarck? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Enigma was invented in WWI by Arthur Scherbius, a person who died before WWII even broke out.\n\nFerdinand Porsche, designer of the Tiger tank, was born in 1875 and died in 1951.\n\nHugo Schmeisser, inventor of Stg44, 1884 and died in 1953.\n\nEinstein, famous German Scientist and nobel prize winner, was born in 1879 and died in 1955.\n\nAll of these people were born before WWI. All would have been post-university age by the outbreak of WWI (i.e. at least 25+. Einstein is an interesting case there). So unless they died in WWI, or fled to another country (as Einstein did), all would have been able to contribute to WWII's technological efforts. It's not as if they stopped existing on the outbreak of WWII!\n\nWernher von Braun, person behind the V2 rocket (I assume you meant V2 rocket?) and later main initial component of NASA's rocket program, was born in 1912. He got his PhD in 1934 -- and so is relevant to your question. For his teachers: See above. Other \"old\" people still alive before the outbreak of WWII. For his materials: See /u/Slashenbash's comment about GDP.\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1397318", "title": "German nuclear weapons program", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 551, "text": "Politicization of the German academia under the National Socialist regime had driven many physicists, engineers, and mathematicians out of Germany as early as 1933. Those of Jewish heritage who did not leave were quickly purged from German institutions, further thinning the ranks of academia. The politicization of the universities, along with the demands for manpower by the German armed forces (many scientists and technical personnel were conscripted, despite possessing useful skills), substantially reduced the number of able German physicists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23106519", "title": "OKB-1 150", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 906, "text": "At the end of World War II many German engineers were 'seconded' by the Soviet government to continue their advanced research under direct supervision of the USSR. One of the most significant German teams was OKB-1 (opytno-konstrooktorskoye byuro – experimental design bureau) set up in GOZ-1 (Gosoodarstvenny opytnyy zavod – state experimental plant) at Dubna near Moscow. OKB-1, with Dr. Brunolf Baade as chief designer, continued work on German-built aircraft such as the EF-131 and '140', which used many components of the two EF-131's, as well as design work on the stillborn EF 132 long-range bomber. By early 1948 Semyon M. Alekseyev had been appointed supervisor/chief warden/supervisor of OKB-1, with Dr. Brunolf Baade remaining as chief designer. This has caused confusion in the past with '150' being ascribed to Alekseyev and not OKB-1 (OKB-1 was not named after Baade for propaganda reasons).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29335703", "title": "Hubert Schardin", "section": "Section::::ISL Institute in Saint-Louis (France).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 237, "text": "After World War II a competition began among the Allies to acquire the knowledge of German scientists and engineers. The Technical College of the German Air Force, presided over by Schardin, was a particular goal of France and the USA. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8215460", "title": "Ministry of Aviation (Nazi Germany)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 645, "text": "The Ministry was in charge of development and production of all aircraft developed, designed and built in Germany during the existence of the Third Reich, overseeing all matters concerning both military and civilian designs — it handled military aviation matters as its top priority, particularly for the Luftwaffe. As was characteristic of government departments in the Nazi era, the Ministry was personality-driven and formal procedures were often ignored in favour of the whims of the Minister, \"Reichsmarschall\" Hermann Göring. As a result, early successes in aircraft development progressed only slowly and erratically during World War II.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21282273", "title": "Nazi foreign policy debate", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 303, "text": "The foreign policy and war aims of the Nazis have been the subject of debate among historians. The Nazis governed Germany between 1933 and 1945. There has been disagreement over whether Adolf Hitler aimed solely at European expansion and domination, or whether he planned for a long-term global empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "400498", "title": "Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 210, "text": "After the Nazis came to power in Germany, they reformed the administrative system by transforming the former German provinces and states into their Gau system in 1935 as a part of their Gleichschaltung policy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1618034", "title": "Leipzig school (sociology)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 426, "text": "The National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party) did not allow any competing ideologies to develop in universities; however, some of the Leipzig School group remained at the university until 1945. Their numbers declined as some emigrated (Günther) or made a career in the Third Reich (Gehlen, Ipsen, Pfeffer), and before the war ended, Freyer himself left to take up a teaching position at the University of Budapest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes. It hurts. I think it's an air bubble so there's not room for the liquid and the bubble so it feels like a trying to swallow big lump.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1589857", "title": "CREST syndrome", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Esophageal dysmotility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 370, "text": "Presents as a sensation of food getting stuck (dysphagia) in the mid- or lower esophagus, atypical chest pain, or cough. People often state they must drink liquids to swallow solid food. This motility problem results from atrophy of the gastrointestinal tract wall smooth muscle. This change may occur with or without pathologic evidence of significant tissue fibrosis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26083160", "title": "Throat irritation", "section": "Section::::Acid reflux.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 712, "text": "This affliction is a common cause of throat irritation. Normally the stomach produces acid in the stomach which is neutralized in the small intestine. To prevent acid from flowing backwards, the lower part of the swallowing tube (esophagus) has a valve which closes after food passes through. In some individuals, this valve becomes incompetent and acid goes up into the esophagus. Reflux episodes often occur at night and one may develop a bitter taste in the mouth. The throat can be severely irritated when acid touches the vocal cords and can lead to spasms of coughing. To prevent throat irritation from reflux, one should lose weight, stop smoking, avoid coffee beverages and sleep with the head elevated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5004226", "title": "Globus pharyngis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 348, "text": "Globus pharyngis is the persistent sensation of having phlegm, a pill or some other sort of obstruction in the throat when there is none. Swallowing can be performed normally, so it is not a true case of dysphagia, but it can become quite irritating. One may also feel mild chest pain or even severe pain with a clicking sensation when swallowing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40345875", "title": "Alcohol and Native Americans", "section": "Section::::Native American temperance activists.:Samson Occom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 533, "text": "When we are intoxicated with strong drink we drown our rational powers, by which we are distinguished from the brutal creation--we unman ourselves, and bring ourselves not only level with the beasts of the field, but seven degrees beneath them...How many [drunkards] have been drowned in our rivers, and how many frozen to death in the winter season! And now let me exhort you all to break off from your drunkenness...Take warning by this doleful sight before us, and by all the dreadful judgments that have befallen poor drunkards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52875786", "title": "Chinese alchemical elixir poisoning", "section": "Section::::History.:Six dynasties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 1073, "text": "When you have taken a spatulaful of it, you will feel an intense pain in your heart, as if you had been stabbed there with a knife. After three days you will want to drink, and when you have drunk a full \"hu\" 斛 [about 50 liters] your breath will be cut off. When that happens, it will mean that you are dead. When your body has been laid out, it will suddenly disappear, and only your clothing will remain. Thus you will be an immortal released in broad daylight by means of his waistband. If one knows the name of the drug [or, perhaps, the secret names of its ingredients] he will not feel the pain in his heart, but after he has drunk a full \"hu\" he will still die. When he is dead, he will become aware that he has left his corpse below him on the ground. At the proper time, jade youths and maidens will come with an azure carriage to take it away. If one wishes to linger on in the world, he should strictly regulate his drinking during the three days when he feels the pain in his heart. This formula may be used by the whole family. (tr. Strickmann 1979: 137–138) \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2121098", "title": "Aftertaste", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 638, "text": "Aftertaste is the taste intensity of a food or beverage that is perceived immediately after that food or beverage is removed from the mouth. The aftertastes of different foods and beverages can vary by intensity and over time, but the unifying feature of aftertaste is that it is perceived \"after\" a food or beverage is either swallowed or spat out. The neurobiological mechanisms of taste (and aftertaste) signal transduction from the taste receptors in the mouth to the brain have not yet been fully understood. However, the primary taste processing area located in the insula has been observed to be involved in aftertaste perception.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4644698", "title": "Esophageal dysphagia", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 202, "text": "Patients usually complain of dysphagia (the feeling of food getting stuck \"several seconds\" after swallowing), and will point to the suprasternal notch or behind the sternum as the site of obstruction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "we have harder metals to work that produce a better product in the end.\n\nThe main issue with bronze is that its a rather soft metal and doesn't keep its edge well. While early iron suffered similar issues (with less reparability) the moment you start getting cast and later wrought iron plus steel you have a might sharper metal that can be used in much more things.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3952875", "title": "Chimera of Arezzo", "section": "Section::::Methods and materials.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 464, "text": "In the 3rd millennium BCE ancient foundry workers discovered by trial and error that bronze had distinct advantages over pure copper for making artistic statuary. Bronze stays liquid longer when filling a mold due to its lower melting point. Bronze is a superior metal than copper for sculpture casting because of its higher tensile strength. The island of Cyprus supplied most of the bronze used for artistic purposes throughout the ancient Mediterranean region.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28716", "title": "Smelting", "section": "Section::::History.:Copper and bronze.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 926, "text": "The discovery of copper and bronze manufacture had a significant impact on the history of the Old World. Metals were hard enough to make weapons that were heavier, stronger, and more resistant to impact damage than wood, bone, or stone equivalents. For several millennia, bronze was the material of choice for weapons such as swords, daggers, battle axes, and spear and arrow points, as well as protective gear such as shields, helmets, greaves (metal shin guards), and other body armor. Bronze also supplanted stone, wood, and organic materials in tools and household utensils—such as chisels, saws, adzes, nails, blade shears, knives, sewing needles and pins, jugs, cooking pots and cauldrons, mirrors, and horse harnesses. Tin and copper also contributed to the establishment of trade networks that spanned large areas of Europe and Asia, and had a major effect on the distribution of wealth among individuals and nations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5828258", "title": "Hepatizon", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 599, "text": "Of the known types of bronze or brass in classical antiquity (known in Latin as \"aes\" and in Greek as χαλκός), hepatizon was the second most valuable. Pliny the Elder mentions it in his \"Natural History\", stating that it is less valuable than Corinthian bronze, which contained a greater proportion of gold or silver and as a result resembled the precious metals, but was esteemed before bronze from Delos and Aegina. As a result of its dark colour, it was particularly valued for statues. According to Pliny, the method of making it, like that for Corinthian bronze, had been lost for a long time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5266947", "title": "Corinthian bronze", "section": "Section::::Classical antiquity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 863, "text": "Of the known types of bronze or brass, not distinguished in classical antiquity and interchangeably known in Latin as \"aes\" and in Greek as χαλκός, Corinthian bronze was the most valuable. Statues, vases and vessels, or other objects formed of this metal were priceless, of greater value than if they had been made of silver or gold. Pliny the Elder distinguished it into three kinds, depending on the metal that is added to the copper base: in the first, gold is added (\"luteum\"); in the second, silver (\"candidum\"); in the third, gold, silver, and copper are equally blended. Plutarch and Cicero both comment that Corinthian bronze, unlike many other copper alloys, is resistant to tarnishing. Pliny also refers to a fourth, dark alloy, known as hepatizon. Petronius and other authors mocked the connoisseurs of their day who claimed to be able to identify it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4169", "title": "Bronze", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 654, "text": "The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper (\"Chalcolithic\") predecessors. Initially, bronze was made out of copper and arsenic, forming arsenic bronze, or from naturally or artificially mixed ores of copper and arsenic, with the earliest artifacts so far known coming from the Iranian plateau in the 5th millennium BC. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19042", "title": "Metal", "section": "Section::::History.:Antiquity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 775, "text": "The discovery of bronze (an alloy of copper with arsenic or tin) enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper (\"Chalcolithic\") predecessors. Initially, bronze was made of copper and arsenic (forming arsenic bronze) by smelting naturally or artificially mixed ores of copper and arsenic. The earliest artifacts so far known come from the Iranian plateau in the 5th millennium BCE. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BCE. Pure tin itself was first isolated in 1800 BCE by Chinese and Japanese metalworkers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10623551", "title": "Economic history of Greece and the Greek world", "section": "Section::::Earliest Greek civilizations.:Mycenaean civilization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 605, "text": "Metals were also a very important part of the Mycenaean economy, during the Mycenaean period there were five metals in use: gold, silver, copper, tin and lead. Iron was not unknown but was very rare. Therefore, bronze was the main metal for the making of tools and weapons. Although bronze was the most important metal for the Mycenaeans, it was relatively scarce and expensive. Our knowledge of the Mycenaean bronze industry comes entirely from Pylos where we have some information about smiths. Most of the tablets concerning bronze demonstrate a very tight control of the metal industry by the palace.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Taking into account wind, gravity, distance, the gun they are using and the bullets they are using, the spotters are able to approximate about where the sniper should position his scope so that the bullet hits the target. Marine Sniper School is pretty intense, and they're very good at what they do.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From my Army experience, not as a sniper, but with basic rifle marksmanship training, I can tell you what I have learned. First, you learn to his a target at 300 meters. At this distance, you can learn to adjust the sights so when you shoot at the center of the target, you will hit the center of the target. There are adjustments you can make to your rifle to ensure that the rifle is accurate to 800 meters. When you get beyond 800 meters, you need a more powerful rifle, and a longer range sight. The sniper will learn to adjust with the new rifle and sight, so again what he aims at the center of, he will hit the center of. \n\nThis will work under perfect conditions. When the sniper has to shoot from the top or the bottom of a hill, he will have to adjust for elevation. The spotter will usually give him an idea of what the elevation is. The sniper then adjusts the sights of his rifle. There are tools that the spotter can use to tell the sniper the difference in elevation. For example, there is a telescope looking sight that the spotter can look through that will show the elevation by turning it up or down. \n\nWindage, or the direction and speed of the wind is generally estimated. The spotter has learned tricks to get an idea of how fast the wind is blowing and in what direction at every point out to the target. The sniper has been trained in how to adjust his aim based on the wind speed. If the wind is too strong, or is blowing unsteady, the spotter may call of the shot until the wind dies down. \n\nFinally, at a long enough distance (like over a mile) the spotter takes into account the curvature of the earth. There are charts that are learned to assist the spotter in determining the proper point of aim based on the curvature. \n\nSo, basically, it comes down to learning how to shoot close targets well, then learning some tricks to be able to shoot at longer distances. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Aiming is dependent on distance to the target and wind. Wind can be measure with an [anemometer](_URL_2_) or estimated by tree movement, size of waves, flags moving, etc. Distance can be measured with laser range finding tools, or by use of the optics.\n\nMany long range rifles make use of the mil dot system. You've seen them before, they look like [this](_URL_1_). The dots in the scope are carefully marked for the zoom level of the optics so that 2 adjacent dots mark a ~0.057^o angle from the shooters position, or about 1 milliradian (hence the name mil dot). Through the power of the glorious metric system, the math gets pretty easy.\n\nThe shooter can size up targets through the scope. Lets say an enemy appears to be about 2 mil dots tall. An average human is about 1.8 meters tall. Multiply that by 1000, then divide by the height in mils:\n\n > Target size (in meters) x 1000 / Mils read = meters to target\n\nWith our example, we calculate that this target is roughly 900m away. Now depending on the muzzle velocity of the rifle, the shooter will know how many mils correlate to bullet drop at a given distance. More than likely he'll have a range table with him, or have it essentially memorized. The target is lined up X number of mil dots below the crosshair, and Bob's your uncle. A similar strategy can be used for wind, and moving targets as well.\n\n[A good read on the subject](_URL_0_)\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Taking into account wind, gravity, distance, the gun they are using and the bullets they are using, the spotters are able to approximate about where the sniper should position his scope so that the bullet hits the target. Marine Sniper School is pretty intense, and they're very good at what they do.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From my Army experience, not as a sniper, but with basic rifle marksmanship training, I can tell you what I have learned. First, you learn to his a target at 300 meters. At this distance, you can learn to adjust the sights so when you shoot at the center of the target, you will hit the center of the target. There are adjustments you can make to your rifle to ensure that the rifle is accurate to 800 meters. When you get beyond 800 meters, you need a more powerful rifle, and a longer range sight. The sniper will learn to adjust with the new rifle and sight, so again what he aims at the center of, he will hit the center of. \n\nThis will work under perfect conditions. When the sniper has to shoot from the top or the bottom of a hill, he will have to adjust for elevation. The spotter will usually give him an idea of what the elevation is. The sniper then adjusts the sights of his rifle. There are tools that the spotter can use to tell the sniper the difference in elevation. For example, there is a telescope looking sight that the spotter can look through that will show the elevation by turning it up or down. \n\nWindage, or the direction and speed of the wind is generally estimated. The spotter has learned tricks to get an idea of how fast the wind is blowing and in what direction at every point out to the target. The sniper has been trained in how to adjust his aim based on the wind speed. If the wind is too strong, or is blowing unsteady, the spotter may call of the shot until the wind dies down. \n\nFinally, at a long enough distance (like over a mile) the spotter takes into account the curvature of the earth. There are charts that are learned to assist the spotter in determining the proper point of aim based on the curvature. \n\nSo, basically, it comes down to learning how to shoot close targets well, then learning some tricks to be able to shoot at longer distances. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Aiming is dependent on distance to the target and wind. Wind can be measure with an [anemometer](_URL_2_) or estimated by tree movement, size of waves, flags moving, etc. Distance can be measured with laser range finding tools, or by use of the optics.\n\nMany long range rifles make use of the mil dot system. You've seen them before, they look like [this](_URL_1_). The dots in the scope are carefully marked for the zoom level of the optics so that 2 adjacent dots mark a ~0.057^o angle from the shooters position, or about 1 milliradian (hence the name mil dot). Through the power of the glorious metric system, the math gets pretty easy.\n\nThe shooter can size up targets through the scope. Lets say an enemy appears to be about 2 mil dots tall. An average human is about 1.8 meters tall. Multiply that by 1000, then divide by the height in mils:\n\n > Target size (in meters) x 1000 / Mils read = meters to target\n\nWith our example, we calculate that this target is roughly 900m away. Now depending on the muzzle velocity of the rifle, the shooter will know how many mils correlate to bullet drop at a given distance. More than likely he'll have a range table with him, or have it essentially memorized. The target is lined up X number of mil dots below the crosshair, and Bob's your uncle. A similar strategy can be used for wind, and moving targets as well.\n\n[A good read on the subject](_URL_0_)\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1730553", "title": "Milliradian", "section": "Section::::Definitions for maps and artillery.:Use in artillery sights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 238, "text": "Artillery spotters typically use their calibrated binoculars to walk fire onto a target. Here they know the approximate range to the target and so can read off the angle (+ quick calculation) to give the left/right corrections in meters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3809960", "title": "Counter-sniper tactics", "section": "Section::::Locating an attacking sniper.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 207, "text": "When the trajectory of the bullet can be sensed, backtracking can be done to calculate the sniper's location. Sensor techniques are often used in combination to improve detection and eliminate false alarms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28123", "title": "Sniper", "section": "Section::::Modern warfare.:Sniper teams.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 597, "text": "The spotter detects, observes, and assigns targets and watches for the results of the shot. Using a spotting scope or a rangefinder, the spotter will also read the wind by using physical indicators and the mirage caused by the heat on the ground. Also, in conjunction with the shooter, the spotter will make calculations for distance, angle shooting (slant range), mil dot related calculations, correction for atmospheric conditions and leads for moving targets. It is not unusual for the spotter to be equipped with a notepad and a laptop computer specifically for performing these calculations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28123", "title": "Sniper", "section": "Section::::Targeting, tactics and techniques.:Range finding.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 774, "text": "The range to the target is measured or estimated as precisely as conditions permit and correct range estimation becomes absolutely critical at long ranges, because a bullet travels with a curved trajectory and the sniper must compensate for this by aiming higher at longer distances. If the exact distance is not known the sniper may compensate incorrectly and the bullet path may be too high or low. As an example, for a typical military sniping cartridge such as 7.62×51mm NATO (.308 Winchester) M118 Special Ball round this difference (or “drop”) from is . This means that if the sniper incorrectly estimated the distance as 700 meters when the target was in fact 800 meters away, the bullet will be 200 millimeters lower than expected by the time it reaches the target.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28123", "title": "Sniper", "section": "Section::::Training.:Accuracy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 378, "text": "A sniper must have the ability to accurately estimate the various factors that influence a bullet's trajectory and point of impact such as: range to the target, wind direction, wind velocity, altitude and elevation of the sniper and the target and ambient temperature. Mistakes in estimation compound over distance and can decrease lethality or cause a shot to miss completely.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28123", "title": "Sniper", "section": "Section::::Targeting, tactics and techniques.:Range finding.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 887, "text": "To determine the range to a target without a laser rangefinder, the sniper may use the mil dot reticle on a scope to accurately find the range. Mil dots are used like a slide rule to measure the height of a target, and if the height is known, the range can be as well. The height of the target (in yards) ×1000, divided by the height of the target (in mils), gives the range in yards. This is only in general, however, as both scope magnification (7×, 40×) and mil dot spacing change. The USMC standard is that 1 mil (that is, 1 milliradian) equals 3.438 MOA (minute of arc, or, equivalently, minute of angle), while the US Army standard is 3.6 MOA, chosen so as to give a diameter of 1 yard at a distance of 1,000 yards (or equivalently, a diameter of 1 meter at a range of 1 kilometer.) Many commercial manufacturers use 3.5, splitting the difference, since it is easier to work with.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1532805", "title": "ZSU-57-2", "section": "Section::::Description.:Turret.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 443, "text": "To aim the guns, base data such as the target's speed, direction and range must be entered into the sighting system by the sight adjuster, who sits to the left of the guns at the rear of the turret. The target's speed and direction is determined by visual estimation, while range can also be estimated visually or with the rangefinder. The upper front of the turret has two small ports with armoured covers meant for collimators of the sight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Whoever wrote this is trying to discredit SR because they still hold onto the assumption of absolute time and don't understand that that assumption has to be abandoned. Let's take a look at this statement they make while talking about two clocks traveling at different speeds, they *completely* miss the point of SR.\n\n > [...] perhaps each should be running slower than the other. To suggest that two clocks could both run slower than each other is a seeming absurdity that defies all logic; even within the difficult ideas that SR asks us to follow. It is the mathematical equivalent of saying: A > B and B > A; which is impossible.\n\nThis isn't an argument, it's an assertion. The conclusion makes them uncomfortable, so they reject it and justify it with some babble inequalities. Further down it gets worse:\n\n > SR tells us that C and B must be recording time more slowly than A, and A should slow down by the same degree relative to C and B. It also tells us that C should be going slower than B, by a greater degree than relative to A, and likewise B should slowdown the same amount relative to C. Mathematically this is:\n\n > A > B and B > A and C > A and A > C and C > > B and B > > C.\n\nSo according to SR, clocks C and B are both running slow *from the perspective of* A. Outside completely ignoring SR's math for some affinity for greater than and less than signs, they don't seem to understand then notion of a frame of reference. In this example, from A's point of view, the other clocks are slow. From B's point of view, C and A are slow--though not equally slow. This is *okay.* This is how physics works, we are simply going to disagree on the concept of time and length because these quantities are unique to us. Luckily, the discrepancy is accounted for exactly by using Lorentz boosts--the math that tells you how to change from one reference frame to another. Here's a *really* good video from SixtySymbols on the topic of SR's reference frames--I especially like the train part half way through which explicitly discusses the disagreements different frames will have: \n_URL_0_ \n\nI won't bother with the \"challenge\" section, because it's just a retread of the same failings to understand SR as seen in the first paragraphs.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The last gasp of the desperate. Special relativity works theoretically and experimentally, and has done for 110 years. Some people just can't accept reality I 'm afraid.\n\nAs to the challenge, I'm afraid the author seems to think SR depends on silly clock scenarios. That's just a way of teaching to beginners. So is the twin paradox. Science is NOT looking for the answer, it is known and well understood.\n\nSR has been derived over and over again from different starting assumptions, and no longer needs Einstein's original approach.\n\nSR nowadays is based on Minkowski space and its metric, but I bet the author doesn't know that.\n\nAs a final cautionary note, here is a more famous example of \"twin paradox denial\". _URL_0_ and _URL_1_\n\nTLDR: the author of that page knows nothing about SR, and is not interested in knowing about how things have moved on over the last century.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1790788", "title": "History of special relativity", "section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Criticisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 433, "text": "Some criticized Special Relativity for various reasons, such as lack of empirical evidence, internal inconsistencies, rejection of mathematical physics \"per se\", or philosophical reasons. Although there still are critics of relativity outside the scientific mainstream, the overwhelming majority of scientists agree that Special Relativity has been verified in many different ways and there are no inconsistencies within the theory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28758", "title": "Spacetime", "section": "Section::::Spacetime in special relativity.:Mutual time dilation and the twin paradox.:Twin paradox.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 91, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 91, "end_character": 539, "text": "Many introductions to special relativity illustrate the differences between Galilean relativity and special relativity by posing a series of \"paradoxes\". These paradoxes are, in fact, ill-posed problems, resulting from our unfamiliarity with velocities comparable to the speed of light. The remedy is to solve many problems in special relativity and to become familiar with its so-called counter-intuitive predictions. The geometrical approach to studying spacetime is considered one of the best methods for developing a modern intuition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "91100", "title": "Michelson–Morley experiment", "section": "Section::::Light path analysis and consequences.:Special relativity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 394, "text": "Special relativity is generally considered the solution to all negative aether drift (or isotropy of the speed of light) measurements, including the Michelson–Morley null result. Many high precision measurements have been conducted as tests of special relativity and modern searches for Lorentz violation in the photon, electron, nucleon, or neutrino sector, all of them confirming relativity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28758", "title": "Spacetime", "section": "Section::::Spacetime in special relativity.:Mutual time dilation and the twin paradox.:Twin paradox.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 473, "text": "The impression that a paradox exists stems from a misunderstanding of what special relativity states. Special relativity does not declare all frames of reference to be equivalent, only inertial frames. The traveling twin's frame is not inertial during periods when she is accelerating. Furthermore, the difference between the twins is observationally detectable: the traveling twin needs to fire her rockets to be able to return home, while the stay-at-home twin does not.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "69844", "title": "Herbert Dingle", "section": "Section::::Controversies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 237, "text": "The consensus in the physics community is that Dingle's objections to the logical consistency of special relativity were unfounded. According to Max Born, \"Dingle's objections are just a matter of superficial formulation and confusion.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30694430", "title": "Criticism of the theory of relativity", "section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Acceleration in special relativity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1087, "text": "It was also claimed that special relativity cannot handle acceleration, which would lead to contradictions in some situations. However, this assessment is not correct, since acceleration actually can be described in the framework of special relativity (see Acceleration (special relativity), Proper reference frame (flat spacetime), Hyperbolic motion, Rindler coordinates, Born coordinates). Paradoxes relying on insufficient understanding of these facts were discovered in the early years of relativity. For example, Max Born (1909) tried to combine the concept of rigid bodies with special relativity. That this model was insufficient was shown by Paul Ehrenfest (1909), who demonstrated that a rotating rigid body would, according to Born's definition, undergo a contraction of the circumference without contraction of the radius, which is impossible (Ehrenfest paradox). Max von Laue (1911) showed that rigid bodies cannot exist in special relativity, since the propagation of signals cannot exceed the speed of light, so an accelerating and rotating body will undergo deformations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1716550", "title": "Physical paradox", "section": "Section::::Paradoxes relating to false assumptions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 450, "text": "Another paradox associated with relativity is Supplee's paradox which seems to describe two reference frames that are irreconcilable. In this case, the problem is assumed to be well-posed in special relativity, but because the effect is dependent on objects and fluids with mass, the effects of general relativity need to be taken into account. Taking the correct assumptions, the resolution is actually a way of restating the equivalence principle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Electricity isn't a physical object that's being piped around, so the idea of there being specific energy being produced in one place and then shipped around doesn't really work.\n\nWhat the energy company is guaranteeing is that they'll supply, either by producing it themselves or buying it from another producer, enough energy from green sources that they could power all the people who signed up for green power without needing to use any other source.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "171629", "title": "Australian Greens", "section": "Section::::Ideology.:Policy positions.:Energy and resources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 125, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 125, "end_character": 445, "text": "The Greens support the mass-rollout of renewable energy, with an aim of 100% renewable energy production by 2030, and phasing out the use of coal-fired power, as a means of driving investment and creating jobs. In 2019, the Greens pledged to create 180,000 new jobs in the renewable energy sector, including a renewable energy export industry to replace coal exports. This plan would drive billions of dollars of investment in renewable energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27239512", "title": "Green Energy (UK) plc", "section": "Section::::Generators.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 233, "text": "The company only buys green-sourced electricity from within the UK and has no brown energy or nuclear in its business. Green Energy UK facilitates investment into renewable technologies by creating demand for this green electricity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1055890", "title": "Sustainable energy", "section": "Section::::Purchasing green electricity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 864, "text": "By participating in a green energy program a consumer may be having an effect on the energy sources used and ultimately might be helping to promote and expand the use of green energy. They are also making a statement to policy makers that they are willing to pay a price premium to support renewable energy. Green energy consumers either obligate the utility companies to increase the amount of green energy that they purchase from the pool (so decreasing the amount of non-green energy they purchase), or directly fund the green energy through a green power provider. If insufficient green energy sources are available, the utility must develop new ones or contract with a third party energy supplier to provide green energy, causing more to be built. However, there is no way the consumer can check whether or not the electricity bought is \"green\" or otherwise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27239512", "title": "Green Energy (UK) plc", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 441, "text": "Green Energy (UK) plc, also known as Green Energy UK, is an independent sustainable energy company which sells 100% Ofgem-certified green and renewable electricity, as well as gas, to homes, businesses and organisations in England, Wales and Scotland. Green Energy UK is the only energy supplier in the UK to offer 100% green gas. Based in Ware, Hertfordshire, Green Energy UK was founded in 2001 by chief executive officer Douglas Stewart.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45623538", "title": "Greenpeace Energy", "section": "Section::::The Cooperative.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 390, "text": "Greenpeace Energy chose to establish itself in the legal form of a registered cooperative (eG). The motivation for this decision was that it allows Greenpeace Energy to be independent of banks and major shareholders and build equity on a wide base of shareholders to offer as well as favorable current. Therefore, at present no returns will be distributed to the shareholders (as of 2011).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22253682", "title": "Cathy Zoi", "section": "Section::::Energy Star Program.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 474, "text": "In 2008, the EPA announced Green Power Partnership program, which was designed to help achieve its goal of encouraging the use of renewable power sources. The renewable energy credits allow companies without direct access to renewable power achieve their goals. However, to avoid companies buying RECs years in advance of any of the hypothetical power ever being produced, RECs are only accepted into the program when the actual equivalent renewable power will be produced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "237192", "title": "Sustainable living", "section": "Section::::Power.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 1444, "text": "As mentioned under Shelter, some sustainable households may choose to produce their own renewable energy, while others may choose to purchase it through the grid from a power company that harnesses sustainable sources (also mentioned previously are the methods of metering the production and consumption of electricity in a household). Purchasing sustainable energy, however, may simply not be possible in some locations due to its limited availability. 6 out of the 50 states in the US do not offer green energy, for example. For those that do, its consumers typically buy a fixed amount or a percentage of their monthly consumption from a company of their choice and the bought green energy is fed into the entire national grid. Technically, in this case, the green energy is not being fed directly to the household that buys it. In this case, it is possible that the amount of green electricity that the buying household receives is a small fraction of their total incoming electricity. This may or may not depend on the amount being purchased. The purpose of buying green electricity is to support their utility's effort in producing sustainable energy. Producing sustainable energy on an individual household or community basis is much more flexible, but can still be limited in the richness of the sources that the location may afford (some locations may not be rich in renewable energy sources while others may have an abundance of it).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The n-back test is well studied. Google scholar isn't loading on my phone for some reason but you can do a search for academic papers on it there.\n\nThere are also systems such as the Method of Loci that can be studied and practiced for memory.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some studies on the subject I've found interesting:\n\n* Cicerone, K., Levin, H., Malec, J., Stuss, D. Whyte, J. (2006). Cognitive rehabilitation interventions for executive function: moving from bench to bedside in patients with traumatic brain injury. - Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18(7), 1212-1222\n\n* Papp, K.V., Walsh, S.J., Snyder, P.J. Immediate and delayed effects of cognitive interventions in healthy elderly: A review of current literature and future directions. - Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 2009, pp. 50-50\n\n* Smith et al. A Cognitive training program designed based on principles of brain plasticity: Results from the Improvement in Memory with Plasticity-based Adaptive Cognitive Training Study. - Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, April 2009.\n\n* Willis, S.L., Tennstedt, S.L., Marsiske, M. Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults. – JAMA, 2006, Vol. 296, pp. 2805-14.\n\nAnd similar for all studies is that the scientific \"evidence\" is either extremely weak or non-existent.\n\nA good *very introductory* read on the subject is the [book](_URL_0_) by SharpBrains. It tries to be unbiased and indeed I think the fact that the book was made so early in the organization's life means that it is less biased then anything will be moving forward as their organization is practically funded by the industry negating their claim of independence.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm sure you'll get a lot of empirical articles here, and I encourage people to read them. However, here is the basic summation of what we know so far:\n\n**\"Brain training\" activities improve performance on the specific activity you're training with. Most of those improvements, however, don't translate to improvements on other tasks, even when the tasks are somewhat similar, and they don't increase overall intelligence.**\n\nThe exception is research on something called the dual n-back task that does have some evidence that it can improve working memory skills (the ability to hold and manipulate information in the mind for a brief period of time) and may translate to other working memory tasks. \n\nThere is no evidence that any of these tasks increase intelligence, or can reliably prevent or reverse neurodegenerative illnesses like Alzheimer's disease.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most brain training games aren't well-studied enough to be worth spending time on. [Dual N-Back](_URL_0_) appears to have benefits that transfer to other tasks.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So, I work in a lab actually studying this, I'm going to copy and paste a response I made to someone else, but if you're curious please feel free to ask follow up questions!\n\nSo, me lab actually does work in working memory training, focusing on older adults / memory impaired patients, though we also work with younger adults. There's a lot of evidence on both sides of this, the task usually used is the dual n-back (though there is some variation in this). Susanne Jaeggi has put forth a good number of studies arguing in favor of working memory training, with Randy Engle being the primary dissident.\nIn simplest terms, on a whole there are more studies that have found evidence in favor of working memory training rather than against it. Engle brings up a number of fair methodological concerns with regards to many of these studies.\n\nJaeggi argues that you can increase general fluid intelligence (Gf) through training on the dual n-back task, and has published a number of both behavioral and neuroimaging studies along these lines. In particular, she finds consistant increases on the task known as Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM), which is believed to be a measure of Gf / spatial reasoning.\n\nAnyhow, your question was does it work. There is no rock solid evidence yet and certainly little agreement within the community that it's effective, but there is certainly evidence suggesting it can be. In our lab we liken the effects of working memory training to more closely resemble that of cardiovascular exercise in the sense that it shows a general, though subtle, effect across a range of activities (as working memory is a central unit in cognitive control, which helps facilitate cognitive processes). I would always recommend involving yourself in a study at your local university if you're interested!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5363", "title": "Video game", "section": "Section::::Behavioral effects.:Possible benefits.:Problem-solving skills.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 880, "text": "Cognitive skills can be enhanced through repetition of puzzles, memory games, spatial abilities and attention control. Most video games present opportunities to use these skills with the ability to try multiple times even after failure. Many of these skills can be translated to reality and problem solving. This allows the player to learn from mistakes and fully understand how and why a solution to a problem may work. Some researchers believe that continual exposure to challenges may lead players to develop greater persistence over time after a study was shown that frequent players spent more time on puzzles in task that did not involve video games. Although players were shown to spend more time on puzzles, much of that could have been due to the positive effects of problem solving in games, which involve forming strategy and weighing option before testing a solution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29587533", "title": "Brain Games", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 285, "text": "\"Brain Games\" was suggested in the 1984 book \"Clinical Management of Memory Problems\" as an effective clinical device for memory retraining exercises. Noted for having a variety of useful games, patients would be faced with auditory and visual cues that may improve spatial reasoning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39564041", "title": "Brain Games (National Geographic)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1093, "text": "Brain Games is a popular science television series that explores cognitive science by focusing on illusions, psychological experiments, and counterintuitive thinking. Neil Patrick Harris was the unseen narrator in the first season, replaced by Jason Silva for the remainder of the series as its host and presenter; in addition, sleight-of-hand artist Apollo Robbins has been a frequent consultant and illusionist guest on the show. The show is interactive, encouraging television viewers, often along with a handful of live volunteers, to engage in visual, auditory, and other cognitive experiments, or \"brain games\", that emphasize the main points presented in each episode. The series debuted on the National Geographic Channel in 2011 as a special. Its return as an original series in 2013 set a record for the highest premiere rating for any National Geographic Channel original series with 1.5 million viewers. Season 7 aired in 2016. National Geographic announced that the show would return as a 2-hour live event in the fall of 2018. As of December 2018, no live event ever took place.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46709961", "title": "Neurogaming", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 423, "text": "One of the earliest neurogames is the racing game NeuroRacer, which was designed by Adam Gazzaley to improve the cognitive functioning of aging adults. Other early neurogames include \"Throw Trucks With Your Mind\" (which allows users to pick up and throw objects by mentally blocking distractions) and NeuroMage, which allows users to use a \"relax the mind\" technique to learn new spells and levitate the Millennium Falcon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15284869", "title": "Brain Challenge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 815, "text": "Brain Challenge is a mental exercise video game similar to \"Big Brain Academy\", featuring \"brain exercise puzzles\". The game was developed by Gameloft Beijing for mobile phones and iPods and released on September 5, 2007. It was followed by a Nintendo DS version on January 8, 2008, an Xbox Live Arcade release on March 12, 2008, and a PlayStation 3 launch on November 27, 2008. The N-Gage 2.0 version was released on the day of the service's launch, April 3, 2008. A version for WiiWare was released in Japan on October 14, 2008, in Europe on November 7, 2008 and in North America on November 10, 2008. The Wii version also uses Miis for the players profile. OnLive also had launched their new streaming game platform with Brain Challenge on July 27, 2010. On January 20, 2011, the game was released for Mac OS X.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29587533", "title": "Brain Games", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 322, "text": "Featuring a total of 19 games, the catalog of \"Brain Games\" includes a variety of memory games where the player must focus on a series of ciphers, symbols, and musical notes. Each game has several options for altering the \"difficulty switches\", which add different aspects of challenge and have the following progression:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17398095", "title": "Braingames", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 215, "text": "Braingames is an American educational program shown on HBO in the mid-1980s. It was a half-hour program consisting of brain-teasing animated skits (either stop-motion or cartoon) designed to make the viewers think.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The high-temperature steam produced by the lava entering the ocean hydrolizes the various salts present in seawater, primarily chloride salts. This results in hydrogen from the steam combining with chloride ions, producing significant quantities of hydrogen chloride. As the steam recondenses it picks up this HCl to form hydrochloric acid droplets. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The acid part of the equation was answered fully, but what about the the production of the tiny shards of glass? \n\nIs it the obsidian that forms from shock-frozen lava getting aerosolized by the explosive production of steam?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Laze is created when ocean water comes into contact with volcanic heat. The liquid evaporates, which leads magnesium salts to form and mix with the steam. When the salts come in contact with the steam, together they create dangerously corrosive hydrogen chloride. It can be deadly when inhaled in high doses.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "230364", "title": "Pumice", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 654, "text": "Pumice is created when super-heated, highly pressurized rock is violently ejected from a volcano. The unusual foamy configuration of pumice happens because of simultaneous rapid cooling and rapid depressurization. The depressurization creates bubbles by lowering the solubility of gases (including water and CO) that are dissolved in the lava, causing the gases to rapidly exsolve (like the bubbles of CO that appear when a carbonated drink is opened). The simultaneous cooling and depressurization freezes the bubbles in a matrix. Eruptions under water are rapidly cooled and the large volume of pumice created can be a shipping hazard for cargo ships.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51020957", "title": "Biggs jasper", "section": "Section::::Geology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 617, "text": "When lava next flowed over it, the heat and pressure transformed the muddy mixture. As water escaped it in the form of superheated steam, pressure variations resulted in flexation and many short fluctuating changes, reflected in the jasper's many thin, parallel bands. The hydrothermal reaction progressed as a shock wave through the mud, removing iron from it and depositing the iron as intertwining bands of limonite. The altered rock remained plastic, and subject to local movement as a result of pressure changes. These caused the great variety of marbled, rosette-like and picture designs found in Biggs jasper.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57470435", "title": "Laze (geology)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 265, "text": "Laze is acid rain and air pollution arising from steam explosions and large plume clouds containing extremely acidic condensate (mainly hydrochloric acid), which occur when molten lava flows enter cold oceans. The term \"laze\" is a portmanteau of \"lava\" and \"haze\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43534", "title": "Basalt", "section": "Section::::Petrology.:Morphology and textures.:Submarine eruptions.:Pillow basalts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 273, "text": "When \"pāhoehoe\" lava enters the sea it usually forms pillow basalts. However, when \"ʻaʻā\" enters the ocean it forms a littoral cone, a small cone-shaped accumulation of tuffaceous debris formed when the blocky \"ʻaʻā\" lava enters the water and explodes from built-up steam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2649115", "title": "Submarine volcano", "section": "Section::::Effect of water on volcanoes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 383, "text": "For instance, water causes magma to cool and solidify much more quickly than in a terrestrial eruption, often turning it into volcanic glass. The shapes and textures of lava formed by submarine volcanoes are different from lava erupted on land. Upon contact with water, a solid crust forms around the lava. Advancing lava flows into this crust, forming what is known as pillow lava.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59553876", "title": "Lava balloon", "section": "Section::::Genesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 607, "text": "Several different mechanisms have been invoked to explain the genesis of lava balloons. Water that penetrates the lava can boil and the resulting vapours can inflate the balloons and make them float, although for Terceira a non-water gas composition has been inferred. They are usually observed when lava flows enter the sea. They appear to form when water is trapped in lava as it flows onto a beach with waves or enters lava tubes; in the latter case, entrained water can be transported through the tube and eventually end up in developing pillow lavas which are rendered buoyant by water vapour bubbles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43534", "title": "Basalt", "section": "Section::::Petrology.:Morphology and textures.:Submarine eruptions.:Pillow basalts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 521, "text": "When basalt erupts underwater or flows into the sea, contact with the water quenches the surface and the lava forms a distinctive \"pillow\" shape, through which the hot lava breaks to form another pillow. This \"pillow\" texture is very common in underwater basaltic flows and is diagnostic of an underwater eruption environment when found in ancient rocks. Pillows typically consist of a fine-grained core with a glassy crust and have radial jointing. The size of individual pillows varies from 10 cm up to several meters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hank Williams Sr.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "46511153", "title": "List of country music festivals", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 657, "text": "Country music is a genre of American popular music that originated in Southern United States, in Atlanta, Georgia in the 1920s, and It takes its roots from the southeastern genre of American folk music and Western music. The origins of country music are the folk music of mostly white, working-class Americans, who blended popular songs, Irish and Celtic fiddle tunes, traditional ballads, and cowboy songs, and various musical traditions from European immigrant communities. Barn dancing and other folk dance styles would be featured at country music gatherings, and many modern festivals have continued to feature dance, rodeo, or other cultural aspects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "171080", "title": "Music of the United States", "section": "Section::::Popular music.:Country music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 957, "text": "Country music is primarily a fusion of African American blues and spirituals with Appalachian folk music, adapted for pop audiences and popularized beginning in the 1920s. The origins of country are in rural Southern folk music, which was primarily Irish and British, with African and continental European musics. Anglo-Celtic tunes, dance music, and balladry were the earliest predecessors of modern country, then known as \"hillbilly music\". Early hillbilly also borrowed elements of the blues and drew upon more aspects of 19th-century pop songs as hillbilly music evolved into a commercial genre eventually known as \"country and western\" and then simply \"country\". The earliest country instrumentation revolved around the European-derived fiddle and the African-derived banjo, with the guitar later added. String instruments like the ukulele and steel guitar became commonplace due to the popularity of Hawaiian musical groups in the early 20th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23921223", "title": "Canadian music genres", "section": "Section::::Country.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 670, "text": "Country music evolved out of the diverse musical practices of the Appalachian region of the United States. Appalachian folk music was largely Scottish and Irish, with an important influence also being the African American country blues. Parts of Ontario, British Columbia and the Maritime provinces shared a tradition with the Appalachian region, and country music became popular quite quickly in these places. Fiddlers like George Wade and Don Messer helped to popularize the style, beginning in the late 1920s. Wade was not signed until the 1930s, when Victor Record's, inspired by the success of Wilf Carter the year before, signed him, Hank Snow and Hank LaRivière.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56836081", "title": "Country music in Nigeria", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 460, "text": "Country music originated in the southern United States in the 1920s where it evolved as a fusion of Appalachian music and Blues largely through the efforts of commercial record producers who sought to popularize traditional folk melodies from the rural United States. Country is musically similar to Western, although the latter tends to be more evocative of themes and imagery associated with the western United States, particularly that of the Old West era.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43409633", "title": "Canadian country music", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 709, "text": "Country music has a long history in Canada. The genre evolved out of the diverse musical practices of the Appalachian region of the United States. Appalachian folk music was largely Scottish and Irish, with an important influence also being the African American country blues. Parts of Ontario, British Columbia and the Maritime provinces shared a tradition with the Appalachian region, and country music became popular quite quickly in these places. Fiddlers like George Wade and Don Messer helped to popularize the style, beginning in the late 1920s. Wade was not signed until the 1930s, when Victor Records, inspired by the success of Wilf Carter the year before, signed him, Hank Snow and Hank LaRivière.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5247", "title": "Country music", "section": "Section::::Fourth generation (1970s–1980s).:Country rock.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 1542, "text": "Country rock is a genre that started in the 1960s but became prominent in the 1970s. The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres. In the aftermath of the British Invasion, many desired a return to the \"old values\" of rock n' roll. At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music. What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock. Early innovators in this new style of music in the 1960s and 1970s included Bob Dylan, who was the first to revert to country music with his 1967 album \"John Wesley Harding\" (and even more so with that album's follow-up, \"Nashville Skyline\"), followed by Gene Clark, Clark's former band The Byrds (with Gram Parsons on \"Sweetheart of the Rodeo\") and its spin-off The Flying Burrito Brothers (also featuring Gram Parsons), guitarist Clarence White, Michael Nesmith (The Monkees and the First National Band), the Grateful Dead, Neil Young, Commander Cody, The Allman Brothers, The Marshall Tucker Band, Poco, Buffalo Springfield, and Eagles, among many, even the former folk music duo Ian & Sylvia, who formed Great Speckled Bird in 1969. The Eagles would become the most successful of these country rock acts, and their compilation album \"Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975)\" remains the second best-selling album of all time in the US with 29 million copies sold. The Rolling Stones also got into the act with songs like \"Dead Flowers\" and a country version of \"Honky Tonk Women\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5247", "title": "Country music", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 333, "text": "The term \"country music\" is used today to describe many styles and subgenres. The origins of country music are found in the folk music of working class Americans, who blended popular songs, Irish and Celtic fiddle tunes, traditional English ballads, cowboy songs, and the musical traditions of various groups of European immigrants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Short answer: the seat of political power, nowadays known as *het Binnenhof*, has been in the Hague since 1446. [The wikipedia entry of het Binnenhof](_URL_0_) can give you some more details on the locale itself. This is where the nobility and other notables gathered during the late middle ages, renaissance and early modernity. \n\nLonger answer: Dutch political power has been fragmented and split over many players. Amsterdam was one such a player and they rose to prominence most notably during the 17th century. That's when Amsterdam became a power player, but the power was still split over many players. A brief overview of players during the 17th and 18th century: Stadholder, the provinces, the cities (each city was a seperate power, although they did band together when politically expedient) and various local notables - merchants, regenten and so on. Perhaps I should list the VOC and WIC here as well, but they were an extension of the politicians and merchants. You then also had a split between 'pro-monarchy' and 'pro-republic' parties, but those political parties fluctuated greatly over the years.\nThe city of Amsterdam didn't become a stronghold of the Stadholder during these years nor was it the seat of the nobility. In that sense, it never became the center of politics or power - it simply was a strong player, but not the center of politics. \n\n\ntl;dr: the Hague is the seat of political power, Amsterdam was simply a key player and eventually the 'cultural' capital of the Netherlands, but the seat of politics never moved there.\n\n\nI'm a bit under the weather though, so if I made any glaring errors or am unclear in any way, do ask/correct me.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In 1248 William II, count of Holland and King of Germany started building a hall that's today known as the Ridderzaal. His son Count Floris V finished the construction in 1280. This is where the history of the Hague begins.\n\nIn the 14th century the Hague became the administrative capital of the county of Holland.\n\nIn the 15th and 16th century the Netherlands were under Burgundian, Habsburg and Spanish rule. The Netherlands were divided into small 'states' run by nobles and burgeoisie. These small states gathered in Brussels to discuss matters in the realm with their King a few times. This council became more and more powerful and got a lot of privileges.\n\nWhen the Dutch Republic seceded from Spain the states needed a new place to gather. At first this was the city of Middelburg in the county of Zeeland. When this location became unsave they relocated to the Hague. The reason was that it was a village of no significance. It didn't had any city rights which meant that it wasn't self governing and didn't had any representation on the council. Because of the fact that the village had no political power and was therefore neutral ground made the states decided to gather there.\n\nThis was also the time known in the Netherlands as 'the Golden Age'. The Netherlands was one of the most powerful nations and the biggest trade power. The center of all the trade was the city of Amsterdam. Amsterdam would always be the most important city of the Netherlands.\n\nIn 1815 when Napoleon was defeated the Kingdom of the Netherlands came to be. As Amsterdam was the most important city King William I decided that it would become the capital (it was already the de facto capital). Brussels and the Hague became the seats of the government like they used to be. After Belgium seceded in 1830 from the Kingdom the remaining seat of the goverment , the Hague, became the permanent seat of the government.\n\nSources:\n\n* [_URL_1_ where someone took the time to write a summary of a piece that was posted on the site of the Dutch embassy in India.](_URL_4_)\n* [_URL_5_ - de Ridderzaal.](_URL_0_)\n* [A tour I had last week in the Hague.](_URL_3_)\n* [Some bits from my own history knowledge (I'm Dutch)](_URL_2_).\n\nSmall note: I suck at English grammar", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "this is something that has its roots in the 80 Years War. After the new republic declared its independence, not all parts of what's now the Netherlands were willing to go along with this. \nBecause of trade considerations, Amsterdam initially remained loyal to Spain until it was forced to change sides after it became isolated in 1578, so logically the new country couldn't pick it as its capital even though it was the biggest and most powerful city in Holland. \n \nThe first Free assembly of the rebels in 1572 specifically calls out Amsterdam's reluctance to join, and proposes to send out letters to other protestant trade cities to effect a blockade of the city: \n \n > With respect to [the interests of] Amsterdam in the Sound, His Highness might write to Denmark and the other Baltic towns at the earnest request of the States and towns of Holland to the effect that because of Amsterdam's great enmity and opposition to freedom and the well-being of the common fatherland [gemeen vaderlants], it should be refused passage and that they [ie. Baltic towns] should put into and trade with Enkhuizen, Hoorn and the other nearby towns devoted to us or, in the case of the Maas, with Dordrecht, where they will find the situations and arrangements as convenient as Amsterdam \n \n[source](_URL_2_)\n \n \nA second element that played a role was the position of the Stadhouder in the Republic, and by extension the House of Orange since they provided all the Stadhouders. \nAmsterdam had a large degree of independence, as did a lot of other cities. But there was always a concern that the Stadhouder would gain too much power and effectively become a king, and the regents of Amsterdam tended to be at the forefront when it came to calling for restrictions to the power of the house of Orange. \n \nLikewise the concerns were often justified as Stadhouders often fought to extend their power, and in [1618](_URL_0_) and [1650](_URL_3_) actively sought to overthrow the Republic to start a monarchy. \nThe Republic did away with the position of Stadhouder twice (the first time after [1650 and until 1672](_URL_1_) ), but in times of crisis reappointed them.\n \nDuring the Napoleonic Wars, Amsterdam became the official capital with also the government residing there. After the Kingdom was re-established in 1815, the government moved back to the Hague, but as a gesture of reconciliation from the House of Orange, Amsterdam remained the official capital. \n \nFor more information I can recommend Jonathan I. Israel's \"The Dutch Republic. It's Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30269", "title": "The Hague", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 496, "text": "The Hague is the seat of the Cabinet, the States General, the Supreme Court, and the Council of State of the Netherlands, but the city is not the constitutional capital of the Netherlands, which is Amsterdam. King Willem-Alexander lives in Huis ten Bosch and works at the Noordeinde Palace in The Hague, together with Queen Máxima. Most foreign embassies in the Netherlands are located in the city. The Hague is also home to the world headquarters of Royal Dutch Shell and other Dutch companies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "193442", "title": "Eurovision Song Contest 1976", "section": "Section::::Location.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 376, "text": "The Hague is the seat of government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the capital city of the province of South Holland. It is also the third largest city of the Netherlands, after Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Located in the west of the Netherlands, The Hague is in the centre of the Haaglanden conurbation and lies at the southwest corner of the larger Randstad conurbation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30269", "title": "The Hague", "section": "Section::::Culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 555, "text": "The Hague is the residence of the Dutch monarch, and several (former) royal palaces can be found in the city. King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands and Queen Máxima of the Netherlands live in Huis ten Bosch in the Haagse Bos, and work in the Noordeinde Palace in the city centre. Moreover, there are two former royal palaces in The Hague. The Kneuterdijk Palace, built in 1716, is now home to the Council of State of the Netherlands, and the Lange Voorhout Palace is now occupied by the Escher Museum, dedicated to Dutch graphical artist M. C. Escher.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "185702", "title": "Eurovision Song Contest 1980", "section": "Section::::Location.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 326, "text": "The Hague is the seat of government of the Netherlands and the capital of South Holland. It is the third largest city of the Netherlands, after Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Located in the west of the Netherlands, The Hague is in the centre of the Haaglanden conurbation at the southwest corner of the larger Randstad conurbation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "181337", "title": "Capital city", "section": "Section::::Unusual capital city arrangements.:Capitals that are not the seat of government.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 109, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 109, "end_character": 307, "text": "BULLET::::- Netherlands: Amsterdam is the constitutional national capital even though the Dutch government, the parliament, the supreme court, the Council of State, and the work palace of the King are all located in The Hague, as are all the embassies. (\"For more details see: Capital of the Netherlands\".)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "169683", "title": "Capital of the Netherlands", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 512, "text": "Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands according to the Constitution of the Netherlands, although the States General and the Executive Branch have been situated in The Hague since 1588, along with the Supreme Court and the Council of State. Since the 1983 revision of the Constitution of the Netherlands, Article 32 mentions that \"the King shall be sworn in and inaugurated as soon as possible in the capital city, Amsterdam\". It is the only reference in the document stating that Amsterdam is the capital.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "169683", "title": "Capital of the Netherlands", "section": "Section::::Historical background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 574, "text": "Although the proper legal status of Amsterdam as capital of the Netherlands is of recent date, the city has been uniformly recognised as capital ever since 1814. This is partly because it is a \"Royal City\", used not only for the inauguration of kings, but also for royal weddings (note though that royal burials take place in Delft), and also because of its dominant position in Dutch history. From the end of the 16th century the city grew rapidly to become the largest and most powerful city in the Netherlands and the main centre of trade, commerce, finance and culture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As a corollary to OP's question:\nWhat was the life of an average Jew in Babylon like? How were the classes divided? Were Jews well integrated into Babylonian society? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "405453", "title": "Jewish diaspora", "section": "Section::::Pre-Roman diaspora.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 884, "text": "Although most of the Jewish people during this period, especially the wealthy families, were to be found in Babylonia, the existence they led there, under the successive rulers of the Achaemenids, the Seleucids, the Parthians, and the Sassanians, was obscure and devoid of political influence. The poorest but most fervent of the exiles returned to Judah / the Land of Israel during the reign of the Achaemenids (c. 550–330 BCE). There, with the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem as their center, they organized themselves into a community, animated by a remarkable religious ardor and a tenacious attachment to the Torah as the focus of its identity. As this little nucleus increased in numbers with the accession of recruits from various quarters, it awoke to a consciousness of itself, and strove once again for national independence and political enfranchisement and sovereignty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27596908", "title": "Second Temple Judaism", "section": "Section::::History.:The diaspora.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1024, "text": "The Jewish exiles in Babylon were not slaves or prisoners, nor were they badly treated, and when the Persians gave permission for them to return to Jerusalem the majority elected to remain where they were. They and their descendants formed the diaspora, a large community of Jews living outside Judea, and the 1st century CE historian Josephus reported that there were more Jews in Syria (meaning the Seleucid empire) than in any other land. There was also significant Egyptian diaspora, although the Jews of Egypt were immigrants, not deportees, \"...attracted by Hellenistic culture, eager to win the respect of the Greeks and to adapt to their ways\" (John J. Collins, \"Between Athens and Jerusalem). The Egyptian diaspora was slow to develop, but in the Hellenistic period it came to outstrip the Babylonian community in importance. In addition to these major centres there were Jewish communities throughout the Hellenistic and subsequently the Roman world, from North Africa to Asia Minor and Greece and in Rome itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2255715", "title": "History of the Jews in Iraq", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 351, "text": "The Jewish community of what is termed in Jewish sources \"Babylon\" or \"Babylonia\" included Ezra the scribe, whose return to Judea in the late 6th century BC is associated with significant changes in Jewish ritual observance and the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem. The Babylonian Talmud was compiled in \"Babylonia\", identified with modern Iraq.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2255715", "title": "History of the Jews in Iraq", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 615, "text": "From the biblical Babylonian period to the rise of the Islamic caliphate, the Jewish community of \"Babylon\" thrived as the center of Jewish learning. The Mongol invasion and Islamic discrimination in the Middle Ages led to its decline. Under the Ottoman Empire, the Jews of Iraq fared better. The community established modern schools in the second half of the 19th century. Driven by persecution, which saw many of the leading Jewish families of Baghdad flee for the Indian subcontinent, and expanding trade with British colonies, the Jews of Iraq established a trading diaspora in Asia known as the Baghdadi Jews.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58224", "title": "Babylonian captivity", "section": "Section::::Biblical accounts of the exile.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 674, "text": "The first governor appointed by Babylon was Gedaliah, a native Judahite; he encouraged the many Jews who had fled to surrounding countries such as Moab, Ammon and Edom to return, and he took steps to return the country to prosperity. Some time later, a surviving member of the royal family assassinated Gedaliah and his Babylonian advisors, prompting many refugees to seek safety in Egypt. By the end of the second decade of the 6th century, in addition to those who remained in Judah, there were significant Jewish communities in Babylon and in Egypt; this was the beginning of the later numerous Jewish communities living permanently outside Judah in the Jewish Diaspora.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "304141", "title": "Jewish history", "section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Islamic period (638–1099).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 343, "text": "During this time Jews lived in thriving communities all across ancient Babylonia. In the Geonic period (650–1250 CE), the Babylonian Yeshiva Academies were the chief centers of Jewish learning; the Geonim (meaning either \"Splendor\" or \"Geniuses\"), who were the heads of these schools, were recognized as the highest authorities in Jewish law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "69596", "title": "Pharisees", "section": "Section::::History (c. 600 BCE – c. 160 BCE).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 642, "text": "The deportation and exile of an unknown number of Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar II, starting with the first deportation in 597 BCE and continuing after the fall of Jerusalem and destruction of the Temple in 587 BCE, resulted in dramatic changes to Jewish culture and religion. During the 70-year exile in Babylon, Jewish houses of assembly (known in Hebrew as a \"beit knesset\" or in Greek as a \"synagogue\") and houses of prayer (Hebrew \"Beit Tefilah\"; Greek προσευχαί, \"proseuchai\") were the primary meeting places for prayer, and the house of study (\"beit midrash\") was the counterpart for the synagogue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are two acceptable answers to this question. Militarily, the Soviet Union wins World War Two. They grind the Germans up, tie down major parts of the German army, and push gigantic distances (while taking serious casualties) to throw the Nazis back onto Berlin. The Russian steamroller tied down men, tanks, brilliant officers, and all the supplies of war which the Germans could have well used against the Allies. During the last winter months of Barbarossa alone, the German army uses all the equipment it had built up during the 1930s, especially in terms of tanks. After that, they are forced to live hand-to-mouth for the rest of the war. \n\nHowever, your question asks about the economic side of the war. And for this, it is undeniable that the Allies (read: the United States) fueled the Russian economy, especially in non-war related materials (the Ruskies didnt like our weapons, especially tanks, and tried to build their own whenever possible). I dont have the book next to me (but I can dig it out if necissary), but the US gave the Soviets significant equipment, hundreds of train cars, dozens of engines, enough machines to run entire factories, boots, helmets, belts, pants, cans of food, cans, trucks (they used WW2 era Studebaker trucks, re-branded of course, into the 1970s). The US was economically critical to revving up this unstoppable war machine in the East which demolishes Nazi Germany. So in that way, one could argue that really the US does win WW2 because it fuels ever allied nation in this way, then equips its own army.\n\nHere is the rub then. The Soviet Union needed the US's help. We allowed a significant amount of its male population to remain under arms, instead of farming or working to maintain the economy (make the little stuff that we gave them in great numbers). However, the Red Army could still fight the Germans, and fight them well. If we look at Operation Barbarossa in 1941, the Germans were stonewalled along most of the front. This was done largely without lend-lease. Further, Stalingrad was fought and won using Soviet equipment. While the logistical element was just coming online, I would argue that it didnt have much of an effect on the outcome of the first stages of the battle. It isnt until the encirclement period that this becomes more important. \n\nWith all this in mind, I would argue that the Soviets had more of a chance than we give them. They had manpower, the Nazi atrocities gave them motivation, and their own industry (such as it was) was largely saved and moved east of the Urals. This would have allowed them to grind the Nazis back out of Russia. The victory would not have been as complete, the Soviet Union would not have mobilized so completely, and its post-war position would have been far diffrent, but I think they had the capacity to win by themselves. This is not to cheapen the US's Lend-Lease, it was indeed critical for the Soviets, but I think they could have done it by themselves, and so I would argue that they really did win the war. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The allied bombing campaign pretty much destroyed Germany's industrial capacity. I wouldn't call this effort more important than the fact that the Russian's were fighting around 80% of the German army on the eastern front, but destroying your enemies ability to fight is just as effective as beating your enemy in a fight.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "759029", "title": "Earl Browder", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Wartime leader.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 481, "text": "By the end of 1943 the tide of the war in Europe had shifted, and there was no doubt either about the survival of the USSR or the ultimate outcome of the Second World War. With the Red Army moving inexorably westward, the possibility of a Communist Europe seemed within reach to the party faithful. Cooperation between the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union was at its zenith following the conclusion of the Tehran Conference, held November 28 to December 1, 1943.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "865825", "title": "Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 870, "text": "Few questions concerning the origins of the Second World War are more controversial and ideologically loaded than the issue of the policies of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin towards Nazi Germany between the Nazi seizure of power and the German invasion of the USSR on June 22, 1941. A variety of competing and contradictory theses exist, including: that the Soviet leadership actively sought another great war in Europe to further weaken the capitalist nations; that the USSR pursued a purely defensive policy; or that the USSR tried to avoid becoming entangled in a war, both because Soviet leaders did not feel that they had the military capabilities to conduct strategic operations at that time, and to avoid, in paraphrasing Stalin's words to the 18th Party Congress on March 10, 1939, \"pulling other nations' (the UK and France's) chestnuts out of the fire.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "420956", "title": "Origins of the Cold War", "section": "Section::::Wartime alliance (1941–1945).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 679, "text": "The Soviets believed at the time, and charged throughout the Cold War, that the British and Americans intentionally delayed the opening of a second front against Germany in order to intervene only at the last minute so as to influence the peace settlement and dominate Europe. Historians such as John Lewis Gaddis dispute this claim, citing other military and strategic calculations for the timing of the Normandy invasion. In the meantime, the Russians suffered heavy casualties, with as many as twenty million dead. Nevertheless, Soviet perceptions (or misconceptions) of the West and \"vice versa\" left a strong undercurrent of tension and hostility between the Allied powers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "764052", "title": "France–Germany relations", "section": "Section::::History.:France, Germany, and United Europe.:Post war Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 527, "text": "The war left Europe in a weak position and divided between capitalism and democracy in the West, and dictatorship in the East. For the first time in the history of Europe both Americans and Soviets had a strategic foothold on the continent. Defeated Germany was under the control of the U.S., USSR, Britain and France until 1949. Soviet troops remained in those countries in Eastern Europe that had been liberated by the Red Army from the Nazis and ensured the political success of Communist parties controlled by the Kremlin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7734670", "title": "Remilitarization of the Rhineland", "section": "Section::::Background.:The foreign policies of the interested powers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1140, "text": "The foreign policy goal of the Soviet Union was set forth by Joseph Stalin in a speech on 19 January 1925 that if another world war broke out between the capitalist states that: \"We will enter the fray at the end, throwing our critical weight onto the scale, a weight that should prove to be decisive\". To promote this goal which would lead to the global triumph of Communism, the Soviet Union tended to support German efforts to challenge the Versailles system by assisting German secret rearmament, a policy that caused much tension with France. An additional problem in Franco-Soviet relations was the Russian debt issue. Before 1917, the French had been by far the largest investors in Imperial Russia, and the largest buyers of Russian debt, so the decision by Lenin in 1918 to repudiate all debts and to confiscate all private property, whether it be owned by Russians or by foreigners, had hurt the world of French business and finance quite badly. The question of the Russian debt repudiation and compensation for French businesses affected by Soviet nationalisation policies poisoned Franco-Soviet relations until the early 1930s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21619085", "title": "Soviet Union in World War II", "section": "Section::::Soviets stop the Germans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 879, "text": "(1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree to the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation had deteriorated somewhat by mid-1942. In November 1941, Stalin rallied his generals in a speech given underground in Moscow, telling them that the German \"blitzkrieg\" would fail because of weaknesses in the German rear in Nazi-occupied Europe and the underestimation of the strength of the Red Army, and that the German war effort would crumble against the Anglo-American-Soviet \"war engine\". On 6 November 1941, Stalin addressed the Soviet Union for the second time (the first was on 2 July 1941).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20950", "title": "Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact", "section": "Section::::Soviet–German relations during the Pact's operation.:Early political issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 648, "text": "In his 1940 book \"Inside Europe\", Gunther wrote, however, that some knew \"communism and Fascism were more closely allied than was normally understood\"; Ernst von Weizsäcker had told Nevile Henderson on August 16 that the Soviet Union would \"join in sharing in the Polish spoils\". Beginning in September 1939, the Soviet Comintern suspended all anti-Nazi and anti-fascist propaganda, explaining that the war in Europe was a matter of capitalist states attacking each other for imperialist purposes. Western Communists acted accordingly; while before they supported protecting collective security, now they denounced Britain and France going to war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "What you're looking for is called [Gravitational Lensing](_URL_2_)... and nothing can go faster than the speed of light (without funky quantum mechanical [jibber](_URL_1_) [jabber](_URL_0_)).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11983318", "title": "Branches of science", "section": "Section::::Natural/Pure Science.:Physical science.:Physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 272, "text": "\"Physics\" (from ) is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24955482", "title": "Gary Saul Morson", "section": "Section::::Biography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 357, "text": "“What I liked about physics is that it asked the ultimate questions. I loved how when you look at the world, all this amazing complexity had these very simple rules behind it. Now I believe the opposite — the argument of my favorite writer, Tolstoy, is that the world doesn’t fit any system, because human psychology is so infinitely complex,” Morson says.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22939", "title": "Physics", "section": "Section::::Research.:Scope and aims.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 524, "text": "Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the \"fundamental science\". Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38890", "title": "Natural science", "section": "Section::::Branches of natural science.:Physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 447, "text": "Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. In general, physics is regarded as the fundamental science, because all other natural sciences use and obey the principles and laws set down by the field. Physics relies heavily on mathematics as the logical framework for formulation and quantification of principles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22939", "title": "Physics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 315, "text": "Physics (from , from \"phýsis\" 'nature') is the natural science that studies matter, its motion and behavior through space and time, and that studies the related entities of energy and force. Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, and its main goal is to understand how the universe behaves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37010", "title": "Philosophy of science", "section": "Section::::Philosophy of particular sciences.:Philosophy of physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 571, "text": "Philosophy of physics is the study of the fundamental, philosophical questions underlying modern physics, the study of matter and energy and how they interact. The main questions concern the nature of space and time, atoms and atomism. Also included are the predictions of cosmology, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, the foundations of statistical mechanics, causality, determinism, and the nature of physical laws. Classically, several of these questions were studied as part of metaphysics (for example, those about causality, determinism, and space and time).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33615960", "title": "Comparison of chemistry and physics", "section": "Section::::Scope.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 349, "text": "Physics is involved with the fundamental principles of physical phenomena and the basic forces of nature, and also gives insight into the aspects of space and time. Physics also deals with the basic principles that explain matter and energy, and may study aspects of atomic matter by following concepts derived from the most fundamental principles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because for a toddler a moment is a really long time and lots can happen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Babies process information slowly because their brain cells lack the myelination necessary for fast, clear nerve impulse transmission. During the second year, there is a major increase in the rate of myelination, which helps the brain perform more complex tasks. Higher-order cognitive abilities are developing: a toddler is now more aware of outside stimulus but has little control of their own emotions. [Source](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One theory I have heard is that basically *everything* is a new experience for them, and they don't yet routines in place for dealing with things that seem trivial to adults. \n\nMe: I dropped my pen. Drat. I will pick it up and then resume writing.\n\nToddler: I dropped my toy. FUCK! WHAT DO I DO? IT'S ALL SO INTENSE!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16166681", "title": "Thulluvadho Ilamai", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 219, "text": "Happy that they are save, they start laughing and mocking each other. The principal tells the parents that they are not worried about what happened and are happy. Feeling ashamed, the parents leave the children alone. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58689076", "title": "Social emotional development", "section": "Section::::Early childhood (birth to 3 years old).:Emotional experiences.:Emotional expression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 768, "text": "Beginning at birth, newborns have the capacity to signal generalized distress in response to unpleasant stimuli and bodily states, such as pain, hunger, body temperature, and stimulation. They may smile, seemingly involuntarily, when satiated, in their sleep, or in response to pleasant touch. Infants begin using a “social smile,” or a smile in response to a positive social interaction, at approximately 2 to 3 months of age, and laughter begins at 3 to 4 months. Expressions of happiness become more intentional with age, with young children interrupting their actions to smile or express happiness to nearby adults at 8–10 months of age, and with markedly different kinds of smiles (e.g., grin, muted smile, mouth open smile) developing at 10 to 12 months of age.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13529683", "title": "Infant Sorrow", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 442, "text": "This poem belongs to the \"Songs of Experience\" by William Blake. It is the counter poem of \"Infant Joy\". The poem suggests that childbirth is not always joyful and happy but can bring sorrow and pain. The response of the child itself may be different from that of the child in \"Infant Joy\" because of the behavior of the parents. In this poem the parents seem depressed by this unwanted birth, and this may be reflecting on the child itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37798971", "title": "Leading activity", "section": "Section::::Sequence.:Infancy: emotional communication with caregivers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1064, "text": "In the third month of life, children begin smiling, gesturing and vocalizing (cooing) when greeting familiar adults. Vygotskians have called this the \"animation complex\" and infants soon come to use it proactively to arouse and maintain the attention of a caregiver (Bodrova & Leong 2007). From around three to six months of age, infants use smiles and vocalizations to invite caregivers to engage in emotional exchanges, creating what researchers such as Tronick have called \"interactional synchrony\" (Tronick 1989). Parents often use \"baby-talk\" or \"child-directed speech\" in response to their children's prelinguistic vocalization (e.g. babbling), and it has been shown that infants respond by modifying their babbling in accordance with the phonological structure present in their caregivers' utterances (Goldstein & Schwade 2008). This sort of vocalized emotional interaction, or what John Locke (2001) has referred to as \"vocal communion,\" appears to be linked to attachment and later lexical learning, thus playing a formative role in language development.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7834779", "title": "Macarius of Unzha", "section": "Section::::The Life of Venerable Macarius.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 661, "text": "According to the \"Life of St. Macarius\", when he was still a baby, he would start crying every time he heard the ringing of the bells of the nearby church. There was no way to console the child. The parents would not want to bring the baby boy to the church, afraid that he would disturb the service with his crying; but eventually they decided to try. And, to their surprise, as soon as they brought the child to the church, he became quiet, smiling joyfully. From this time on, the parents had to attend every service at the parish church, and to take the child with them, because if they stayed at home during the service, the baby would again start crying.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "884589", "title": "Attachment theory", "section": "Section::::Infant attachment.:Behaviours.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 386, "text": "After the second year, as the child begins to see the caregiver as an independent person, a more complex and goal-corrected partnership is formed. Children begin to notice others' goals and feelings and plan their actions accordingly. For example, whereas babies cry because of pain, two-year-olds cry to summon their caregiver, and if that does not work, cry louder, shout, or follow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13187890", "title": "Laughed Until We Cried", "section": "Section::::Content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 427, "text": "\"Laughed Until We Cried\" is a ballad in which the narrator reflects on various events in his life, each involving family and/or friends, such as having fun on a senior class trip, listening to his grandfather telling family stories at a Christmas gathering, and rocking a newborn baby daughter to sleep. In each case, the narrator describes the events as being a time when he and those around him \"laughed until [they] cried\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "More can always be said, but the following previous answers are quite excellent explanations.\n\nu/Iphikrates offers a [comprehensive treatment on just this topic here](_URL_0_), and u/theshadowdawn has a [similar answer here](_URL_1_), with special reference to the Battle of Cannae.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26905", "title": "Siege", "section": "Section::::Ancient era.:Tactics.:Defensive.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 334, "text": "Until the invention of gunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, cannon and mortars and howitzers (in modern times), the traditional methods of defense became less effective against a determined siege.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3193321", "title": "Reverse slope defence", "section": "Section::::Historical examples.:Napoleonic Wars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 461, "text": "The best-known proponent of the tactic was the Duke of Wellington who used it repeatedly during the Napoleonic Wars to defeat the French infantry. By placing a ridge between his own army and his opponent's, and having his troops lie down, Wellington was able both to better protect his troops from French artillery fire and to strike the attacking French infantry by having his troops stand up at the last moment and deliver volleys of musketry at close range.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20503", "title": "Medieval warfare", "section": "Section::::Fortifications.:Siege warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 291, "text": "Until the invention of gunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, the traditional methods of defence became less and less effective against a determined siege.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28677399", "title": "Basket-hilted sword", "section": "Section::::Subtypes.:Scottish broadsword.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 491, "text": "At range, this strategy would do little against musket armed troops firing in volleys or artillery using canister shot (while effective against bayonets, the targe would not fare so well against a musket ball), which necessitated tactics such as the \"Highland Charge\", which required a Jacobite war band to close with their targets as quickly as possible, normally under heavy fire, using the smoke from musket and cannon fire to cover the last leg of the assault before attacking the line.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9709", "title": "English Civil War", "section": "Section::::Strategy and tactics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 884, "text": "The main battle tactic came to be known as pike and shot infantry. The two sides would line up opposite one another, with infantry brigades of musketeers in the centre. These carried matchlock muskets, an inaccurate weapon which nevertheless could be lethal at a range of up to 300 yards. Musketeers would assemble three rows deep, the first kneeling, second crouching, and third standing, allowing all to fire a volley simultaneously. At times, troops divided into two groups, allowing one to reload while the other fired. Among the musketeers were pikemen, carrying pikes of to long, whose main purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. Positioned on each side of the infantry were cavalry, with a right-wing led by the lieutenant-general and left by the commissary general. Its main aim was to rout the opponents' cavalry, then turn and overpower their infantry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6899963", "title": "War canoe", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 652, "text": "Warriors on board were typically armed with shield, spear and bow. In the gunpowder era, small iron or brass cannon were sometimes mounted on the bow or stern, although the firepower delivered from these areas and weapons was relatively ineffective. Musketeers delivering fire to cover raiding missions generally had better luck. The typical tactic was to maneuver close to shore, discharge weapons, then quickly pull out to open water to reload, before dashing in again to repeat the cycle. Troop and supply transport were the primary missions, but canoe versus canoe engagements in the lagoons, creeks and lakes of West Africa were also significant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7898212", "title": "Flanking maneuver", "section": "Section::::Tactical flanking.:Maneuvering.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 392, "text": "Flanking on land in the pre-modern era was usually achieved with cavalry (and rarely, chariots) due to their speed and maneuverability, while heavily armored infantry was commonly used to fix the enemy, as in the Battle of Pharsalus. Armored vehicles such as tanks replaced cavalry as the main force of flanking maneuvers in the 20th century, as seen in the Battle of France in World War II.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I think I’ve heard that the camouflage babies have only really works if they’re sitting completely still, which is fine because their parents will bring them food. But when they move, those spots become sort of a bulls eye, and they can’t afford to sit still anymore.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Their only self protection is not being seen, as they aren’t fast or strong enough to run away from predators yet. So their instinct when mom isn’t with them is to lay down in a perfectly still little ball in vegetation. The pattern mimics light filtering through the trees and dappling the forest floor. \nAs they grow, they transition into being up, moving around and the pattern no longer hides them, they transition into adult coat.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I've read that with that camouflage they blend easily with the fallen leaves on the ground which protects them from predators.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18838", "title": "Mammal", "section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Fur.:Coloration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 138, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 138, "end_character": 731, "text": "Camouflage is a powerful influence in a large number of mammals, as it helps to conceal individuals from predators or prey. In arctic and subarctic mammals such as the arctic fox (\"Alopex lagopus\"), collared lemming (\"Dicrostonyx groenlandicus\"), stoat (\"Mustela erminea\"), and snowshoe hare (\"Lepus americanus\"), seasonal color change between brown in summer and white in winter is driven largely by camouflage. Some arboreal mammals, notably primates and marsupials, have shades of violet, green, or blue skin on parts of their bodies, indicating some distinct advantage in their largely arboreal habitat due to convergent evolution. The green coloration of sloths, however, is the result of a symbiotic relationship with algae.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9562461", "title": "Ochteridae", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 423, "text": "The immature instars of some species camouflage themselves extremely effectively by gluing sand grains and similar particles to their backs, and so do the adults of a few species. They are not conspicuous and most species are physically small and occur patchily and in small numbers; these factors make them difficult to study and partly explain why there is a poverty of detailed knowledge of the biology of most species.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38919300", "title": "Deception in animals", "section": "Section::::Camouflage.:Mimesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 321, "text": "Katydids have evolved a wide range of camouflage adaptations so their body colouring and shape match entire leaves, half-eaten leaves, dying leaves, leaves with bird droppings, sticks, twigs, and tree bark. Other well-known mimetic animals include beetles, mantids, caterpillars, moths, snakes, lizards, frogs, and fish.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25409", "title": "Reptile", "section": "Section::::Defense mechanisms.:Camouflage and warning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 134, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 134, "end_character": 564, "text": "Reptiles tend to avoid confrontation through camouflage. Two major groups of reptile predators are birds and other reptiles, both of which have well developed color vision. Thus the skins of many reptiles have cryptic coloration of plain or mottled gray, green, and brown to allow them to blend into the background of their natural environment. Aided by the reptiles' capacity for remaining motionless for long periods, the camouflage of many snakes is so effective that people or domestic animals are most typically bitten because they accidentally step on them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9376209", "title": "Ctenosaura bakeri", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 355, "text": "The Utila iguana has a grey-brown to black coloring when young, the only species of spiny-tail iguana with such a dark color when young. Other members of the genus have a green or yellow coloring when young and turn darker with age. As this animal matures it can be a blue or light gray in color, depending on heat conditions or even the animal's temper.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5620745", "title": "Motion camouflage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 264, "text": "Camouflage is sometimes facilitated by motion, as in the leafy sea dragon and some stick insects. These animals complement their passive camouflage by swaying like plants, either preventing predators from detecting them, or appearing as something other than prey.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "201017", "title": "Budgerigar", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1032, "text": "Wild budgerigars average long, weigh , in wingspan, and display a light green body colour (abdomen and rumps), while their mantles (back and wing coverts) display pitch-black mantle markings (blackish in fledgelings and immatures) edged in clear yellow undulations. The forehead and face is yellow in adults. Prior to their adult plumage, young individuals have blackish stripes down to the cere (nose) in young individuals until around 3–4 months of age. They display small, iridescent blue-violet cheek patches and a series of three black spots across each side of their throats (called throat patches). The two outermost throat spots are situated at the base of each cheek patch. The tail is cobalt (dark-blue); and outside tail feathers display central yellow flashes. Their wings have greenish-black flight feathers and black coverts with yellow fringes along with central yellow flashes, which only become visible in flight or when the wings are outstretched. Bills are olive grey and legs blueish-grey, with zygodactyl toes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Loud noises make the air vibrate. The louder the sound, the greater the magnitude of the vibration. The sensor in the car also vibrates because of this and it goes off.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "(10+ years selling/installing car security)\n\nThe part of the alarm that does this is called the \"shock sensor\". It's a little device that detects a \"shock\" to the vehicle via vibration.\n\nThe most common is a \"504D\" made by DEI. Feel free to search the part number if you'd like to see what it looks like/how it's installed.\n\nIt's a security feature, not a regulation. It's uncommon with a factory security system but extremely common for aftermarket systems.\n\nThe point is, if someone was to hit your car (ex-gf takes a Louisville Slugger to both headlights for instance) the impact would create a vibration (shock) that is detected by this device and sets off the alarm.\n\nThe issue is, sound is just a vibration in air. Very loud and low-frequency sounds can also vibrate solids, like the metal body of your car. Thunder, gun shots, and motorcycles are commonly loud enough to set off these sensors (and I'm sure you've noticed, you can feel the vibration from these loud and low-frequency noises).\n\nThey do have a sensitivity adjustment, but there's a fine line between false-positives and false-negatives, and for safety sake, we generally err on the side of false-positives to limit the chances of a false negative.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "533426", "title": "Car alarm", "section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 351, "text": "Frequently, false alarms occur because car alarm owners use high sensitivity settings. This may be the main reason why loud bass frequency sound (loud music, other cars or motorcycles with loud exhaust systems, thunderstorms, etc.) can set off car alarms. The second possible reason is that some parts of the alarm system may be improperly installed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "533426", "title": "Car alarm", "section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 622, "text": "Although car alarms of some kind have been available since the beginning of the automobile era, the dramatic increase in their installation in the 1980s and 1990s coupled with the fact that nearly all car alarms are triggered accidentally (frequently because of high sensitivity settings) means that people who hear them often ignore them. In 1994 the New York City Police Department claimed that car alarms may actually be making the crime problem worse, and there is one account in 1992 of a thief in New York City rocking a car to deliberately trigger its alarm in order to help conceal the sound of a breaking window.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34684421", "title": "Back-up beeper", "section": "Section::::Regulations in the United States of America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 281, "text": "Back-up beepers or an observer are required by OSHA for earthmoving vehicles with an obstructed view to the rear and no one on the ground to help guide the driver. Alarms are typically loud because manufacturers do not know the ambient noise level where the machines will be used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "533426", "title": "Car alarm", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 754, "text": "A car alarm is an electronic device installed in a vehicle in an attempt to discourage theft of the vehicle itself, its contents, or both. Car alarms work by emitting high-volume sound (often a vehicle-mounted siren, klaxon, pre-recorded verbal warning, the vehicle's own horn, or a combination of these) when the conditions necessary for triggering it are met. Such alarms may also cause the vehicle's headlights to flash, may notify the car's owner of the incident via a paging system, and may interrupt one or more electrical circuits necessary for the car to start. Although inexpensive to acquire and install, the effectiveness of such devices in deterring vehicle burglary or theft when their only effect is to emit sound appears to be negligible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34684421", "title": "Back-up beeper", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 556, "text": "Although originally intended as a warning device, often these alarms are used on vehicles in a situation where no one is ever likely to be a passerby. (For example, tractors in fields often use them even though no one is ever walking behind the vehicle). The noise, however, can be heard up to away and disturbs residents and people within the vicinity but who will never be within the danger zone of the vehicle itself. In places, like the City of London, this noise pollution has led to a ban on the back-up beeper and alternatives must be used instead.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45465422", "title": "DBAG Class 481", "section": "Section::::Technical details.:Vehicles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 279, "text": "Due to their characteristic howling start-up noise, which is typical for three-phase AC motors with pulsed voltage control, these vehicles are occasionally also called \"circular saws\", \"hoe buoys\" or \"flying alarms\". The loud start-up and brake noise has led to many complaints.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44286538", "title": "Infrasonic burglar alarm", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 647, "text": "The infrasonic burglar alarm reacts to shock waves in the air that are produced by a break-in. When an intruder tries to break a window or force open a door or a window, the resultant air pressure variations (or shock waves) produce sound vibrations in the air, from 0.1 – 50 Hz. These low frequency sound vibrations are captured by a very sensitive receiver in the alarm and converted into electronic signals. These signals are then passed through a pre-programmed electronic filtering system for analysis and when found positive, activate the alarm siren immediately; thus dissuading the potential intruder still on the outside of the property.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It really depends on the countries involved and the situation. A lot of embassies are nothing more than office buildings with no living accommodations.\n\nThe U.S. Embassy in London is an office building and the U.S. amabssador lives in a huge mansion called Winfield House in Regents Park. Most of the staff are locals and live in the area surrounding the embassy. \n\nOn the other hand, the U.S. embassy in Iraq is a fortress where everyone lives in the compound.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From what I gather Jullian Assange is basically living in a small guest bedroom and it is rather awkward because it isn't like a hotel, it's like a residential building turned into an office which had a place to host visitors but doesn't anymore since Assange is living there.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42370929", "title": "Temporary resident", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 212, "text": "A temporary resident is a foreign national granted the right to stay in a country for a certain length of time (e.g. with a visa or ), without full citizenship. This may be for study, business, or other reasons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1270497", "title": "Freedom of movement", "section": "Section::::Common restrictions.:Domestic restrictions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 676, "text": "Though travelling to and from countries is generally permitted (with some limitations), most governments restrict the length of time that temporary visitors may stay in the country. This can be dependent on country of citizenship and country travelled to among other factors. In some instances (such as those of refugees who are at risk of immediate bodily harm on return to their country or those seeking legal asylum), indefinite stay may be allowed on humanitarian grounds, but in most other cases, stay is generally limited. One notable exception to this is the Schengen Area, where citizens of any country in the EU generally enjoy indefinite stay in other EU countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "247927", "title": "Border control", "section": "Section::::Specific requirements.:Travel documents.:Non-citizen residents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 222, "text": "Some countries issue travel documents to permanent residents (i.e. foreign citizens permitted to reside there indefinitely) or other non-citizens, usually for re-entry but also occasionally valid for international travel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18299148", "title": "List of people who took refuge in a diplomatic mission", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 304, "text": "Because diplomatic missions, such as embassies and consulates, may not be entered by the host country without permission (even though they do not enjoy extraterritorial status), persons have from time to time taken refuge from a host-country's national authorities inside the embassy of another country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48728", "title": "Social Security (United States)", "section": "Section::::Current operation.:International agreements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 114, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 114, "end_character": 456, "text": "People sometimes relocate from one country to another, either permanently or on a limited-time basis. This presents challenges to businesses, governments, and individuals seeking to ensure future benefits or having to deal with taxation authorities in multiple countries. To that end, the Social Security Administration has signed treaties, often referred to as \"Totalization Agreements\", with other social insurance programs in various foreign countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4599312", "title": "Immigration", "section": "Section::::Understanding of immigration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 437, "text": "Emigration and immigration are sometimes mandatory in a contract of employment: religious missionaries and employees of transnational corporations, international non-governmental organizations, and the diplomatic service expect, by definition, to work \"overseas\". They are often referred to as \"expatriates\", and their conditions of employment are typically equal to or better than those applying in the host country (for similar work).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21110766", "title": "Office of Immigration Statistics", "section": "Section::::Core Reports.:Nonimmigrant Admissions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 360, "text": "Nonimmigrants are foreign nationals granted temporary admission into the United States. The major purposes for which nonimmigrant admission may be authorized include temporary visits for business or pleasure, academic or vocational study, temporary employment, or to act as a representative of a foreign government or international organization, among others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Firstly, thanks to GPS, soldiers usually know where they are. Secondly, movies never show the whole process. In reality soldiers call in artillery, then stay on the radio to guide them in \"a little to the left next time\", and so on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pre-tech way:\n\nThey use topographical maps to identify their location. Then they fix the position they want to be blown up and tell the artillery that location.\n\nThe artillery has already fixed their own position and the cannon's direction. So when they have the target location, they can change where the cannon points and move it up and down to change how far away the exploding part lands.\n\nSome cannon ammunition isn't like a big bullet and their distance can be also be changed by how many charges get added with the exploding part.\n\nIt's just some geometry and map reading.\n\nTech way:\n\nGPS and laser rangefinding/targeting. The info is relayed to the artillery and turned into the cannon's setup.\n\nAn alternative method is to obtain it from drone or satellite imagery.\n\n\n\nOh, the artillery guys also need to have charts for how elevation affects range for the kind of cannon shell they are firing, too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I had to learn artillery fire when I was a scout in the Army. Back then we didn't have GPS and our range finders never worked.\n\nBefore you go out, you and your artillery-men you are likely to be working with on the radio are given specific maps. On these maps are pre-designated areas with codes, you could use anything for a code, a word or name.\n\nAs you are driving or marching, you figure out where on the map you are, usually by looking at ridges and buildings. If you then take your compass, and compare it to the map, the squares on the map show you how far you are to other buildings, or terrain (90% of the time, we would look for ridges).\n\nThe map is divided in squares that are predetermined widths, almost always in increments of 1000x1000 meters squared. So, basically 100 square football fields of area. The squares are labeled. On a perfect map, the top left square would be called 1,1, etc.\n\nIf you called in an artillery strike on 1,1 you would be giving the artillery man what is called 2 significant digits. Which means the round could hit ANYWHERE in that huge square.\n\nFrom here you could simply make an educated guess, and start giving more digits, by subdividing that square by eyeball. So if you pretended the square was itself divided up into 4 little squares, you could call artillery into the top left corner by saying 11,11. This would tell the artillery to hit a 100 meter square instead of anywhere in the 1000 meter square. But it would hit the VERY top left corner of the map...if something was sort of near the center of the top left corner, you could be very far away.\n\nKeep subdividing the square, or use the centimeter side of a ruler, and you can call in accurate six-digit coordinates, which is almost always where you should be starting with. So if I wanted to call for fire on someone dead center in the top left square of the map, I would tell the crew to fire at 150,150. Basically you treat every square like it could be divided into 1000 little pieces and try to figure out which piece you want to hit. Each square on the map that has a label should be thought of as having 10 little ticks on the top and left sides. Find the point on the map you want to hit and draw a line up, and see which tick it is near, then draw a line left. The two ticks it is near are your 4 digits. Decide whether you need to nudge the artillery a little in any direction, and use your guess as the 6 digits. 150,150 would be the top left square, 5 ticks right and 5 ticks down, exactly where the lines cross.\n\nAt this point, you could tell your mortars or artillery to mark this position with a name, for use later. Or you can call what is called \"adjust fire\".\n\nWhen calling for adjust fire, the artillery will fire one round exactly where you indicated. When it hits, you start switching the way you call for fire. Instead of using squares on a grid, you can use the much simpler method of adjusting fire.\n\nTo adjust fire, you say Drop, Add, Left, or Right, followed by a number of meters.\n\nIf you say Drop 50, adjust fire, the artillery man will look at where you are on the map, and simply send the round 50 meters closer to where you are standing in a straight line.\n\nWhen you have the first round on top of the target, you tell the artillery to Fire For Effect. At this point, all batteries will fire on the last adjusted fire.\n\nOh last part of your Q: How do you call for fire when you don't know where you are? We were trained to never not know where we were. When studying we were driven to 6 points on a 100 kilometer square map with blindfolds on and had a few minutes at each stop to give our 6 digit grid location to within I THINK 50 meters. You did this basically by looking at the sun and terrain around you and remembering turns the humvee had taken and feeling hills and valleys. I don't think any out of the 50 people in my troop failed the first try.\n\nThere are more advanced concepts like magnetic north vs polar north and lots of classroom and getting blindfolded and dumped in the forest, but it's mostly just instinct after a little while.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5642437", "title": "Field artillery team", "section": "Section::::Direct fire exceptions to usual mission of artillery indirect fire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 848, "text": "Artillery gunners are taught how to use direct fire to engage a target such as mounted or dismounted troops attacking them. In such a case, however, the artillery crews are able to see what they are shooting at. With indirect fire, in normal artillery missions, the crews manning the guns cannot see their target directly, or observers are doing that work for them. There have been exceptions to this situation, but even when US Marines assaulted Iwo Jima during World War Two, and gunners could see the impact of their rounds on Mt. Suribachi, the actual adjustment of their fire was accomplished by forward observers directly supporting and attached to infantry units, because they were in the position not only to see the enemy but to prevent friendly fire incidents and to coordinate shelling the Japanese with their infantry unit's movements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4808490", "title": "Fire discipline", "section": "Section::::Call for fire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 239, "text": "In the United States military, artillery is usually brought into play when a forward observer sends a three part \"call for fire\". While there are many \"missions\" available, the most common in a wartime scenario is the basic \"adjust fire\":\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5642437", "title": "Field artillery team", "section": "Section::::Motivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1346, "text": "Modern artillery batteries shoot at targets measured in distances of kilometers and miles, a hundredfold increase in range over 18th century guns. This dramatic range increase has been driven by the ongoing development of rifled cannons, improvements in propellants, better communications, and technical improvements in gunnery computational abilities. Since a modern enemy is engaged at such great distances, in most field artillery situations, because of weather, terrain, night-time conditions, distance or other obstacles, the soldiers manning the guns cannot see the target that they are firing upon. The term indirect fire is therefore used to describe firing at targets that gunners cannot see, as opposed to observed direct fire. In most cases, the target is either over the horizon or on the other side of some physical obstruction, such as a hill, mountain or valley. Since the target is not visible, these gunners have to rely on a trained artillery observer, also called a forward observer, who sees the target and relays its coordinates to their fire direction center. The fire direction center, in turn, uses these coordinates to calculate a left-right aiming direction, an elevation angle, a number of bags of propellant, and a time before exploding (if necessary) for the fuse. The fuse is then mated to the artillery projectile.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2146148", "title": "Field artillery", "section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 627, "text": "Most field artillery situations require indirect fire due to weather, terrain, night-time conditions, distance, or other obstacles. These gunners can also rely upon a trained artillery observer, also called a forward observer, who sees the target and relays the coordinates of the target to their fire direction center, which in turn translates those coordinates into: a left-right aiming direction; an elevation angle; a calculated number of bags of propellant; and finally a fuze with a determined waiting time before exploding (if necessary) to be set, which is then mated to the artillery projectile now ready to be fired.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2146148", "title": "Field artillery", "section": "Section::::Field artillery team.:Forward observer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 237, "text": "Because artillery is an indirect fire weapon, the forward observer (FO) must take up a position where he can observe the target using tools such as binoculars and laser rangefinders and call back fire missions on his radio or telephone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2508", "title": "Artillery", "section": "Section::::Artillery piece.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 570, "text": "In some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery. The actions involved in operating an artillery piece are collectively called \"serving the gun\" by the \"detachment\" or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The manner in which gunnery crews (or formations) are employed is called artillery support. At different periods in history this may refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground-, sea-, and even air-based weapons platforms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5642437", "title": "Field artillery team", "section": "Section::::Organization.:Forward Observer (FO).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 529, "text": "Because artillery is an indirect fire weapon, the forward observer must take up a position where he can observe the target using tools such as maps, a compass, binoculars and laser rangefinders/designators, then call back fire missions on his radio or other communication device. This position can be anywhere from a few hundred meters to 20–30 km distant from the guns. Modern day FOs are also called Fire Support Specialist's trained in calling close air support, naval gunfire support and other indirect fire weapons systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So, first I'll unpack a few things. What I will be talking about is mainly focused on the French Imperial Army, I don't know enough of the other army compositions to help but I am sure that we have the right people to help. Second, within the French army, there is a difference between light infantry and skirmishers and I'll go into that in a bit.\n\nSo, what makes light infantry? Generally light infantry was made of men between five feet and five four to five six. They were chosen for being nimble and intelligent, being able to conduct open order formations without getting confused (clearly they didn't think much of soldiers intellect). So light infantry (or *chasseurs a pied*) would be trained to fight in both a line formation and open order formation. From there, what they would do would vary from what was needed but more often than naught, they would fight in line formation. \n\nNow, the real use of light infantry was to establish a foothold; ideally a French commander would send his light forward to make contact with the enemy and hold them there. From here, the regular line would march up and fight the now tired enemy while the light pulls back for a flanking attempt. So, the use of light is meant to stop the enemy and buy time to pull in more forces to defeat the enemy.\n\nnow, for skirmishing. As I mentioned, yes the light was trained in open order combat. They could skirmish if needed but often they would leave it to the *voltigeurs*, an elite company of sharp shooters. Before 1809, a French Line battalion would consist of did companies of about 120 men, one company of elite Grenadier (whom are the tallest and most skilled of the battalion), and a company of elite sharp shooters (the aforementioned *voltigeurs*). A light battalion would have the same composition, having chasseurs instead of standard line and carabiners instead of grenadiers. The *voltigeurs* would be the ones skirmishing until they would give way for the standard light infantry in line formation\n\nThere are specific skirmishing battalions, *trailleurs*, which would often be either elite infantry like the Trailleurs De la Jeune Garde but those are unique units.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "648066", "title": "Light infantry", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1157, "text": "Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and wore rifle green uniforms. These became designated as \"rifle regiments\" in Britain and \"Jäger\" and \"Schützen\" (sharpshooter) regiments in German-speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called \"voltigeurs\" and \"chasseurs\" and the sharpshooters \"tirailleurs\". The Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from mountainous frontier areas. They were gradually absorbed into the line infantry becoming a hybrid type that proved successful against the French, to the extent that Napoleon recruited several units of Austrian army Grenzer to his own army after victory over Austria in 1809 compelled the Austrians to cede territories from which they were traditionally recruited. In Portugal, 1797, companies of \"Caçadores\" (Hunters) were created in the Portuguese Army, and in 1808 led to the formation of independent \"Caçador\" battalions that became known for their ability to perform precision shooting at long distances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26870841", "title": "History of infantry", "section": "Section::::Early modern period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 497, "text": "In the 18th century light infantry appeared. A skirmish force screening the main body of infantry became so important to any army in the field that eventually all the major European powers developed specialised skirmishing light infantry. Light infantry, such as German Jägers or Austro-Hungarian Pandours, was armed with primitive rifles. As these rifles took a long time to load (up to one minute as opposed to three to five shots a minute for muskets), light infantry played an auxiliary role.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2250567", "title": "Line infantry", "section": "Section::::Battlefield obsolescence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 332, "text": "In the years after the Napoleonic Wars, line infantry continued to be deployed as the main battle force, while light infantry provided fire support and covered the movement of units. In Russia, Great Britain, France, Prussia and some other states, linear tactics and formation discipline were maintained into the late 19th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1857891", "title": "Light cavalry", "section": "Section::::Historical use.:Napoleonic era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 652, "text": "Light cavalry played a key role in mounted scouting, escorting and skirmishing during the Napoleonic era. Light horse also served a function in major set-piece battles. While lacking the sheer offensive power of heavy cavalry, light cavalry were still extremely effective against unprepared infantry and artillery. All infantry commanders were forced to respect the danger any cavalry presented to their forces, and light cavalry were effective at changing the movement of enemy forces simply through their presence. In the aftermath of battles, light cavalry were used to press a victor's advantage or to screen retreating forces from further attack.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2250567", "title": "Line infantry", "section": "Section::::Line infantry and other contemporary types of infantry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 485, "text": "In France, during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the division into the Guard, while line infantry and light infantry formally continued to exist, line and \"light\" regiments had identical weaponry (smooth-bore fusils) and tactics. (Napoleon preferred smooth-bore weaponry for their faster reload speeds.) However, each battalion in both line and \"light\" regiments included a company of voltigeurs, who were expected to act as skirmishers as well being able to deploy into line.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17967344", "title": "Types of military forces in the Napoleonic Wars", "section": "Section::::Combat Arms.:Infantry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 652, "text": "The infantry Arm during the Napoleonic Wars had stopped using the grenades of the previous century, and was largely divided into the \"infantry of the line\" which fought in close order formation, and \"light infantry\" which fought as skirmishers in open order. Although many units were named guards, they functionally conformed to the division of the close and open order formation, with light troops often assuming the close order also. More notable were the grenadier units which traditionally had the pick of the largest and strongest conscripts and recruits although this changed over the course of the wars to include the more experienced soldiers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "648066", "title": "Light infantry", "section": "Section::::National examples.:France.:19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 295, "text": "BULLET::::- Tirailleurs: \"Tirailleurs\" (Skirmishers) were light infantry who formed a shallow line ahead of the line of battle during the Revolutionary/Napoleonic Wars and subsequently. The name was also used for the locally recruited colonial troops in the French Empire between 1841 and 1962.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The current economic, political, and environmental climates were almost entirely influenced by members of that generation to where they are today.\n\nThe housing market, education costs, this team mentality for politics, climate, all are in pretty shitty shape for the next generation to deal with. Its also not super uncommon to hear complaints about how the younger generation is dealing with these issues, which is frustrating.\n\nNot to mention the acute issue that few of them are retiring, which restricts job markets.\n\nPersonally I think its an unfair sweeping generalization, but its not untrue for a subset.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "51240626", "title": "Cusper", "section": "Section::::Notable cusper groups.:Baby Boomers/Generation X.:Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 766, "text": "This population is sometimes referred to as Generation Jones, and less commonly as Tweeners. These cuspers were not as financially successful as older Baby Boomers. They experienced a recession like many Generation Xers but had a much more difficult time finding jobs than Generation X did. While they learned to be IT-savvy, they didn't have computers until after high school but were some of the first to purchase them for their homes. They were among some of the first to take an interest in video games. They get along well with Baby Boomers, but share different values. While they are comfortable in office environments, they are more relaxed at home. They're less interested in advancing their careers than Baby Boomers and more interested in quality of life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47127", "title": "Baby boomers", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 734, "text": "In Western Europe and North America, boomers are widely associated with privilege, as many grew up during a period of increasing affluence due in part to widespread post-war government subsidies in housing and education. As a group, baby boomers were wealthier, more active and more physically fit than any preceding generation and were the first to grow up genuinely expecting the world to improve with time. They were also the generation that reached peak levels of income in the workplace and could, therefore, enjoy the benefits of abundant food, clothing, retirement programs, and even \"midlife-crisis\" products. But, this generation also has been criticized often for its increases in consumerism which others saw as excessive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44132916", "title": "Generations in the workforce", "section": "Section::::Baby Boomers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 934, "text": "Baby Boomers, born approximately between 1946 and 1964 were brought up in a healthy post war economy and saw the world revolving around them as the largest generation of the century. Their lifestyle is to live for work and they often expect the same level of dedication and work ethics from the next generations. They are said to prefer face to face communication, are interactive team players and attain personal fulfilment from work. Baby Boomers are often branded workaholics leaving little to no work-life balance which has inevitably led to a breakdown in family values which has influenced the next generation. They are said to be loyal to their organisations, enjoy the notion of lifetime employment and prefer to be valued or needed as opposed to rewarded with recognition or money. An article by Emma Simon in the \"Daily Telegraph\" describes them as the 'post war generation' who have enjoyed an \"unbroken run of good-luck\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "954420", "title": "Generation Jones", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 474, "text": "The generation is noted for coming of age after a huge swath of their older brothers and sisters in the earlier portion of the baby boomer population had come immediately preceding them; thus, many complain that there was a paucity of resources and privileges available to them that were seemingly abundant to older boomers. Therefore, there is a certain level of bitterness and \"jonesing\" for the level of freedom and affluence granted to older boomers but denied to them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3861253", "title": "Boomerang Generation", "section": "Section::::Trend.:Support.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 930, "text": "Economic instability is the primary justification for this phenomenon, as articulated in Kimberly Palmer's 2007 \"U.S. News & World Report\" article \"The New Parent Trap: More Boomers Help Adult Kids out Financially\". In particular, the term Boomeranger has been used to draw reference to those Gen-Xers and Gen-Yers of the Boomerang Generation who have either returned to an earlier, more modest lifestyle or have simply moved back home with parents and other loved ones, in response to the Great Recession. Where the young person and his/her parents can tolerate the arrangement, it provides tremendous financial relief to the young person. Such co-residence can be a valuable form of insurance, particularly for youths from poorer families. It may also provide non-negligible income to the parents, though in many cultures, the boomeranger retains all or nearly all of their disposable income for discretionary income purchases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47127", "title": "Baby boomers", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 671, "text": "The boomers have tended to think of themselves as a special generation, very different from preceding and subsequent generations. In the 1960s and 1970s, as a relatively large number of young people entered their late teens—the oldest turned 18 in 1964—they, and those around them, created a very specific rhetoric around their cohort and the changes brought about by their size in numbers. This rhetoric had an important impact in the self-perceptions of the boomers, as well as their tendency to define the world in terms of generations, which was a relatively new phenomenon. The baby boom has been described variously as a \"shockwave\" and as \"the pig in the python\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40781236", "title": "Sampo generation", "section": "Section::::Similar issues in other countries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 417, "text": "BULLET::::- In the United States, many Millennials and late Generation X also belong to the Boomerang Generation which live with their parents after they would normally be considered old enough to live on their own. This social phenomenon is mainly caused by high unemployment rates coupled with various economic downturns, and in turn, many Boomerang children postpone romance and marriage due to economic hardship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Paper, when folded in half, effectively doubles its thickness. When folded six times in half, there is too much thickness and not enough surface area for anything to make an effective seventh fold.\n\nHowever, the hydraulic press has enough force to fold it, but that puts extreme stress on the paper, which is eventually so much tension it breaks into pieces like glass.\n\nThe reason for this is most likely because when paper is folded, stress is put onto the cellulose within the paper which helps the crease hold its shape. After enough folds, there's so much potential energy in the paper that when the seventh fold is completed, it literally overflows with energy and shatters.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "can read through this post from yesterday as well: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "50714830", "title": "Hydraulic Press Channel", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 547, "text": "The Hydraulic Press Channel (HPC) is a YouTube channel operated by Finnish factory owner Lauri Vuohensilta and his wife Anni. Launched in October 2015, the channel publishes videos of various objects being crushed in a hydraulic press. On 31 October 2015, the channel published a video of Vuohensilta unsuccessfully attempting to fold a piece of paper more than seven times with the hydraulic press. The video was subsequently posted to the social news website Reddit in March 2016, causing it to receive more than two million views within a day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21182020", "title": "History of paper", "section": "Section::::Precursors: papyrus.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 252, "text": "Paper contrasts with papyrus in that the plant material is broken down through maceration or disintegration before the paper is pressed. This produces a much more even surface, and no natural weak direction in the material which falls apart over time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17543518", "title": "Vitreography", "section": "Section::::Advantages/disadvantages of vitreography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 461, "text": "Although glass is unaffected by compression in the printing press, it will break under tension. For that reason, vitreographs are always printed on an etching press, whose rigid bed will support the glass plate firmly. In addition, the press bed must be level and working conditions in the print shop immaculate. A particle of grit or dirt between press bed and the plate will create a tension point that will cause the glass to crack when pressure is applied.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23988563", "title": "Postage stamp paper", "section": "Section::::Paper characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 946, "text": "One characteristic of machine-made paper is that it creates a direction or an alignment of the fibers, which directly impacts its strength. This is of particular importance when tearing the paper, as one would do to separate a stamp for use. When the tear is aligned with the direction of the fibers, the paper will tear evenly. When the tear is opposed to the direction of the fibers, the paper will tear unevenly, in a jagged line. Handmade paper disperses the fibers in unpredictable directions and therefore yields a paper with the most overall strength. A paper’s strength had an influence on the separation methods used for a stamp. For example, a stronger paper may have needed a higher number of perforations per inch to best facilitate the separation of the stamps. Similarly, many stamps have two different standards of perforation for its length and width to optimize the ease of separation while minimizing the cost of manufacturing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11398873", "title": "Qinghe Special Steel Corporation disaster", "section": "Section::::Reactions and survivor accounts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 290, "text": "One survivor, Jiao Zhengyan, 38 and head of the company's ingot casting section, explained why the steel had been spilled instead of remaining in an upright ladle: \"As the ladle was falling, it hit a flatbed and tilted. The molten steel immediately flowed into the nearby conference room.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1776243", "title": "Folding machine", "section": "Section::::Paper folders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 288, "text": "Most paper folders push paper into the machine by use of a friction wheel; this grabs paper using friction. Friction-feed paper folders do not work well with glossy paper as the friction wheel slips on the paper's surface. Pneumatic paper folders are preferable for folding glossy paper.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2206804", "title": "Alexander Herrmann", "section": "Section::::Biography.:A typical Herrmann show.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 223, "text": "A piece of paper was left over from the package. Herrmann picked this up and rolled it into a ball. Then he proceeded to knock it through his knee. In an instant he tossed the ball of paper into the air, where it vanished.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Digital video generally only actually stores a few frames then just stores what changed. Like if it's a closeup of someone talking frame to frame it'll be 80% the same so it just stores the first frame then a bunch of small frames that say \"just change these pixels\". That means going forward is real easy but going backwards means going back to the last real frame then calculating forward a bunch of frames that aren't fully stored. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Vidoes general are usually buffered forwards not backwards. Basically they assume that once youve seen it already it's unlikely that you will go back to see it again.\n\n So if you do have to go back all the currently buffered data is tossed out and then you are basically starting fresh from that new point that you jumped to. If your going forward in the video though there's a chance that part of it is already buffered and can just be played immediately.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1628312", "title": "Fast forward", "section": "Section::::Usage in video.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 420, "text": "Analogue VCRs provided fast-forward by simply playing the tape faster. The resulting loss of synchronization of the video was accepted because it was still possible to make out approximately what was happening in the video to find the desired playback point. Modern digital video systems such as DVR and Video on Demand systems use 'trick mode' to present an apparently faster stream by only displaying selected frames.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24394895", "title": "Smooth motion video", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 280, "text": "The term smooth motion video is used in New Zealand to describe the end result of panning, zooming and sequencing a set of still images in such a fashion as to cause the process to become filmic via use of a video editing programme rather than the more common slideshow software.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1628312", "title": "Fast forward", "section": "Section::::Usage in video.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 774, "text": "Unlike analogue video streams in which only serial access is possible, digital video allows for random access to the media, which raises the possibility of alternative fast forwarding algorithms and visualizations. In video streaming formats, such as H.264, fast forward algorithms use the I-frames to sample the video at faster than normal speed. In streaming videos, fast-forward represents a useful search or browsing mechanism, but introduces extra network overhead when non-I-frames are transmitted in addition to the viewed I-frames and extra computational complexity in the video transcoder. Finding more network bandwidth-conserving and computationally efficient algorithms for accommodating both fast-forward and normal speed viewing is an active area of research.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3229132", "title": "Comparison of video codecs", "section": "Section::::Video quality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 709, "text": "For a sufficiently long clip, it is possible to select sequences that have suffered little from the compression, and sequences that have suffered heavily, especially if CBR has been used, whereby the quality between frames can vary highly due to different amounts of compression needed to achieve a constant bitrate. So, in a given long clip, such as a full-length movie, any two codecs may perform quite differently on a particular sequence from the clip, while the codecs may be approximately equal (or the situation reversed) in quality over a wider sequence of frames. Press-releases and amateur forums may sometimes select sequences known to favor a particular codec or style of rate-control in reviews.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213525", "title": "Slow motion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1077, "text": "Typically this style is achieved when each film frame is captured at a rate much faster than it will be played back. When replayed at normal speed, time appears to be moving more slowly. A term for creating slow motion film is overcranking which refers to hand cranking an early camera at a faster rate than normal (i.e. faster than 24 frames per second). Slow motion can also be achieved by playing normally recorded footage at a slower speed. This technique is more often applied to video subjected to instant replay than to film. A third technique that is becoming common using current computer software post-processing (with programs like Twixtor) is to fabricate digitally interpolated frames to smoothly transition between the frames that were actually shot. Motion can be slowed further by combining techniques, interpolating between overcranked frames. The traditional method for achieving super-slow motion is through high-speed photography, a more sophisticated technique that uses specialized equipment to record fast phenomena, usually for scientific applications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "348300", "title": "Digital video recorder", "section": "Section::::History.:Hard-disk-based digital video recorders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 283, "text": "In contrast to VCRs, hard-disk based digital video recorders make \"time shifting\" more convenient and also allow for functions such as pausing live TV, instant replay, chasing playback (viewing a recording before it has been completed) and skipping over advertising during playback.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37860339", "title": "Trick mode", "section": "Section::::Implementation issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 457, "text": "With an analogue system, the visual fast-forward/rewind effect was generated simply by transmitting the frames faster and/or in reverse; there was an inevitable loss of frame synchronization or 'tearing' but this was accepted as the norm. With a digital system, it is unlikely that the decoder can process the digital stream significantly faster than normal, and certainly not backwards. Therefore, only a subset of frames can be presented to the decoder. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you drop dead right now and left your body to nature, you won't end up underground like fossils. Scavengers will pull you apart and eat you, you will rot and the rains and ravages of time will remove all traces of you. Even if you were buried at a funeral, you won't become a fossil.\n\nThe conditions needed for you to become a fossil are very specific and thus rare. You need to die in a way that scavengers can't reach you, you'll be left alone, and you will be covered by silt or sediment before your bones decompose. This is easier on the bottom of the sea than on land, but sometimes there are places, such as a river delta where erosion and rains wash down the right amounts of the right kinds of silt, and the right kind of geology where the land is sinking so that the sedimentary system will continue for a long time, and a bunch of other factors.\n\nAs silt and sediment continues to build up above, and your layer continues to sink, the layers below get squeezed, and over ages become sedimentary rock. \nIf all the variables are perfect (extremely rare) your bones can mineralize as they degrade, leaving behind an impression of their shape, made out of a kind of rock that is different from the surrounding rock - a fossil.\n\nOver more ages, geology might change (continental plates push into reach other, etc) and start pushing those layers of rock up, or sideways, or pushing up ocean floor, including layers of rock below it that once were the floor.\n\nBasically, the rock above and below is sedimentary and was being formed when you wandered into it in such a way that your shape was cast like a mold. Then geological forces over eons can shift areas of the Earth's crust, including pushing up those layers of rock formed out of ancient sediments", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the Earth's topography is constantly shifting and changing. Erosion, volcanoes, snow melting, rivers, all constantly changed where things are at. Plus organic things add to the soil and what not. \n\nOur skeletons won't so much replace the dinosaur skeletons, rather we will just be another layer on top of them. \n\nPlus some cities build on top of itself (as in when a new building is torn down they just build on top of it rather than clearing away all of the material). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not all things from the past are so far underground. In fact, one of the first examples to indicate the Earth was incredibly old was the uncovering of fossils for ocean-dwelling creatures high in the mountains. What once was the bottom of ocean or lake had (over millions of years) dried out and then thrust towards the skies due to the Earth's crust pushing outwards. Eventually the original sediment that the animal was buried in erodes away, exposing the remaining fossil.\n\nA giant cache of 500 million year old fossils was found in the [Burgess Shale deposit up in Canada](_URL_0_), high in the Canadian Rockies. It used to be deep under water, and now it's high in the mountains. Just do a google search on Burgess Shale, you'll find a lot of really [fascinating stuff](_URL_1_) that will probably interest you. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26982908", "title": "Hypsibema missouriensis", "section": "Section::::Discovery.:Geology of dig site.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 769, "text": "Guy Darrough, a paleontologist from St. Louis, Missouri currently working at the dig site, said it was \"pretty much a miracle\" that dinosaur bones were found in Missouri, because the state's soft soil has resulted in the deterioration of most prehistoric remains. However, some of the remains found have been damaged by erosion and other processes. While much of Missouri lies upon rocks from the Paleozoic or Precambrian eras, the Chronister site is situated over Mesozoic rock. Stewart, who found the bones after being assigned to study the origins of clay in the southeastern portion of the Ozarks, was able to conclude that part of the region lies upon deposits from the Upper Cretaceous period, although much of the sediment from that time period has eroded away.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "320445", "title": "Luis Walter Alvarez", "section": "Section::::Dinosaur extinction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 478, "text": "During the 1970s, Walter Alvarez was doing geologic research in central Italy. There he had located an outcrop on the walls of a gorge whose limestone layers included strata both above and below the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary. Exactly at the boundary is a thin layer of clay. Walter told his father that the layer marked where the dinosaurs and much else became extinct and that nobody knew why, or what the clay was about — it was a big mystery and he intended to solve it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "645560", "title": "Dinosaur National Monument", "section": "Section::::Features.:The Quarry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1130, "text": "The \"Wall of Bones\" located within the Dinosaur Quarry building in the park consists of a steeply tilted (67° from horizontal) rock layer which contains hundreds of dinosaur fossils. The enclosing rock has been chipped away to reveal the fossil bones intact for public viewing. In July 2006, the Quarry Visitor Center was closed due to structural problems that since 1957 had plagued the building because it was built on unstable clay. The decision was made to build a new facility elsewhere in the monument to house the visitor center and administrative functions, making it easier to resolve the structural problems of the quarry building while still retaining a portion of the historic Mission 66 era exhibit hall. It was announced in April 2009 that Dinosaur National Monument would receive $13.1 million to refurbish and reopen the gallery as part of the Obama administration's $750 billion stimulus plan. The Park Service successfully rebuilt the Quarry Exhibit Hall, supporting its weight on 70-foot steel micropile columns that extend to the bedrock below the unstable clay. The Dinosaur Quarry was reopened in Fall 2011.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23071204", "title": "Prehistory of Colorado", "section": "Section::::Origins.:Geological formations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 839, "text": "Denver Formation, formed during the Paleogene / Cretaceous periods 55 million years, contains fossils and bones from dinosaurs like Tyrannosaurus rex and Triceratops. While the forests of vegetation, dinosaurs, and other organisms thrived, their reign would come to an end at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary). In an instant, millions of species are obliterated from a meteor impact in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. While this extinction lead to the dinosaurs' and other organisms' demise, some life did prevail to repopulate the earth as it recovered from this tremendous disaster. The uplifted Front Range continued to constantly erode and, by 40 million years ago, the range was once again buried in its own rubble. Related sites are: Austin Bluffs Park, Green Mountain, Palmer Park, Pulpit Rock Park, South Table Mountain\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58842801", "title": "Maraapunisaurus", "section": "Section::::History of study.:Disappearance of the specimen and quarry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 617, "text": "In 1994, an attempt was made to relocate the original quarry where the species and others had been found, using ground-penetrating radar in an attempt to image bones still buried in the ground. This attempt failed because the fossilized mudstone bones were the same density as the surrounding rock, making it impossible to differentiate between the two. A study of the local topography also showed that the fossil-bearing rock strata were severely eroded, and probably were so when Lucas discovered \"M. fragillimus\", suggesting that a majority of the skeleton had already disappeared when the vertebra was recovered.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8932500", "title": "Zhucheng", "section": "Section::::Dinosaur city.:2008 discovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 482, "text": "Such a high concentration of fossil bones in such a small area is significant for the theories of extinction of dinosaurs. A detailed scientific journal on the fossils is expected to be published later in 2009. Excavations are currently suspended for the winter but will resume when the weather gets warmer. Scientists believe a volcanic eruption may have killed the dinosaurs, and a subsequent flood carried the fossils to Zhucheng, which may have been a wetland covered in grass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26878766", "title": "Malapa Fossil Site, Cradle of Humankind", "section": "Section::::Recovered fossils.:Geology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 406, "text": "The fossils are preserved in a hard, concrete-like substance known as calcified clastic sediments that formed at the bottom of what appears to be a shallow underground lake or pool that was possibly as much as underground at the time. It is not known how these skeletons came to be in this pool, but it appears that they may have taken a significant fall. No carnivores or scavengers reached their bodies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "*EDIT: While I love the period, I'm not an expert, so please read /u/LegalAction's counterpoints below.*\n\nThere is an overly idealised fantasy, portrayed in for example the film Gladiator though it is not limited to Hollywood, of the Roman Republic as this freedom-loving democratic nation. It was not.\n\nThe Roman Republic was an oligarchy of an elite group of super-rich families, which were constantly competing with each other for prestige and power.\n\nWanting to go back to the Republic would only make sense if you were one of the elite super-rich families who wasn't the Emperor. In which case though you're more likely to just try and become Emperor instead.\n\nI asked a question about this to one of the experts here recently. [You can read the answer for yourself here.](_URL_1_) But the TL;DR is that for the majority of people all that changed was that it was now the Emperor instead of the Senate appointing their governors/high administrators. The systems below that remained the same, including various local republican systems.\n\nIn either case if a return to the Republic had happened it wouldn't have lasted. Augustus was actually not the first Roman to cease total power after winning a civil war, and neither was Caesar. For that you need to go back around 30 years to [Sulla](_URL_0_). Sulla actually tried to reform the republic so it would survive. But all that happened was that as soon as the generation after him came of age they fought their own civil war.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "17135102", "title": "History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire", "section": "Section::::Augustus' constitutional reforms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1459, "text": "Augustus' final goal was to figure out a method to ensure an orderly succession. Under Augustus' constitution, the Senate and the People of Rome held the supreme power, and all of his special powers were granted for either a fixed term, or for life. Therefore, Augustus could not transfer his powers to a successor upon his death. Any successor needed to have powers that were independent of Augustus' own powers. During his illness in 23 BC, he had chosen Agrippa to be his successor. He had considered the possibility of making his nephew Marcellus his successor, but had ultimately decided that Marcellus was too young. In 21 BC Marcellus died and Augustus married Agrippa to his daughter Julia, and in 18 BC Augustus enacted a law that granted Agrippa tribunician powers for a period of five years. Agrippa and Julia had two sons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, and Augustus designated them as possible heirs by granting upon both tribunician powers. In 12 BC Agrippa died, and in 6 BC Augustus granted these tribunician powers to his stepson Tiberius. Gaius and Lucius Caesar soon died, and Augustus realized that he had no choice but to recognize Tiberius as his heir. In 13 AD, the point was settled beyond question. A law was passed (the \"lex consularis\") which linked Augustus' powers over the provinces to those of Tiberius, so that now Tiberius' legal powers were equivalent to, and independent from, those of Augustus. Within a year, Augustus was dead.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1273", "title": "Augustus", "section": "Section::::Sole ruler of Rome.:Second settlement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 668, "text": "In the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness, and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would ensure the continuation of the Principate in some form, while allaying senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus' supposedly favored nephew Marcellus came away empty-handed. This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16938143", "title": "Constitution of the Roman Empire", "section": "Section::::Imperial constitutional history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 615, "text": "Augustus' final goal was to figure out a method to ensure an orderly succession, something necessary in any monarchial constitution and to avoid the resurgence of civil war. Augustus could not transfer his powers to a successor upon his death, as they were given specifically to him for some fixed term or during his life. Thus, any successor would need to have his own authority and influence. In 6 BC Augustus granted tribunician powers to his stepson Tiberius and recognised Tiberius as his heir. In AD 13, a law was passed which made Tiberius' legal powers equivalent to and independent from those of Augustus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7029569", "title": "I Loved Tiberius", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 636, "text": "Meanwhile, in Rome Augustus forgives Postumus when he realises, with the help of Agrippina, what Livia has been doing and tries to call him back. After seeing the change in Postumus' character he decides that he will change his will to make him his heir, rather than Tiberius. However Augustus becomes ill and dies before he is able to call Postumus back. Realising that he might die before Postumus is saved Augustus plans to have Postumus secretly removed from exile and replaced by his slave Clitus. To ensure that the plots to make Postumus emperor and restore Julia to favour come to nothing, Livia has Postumus secretly murdered.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1765596", "title": "Hierocles (charioteer)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 282, "text": "After Elagabalus granted Hierocles his freedom, he unsuccessfully tried to have Hierocles declared Caesar, which would have made him the emperor's successor. Hierocles was executed, along with other members of Elagabalus' court, when the emperor fell from power in disgrace in 222.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30536", "title": "Tiberius", "section": "Section::::Midlife (6BC-14).:Retirement to Rhodes (6 BC).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 434, "text": "Whatever Tiberius' motives, the withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus' succession plans. Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57 years old, had no immediate successor. There was no longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power after Augustus' death, nor a guarantee that his family, and therefore his family's allies, would continue to hold power should the position of \"Princeps\" survive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1273", "title": "Augustus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 818, "text": "After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward façade of the free Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, the executive magistrates, and the legislative assemblies. In reality, however, he retained his autocratic power over the Republic as a military dictator. By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including supreme military command, and those of tribune and censor. It took several years for Augustus to develop the framework within which a formally republican state could be led under his sole rule. He rejected monarchical titles, and instead called himself \"Princeps Civitatis\" (\"First Citizen of the State\"). The resulting constitutional framework became known as the Principate, the first phase of the Roman Empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Greeks feel that the austerity measures imposed on Greece by it's creditors, which are enforced because the lenders feel they will make the greek economy more competitive and a more attractive target for investment, aren't actually helpful. They see austerity more as a punishment for the greek people, or at best a poorly thought out and ineffective policy. Syriza, the far left party elected on an anti-austerity platform, has a strong incentive to describe Greece's treatment by its creditors as unfair or evil by using words like \"pillaging\" to gain leverage in negotiating conditions for further loans.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To make a long, complicated story short: external investment (via debt) is necessary in order to maintain a functioning government in Greece. No investment, the government has no funds to operate, and falls apart completely. \n\nBecause capital (needed for investment) is globally mobile, investors are not in a situation where they have to accept terms from Greece, because they can just invest elsewhere for a better/safer deal. In order to compensate for the extreme risk they are taking by loaning money to Greece, they impose terms in the form of austerity measures (limit spending) which are meant to ensure that the Greek government does not overspend again and default again. This is meant to lower risk for investors so they don't end up getting shafted (which already happened multiple times). \n\nIf you don't understand how financial markets work, it just seems like the creditors have it out for Greece and are being \"mean\", but in reality their reasons for pushing austerity measures are valid and understandable. While austerity may seem bad, the alternative is no investment and a non-functional government, which would be significantly worse. The left/far left parties are preying on people's emotions and lack of understanding to make it seem like austerity measures are some type of \"punishment\", when in reality they are a necessary condition for securing investment. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33689865", "title": "Debt crisis", "section": "Section::::Other European debt crises.:Greek debt crisis.:Greek debt restructuring.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 606, "text": "It stands out in the history of sovereign defaults. Greek debt restructuring of 2012 achieved very large debt relief – with minimal financial disruption, using a combination of new legal techniques, exceptionally large cash incentives, and official sector pressure on key creditors. But it did so at a cost. The timing and design of the restructuring left money on the table from the perspective of Greece, set precedents and created a large risk for taxpayer – particularly in its very generous treatment of holdout creditors – that are likely to make future debt restructurings in Europe more difficult.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2496183", "title": "Financial mismanagement", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 623, "text": "BULLET::::- By the end of 2009 Greece experienced one of the most severe economical collapses in today's society. The crisis had severe results and for instance resulted in great public poverty. In Athens, 20 per cent of the shops were all of a sudden completely empty and in February 2012 it was reported that 20,000 Greeks, during the proceeding year had been made destitute. By years of unrestrained governmental spending, cheap lending and a failing try at implementing financial reforms Greece was left badly off when the global economical crisis struck and the country had loans they were completely unable to repay.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6155109", "title": "Tax on cash withdrawal", "section": "Section::::Greece - Cashpoint Tax.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 274, "text": "During 2015, when Greek economy was on the verge of bankruptcy, millions of panicked citizens completely cleared their accounts - by pulling more than €28 billion out of banks and pushing the total cash revenue held in the country's financial institutions to a 10-year low.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27146868", "title": "Greek government-debt crisis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 671, "text": "The Greek government-debt crisis was the sovereign debt crisis faced by Greece in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–08. Widely known in the country as The Crisis (Greek: Η Κρίση), it reached the populace as a series of sudden reforms and austerity measures that led to impoverishment and loss of income and property, as well as a small-scale humanitarian crisis. In all, the Greek economy suffered the longest recession of any advanced capitalist economy to date, overtaking the US Great Depression. As a result, the Greek political system has been upended, social exclusion increased, and hundreds of thousands of well-educated Greeks have left the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19407570", "title": "Goudi coup", "section": "Section::::Greece at the beginning of the 20th century.:Economic and social situation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1839, "text": "Greece had been in economic crisis for decades. Public debt (owed above all to the Great Powers) dating back to the War of Independence reached new heights in the 1890s. At that point the government of Charilaos Trikoupis recognised that the country was bankrupt by deciding to lower the public debt to 30% of its value, which angered the creditors, particularly the European powers. At the same time, export of the Zante currant entered a crisis. A new phenomenon then began: emigration of the working population. The number of emigrants (especially to the United States) went from 1,108 in 1890 to 39,135 in 1910 (of 2.8 million inhabitants); significantly, remittances from America and Egypt fell amid economic slowdown in 1908. Economic growth was too slow for the workers and farmers who left to seek work elsewhere. Until that time, only highlanders and landless island dwellers had left. However, this economic growth did lead to the creation, as elsewhere in Europe in the same period, of a middle class born out of industrial development, of growth in the number of bureaucrats (linked to political clientelism) and to an urban explosion. In the mid-1900s, this middle class could not understand why the country was prosperous while the state's finances were in such poor shape. Politicians, also dissatisfied with government policy, reacted as well. In 1906, a group of youngish radicals nicknamed the \"Japanese Group\" (Ομάς Ιαπώνων), in reference to the dynamism of the Meiji period, formed around the titular leadership of Stephanos Dragoumis, with Dimitrios Gounaris its moving spirit. It criticised the old oligarchy that was ruining the country and demanded radical reforms. The group of “Sociologists” (Κοινωνιολόγοι), especially influenced by Marxism, also called for modernisation of the state apparatus and the economy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35008757", "title": "Fear of floating", "section": "Section::::Implication in favor of monetary union.:Lessons from the recent European debt crisis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 696, "text": "For the recent Greek government debt crisis, a key priority for Greece is to bring the government's budget in a sustainable position. The main problem appears to be the high and still rising net foreign indebtedness. Much of this high level of external debt could attribute to the current account deficits accumulated since the 1990s. One way to deal with the huge current account deficit is to leave the euro area and devalue the domestic currency drachma. The lower exchange rate could promote export and enhance the competitiveness of Greek economy. By quitting the euro area, the central Bank of Greece regains exchange rate as a policy instrument to reduce the huge current account deficit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46805746", "title": "International Financial Control", "section": "Section::::Bankruptcy of Greece and defeat in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 490, "text": "In 1893, the government of Greek Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis declared bankruptcy. Partial control, which was typical and insubstantial, was imposed by the country's creditors without having the power to interfere in the Greek public finances. The Greek government, over half of whose revenue went in 1893 to service loans, was in addition beset by clientelism. Several years of fruitless negotiations followed. The first modern Olympic Games (held in 1896) increased state expenses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A reply to /u/HenkWaterlander ,\n\nMaybe you can clarify what assertion you are questioning, because your wording is ambiguous. Are you suggesting that the Christian kingdoms of Iberia had very little among themselves *before* the Reconquesta? How do you determine \"very little\"? \n\nLeon was united with Castile only after Ferdinand III of Castile invaded Leon following a succession dispute in 1230. This triggered insurrection by Leon loyalists. \n\nCastile itself had a civil war in the 1360s over succession. Galicia was often disputed between Castile and Portugal, who were rivals all the way throughout most of the early modern era. \n\nDue to its position, Navarre was often fought over and partitioned between rival powers. Following a civil war, Ferdinand II of Aragon, widow of Isabella of Castile, was able to obtain Papal support to invade Navarre and obtain kingship in 1513. \n\nSpeaking of Isabella, she became Queen of Castile only after overcoming invasion of Castile by Portugal due to succession crisis in the 1470s. \n\nSo, I'm not sure what assertion you are considering here. The list above isn't even nearly complete .... ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "355643", "title": "Al-Andalus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 870, "text": "Ultimately, the Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In 1085, Alfonso VI captured Toledo, starting a gradual decline of Muslim power. With the fall of Córdoba in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the Kingdom of Castile two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the Algarve by Afonso III, leaving Granada as the last Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula. Finally, on January 2, 1492, Emir Muhammad XII surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen Isabella I of Castile, completing the Christian Reconquista of the peninsula. Although al-Andalus ended as a political entity, the nearly eight centuries of Islamic rule has left a significant effect on culture and language in Andalusia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6786589", "title": "National and regional identity in Spain", "section": "Section::::Aspects of unity and diversity within Spain.:Historical.:Unification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 429, "text": "The common non-Christian enemy has been usually considered the single crucial catalyst for the union of the different Christian realms. However, it was effective only for permanently reconquered territories. Much of the unification happened long after the departure of the last Muslim rulers. Just as Christians remained in Arab Spain after the Christian conquest, so too did Muslims and Arab culture remain after that conquest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18836", "title": "Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::High Middle Ages.:Rise of state power.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 738, "text": "In Iberia, the Christian states, which had been confined to the north-western part of the peninsula, began to push back against the Islamic states in the south, a period known as the \"Reconquista\". By about 1150, the Christian north had coalesced into the five major kingdoms of León, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Southern Iberia remained under control of Islamic states, initially under the Caliphate of Córdoba, which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as \"taifas\", who fought with the Christians until the Almohad Caliphate re-established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1170s. Christian forces advanced again in the early 13th century, culminating in the capture of Seville in 1248.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38062111", "title": "Sixth Siege of Gibraltar", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 444, "text": "In February 1407, the truce between the Christian and Islamic kingdoms collapsed during the reign of the infant John II as the result of a minor skirmish. A Castilian fleet put to sea and inflicted a major defeat on the Moors in the Strait of Gibraltar. The rulers of Granada and Morocco met at Gibraltar and agreed to sue for a fresh truce, but relations between the two Islamic states soon broke down amid disagreements between their rulers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13299", "title": "History of Spain", "section": "Section::::Islamic \"al-Andalus\" and the Christian \"Reconquest\" (8th–15th centuries).:Warfare between Muslims and Christians.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 557, "text": "The Taifa kingdoms lost ground to the Christian realms in the north. After the loss of Toledo in 1085, the Muslim rulers reluctantly invited the Almoravides, who invaded Al-Andalus from North Africa and established an empire. In the 12th century the Almoravid empire broke up again, only to be taken over by the Almohad invasion, who were defeated by an alliance of the Christian kingdoms in the decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. By 1250, nearly all of Iberia was back under Christian rule with the exception of the Muslim kingdom of Granada.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26550", "title": "Reconquista", "section": "Section::::Muslim decline and defeat.:Fall of the Caliphate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 296, "text": "The split into the taifa states weakened the Islamic presence, and the Christian kingdoms further advanced as Alfonso VI of León and Castile conquered Toledo in 1085. Surrounded by enemies, taifa rulers sent a desperate appeal to the Berber chieftain Yusuf ibn Tashfin, leader of the Almoravids.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4305070", "title": "History of Western civilization", "section": "Section::::Renaissance & Reformation.:The Renaissance: 14th to 17th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 690, "text": "Meanwhile, the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia continued their centuries-long fight to reconquer the peninsula from its Muslim rulers. In 1492, the last Islamic stronghold, Granada, fell, and Iberia was divided between the Christian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. Iberia's Jewish and Muslim minorities were forced to convert to Catholicism or be exiled. The Portuguese immediately looked to expand outward sending expeditions to explore the coasts of Africa and engage in trade with the mostly Muslim powers on the Indian Ocean, making Portugal wealthy. In 1492, a Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus found the Americas during an attempt to find a western route to East Asia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are a combination of methods. One is maceration. Basically, it involves removing as much of the soft tissue as is practical, then allowing the rest to decompose under controlled conditions, often in temperature-controlled water, until the rest of the tissue is soft enough to be cleaned away. Another method can be used in combination with this. Dermestes beetles will eat flesh, but they prefer not to eat the bones, so they will clean a skeleton for you. Care has to be taken because they will move on to the bones if they exhaust the soft parts, but it saves humans a bit of work.\n\nedit: a bit of clarification.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "59820974", "title": "Jay Villemarette", "section": "Section::::Career.:Skulls Unlimited International.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 454, "text": "Skulls Unlimited International, Inc. not only sources their specimens, they still also process the carcasses using the methods Jay perfected in his adolescence. This process begins with removing the majority of the soft tissue from the carcasses by hand. Then two methods are used to detail clean the skulls: dermestid beetles and maceration. After that, skulls are whitened with Hydrogen Peroxide and articulated by running hardware through the bones. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44516586", "title": "Hermann F. Sailer", "section": "Section::::Research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 462, "text": "In 1983 Sailer described a new operative procedure in which lyophilized cartilage of organ donors is used as a replacement for patients’ bones. In the following decades the material has been tried and tested for reconstructions of all types in the region of the skull, jaws and the face. This saves the patient from undergoing a second operation for removal of bones and cartilage. Even completely lyophilized human mandibles were used successfully in patients.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22510300", "title": "1770 (mummy)", "section": "Section::::Facial Reconstruction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 686, "text": "When the sarcophagus was unwrapped in 1975 by the Manchester Mummy team, including Dr. Rosalie David, believed they may be able to attempt a forensic facial reconstruction. Her skull was incomplete and in many pieces, in order to reconstruct, the team put the skull together, made a plaster cast, and filled the gaps with wax. To create the face, wooden pegs were drilled into the cast, at the precise depth of tissue. Then wax was added to the cast over the pegs, slightly covering them. After the wax was added, glass eyes and a wig were added to the cast. Mummy 1770 was reconstructed twice, one was the 1975 version, the other was a modified version, with darker skin and make up. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38096223", "title": "Resurrectionists in the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Resurrection.:Other methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 364, "text": "While some surgeons eschewed human cadavers in favour of facsimiles, plaster casts, wax models and animals, bodies were also taken from hospital burial grounds. Recent excavations at the Royal London Hospital appear to support claims made almost 200 years earlier that the hospital's school was \"entirely supplied by subjects, which have been their own patients\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3471221", "title": "Forensic facial reconstruction", "section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 458, "text": "In \"Bones\", a long-running TV series centered around forensic analysis of decomposed and skeletal human remains, facial reconstruction is featured in the majority of episodes, used much like a police artist sketch in police procedurals. Regular cast character Angela Montenegro, the Bones team's facial reconstruction specialist, employs 3D software and holographic projection to \"give victims back their faces\" (as noted in the episode, \"A Boy in a Bush\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3471221", "title": "Forensic facial reconstruction", "section": "Section::::Technique for creating a three-dimensional clay reconstruction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 738, "text": "The skull is the basis of facial reconstruction; however, other physical remains that are sometimes available often prove to be valuable. Occasionally, remnants of soft tissue are found on a set of remains. Through close inspection, the forensic artist can easily approximate the thickness of the soft tissue over the remaining areas of the skull based on the presence of these tissues. This eliminates one of the most difficult aspects of reconstruction, the estimation of tissue thickness. Additionally, any other bodily or physical evidence found in association with remains (e.g. jewelry, hair, glasses, etc.) are vital to the final stages of reconstruction because they directly reflect the appearance of the individual in question.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2127901", "title": "Maceration (bone)", "section": "Section::::Completion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 759, "text": "When the process of maceration is complete, the bones are removed from the solution and left to dry. If the skeleton is human and the subject of an investigation, the forensic anthropologist will then conduct an inventory and analysis of the remains. If the individual is to be identified, occupational and age-related osteological markers will be noted, and measurements of the bones will provide evidence suggesting the individual's height and race. If the skull is intact, forensic facial reconstruction is another option that may help in identifying the individual. If a crime has been established, an examination of the bones without overlying soft tissue may provide evidence on what weapon (if any) was used or on the nature of the injuries sustained.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There's a general rule of threes for your body's survival. 3 weeks without food, 3 days without water and 3 mins without air.\n\nWithout food, your body starts to consume its reserves. First to be consumed is the sugar reserve kept in your liver (about 500 grams). Then the body will try to breakdown the body's fat and muscle for energy and proteins necessary for your metabolism. But it can't break it down as fast as it needs it, thus eventually, you'll die\n\nHowever your body doesn't have water reserves in the same amounts. Without regular intake, your body has only so much water and it will try to conserve it as much as possible, but without water your body can't get rid of toxic metabolic byproducts like ammonia. These toxins will build in the body and eventually cellular activity will cease without water in which to dilute nutrients and toxins for transport.\n\nEdit: Grammar", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Eaten: your liver converts stored fat to ketone bodies (a collection of chemicals that the brain can use for energy in a similar manner to sugar) and, if necessary, your body breaks down skeletal muscle to provide the protein needed to maintain internal organs such as the heart. \n\nDrank: you die. As a rule of thumb you can survive three days without water. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7984", "title": "Drink", "section": "Section::::Biology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 571, "text": "When the human body becomes dehydrated, it experiences thirst. This craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to subtle changes in the body's electrolyte levels, and also as a result of changes in the volume of blood circulating. The complete elimination of drinks, that is, water, from the body will result in death faster than the removal of any other substance. Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22331743", "title": "Water retention (medicine)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 582, "text": "The body uses a complex system of hormones and hormone-like substances called prostaglandins to keep its volume of fluid at a constant level. If one were to intake an excessive amount of fluid in one day, the amount of fluid would not be affected in the long term. This is because the kidneys quickly excrete the excess in the form of urine. Likewise, if one did not get enough to drink, the body would hold on to its fluids and urinate less than usual. Imbalances in this system can lead to water retention, which can range from mild and unnoticeable to symptomatic with swelling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12274183", "title": "Hangover", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Vitamin and electrolyte loss.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 364, "text": "The metabolic processes required for alcohol elimination deplete essential vitamins and electrolytes. Furthermore, alcohol is a diuretic, causing excretion of electrolytes through urination. After a night of drinking, the resulting lack of key B and C vitamins, as well as potassium, magnesium, and zinc may cause fatigue, aching and other hangover-like symptoms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56869905", "title": "Hangover drinks in South Korea", "section": "Section::::Summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 225, "text": "Hangover drinks are consumed before a heavy drinking session and an ingredient in them is said to break down a toxin produced in our liver when drinking and also reduce the effect of alcohol on our brain's neurotransmitters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20841332", "title": "Alpha-Naphthylthiourea", "section": "Section::::Toxicity.:Effects on animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 366, "text": "Animals with an empty stomach readily vomit after ingestion of this substance. However, when there is food in the stomach of the animals the stimulation to vomit decreases, so more quantities may be absorbed. It has been found that ANTU may cause death in some animals within 2–4 hours of ingestion, while animals that survive 12 hours may recover from the poison. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38238", "title": "Hepatitis", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Recommendations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 184, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 184, "end_character": 468, "text": "Many people with hepatitis will prefer bed rest, though it is not necessary to avoid all physical activity while recovering. A high-calorie diet is recommended. Many people develop nausea and cannot tolerate food later in the day, so the bulk of intake may be concentrated in the earlier part of the day. In the acute phase of the disease, intravenous feeding may be needed if patients cannot tolerate food and have poor oral intake subsequent to nausea and vomiting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58023262", "title": "Ricky Megee", "section": "Section::::Journey to Port Hedland and attack.:Journey across the desert.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 339, "text": "Megee said that he survived by eating leeches, insects, snakes, ants and lizards, and edible plants. He drank water from \"various dams and waterholes\" and scavenged in the bush every evening, eating \"only one meal a day, just enough to stay alive\". When water was unavailable, he drank his urine after chilling it to suppress the flavour.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because you put it in reverse gear. So long as the engine is producing enough power to move the car, and the clutch is capable of translating that much power without slipping, the car is going to move, otherwise the engine is just going to stall if it's not producing enough power.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "29784269", "title": "Pullback motor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 485, "text": "Pulling the car \"backward\" (hence the name) winds up an internal spiral spring; a flat spiral rather than a helical coil spring. When released, the car is propelled forward by the spring. When the spring has unwound and the car is moving, the motor is disengaged by a clutch or ratchet and the car then rolls freely onward. Often the clutch mechanism is geared so that the pullback distance needed to wind the spring is less than the distance the spring is engaged propelling forward.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5343488", "title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics", "section": "Section::::Longitudinal dynamics.:Braking according to ground conditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 228, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 228, "end_character": 242, "text": "BULLET::::- Downhill it is much easier to topple over the front wheel because the incline moves the line of \"mg\" closer to \"f\". To try to reduce this tendency the rider can stand back on the pedals to try to keep \"m\" as far back as possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "779651", "title": "Automobile handling", "section": "Section::::Common handling problems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 90, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 90, "end_character": 456, "text": "BULLET::::- Slow response – sideways acceleration does not start immediately when the steering is turned and may not stop immediately when it is returned to center. This is partly caused by body roll. Other causes include tires with high slip angle, and yaw and roll angular inertia. Roll angular inertia aggravates body roll by delaying it. Soft tires aggravate yaw angular inertia by waiting for the car to reach their slip angle before turning the car.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29419796", "title": "Multimode manual transmission", "section": "Section::::Differences from an automatic car.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 562, "text": "BULLET::::- Reverse: The car reverses as in an automatic car. To reverse, depress brake pedal, and change the gear to R. Gradually lift off the brake pedal to allow the car to creep backwards. On a down-sloping incline, the creep function, simulated using the slipping clutch, is not sufficient to prevent the car from rolling forward. In this case, the car must not be held still using the accelerator pedal, as the excessive clutch slipping will lead to clutch damage. Handbrake should be instead applied, and the accelerator pedal should be depress slightly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "263228", "title": "Handbrake turn", "section": "Section::::Physics involved.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 483, "text": "In a normal turn, rear wheels follow the front ones because resistance to motion in the forward direction (in which the wheels turn) is significantly less than in the sideways direction. The latter provides the centripetal force that makes the rear end of the car follow the turn. When the driver locks the rear wheels with the handbrake, both directions offer the same resistance, so the rear end tends to keep moving in the existing direction (due to inertia) and thus slides out.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29419796", "title": "Multimode manual transmission", "section": "Section::::Differences from an automatic car.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 357, "text": "BULLET::::- Moving off from an incline: A MMT car rolls backwards when on an up-sloping incline, unlike an automatic car. To move off from an up-sloping incline, apply handbrake before depressing the accelerator slightly. Do not hold the car on an incline by depressing the accelerator pedal, as the slipping clutch will overheat and lead to clutch damage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5343488", "title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics", "section": "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Turning.:Gyroscopic effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 414, "text": "As mentioned above in the section on balance, one effect of turning the front wheel is a roll moment caused by gyroscopic precession. The magnitude of this moment is proportional to the moment of inertia of the front wheel, its spin rate (forward motion), the rate that the rider turns the front wheel by applying a torque to the handlebars, and the cosine of the angle between the steering axis and the vertical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I don't think Chomsky can be properly explained in the format of an ideal form of government (maybe he can, but it'd hurt the LI12-level of it all).\n\nAt the heart of Chomsky's political thought is the question of authority. Why does the government get to tell people what to do, and why should it be like this? He's said he'd place himself *in the tradition of* anarchists (the people who think there should be no government at all), that doesn't mean he's an anarchist himself, though. Mostly, what he believes is Libertarian Socialism. It basically means that the government should only be allowed to tell people what to do if there's a very good reason for it. These reasons, Chomsky thinks, should be questioned often. This puts limits on what, for example, cops should be allowed to do. Some people say that since cops try to fight crime, they should be allowed pretty much anything, but Chomsky would say that cops should only be allowed to do these things if they can give very good reasons that what they want to do will *actually* fight crime. So no arresting people for videotaping them, for example.\n\nWhat makes him a Libertarian *Socialist* is that unlike classical Libertarians, he believes that things like \"to make sure everybody gets as good an education as possible\" and \"to make sure we all get the best healthcare for as little money as possible\" are good reasons for the government to do things (like tax people). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't think Chomsky can be properly explained in the format of an ideal form of government (maybe he can, but it'd hurt the LI12-level of it all).\n\nAt the heart of Chomsky's political thought is the question of authority. Why does the government get to tell people what to do, and why should it be like this? He's said he'd place himself *in the tradition of* anarchists (the people who think there should be no government at all), that doesn't mean he's an anarchist himself, though. Mostly, what he believes is Libertarian Socialism. It basically means that the government should only be allowed to tell people what to do if there's a very good reason for it. These reasons, Chomsky thinks, should be questioned often. This puts limits on what, for example, cops should be allowed to do. Some people say that since cops try to fight crime, they should be allowed pretty much anything, but Chomsky would say that cops should only be allowed to do these things if they can give very good reasons that what they want to do will *actually* fight crime. So no arresting people for videotaping them, for example.\n\nWhat makes him a Libertarian *Socialist* is that unlike classical Libertarians, he believes that things like \"to make sure everybody gets as good an education as possible\" and \"to make sure we all get the best healthcare for as little money as possible\" are good reasons for the government to do things (like tax people). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13543338", "title": "Trita Parsi", "section": "Section::::Books.:\"Treacherous Alliance\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1033, "text": "In a 2011 interview with the Institute for Global Law and Policy at Harvard University, Parsi asserted that his thesis had \"been vindicated\" by recent events. \"I believe it is increasingly clear that efforts to divide the region between moderates vs radicals, democracies vs non-democracies etc is of little utility and has no real explanatory value. Israel, for instance, who had sought to frame its rivalry with Iran as a struggle between the region's sole Western democracy against a fanatical Islamic tyranny, favored the status quo in Egypt and opposed the efforts to oust Mubarak.\" He added that \"With the decline of the US, Israel's strategic paralysis and increased isolation in the region, the rise of Turkey, the 'revolutions' in Tunisia and Egypt, and Iran's continued difficulties in translating its strength to regional acceptance, the region is experiencing momentous changes both in its political structure and in its balance of power. An ideology based approach towards understanding these shifts won't get you far.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "150213", "title": "Trilateral Commission", "section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 588, "text": "Social critic and academic Noam Chomsky has criticized the commission as undemocratic, pointing to its publication \"The Crisis of Democracy\", which describes the strong popular interest in politics during the 1970s as an \"excess of democracy\". He described it as one of the most interesting and insightful books showing the modern democratic system not to really be a democracy at all, but controlled by elites. Chomsky says that as it was an internal discussion they \"let their hair down\" and talked about how the public needs to be reduced to its proper state of apathy and obedience. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39617264", "title": "Holacracy", "section": "Section::::Advantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 355, "text": "Holacracy is claimed to increase agility, efficiency, transparency, innovation and accountability within an organization. The approach encourages individual team members to take initiative and gives them a process in which their concerns or ideas can be addressed. The system of distributed authority reduces the burden on leaders to make every decision.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7645494", "title": "Themes of C. J. Cherryh's works", "section": "Section::::Politics and philosophy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 817, "text": "The implied preference for maintaining the political status quo in her work has its limits, however, particularly if the established order has become corrupt or self-serving, or if it is failing to deal effectively with external challenges or internal threats. When the legitimacy of the existing order is compromised in such circumstances, Cherryh's favored political solution is to employ a charismatic leader who arises and either restores the traditional order or establishes new norms of governance. An example of the former type of character is that of Master Saukendar in the world of \"The Paladin\" as he restores the integrity of the Imperial dynasty, whereas Signy Mallory takes the latter route when she breaks from existing military order and helps form the new Alliance government in \"Downbelow Station.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37930814", "title": "Multistakeholder governance model", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 536, "text": "The multistakeholder governance model, sometimes known as a multistakeholder initiative (MSI), is a governance structure that seeks to bring stakeholders together to participate in the dialogue, decision making, and implementation of solutions to common problems or goals. The principle behind such a structure is that if enough input is provided by all actors involved in a question, the eventual consensual decision gains more legitimacy, and therefore better reflects a set of perspectives rather than a single source of validation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39601333", "title": "PRISM (surveillance program)", "section": "Section::::Responses to disclosures.:Public and media response.:Domestic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 130, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 130, "end_character": 264, "text": "Political activist, and frequent critic of U.S. government policies, Noam Chomsky argued, \"Governments should not have this capacity. But governments will use whatever technology is available to them to combat their primary enemy – which is their own population.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51553282", "title": "Anticipatory governance", "section": "Section::::History and applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 629, "text": "Anticipatory governance is a concept that has been derived from terms of similar meaning, like forward engagement and forward deployment, which was a primary focus for decisions made by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). More recently, anticipatory governance has become data oriented practice which allows citizens and governments to utilize data as contributions and evidence for decision making regarding various matters within society. For example, Finland has a Finnish parliamentary Committee for the Future, which takes advantage of foresight to predict and evaluate the impact of developments to the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "An \"anthill\" is just one extension of an ant hive that reaches the surface. The hills form when dirt is left by the entrance of the hills.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAdditionally, some species of ants have more than one queen per colony (polygyne), while others have one per colony (monogyne).\n\n_URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, queen ants can give birth to other queens. Once a year, a ton of prospective queens and the only males are made. They all have wings, and they fly above the hill in what's called a nuptial flight. The males all die, and the fertilized queens lose their wings and go off to start new colonies.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1056536", "title": "Ant colony", "section": "Section::::Excavation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 660, "text": "Ant hill art is a growing collecting hobby. It involves pouring molten metal (typically non-toxic zinc or aluminum), plaster or cement down an ant colony mound acting as a mold and upon hardening, one excavates the resulting structure. In some cases, this involves a great deal of digging. The casts are often used for research and education purposes but many are simply given or sold to natural history museums or sold as folk art or as souvenirs. Usually, the hills are chosen after the ants have abandoned as to not kill any ants; however in the Southeast United States, pouring into an active colony of invasive fire ants is a novel way to eliminate them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "348319", "title": "Atta (genus)", "section": "Section::::Ecological effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 545, "text": "Leafcutter ants can create bottom-up gaps by forming their large nests. The ants excavate soil rich in organic matter, and store additional organic matter in their underground chambers. This creates rich soils that promote plant growth. The ants can also trim the leaves of plants in the understory, allowing for more light to hit the forest floor. They can also control the types of trees and other plants by selectively bringing seeds into the underground chambers. Depending on the location of the chamber, a seed can grow by reaching light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1841943", "title": "Pogonomyrmex", "section": "Section::::Nests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 273, "text": "These ants dig very deep nests with many underground chambers in which they keep seeds, from which they derive food for their larvae. The areas around most \"Pogonomyrmex\" (\"sensu stricto\") nests tend to be utterly devoid of vegetation, and are easily seen from a distance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42154097", "title": "Myrmecia nigrocincta", "section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 480, "text": "These ants live in nests in sandy soil which sometimes have a mound, which resembles a molehill. \"M. nigrocincta\" ants labor to conceal their nests using twigs and leaves. Depending on the type of habitat in which the colony is located, they decorate the nest with plant material and gravel. Other materials that are used to camouflage \"M. nigrocincta\" colonies include dry leaves, rocks, vegetation, and twigs. Nests are beside a clump of grass or bush or at the base of a tree.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11946762", "title": "Melampyrum pratense", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 344, "text": "The seed of the plant has an elaiosome, which is attractive to wood ants (\"Formica\" spp.). The ants disperse the seeds of the plant when they take them back to their nests to feed their young. The plant is an ancient woodland indicator, as the ants rarely carry the seeds more than a few yards, seldom crossing a field to go to a new woodland.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4686654", "title": "Soil biology", "section": "Section::::Insects and Mammals in soil.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 523, "text": "Ants and termites are often referred to as \" Soil engineers \" as when they create their nests there are several chemical and physical changes that become present. Such as increasing the presence of the most essential elements like Carbon , Nitrogen and phosphorus. Which are all essential for plant and other organisms growth. They also can gather soil particles from differing depth levels of soil and deposit them in other places. Which then leads to the mixing of soil so it is richer with nutrients and other elements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24855175", "title": "Cephalotes atratus", "section": "Section::::Biology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 451, "text": "This ant usually builds its nest in a hollow in a large live or dead tree. A small entrance may lead to a complex of tunnels and chambers, all excavated by the ants. From the nest the workers emerge by day to forage on other parts of the tree, or cross to contiguous trees, and make use of the crevices in the bark as runways to descend to the ground where they also forage. Auxiliary nests may sometimes be found a little apart from the main colony.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "What happened here?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can't say that it's never happened, but it seems unlikely that it was widespread. A quick review of a handful of texts doesn't show anything suggesting that this was typical. (\"The Culture of Children in Medieval England\", *Medieval Children*, *The Ties that Bound: Peasant Families in Medieval England*, *Growing Up in Medieval London*)\n\nAnd given beliefs about health and the body at the time, it seems unlikely. I'm more knowledgeable about the 18th and 19th century than I am about the medieval era on this point, but I'm relatively sure that both eras shared in the belief that the skin operated as kind of open system between the inside body and the outer world. Looking at the skin would have been an important part of recognizing, diagnosing, and treating disease. It would seem foolish, then, to sew someone into something that would prevent you from doing that.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Let's look at some photos of Medieval children: \n\n[These guys seems to be wearing loose pullover top with knitted hoses](_URL_5_) with a rope tied at the waist. Some might even have buttons at the front. \n\n[Some wealthy children](_URL_7_), they appear to wear the same kind of clothes the adults are wearing. Their parents would want them to change their clothes for different occasions. \n\n[Longer tunics](_URL_0_), I don't see the point of sewing these clothes on when they are this loose fitting. \n\n[A Nordic girl's frock](_URL_2_). Again, pretty loose. \n\n[Another picture of children in tunics](_URL_3_). \n\n[Portrait of a young girl](_URL_4_). She's wearing a fancy dress that an adult woman would wear. \n\n[Willem Moreel and his sons](_URL_1_) \n\n[Barbara van Vlaenderberch and her daughters](_URL_6_). \n\nAs we can see, It seems like wealthy children basically wore what adults would wear as their parents can afford well-fitted clothes for them. Poorer children wore loose clothes, I suspect it's for both comfort and rooms to grow. It just makes more economical sense to make the clothes bigger so they could wear the clothes for many years. But there is no point of sewing someone into their clothes if the clothes are going to be this big and loose. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13312476", "title": "Breeching (boys)", "section": "Section::::Celebrations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 893, "text": "In the 19th century, photographs were often taken of the boy in his new trousers, typically with his father. He might also collect small gifts of money by going round the neighbourhood showing off his new clothes. Friends, of the mother as much as the boy, might gather to see his first appearance. A letter of 1679 from Lady Anne North to her widowed and absent son gives a lengthy account of the breeching of her grandson:\"...Never had any bride that was to be dressed upon her wedding-night more hands about her, some the legs and some the armes, the taylor buttn'ing and other putting on the sword, and so many lookers on that had I not a ffinger amongst them I could not have seen him. When he was quit drest he acted his part as well as any of them... since you could not have the first sight I resolved you should have a full relation...\". The dresses he wore before she calls \"coats\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12682824", "title": "Anglo-Saxon dress", "section": "Section::::Children's costume.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 90, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 90, "end_character": 281, "text": "Illustrations and paintings from the sixth to eleventh centuries in England, always depict male children. They are usually seen in short tunics with shirts. Infants are portrayed in long gowns, and either wear no head covering or wear head covering similar to women of the period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12233742", "title": "Woolpit", "section": "Section::::Legend of the Green Children.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 758, "text": "The medieval writers Ralph of Coggeshall and William of Newburgh report that two children appeared mysteriously in Woolpit some time during the 12th century. The brother and sister were of generally normal appearance except for the green colour of their skin. They wore strange-looking clothes, spoke in an unknown language, and the only food they would eat was raw beans. Eventually they learned to eat other food and lost their green pallor, but the boy was sickly and died soon after the children were baptised. The girl adjusted to her new life, but she was considered to be \"rather loose and wanton in her conduct\". After learning to speak English she explained that she and her brother had come from , an underground world whose inhabitants are green.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "83490", "title": "Advent", "section": "Section::::Traditions.:Local rites.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 391, "text": "In England, especially in the northern counties, there was a custom (now extinct) for poor women to carry around the \"Advent images\", two dolls dressed to represent Jesus and the Blessed Virgin Mary. A halfpenny coin was expected from every one to whom these were exhibited and bad luck was thought to menace the household not visited by the doll-bearers before Christmas Eve at the latest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "534516", "title": "Fabliau", "section": "Section::::Authors and tales.:L'enfant de neige.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 585, "text": "In \"L'enfant de neige\" (\"The snow baby\"), a black comedy, a merchant returns home after an absence of two years to find his wife with a newborn son. She explains one snowy day she swallowed a snowflake while thinking about her husband which caused her to conceive. Pretending to believe the \"miracle\", they raise the boy until the age of 15 when the merchant takes him on a business trip to Genoa. There, he sells the boy into slavery. On his return, he explains to his wife that the sun burns bright and hot in Italy; since the boy was begotten by a snowflake, he melted in the heat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1904062", "title": "Aiguillette", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 390, "text": "A 1547 inventory of Henry VIII of England's wardrobe includes one coat with 12 pairs of aiglets, and 11 gowns with a total of 367 pairs. The \"Day Book of the Wardrobe of Robes\" of Elizabeth I records items received into storage, including details of buttons and aiglets lost from the Queen's clothing. This entry suggests the huge numbers of matching aiglets fashionable forty years later:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12682824", "title": "Anglo-Saxon dress", "section": "Section::::Men's costume.:Seventh to ninth centuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 386, "text": "There are several clothing references in seventh and eighth century letters. Letters between King Offa of Mercia and the Frankish Emperor Charlemagne demonstrate that clothing in Anglo-Saxon England was similar to Carolignian Frankia. This costume has been described as a short tunic over linen shirt and linen drawers with long stockings. In winter, a cloak was worn over the costume.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Before the advent of recording, music was fairly rare, but depended on the situation (especially social class). I can comment briefly on America in 1910 and Germany post-1850.\nIn 19th century Germany, music would have been heard in church, where there was typically an organ, a choir, and possibly even a small orchestra or chamber ensemble. This was often the grandest scale of music that most people would hear. For the upper classes, this was the period where having a piano in the home, and amateur singing became a popular focus at parties. Case in point, Schubert wrote dozens (if not hundreds) of short songs (Leider) for voice and piano, and even began a tradition of gathering people in a private home to sing and play them. People still hold \"Schubertiads\" to this day.\nThis was also the period in which formal concerts arose. Before that, going to hear an orchestra was a social event, with lots of eating, drinking, and talking - and who knows how much actual listening to the music. But Liszt was the one who introduced the idea of sitting quietly for a concert, and by 1900, concert and opera halls were huge, and well-attended. Again - if you were rich, you could hear a lot of music!\nI know less about folk, or lower-class music of this period. I would say that music was much less common, and depended on one or two people in a town having instruments - possibly fiddles, flutes, drums, that sort of thing. 200ish years before this, the bagpipe was the most popular folk instrument in much of Europe, but that was on a decline, and I'm not too sure what followed it. So there could be music at festivals and celebrations, and of course casual singing like in the tavern, but formal performances must have been rare.\n\n1910 in America was a pretty interesting time for music. Church still featured choir and organ, and pianos were nearly ubiquitous in middle and upper class homes. While America was struggling to find their place in the classical music world, they were importing tons of music from Europe - Opera and orchestral performances were common, and the programs were full of things like Beethoven, Berlioz, and Bruckner. I believe 1910 (give or take a year) was when Mahler visited America.\nVaudeville was also in full swing at that time, and so finally common people were able to hear music on a fairly regular basis. Vaudeville performers sang and played instruments like piano, banjo, and mandolin - the last one was especially enjoying huge popularity. \nLike in 19th c Germany, if you wanted music, you had to make it yourself most of the time. White people in the southern states were using fiddles, mandolins, banjos, dulcimers, to play music based on celtic roots - we call it \"old time\" music now, and it was to evolve into things like bluegrass and country and western. At the same time, African Americans were developing delta blues, ragtime, gospel, and \"work songs.\" These would be performed at celebrations, or sung casually any time. \nThe big thing to remember is that recording was just starting to become a viable industry - while still a rarity in 1910, phonographs were about to explode, completely changing the way(and the frequency with which ) people could experience music.\n\nTL:DR: In 1910 America and late-1800s Germany, if you wanted music, you had to make it yourself. How often that happened depended on how much money you had.\nPerformances have gotten more and more common as time has gone on. 1910 was actually a pretty great time to hear live music, even if you weren't filthy rich. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18839", "title": "Music", "section": "Section::::Media and technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 166, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 166, "end_character": 396, "text": "In many cultures, there is less distinction between performing and listening to music, since virtually everyone is involved in some sort of musical activity, often communal. In industrialized countries, listening to music through a recorded form, such as sound recording or watching a music video, became more common than experiencing live performance, roughly in the middle of the 20th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1020829", "title": "20th-century music", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1257, "text": "During the 20th century there was a huge increase in the variety of music that people had access to. Prior to the invention of mass market gramophone records (developed in 1892) and radio broadcasting (first commercially done ca. 1919–20), people mainly listened to music at live Classical music concerts or musical theatre shows, which were too expensive for many lower-income people; on early phonograph players (a technology invented in 1877 which was not mass-marketed until the mid-1890s); or by individuals performing music or singing songs on an amateur basis at home, using sheet music, which required the ability to sing, play, and read music. These were skills that tended to be limited to middle-class and upper-class individuals. With the mass-market availability of gramophone records and radio broadcasts, listeners could purchase recordings of, or listen on radio to recordings or live broadcasts of a huge variety of songs and musical pieces from around the globe. This enabled a much wider range of the population to listen to performances of Classical music symphonies and operas that they would not be able to hear live, either due to not being able to afford live-concert tickets or because such music was not performed in their region.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48496349", "title": "Tower music", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 568, "text": "In the early European Middle Ages, musical instruments on towers were used to warn of danger and mark the passage of time. At first this was done by a tower watchman, later by ensembles of instrumentalists employed by the city. The music became more choral, and came to by played on specific days of the week, and to mark specific dates (feast days such as Christmas and Easter, for instance). The practice largely died out in the late 19th century, but was revived in the early twentieth, and continues to this day. Modern tower music is often played by volunteers. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "432418", "title": "Music of Galicia, Cantabria and Asturias", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 459, "text": "Like the earlier periods, little is known about musical traditions from this era. Just a few manuscripts from the time are known, such as those by the 13th-century poet and musician Martín Codax, which indicate that some of the distinctive elements of today's music, such as the bagpipes and flutes, were common at the time. The Cantigas de Santa Maria, a collection of manuscripts written in old Galician, also show illustrations of people playing bagpipes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10623", "title": "Folk music", "section": "Section::::Traditional folk music.:Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 843, "text": "Throughout most of human prehistory and history, listening to recorded music was not possible. Music was made by common people during both their work and leisure, as well as during religious activities. The work of economic production was often manual and communal. Manual labor often included singing by the workers, which served several practical purposes. It reduced the boredom of repetitive tasks, it kept the rhythm during synchronized pushes and pulls, and it set the pace of many activities such as planting, weeding, reaping, threshing, weaving, and milling. In leisure time, singing and playing musical instruments were common forms of entertainment and history-telling—even more common than today, when electrically enabled technologies and widespread literacy make other forms of entertainment and information-sharing competitive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34558", "title": "20th century", "section": "Section::::Culture and entertainment.:Music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 332, "text": "The invention of music recording technologies such as the phonograph record, and dissemination technologies such as radio broadcasting, massively expanded the audience for music. Prior to the 20th century, music was generally only experienced in live performances. Many new genres of music were established during the 20th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9171174", "title": "Elizabethan leisure", "section": "Section::::Games.:Music and dance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 462, "text": "Music was greatly enjoyed throughout this era, as seen through quite a few family evenings including musical performances. Children were taught to sing and dance at a very early age and became used to performing in public during such evenings. Keyboard instruments such as harpsichords, clavichords, dulcimers and virginals were played. Woodwind instruments like woodys, crumhorns, flutes and stringed instruments such as lutes and rebecs were also widely used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The latest scientific thinking on this is that it's an evolutionary adaptation which actually makes you less likely to do dangerous stuff.\n\nIf a person has a tendency to imagine things like jumping off cliffs or attacking people, he/she will naturally imagine the negative consequences of the action, during the course of the fantasy. \n\nThis essentially forms a \"negative plan\" for that action. You look at the cliff and actually have the thought \"I totally shouldn't jump off, because I'd die.\" This leads to even more survival-oriented thoughts, like \"come to think of it, I could also slip accidentally. I should really just stay away from the cliff, unless it's really necessary for me to be near it.\"\n\nIn comparison, a person who didn't have the initial tendency to imagine the dangerous behavior might just continue hanging out by the cliff. Less fear of the potential danger = more interaction with danger, which translates into greater risk of death.\n\nAlso, the French phrase for the phenomenon is \"L’appel du vide,\" which translates to \"the call of the void.\"\n\nAnd that is just awesome.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The term for these is [\"intrusive thoughts\"](_URL_0_) I believe", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14833451", "title": "Impulse (psychology)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 314, "text": "An impulse is a wish or urge, particularly a sudden one. It can be considered as a normal and fundamental part of human thought processes, but also one that can become problematic, as in a condition like obsessive-compulsive disorder, borderline personality disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14833451", "title": "Impulse (psychology)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 304, "text": "The ability to control impulses, or more specifically control the desire to act on them, is an important factor in personality and socialization. Deferred gratification, also known as impulse control is an example of this, concerning impulses primarily relating to things that a person wants or desires.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2564487", "title": "Impulse purchase", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 478, "text": "Impulse buying disrupts the normal decision making models in consumers' brains. The logical sequence of the consumers' actions is replaced with an irrational moment of self gratification. Impulse items appeal to the emotional side of consumers. Some items bought on impulse are not considered functional or necessary in the consumers' lives. Preventing impulse buying involves techniques such as setting budgets before shopping and taking time out before the Purchase is made. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6093589", "title": "Page of Wands", "section": "Section::::Key Meanings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 371, "text": "When comparing what you want to \"move\" and what is \"moving\" you, experiences become less important. That is the danger, and yet it is also a chance. Don't \"lose\" yourself and don't lose your chance. When this card appears, it's time for a new beginning that will bring you to the point where you discover the true power and energy of your own fire, your personal power. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2220762", "title": "Ego psychology", "section": "Section::::Ego functions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 806, "text": "Modulating and controlling impulses is based on the capacity to hold sexual and aggressive feelings in check with out acting on them until the ego has evaluated whether they meet the individual's own moral standards and are acceptable in terms of social norms. Adequate functioning in this area depends on the individual's capacity to tolerate frustration, to delay gratification, and to tolerate anxiety without immediately acting to ameliorate it. Impulse control also depends on the ability to exercise appropriate judgment in situations where the individual is strongly motivated to seek relief from psychological tension and/or to pursue some pleasurable activity (sex, power, fame, money, etc.). Problems in modulation may involve either too little or too much control over impulses (Berzoff, 2011).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2662580", "title": "Paul Romer", "section": "Section::::Career.:Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 260, "text": "\"The question that I first asked was, why was progress . . . speeding up over time? It arises because of this special characteristic of an idea, which is if [a million people try] to discover something, if any one person finds it, everybody can use the idea.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4711894", "title": "Speedster (fiction)", "section": "Section::::Plausibility and artistic license.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 436, "text": "Other writers choose not to offer any scientific explanations for the questions raised by the actual use of such abilities. Peter David, whose run on the series \"Young Justice\" included the junior speedster Impulse, has opined that speedsters are inherently difficult to write: \"Speedsters make me nervous, because if you play them accurately, they're impossible to beat ... I could deal with Impulse because he was easily distracted.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "they keep the pressure higher in the station in order to help evacuate fumes etc from the platforms ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3098197", "title": "Air door", "section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 391, "text": "Airflow through a door depends on wind forces, temperature differences (convection), and pressure differences. Air doors work best when the pressure differential between the inside and outside of the building is as close to neutral as possible. Negative pressures, extreme temperature differences, elevators in close proximity, or extreme humidity can reduce the effectiveness of air doors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24651", "title": "Pantograph", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Other uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 280, "text": "Some types of trains on the New York City Subway use end pantograph gates (which, to avoid interference, compress under spring pressure around curves while the train is en route) to prevent passengers on station platforms from falling into or riding in the gaps between the cars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "375013", "title": "Mumbai Suburban Railway", "section": "Section::::Safety Issues.:Doors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 1090, "text": "The Mumbai Suburban Railway is known for its open doors and windows. This is because there is no ventilation system on the trains and the train relies on natural air ventilation. This was introduced as a cost-saving measure, as an Air-Conditioning system would be rendered useless during rush hour. Leaving the doors open also allows for a fast boarding process and turnaround time, as the trains stop for only 10 seconds, and are at most 5 minutes apart, to combat overcrowding. Passengers often end up hanging off the edge of the footboard, off door ledges and during rush hour can lose balance and fall to their death. Teenagers and adults also attempt to perform stunts off the doorway and door ladders, thus risking their life. Windows also have a wired grill on them, to prevent theft and chain snatching. However, passengers frequently spit \"paan\" while hanging off doors, and it ends up entering through the open window. There are also numerous records of tripping and falling down everyday while getting on and off the train, when the train is in motion, thus resulting in injury.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21117448", "title": "Misashima Station", "section": "Section::::Station layout.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1038, "text": "This station is noteworthy because the station building is on ground level and the single side platform is located below, inside a tunnel. The platform level is closed unless a local train is scheduled to arrive because of the strong winds generated by high pressure difference between the tunnel and the ground level. Passengers alighting at this station cannot loiter. They must leave the platform level within 2 minutes or PA system with monitoring camera will ask the passengers to leave immediately. There are two automatic doors, one on the ground level and another at the platform level. The automatic door on the ground level is locked, preventing access to the platform level, until the train driver remotely unlocks the door. The two automatic doors never open at the same time, again, to avoid creating strong winds caused by pressure gradient. There is an underground waiting room between the two doors with wooden bench, timetable, and a suggestion box. Above ground, the waiting room features tatami and is air-conditioned.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3098197", "title": "Air door", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 283, "text": "An air door or air curtain is a device used to prevent air or contaminants from moving from one open space to another. The most common use is a downward-facing blower fan mounted over an entrance to a building, or an opening between two spaces conditioned at different temperatures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3054453", "title": "Sapperton Railway Tunnel", "section": "Section::::Accidents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 570, "text": "On 9 December 2009 a door on an HST came open in the vicinity of the tunnel and a passenger attempted to close it, without success but at some personal risk. A local newspaper attempted to sensationalise the incident by stating that the passenger concerned was \"almost thrown from the train\" as the door \"flew\" open. Careful reading of the rest of the article shows that statement to be inaccurate and misleading; in fact nobody was near the door when it opened, and any risk to the passenger concerned arose entirely as a result of his decision to attempt to close it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19373997", "title": "Elevator", "section": "Section::::Convenience features.:Air conditioning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 256, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 256, "end_character": 209, "text": "Air conditioning poses a problem to elevators because of the condensation that occurs. The condensed water produced has to be disposed of; otherwise, it would create flooding in the elevator car and hoistway.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Some forms of mental illness can be defeated with effort (such as dyslexia). Other such as certain kinds of bi-polar or OCD can actually be beneficial in certain kinds of job as the manic periods or obsessive traits make them more efficient at said jobs. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's different degrees of severity but generally speaking, these disorders are not completely crippling, especially when properly treated. In the example you cited I guess I'm a bit confused why ADHD would preclude someone from being a comedian or even make it more difficult, unless it was extremely severe.\n\nFurthermore - it's just something you need to live with. Imagine someone confined to a wheelchair or missing a finger or some other permanent physical ailment. There are countless successful people with physical ailments like this.\n\nYou compensate for it where you can with medical devices and treatment for related symptoms but at the end of the day, it's the body you're stuck in and you need to make the best of it and live with it. Same deal for mental illnesses. You get treatment and find out the best medication(s) for you, where applicable you utilize therapy, you learn coping mechanisms and how to minimize the downsides of your mental illness as it relates to everyday life.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14860845", "title": "Mental health first aid", "section": "Section::::Rationale.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 815, "text": "Mental health problems are common in the community, so members of the public are likely to have close contact with people affected. However, many people are not well informed about how to recognize mental health problems, how to provide support and what are the best treatments and services available. Furthermore, many people developing mental disorders do not get professional help or delay getting professional help. Someone in their social network who is informed about the options available for professional help can assist the person to get appropriate help. In mental health crises, such as a person feeling suicidal, deliberately harming themselves, having a panic attack or being acutely psychotic, someone with appropriate mental health first aid skills can reduce the risk of the person coming to harm. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16766797", "title": "Felton Institute", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 384, "text": "Untreated and under-treated mental illness is strongly correlated with myriad other social problems, including homelessness, high medical-care costs, drug abuse and addiction, and poverty. But research demonstrates that – if met with the best and most appropriate treatments – even severe mental illness can become a manageable condition for most people, opening the way to recovery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13059113", "title": "Socioeconomic status", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 411, "text": "Additionally, low income and education have been shown to be strong predictors of a range of physical and mental health problems, including respiratory viruses, arthritis, coronary disease, and schizophrenia. These problems may be due to environmental conditions in their workplace, or, in the case of disabilities or mental illnesses, may be the entire cause of that person's social predicament to begin with.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19464350", "title": "Mentalism (discrimination)", "section": "Section::::Neglect.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1037, "text": "In addition, mentalism can lead to \"poor\" or \"guarded\" predictions of the future for a person, which could be an overly pessimistic view skewed by a narrow clinical experience. It could also be made impervious to contrary evidence because those who succeed can be discounted as having been misdiagnosed or as not having a genuine form of a disorder — the No true Scotsman fallacy. While some mental health problems can involve very substantial disability and can be very difficult to overcome in society, predictions based on prejudice and stereotypes can be self-fulfilling because individuals pick up on a message that they have no real hope, and realistic hope is said to be a key foundation of recovery. At the same time, a trait or condition might be considered more a form of individual difference that society needs to include and adapt to, in which case a mentalist attitude might be associated with assumptions and prejudices about what constitutes normal society and who is deserving of adaptations, support, or consideration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9579546", "title": "Parity of esteem", "section": "Section::::Health care.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 517, "text": "\"\"Parity of Esteem for Mental Health\"\" is an issue for many healthcare systems because of the pervasive stigma of mental illness. People with diagnosed mental illness die on average around 20 years earlier than those without such a diagnosis, some because of suicide, but mostly because of poorly treated physical illness. Mental illness has been assessed as constituting around a quarter of the disease burden in developed countries. There is much bigger treatment gap for mental illness than for physical illness. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4786873", "title": "Treatment of mental disorders", "section": "Section::::Services.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 296, "text": "In America, half of people with severe symptoms of a mental health condition were found to have received no treatment in the prior 12 months. Fear of disclosure, rejection by friends, and ultimately discrimination are a few reasons why people with mental health conditions often don't seek help.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39376922", "title": "Research Domain Criteria", "section": "Section::::Contrast with DSM.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 430, "text": "In that post, Insel wrote: \"Patients with mental disorders deserve better.\" He would later elaborate on this point, saying “I look at the data and I’m concerned. … I don’t see a reduction in the rate of suicide or prevalence of mental illness or any measure of morbidity. I see it in other areas of medicine and I don’t see it for mental illness. That was the basis for my comment that people with mental illness deserve better.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The brain would presumably need to spend all of its time counting the seconds in order to keep track of time. But even doing that, the brain is not going to be able to count the seconds perfectly, and eventually the number of seconds it has counted will start to drift away from how many seconds have actually passed.\n\nSo although the brain would certainly be able to *perceive* the passing of time, it would be impossible to accurately *measure* the passing of time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You can, you'd just be really bad at it. See: Campbell, S. S. (1990). Circadian rhythms and human temporal experience. In R. A. Block (Ed.), Cognitive models of psychological time, (pp. 101-118). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.\n\nI think where you're going wrong is that memory is *not* dependent on external sensory input. Repeat a word over and over in your head and pretty soon, you have a new memory with no sensory input. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It seems the general consensus is that a brain can \"perceive\" time. But what if I posit a different situation. What if there were a device that could interrupt the sending of sensory input to the brain in a very regular pattern. Say this device could remove every other millisecond (or larger, or smaller) of sensory input. \n\nWould one's perception of time change, or remain the same?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not a scientist but I AM a philosopher...and so I answer you with a question: what is time? \n\nIf you define time as our way of perceiving change, then our ability to perceive the passing of time depends on our ability to perceive. So if you have no capacity to perceive then there's no way to perceive change, meaning that there's no way to perceive the passage of time.\n\nTo answer your second question...\nTheoretically, you'd be able to notice it. Much like with sleep, we know we've been sleeping because we notice differences in our surroundings (if you fell asleep at night and woke up in the morning, you wouldn't think that everything ceased to exist while you slept, suddenly changing the moment you woke up). \n\nAlso, would say that a distinction needs to be made between the moments between the minds unconscious but pre-dreaming state and dreaming since during a dream we DO perceive in a particular kind of way so we can denote the passage of time...albeit a distorted passage of time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The effects of sensory deprivation especially for such short periods of time are not nearly as severe as you're making them out to be. See _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The brain would presumably need to spend all of its time counting the seconds in order to keep track of time. But even doing that, the brain is not going to be able to count the seconds perfectly, and eventually the number of seconds it has counted will start to drift away from how many seconds have actually passed.\n\nSo although the brain would certainly be able to *perceive* the passing of time, it would be impossible to accurately *measure* the passing of time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You can, you'd just be really bad at it. See: Campbell, S. S. (1990). Circadian rhythms and human temporal experience. In R. A. Block (Ed.), Cognitive models of psychological time, (pp. 101-118). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.\n\nI think where you're going wrong is that memory is *not* dependent on external sensory input. Repeat a word over and over in your head and pretty soon, you have a new memory with no sensory input. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It seems the general consensus is that a brain can \"perceive\" time. But what if I posit a different situation. What if there were a device that could interrupt the sending of sensory input to the brain in a very regular pattern. Say this device could remove every other millisecond (or larger, or smaller) of sensory input. \n\nWould one's perception of time change, or remain the same?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not a scientist but I AM a philosopher...and so I answer you with a question: what is time? \n\nIf you define time as our way of perceiving change, then our ability to perceive the passing of time depends on our ability to perceive. So if you have no capacity to perceive then there's no way to perceive change, meaning that there's no way to perceive the passage of time.\n\nTo answer your second question...\nTheoretically, you'd be able to notice it. Much like with sleep, we know we've been sleeping because we notice differences in our surroundings (if you fell asleep at night and woke up in the morning, you wouldn't think that everything ceased to exist while you slept, suddenly changing the moment you woke up). \n\nAlso, would say that a distinction needs to be made between the moments between the minds unconscious but pre-dreaming state and dreaming since during a dream we DO perceive in a particular kind of way so we can denote the passage of time...albeit a distorted passage of time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The effects of sensory deprivation especially for such short periods of time are not nearly as severe as you're making them out to be. See _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3975854", "title": "Sensory neuroscience", "section": "Section::::Receptive field estimation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 744, "text": "One major goal of sensory neuroscience is to try to estimate the neuron's receptive field; that is, to try to determine which stimuli cause the neuron to fire in what ways. One common way to find the receptive field is to use linear regression to find which stimulus characteristics typically caused neurons to become excited or depressed. Since the receptive field of a sensory neuron can vary in time (i.e. latency between the stimulus and the effect it has on the neuron) and in some spatial dimension (literally space for vision and somatosensory cells, but other \"spatial\" dimensions such as the frequency of a sound for auditory neurons), the term spatio temporal receptive field or STRF is often used to describe these receptive fields.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25140", "title": "Perception", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 454, "text": "Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input. There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1313454", "title": "Postdiction", "section": "Section::::Postdiction in different contexts.:Neuroscience.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 626, "text": "The duration of the window of temporal integration of sensory information ranges between tens to hundreds of milliseconds. Its duration significantly varies across tasks, so there may be several postdictive windows of integration, and they are consistent across subjects. The duration of the postdictive windows of integration is supposedly hardwired in our brain, but it could be extended by training subjects to systematic delays between causally bounded events. The postdictive window is believed to be triggered by highly salient sensory events acting as \"resets\", such as abrupt stimuli onset and saccadic eye movements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3326958", "title": "Cartesian materialism", "section": "Section::::Dennett's arguments against Cartesian materialism.:Timing anomalies of conscious experience.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 300, "text": "These experiments call into question the idea that brain states are directly translatable into the contents of consciousness. How can the second stimuli be 'projected backwards in time', such that it can affect the perception of things that occurred before the second stimulus was even administered?\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1677048", "title": "Inattentional blindness", "section": "Section::::Benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 1419, "text": "William James addressed the benefits of attention by saying, \"Only those items which I notice shape my mind – without selective interest, experience is utter chaos\". Humans have a limited mental capacity that is incapable of attending to all the sights, sounds and other inputs that rush the senses every moment. Inattentional blindness is beneficial in the sense that it is a mechanism that has evolved with attention to help filter out irrelevant input, allowing only important information to reach consciousness. Several researchers, notably James J. Gibson, have argued that, even before the retina, perception begins in the ecology, which has turned perceptual processes into informational relationships in the environment through evolution. This allows humans to focus our limited mental resources more efficiently in our environment. For example, New et al. maintain that survival required monitoring animals, both human and non-human, to become part of the evolutionary adaptiveness of the human species. They found that when participants were shown an image with a rapidly altering scene where the scene change included an animate or inanimate object that the participants were significantly better at identifying humans and animals. New et al. argue that better performance in detecting animals and humans is not a factor of acquired expertise, rather it is an evolved survival mechanism in human perception.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5664", "title": "Consciousness", "section": "Section::::Scientific study.:Neural correlates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 1046, "text": "A number of studies have shown that activity in primary sensory areas of the brain is not sufficient to produce consciousness: it is possible for subjects to report a lack of awareness even when areas such as the primary visual cortex show clear electrical responses to a stimulus. Higher brain areas are seen as more promising, especially the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in a range of higher cognitive functions collectively known as executive functions. There is substantial evidence that a \"top-down\" flow of neural activity (i.e., activity propagating from the frontal cortex to sensory areas) is more predictive of conscious awareness than a \"bottom-up\" flow of activity. The prefrontal cortex is not the only candidate area, however: studies by Nikos Logothetis and his colleagues have shown, for example, that visually responsive neurons in parts of the temporal lobe reflect the visual perception in the situation when conflicting visual images are presented to different eyes (i.e., bistable percepts during binocular rivalry).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6069126", "title": "Time perception", "section": "Section::::Neuroscientific perspectives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1617, "text": "In the popular essay \"Brain Time\", David Eagleman explains that different types of sensory information (auditory, tactile, visual, etc.) are processed at different speeds by different neural architectures. The brain must learn how to overcome these speed disparities if it is to create a temporally unified representation of the external world: \"if the visual brain wants to get events correct timewise, it may have only one choice: wait for the slowest information to arrive. To accomplish this, it must wait about a tenth of a second. In the early days of television broadcasting, engineers worried about the problem of keeping audio and video signals synchronized. Then they accidentally discovered that they had around a hundred milliseconds of slop: As long as the signals arrived within this window, viewers' brains would automatically resynchronize the signals\". He goes on to say that \"This brief waiting period allows the visual system to discount the various delays imposed by the early stages; however, it has the disadvantage of pushing perception into the past. There is a distinct survival advantage to operating as close to the present as possible; an animal does not want to live too far in the past. Therefore, the tenth-of- a-second window may be the smallest delay that allows higher areas of the brain to account for the delays created in the first stages of the system while still operating near the border of the present. This window of delay means that awareness is retroactive, incorporating data from a window of time after an event and delivering a delayed interpretation of what happened.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because \"all of space-time is relative\" is not the full concept. In full, the Special Theory states (roughly) \"all of space-time is relative except for the speed of light in a vacuum, which is always constant no matter what frame of reference you are using\".\n\nTo make that concept work in the real world, strange things have to start happening, including the idea that objects appear smaller and time passes at a different rate when you travel very quickly indeed. And although it sounds crazy, it's been experimentally observed -- time really does pass at different rates (from the perspective of an observer) for objects travelling at different speeds.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You sort of answered your own question. Everything is relative. For instance, if you fired a laser east, and one west, the tip of the laser running east would be traveling at the speed of light relative to the laser pointer. the west laser beam would be traveling at the speed of light relative to the laser pointer as well. You would think that 1 object going C meters per second would be going 2C relative to the object going C meters per second. But the law of relatively says that the max speed is the speed of light. So the east laser beam would still be traveling C miles per hour relative to the west laser beam, and vice versa, even though from the middle where you're firing the lasers from, they're both going C in opposite directions.\n\nIt's just physics screwing with you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Measuring distances in expanding space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 1747, "text": "According to the equivalence principle of general relativity, the rules of special relativity are \"locally\" valid in small regions of spacetime that are approximately flat. In particular, light always travels locally at the speed \"c\"; in our diagram, this means, according to the convention of constructing spacetime diagrams, that light beams always make an angle of 45° with the local grid lines. It does not follow, however, that light travels a distance \"ct\" in a time \"t\", as the red worldline illustrates. While it always moves locally at \"c\", its time in transit (about 13 billion years) is not related to the distance traveled in any simple way since the universe expands as the light beam traverses space and time. In fact the distance traveled is inherently ambiguous because of the changing scale of the universe. Nevertheless, we can single out two distances which appear to be physically meaningful: the distance between the Earth and the quasar when the light was emitted, and the distance between them in the present era (taking a slice of the cone along the dimension that we've declared to be the spatial dimension). The former distance is about 4 billion light years, much smaller than \"ct\" because the universe expanded as the light traveled the distance, the light had to \"run against the treadmill\" and therefore went farther than the initial separation between the Earth and the quasar. The latter distance (shown by the orange line) is about 28 billion light years, much larger than \"ct\". If expansion could be instantaneously stopped today, it would take 28 billion years for light to travel between the Earth and the quasar while if the expansion had stopped at the earlier time, it would have taken only 4 billion years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19595664", "title": "Time in physics", "section": "Section::::Conceptions of time.:Electromagnetism and the speed of light.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 388, "text": "The fact that light is predicted to always travel at speed \"c\" would be incompatible with Galilean relativity if Maxwell's equations were assumed to hold in any inertial frame (reference frame with constant velocity), because the Galilean transformations predict the speed to decrease (or increase) in the reference frame of an observer traveling parallel (or antiparallel) to the light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19167840", "title": "Chronology of the universe", "section": "Section::::Very early universe.:Inflationary epoch and the rapid expansion of space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 257, "text": "Although light and objects within spacetime cannot travel faster than the speed of light, in this case it was the metric governing the size and geometry of spacetime itself that changed in scale. Changes to the metric are not limited by the speed of light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1761, "text": "While special relativity prohibits objects from moving faster than light with respect to a local reference frame where spacetime can be treated as flat and unchanging, it does not apply to situations where spacetime curvature or evolution in time become important. These situations are described by general relativity, which allows the separation between two distant objects to increase faster than the speed of light, although the definition of \"separation\" is different from that used in an inertial frame. This can be seen when observing distant galaxies more than the Hubble radius away from us (approximately 4.5 gigaparsecs or 14.7 billion light-years); these galaxies have a recession speed that is faster than the speed of light. Light that is emitted today from galaxies beyond the cosmological event horizon, about 5 gigaparsecs or 16 billion light-years, will never reach us, although we can still see the light that these galaxies emitted in the past. Because of the high rate of expansion, it is also possible for a distance between two objects to be greater than the value calculated by multiplying the speed of light by the age of the universe. These details are a frequent source of confusion among amateurs and even professional physicists.Tamara M. Davis and Charles H. Lineweaver, \"Expanding Confusion: common misconceptions of cosmological horizons and the superluminal expansion of the universe\". astro-ph/0310808 Due to the non-intuitive nature of the subject and what has been described by some as \"careless\" choices of wording, certain descriptions of the metric expansion of space and the misconceptions to which such descriptions can lead are an ongoing subject of discussion within education and communication of scientific concepts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Metric expansion and speed of light.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 1164, "text": "While special relativity prohibits objects from moving faster than light with respect to a local reference frame where spacetime can be treated as flat and unchanging, it does not apply to situations where spacetime curvature or evolution in time become important. These situations are described by general relativity, which allows the separation between two distant objects to increase faster than the speed of light, although the definition of \"distance\" here is somewhat different from that used in an inertial frame. The definition of distance used here is the summation or integration of local comoving distances, all done at constant local proper time. For example, galaxies that are more than the Hubble radius, approximately 4.5 gigaparsecs or 14.7 billion light-years, away from us have a recession speed that is faster than the speed of light. Visibility of these objects depends on the exact expansion history of the universe. Light that is emitted today from galaxies beyond the cosmological event horizon, about 5 gigaparsecs or 16 billion light-years, will never reach us, although we can still see the light that these galaxies emitted in the past.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11439", "title": "Faster-than-light", "section": "Section::::Superluminal communication.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 722, "text": "BULLET::::- Some observers with sub-light relative motion will disagree about which occurs first of any two events that are separated by a space-like interval. In other words, any travel that is faster-than-light will be seen as traveling backwards in time in some other, equally valid, frames of reference, or need to assume the speculative hypothesis of possible Lorentz violations at a presently unobserved scale (for instance the Planck scale). Therefore, any theory which permits \"true\" FTL also has to cope with time travel and all its associated paradoxes, or else to assume the Lorentz invariance to be a symmetry of thermodynamical statistical nature (hence a symmetry broken at some presently unobserved scale).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27667", "title": "Space", "section": "Section::::Philosophy of space.:Einstein.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 669, "text": "In 1905, Albert Einstein published his special theory of relativity, which led to the concept that space and time can be viewed as a single construct known as \"spacetime\". In this theory, the speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers—which has the result that two events that appear simultaneous to one particular observer will not be simultaneous to another observer if the observers are moving with respect to one another. Moreover, an observer will measure a moving clock to tick more slowly than one that is stationary with respect to them; and objects are measured to be shortened in the direction that they are moving with respect to the observer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "What I'm about to say is heavily debated so be careful.\n\nFor a start how do we define Roman administration? if we define it was direct rule from Rome then Roman control had been slipping for a while, the 3rd century AD the empire was rocked by continuous rebellions as at one point (270's) splitting into 3 different empires with Britain and France under its own emperor. Though Diocletian was able to join it all back together again. All this suggests than control from Rome had been weak for a while, instead relying on economic and political influence to retain control. It is known that they had been withdrawing troops from Britain since 383 so its likely was becoming less and less important.\n\nAlso the events of 410 AD wasn't really a withdraw more a local uprising. After the sack of Rome the western empire had collapsed leaving a rump empire based around Italy with the rest going to the local rulers. Constantine the 3rd set himself up as emperor in Britain and started invading France to try and get to Rome. Eventually the British got so feed up of all this they drove Constantine's people out and set themselves up independently.\n\nFrom here it gets complicated as few records survive, it appears that the British tried to keep the old ways going though we don't know how successful they were as the economic links of the old Roman empire broke down so far from the Mediterranean. Eventually this and the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons (some time between 410 and 731) destroyed what was left of Post-Roman Britain.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Roman Field Army left Britain in 410, and never returned. However, the rump of the Roman administration remained, hence references to \"Ambrosius\" in slightly later works. Salway in \"The Oxford History of Roman Britain\" suggests that there had been a pattern of local Emperors in Britain, like Carausius and Allectus, so Constantine III was nothing new. Salway also suggests that the collapse of Roman culture in Britain was fairly absolute over the next couple of generations. He argues that Britain was so dependent upon Rome that it's removal led to complete economic collapse in Britain, leading the very rapid decline in city life, and the fragmentation of society leading to the establishment of many local kingdoms, for want of a better word. The garrisons of the fortified places may have maintained a degree of cohesion for a generation or so, but would then, effectively become self supporting farmers/soldiers, rather like the Celtic farmer/warriors that preceded the Roman invasion, based around their fort, now their regional capital and the hall of their local king, quite possibly the descendant of the garrison commander. \nThere was no invasion by the Saxons. There had been Angeln and Saxones settling in Britain for close to 200 years before 410, with Germanic units recorded on Hadrian's wall, as well as Sarmations at Ribchester. These people would have continued to thrive in Roman Britain, reinforced by migration from N.Germany and Denmark, helped by the de-populating plague of the 4th Century.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "England is a tricky case, because we don't have much in the way of written sources, and archaeology isn't as good for answering polical-administrative questions as it is other lines of inquiry.\n\nWhat we know is that the last legions left Britain in 410 (probably - the sources for this are pretty sketchy, actually), probably to participate in one of the many civil wars that tore the western empire apart from the inside during the fifth century. After that, we have some tantalizingly sparse evidence thhat Britain stayed in communication with the rest of the Roman world, but the extent is difficult to say. It's quite possible that Britain considered itself to still be a part of the Roman empire for some time after the legions left (Guy Halsall raises the interesting suggestion that high-status art in Britain suddenly looks less Roman right around the 470s, as though the political events in Italy had some significance in britain even then). But we really can't say for sure if whoever filled the administrative gap left by the Roman army - probably the 'Saxon' federates in some regions (who were almost certainly, like other barbarian federate groups, multi-ethnic auxilary troops); perhaps surviving Roman elites, or members of local aristocracies (who would, by this point, have also been Roman, unless they chose to de-emphasize that part of their identity in favor of older local culture, or so ething new like the 'barbarian' cultures north of the Rhine).\n\nArchaeologically, Roman architecture seems to be collapsing by the late fourth century (especially villas). This in itself doesn't meant that Romans disappeared from Britain (many of the abandoned villas weren't very old when they were left to collapse, and Britain had been part of Rome before they were built). But they do suggest that elite Roman culture in Britain was looking really different by the start of the fifth century. This change was relatively independent from the withdrawal of the legions (though it may have contributed to the feeling that they could be better used in civil wars elsewhere), and happened before the Saxon invasions (we have vague references to Saxon pirates attacking England in the fourth century, but it's not clear how much of an actual threat this was - or who exactly these Saxons were (since Romans loved to slap names onto babrbarians that the barbarians might not have used themselves).\n\nThen Britain's economy collapses, for most of the fifth century. This collapse started much earlier (Roman industry in Britain was crumbling since the third century, and the movement of Roman administration away from Trier in the late fourth century seems to have further impoverished the province), and doesn't appear to be connected to barbarian invasions. Indeed, there's no archaeological evidence for an 'invasion' per se- just the normal movement of poor farmers through the fifth century that you always see happening. By the sixth century, when things are slowly romving toward recovery, Britain's material culture looks very different - people live in wooden buildings instead of stone, and elites are buried with weapons and jewelry with artistic styles that look very different from Roman precursors. The demography is a blend of locally born people and immigrants from both the east (Germany/Scandinavia) and west (Wales, perhaps even Ireland).\n\nBut this change was gradual, and similar changes were occurring throughout the Roman world. The crucial period for Britain is the fifth century, but the lack of textual sources, and the economic collapse and disappearance of so much of the types of material goods we use to establish chronologies and trace change, make it difficult to know how rapidly the island gave up on being Roman. Certainly by the sixth century, but in Western europe, that's kind of a given.\n\nMany have suggested it was never very Roman to begin with, and that as soon as the legions left the Brittons shouted 'we're free!' The limited evidence available suggests something more complicated, but the precise shape of events is very murky.\n\nRobin Fleming is working on this period currently. Her last book, Britain after Rome, is one of the best recent works on the period. Guy Halsall's Worlds of Arthur is also excellent, and explains the limits of the evidence for this period especially well.\n\n- - -\n\nElsewhere in the Western empire, changes were slow. Clovis - the first orthodox Christian king of the Franks - also considered himself (our sources say) to be a Roman. Given what we know of ethnic identities in late antiquity, this dual identity is not a contradiction. The Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy seems to have been genuinely upset when Justinian suggested they weren't legitimate successors to Rome's legacy in the sixth century. Culturally, many aspects of Roman life continue in the west for centuries. Change on-the-ground was a drawn out process, which started in some ways as early as the third century, was stalled with an aggressive new Roman bureaucracy in the late third and fourth centuries, accelerated with rapid changes in the fifth century, and wasn't completed for a long time after that.\n\nBritain's a special case, because it was always on the fringes, and the evidence is particularly sparse and difficult to interpret.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39847", "title": "Roman conquest of Britain", "section": "Section::::Failure to conquer Caledonia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 425, "text": "Roman occupation was withdrawn to a line subsequently established as one of the \"limites\" (singular \"limes\") of the empire (i.e., a defensible frontier) by the construction of Hadrian's Wall. An attempt was made to push this line north to the River Clyde-River Forth area in 142 when the Antonine Wall was constructed. This was once again abandoned after two decades and only subsequently re-occupied on an occasional basis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12446", "title": "Germanic peoples", "section": "Section::::History.:Migration Period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 875, "text": "A direct result of the Roman retreat was the disappearance of imported products like ceramics and coins, and a return to virtually unchanged local Iron Age production methods. According to recent views this has caused confusion for decades, and theories assuming the total abandonment of the coastal regions to account for an archaeological time gap that never existed have been renounced. Instead, it has been confirmed that the Frisian graves had been used without interruption between the 4th and 9th centuries and that inhabited areas show continuity with the Roman period in revealing coins, jewellery and ceramics of the 5th century. Also, people continued to live in the same three-aisled farmhouse, while to the east completely new types of buildings arose. More to the south in Belgium, archaeological evidence from this period indicates immigration from the north.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "989112", "title": "Selgovae", "section": "Section::::The historical record.:Roman Era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 337, "text": "When Rome largely abandoned its occupation of territory north of Hadrian's Wall under the reorganisation of Marcus Aurelius (c. 175), they nevertheless retained forts at Birrens and Netherby, though there would never again be a large-scale military occupation of Selgovae territory. Rome permanently abandoned Selgovae territory by 370.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4940523", "title": "Ockbrook", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 341, "text": "Evidence of occupation during the Roman period includes the sites of three farmsteads, one of which has been excavated. From these it appears that the fortunes of the area at that time mirrored those of nearby Derventio (Roman Derby), with a boom starting during the 2nd century AD followed by abandonment at the end of the 4th century [4].\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8759374", "title": "Ancient borough", "section": "Section::::Anglo-Saxon burhs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 967, "text": "Throughout western Europe, the effect of the Germanic invasions which completed the decline of the Roman Empire was to destroy the Roman municipal organisation. After the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, the ruins of Roman colonies and camps were used by the early English to form tribal strongholds. Despite their location, burhs on the sites of Roman colonies show no continuity with Roman municipal organisation, and instead resemble the parallel revival of urban centres in continental Europe. The resettlement of the Roman Durovernum under the name \"burh of the men of Kent,\" \"Cant-wara-byrig\" or Canterbury, illustrates this point. The burh of the men of West Kent was Hrofesceaster (Durobrivae), Rochester, and many other ceasters mark the existence of a Roman camp occupied by an early English burh. The tribal burh was protected by an earthen wall, and a general obligation to build and maintain burhs at the royal command was enforced by Anglo-Saxon law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5574", "title": "History of Croatia", "section": "Section::::Roman provinces of Pannonia and Dalmatia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 281, "text": "The Roman period ends with Avar and Croat invasions in the 6th and 7th centuries and the destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast, islands and mountains. The city of Ragusa was founded by such survivors from Epidaurum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1851993", "title": "History of Sheffield", "section": "Section::::Early history.:Roman Britain.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 920, "text": "The Roman invasion of Britain began in AD 43. By 51 the Brigantes had submitted to the clientship of Rome, eventually being placed under direct rule in the early 70s. Few Roman remains have been found in the Sheffield area. A minor Roman road linking the Roman forts at Templeborough and Brough-on-Noe possibly ran through the centre of the area covered by the modern city, and Icknield Street is thought to have skirted its boundaries. The routes of these roads within this area are mostly unknown, although sections of the former were thought, by Hunter and Leader, be visible between Redmires and Stanage on an ancient road known as the Long Causeway. In recent years some scholars have cast doubt on this, with an initial survey of Barber Fields, Ringinglow, suggesting the Roman Road took a route over Burbage Edge. The remains of a Roman road, possibly linked to the latter, were discovered in Brinsworth in 1949.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Could you elaborate on what you mean by inefficient? Inefficient at what exactly? Do you just mean slow to change in general?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The checks and balances system ensures that one person or one branch of government can't make quick, unilateral changes. For a law to be passed and take effect, all three branches have to be (more or less) in agreement. The fact that legislation can be difficult to pass, even if one party has a majority, makes some people think of government as inefficient.\n\nAlso, the Constitution, which sets all of the rules, was made incredibly hard to amend (2/3 of Congress, 3/4 of the states) to again prevent large changes from being made easily.\n\nEDIT: If you want to read the Founding Fathers' opinions in their own words, read the [The Federalist Papers](_URL_1_). These were essays written by James Madison (primary writer of the Constitution), Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay that were meant to convince people to adopt the Constitution. In them, these three Founding Fathers laid out a lot of their ideas for how the country should be run.\n\nIn particular [Federalist #10](_URL_0_) by James Madison addresses your question almost exactly. In it, Madison talks about the need to prevent what he called factions from taking over the government and undermining democratic principles.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In order to better imagine this, think of a highly efficient government. One where laws pass overnight, one where rules don't have to go through many steps in order to be passed, one where you don't have to see if your laws are even conflicting in order to make them become the standard.\n\nThat efficient government is known as a dictatorship. In order to be efficient, you cannot do the arduous work of having to get your citizens to agree, getting other lawmakers to agree, or even seeing if your laws are even allowed.\n\nImagine in both governments you wanted to make it okay to kill malformed babies.\n\nIn an efficient government, the dictator says sure that's a great idea. Why waste resources on babies that aren't going to survive anyway?\n\nIn our inefficient government, the people would have to vote to make this okay. And if they did approve it, the courts could still overturn this decision citing that it is a cruel and unusual punishment (they checked this law to make sure it wouldn't conflict with other laws). The legislature could overturn that and make it into law citing their citizens agreed with it, but the executive branch (president) could veto it and say that it is violating the human rights laws of the UN. This is a very inefficient system that requires a lot of work from many different parties. You have different political groups not even agreeing within the political system. So yeah it's good then. But when you are trying to pass something that does benefit everyone, let's say universal healthcare, some people disagree with this because of reasons that are not good for the populace and that's because they're rich enough not to worry about healthcare and the people paying them are making a profit off people who do worry about healthcare.\n\nIt is inefficient, but it has to be. Efficient governments mean you have someone that doesn't answer to anyone but himself and makes laws without consulting other people in charge, or the population. When they have to ask for approval, it begins to veer into an inefficient system.\n\nEdit: forgot to mention the different levels of government where you can't override a law of a larger government entity (city vs state vs federal). In an efficient government, every citizen in your rule would answer to you the same and there would be no smaller governments making more rules because that would be a barrier in controlling your state.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The starting point is the threshold to amend the U.S. constitution is incredibly high(2/3 of both houses of congress, plus 3/4 of the State Govt's ratification(38)). It's only been Amended 27 times in the roughly 230 years since its been enacted, and 10 of those came immediately after it was enacted. It's typically much easier for other countries to change their national charter and make sweeping changes. From there for a law to be passed you need both houses of Congress to pass it, the President to sign it, and the U.S. courts to agree that it doesn't violate the Constitution for that law to remain standing. It's a system designed for cooperation. Unfortunately that's became a dirty word in American Politics the last quarter century.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Government agencies have to spend all of their budget every year or face a cut in their budgets the next year. This incentivizes them to go on a spending spree and buy works of art or make *Star Trek* parody commercials for internal use at the end of the fiscal year. This also means that nearly every government agency's budget will increase from year to year regardless of how much it needs it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "47187551", "title": "Policy entrepreneur", "section": "Section::::Multiple streams framework.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1070, "text": "Government agendas are created when problems are recognized that have viable solutions that will be politically correct to make at the time of decision making. Kingdon recognizes when these three aspects join together using the term \"policy window\". When a policy window is recognized and open, there is a potential for policy making to happen. Policy entrepreneurs function at this time as the action takers who take advantage of these windows while they are open. In the problems stream, conditions are defined as problems based on how an individual values and believes in it and how much of an impact will happen through change. In the policy stream, ideas and solutions are formulated through policy ideas usually developed by specialists to an issue. Policy development has a better chance of surviving implementation if it has support from various different communities affected by the policy. The politics stream focuses on different elements that will effect a policy such as national mood, efforts by the people to campaign for change and legislative turnover.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45309343", "title": "Phú Mỹ Hưng", "section": "Section::::Scholarly interpretations on the impact of urbanisation in Phú Mỹ Hưng (PMH).:The Complicated.:4) The political dilemma: dual modes of governance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 539, "text": "The two modes of governance are contradictory and yet able to coexist together, defining the city. On one hand, regulatory opacity allows the government to deal with the current – such as bending its regulations to cater to different forms of foreign investment capital and urban expertise. On the other hand, regulatory transparency allows the government to deal with the future – to act incrementally today in the promise of a more perfect tomorrow. It represents the hopes and visions of the future and what the government wants to be.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20459227", "title": "Midnight regulations", "section": "Section::::Process of creating new regulations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 354, "text": "The United States Congress passes laws that sometimes outline only broad policy mandates. Rulemaking by the specialist agencies in the executive branch adds necessary detail to these laws. Rulemaking also provides an administration with an opportunity to exert political influence over government without having to go through Congress to change the law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2772942", "title": "Federal enterprise architecture", "section": "Section::::Version 1 reference models.:Business Reference Model (BRM).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 516, "text": "The Business Reference Model provides a framework that facilitates a functional (as opposed to organizational) view of the federal government's LoBs, including its internal operations and its services for the citizens, independent of the agencies, bureaus and offices that perform them. By describing the federal government around common business areas instead of by a stovepiped, agency-by-agency view, the BRM promotes agency collaboration and serves as the underlying foundation for the FEA and E-Gov strategies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51902843", "title": "Population health policies and interventions", "section": "Section::::Policies and Policymakers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 501, "text": "Policymakers can be classified as both private and public and are defined as someone who is in a position of authority to implement health policies. A public policy maker could be a government official and a private policymaker could be a business owner or administrator. Policymakers are influenced by, and can also be, change agents. Change agents include \"legislators in Washington, an attorney general, regulators at the FDA, an advocacy group or other organizations that clearly have influence\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10710154", "title": "Design rationale", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 311, "text": "A design rationale is an explicit documentation of the reasons behind decisions made when designing a system or artifact. As initially developed by W.R. Kunz and Horst Rittel, design rationale seeks to provide argumentation-based structure to the political, collaborative process of addressing wicked problems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "639389", "title": "Policy analysis", "section": "Section::::Evidence based models.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 268, "text": "Many models exist to analyze the development and implementation of public policy. Analysts use these models to identify important aspects of policy, as well as explain and predict policy and its consequences. Each of these models are based upon the types of policies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This has more to do with differing definitions of \"clean\" than it does with people in the past being stupid. Dressings were expected to kept fresh. People spend a lot of time covered in dirt and grime, but manage not to get infected all the time. Why should the inside of the body be different than the out? Still, they would try to avoid visibly dirty conditions around wounds. The biggest exception to this was \"laudable pus\" which, at least in the 18th century, was thought to be a sign of the body healing itself.\n\nThe problem comes with sterilization. For us, something that is medically clean must have either been superheated or washed with an antiseptic chemical. The easy ability to do either of these things did not exist prior to the mid 19th century. Moreover, with no understanding of germ theory, there was no understood reason to do so.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What you're talking about is the development of germ theory, and the reason people didn't figure that out until when they did is simply a matter of not having adequate detection technology. It's not as though people didn't start bandaging wounds until the 1700s; ancient civilizations in both Mesoamerica and Mesopotamia possessed relatively advanced medical technology and even performed surgery. People weren't just walking around with open wounds and rolling around in filth. People knew that keeping a wound clean would prevent infection, but at the same time they also didn't understand the exact mechanism of infection. Once we figured out what germs were we simply stepped up our efforts to kill them by practicing much more rigorous sterilization.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4778099", "title": "History of wound care", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 504, "text": "The history of wound care spans from prehistory to modern medicine. Wounds naturally heal by themselves, but hunter-gatherers would have noticed several factors and certain herbal remedies would speed up or assist the process, especially if it was grievous. In ancient history, this was followed by the realisation of the necessity of hygiene and the halting of bleeding, where wound dressing techniques and surgery developed. Eventually the germ theory of disease also assisted in improving wound care.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4778099", "title": "History of wound care", "section": "Section::::Wound-site dressing.:Modern wound care.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 1029, "text": "In modern-day 21st century, medicine has evolved to involve past treatments such as leech therapy, as well as advancing wound prevention and the treatment. A large part of wound care is wound treatment. This involves promoting healing, preventing infections, and getting rid of an already existent infection. Deciding on a treatment depends on the type of wound that a person has sustained. Varying from infections to burns, wound care is a priority in saving the limb, extremity, or life of a person. In a hospital or medical care setting, more severe wounds like diabetic ulcers, decubitus ulcers, and burns require sterile or clean (depending on the severity of the wound) dressings and wound care. The types of wound dressing include: dry dressings, wet-to-dry dressings, chemical-impregnated dressings, foam dressings, alginate dressings, hydrofiber dressings, transparent film dressings, hydrogel dressings, and hydrocolloid dressings. All of the listed dressing types require different materials to complete the dressing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53126825", "title": "Sociopolitical issues of anatomy in America in the 19th century", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 415, "text": "As anatomy classes in medical education proliferated in the 19th century, so too did the need for bodies to dissect. Grave robbery proliferated, along with associated social discontent, revulsion, and unhappiness. Conflicts arose between medical practitioners and defenders of bodies, graves and graveyards. This resulted in riots. Social legislation was passed in many countries to address the competing concerns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48369072", "title": "Food and diet in ancient medicine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1289, "text": "Modern understanding of disease is very different from the way it was understood in ancient Greece and Rome. The way modern physicians approach healing of the sick differs greatly from the methods used by early general healers or elite physicians like Hippocrates or Galen. In modern medicine, the understanding of disease stems from the “germ theory of disease”, a concept that emerged in the second half of the 19th century, such that a disease is the result of an invasion of a microorganism into a living host. Therefore, when a person becomes ill, modern treatments “target” the specific pathogen or bacterium in order to “beat” or “kill” the disease. In Ancient Greece and Rome, disease was literally understood as dis-ease, or physical imbalance. Medical intervention, therefore, was purposed with goal of restoration of harmony rather than waging a war against disease. Surgery was regarded by Greek and Roman physicians as extreme and damaging while prevention was seen as the crucial first step to healing almost all ailments. In both prevention and treatment of disease in classical medicine, food and diet was central. The eating of correctly-balanced foods made up the majority of preventative treatment as well as to restore harmony to the body after it encountered disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22894823", "title": "Medicine in the American Civil War", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 494, "text": "The state of medical knowledge at the time of the Civil War was extremely primitive. Doctors did not understand infection, and did little to prevent it. It was a time before antiseptics, and a time when there was no attempt to maintain sterility during surgery. No antibiotics were available, and minor wounds could easily become infected, and hence fatal. While the typical soldier was at very high risk of being shot and killed in combat, he faced an even greater risk of dying from disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "400772", "title": "Vivisection", "section": "Section::::Animal vivisection.:Vivisection and anti-vivisection in the 19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 975, "text": "At the turn of the 19th century, medicine was undergoing a transformation. The emergence of hospitals and the development of more advanced medical tools such as the stethoscope are but a few of the changes in the medical field. There was also an increased recognition that medical practices needed to be improved, as many of the current therapeutics were based on unproven, traditional theories that may or may not have helped the patient recover. The demand for more effective treatment shifted emphasis to research with the goal of understanding disease mechanisms and anatomy. This shift had a few effects, one of which was the rise in patient experimentation, leading to some moral questions about what was acceptable in clinical trials and what was not. An easy solution to the moral problem was to use animals in vivisection experiments, so as not to endanger human patients. This, however, had its own set of moral obstacles, leading to the anti-vivisection movement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4778099", "title": "History of wound care", "section": "Section::::19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1572, "text": "The first advances in wound care in this era began with the work of Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis, a Hungarian obstetrician who discovered how hand washing and cleanliness in general in medical procedures prevents maternal deaths. Semmelweis's work was furthered by an English surgeon, Joseph Lister, who in 1860s began treating his surgical gauze with carbolic acid, known today as phenol, and subsequently dropped his surgical team's mortality rate by 45%. Building on the success of Lister's pretreated surgical gauze, Robert Wood Johnson I, co-founder of Johnson & Johnson, began in the 1890s producing gauze and wound dressings sterilized with dry heat, steam, and pressure. These innovations in wound-site dressings marked the first major steps forward in the field since the advances of the Egyptians and Greeks centuries earlier. In 1886, Ernst von Bergmann introduced heat sterilization of surgical instruments, which marked the beginning of aseptic surgery and significantly reduced the frequency of infections. Conrad Brunner did extensive research into wound management and experimentation with wound disinfection methods, publishing his comprehensive \"Erfahrungen und Studien über Wundinfektion und Wundbehandlung\" in 1898. That same year, Paul Leopold Friedrich introduced wound excision and experimentally showed that excision of open wounds substantially reduced the risk of infection. The next advances would arise from the development of polymer synthetics for wound dressings and the \"rediscovery\" of moist wound-site care protocols in the mid 20th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The real height of Louis XVI is not known. However, his coronation \" outfit \" is between 1,90m and 1,93m. \n\nThe tallest King of France was François Ier which was described to be between 1,95m and 2,00m however, thanks to one of his armour, his height was 1,98m. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26888898", "title": "List of Assassin's Creed characters", "section": "Section::::Main characters of \"Assassin's Creed Unity\".:Louis XVI of France.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 258, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 258, "end_character": 279, "text": "Louis XVI of France (born Louis Auguste de France, also known as Louis Capet) (1754–1793) was King of France and Navarre from 1774 until 1791, after which he was subsequently King of the French from 1791 to 1792, before his deposition and execution during the French Revolution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51271", "title": "Louis XVI of France", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 617, "text": "Louis XVI (; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793), born Louis-Auguste, was the last King of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. He was referred to as citizen Louis Capet during the four months before he was guillotined. In 1765, at the death of his father, Louis, son and heir apparent of Louis XV, Louis-Auguste became the new Dauphin of France. Upon his grandfather's death on 10 May 1774, he assumed the title \"King of France and Navarre\", which he used until 4 September 1791, when he received the title of \"King of the French\" until the monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1480607", "title": "Fils de France", "section": "Section::::Monsieur.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 221, "text": "BULLET::::- Louis Stanislas Xavier of France, Count of Provence (1755–1824), younger brother of Louis XVI, known as \"Monsieur\" during the reign of Louis XVI, and was later King of France as Louis XVIII from 1814 to 1824;\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47770697", "title": "List of heads of state of France", "section": "Section::::Capetian dynasty (987–1792).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 403, "text": "From 21 January 1793 to 8 June 1795, Louis XVI's son Louis-Charles was the titular King of France as Louis XVII; in reality, however, he was imprisoned in the Temple throughout this duration, and power was held by the leaders of the Republic. Upon Louis XVII's death, his uncle (Louis XVI's brother) Louis-Stanislas claimed the throne, as Louis XVIII, but only became \"de facto\" King of France in 1814.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "62519", "title": "List of French monarchs", "section": "Section::::Capetian dynasty (987–1793).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 404, "text": "From 21 January 1793 to 8 June 1795, Louis XVI's son Louis-Charles was the titular King of France as Louis XVII; in reality, however, he was imprisoned in the Temple throughout this duration, and power was held by the leaders of the Republic. Upon Louis XVII's death, his uncle (Louis XVI's brother) Louis-Stanislas claimed the throne, as Louis XVIII, but only became \"de facto\" King of France in 1814.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44705", "title": "House of Bourbon", "section": "Section::::France.:French Revolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 439, "text": "Louis XVI had become the Dauphin of France upon the death of his father Louis, the son of Louis XV, in 1765. He married Marie Antoinette of Austria, a daughter of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, in 1770. Louis intervened in the American Revolution against Britain in 1778, but he is most remembered for his role in the French Revolution. France was in financial turmoil and Louis was forced to convene the Estates-General on 5 May 1789.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51271", "title": "Louis XVI of France", "section": "Section::::Legacy.:In film and literature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 1102, "text": "King Louis XVI has been portrayed in numerous films. In \"Captain of the Guard\" (1930), he is played by Stuart Holmes. In \"Marie Antoinette\" (1938), he was played by Robert Morley. Jean-François Balmer portrayed him in the 1989 two-part miniseries \"La Révolution française\". More recently, he was depicted in the 2006 film \"Marie Antoinette\" by Jason Schwartzman. In Sacha Guitry's \"Si Versailles m'était conté\", Louis was portrayed by one of the film's producers, Gilbert Bokanowski, using the alias Gilbert Boka. Several portrayals have upheld the image of a bumbling, almost foolish king, such as that by Jacques Morel in the 1956 French film \"Marie-Antoinette reine de France\" and that by Terence Budd in the \"Lady Oscar\" live action film. In \"Start the Revolution Without Me\", Louis XVI is portrayed by Hugh Griffith as a laughable cuckold. Mel Brooks played a comic version of Louis XVI in \"The History of the World Part 1\", portraying him as a libertine who has such distaste for the peasantry he uses them as targets in skeet shooting. In the 1996 film \"Ridicule\"; Urbain Cancelier plays Louis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Netflix is 30%+ (?) of traffic, they are a big player.\n\nAlso, YouTube at least is run by Google... who with Fiber is already suggesting that they won't take the ISPs shit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Too many people watching House of Cards.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Youtube has had plenty of run-ins with U.S. ISPs, and has gotten throttled a number of times. TWC especially is known for that one.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Google already pays ISPs for more direct connections.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is not a fight between Comcast and Netflix, but the peering between Comcast and Cogent (Netflix's IPS).\n\nThis same thing happened in 2010 when Netflix was using Level 3 as their ISP.\n\nThink of it this way. 2 towns built a 4 lane road between each other. They split the cost initially. Everything works great. A mega corporation moves into Town A and begins to ship its product to Town B (or C,D,E, etc through Town B). This saturates the road between the two towns causing congestion. The congestion is only going towards town B.\n\nWho should pay to add more lanes going from town A to town B?\n\n* Town A?\n* Town B?\n* Mega Corp?\n\nIf town A pays for it, the taxes in Town A will go up.\nIf town B pays for it, the taxes (and tariffs) for Town B will go up.\nIf Mega Corp, they price of their product will go up.\nThe 4th option would be for the Federal Government to step in and take control of the road. This would cause all of the above.\n\nThe 5th option, and what has happened is that MegaCorp moved from Town A to Town B. (Or at least will build a private road into Town B)\n\nWelcome to the reality of net neutrality. Someone has to pay for the road.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Its just ridiculous mob tactics. Netflix already pays for their bandwidth, as do I. Why in the hell should Netflix be extorted into paying extra just because? If I were in charge of Netflix, I would have released a free, easy to use vpn tool to all customers instead of folding. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They are. I live in Ohio and Time Warner is the only game in town. They throttle your connections to basically everywhere useful. Youtube, Hulu, Netflix, and I have heard social media sites load slower than lesser known sites. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I work for an ISP. Netflix easily accounts for 25-30% of all of our traffic. Youtube takes up about 15% by itself. I dont side with comcast for what they are doing but the impact netflix has had on ISP's bandwidth is crazy due to the usage. We used to have 10Gb circuits that connected major areas together internally and I thought that was huge. Now we need to have multiple 100Gb redundant circuits just to carry the load. Some areas even have 300Gb circuits for customer traffic and were not even a top 10 ISP. On the plus side, we dont throttle anything or alter traffic in any way", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "sounds like small business owners paying protection money to me some mob shit", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because Hulu is run by Fox, Disney, and of course NBC Universal, which is a subsidiary of... you guessed it, Comcast.\n\nAs for YouTube... would you want to take on Google? Me neither. Maybe they will after they combine with Time Warner, but probably not because they're pretty good about taking down pirated content.\n\nI have no real proof, but I don't believe this to be an issue of bandwidth usage. It's a struggle to keep cable television viable. Young people don't want it anymore. Old people wouldn't either if they weren't afraid of change and knew how much better and simpler Netflix is. Solution? Make a better cable product? No. Eliminate the competition. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They do fuck with youtube. Sometimes it takes me like 2 minutes to buffer a 30 second video. Forget about watching a longer HD video.\n\n\nI always call them, and they say something like \"Oh ok we will try resetting your connection\" and then it's magically better. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I feel [this link](_URL_0_) might be helpful to some readers. \n\nTLDR; During peak usage, Netflix has approximately 59% high traffic than YouTube in North America, but together they make up half of peak Internet (still only in North America).\n\nEdit: approximately ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because Google is big enough to defend itself against Comcast. Netflix is not at the moment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A big reason why ISPs aren't happy with Netflix is that up until this point Netflix has not paid any ISPs extra money for more direct connections. Large Internet companies like Youtube, Facebook, Mircosoft, etc. have paid ISPs for more direct connections. Hulu is a special case since they are owned by the broadcasting companies, Comcast being one of them.\n\nNetflix did offer to set up cashing servers for free within ISPs networks so that most Netflix traffic would never leave ISPs networks, but they declined.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hulu barely makes a profit and that's from the \"free\" version only. YouTube monetizes advertising. Netflix is undercutting the business model of the ISPs/Cable Carriers by tossing advertising and is successful.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Youtube and Hulu are throttled. When I had suddenlink, I had to keep fighting them to \"fix\" it, which of course entailed the stupid CSR to reboot the modem.\n\nTWC is the same, brother has it and its the same crap. Seriously, fuck the US government for turning a blind eye (and open wallet) to illegal monopolies.\n\nedit: NSA, if you cant figure this out, I am talking figuratively.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You're paying an ISP for a certain speed, it is their job to make sure the speed stays the same regardless of what it is used on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Get a few private trackers and most of these problems are solved ... ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Verizon has targeted youtube in the past. I used to work at verizon for their FIOS (fiber) service. We had customers calling in all the time saying youtube videos would not play. Our official response was that the bandwidth on the peering point was maxed out, and it was the responsibility of the content provider (youtube/google) to upgrade this bandwidth. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[One chart can probably explain this best](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As for youtube, don't fuck with google.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "ISP are most commonly cable providers as well, and what is Netflix to cable providers? That's right...a bitch", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Netflix is big, but the company is to small to fight back. \n\nI imagine hulu isn't big enough to bother with at all. \n\nYouTube is owned by Google. Google would take every ISP, tie them up in fiber, and fuck them to death, all while coming up with cool new products. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Netflix is 30% of traffic I don't understand why Netflix doesn't start threatening Comcast instead. Make streaming impossible for comcast users and tell their customers that they need to switch ISPs.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Look at who owns the companies.. .and you have your answer.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "ELI5: What is op referring to?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Netflix shouldn't be paying anyone for having a good business going. The isps are clearly the problem", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The beauty of it all is really quite stunning when you think about it. You pay your ISP for the bandwidth to watch Netflix. ISPs want more of your money but can't just jack your rates up if there is competition in the market. ISPs also know what percentage of their bandwidth which services occupy, Netflix is easily one of the most bandwidth hungry. Selectively target said external, bandwidth hungry, service and artificially limit it to force a lesser experience on that company's subscriber base on your network. It's likely that in order to placate their subscribers that service will appeal to the ISP in question. The ISP says \"ok, we'll restore QoS for X dollars\". Service provider agrees, on fear of losing a significant chunk of their own paying customers... Circle of life continues and your Netflix rates go up ever so slightly to balance out this and the future dealings of this nature they KNOW are coming.\n\nTerrorism, in business suits.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Follow the money. Hulu is owned, at least in part, by the Hollywood content companies. This means that Time-Warner owns part of it directly, and Comcast hopes to acquire some of those companies in the future. Hulu represents where cable wants to go, with ads even when you pay for the stream and the content provided still calling all the shots. Hulu is very careful about how it offers content to protect the incumbent interests.\n\nYouTube, on the other hand, is not a direct threat to the cable companies existing business. It is not easy to see how it evolves to be one in the short term either. Add to that the fact that it helps sell cable speed upgrades, and Google's deep pockets. Demand more money for YouTube, and Google will accelerate it's fiber plans. The cable companies can't win this fight.\n\nNetflix, on the other hand, is a direct threat to the existing profit model AND is a fight the cable companies might be able to win.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Google already pays ISPs. [_URL_0_]\n\nHoping to speed traffic through an increasingly congested Internet, several big Web companies including Google Inc., Microsoft Corp. and Facebook Inc. are paying major broadband providers for connections to get faster and smoother access to their networks, say people familiar with the matter.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not sure if this was mentioned already, if it was I'm sorry. But think about it this way, most of the major players in America are companies that offer internet AND cable, and it's a pain in the ass to get them to drop either service (it took us about an hour to get Verizon to drop cable from our service). Netflix offers a viable replacement for cable, sure you don't get all the new shows, but I usually wait for the end of a season so that I can just binge on a weekend when I've got nothing to do. Netflix is significantly cheaper than adding cable to your plan, but more importantly, the money you give to Netflix is money that you aren't giving to your provider. More and more people have left their cable plans to switch to a streaming alternative. This is a threat to the income that companies such as Verizon, Comcast, Time Warner Cable, etc. rely on, so if they aren't getting the money from you, they'll get it from somewhere. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Who says they aren't? YouTube has *constantly* had quality and buffering issues, and I'm not convinced it's always YouTube's fault.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Netflix is basically a competitor to cable. If you can't afford the $65 basic cable (Plus box rental, HD access and other) from Comcast you probably have Netflix. Now you're using that $75 internet access Comcast is providing you to binge watch on Netflix instead of watching cable and it's commercials. YouTube has had problems for ages and they are mostly internal. Hulu just plain sucks. They're getting flack from the big guys, just not enough to make news. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are no commercials in Netflix, that's why we watch it more.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hulu is owned partially by NBC who is owned by Comcast.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "_URL_0_\n\n > Hulu is a joint venture of NBCUniversal Television Group (Comcast)\n\nHulu is owned, partially, by Comcast. They want people using it instead of things like Netflix. Why would they throttle their own product?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Youtube is owned by Google. Google owns a lot of fiber, which is used to carry internet's traffic for other, non google services. Through things called \"peering\", as long as the amount of data going one way is roughly equal to the amount going the other way (in other words, I dump into you as much as you give me), neither side pays.\n\nTherefore, youtube's actual bandwidth costs might be close to zero and google's peering relationships protect youtube from being throttled.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Surprised that nobody really tried to answer this, from what I can see.\n\nUltimately, most internet traffic is exchanged between networks in a process called *Peering* at places called *Internet Exchange Points(IXPs)*. ISPs and other networks sign *Peering Agreements* with each other to establish terms and conditions for sharing traffic between networks. \n\nThere are two types of peering: *public*, and *private*:\n\n* Public peering is where a large number of carriers can go to all connect to each other in a 'public forum' manner. Public peering is most often slower for a number of reasons. It can also be used as a backup when the preferred network is down or malfunctioning. \n* Private peering is where two carriers make a peering agreement to establish a connection directly between themselves. Naturally, this allows the parties to agree on acceptable latency and bandwidth. The vast majority of internet traffic is exchanged via private peering. Private peering agreements are normally secretive, and a lot of shady business goes down when negotiating them. For example, providers very frequently and intentionally neglect to upgrade their equipment at an IXP in order to gain the upper hand in peering agreements. They can now claim: \"Look, we'd love to agree to this, but we clearly need more bandwidth at this location, which will cost us money! 0:)\"\n\nSide note: A really cool site to check out if you're so inclined is _URL_0_. You can browse through public and private IXPs, and check out some peering info on a good deal of networks. (you can log in with guest/guest, you only need an account if you want to update the database)\n\nIn order to be able to transfer content quickly and efficiently to everyone everywhere, you're going to need to either peer directly with all the major networks, or partner with third party networks that can exchange traffic on your behalf. The latter is what most companies do-- Netflix, for example, uses Akamai, Limelight, and Level 3 (three very fast \"Content Delivery Networks\") to push its video to customers. Each of those CDNs have extensive peering agreements all over the globe.\n\nNetworks are constantly shifting, with internet routes being modified all the time, and problems arise frequently. Most peering agreements include the stipulation that if problems are found on a network, there will be techs around to investigate and fix it. A tech's ability to fix a problem, however, varies, depending on how well he knows the systems involved. Here's an example of Hulu trying to alleviate some of the pressure from their CDNs-- _URL_2_\n\nWith all that in mind, CDNs and other content providers that are categorized as \"Mostly Outbound\" tend to incur the largest fees for data transfer. In order to vastly reduce the amount of data needed to travel between networks, larger CDNs/content providers will strike agreements with major ISPs to host content caching hardware either inside or directly adjacent to the ISP's own network(both physically and logically). \n\nGoogle's version of this is called \"Google Global Cache\"-- _URL_1_ (very bottom of page)\n\nNetflix's version of this is called \"Open Connect\"-- _URL_4_\n\nYou can see these systems indirectly by watching a YouTube video and checking the address of the streaming server. Sometimes the address of the server may indicate your ISP, eg \"comcast-blah.blah\". If not, if you run a traceroute on the address, you'll find that it barely makes it out of your ISP's network(most of the time, check [here](_URL_5_) for a dry article on why not always).\n\nUp until a few days ago, Comcast refused, for whatever reason, to sign on to Netflix's Open Connect. They recently struck an agreement, though. I imagine that this is in part due to the recent ~~Supreme~~ Court ruling allowing ISPs to throttle any traffic they deem unworthy-- Netflix I'm sure had to pony up a few more coins to strike the agreement now. Another motivating factor was that Netflix, which was opposed to the ruling, would also be opposed to the Comcast acquisition of Time Warner Cable. Now that they have an \"in\" with Comcast, however, they are likely to be far less vocal about it.\n\nEdit: Appeals court, not supreme court. Here's the info for anyone interested or incredibly bored: _URL_3_\n\nEdit: Oh, gold! Thanks random person! Alchemy lives after all.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1. Hulu isn't shit compared to the other two.\n2. Fucking with Google is like kicking a pit bull. No matter what happens, you're going to be a mess.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It is **NOT** because of **TRAFFIC**. Major Hollywood studios and major ISPS are the *same* companies. Time Warner owns Time Warner Cable and Warner Bros. NBC Universal is owned by Comcast. At the very least, most major studios and major ISPs are invested in each other.\n\nNetflix is independent, though. It's a **major** independent studio creating original content that requires **NO** middleman or distributor. Mass market distribution was how Hollywood basically monopolized entertainment and media in the entire 20th century.\n\nWith the internet and streaming and pirating, mass market distribution became inefficient, bloated, and useless. The parent companies of the major ISP/media/appliance/distribution/etc. conglomerates want to ensure that companies like Netflix don't threaten their monopolies.\n\nThe only way to do that is to strongarm them. \n\nThey can't strongarm Youtube (Google), because Google is too powerful and will strongarm them back. They won't strongarm Hulu, because they already own Hulu.\n\nEdit: In fact, it has **NOTHING** to do with any sort of traffic, ISP, or bandwidth issue. It is only about \"intellectual property\" control.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm pretty sure ISPs *are* targeting Youtube at least. I'm in Hawaii with Time Warner and Youtube videos at 1080p are hit or miss. If I go to a Youtube proxy website and watch the same video it's silky-buttery-smooth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Oh man, if ISPs fuck with youtube; Google will unleash hell upon them. Google is a very dangerous company, and has the money as well as resources to take down any company in their way. In other words, tread carefully ISPs.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because Google is the [Lizard King](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Major Carriers(ISPs) have agreements to connect their Networks together. These agreements and their connections are what make up the internet.\n\nNetflix pays for their Internet Service to one Carrier (Cogent I think). Cogent has it's peering agreements with other major carriers. These agreements assume that traffic is going to be pretty close to even between the networks.\n\nWhen Congestion occurs between major carriers they sometimes can agree to upgrade or improve the bandwidth between their service. Netflix however has had a large impact thus creating situations where these agreements are not balanced. While Netflix's ISP might want to improve bandwidth (No idea if true); the other carriers might not want to spend the money to resolve a problem that is the result of an unbalanced peering agreement.\n\nNetflix's solution is to offer \"Free\" access to their CDN (Content Delivery Network?) to any ISP provided they connect to one of Netflix's connection points. The major ISPs however view this as giving Netflix a free Internet Connection for the purpose of improving the quality of service that Netflix provides to Netflix's customers (Who happen to be customers of the ISP as well).\n\nGoogle on the other hand probably uses a more robust infrastructure by paying for services to multiple carriers to insure the best quality connections possible. Thinking of it as a Web... Netflix probably has a few strands connecting its CDN to the internet to insure the lowest cost for all the bandwidth they consume. Google on the other hand probably has a massive number of strands to insure the robust infrastructure.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm probably late to the game, but it has a lot to do with CDNs. Netflix went with the cheapest vendor (Cogent) who tried to use free peering agreements to push huge amounts of asymetric traffic over congested link. Other video providers often use \"real\" CDNs to move their content or pay to host their content on ISP server racks (like Netflix just agreed to do with Comcast this weekend).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They are targeting YouTube, Hulu, Pirating services and many more. ISP's are evil.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Netflix was the first company to openly challenge them](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because they want to sell you cable TV service too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Can someone explain to me why there seems to be few ISP choices in the US? \n\nHere in Portugal, in late 90's, the communications market was pretty stagnant until the national company was made to allow the infrastructure to be used by other companies. After that competition created not only options, but a much more advanced infrastructure(fiber internet is common in households).\n\nIs it a problem with the infrastructures being privately owned by companies that then hold the monopoly?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Customers pay for upload speeds as well as download, the same goes for content providers on the web. Nothing new here, except Netflix made complaining about their internet bill a news story. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Google(aka Youtube, since they were bought out) can crush ISPs, Netflix also seems more popular than Hulu. I saw a post somewhere that described exactly why ISPs were angry about Netflix.\n\nISPs share their ingoing and outgoing connections with other ISPs, instead of charging for access, to each other all the time, they agreed to share, allowing traffic to flow between with no charge. Both sides gain free access to the other ISPs 'internet highways' in return the other IPSs do the same. \n\nBut with major websites that require a ton of one-way bandwidth/traffic on these highways, only one party gets the all the benefits (like Netflix), while the other do not. The road gets damage, and cost more to maintain, and more lanes put in place to support the traffic, so they have to pay more, and get little in return. So ISPs are ending the agreement, and limiting/throttling traffic. \n\nBUT they also target Google, which you never hear about, maybe now you'll understand why youtube seems slow sometimes. But for some reason ISPs are targeting Netflix directly and more heavily, I believe the cause is that major ISPs are also cable/entertainment companies, and compete with Netflix more directly than youtube. No ISP would dare to fight against Google since they are so large, and since they do not directly compete with them in this repect. But Google is also being throttled and Google fighting back by rating ISPs performance on Youtube, to further prove it is infact the ISPs who are causing loading issues, and not Google/Youtube being the problems themselves.\n\nEdit: Google is also fighting back in other ways, such as Google Fiber, offering VERY VERY fast internet speeds, at a fraction of the price of 'traditional' ISPs. It is an on-going fight, that I'm sure will last a long time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In addition to the other great responses already brought up in this thread, Netflix is drying up the amount of cable subscriptions like there's no tomorrow, and the vast percentage of ISPs are also cable providers. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because Netflix threatened to fight back", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They aren't only targeting Netflix, it's just made headlines because of its market share on streaming. Before I switched to Uverse, my Time Warner Cable internet actually throttled Youtube so much that I often wouldn't have enough bandwidth to load videos, especially not high quality ones. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Comcast owns Hulu, BTW.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Netflix is just the beginning folks. Things is gonna get ugly out there.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hulu is for filthy sluts", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because you dont fuck with Google. If you fuck with google, Google Fiber just starts coming to all of your major profit areas. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Time Warner and Comcast Merger currently being examined by the justice department and FCC is scary. Comcast will have no reason to expand to fiber network over the coming years because it can reap the benefits of controlling such a large portion of the market. It stands to reason that Netflix, to stay competitive, will have to work with whatever Comcast is willing to offer. Netflix already takes up about 30% of internet traffic on a limited network.\n\n \"If the government approves this deal, Comcast will operate in 43 of the 50 largest metropolitan markets, and will have about 30 percent of the national pay television subscribers and about one-third of all broadband Internet subscribers.\"-New York Times", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "because youtube is google and nobody fucks with google.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "454995", "title": "Deep packet inspection", "section": "Section::::At network/Internet service providers.:Targeted advertising.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 669, "text": "Because ISPs route the traffic of all of their customers, they are able to monitor web-browsing habits in a very detailed way allowing them to gain information about their customers' interests, which can be used by companies specializing in targeted advertising. At least 100,000 United States customers are tracked this way, and as many as 10% of U.S. customers have been tracked in this way. Technology providers include NebuAd, Front Porch, and Phorm. U.S. ISPs monitoring their customers include Knology and Wide Open West. In addition, the United Kingdom ISP British Telecom has admitted testing solutions from Phorm without their customers' knowledge or consent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53634810", "title": "2017 Broadband Consumer Privacy Proposal repeal", "section": "Section::::Management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 635, "text": "Consumers may switch to ISPs with better privacy protections. However this could be difficult for some as many Americans only have a choice of one or two broadband companies in their area according to federal statistics. Senator Ron Wyden states that thus their only choice may be between \"giving up their browsing history for an Internet provider to sell to the highest bidder or having no Internet at all\". Furthermore, the existence of such ISPs is not guaranteed and Jeremy Gillula, a senior staff technologist at the Electronic Frontier Foundation notes that it's \"unclear if they would even have to tell you they were doing it\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1590120", "title": "Children's Internet Protection Act", "section": "Section::::Stipulations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 307, "text": "CIPA requires schools monitor minors' Internet use, but does not require tracking by libraries. All Internet access, even by adults, must be filtered, though filtering requirements can be less restrictive for adults (filtering obscene and pornographic material but not other \"harmful to minors\" materials).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50276542", "title": "Criticism of Netflix", "section": "Section::::Circumvention of geoblocking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 897, "text": "More than 30 million Netflix subscribers use the service via a proxy server or virtual private network (VPN); doing so can make a user appear to be located in a country other than the one they are actually in, thus allowing them to use the service to access content that Netflix does not offer in their region, due to geographical licensing restrictions. It is unclear whether accessing geo-blocked content via VPN violates local copyright laws, but content providers and other broadcasters have asserted that it is illegal because it infringes local rights to content that may have been sold to a competitor. GlobalWebIndex showed about 20 million of such VPN users came from China alone. As of November 2013, Canadian Netflix offered 3,600 titles compared to the U.S. service which had more than 10,000 which results in Canadians using VPNs so they can access the larger U.S. content selection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39647703", "title": "VPN blocking", "section": "Section::::VPN blocking by online services.:Netflix.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 913, "text": "Netflix came under pressure from major film studios in September 2014 to block VPN access, as up to 200,000 Australian subscribers were using Netflix despite it not being available yet in Australia. VPN access for Netflix has, like other streaming services, allowed users to view content more securely or while out of the country. Netflix users have also used VPNs as a means of bypassing throttling efforts made by service providers such as Verizon. It is also important to note that all VPNs might slow internet connection when trying to stream Netflix; however, there are cases where using a VPN might improve your connection if your ISP has been throttling Netflix traffic. As of June, 2018 the Netflix VPN and proxy ban is still active. The CEO of Netflix, Reed Hastings made a comment in 2016 about the VPN market as a whole; “It’s a very small but quite vocal minority. It’s really inconsequential to us.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27580000", "title": "Libvpx", "section": "Section::::Usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 280, "text": "libvpx is used by major OTT video services including YouTube, Netflix, Amazon, JW Player, Brightcove, and Telestream, among which are the biggest sources of internet traffic with Netflix alone accounting for nearly a third of all internet traffic in the United States as of 2017.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12837703", "title": "Internet in Finland", "section": "Section::::Censorship.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 426, "text": "Some ISPs are using a voluntary child pornography censorship list administered by the police. The list has been criticised because it has contained legal adult content, that little has been done to actually shut down the illegal websites and, as the list is secret, it can be used for any censorship. More recently, a government-sponsored report has considered establishing similar filtering in order to curb online gambling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Food isn't all used as energy. Fat has more calories than carbs, and protein has similar calories as carbs. But fat and protein are used by your body to build and repair tissues, fat is also used to build a lot of hormones. Carbs don't have much function other than energy, so if you don't use it as energy it is stored as glycogen or body fat. Carbs cause your body to produce insulin, a hormone that promotes energy storage (required to remove the excess carbs from your blood).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "According to the research the safest and the most effective diets are ketogenic. A ketogenic diets tricks your body into the state where it exclusively burns fats (and some protein) and generates the glucose needed from them. \n\nThere are many reasons why such diets work better than others. There is so called metabolic advantage. Running body on fats is expensive in terms of energy, converting fat and proteins to glucose and ketone bodies is wasteful. But that is what you want, you want to burn more energy.\n\nThere are fewer cravings because your body has a constant supply of energy from the extra fat you bring around. No need for snacks.\n\nThere are less opportunities to snack and overeat. The carbs are cheap. Food industry loves to feed them to you. If you do not eat carbs, you have to pass all the cheap temptations designed to make you eat more.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes! Finally something I can answer. I am sad at the amount of misinformation and incorrect things written below. This may get a touch long, but I'll do my best.\n\nLosing weight is most certainly about calorie balance. If you burn more than you eat, you will lose weight. Where the weight comes from depends on a few other factors that aren't really relevant to the question. \n\nLow-carbohydrate diets have been getting increasingly popular in the media and around the diet fringe. I think some reasons are good, and some are outright bullshit (I'm looking at you Gary Taubes, you fucking asshole). In my opinion, below is why low carbohydrate diets work well FOR SOME. I am using the caps qualifier because some people, no matter how \"correctly\" they follow the diet, never adapt to low carbohydrates. They feel mentally fuzzy, lethargic, etc. These side effects go away for most after your body makes an adaptation about 3 weeks into eating low carbs.\n\n1.) When you remove and entire section of people's diet, they tend to eat less automatically. Think about this for a moment: if I told you not to eat any bread, pasta, rice, oatmeal, cereal, etc, then you would automatically decrease your caloric intake because there simply is a lot less types of foods to eat. \n\n2.) Building on point 1, when people are given a lot less choices, they'll start adding in low calorie, high bulk vegetables. These people finally start getting necessary vitamins and minerals that they've long neglected. They feel full much sooner because of the bulk of the food and the fiber it contains. They start making better food choices regarding healthy fats (nuts, oils, etc). Fiber is extremely important and it makes you feel full by forming a \"clot\" in your stomach, slowing digestion.\n\n3.) Protein is the most hunger-blunting nutrient. It's been observed time and time again in various scientific studies, and it's pretty clear at this point. More specifically, you will feel full much sooner eating lots of lean protein than an eu-caloric amount of rice. Also, protein has a nice effect of stabilizing blood sugar, which prevents crashes and sugar cravings. It also has the highest TEF of the three macronutrients (see below) A concrete example is that rice and chicken would be far less satiating than steak and broccoli. This brings me to the next point...\n\n4.) On low-carbohydrate diets, fat content in the diet goes up. Starting at tag-along fats in the meat and cheese to explicit fat in oils, fat is a stable of a typical low-carbohydrate meal. Fat has this interesting thing in that it slows gastric emptying. At this point, most people are familiar with the GI scale, which is a measure of how fast carbohydrates are digested when eaten alone. The thing people leave out is that when you add fat to meals, the GI goes to the wayside because the fat keeps food in your stomach longer. Remember foods that stick to your ribs? That's where the expression comes from. \n\nSo in conclusion, a low(ered) carbohydrate diet works FOR SOME for the reasons above. The average (read:non-exercising) person doesn't burn many carbohydrates on a daily basis so there is less need for them. However, an athlete (think cyclist or weight trainer) is generally ill-advised to follow low carbohydrate diets because they need to replenish the carbs burned during training.\n\nAs a side note: If you search the national registry for weight loss, a few trends are common among people who have lost weight and kept it off: They exercise regularly, they keep some kind of tabs on their weight/fat, and they have some form of portion control. The majority of people have succeeded with low-fat, high carbohydrate diets in the long term but there have recently been a few who have succeeded with low carbs. Also, the majority of competitive bodybuilders, who are the leanest athletes of them all (at least for one day of the year), have gotten shredded on high-carb diets. So both low and high carb diets can and do work, as long as there is a deficit. \n\nAs a little bit of a bonus, this is how the energy balance equation goes:\nFood = RMR + TEA + TEF + NEAT or Energy In = Energy Out\n\nRMR = Resting Metabolic Rate. This is the amount of calories your body burns at rest, just maintaining itself. So if you were to lay in bed all day, you'd still burn this many calories. You can find fairly accurate estimate formulas online. \n\nTEA = Thermic Effect of Activity. This is the amount of calories you burn in formal exercise.\n\nTEF = Thermic Effect of Food. This is the amount of calories your body burns digesting food. Sort of paradoxically, it takes a portion of the calories you consume to digest food. Approximate values are: Protein: 25-30% of ingested calories. Carbohydrate: 10%. Fat: 3%. \n\nNEAT: Non-Exercise Activity Thermogenesis. This is the amount of calories your body burns through any movement that isn't formal exercise. Think of this as brushing your teeth, tapping your foot, etc. It actually can add up to a lot at the end of the day, especially for naturally lean people. \n\nEDIT: To answer your follow up question regarding starving yourself; It really depends on starting body fat percentage. VERY Oobese individuals have been fasted up to a year (362 days, IIRC) with no ill effect. Very simplistically, if you have a lot of stored energy (fat), your body will use that before going for the reserve funds (protein, muscle). Another look into this is the Minnesota Starvation Experiment. [Wikipedia] (_URL_1_) it and read, it's very interesting. Basically, they took some war-objectors and (semi)starved them down to the lower limits of human body fat. Then, in the second phase, they refed them with different macronutrient profiles and calorie levels. The purpose of the experiment (conducted by Dr. Ancel Keys) was to learn how to refeed Jews in the concentration camps and warsaw ghettos. \n\nEDIT 2: I learned most of everything I know from Lyle Mcdonald's [website] (_URL_0_). Almost every single question you have about fat loss, nutrition, muscle growth, etc is found at his site. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "84121", "title": "Atkins diet", "section": "Section::::Proposed mechanism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 855, "text": "In his early books such as \"Dr Atkins' New Diet Revolution\", Atkins made the controversial argument that the low-carbohydrate diet produces a metabolic advantage because \"burning fat takes more calories so you expend more calories\"; the Atkins diet was claimed to be \"a high calorie way to stay thin forever\". He cited one study in which he estimated this advantage to be 950 Calories (4.0 MJ) per day. A review study published in \"Lancet\" concluded that there was no such metabolic advantage and dieters were simply eating fewer calories. Astrup stated, \"The monotony and simplicity of the diet could inhibit appetite and food intake.\" David L. Katz has characterized Atkins' claim as nonsense. The idea of \"metabolic advantage\" of low-carbohydrate dieting has been falsified by experiment in a study of people following restricted-carbohydrate dieting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30427958", "title": "Why We Get Fat", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 900, "text": "Analyzing anthropological evidence and modern scientific literature, Taubes contends that the common “calories in, calories out” model of why we get fat is overly simplistic and misleading because it ignores the multiple complex physiological responses to different foods. It is a more powerful issue than just the calories which would be released as heat by burning the food in a lab calorimeter. Instead, Taubes notes the advantages of a low carbohydrate diet. He argues that the consumption of carbohydrates drives the body to release insulin, which in turn can lead to insulin resistance (and diabetes) over time. Taubes also asserts that the consumption of carbohydrates leads the body to store excess energy in fat cells, but that reducing dietary intake of carbohydrates results in the body entering ketosis. In this state, the body breaks down fat (triglycerides) in order to fuel the brain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "459560", "title": "Low-carbohydrate diet", "section": "Section::::Adoption and advocacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 536, "text": "Carbohydrate has been wrongly accused of being a uniquely \"fattening\" macronutrient, misleading many dieters into compromising the nutritiousness of their diet by eliminating carbohydrate-rich food. Low-carbohydrate diet proponents emphasize research saying that low-carbohydrate diets can initially cause slightly greater weight loss than a balanced diet, but some studies suggest that such an advantage does not persist. In the long-term successful weight maintenance is determined by calorie intake, and not by macronutrient ratios.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "459560", "title": "Low-carbohydrate diet", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 485, "text": "Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective, or marginally more effective, than low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss in the short term. In the long term, effective weight maintenance depends on calorie restriction, not the ratio of macronutrients in a diet. The hypothesis proposed by diet advocates that carbohydrate causes undue fat accumulation via the medium of insulin, and that low-carbohydrate diets have a \"metabolic advantage\", has been falsified by experiment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "459560", "title": "Low-carbohydrate diet", "section": "Section::::Definition and classification.:Foodstuffs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 446, "text": "There is evidence that the quality, rather than the quantity, of carbohydrate in a diet is important for health, and that high-fiber slow-digesting carbohydrate-rich foods are healthful while highly-refined and sugary foods are less so. People choosing diet for health conditions should have their diet tailored to their individual requirements. For people with metabolic conditions, a diet with approximately 40-50% carbohydrate is recommended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5932", "title": "Carbohydrate", "section": "Section::::Nutrition.:Health effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 938, "text": "Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective as low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss over the short term when overall calorie intake is reduced. An Endocrine Society scientific statement said that \"when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet.\" In the long term, effective weight loss or maintenance depends on calorie restriction, not the ratio of macronutrients in a diet. The reasoning of diet advocates that carbohydrates cause undue fat accumulation by increasing blood insulin levels, and that low-carbohydrate diets have a \"metabolic advantage\", is not supported by clinical evidence. Further, it is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting affects cardiovascular health, although two reviews showed that carbohydrate restriction may improve lipid markers of cardiovascular disease risk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41120920", "title": "Central nervous system fatigue", "section": "Section::::Manipulation.:Carbohydrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 852, "text": "Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in organisms for metabolism. They are an important source of fuel in exercise. A study conducted by the Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Human Health at Massey University investigated the effect of consuming a carbohydrate and electrolyte solution on muscle glycogen use and running capacity on subjects that were on a high carbohydrate diet. The group that consumed the carbohydrate and electrolyte solution before and during exercise experienced greater endurance capacity. This could not be explained by the varying levels of muscle glycogen; however, higher plasma glucose concentration may have led to this result. Dr. Stephen Bailey posits that the central nervous system can sense the influx of carbohydrates and reduces the perceived effort of the exercise, allowing for greater endurance capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I work in a department of meteoriticists and proposed this question to them, because a lot of the meteorites they study come from Antarctica.\n\nSo, I asked if there was a bias towards meteorites falling near the poles, or was it just because they're easier to find in Antarctica. \n\nIn theory there is a greater chance of a meteorite on the side of the Earth facing 'forwards' as we move through clouds of material that cause the meteor showers, but as the clouds are big and the Earth spins relatively fast so it might not make that much difference.\n\nUltimately, the sample size of where we find meteorites isn't big enough to work out if there's a trend in location. Given that a lot will just fall in the sea and that it's easier to find meteorites in deserts or snow/icefields, our statistics will always be skewed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "47362739", "title": "Desert Fireball Network", "section": "Section::::Science of Fireball Tracking.:What can we learn from meteorites?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 448, "text": "Impact science also benefits from the delivery of meteorites. The Earth has been struck by large impacts in there past e.g. Chicxulub crater, and the materials left behind and the effect on the ground improves impact modeling predictions. The effects on Earth can also be used to understand similar patterns that have been observed on other planets, creating a wealth of understanding of impact cratering on different planets and planetary bodies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63794", "title": "Impact event", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 657, "text": "An impact event is a collision between astronomical objects causing measurable effects. Impact events have physical consequences and have been found to regularly occur in planetary systems, though the most frequent involve asteroids, comets or meteoroids and have minimal effect. When large objects impact terrestrial planets such as the Earth, there can be significant physical and biospheric consequences, though atmospheres mitigate many surface impacts through atmospheric entry. Impact craters and structures are dominant landforms on many of the Solar System's solid objects and present the strongest empirical evidence for their frequency and scale.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19937", "title": "Meteorite", "section": "Section::::Fall phenomena.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1501, "text": "Large meteoroids may strike the earth with a significant fraction of their escape velocity (second cosmic velocity), leaving behind a hypervelocity impact crater. The kind of crater will depend on the size, composition, degree of fragmentation, and incoming angle of the impactor. The force of such collisions has the potential to cause widespread destruction. The most frequent hypervelocity cratering events on the Earth are caused by iron meteoroids, which are most easily able to transit the atmosphere intact. Examples of craters caused by iron meteoroids include Barringer Meteor Crater, Odessa Meteor Crater, Wabar craters, and Wolfe Creek crater; iron meteorites are found in association with all of these craters. In contrast, even relatively large stony or icy bodies like small comets or asteroids, up to millions of tons, are disrupted in the atmosphere, and do not make impact craters. Although such disruption events are uncommon, they can cause a considerable concussion to occur; the famed Tunguska event probably resulted from such an incident. Very large stony objects, hundreds of meters in diameter or more, weighing tens of millions of tons or more, can reach the surface and cause large craters, but are very rare. Such events are generally so energetic that the impactor is completely destroyed, leaving no meteorites. (The very first example of a stony meteorite found in association with a large impact crater, the Morokweng crater in South Africa, was reported in May 2006.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "954128", "title": "Lucifer's Hammer", "section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 611, "text": "Despite the scientific community repeatedly assuring the public that a collision with Earth is extremely unlikely, pieces of the comet's nucleus impact across the western hemisphere with devastating results. The strikes on parts of Europe, Africa, the Gulf of Mexico, and both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans set off volcanoes, destabilize fault lines, including the San Andreas fault, and cause tsunamis thousands of meters high, destroying major coastal cities around the world, killing billions and initiating long-term climate problems due to the massive quantities of vaporized seawater in the atmosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63793", "title": "Meteoroid", "section": "Section::::Meteorites.:Impact craters.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 836, "text": "Meteoroid collisions with solid Solar System objects, including the Moon, Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede, and most small moons and asteroids, create impact craters, which are the dominant geographic features of many of those objects. On other planets and moons with active surface geological processes, such as Earth, Venus, Mars, Europa, Io, and Titan, visible impact craters may become eroded, buried, or transformed by tectonics over time. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth. Molten terrestrial material ejected from a meteorite impact crater can cool and solidify into an object known as a tektite. These are often mistaken for meteorites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "174069", "title": "Asteroid impact avoidance", "section": "Section::::Deflection efforts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 576, "text": "An impact by a asteroid on the Earth has historically caused an extinction-level event due to catastrophic damage to the biosphere. There is also the threat from comets entering the inner Solar System. The impact speed of a long-period comet would likely be several times greater than that of a near-Earth asteroid, making its impact much more destructive; in addition, the warning time is unlikely to be more than a few months. Impacts from objects as small as in diameter, which are far more common, are historically extremely destructive regionally (see Barringer crater).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33903903", "title": "Orbital effects on climate", "section": "Section::::External/Celestial forces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 1170, "text": "There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth's climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming meteorites and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young's paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth's surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of sun activity, including sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and massive solar radiation, can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth's climate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Any kind of circulation will make you feel cooler.\n\nThe reason you sweat is to expel heat from your body. As it evaporates, it takes the heat with it. The problem is when it is too humid in your immediate vicinity and the sweat can't evaporate in a reasonable amount of time.\n\nWhen the air in the room you are in is moving, there is a constant supply of fresh air moving past you, allowing the sweat from your body a constant chance to evaporate.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That's also why most ceiling fans have a switch to change directions. One pushes air down and one pulls air up and out towards the edges of the room. 2 different types of circulation so one of them has to work. Lol", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Any wind cools you down if the air is lower than your body.\nIf the air is cooler than you, any contact between you and the air will make heat go from your body to the air. Wind only increases how much air touches you, and so, it increases the amount of heat you transfer to cooler air, therefore cooling you down faster.\n\nEDIT: \nYes this means that if the air is hotter than your body, wind will actually heat you up more than if there was no wind. So wind doesn't cool you down by itself. It only cools you down if it's air colder than you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "All these people are right; a fan relies on the principles of wind chill, more or less as explained:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nbut additionally: Turning on the fan wips up all the air in a room turbulently, mixing the relatively cold air near the floor with the warm air up top, which can make the median temperature (the most common temperature in the room) closer to a comfortable average.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are two effects going on. \n\nOne is that you can change the direction a ceiling fan blows to either blow hot air down at you or pull cool air up to move around the ceiling. Regardless, though, what you are doing is evening out the room temperature by mixing hot and cold air together.\n\nThe second effect is that your body cools by three methods: conduction (you touching cold water or hot metal), radiation (heat just floating away from your body and slowly heating the air around you), and convection (air moving past your body to transfer your body heat to the air then move that hot air away). A fan works on convection to cool you down, but only if the air is cooler than 98 deg F.\n\nNow, in winter you might want that hot air on the ceiling to mix with the cold air below to raise the temp near your body, but you don't want the convection from the wind to cool you down. This is when you change the direction of the fan to circulate air but not blow on you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6843398", "title": "Convection heater", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 408, "text": "Due to the rising warm air from convector heaters, warm air may accumulate at the ceiling of the room. Therefore, convector heaters are often paired with ceiling fans, especially in rooms with tall ceilings. In the winter, setting a fan to turn clockwise will allow for more air circulation and will keep heat from rising completely, making the room feel warmer and allowing one to turn down the thermostat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32173050", "title": "High-volume low-speed fan", "section": "Section::::Heating and cooling benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 395, "text": "Unlike air conditioners, which cool rooms, fans cool people. Ceiling fans increase air speed at the occupant level, which facilitates more efficient heat rejection, cooling the occupant, rather than the space. Elevated air speed increases the rate of convective and evaporative heat loss from the body, thus making the occupant feel cooler without changing the dry bulb temperature of the air. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57169", "title": "Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning", "section": "Section::::Ventilation.:Mechanical or forced ventilation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 342, "text": "Ceiling fans and table/floor fans circulate air within a room for the purpose of reducing the perceived temperature by increasing evaporation of perspiration on the skin of the occupants. Because hot air rises, ceiling fans may be used to keep a room warmer in the winter by circulating the warm stratified air from the ceiling to the floor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "881901", "title": "Ceiling fan", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1275, "text": "For heating, ceiling fans should usually be set to turn the opposite direction (usually clockwise; the blades should spin with the downward turned side leading) and on a low speed (or the lowest speed the fan is able to circulate the air down to the floor). Air naturally stratifies—that is, warmer air rises to the ceiling while cooler air sinks. Unfortunately, this means it is colder on or near the floor where human beings spend most of their time. A ceiling fan, with its direction of rotation set so that air is drawn upward, pulls up the colder air below, forcing the warmer air nearer the ceiling to move down to take its place, without blowing a stream of air directly at the occupants of the room. This action works to even out the temperature in the room, making it cooler nearer the ceiling, but warmer nearer the floor. Thus the thermostat in the area can be set a few degrees lower to save energy, while maintaining the same level of comfort. It is important to run the fan at a low speed (or a lowest speed the fan is able to circulate the air down to the floor) to minimize the wind chill effect described above. However if the ceiling is high enough, or the lowest speed downdraft would not create wind chill effect, it can be left on downdraft year around.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39308049", "title": "ENERPOS", "section": "Section::::Principles and features.:Natural cross ventilation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 532, "text": "Finally, large ceiling fans are installed in every room, even those using air conditioning. Ceiling fans ensure that even in the absence of the necessary breezes, the airflow needed to feel comfortable in the room is provided for the users. This solution significantly reduces the amount of energy consumed. The overall consumption of the ceiling fans and the split system (the latter used to cool the technical rooms) is only 3.7kWh/m².yr compared to a classic air conditioning system in a standard building consuming 80kWh/m².yr.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "881901", "title": "Ceiling fan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 861, "text": "A ceiling fan is a mechanical fan mounted on the ceiling of a room or space, usually electrically powered, suspended from the ceiling of a room, that uses hub-mounted rotating blades to circulate air. Ceiling fans typically rotate more slowly than other types of circulating fans, such as electric desk fans. They cool people effectively by introducing slow movement into the otherwise still, hot air of a room. Fans never actually cool air, unlike air-conditioning equipment, they in fact heat the air due to the waste heat from the motor and friction, but use significantly less power (cooling air is thermodynamically expensive). Conversely, a ceiling fan can also be used to reduce the stratification of warm air in a room by forcing it down to affect both occupants' sensations and thermostat readings, thereby improving climate control energy efficiency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "881901", "title": "Ceiling fan", "section": "Section::::Configurations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 483, "text": "BULLET::::- A hugger or low profile ceiling fan is usually installed on a low ceiling. They can also be used in rooms with vaulted ceilings when installed on the joist. In cold climates, a ceiling fan may disperse heat to warm up the room as well by dispersing downwards the warm air that rises to the ceiling surface. Though the ceiling fan cannot lower room temperatures, when used in tandem with a room air-conditioner it may be able to disperse the cool air all around the room.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "An ant can survive a fall from any height. You could drop one out of an airplane, and it would survive the impact. The ant is fine because it is so light. It isn't the hitting the ground that kills you, it's your own mass that crushes you after hitting the ground.\n\nThe formula for force is: F = M * A . Force is equal to Mass times Acceleration. Mass is proportional to force. Increasing your mass increases the force that you will experience when landing. Decreasing your mass will decrease the force you experience.\n\nWhen landing from a fall off of a tree, the squirrel is fine because he is experiencing a much smaller force than you would, because he has much less mass.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1862100", "title": "The Oaken Throne", "section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 244, "text": "As the squirrels march deeper into the forest, they encounter a bat, whom they soon discover is no more than a child. It is Vesper, who has secretly left his home to try to participate in the battle. The squirrels force him to march with them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3198630", "title": "Porky Chops", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 898, "text": "The squirrel is reading a newspaper, but he hears a sawing noise, looks outside, and sees Porky sawing the tree down. The squirrel pulls the saw to a smaller tree, and when Porky tries to saw back, he is sandwiched through the crack and launched in the air, landing in a pond. Porky then chases the squirrel up the tree, but is stopped by a limb placed by the squirrel, who then cuts the pig's suspenders making him fall. Almost immediately after, Porky is on the other side of the tree with a shotgun, and fires. He shoots the branch he's standing on, while the squirrel runs inside and hands him a fruit basket. Porky then falls due to the weight of the basket. The squirrel then runs down with a mattress, but intentionally places it next to where Porky ends up crashing. Porky is disoriented, and the squirrel squeezes two bananas he's holding in his face, giving him a funny-looking mustache.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17133959", "title": "List of Toad Patrol characters", "section": "Section::::Supporting characters and villains.:Lilac and Alstroemaria.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 286, "text": "Two female, boisterous, spoiled, flying squirrels. They tell the Toadlets that they should be on the ground, never in their tree. but they encounter the Toadlets again when they tried to eat an extravagant woodpecker's acorn-infested tree, but were scared away by a Slothful Porcupine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "420732", "title": "Ground squirrel", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 316, "text": "The ground squirrel is especially renowned for its tendency to rise up on its hind legs, usually whenever it senses nearby danger, or when it must see over tall grasses. The squirrel then curls its paws flat against its chest and sends a screeching call to warn other family members about the presence of predators.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9561470", "title": "Soft ontology", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 554, "text": "The corpus of the dispute was a squirrel--a live squirrel supposed to be clinging to one side of a tree-trunk; while over against the tree's opposite side a human being was imagined to stand. This human witness tries to get sight of the squirrel by moving rapidly round the tree, but no matter how fast he goes, the squirrel moves as fast in the opposite direction, and always keeps the tree between himself and the man, so that never a glimpse of him is caught. The resultant metaphysical problem now is this: DOES THE MAN GO ROUND THE SQUIRREL OR NOT?\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18724245", "title": "Now That Summer is Gone", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1181, "text": "Devastated, the squirrel is entirely out of luck and now out of the entire supply of winter nuts. By the time the snow starts falling, the foolish squirrel heads back home without any nuts or any luck in telling his father the truth. So, as soon as he enters his home, he decides to make up a lie and tells his father that he has been robbed by bandits, jumped and badly attacked by them. However, his lying ends very quickly and he goes too far when he discovers that the stranger who won the nuts from him is none other than his \"own\" father, who did it to teach his gambling son a lesson for deliberately disobeying him. In spite of this, the lesson, however, does not work. When the disgruntled father concludes that he will give his son ten lashes, and before the young squirrel has a chance to run out the door, he is caught by the tail by his enraged father. As the disgruntled father gets his lashing weapon (a plank) ready, his son tells him that \"he'll flip him for it, double or nothing,\" but his father doesn't believe him. As the cartoon irises out and the \"That's All Folks!\" ending appears, the foolish squirrel is seen/heard getting lashes from his enraged father.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2221389", "title": "Solid Serenade", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 466, "text": "Tom ducks as Spike's teeth come at him, which instead get lodged in a tree trunk. Tom then barely avoids getting his tail bitten and hides behind a wall, holding a brick up ready to attack. Spike sees the brick and investigates, but gets knocked on the head with it. Jerry revives Spike by hitting him with a wooden plank on his rear end. After slamming Spike, Spike leaps high in the air screaming in pain just as Jerry hands off the board to Tom, framing the cat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Certainly.\n\nThis fear was such, that, early on, a non-intervention agreement was signed by many European countries in August of 1936, which created the aptly named Non-Intervention Committee. The most vocal parties for non-interventionism were the French and British. While Italy and Germany were on the committee, they openly flaunted the agreement and guidelines, sending volunteers, aircraft, tanks, and material to Franco's Falangists. The USSR was also on the committee, and it to, ignored the prescription of non-interventionism, sending military aid to the republicans. \n\nBritain and France did, on the whole remain loyal to their pledge of non-interventionism, though France covertly donated planes and specialists to the Republicans.\n\nSo yes, the conflict was met with a fear of it spiraling into a wider war, and while on paper, the major European powers pledged non-interventionism, many of these broke it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To expand somewhat on the previous answer, I think this is one of those questions where it is really important to stop for a moment and think about whose perspective we are thinking about.\n\nThere was certainly concern on the part of the British Government that a proxy war in Spain might lead to a broader conflict between fascist and democratic powers. This led to their proposed solution of Non-Intervention, which they were able to persuade the other major European powers to agree to (but not, as mentioned previously, to stick to). This raises another interesting question though – in breaking the Non-Intervention Pact, did Hitler or Mussolini think they were risking a wider war? Would they have been willing to push intervention so far in the face of determined opposition? This starts to get into speculative territory, but it’s worth noting that depending on which European government’s perspective you take, the degree of ‘fear’ was rather different.\n\nTo my mind, the question gets even more interesting when we consider the problem not just from the perspective of governments, but their citizens. In Britain, whose government was Non-Intervention’s most ardent supporter, the Republican side was considerably more popular than the Nationalists, and there was considerable opposition to Non-Intervention, and a great deal of political and fundraising activity in support of the Republic. Aid Spain, as it became known, was probably the largest sustained international solidarity campaign in modern British history, raising the contemporary equivalent of tens of millions of pounds for the Republic. Most famously, about 2,300 volunteers left Britain to fight in the International Brigades (who in turn were made up of about 35,000 mostly European volunteers) – clearly, these individuals did not fear the potential breakdown of peace as a result of their actions. In fact, they and their supporters saw the debate differently – that by allowing the Spanish Republic to be defeated, fascism would only be strengthened and emboldened, making a European war all the more likely. Many British International Brigade volunteers, both at the time and ever since, claimed that they went to prevent the Second World War from happening in the first place.\n\nHow far was this view shared? In one of the first ever issue-based opinion polls in British history (that I’m aware of), 57% of British respondents claimed to favour the Republic in October 1938. By January 1939, this had increased to 72% supporting the Republic. This number has been cited to show the extent of support for a reversal of British policy on Spain, although to my mind it is a bit more complex. For one, the dramatic shift over a short period – especially so late in the war, seems to indicate that these numbers might be soft. More fundamentally, the question was not whether Britain should intervene, or even change their policy, but simply which side they preferred. So, it’s hardly definitive evidence that the British people were either willing to risk war over Spain, or that they believed there was no such risk. But it does certainly indicate that the answer to your question is going to look quite different depending on whose views you are interested in.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Other answers above have discussed the approaches by other powers to limit intevention and to stop the conflict from spreading. I am very interested to hear about the impact internally in other countries.\n\nSpecifically what was the impact internal to France? After all superficially it has similar internal political and social problems and shares a border. I presume it further divided the country at a time of a similar popular front government facing reactionary forces.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4202667", "title": "La Violencia", "section": "Section::::Historical interpretations.:Credence in conspiracy theories as causes of violence.:Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 537, "text": "The atrocities that had happened at the outset of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 were seen by both sides as a possible precedent for Colombia, causing both sides to fear it could happen in their country; this also spurred the credibility of the conspiracies and the rationale for violence. Catholics everywhere were shocked by the wave of anticlerical violence in the Republican zones in Spain in the first months of that war where anarchists, socialists and communists burned churches and murdered nearly 7,000 priests, monks, and nuns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18842471", "title": "Spanish Civil War", "section": "Section::::Foreign involvement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 543, "text": "The Spanish Civil War exposed political divisions across Europe. The right and the Catholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism. On the left, including labor unions, students and intellectuals, the war represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism. Anti-war and pacifist sentiment was strong in many countries, leading to warnings that the Civil War had the potential of escalating into a second world war. In this respect, the war was an indicator of the growing instability across Europe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53528780", "title": "International relations (1919–1939)", "section": "Section::::Europe.:Spanish Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 542, "text": "The Spanish Civil War exposed political divisions across Europe. The right and the Catholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism. On the left, including labor unions, students and intellectuals, the war represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism. Antiwar and pacifist sentiment was strong in many countries, leading to warnings that the Civil War had the potential of escalating into a second world war. In this respect, the war was an indicator of the growing instability across Europe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7085", "title": "Civil war", "section": "Section::::Duration.:In the 19th and early 20th centuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 650, "text": "There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period. The American Civil War (1861–1865) was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities as well as political ideologies, and it ended through a war of attrition, rather than with a decisive battle over control of the capital, as was the norm. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) proved exceptional because \"both\" sides in the struggle received support from intervening great powers: Germany, Italy, and Portugal supported opposition leader Francisco Franco, while France and the Soviet Union supported the government (see proxy war).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13212", "title": "History of Europe", "section": "Section::::1914–1945: Two World wars.:Great Depression: 1929–1939.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 231, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 231, "end_character": 950, "text": "The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the rebels (the Nationalists), led by Francisco Franco, won in 1939. There was military intervention as Italy sent land forces, and Germany sent smaller elite air force and armoured units to the Nationalists. The Soviet Union sold armaments to the leftist Republicans on the other side, while the Communist parties in numerous countries sent soldiers to the \"International Brigades.\" The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted the left, the communist movement and many liberals against Catholics, conservatives, and fascists. Britain, France and the US remained neutral and refused to sell military supplies to either side. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "900011", "title": "Interwar period", "section": "Section::::Great Depression.:Spanish Civil War (1936–39).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 689, "text": "The Spanish Civil War was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the Nationalists won in 1939 by overwhelming the Republican forces. The Soviet Union provided armaments but never enough to equip the heterogeneous government militias and the \"International Brigades\" of outside far-left volunteers. The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted all the Communists and many socialists and liberals against Catholics, conservatives and fascists. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another great war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34558", "title": "20th century", "section": "Section::::Wars and politics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 294, "text": "BULLET::::- Civil wars occurred in many nations. A violent civil war broke out in Spain in 1936 when General Francisco Franco rebelled against the Second Spanish Republic. Many consider this war as a testing battleground for World War II, as the fascist armies bombed some Spanish territories.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Film - the original clear plastic stuff with thousands of pictures on it - is actually much higher resolution than DVD, BluRay or even 4K. Provided you have access to it, you can convert it to whatever digital resolution you want, by in effect taking a photo of each frame and running them together.\n\nIf you *don't* have access to the original, then you'll probably find you get a really poor quality disc. However - most films are archived and it's in the producer's interests to allow the best quality print.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the source material was of higher resolution than either VHS, DVD or Blu-Ray.\n\nIf you look at the IMDB page, it states, under technical specs:\n\nCinematographic Process\tDigital (source format) \nDigital Intermediate (2K) (master format)\n\nSo, to make a Blu-Ray, they just run it off of the master. It doesn't matter that previous releases were on VHS and DVD.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Possibly.\n\nDepending on what's being released on a \"newer\" format, they may have access to the original film and can release it easily at higher resolutions.\n\n35mm film (probably the most popular format, historically speaking) is about the equivalent of about 5-6000 horizontal lines digitally. When you see things like 720p, 1080i, or \"4k\" they're talking about horizontal lines. If the film is intact and well-preserved, they'd be able to release anything made in that format at full resolution.\n\nFor reference, VHS had 240 lines of resolution, DVD was 480, and Blu-ray is 1080. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25734402", "title": "Mars Needs Moms", "section": "Section::::Release.:Home media.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 973, "text": "The film was released on Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D, DVD, and movie download on August 9, 2011. The release is produced in three different physical packages: a four-disc combo pack (Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D, DVD, and \"Digital Copy\"); a two-disc Blu-ray combo pack (Blu-ray and DVD); and a single-disc DVD. The \"Digital Copy\" included with the four-disc combo pack is a separate disc that allows users to download a copy of the film onto a computer through iTunes or Windows Media Player software. The film is also a movie download or On-Demand option. All versions of the release (except for the On-Demand option) include the \"Fun With Seth\" and \"Martian 101\" bonus features, while the Blu-ray 2D version additionally includes deleted scenes, the \"Life On Mars: The Full Motion-Capture Experience\" feature, and an extended opening film clip. The Blu-ray 3D version also has an alternate scene called \"Mom-Napping\", a finished 3D alternate scene of the Martian abduction of Milo's mom.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1689394", "title": "Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End", "section": "Section::::Release.:Home media.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 989, "text": "The film was released on DVD and Blu-Ray on November 19, 2007 in the UK and December 4, 2007 in the United States and Canada. The 2-Disc Limited Edition DVD was in continuous circulation until it stopped on September 30, 2008. In contrast, the Blu-ray Disc release, containing all of the features from the 2-Disc DVD version (including some original scenes from the theatrical release, but excluding the writer's commentary) is still widely available. The initial Blu-ray Disc release was misprinted on the back of the box as 1080i, although Disney confirmed it to be 1080p. Disney decided not to recall the misprinted units, but to fix the error on subsequent printings. DVD sales brought in $296,043,871 in revenue, marking the best-selling DVD of 2007, although it ranks second in terms of units sold (14,505,271) behind \"Transformers\" (16,234,195). \"At World's End\" had its television premiere in the UK on Boxing Day 2009 on BBC One at 19:30, and was watched by 6.06 million viewers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21028971", "title": "Detective Conan: The Raven Chaser", "section": "Section::::DVD.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 538, "text": "Three versions are to be released: the limited DVD version will include 2 discs with the movie, the trailer, Magic File 3, and other extras with 5.1 Dolby Digital HD Surround Sound audio. The regular DVD will only include the movie and the trailer with 5.1 Dolby Digital HD Surround Sound audio. The Blu-ray version includes the HD format of the regular DVD version. The limited DVD cost ¥6720, the regular DVD cost ¥5460, and the Blu-ray version cost ¥6510. The DVD will only be released in Japan, Europe, Middle East, and South Africa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2437069", "title": "Black Bart (film)", "section": "Section::::Home media availability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 361, "text": "Universal has not yet officially released this film on DVD or Blu-ray in the North America region. However, it is available on DVD in Europe, presented in PAL format where the film is sped-up slightly to fit this different format and has a runtime of 77 minutes. Most DVD-Rs of the movie made for North American purchasers use the same print from the PAL DVDs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12080550", "title": "Debbie Does Dallas ... Again", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 400, "text": "On July 12, 2007, the movie became the first adult title licensed by the Advanced Access Content System (AACS) to be sold in the Blu-ray Disc format. It was also the first adult movie available in both HD DVD and Blu-ray formats. Other companies had released a very few adult films on Blu-ray by this point, but they were not copy-protected or licensed, and were burned in-house, some on BD-R discs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43776358", "title": "The Lesson (2014 Latvian film)", "section": "Section::::Release.:Home media.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 232, "text": "The film was released to cinemas on Blu-ray, DVD and DCP, none of which were available for public purchase. After considerable complication with the physical discs, the authors of the film insisted on using digital formats instead.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28386410", "title": "Horrible Bosses", "section": "Section::::Release.:Home media.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 940, "text": "The DVD contains the theatrical cut of the film and deleted scenes. The Blu-ray Disc edition contains the Blu-ray Disc, the DVD and a digital version of the film in a single pack. The Blu-ray Disc version is an unrated, extended cut (the \"Totally Inappropriate Edition\") with a runtime of 106 minutes compared to the theatrical 98 minutes. The Blu-ray Disc contains deleted scenes and four featurettes: \"My Least Favorite Career\", \"Surviving a Horrible Boss\", \"Being Mean Is So Much Fun\", and \"The Making of the Horrible Bosses Soundtrack\". Both the theatrical and extended cuts are presented in the film's original aspect ratio of 2.39:1 with DTS-HD Master Audio sound. Beginning with the Blu-ray Disc release of \"Horrible Bosses\" and \"Green Lantern\", Warner Bros. included a code that allows the owner to access a version of the film via UltraViolet, a cloud storage service which allows streaming or downloading to a variety of devices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Op's name is 6 letters\n\nQuestion is about HL3\n\n6 divided by 3 is 2\n\nHL2 comes before HL3\n\n**HL3 Confirmed**", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It would be the third installment of the half life video game series if it ever gets released. Half life one and two were game changers so there's always been big hype around the third one since it's been idk like 10 years since 2 came out.\n\nEdit: they are supposedly working on it but they have not and probably will not set a release date. My guess is they are waiting on some revolutionary idea so that the game isn't disappointing. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Half-Life series is a popular series of shooter games on PC, and the last entry in the series was in 2007, and the story hasn't been resolved. Valve, the developer, hasn't given *any* word as to when the game will release, or even how far into development it is--if it is even being developed. It's one of the most anticipated games ever, and we don't even know *if* the game will come out.\n\n\"Half-Life 3 confirmed\" is just a joke now, because of all of this.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Half-Life is a series of video games by Valve.\n\nThe first game came out in 1998, and was a huge success. The second game came out in 2004 (after being delayed for over a year) and was also a huge success.\n\nAfter the seconds game, Valve decided to create new sequels as three \"episodes\" (which were more like expansion to the second game). The first episode, titled \"Half-Life 2: Episode 1\", came out in 2006, and the next episode came out in 2007. They were both also very successful. However, the third episode never saw the light of day, and fans are still expecting it or Half-Life 3. Since Valve are very hush-hush about this, fans try to look for anything that might hint on a new game being developed.\n\nYou can read more here: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Half Life 1 and 2 are first person shooters made by Valve. Both games were immensely popular, and Half Life 1 was so revolutionary it is credited with helping to define the entire first person shooter genre. On top of that, the plot of the games (and the mini games Half Life 2 episodes 1 and 2 in the same universe) leaves many unanswered questions.\n\nWith the massive success of the series and the unfinished plot, it would only make sense that Valve would release Half Life 3, which would make tens of millions of fans very happy, but 7 years now after the release of HL2 episode 2, and 10 years after the release of HL2, Valve has announced no official plans of developing Half Life 3. \n\nBecause of this, fans have frequently developed absurd conspiracy theories trying to confirm that Valve is working on Half Life 3, and it has pretty much become a running joke in certain circles of the internet.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Half life 3 = The Void.\n\nIt is full of things, yet it is so very empty, for it is nothingness.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A game so long in the making, 4chan died waiting for it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's my true ELI5, because everyone else's seem a bit long:\n\nThere's a video game company called Valve. They made two first-person shooter (FPS) games, called Half-Life 1 & 2. The plot didn't resolve itself in HL2, so fans have been hoping for a third installment for a *very* long time. It's been so long that fans are always coming up with conspiracy theories...thus why it's always being \"confirmed\" to exist in ridiculous ways.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6501490", "title": "Half-Life (series)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 462, "text": "Half-Life (stylized HλLF-LIFE) is a series of first-person shooter games developed and published by Valve. The major installments feature protagonist Gordon Freeman, a physicist who battles an alien invasion. \"Half-Life\" (1998) and \"Half-Life 2\" (2004) are full-length games, while \"\" (2006) and \"\" (2007) are shorter, episodic games. A third episode, \"Half-Life 2: Episode Three\", was scheduled for release by Christmas 2007, but is now described as vaporware.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11561558", "title": "The Orange Box", "section": "Section::::Overview.:\"Half-Life 2\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1134, "text": "\"Half-Life 2\" is a science fiction first-person shooter game and the sequel to \"Half-Life\". While remaining similar in style to the original, \"Half-Life 2\" introduces new concepts to the series such as physics-based puzzles and vehicle sections. The game takes place in the fictional City 17 and surrounding areas as the player takes on the role of scientist Gordon Freeman. Freeman is thrust into a dystopian environment in which the aftermath of the events of \"Half-Life\" have come to bear fully upon human society, and he is forced to fight against increasingly unfavorable odds in order to survive. In his struggle, he is joined by various acquaintances, including former Black Mesa colleagues, oppressed citizens of City 17, and the Vortigaunts, all of whom later prove to be valuable allies. \"Half-Life 2\" received critical acclaim, including 35 Game of the Year awards, when it was originally released for Windows in 2004. , over 6.5 million copies of Half-Life 2 have been sold at retail. Although Steam sales figures are unknown, their rate surpassed retail's in mid-2008 and they are significantly more profitable per-unit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "174653", "title": "Parallel universes in fiction", "section": "Section::::Video games.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 136, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 136, "end_character": 435, "text": "The \"Half-Life\" series revolves heavily around alternative universes. Xen is a location in the first Half-Life game, accidentally discovered by scientists and described as a border world between dimensions, where the player must travel to stop an alien invasion. Half-Life 2 features a multidimensional empire called The Combine which has successfully conquered Earth and subdued humanity, among countless other universes and species.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52816", "title": "Half-Life (video game)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 696, "text": "Half-Life (stylized as HλLF-LIFE) is a first-person shooter video game developed by Valve Corporation and published by Sierra Studios for Microsoft Windows in 1998. It was Valve's debut title and the first in the \"Half-Life\" series. Players assume the role of Gordon Freeman, a scientist who must find his way out of the Black Mesa Research Facility after an experiment with an alien material goes wrong. The core gameplay consists of fighting alien and human enemies with a variety of weapons and solving puzzles. Unlike many other games at the time, the player has almost complete uninterrupted control of Freeman, and the story is told mostly through scripted sequences seen through his eyes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "575509", "title": "Half-Life 2", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 416, "text": "Half-Life 2 (stylized as HλLF-LIFE) is a first-person shooter video game developed and published by Valve Corporation. It is the sequel to 1998's \"Half-Life\" and was released in November 2004 following a five-year $40 million development. During development, a substantial part of the project was leaked and distributed on the Internet. The game was developed alongside Valve's Steam software and the Source engine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52816", "title": "Half-Life (video game)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 298, "text": "\"Half-Life\" sparked numerous fan-made mods, several of them becoming standalone games, notably \"Counter-Strike\", \"Day of Defeat\" and \"Sven Co-op\". A sequel, \"Half-Life 2\", was released in 2004. An unofficial remake of \"Half-Life\" titled \"Black Mesa\" was released in 2012 as a mod of \"Half-Life 2\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6501490", "title": "Half-Life (series)", "section": "Section::::Games.:\"Half-Life\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 938, "text": "\"Half-Life\" is the first game in the series, and was the debut game of Valve Software, released on November 19, 1998. \"Half-Life\" follows Gordon Freeman, a theoretical physicist, after the Black Mesa Research Facility accidentally causes a dimensional rift which allows the facility to be invaded by aliens. Freeman consequently attempts to survive the slaughter and resolve the situation. The game was originally published by Sierra Studios and released for Windows, although Gearbox Software would later port the game to PlayStation 2 in 2001. Valve themselves later converted the game to use their Source engine. \"Half-Life\" received critical acclaim upon release, critics hailing its overall presentation and numerous scripted sequences. The game won over 50 Game of the Year awards and its gameplay has influenced first-person shooters for years to come. \"Half-Life\" has since been regarded as one of the greatest games of all time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "(1/2)\n\nWell, you've inadvertently waded into what is probably the biggest ongoing debate in the historiography of slavery in North America right now! There is a huge debate raging at the moment regarding the exact role slavery has had to play in the development of modern capitalism, and the industrial revolution specifically. It's a debate that has been raging since at least 1944 with the development of what historians of slavery call the 'Williams thesis', named for Eric Williams and his book *Capitalism and Slavery*, in which he argued for an intrinsic link between the two. There is today a broad consensus that there is something of an essential relationship between the two and that slavery had a significant role to play in the industrial revolution and the development of capitalist economy; the debate largely focused on just how significant that role is, and whether or not it was definitive (in other words, was slavery a necessary prerequisite for industrialisation, or did it simply give it a helping hand?). For my part, I am unconvinced by the argument that there exists a definitive causal relationship between slavery and the industrial revolution - it has a role to play, absolutely, but I am not satisfied with the arguments that have been advanced to suggest it is the driving force behind western industrialisation.\n\nThe Williams thesis essentially holds that slavery's contribution to industrialisation is one of material investment. According to Williams, in the 17th and 18th centuries slavery in the New World provided the ingredients necessary for industrialisation. Extremely profitable farming operations allowed for the accumulation of vast wealth surpluses that provided the capital to finance the industrial revolution; the transatlantic slave trade created complex international markets, with ports and shipping lines that also carried goods and messaged, along which industrial supplies and consumer goods could later be ferried. As industrialisation gets underway in earnest, slavery begins to go into decline as it becomes apparent that industrial wage labour is more profitable and socially agreeable. It is, according to Williams, abolished in the 19th century as it becomes more profitable to 'proletarianise' slaves and turn them into sharecroppers or wage labourers, aided by improvements in agricultural efficiency made possible by the explosion in engineering creativity brought on by industrialisation. In this conceptualisation, slavery is essentially a feudalistic and pre-capitalist enterprise that is fundamentally incompatible with but necessary for the development of industrial capitalism.\n\nHistorians of slavery now widely recognise that the Williams thesis is fundamentally wrong in this regard. Slavery was not in decline in the 19th century - on the contrary, particularly in the United States, it has been shown to be a thriving and enormously profitable enterprise that did not appear to be dying out of its own accord. The picture in the British Caribbean is a little more complicated - there is still some disagreement over whether or not the region was in economic decline by the 19th century. Generally speaking, there is agreement that Britain's colonies were troubled but certainly not in any kind of terminal danger or decline that meant slavery would inevitably die out (and in some parts, like Barbados, slavery was very much a healthy, expanding institution). Nor are most historians convinced that it is a wholly pre-capitalist enterprise, either. Eugene Genovese took up that mantle most notably after Williams, and that argument has been thoroughly picked apart over the years (Walter Johnson's *Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market* is a solid critical response to the way in which Genovese has misinterpreted the historical record in this regard). I'm going to talk about this in more detail towards the end - and you'll see why I'm leaving it for the end - but suffice to say, New World slavery was not *incompatible* with capitalism.\n\nSo what about Williams' contention that slavery was a necessary prerequisite to industrialisation? Well, this is where the debate gets rather more heated and complicated. There are many historians today still arguing in favour of that component of the Williams thesis, and the most notable lately would probably be Edward Baptist in his book *The Half Never Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism*. Baptist alleges that the enormous profits being made from cotton and sugar helped to finance the industrial revolution in the United States and Britain, respectively.\n\nWhat has also not been explained satisfactorily, in my view, is at what point slavery becomes uncoupled from the wider capitalist economy. Slavery is not, as I go into more detail later, a pre-capitalist phenomenon; it is not a relic carried over from some distant feudal past. It is thoroughly and wholly compatible with capitalist economic practices. Yet scholarly studies consistently fail to find that slavery was particularly and uniquely significant to the ongoing economic prosperity of the United States or Great Britain in the 19th century. The abolition of slavery gives rise to only a small economic shock in the United States, one which is perhaps also partly explained by the end of the Civil War dragging down growth as well - economic well-being recovers very quickly. Likewise, assessments of cotton's contribution to Gross Domestic Product (the value of everything the economy produces in a year) are modest. Baptist's claims in his book depend partly on the immense value of cotton to the US economy which other scholars have shown are based on a fundamental misunderstanding of economic theory: due to what is essentially an accounting error in how he tabulated the worth of cotton production in the 19th century, he has accidentally doubled it, whilst at the same time he miscalculates GDP in such a way that makes his estimates of cotton's contribution to the economy worthless (he excludes asset sales for instance but includes slave sales, even though slave sales are essentially asset sales in a slave economy). Though their 1974 work is rightfully deeply criticised, one of the more positive contributions Fogel and Engerman have made to the scholarship on slavery is demonstrating that the Southwest was just as wealthy as the Northeast in 1860 if you include wealth caught up in slaves (Gavin Wright has shown without slaves the North was 64% richer), only concentrated in the hands of a minority. It seems illogical that there should be such a huge dependency on that kind of wealth that somehow disappears to the point where slavery is abolished with a negligible impact on the wider economy.\n\nLikewise, Baptist's thesis argues that cotton drove industrialisation in Britain, but he does a very bad job at proving it - and indeed, the advent of meaningful cotton mill operations in northern England significantly predates the explosion in cotton production in the Southern US, rather than being driven by it. It is also worth emphasising that Jamaica is particularly suited to growing cotton, and particularly to hand-picking cotton. To this day Jamaican cotton is worth four to five times Egyptian cotton. Yet we do not see any meaningful effort on the part of British planters to tap into this lucrative resource even in Jamaica, which was not a sugar monopoly colony; whilst this may simply reflect poor economic planning, it seems to be rather odd that if these planters were providing the finance and capital to drive industrialisation in northern England, that they would not be logically trying to also tap into the emerging market for cotton goods. Sugar remained king in the Caribbean, even though it was a much less stable market than cotton. And in any event, I would also stress that, although the Civil War in the United States did have an impact on the British economy, there is evidence that Britain was able to heavily supplement its shortfall in cotton imports from both India and Egypt. Britain's own abolition of slavery and the slave trade has been estimated to have cost just 2% of national income, suggesting it was far from the driver of economic growth. The profits from Britain’s colonies are just not enough to finance industry’s wholesale development and growth.\n\nSo what role did slavery play in the industrial revolution? Certainly, it *was* a source of finance, and the plantations of the South and the Caribbean did produce raw materials that helped to fuel industrialisation - though the advent that made this possible, the invention of the cotton gin, comes twenty to thirty years into industrialisation and coincides with the emergence of cotton mills. But the evidence for both the United States and Britain is that the vast majority of the wealth created by slavery remained trapped within the slave system, disappearing upon abolition. The end of slavery is devastating to the elite of both the South and the British Caribbean, wiping out vast quantities of wealth over night and bringing eventual ruin to many estates. Slave owners were, largely speaking, investing in more slaves rather than in industry - though some certainly did invest in industry (as did some slave traders who were not necessarily slave owners). And we know that in Britain, about half of all planters were not actually resident in the Caribbean and had other economic interests. But the evidence for slavery being the *driving* and *causal* factor behind industrialisation is, in my view, rather weak and the argument has yet to be made convincingly. There are too many inconsistencies and problems with the developments in the Williams thesis since 1944. It has a role to play but it is fundamentally wrong, in my view, to attribute industrialisation to slavery. It's just not that simple or straight-forward, and that argument rests on a very simplified, inaccurate view of economic development in the 18th and 19th centuries.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12989350", "title": "Slavery in Britain", "section": "Section::::Modern evaluations of economic impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 764, "text": "Historians and economists have debated the economic effects of slavery for Great Britain and the North American colonies. Many analysts suggest that it allowed the formation of capital that financed the Industrial Revolution, although the evidence is inconclusive. Slave labour was integral to early settlement of the colonies, which needed more people for labour and other work. Also, slave labour produced the major consumer goods that were the basis of world trade during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries: coffee, cotton, rum, sugar, and tobacco. Slavery was far more important to the profitability of plantations and the economy in the American South; and the slave trade and associated businesses were important to both New York and New England.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "261951", "title": "Occidental Mindoro", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 308, "text": "The invention of machines during the industrial revolution, which gradually replaced manual labor, and the consecutive abolitions of slave ownership in many liberalized countries, caused a great decline in the demand for slave labor. Many of the pirate markets closed, and prices fell severely for captives.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8654403", "title": "Proslavery", "section": "Section::::In the United States.:Abolitionism in the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1011, "text": "Until the middle of the 18th century, slavery was practiced with little challenge anywhere in the world. For centuries philosophers as varied as Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, and John Locke accepted slavery as part of a proper social system. However, across Europe through the last part of the 18th century there were intellectual antislavery arguments based on Enlightenment thought, as well as moral arguments (notably among Quakers, in Great Britain and the United States) which questioned the legitimacy of slavery. Only in the American Revolutionary War era did slavery first become a significant social issue in North America. In the North, beginning during the Revolution and continuing through the first decade of the next century, state by state emancipation was achieved by legislation or lawsuit although in the larger slaveholding states such as New York and Pennsylvania emancipation was gradual. By 1810, 75% of Northern slaves had been freed and virtually all were freed within the next generation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24305980", "title": "Catholic Church and slavery", "section": "Section::::The movement towards abolition of slavery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 120, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 120, "end_character": 449, "text": "The 18th century saw both the slave colonies in the New World become very important economically to Britain and France as well as Spain and Portugal, and also the growth of opposition to slavery in principle, leading to political movements for the abolition of slavery. This was related to the Enlightenment but generally based on Christian ethical principles; in the English-speaking countries many leading figures were Non-conformist Protestants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4721", "title": "British Empire", "section": "Section::::Rise of the \"Second\" British Empire (1783–1815).:Abolition of slavery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 987, "text": "With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, goods produced by slavery became less important to the British economy. Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular slave rebellions. With support from the British abolitionist movement, Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the empire. In 1808, Sierra Leone Colony was designated an official British colony for freed slaves. Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the West India Committee decline. The Slavery Abolition Act, passed the following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the Empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of St. Helena, Ceylon and the territories administered by the East India Company, though these exclusions were later repealed). Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of \"apprenticeship\". The British government compensated slave-owners.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "249471", "title": "Slavery in the colonial United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 472, "text": "Slavery in the colonial history of the United States, from 1600 to 1776, developed from complex factors, and researchers have proposed several theories to explain the development of the institution of slavery and of the slave trade. Slavery strongly correlated with Europe's American colonies' need for labor, especially for the labor-intensive plantation economies of the sugar colonies in the Caribbean, operated by Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39937022", "title": "International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)", "section": "Section::::1814–1830: Restoration and reaction.:Slave trade.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 646, "text": "An important liberal advance was the abolition of the international slave trade. It began with legislation in Britain and the United States in 1807, which was increasingly enforced over subsequent decades by the British Royal Navy under treaties Britain negotiated, or coerced, other nations into agreeing. The result was a reduction of over 95% in the volume of the slave trade from Africa to the New World. About 1000 slaves a year were illegally brought into the United States, as well as some to Cuba and Brazil. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire in 1833, the French Republic in 1848, the United States in 1865, and Brazil in 1888.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is too wide a topic to cover in a single post so let me deal with the one question you specifically asked. The hollow square (as a pike formation mostly) works well against cavalry for a couple of reasons. Firstly, the pike is a good weapon versus cavalry due to its reach. A pike formation on the other hand is normally vulnerable to flanking. Changing directions in a pike formation is messy business that requires coordination and skill. The hollow square doesn't really have a front and as such is not vulnerable to flanking. The hollow form also brings the advantage of quickly being able to reinforce a weak spot quickly as troops can move freely within the square. This was often used with a mobile force of ranged troops within the square, specifically the famous spanish square/tercio formation. A square is weaker versus a concentrated assult as much of its strenght is spread out as opposed to focused forward as is the case with a line formation.\n\nIn a more general context, military formations usually develope as a reaction to something else. A firm line is stronger than a brute force charge since every man protects the men next to him. The mobile cavalry can out-flank the line but not the square which in turn is vulnerable to a line formation or attack column. It's all a gigantic game of rocks, papers, scissors.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Depends on the period and the weapons of the period, this topic is basically asking to describe the basics of tactics of warfare of all history.\n\nOsprey have some basic books of some eras that you may want to look into.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "651608", "title": "Military parade", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 459, "text": "close order formation combat, in which soldiers were held in very strict formations as to maximise their combat effectiveness. Formation combat was used as an alternative to mêlée combat, and required strict discipline in the ranks and competent officers. As long as their formations could be maintained, regular troops could maintain a significant advantage over less organised opponents. Military parades are not to be confused with military show of force.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56054480", "title": "Russian Tank Troops", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 413, "text": "Combat capabilities of tank formations and subunits enable them to lead active combat operations, day and night, in a significant isolation from other troops, to smash the enemy in meeting engagements and battles, on the move to overcome the extensive areas of contamination, to force water barriers, as well as to quickly build a solid defence and successfully resist the attack of superior forces of the enemy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2346470", "title": "List of military strategies and concepts", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 221, "text": "This article is a list of military strategies and concepts that are commonly recognized and referenced. Military strategies are methods of arranging and maneuvering large bodies of military forces during armed conflicts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "955761", "title": "Royal Gurkha Rifles", "section": "Section::::Organisation.:Training companies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 210, "text": "These three are formed as operational training units at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, the Infantry Battle School and the Land Warfare Centre, to provide opposing forces for realistic battle simulation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22750566", "title": "Operations (military staff)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 477, "text": "Military operations is a concept and application of military science that involves planning the operations for the projected maneuvering forces' provisions, services, training, and administrative functions—to allow them to commence, insert, then egress from combat. The operations staff plays a major role in the projection of military forces in any wide spectrum of conflict; terrestrial, aerial, or naval warfare needed to achieve operational objectives in a theater of war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19053553", "title": "Military capability", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 508, "text": "It is a major part of military science to find methods of defeating the enemy with available capabilities using existing and new concepts. Successful use of military capability by employing these concepts and methods is reflected in the effects on the enemy ability to continue to resist, subject to Rules of Engagement (ROE) range of political, legal and ethical factors. Military capability is often tested in peacetime by using the scenario methodology to analyse performance, often as a war game. It is \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1952465", "title": "Combatives", "section": "Section::::Competitions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 462, "text": "One of the fundamental aspects of Modern Army Combatives training is the use of competitions as a tool to motivate Soldiers to train. Realizing the inherent problem with competitive systems, that competitors will focus their training on winning and therefore only train the techniques that are allowed in competition, Larsen designed a system of graduated rules that, combined with scenario based training, demand that Soldiers train on all aspects of fighting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If it's not a modified organism then they're not lying. I could poop in your salad and certify it as non gmo", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37488658", "title": "2012 California Proposition 37", "section": "Section::::Arguments for and against.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 323, "text": "Opponents claimed Prop 37 backers real intent was to ban GMOs via labeling schemes removing consumer choices, citing claims by proponents like Jeffrey M. Smith that labeling requirements in California would cause food companies to source only non-GMO foods to avoid having labels that consumers would perceive as warnings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8273958", "title": "Genetically modified food controversies", "section": "Section::::Regulation.:Labeling.:Status.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 192, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 192, "end_character": 314, "text": "Other jurisdictions make such labeling voluntary or have had plans to require labeling. Major GM food crop exporters like the United States (until 2018), Argentina, and Canada have adopted voluntary labeling approaches; China and Brazil have major GM (largely non-food) crops and have adopted mandatory labelling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52190997", "title": "Public Law 114-214", "section": "Section::::Proponents' view.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 297, "text": "Proponents argue that approved GMO food has undergone extensive testing, is \"safe\" and that basically labeling is unnecessary. Labeling may discourage consumers to use GMO products when such a choice may be irrational. A lot of consumers express fears that have not been substantiated by science.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39454964", "title": "March Against Monsanto", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 243, "text": "Although labeling of genetically modified organism (GMO) products in the marketplace is required in many countries, it is not required in the United States and no distinction between marketed GMO and non-GMO foods is recognized by the US FDA.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52190997", "title": "Public Law 114-214", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 521, "text": "Previous attempts to enact a national GMO labeling law included H. R. 1599 in 2015 – \"the Safe and Accurate Food Labeling Act of 2015\". It was a proposed legislative amendment to the United States Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. The act passed the House of Representatives on July 23, 2015 but failed in the Senate. An earlier version of the bill had been originally introduced as H. R. 4432 in 2004. and attempted to regulate food labeling specifically in view of the introduction of GMO food in the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54903954", "title": "Genetically modified food in North America", "section": "Section::::United States.:State regulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 541, "text": "Several states have passed regulations concerning labelling of GM food; Connecticut passed a GMO labeling bill in May 2013, but the bill will only be triggered after four other states enact similar legislation. On January 9, 2014, Maine’s governor signed a bill requiring labeling for foods made with GMO's, with a similar triggering mechanism as Connecticut's bill. In May 2014 Vermont passed a law requiring labeling of food containing ingredients derived from genetically modified organisms. A federal judge ruled Maui's GMO ban invalid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8273958", "title": "Genetically modified food controversies", "section": "Section::::Regulation.:Labeling.:Status.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 190, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 190, "end_character": 276, "text": "Prior to the new federal rules taking effect, while it does require pre-market approval, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not required GMO labeling as long as there are no differences in health, environmental safety, and consumer expectations based on the packaging.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > presumably reducing the chance of rejection\n\none of the biggest reasons for why we would want to use stem cells is to *prevent* rejection. if i donate my kidney to some guy, he will have to take immusuppressor drugs *for the rest of his life*. and we are the same species! if he got a monkey's kidney, then it would be an even worse rejection. the same thing would happen to animal stem cells.\n\n\nas a matter of fact, animal contamination in stem cells is a massive problem in research. at the moment, all of the NIH sanctioned human stem cell lines were just *grown* on a \"rug\" of mouse fibroblast cells (you have to do this, so that they stay stem cells). just the fact that they were *grown* on mouse cells is a large enough amount of contamination that we don't inject them into people.\n\nso if human stem cells grown with animal cells are bad, then animal stem cells themselves are much, much worse.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "our immune system is sensitive enough to recognize that cells are from a human not ourselves and destroy it.. If they find a cell from an animal they destroy it even faster.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > presumably reducing the chance of rejection\n\none of the biggest reasons for why we would want to use stem cells is to *prevent* rejection. if i donate my kidney to some guy, he will have to take immusuppressor drugs *for the rest of his life*. and we are the same species! if he got a monkey's kidney, then it would be an even worse rejection. the same thing would happen to animal stem cells.\n\n\nas a matter of fact, animal contamination in stem cells is a massive problem in research. at the moment, all of the NIH sanctioned human stem cell lines were just *grown* on a \"rug\" of mouse fibroblast cells (you have to do this, so that they stay stem cells). just the fact that they were *grown* on mouse cells is a large enough amount of contamination that we don't inject them into people.\n\nso if human stem cells grown with animal cells are bad, then animal stem cells themselves are much, much worse.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "our immune system is sensitive enough to recognize that cells are from a human not ourselves and destroy it.. If they find a cell from an animal they destroy it even faster.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1857574", "title": "Polly and Molly", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 488, "text": "In mice, there is an additional option for genetic transfer that is not available in other animals. Embryonic stem cells provide a means to transfer new DNA into the germline. They also allow precise genetic modifications by gene targeting. Modified embryonic stem cells can be selected in vitro before the experiment moves on further for the production of an animal. Embryonic stem cells capable of contributing to the germline of livestock species such as sheep have not been isolated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2777285", "title": "Adult stem cell", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 562, "text": "Scientific interest in adult stem cells is centered on their ability to divide or \"self-renew\" indefinitely, and generate all the cell types of the organ from which they originate, potentially regenerating the entire organ from a few cells. Unlike for embryonic stem cells, the use of human adult stem cells in research and therapy is not considered to be controversial, as they are derived from adult tissue samples rather than human embryos designated for scientific research. They have mainly been studied in humans and model organisms such as mice and rats.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "168927", "title": "Somatic cell nuclear transfer", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Stem cell research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 522, "text": "Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated cells of an embryo. These cells are deemed to have a pluripotent potential because they have the ability to give rise to all of the tissues found in an adult organism. This ability allows stem cells to create any cell type, which could then be transplanted to replace damaged or destroyed cells. Controversy surrounds human ESC work due to the destruction of viable human embryos. Leading scientists to seek an alternative method of obtaining stem cells, SCNT is one such method.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "987320", "title": "Neurotechnology", "section": "Section::::Ethics.:Stem cells.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 1502, "text": "The ethical debate about use of embryonic stem cells has stirred controversy both in the United States and abroad; although more recently these debates have lessened due to modern advances in creating induced pluripotent stem cells from adult cells. The greatest advantage for use of embryonic stem cells is the fact that they can differentiate (become) nearly any type of cell provided the right conditions and signals. However, recent advances by Shinya Yamanaka et al. have found ways to create pluripotent cells without the use of such controversial cell cultures. Using the patient's own cells and re-differentiating them into the desired cell type bypasses both possible patient rejection of the embryonic stem cells and any ethical concerns associated with using them, while also providing researchers a larger supply of available cells. However, induced pluripotent cells have the potential to form benign (though potentially malignant) tumors, and tend to have poor survivability \"in vivo\" (in the living body) on damaged tissue. Much of the ethics concerning use of stem cells has subsided from the embryonic/adult stem cell debate due to its rendered moot, but now societies find themselves debating whether or not this technology can be ethically used. Enhancements of traits, use of animals for tissue scaffolding, and even arguments for moral degeneration have been made with the fears that if this technology reaches its full potential a new paradigm shift will occur in human behavior.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1029022", "title": "Embryonic stem cell", "section": "Section::::Techniques and conditions for derivation and culture.:Contamination by reagents used in cell culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 612, "text": "The online edition of \"Nature Medicine\" published a study on January 24, 2005, which stated that the human embryonic stem cells available for federally funded research are contaminated with non-human molecules from the culture medium used to grow the cells. It is a common technique to use mouse cells and other animal cells to maintain the pluripotency of actively dividing stem cells. The problem was discovered when non-human sialic acid in the growth medium was found to compromise the potential uses of the embryonic stem cells in humans, according to scientists at the University of California, San Diego.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12223532", "title": "Induced pluripotent stem cell", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 430, "text": "The most well-known type of pluripotent stem cell is the embryonic stem cell. However, since the generation of embryonic stem cells involves destruction (or at least manipulation) of the pre-implantation stage embryo, there has been much controversy surrounding their use. Further, because embryonic stem cells can only be derived from embryos, it has so far not been feasible to create patient-matched embryonic stem cell lines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27783", "title": "Stem cell", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 627, "text": "In mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells, which are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts in early embryonic development, and adult stem cells, which are found in various tissues of fully developed mammals. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing adult tissues. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all the specialized cells—ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm (see induced pluripotent stem cells)—but also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs, such as blood, skin, or intestinal tissues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You might be interested in Richard Lenski's long-term evolution of E. coli [experiment](_URL_0_). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25229078", "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1071, "text": "Experimental evolution studies are a means of testing evolutionary theory under carefully designed, reproducible experiments. Given enough time, space, and money, any organism could be used for experimental evolution studies. However, those with rapid generation times, high mutation rates, large population sizes, and small sizes increase the feasibility of experimental studies in a laboratory context. For these reasons, bacteriophages (i.e. viruses that infect bacteria) are especially favored by experimental evolutionary biologists. Bacteriophages, and microbial organisms, can be frozen in stasis, facilitating comparison of evolved strains to ancestors. Additionally, microbes are especially labile from a molecular biologic perspective. Many molecular tools have been developed to manipulate the genetic material of microbial organisms, and because of their small genome sizes, sequencing the full genomes of evolved strains is trivial. Therefore, comparisons can be made for the exact molecular changes in evolved strains during adaptation to novel conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2339577", "title": "Evidence of common descent", "section": "Section::::Evidence from selection.:Artificial selection and experimental evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 197, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 197, "end_character": 399, "text": "Experimental evolution uses controlled experiments to test hypotheses and theories of evolution. In one early example, William Dallinger set up an experiment shortly before 1880, subjecting microbes to heat with the aim of forcing adaptive changes. His experiment ran for around seven years, and his published results were acclaimed, but he did not resume the experiment after the apparatus failed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "796412", "title": "Experimental evolution", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 2324, "text": "Experimental evolution is the use of laboratory experiments or controlled field manipulations to explore evolutionary dynamics. Evolution may be observed in the laboratory as individuals/populations adapt to new environmental conditions by natural selection. There are two different ways in which adaptation can arise in experimental evolution. One is via an individual organism gaining a novel beneficial mutation. The other is from allele frequency change in standing genetic variation already present in a population of organisms. Other evolutionary forces outside of mutation and natural selection can also play a role or be incorporated into experimental evolution studies, such as genetic drift and gene flow. The organism used is decided by the experimenter, based on whether the hypothesis to be tested involves adaptation through mutation or allele frequency change. A large number of generations are required for adaptive mutation to occur, and experimental evolution via mutation is carried out in viruses or unicellular organisms with rapid generation times, such as bacteria and asexual clonal yeast. Polymorphic populations of asexual or sexual yeast, and multicellular eukaryotes like Drosophila, can adapt to new environments through allele frequency change in standing genetic variation. Organisms with longer generations times, although costly, can be used in experimental evolution. Laboratory studies with foxes and with rodents (see below) have shown that notable adaptations can occur within as few as 10–20 generations and experiments with wild guppies have observed adaptations within comparable numbers of generations. More recently, experimentally evolved individuals or populations are often analyzed using whole genome sequencing, an approach known as Evolve and Resequence (E&R). E&R can identify mutations that lead to adaptation in clonal individuals or identify alleles that changed in frequency in polymorphic populations, by comparing the sequences of individuals/populations before and after adaptation. The sequence data makes it possible to pinpoint the site in a DNA sequence that a mutation/allele frequency change occurred to bring about adaptation. The nature of the adaptation and functional follow up studies can shed insight into what effect the mutation/allele has on phenotype.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29732133", "title": "History of RNA biology", "section": "Section::::1986–2000.:Combinatorial selection of RNA molecules enables in vitro evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 1373, "text": "Experimental methods were invented that allowed investigators to use large, diverse populations of RNA molecules to carry out in vitro molecular experiments that utilized powerful selective replication strategies used by geneticists, and which amount to evolution in the test tube. These experiments have been described using different names, the most common of which are \"combinatorial selection\", \"in vitro selection\", and SELEX (for Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment). These experiments have been used for isolating RNA molecules with a wide range of properties, from binding to particular proteins, to catalyzing particular reactions, to binding low molecular weight organic ligands. They have equal applicability to elucidating interactions and mechanisms that are known properties of naturally occurring RNA molecules to isolating RNA molecules with biochemical properties that are not known in nature. In developing in vitro selection technology for RNA, laboratory systems for synthesizing complex populations of RNA molecules were established, and used in conjunction with the selection of molecules with user-specified biochemical activities, and in vitro schemes for RNA replication. These steps can be viewed as (a) mutation, (b) selection, and (c) replication. Together, then, these three processes enable in vitro molecular evolution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "796412", "title": "Experimental evolution", "section": "Section::::Modern.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 355, "text": "Experimental evolution has been used in various formats to understand underlying evolutionary processes in a controlled system. Experimental evolution has been performed on multicellular and unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and viruses. Similar works have also been performed by directed evolution of individual enzyme, ribozyme and replicator genes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30357748", "title": "Combrex", "section": "Section::::The COMBREX Project currently includes.:Recommendation and prioritization of experiments based on Active Learning principles..\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 498, "text": "In addition to evolutionary analysis and Active Learning COMBREX also points to other criteria that might be considered in considering experiments. Such criteria include whether there is a structure available, conservation of the bacterial gene in the human genome (e.g. domain sharing), availability of computational or experimental evidence of gene function, phenotypical considerations (such as presence in a pathogen or relation to antibiotic resistance, pathogenicity or virulence)and others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "796412", "title": "Experimental evolution", "section": "Section::::For teaching.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 461, "text": "Because of their rapid generation times microbes offer an opportunity to study microevolution in the classroom. A number of exercises involving bacteria and yeast teach concepts ranging from the evolution of resistance to the evolution of multicellularity. With the advent of next-generation sequencing technology it has become possible for students to conduct an evolutionary experiment, sequence the evolved genomes, and to analyze and interpret the results.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Just as a point of clarification: the waxing and waning of the moon are not caused by the earth's shadow; it is a result of the moon rotating around the earth, and from our perspective, the full half of the moon that is illuminated by the sun appears in phases. The only instance of the earth's shadow affecting the illumination of the moon is at the time of a lunar eclipse, a relatively rare occurrence. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4453559", "title": "Exploration of the Moon", "section": "Section::::Early history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 551, "text": "The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras (d. 428 BC) reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former. His non-religious view of the heavens was one cause for his imprisonment and eventual exile. In his little book \"On the Face in the Moon's Orb\", Plutarch suggested that the Moon had deep recesses in which the light of the Sun did not reach and that the spots are nothing but the shadows of rivers or deep chasms. He also entertained the possibility that the Moon was inhabited. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19331", "title": "Moon", "section": "Section::::Observation and exploration.:Ancient and medieval studies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 90, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 90, "end_character": 1210, "text": "Later, the physical form of the Moon and the cause of moonlight became understood. The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former. Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to \"qi\", their 'radiating influence' theory also recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun, and Jing Fang (78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the Moon. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote the novel \"A True Story\", in which the heroes travel to the Moon and meet its inhabitants. In 499 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his \"Aryabhatiya\" that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon. The astronomer and physicist Alhazen (965–1039) found that sunlight was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror, but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all directions. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1578810", "title": "Photogram", "section": "Section::::History.:Prehistory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1119, "text": "The phenomenon of the shadow has always aroused human curiosity and inspired artistic representation, as recorded by Pliny the Elder, and various forms of shadow play since the 1st millennium BCE. The photogram in essence is a means by which the fall of light and shade on a surface may be automatically captured and preserved. To do so required a substance that would react to light, and from the 17th century photochemical reactions were progressively observed or discovered in salts of silver, iron, uranium and chromium. In 1725 Johann Heinrich Schulze was the first to demonstrate a temporary photographic effect in silver salts, confirmed by Carl Wilhhelm Scheele in 1777, who found that violet light caused the greatest reaction in silver chloride. Humphry Davy and Thomas Wedgewood reported that they had produced pictures from stencils on leather and paper, but had no means of fixing them and some organic substances respond to light, as evidenced in sunburn (an effect used by Dennis Oppenheim in his 1970 \"Reading Position for Second Degree Burn\") and photosynthesis (with which Lloyd Godman forms images).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1275987", "title": "Moon illusion", "section": "Section::::Possible explanations.:Refraction and distance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 203, "text": "Through additional works (by Roger Bacon, John Pecham, Witelo, and others) based on Ibn al-Haytham's explanation, the Moon illusion came to be accepted as a psychological phenomenon in the 17th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47440357", "title": "Mama Killa", "section": "Section::::Beliefs.:Myths surrounding Mama Killa.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 925, "text": "One myth surrounding the moon was to account for the \"dark spots\"; it was believed that a fox fell in love with Mama Killa because of her beauty, but when he rose into the sky, she squeezed him against her, producing the patches. The Incas would fear lunar eclipses as they believed that during the eclipse, an animal (possibly a mountain lion or serpent) was attacking Mama Killa. Consequently, people would attempt to scare away the animal by throwing weapons, gesturing and making as much noise as possible. They believed that if the animal achieved its aim, then the world would be left in darkness. This tradition continued after the Incas had been converted to Catholicism by the Conquistadors, which the Spanish used to their advantage. The natives showed the Spanish great respect when they found that they were able to predict when the eclipses would take place. Mama Killa was also believed to cry tears of silver.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4453559", "title": "Exploration of the Moon", "section": "Section::::Early history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 589, "text": "Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty (202 BC–202 AD) believed the Moon to be energy equated to \"qi\", their 'radiating influence' theory recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun (mentioned by Anaxagoras above). This was supported by mainstream thinkers such as Jing Fang, who noted the sphericity of the Moon. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song Dynasty (960–1279) created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29247528", "title": "Earth's shadow", "section": "Section::::Color of lunar eclipses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 406, "text": "Earth's shadow is as curved as the planet is, and its umbra extends into outer space. (The antumbra, however, extends indefinitely.) When the Sun, Earth, and the Moon are aligned perfectly (or nearly so), with Earth between the Sun and the Moon, Earth's shadow falls onto the lunar surface facing the night side of the planet, such that the shadow gradually darkens the full Moon, causing a lunar eclipse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They stay in jail", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They will remain in jail, absent some executive clemency. Everyone is subject to the laws in place at the time; just because something becomes legal later doesn't mean you're innocent of committing a crime when it was criminal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It was a crime when it was illegal so they would remain jail.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Marijuana has been legalized by certain states. Meaning that particular state will not arrest you for possession under a given amount, generally 2 oz . Marijuana is still illegal at the federal level. DEA ATF and FBI can arrest and charge people for marijuana possession regardless of the state's legal stance ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > How is it that marijuana is legal in some places in the US, but there are many people in jail for possession?\n\nIt is only legal at the state level in Washington and Colorado (for recreational use...and a few more states allow medicinal marijuana). If you are in Alabama and have marijuana on you, it is still illegal. Also note that it is illegal on a federal level. So if you get caught by the TSA or some other federal agency, they would abide by federal law. (Also, interesting tidbit I learned from the University of Colorado's HR: they have to abide by federal law in most cases! So while Colorado says possession is legal, it's legality on campus grounds is still murky.)\n\n > If weed becomes legal in more places, what happens to those in jail for possession?\n\nThey will still be in jail. Legally speaking, they still broke the law.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you commit a crime, it doesn't matter if what you did becomes legal later, you still did it when it was illegal. In some cases you can go to a review board and have the sentence nulled.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20566488", "title": "Cannabis in the United States", "section": "Section::::Legality.:Federal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 990, "text": "Until the passage of the 2018 United States farm bill, under federal law, it was illegal to possess, use, buy, sell, or cultivate cannabis in all United States jurisdictions, since the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classified marijuana as a Schedule I drug, claiming it has a high potential for abuse and has no acceptable medical use. Despite this federal prohibition, some state and local governments established laws attempting to decriminalize cannabis, which has reduced the number of \"simple possession\" offenders sent to jail, since federal law enforcement rarely targets individuals directly for such relatively minor offenses. Other state and local governments ask law enforcement agencies to limit enforcement of drug laws with respect to cannabis. However, under the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution, federal law preempts conflicting state and local laws. In most cases, the absence of a state law does not present a preemption conflict with a federal law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55418608", "title": "Cannabis in Laos", "section": "Section::::Regulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 299, "text": "Cannabis is illegal and public usage can land someone 12 months in jail. Police officers regularly take bribes from those arrested for cannabis and let them walk free. As of 2009, a mandatory death penalty is applied for certain cases. Despite the law, marijuana is openly sold in some businesses. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53759777", "title": "Cannabis Act", "section": "Section::::Reactions.:Final implementation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 387, "text": "Since marijuana is illegal in the US per federal legislation, the government warned that \"previous use of cannabis, or any substance prohibited by U.S. federal laws, could mean that you are denied entry to the U.S\". Canadians travelling within the country (but not internationally) are allowed to carry up to 30 grams of cannabis. Driving under the influence of drugs remained illegal. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55288296", "title": "Cannabis rights", "section": "Section::::State vs. federal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 494, "text": "As of 2019 in the United States, eleven states and the District of Columbia have legalized medical and recreational cannabis, with 25 more states decriminalizing the drug. However, fourteen states and federal law still classifies cannabis as illegal, placing cannabis as a \"Schedule 1\" drug. Being federally illegal, profits cannot be handled through federally-insured banks (including checks or deposits), so cannabis retailers are forced to use cash or remain vague about business practices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53088096", "title": "Legal history of cannabis in Canada", "section": "Section::::Developments since 2001.:Final legalization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 398, "text": "Since marijuana is illegal in the US per federal legislation, the government warned that \"previous use of cannabis, or any substance prohibited by U.S. federal laws, could mean that you are denied entry to the U.S\". Canadians travelling within the country (but not internationally) are allowed to carry up to 30 grams of cannabis. Naturally, driving under the influence of drugs remained illegal. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40587035", "title": "Ending Federal Marijuana Prohibition Act", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 561, "text": "The use, sale and possession of cannabis (marijuana) in the United States is illegal under federal law. However, some states have created exemptions for medical cannabis use, as well as decriminalized non-medical cannabis use. In nine states, Colorado, Washington, Oregon, California, Alaska, Nevada, Massachusetts, Maine, and Vermont, the sale and possession of marijuana is legal for both medical and non-medical use. These laws are still somewhat uncertain however, because the states have one year to write laws on distribution and regulation of marijuana.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49915232", "title": "Cannabis trafficking penalties for juveniles", "section": "Section::::Penalties for import of Marijuana WP.:Americas.:Colombia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 484, "text": "It is legal to possess up to 20 grams or 20 plants of marijuana for personal use only. Marijuana is also legalized for medical and scientific purpose. Anyone trafficking marijuana for other purposes can expect long prison sentences from 4 to 20 years under harsh conditions. Colombian law also requires serious offenders to remain in the country to serve a lengthy parole (in which the offenders aren't given housing and might not be permitted to work) after their release from jail.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It is because in a video we can see the actions leading up and proceeding from that action, while audio, the sound is laid out in a very specific way. (English phonetics are very complicated) When a small thing is changed, it becomes nearly impossible to understand.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "172270", "title": "Hidden message", "section": "Section::::Backward audio messages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 376, "text": "A backward message in an audio recording is only fully apparent when the recording is played reversed. Some backward messages are produced by deliberate backmasking, while others are simply phonetic reversals resulting from random combinations of words. Backward messages may occur in various mediums, including music, video games, music videos, movies, and television shows.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18589482", "title": "Backmasking", "section": "Section::::Use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 585, "text": "Backmasked words are unintelligible noise when played forward, but when played backwards are clear speech. Listening to backmasked audio with most turntables requires disengaging the drive and rotating the album by hand in reverse (though some can play records backwards). With magnetic tape, the tape must be reversed and spliced back into the cassette. Compact discs were difficult to reverse when first introduced, but digital audio editors, which were first introduced in the late 1980s and became popular during the next decade, allow easy reversal of audio from digital sources.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4719480", "title": "Reverse echo", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 352, "text": "Reverse echo or reverse reverb, also known as backwards echo and reverse regeneration, is a sound effect created as the result of recording an echo or delayed signal of an audio recording played backwards. The original recording is then played forwards accompanied by the recording of the echo or delayed signal which now precedes the original signal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1628312", "title": "Fast forward", "section": "Section::::Usage in audio.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 218, "text": "Fast-forwarding is the exact opposite of rewinding, in which tape, music, etc., are moved backward at a user's discretion. In either operation, because of sound distortion, volume is usually muted or severely reduced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37860339", "title": "Trick mode", "section": "Section::::Implementation issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 457, "text": "With an analogue system, the visual fast-forward/rewind effect was generated simply by transmitting the frames faster and/or in reverse; there was an inevitable loss of frame synchronization or 'tearing' but this was accepted as the norm. With a digital system, it is unlikely that the decoder can process the digital stream significantly faster than normal, and certainly not backwards. Therefore, only a subset of frames can be presented to the decoder. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17098311", "title": "The New Backwards", "section": "Section::::Backwards demo.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 696, "text": "\"Backwards\" was a studio bootleg recording by Coil. The origin of the source of \"Backwards\" is believed to have been a leak of the studio demo, in the form of a cassette. However, the entire demo was broadcast when Dutch Radio4, a radio station in Amsterdam, had Coil as in studio guests to coincide with a live performance on the date of 2001 June 1. The program was broadcast on 2001 June 18 and a four disc CD-R set of the entire broadcast, made by the radio station, was released in an unknown quantity as \"Dutch Radio4 Supplement\". Although part of the proposed album was eventually released as \"The Ape of Naples\", the material is so augmented that there are very few recognizable samples.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1283287", "title": "Reverse tape effects", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 258, "text": "Reverse tape effects are special effects created by recording sound onto magnetic tape and then physically reversing the tape so that when the tape is played back, the sounds recorded on it are heard in reverse. Backmasking is a type of reverse tape effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Automotive journalist here. \n\nYour question is intimately tied to the history of automotive magazines, and I’m not aware of a really good, academic history exploring that. I can tell you that the form itself dates back to the earliest days of motoring — Carl Benz filed his patent for the “vehicle powered by a gas engine” in 1886, and both the American publication The Horseless Age and the U.K.’s The AutoCar published their first issues in 1895. \n\nBut they were more industrial news for makers and sellers of cars than consumer opinion for many years. Prior to the development of the car review, automotive magazines experimented with being industry publications full of sales data and how-to repair guides, but the car review we know today was a post-world war II creation. \n\nThe father of the modern car review - a journalist’s opinion of the car based on their experience of driving it - was American Tom McCahill, and he’s widely credited within the industry as the first to publish 0-60 times. \n\nHe convinced Mechanix Illustrated to publish the first such article, where he reviewed his own personal 1946 Ford Coupe, which, he noted, got from a dead stop to 60 mph in about 23 seconds. He left us no notes on how he made this measurement. But he repeated the test in subsequent reviews. \n\nWhy did he pick 0-60 instead of, say, 0-50? Sad to say, no one seems to have recorded his answer. \n\nI will note that it’s quite close to a 0-100 kph measurement, which would seem intuitively more logical. But I have no evidence that he even considered this. Models at the time were generally not sold on multiple continents, so it seems doubtful that it entered his mind. \n\nBoth his review format and his test caught on. By the middle 1950s, publications like Sports Cars Illustrated (today known as Car and Driver) and Motor Trend made it the heart of their content, and they all published 0-60 times. \n\nIt’s worth noting, however, that they didn’t all use a standard technique and haven’t stuck with the same technique all along. Innovations in drag racing particularly changed the numbers — beginning in the 1960s, drag strips used a light beam system to measure time — and in the U.S., enthusiast magazines rented time on these for testing. Because of the way they trigger, the machines allowed the car to roll about 1 foot before they began to measure. The technology has changed, but to keep their numbers consistent, many publications still test with “one foot of roll-out.”\n\nThis practice never caught on in Europe, where drag racing was never a significant phenomenon. Hence, American and European publications tend to use different methods that can produce different measurements. In a world where enthusiasts argue over every tenth of a second, that becomes a little humorous. \n\nHope that helps. I wish there were better sources to point you to, but to the best of my knowledge, the first good academic history of our field has yet to be attempted.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "897080", "title": "Nash Metropolitan", "section": "Section::::First reviews.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 546, "text": "A \"Road & Track\" road test recorded acceleration from 0–60 mph in 22.4 seconds, \"almost half of the VW’s 39.2.\" However the magazine noted that at , a common American cruising speed at the time, the Metropolitan was revving at 4300 rpm, which shortened engine life, whereas the Volkswagen could travel at the same speed at only 3000 rpm. \"Road & Track\"s testers also said that the car had “more than its share of roll and wallow on corners” and there was “little seat-of-the-pants security when the rear end takes its time getting back in line.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1734076", "title": "Austin A40 Somerset", "section": "Section::::Performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 539, "text": "An Autocar magazine road test published 18 April 1952 achieved a maximum of (mean) and (best), and a 0-60 mph acceleration of 36.6 seconds whereas the example registered new in February 1954 and given a Used Car Test published in the Autocar series dated 8 April 1960 returned a 0-60 mph time of just 27.9 seconds. The standing quarter mile was down from 24.4 secs to 23.2 secs a marked improvement on the former result taken in 1952 and directly comparable with the Mini 850 launched in 1959, that was considered to be fairly brisk then.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5705554", "title": "Rambler Marlin", "section": "Section::::1965.:Press reaction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 313, "text": "The new model met with a mixed reception in the press. \"Popular Mechanics\" magazine recorded 0 to 60 mph in 10.8 seconds by manually shifting the automatic transmission, and fuel economy of at a steady . Tom McCahill's road test in \"Mechanics Illustrated\" recorded 0 to 60 mph in 9.7 seconds with the 327 engine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53357", "title": "AMC Gremlin", "section": "Section::::History.:Performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 388, "text": "When \"Popular Mechanics\" magazine tested the car with the Audi four-cylinder engine introduced in 1977, they said its acceleration with a four-speed manual felt \"amazingly strong\", with 0-60 mph and quarter-mile times one second slower than with the 232 cubic inch straight-six (16 vs. 15, and 21 vs. 20 seconds respectively). The smaller engine produced EPA mileage of highway and city.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15400476", "title": "Daimler Sovereign", "section": "Section::::Sovereign (Jaguar 420 based: 1966-1969).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 358, "text": "In 1967 the final drive ratio was quietly changed from 3.31:1 to 3.54:1 which led to press complaints about fussier high speed cruising but which improved acceleration times from stand-still within the range of the speeds legal in Britain following the introduction, in December 1965, of a blanket 70 mph (113 km/h) speed limit across the nation's highways.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "559451", "title": "Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren", "section": "Section::::Technical highlights.:Performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 399, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Car and Driver\" achieved a 0 to acceleration time of 3.4 seconds, and a time of 11.2 seconds at . \"Car and Driver\" also achieved top gear acceleration and times of 1.7 and 2.4 seconds, which are the fastest ever recorded by the magazine in a production car. The SLR also pulled 1.13 g on the skidpad. The magazine suggested that the times may be even lower if temperatures were lower.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8802261", "title": "0 to 60 mph", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 632, "text": "The time it takes to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h or 0 to 27 m/s) is a commonly used performance measure for automotive acceleration in the United States and the United Kingdom. In the rest of the world, 0 to 100 km/h (0 to 62.1 mph) is used. Present performance cars are capable of going from 0 to 60 mph in under 6 seconds, while exotic cars can do 0 to 60 mph in between 3 and 4 seconds, whereas motorcycles have been able to achieve these figures with sub-500cc since the 1990s. The fastest automobile in 2015 was the Porsche 918 Spyder, which is a hybrid vehicle taking 2.2 seconds to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "All were destroyed; Troy before the Golden Age of Greece, Carthage by a victorious Rome around 150 BC, and Sparta was sacked by the Goths around 400 AD after centuries of empty autonomy as a curiosity within the Roman Empire. \n\nInterestingly, it appears that the last few speakers of the Spartan dialect are dying out. After millennia, Tsakonian - a descendant of Doric Greek - is restricted to [only a few hundred speakers](_URL_0_).\n\nThe cultures of Troy and Carthage, on the other hand, have basically been entirely wiped out by history.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What we think of in the classical sense of Sparta is an abandoned ruin, with scattered relics lying around. [The modern city of Sparta lies just a few miles away](_URL_1_), and is a relatively new town.\n\nTroy, or the site largely considered to be Troy has been rebuild about 9 times over the years [and can be seen in layers](_URL_2_). Though now is entirely a ruin.\n\nCarthage has existed as both a major and minor city over the past few thousand years, [and is another case of a small city with the same name located just a few miles away](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5823212", "title": "Late Bronze Age collapse", "section": "Section::::Regional evidence.:Evidence of destruction.:Greece.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 1786, "text": "None of the Mycenaean palaces of the Late Bronze Age survived (with the possible exception of the Cyclopean fortifications on the Acropolis of Athens), with destruction being heaviest at palaces and fortified sites. Thebes was one of the earliest examples of this having its palace sacked repeatedly between 1300 and 1200 BC eventually being completely destroyed by fire. The extent of this destruction is highlighted by Robert Drews who reasons that the destruction was such that Thebes did not resume a significant position in Greece until at least the late 12th century. Many other sites offer less conclusive causes for example it is entirely unclear what happened at Athens, although it is clear that the settlement saw a significant decline during the Bronze Age Collapse. While there is no evidence of any significant destruction at this site, lacking the remnants of a destroyed palace or central structure, the change in locations of living quarters and burial sites demonstrates a significant recession clearly. Furthermore an increase in fortification at this site is suggestive of a much fear of the decline in Athens to the extent that Vincent Desborough makes an assertion that this is evidence of later migrations away from the city in reaction to its initial decline, although a significant population did remain. It is possible though that this emigration from Athens was not a violent affair and other causes have been suggested. Nancy Demand posits that environmental changes could well have played a significant role in the collapse of Athens. In particular Demand notes in the presence of \"enclosed and protected means of access to water sources at Athens\" as evidence of persistent droughts in the region that could have resulted in a fragile reliance on imports.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18020", "title": "Lost city", "section": "Section::::How cities are lost.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 450, "text": "Troy was a city located in northwest Anatolia in what is now Turkey. It is best known for being the focus of the Trojan War described in the Greek Epic Cycle and especially in the \"Iliad\", one of the two epic poems attributed to Homer. Repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt, the city slowly declined and was abandoned in the Byzantine era. Buried by time, the city was consigned to the realm of legend until the location was first excavated in the 1860s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30059", "title": "Troy", "section": "Section::::Historical Troy uncovered.:Troy I–V.:Schliemann's Troy II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 407, "text": "\"I have proved that in a remote antiquity there was in the plain of Troy a large city, destroyed of old by a fearful catastrophe, which had on the hill of Hisarlık only its Acropolis with its temples and a few other large edifices, southerly, and westerly direction on the site of the later Ilium; and that, consequently, this city answers perfectly to the Homeric description of the sacred site of Ilios.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30059", "title": "Troy", "section": "Section::::Historical Troy uncovered.:Troy I–V.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 1274, "text": "The first city on the site was founded in the 3rd millennium BC. During the Bronze Age, the site seems to have been a flourishing mercantile city, since its location allowed for complete control of the Dardanelles, through which every merchant ship from the Aegean Sea heading for the Black Sea had to pass. Cities to the east of Troy were destroyed, and although Troy was not burned, the next period shows a change of culture indicating a new people had taken over Troy. The first phase of the city is characterized by a smaller citadel, around 300 ft in diameter, with 20 rectangular houses surrounded by massive walls, towers, and gateways. Troy II doubled in size and had a lower town and the upper citadel, with the walls protecting the upper acropolis which housed the megaron-style palace for the king. The second phase was destroyed by a large fire, but the Trojans rebuilt, creating a fortified citadel larger than Troy II, but which had smaller and more condensed houses, suggesting an economic decline. This trend of making a larger circuit, or extent of the walls, continued with each rebuild, for Troy III, IV, and V. Therefore, even in the face of economic troubles, the walls remained as elaborate as before, indicating their focus on defense and protection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30059", "title": "Troy", "section": "Section::::Historical Troy uncovered.:Troy VI and VII.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 411, "text": "Troy VIIa, which has been dated to the mid-to-late-13th century BC, is the most often cited candidate for the Troy of Homer. Troy VIIa appears to have been destroyed by war. The evidence of fire and slaughter around 1184 BC, which brought Troy VIIa to a close, led to this phase being identified with the city besieged by the Greeks during the Trojan War. This was immortalized in the \"Iliad\" written by Homer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16074902", "title": "Siege of Akragas (406 BC)", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 303, "text": "The city of Akragas, destroyed in 405 BC, would again be populated by Greeks, although it would not reach the level of wealth and power it had previously enjoyed. It would grow powerful enough to oppose both Carthage and Syracuse in the struggle these cities would engage in for the next hundred years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "150216", "title": "Spartan hegemony", "section": "Section::::The Boeotian War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 841, "text": "During the winter of 379/378 BC, a group of Theban exiles were able to sneak into the city and, despite the 1500-strong Spartan garrison, succeed in liberating Thebes. During the next few years, Sparta mounted four expeditions against Thebes, which completely failed to bring Thebes to heel. In 375 BC, Sparta suffered a symbolically significant defeat at the hands of Thebes in the Battle of Tegyra. Finally, the Greek city-states attempted a peace on the mainland by sending diplomats to meet with Agesilaus in Sparta. Epaminondas, the Theban diplomat, angered Agesilaus by arguing for the freedom of the non-Spartans of Laconia. Agesilaus then struck the Thebans out of the treaty. The ensuing Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC marked the end of Spartan hegemony. Agesilaus himself did not fight at Leuctra so as not to appear too belligerent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yeah! So the faculty sent out an email telling the student body not to be super racist and wear offensive costumes on halloween. Then a professor responded to that email saying that it wasn't the school's responsibility to police students like that and they should make their own judgement and face the social consequences of wearing offensive costumes. The students took this response offensively as they thought freedom of speech should be regulated by the school. The professor did not agree. Basically the professor was trying to make a point about freedom of speech and it back-fired on him. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "48525254", "title": "2015–16 University of Missouri protests", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 747, "text": "In 2015, a series of protests at the University of Missouri related to race, workplace benefits, and leadership resulted in the resignations of the president of the University of Missouri System and the chancellor of the flagship Columbia campus. The moves came after a series of events that included a hunger strike by a student and a boycott by the football team. The movement was primarily led by a student group named Concerned Student 1950. The movement and protests were documented in two films, one made by MU student journalists and the other, \"2 Fists Up\", by Spike Lee. While it is alleged that bad publicity from the protests has led to dropping enrollment and cutbacks, others have cited budget cuts issued from the state legislature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48525254", "title": "2015–16 University of Missouri protests", "section": "Section::::Reactions.:Related protests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 300, "text": "The University of Missouri events inspired other protests or indications of solidarity at nearly eighty other campuses in the United States. Among these were Ithaca College, Yale University, Smith College, Claremont McKenna College, Amherst College, Emporia State University and Brandeis University.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "853900", "title": "Claremont McKenna College", "section": "Section::::History.:2000s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 452, "text": "In November 2015, the college's dean of students resigned after students protested what they called a lack of institutional resources for marginalized students; the dean had implied in an email that minority students didn't fit the \"CMC mold\" and her response to an incident of allegedly culturally appropriative Halloween costumes was seen as lacking. These protests closely followed and were associated with the 2015 University of Missouri protests.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15256243", "title": "Sam Chauncey", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 310, "text": "Rather than the apocalyptic student riot that consumed Kent State University on May 4, 1970, Yale, under the leadership of Kingman Brewster on behalf of the faculty and Kurt Schmoke on behalf of the undergraduates, embraced and then managed the spirit of the protest. The protest lasted two days, May 1 and 2.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52329429", "title": "March 1968", "section": "Section::::March 19, 1968 (Tuesday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 128, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 128, "end_character": 737, "text": "BULLET::::- Student protests began at Howard University in Washington, D.C., and were marked by \"the first building takeover on a college campus\", signalling a new era of militant student activism on American college campuses. For five days, students staged a sit-in of the administration building, temporarily shutting down the historically-black university. The impetus for the demonstration was the punishment of 37 students who had disrupted the university's Charter Day celebration on March 1. Additional causes that were protested the school's ROTC program and military recruitment; the disproportionate number of African-Americans being sent into combat in the Vietnam War; and the lack of curriculum of African-American studies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44470944", "title": "2015 Missouri Tigers football team", "section": "Section::::Campus protests and resignation of Tim Wolfe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 527, "text": "In the fall of 2015 there were a number of racially charged incidents at the University of Missouri campus. Some students held protests, and some called for the resignation of university system president Tim Wolfe, who they said had not provided a sufficient response to the incidents. On November 7 some members of the Missouri Tigers football team said that they would boycott all football-related activities until Wolfe resigned. Coach Pinkel stated that he supported the players. On November 9 Wolfe resigned as president.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20299650", "title": "Carl Hovde", "section": "Section::::Columbia University.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 561, "text": "The students protests had begun in April 1968 in response to plans by Columbia to construct a gym in Morningside Park that was opposed by Harlem residents and by disclosures of university ties to the Institute for Defense Analyses, a weapons research think-tank connected with the United States Department of Defense. Several buildings on the campus were taken over, with windows damaged and files destroyed by student protesters. Police cleared out and arrested on charges of criminal trespassing a group of 700 students, but the protests persisted for weeks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your field of vision is much shorter at night (the length of your headlights), so things appear to move by you quickly. During the day you see things further down the horizon.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "698830", "title": "Street light", "section": "Section::::Disadvantages.:Health and safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 536, "text": "BULLET::::- The loss of night vision because of the accommodation reflex of drivers' eyes is the greatest danger. As drivers emerge from an unlighted area into a pool of light from a street light their pupils quickly constrict to adjust to the brighter light, but as they leave the pool of light the dilation of their pupils to adjust to the dimmer light is much slower, so they are driving with impaired vision. As a person gets older the eye's recovery speed gets slower, so driving time and distance under impaired vision increases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "422481", "title": "Mass–energy equivalence", "section": "Section::::History.:Einstein: mass–energy equivalence.:Alternative version.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 371, "text": "However, if the same process is considered in a frame that moves with velocity to the left, the pulse moving to the left is redshifted, while the pulse moving to the right is blue shifted. The blue light carries more momentum than the red light, so that the momentum of the light in the moving frame is not balanced: the light is carrying some net momentum to the right.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "354679", "title": "Road traffic safety", "section": "Section::::Mortality.:Built-up areas.:Turning across traffic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 238, "text": "BULLET::::- When you think it is clear, look away, to the road that you are entering. There is an optical illusion that, after a time, presents an oncoming vehicle as further away and travelling slower. Looking away breaks this illusion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21711318", "title": "Local roads in Ireland", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 283, "text": "These roads, with sharp turns and low visibility, barely wide enough for two cars to pass each other, have the same speed limit as many sections of dual carriageways, with physical segregation of and multiple lanes for each direction, only very light turns and excellent visibility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23271819", "title": "Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect", "section": "Section::::Effects on the entertainment industry.:LEDs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 352, "text": "Another field that uses this is the automotive industry. LEDs in the dashboard and instrument lighting are designed for use in mesopic luminance. In studies, it has been found that red LEDs appear brighter than green LEDs, which means that a driver would be able to see red light more intense thus more alerting the green lights when driving at night.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "418780", "title": "Headlamp", "section": "Section::::Optical systems.:Reflector lamps.:Reflector optics.:Dual-beam reflector headlamps.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 413, "text": "Night driving is difficult and dangerous due to the blinding glare of headlights from oncoming traffic. Headlamps that satisfactorily illuminate the road ahead without causing glare have long been sought. The first solutions involved resistance-type dimming circuits, which decreased the intensity of the headlamps. This yielded to tilting reflectors, and later to dual-filament bulbs with a high and a low beam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25119429", "title": "Head start (positioning)", "section": "Section::::In traffic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 227, "text": "In traffic, at a red light, many motorists will start to inch up in anticipation of the light turning green (watching the signal of the perpendicular traffic). This will give them a \"head start\" on other motorists on the road.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, very slowly.\n\nLight has momentum, even though it is massless, so if you shoot a beam of light in one direction, conservation of momentum will push you in the opposite direction.\n\nA reasonably powerful LED flashlight will use about 1-3 Watt, lets say 3 W. The efficiency of a LED is somewhere between 25% and 40%, so for sake of ease of computation lets make that 33% and we get a net amount of light output of 1 W. \n\nThe ratio between the momentum and energy of light is 299,792,458 (Which is also the speed of light). So in 1 second, the flashlight produces 1 J worth of light, which is equal to 0.33 * 10^-8 kg m/s. If the flashlight is not too heavy, say 100 gram or 0.1 kg, that means that 1 second of light would propel the flashlight to a velocity of 10^-7 m/s. This assumes that all light is directed in straight line. The more cone-shaped the bundle of light is, the lower the momentum transfer is.\n\nLeaving the light on for one day would propel the flashlight to about 0.009 m/s or almost 1 cm per second. Unfortunately, operating a 3 W LED for a day uses about 260 kJ of energy. Regular AA batteries have somewhere around 10 kJ of energy (depending on the type). And at a weight of 20-30 grams per battery, you can't carry put more than 2-3 in the device without violating our original assumption of a 100 gram device.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As other answers have said, Yes.\n\nIn terms of using this as actual spaceship propulsion (powered by solar panels), there is a slightly easier way:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nWhich reflects the sun's light to generate (tiny amounts of) thrust!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As an addendum to the information already provided here:\n\nIts not just visible light that'll produce a tangible thrust. Any wavelength of light will. This becomes a problem for space probes, because electronics and power supplies turning on and off create heat in the infrared spectrum, and these infrared photons cause a small thrust which over long periods of time will cause the probe to veer off course.\n\nThere's actual computer simulation and modeling done at NASA to account for this infrared-thrust effect when setting probe trajectories and course corrections.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How do you measure movement in space? I was think about how you would test OPs question. How would you set a flashlight in space without already being in motion? Or because it is all theoretical anyway... it doesn't matter? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Don't know much about physics, but why would the weight of an object matter in space? Wouldn't any object be weightless? I would of thought that the surface area of the reflective/light producing object would be what mattered? Can a physicist please explain?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's a classic physics trick problem where you ask students to figure out the best way to gain momentum using only a flashlight or laser pointer while in space. The trick of the question is that it's better to simply throw the flashlight/laser pointer than to bother turning it on!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Can someone explain to me why the light would need to continue being on in order for the flashlight to keep moving? I thought when something gets propelled in space, because space is pretty much a vacuum, that it just keeps moving? Like if a rocket ship was up there, fired its engines, then turned it off, it would now move a constant velocity.\n\nI know space isn't a perfect vacuum, but surely those few hydrogen atoms colliding with the flashlight would make negligible difference, unless there's another reason why the flashlight needs to keep its light on to keep moving?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Followup question. Given that sources of artificial light are not evenly distributed on the Earth (see: _URL_0_), are we propelling the Earth in some direction? Granted, the Earth is huge, and I imagine atmospheric scattering of light would dampen this effect, but is this theoretically happening? I would imagine that since most artificial light is used at night, if this were to be happening, we would be propelling ourself in the direction of the sun.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Aerospace Engineer here. In college we were presented a question during class on this very topic. Essentially, if you're an astronaut and get separated from your space craft and all you have is a flashlight - can you get back to the ship?\n\nLong answer - If you turn on the flash light and point it in the direct-opposite direction of the space craft. Yes. But it is going to take a long time.\n\nShort answer - If you throw the flashlight in the direct-opposite direction of the space craft. Yes. But you're a lot more likely to mess up your trajectory and miss the ship.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "E=mc^2, and photons carry energy. \nFor the most part, a flash light emits visible light (lets assume it is an LED, and not an incandescent), which has an a frequency of about 600 THz.\n\nA photon's energy, is E=hf, (h=Plank's constants, f=frequency). So there fore, E=(6.63*10^-34 Joule/sec)*(600*10^12sec). Do the math, and it comes out to about 4x10^-19 joules (Not that much).\nNext, plug that into E=mc^2. (4x10^-19 J)/c^2 =m. Plug in c, and you get the mass of a photon at 600THz, is about 4.5 J/m^2/s^2 x 10^-36\n\nSince the Joule can be converted (kg*m^2)/s^2 (_URL_0_), you substitute J for that, cross out the m^2 and s^2, and end up with 4.5x10^-36 kg.\n\nTo give you an idea, the smallest SI prefix, is yocto- (i.e. a yoctogram), which is equal to 10^-24 grams. A photon (if i calclulated the mass correctly) is about 4.5x10^-11 yocto grams. Also, the mass of an electron is about 9.1 x 10^-31kg, making it 100,000x more massive than a phton. This is almost the same as the ratio of the mass of earth to the sun (if a photon were the earth, an electron would be the sun, and you would be about as massive as the entire universe) (VERY rough estimates).\n\nNow, a mag-lite is about 600 lumens. 1 lumen at 560nm (pretty close to our 600nm wavelength) is 3.8 x 10^15 photons/second, so let's say our mag-lite is emitting 4x10^15 photons per second.\n\nGiven this, and our previous estimate that 1 photon is 4.5x10^-36 kg, it is emitting about 18x10^-21 kg of photons per second, moving at 1c (c=speed of light in vacuum). Since every action has an equal and opposite reaction, we know that this could also propel 18x10^-21 kg of material in the opposite direction at the speed of light, every second.\n\nSo now we use the F=ma formula, where m = 18x10^-21 kg, and a is 299 792 458 m/s, per second, or 299 792 458 m/s^2. \nPlug that in F=(18x10^-21 kg)*(299 792 458 m/s^2)\n\nSo. the force that the mag-lite is creating by being turned on is about 5.4x10^-12N.\n\nNow we work in reverse to find the acceleration of the flashlight.\nI'm going to make a rough estimate, that a maglite wights about 12lbs. 1lbs is about 1/2 a kilo (in earth-gravity), and so 12lbs is about 5.5 kilo.\n\nFINALLY we plug that in, to F=ma again, and get 5.4x10^-12N=5.5kg*a. Do some algebra, convert N to 1kg * m/s, multiply/devide it out, and get around 1^-14 meters per second squared.\n\nBIG THANKS TO:\nwikipedia\n_URL_2_\n_URL_1_\nMy TI-84 calculator\nThis Saturday, so i could spend about an hour working out this problem.\n\nTL,DR: A mag-lite that emits 600 lumens with a mass of 5.5kg, when turned on will accelerate at about 0.00000000000001m/s^2.\n\nEDIT: If I did anything wrong, please tell me. I am by no means an expert on this stuff. I just used google and a calculator\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5439008", "title": "Georges Sagnac", "section": "Section::::Sagnac effect.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 607, "text": "In 1913, Georges Sagnac showed that if a beam of light is split and sent in two opposite directions around a closed path on a revolving platform with mirrors on its perimeter, and then the beams are recombined, they will exhibit interference effects. From this result Sagnac concluded that light propagates at a speed independent of the speed of the source. The motion of the earth through space had no apparent effect on the speed of the light beam, no matter how the platform was turned. The effect had been observed earlier (by Harress in 1911), but Sagnac was the first to correctly identify the cause.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26000", "title": "Ray tracing (graphics)", "section": "Section::::Algorithm overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 444, "text": "It may at first seem counterintuitive or \"backward\" to send rays \"away\" from the camera, rather than \"into\" it (as actual light does in reality), but doing so is many orders of magnitude more efficient. Since the overwhelming majority of light rays from a given light source do not make it directly into the viewer's eye, a \"forward\" simulation could potentially waste a tremendous amount of computation on light paths that are never recorded.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33079593", "title": "Organizational information theory", "section": "Section::::Key concepts.:Loose coupling and the information environment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 949, "text": "Accordingly, the \"flashlight analogy\" is used to explain the inseparability of action and knowledge present in this theory. One should imagine he is in a dark field at night with only a flashlight. He can vaguely pick out objects around him, but can't really tell what they are. Is that lump in the distance a bush or a dangerous animal? When he turns on his flashlight, however, he creates a circle of light that allows him to see clearly and act with relative clarity. The act of turning on the flashlight effectively created a new environment that allowed him to interpret the world around him. There is still only a single circle of light, though, and what remains outside that circle is still just as mysterious, unless the flashlight is redirected. With organizational information theory, the flashlight is mental. The environment is located in the mind of the actor and is imposed on him by his experiences, which makes them more meaningful.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "243718", "title": "Flashlight", "section": "Section::::Formats and specialized designs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 642, "text": "People working in hazardous areas with significant concentrations of flammable gases or dusts, such as mines, engine rooms of ships, chemical plants or grain elevators, use \"non-incendive\", \"intrinsically safe\" or \"explosion proof\" flashlights constructed so that any spark in the flashlight is not likely to set off an explosion outside the light. The flashlight may require approval by an authority for the particular service and particular gases or dusts expected. The external temperature rise of the flashlight must not exceed the autoignition point of the gas, so substitution of more powerful lamps or batteries may void the approval.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2174251", "title": "Mechanically powered flashlight", "section": "Section::::Dyno torch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 767, "text": "A dyno torch, dynamo torch, or squeeze flashlight is a flashlight or pocket torch which stores energy in a flywheel. The user repeatedly squeezes a handle to spin a flywheel inside the flashlight, attached to a small dynamo, supplying electric current to an incandescent bulb or light-emitting diode. The flashlight must be pumped continuously during use, with the flywheel turning the generator between squeezes to keep the light going continuously. Because electrical power is produced only when the handle is squeezed, a switch is not needed. Dyno torches were issued to soldiers during World War II, and were popular in Europe during the war because the electrical power supply to homes was not very reliable. A version using a pull-cord was used in World War I.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2943429", "title": "Samsung D600", "section": "Section::::Features and specifications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 331, "text": "BULLET::::- Flash: A white LED light, not comparable to a real flashlight but usable for adding more light on short distance. Controlled by the \"0\" key in photo mode, the LED can also be manually turned on before taking a picture. This way it could also be used as a very short-lived emergency pocket lamp (if the battery is full)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "248234", "title": "Booby trap", "section": "Section::::Military booby traps.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 579, "text": "Almost any item can be booby-trapped in some way. For example, booby trapping a flashlight is a classic tactic: a flashlight already contains most of the required components. First of all, the flashlight acts as bait, tempting the victim to pick it up. More importantly, it is easy to conceal a detonator, some explosives, and batteries inside the flashlight casing. A simple electrical circuit is connected to the on/off switch. When the victim attempts to turn the flashlight on to see if it works, the resulting explosion blows their hand or arm off and possibly blinds them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It goes to a service called \"Fedwire\". Everyone has different banks, so the backbone is a service provided by the Fed that \"clears\" transactions. \nYou swipe your card and Target's bank infrastructure, say its Chase, needs your money from BoA. The data is sent about transaction to Fedwire over internet/phone lines when you swipe on the scanner since they need BoA to release your money. This is handled digitally through Fedwire, which is why it is known as an \"Automated Clearing House\". It simply allows the banks to interact digitally. \n\nThe idea of having this central structure, rather than each bank communicating each individual transaction to each other digitally is known as clearing. There are enormous amounts that cancel out. If Chase needs $150 from a BoA account, but other transactions are happening (other people swiping) that result in BoA needing $100 from Chase, BoA will only actually send $50 to Chase, the net amount. It is easier and cheaper to transfer the net amount rather than the total amounts twice (one transaction vs two).\nEDIT: this is for debit", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Agreed /u/kilo21 for debit.\n \nCredit is virtually the same but I'll explain a bit about the process from a transaction stand point. Some of these steps are cancelled out depending on the company (Discover acts as its own bank and allows them to give higher rewards).\n\nYou go to Target to buy some socks and pay at the checkout with your credit card (let's say it's a Capital One Visa card). You swipe the card. Over the phone/lan line, that swipe information is sent to VISA with a dummy account number that Capital One can identify. VISA has it's own security checks to make sure the transaction looks safe. Pending your transaction meets that criteria, VISA contacts Capital One and sends over that dummy account id. \n\nCapital One references that number to pull up your actual account. They check their own security data to make sure the purchase isn't suspicious (different state, high dollar purchase, buying a lot recently), and also to make sure you have enough credit limit to make the purchase (they still may approve it depending on your card's terms, but you'll pay a fee for going over). Assuming you meet their criteria, Capital One approves the payment to Target. \n\nThere is a third player that comes in that actually pays Target for that purchase. VISA and Capital One aren't sending out checks every day to Targets across the country. Instead there's a Clearing House and other small/big banks that transfer digital cash to Target without VISA or Capital One having to micro manage things.\n\nAll of that happens in a matter of ~5 seconds.\n\n*Additional information* around transactions and fees associated. You may have noticed some businesses asking for cash only or credit/debit purchases allowed only if its greater than x dollars. All the work I described above isn't free, but it's at a stores benefit to allow credit card purchases so customers will come buy things (how many of us pay cash?). \n\nFor credit purchases, the business it's typically charged a flat % around the 2-3% range (some going to VISA, some going to Capital One, and some of that going back to you in the form of rewards). We call that interchange fees. (There are ways for businesses to lower that % too, like making you sign or the cashier asking for last 4 numbers of your card).\n\nFor Debit, it's usually a flat fee + some percent. I'm less knowledgeable here but lets say it's 10 cents plus 1%. Smaller % because there's less risk the money doesn't get paid.\n\nHowever, if I'm buying a stick of gum for $1 from a small business: Cash would give the business $1 (100% value). Credit would give ~98 cents (98%). Debit would give ~89 cents (86%). You can probably tell that payment methods are advantageous to different businesses for different reasons. \n\nSuper small companies, the neighborhood lemonade stand, would like cash because they don't mind the labor of counting, depositing, and overall managing money. Large businesses with lower prices would prefer credit because it simplifies money management and takes a smaller % away of their low value items (no flat fees). Businesses selling high value goods would love debit because it's less costly than credit at a certain cost threshold, and simpler money management than cash.\n\nSorry for the ramble. There's a lot more that goes into transactions but that's a good summary. Source: I work for a credit card company :D", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1476274", "title": "Credit history", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 815, "text": "In many countries, when a customer submits an application for credit from a bank, credit card company, or a store, their information is forwarded to a credit bureau. The credit bureau matches the name, address and other identifying information on the credit applicant with information retained by the bureau in its files. The gathered records are then used by lenders to determine an individual's credit worthiness; that is, determining an individual's ability and track record of repaying a debt. The willingness to repay a debt is indicated by how timely past payments have been made to other lenders. Lenders like to see consumer debt obligations paid regularly and on time, and therefore focus particularly on missed payments and may not, for example, consider an overpayment as an offset for a missed payment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17182301", "title": "Credit card", "section": "Section::::Usage.:Credit card register.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 299, "text": "A credit card register is a transaction register used to ensure the increasing balance owed from using a credit card is enough below the credit limit to deal with authorization holds and payments not yet received by the bank and to easily look up past transactions for reconciliation and budgeting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "242024", "title": "Bank account", "section": "Section::::Account structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 208, "text": "Bank accounts may have a positive, or \"credit\" balance, where the financial institution owes money to the customer; or a negative, or \"debit\" balance, where the customer owes the financial institution money.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1471699", "title": "Credit card debt", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 242, "text": "Debt results when a client of a credit card company purchases an item or service through the card system. Debt accumulates and increases via interest and penalties when the consumer does not pay the company for the money he or she has spent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51540960", "title": "Card Transaction Data", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 787, "text": "Card transaction data is financial data generally collected through the transfer of funds between a card holder's account and a business's account. It consists of the use of either a debit card or a credit card to generate data on the transfer for the purchase of goods or services. Transaction data describes an action composed of events in which master data participates. Transaction focuses on the price, discount and method of payment interaction between the customer and the organization. They are based on volatility as each transaction data changes every time a purchase is made, one time it could be $10, the next $55. Since debit and credit cards are commonly used to pay for goods and services, they represent a strong percentage of the consumption expenditure in the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12985004", "title": "Credit card balance transfer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 675, "text": "Credit card terms specify the order in which payments are applied to balance(s). In nearly all cases payments are applied to the lowest-rate balances first and the highest-rate last. In countries such as Australia and Germany legislation requires the card company to instead first apply payments to the highest-rate balances. The banks invariably set the order of payment to ensure any balance at a reduced or fixed rate will be paid off sooner than new purchases or cash advances at a higher rate. By avoiding making purchases or taking cash advances, the borrower can ensure that interest accrued every month is at the low beneficial rate of the original balance transfer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17182301", "title": "Credit card", "section": "Section::::Usage.:Interest charges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 1031, "text": "The credit card may simply serve as a form of revolving credit, or it may become a complicated financial instrument with multiple balance segments each at a different interest rate, possibly with a single umbrella credit limit, or with separate credit limits applicable to the various balance segments. Usually this compartmentalization is the result of special incentive offers from the issuing bank, to encourage balance transfers from cards of other issuers. In the event that several interest rates apply to various balance segments, payment allocation is generally at the discretion of the issuing bank, and payments will therefore usually be allocated towards the lowest rate balances until paid in full before any money is paid towards higher rate balances. Interest rates can vary considerably from card to card, and the interest rate on a particular card may jump dramatically if the card user is late with a payment on that card \"or any other credit instrument\", or even if the issuing bank decides to raise its revenue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because the magnets in the speakers don't need to be very strong and as such aren't going to impact the readings very much. For any impact they do have you can also calibrate the magnetic sensor to ignore it from the speakers as that will be constant and always on a single dimension where most smartphone compasses measure the magnetic field in all 3 spacial dimensions (meaning you will get an X, Y, and Z value)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8841749", "title": "IPhone", "section": "Section::::Hardware.:Sensors.:Magnetometer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 523, "text": "A magnetometer is built-in since the iPhone 3GS, which is used to measure the strength and direction of the magnetic field in the vicinity of the device. Sometimes certain devices or radio signals can interfere with the magnetometer requiring users to either move away from the interference or re-calibrate by moving the device in a figure-eight motion. Since the iPhone 3GS, the iPhone also features a Compass app, which was unique at time of release, showing a compass that points in the direction of the magnetic field.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23146180", "title": "IPhone 3GS", "section": "Section::::Features.:Hardware.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 502, "text": "A magnetometer is also built-in the iPhone 3GS, which is used to measure the strength and/or direction of the magnetic field in the vicinity of the device. Sometimes certain devices or radio signals can interfere with the magnetometer requiring users to either move away from the interference or re-calibrate by moving the device in a figure 8 motion. The iPhone 3GS also features a Compass app which was unique at time of release, showing a compass that points in the direction of the magnetic field.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13431137", "title": "Indoor positioning system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 409, "text": "Detecting the device's orientation (often referred to as the compass direction in order to disambiguate it from smartphone vertical orientation) can be achieved either by detecting landmarks inside images taken in real time, or by using trilateration with beacons. There also exist technologies for detecting magnetometric information inside buildings or locations with steel structures or in iron ore mines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36263210", "title": "Geological compass", "section": "Section::::Digital compasses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 506, "text": "In addition, since there is no guarantee given by individual manufacturers, it should not be assumed that the magnetometer axes, and the accelerometer axes, have been accurately aligned to the orientation of the iPhone. Professional digital compass software therefore requires a calibration procedure. As noted above, this can be attempted by comparing data from traditional compasses and a digital compass, for example by slowly rotating both compasses together on a fixed horizontal or inclined surface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39316", "title": "Compass", "section": "Section::::Magnetic compass.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 730, "text": "The magnetic compass is the most familiar compass type. It functions as a pointer to \"magnetic north\", the local magnetic meridian, because the magnetized needle at its heart aligns itself with the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field. The magnetic field exerts a torque on the needle, pulling the North end or \"pole\" of the needle approximately toward the Earth's North magnetic pole, and pulling the other toward the Earth's South magnetic pole. The needle is mounted on a low-friction pivot point, in better compasses a jewel bearing, so it can turn easily. When the compass is held level, the needle turns until, after a few seconds to allow oscillations to die out, it settles into its equilibrium orientation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "83060", "title": "Magnetometer", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Mobile phones.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 137, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 137, "end_character": 520, "text": "Many smartphones contain miniaturized microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) magnetometers which are used to detect magnetic field strength and are used as compasses. The iPhone 3GS has a magnetometer, a magnetoresistive permalloy sensor, the AN-203 produced by Honeywell. In 2009, the price of three-axis magnetometers dipped below US$1 per device and dropped rapidly. The use of a three-axis device means that it is not sensitive to the way it is held in orientation or elevation. Hall effect devices are also popular.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36263210", "title": "Geological compass", "section": "Section::::Digital compasses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 718, "text": "With the advent of the smartphone, geological compass programs based on the 3-axis teslameter and the 3-axis accelerometer have also begun to appear. These compass programs use vector algebra to compute plane and lineation orientations from the accelerometer and magnetometer data, and permit rapid collection of many measurements. However, some problems are potentially present. Measurements made by smartphone geological compasses can potentially be susceptible to noise, mainly due to vibration or rapid hand movement. Users of a smartphone compass should carefully calibrate their devices and run several tests against traditional magnetic compasses in order to understand the limitations of their chosen program.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "One reason is that basically the brain is floating in water inside our skulls and if the the blow is strong enough to push the brain with enough momentum to bounce on part of the skull to another and the brain gets short circuited.\nAnother reason is that a certain amount of pain and/stress is too much to handle and our hearts are beating too fast because its in fight/flight mode and our brain shuts off to prevent us from dying via heart attack.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1156067", "title": "Smelling salts", "section": "Section::::Physiological action.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 256, "text": "Fainting can be caused by excessive parasympathetic and vagal activity that slows the heart and decreases perfusion of the brain. The sympathetic irritant effect is exploited to counteract these vagal parasympathetic effects and thereby reverse the faint.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12644602", "title": "Standing", "section": "Section::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypotension.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 234, "text": "It can cause dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, blurred or dimmed vision and fainting, because the brain does not get sufficient blood supply. This, in turn, is caused by gravity, pulling the blood into the lower part of the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20254750", "title": "Syncope (medicine)", "section": "Section::::Differential diagnosis.:Cardiac.:Structural cardiopulmonary disease.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 762, "text": "These are relatively infrequent causes of fainting. The most common cause in this category is fainting associated with an acute myocardial infarction or ischemic event. The faint in this case is primarily caused by an abnormal nervous system reaction similar to the reflex faints. In general, faints caused by structural disease of the heart or blood vessels are particularly important to recognize, as they are warning of potentially life-threatening conditions. Among other conditions prone to trigger syncope (by either hemodynamic compromise or by a neural reflex mechanism, or both), some of the most important are hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, acute aortic dissection, pericardial tamponade, pulmonary embolism, aortic stenosis, and pulmonary hypertension.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59743", "title": "Panic attack", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 924, "text": "Moreover, this hypocapnia and release of adrenaline during a panic attack cause vasoconstriction resulting in slightly less blood flow to the head which causes dizziness and lightheadedness. A panic attack can cause blood sugar to be drawn away from the brain and toward the major muscles. Neuroimaging suggests heightened activity in the amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, and brainstem regions including the periaqueductal gray, parabrachial nucleus, and Locus coeruleus. In particular, the amygdala has been suggested to have a critical role. The combination of high arousal in the amygdala and brainstem along with decreased blood flow and blood sugar in the brain can lead to dramatically decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex region of the brain. There is evidence that having an anxiety disorder increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Those affected also have a reduction in heart rate variability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59743", "title": "Panic attack", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 682, "text": "People with panic attacks often report a fear of dying or heart attack, flashing vision, faintness or nausea, numbness throughout the body, heavy breathing and hyperventilation, or loss of body control. Some people also suffer from tunnel vision, mostly due to blood flow leaving the head to more critical parts of the body in defense. These feelings may provoke a strong urge to escape or flee the place where the attack began (a consequence of the \"fight-or-flight response\", in which the hormone causing this response is released in significant amounts). This response floods the body with hormones, particularly epinephrine (adrenaline), which aid it in defending against harm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59743", "title": "Panic attack", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 1011, "text": "The symptoms of a panic attack may cause the person to feel that their body is failing. The symptoms can be understood as follows. First, there is frequently the sudden onset of fear with little provoking stimulus. This leads to a release of adrenaline (epinephrine) which brings about the fight-or-flight response when the body prepares for strenuous physical activity. This leads to an increased heart rate (tachycardia), rapid breathing (hyperventilation) which may be perceived as shortness of breath (dyspnea), and sweating. Because strenuous activity rarely ensues, the hyperventilation leads to a drop in carbon dioxide levels in the lungs and then in the blood. This leads to shifts in blood pH (respiratory alkalosis or hypocapnia), causing compensatory metabolic acidosis activating chemosensing mechanisms which translate this pH shift into autonomic and respiratory responses. The person him/herself may overlook the hyperventilation, having become preoccupied with the associated somatic symptoms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1683306", "title": "Atonic seizure", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 463, "text": "Atonic seizures can occur while standing, walking, or sitting, and are often noticeable by a head drop (relaxing of the neck muscles). Fall injuries may result in impact to the face or head. As with common epileptic occurrences, no first aid is needed post-seizure, except in the instances where falling injuries have occurred. In some cases, a person may become temporarily paralyzed in part of his or her body. This usually does not last longer than 3 minutes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\nThere is no literary or other ancient evidence that directly bears on this question, so one is forced to speculate based on average heights of people in antiquity.\n\nThe only article I've ever seen address this is a 2002 issue of Popular Mechanics, which suggests that based on skeletal remains a 1st century Semitic male would be 5'1\". You can read [the article here](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "48987063", "title": "Jesus de Greatest", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 426, "text": "\"Jesus de Greatest\" is tall and weighs 40 tons. It stands barefoot with both arms outstretched, and was carved out of white marble. It was unveiled on January 1, 2016. Mass was held at St. Aloysius Catholic Church, Abajah with the presiding of the bishop of Orlu Catholic Diocese, Ret. Rev. Augustine Ukwuoma with hundreds of Roman Catholic priests and worshipers, and the unveiling of the statue was held on New Year's Day. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48987063", "title": "Jesus de Greatest", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 533, "text": "Jesus de Greatest is a statue of Jesus Christ located in Abajah village in Imo State, Nigeria. It is considered \"Africa’s largest statue of Jesus\", and is the fifth tallest statue in the African continent. The 160 ft African Renaissance Monument is the tallest statue in Africa, the 66 ft Great Sphinx of Giza is second, the 30 ft Statue of Ramesses II is third, and the 28 ft Nelson Mandela statue is fourth. When it comes to \"the largest statue of Jesus in the world\", tall Christ the King in Świebodzin, Poland, takes the credit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2950170", "title": "Race and appearance of Jesus", "section": "Section::::Literary traditions.:Early Church to the Middle Ages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1149, "text": "As quoted by Eisler, both Hierosolymitanus and John of Damascus claim that \"the Jew Josephus\" described Jesus as having had connate eyebrows with goodly eyes and being long-faced, crooked and well-grown. In a letter of certain bishops to the Emperor Theophilus, Jesus's height is described as three cubits (four feet six), which was also the opinion of Ephrem Syrus (320–379 AD), \"God took human form and appeared in the form of three human ells (cubits); he came down to us small of stature.\" Theodore of Mopsuestia likewise claimed that the appearance of Christ was smaller than that of the children of Jacob (Israel). In the apocryphal Lentulus letter Jesus is described as having had a reddish complexion, matching Muslim traditions in this respect. Jesus's prediction that he would be taunted \"Physician, heal yourself\" may suggest that Jesus was indeed physically deformed ('crooked' or hunch-backed) as claimed in the early Christian texts listed above. In fact, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and Ambrose actually considered lack of physical attractiveness in Jesus as fulfilling the messianic prophecy Suffering Servant narrative of Isaiah 53.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23060600", "title": "Cristo Redentore", "section": "Section::::The statue.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 372, "text": "This is the third tallest statue of Jesus in Europe, after \"Christ the King\" in Świebodzin, Poland and \"Cristo-Rei\" (\"Christ the King\") in Lisbon, and the fifth in the world after \"Cristo de la Concordia\" and \"Christ the Redeemer\", both in South America. It is 21,20 metres high, the head is 3 metres in height and the arm-span is 19 metres from finger tip to finger tip.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "100362", "title": "Andhaka", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 322, "text": "His story finds mention in various Hindu texts, including the \"Matsya Purāṇa\", the \"Kūrma Purāṇa\", the \"Liṅga Purāṇa\" and the \"Śiva Purāṇa\". He is believed to have one thousand heads, and one thousand arms, thus having two thousand eyes, arms, and feet. In another version, he has two thousand arms and two thousand legs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16121", "title": "Joshua", "section": "Section::::Views.:In Christianity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 243, "text": "Most modern Bibles translate to identify Jesus as a better Joshua, as Joshua led Israel into the rest of Canaan, but Jesus leads the people of God into \"God's rest\". Among the early Church Fathers, Joshua is considered a type of Jesus Christ.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19278734", "title": "Timothy I (Nestorian patriarch)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 276, "text": "Timothy I, (; \"\", c. 740 – 9 January 823, traditional date of birth 727/728) Patriarch of the Church of the East from 780 to 823, is widely considered to be one of the most impressive patriarchs in the long history of the Church of the East as well as a Father of the Church.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because 30 hours is the sweet spot. Frames took 30 hours to render 20 years ago, despite the lower computing power available at the time.\n\nIf it took more time it would be very annoying to work with, and if it took less time, we could do more in CG^[1], run a more accurate simulation, or build more complex shots without it becoming unworkable\n\n\nYour question might be why does it takes 30 hours to render a frame when video games can do it in a fraction of a second. The answer is that to get results good enough to be composited seamlessly with reality requires very very precise (and thus compute intensive) light and physic simulations. Video games also do make many concessions to run fast (typically there is a hard limit to the number of lights or objects you can get on screen, and if a scene needs more it simply get replaced by a scene that fit these criteria). \n\n\n\n**************************\n\n[1] Doing stuff in CG can often be cheaper, and more flexible than doing stuff practically.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4306621", "title": "Elephants Dream", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 263, "text": "The bulk of computer processing power for rendering the film was donated by the BSU Xseed, a 2.1 TFLOPS Apple Xserve G5-based supercomputing cluster at Bowie State University. It reportedly took 125 days to render, consuming up to 2.8GB of memory for each frame.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31775043", "title": "Prometheus (2012 film)", "section": "Section::::Production.:Pre-production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 1034, "text": "In July 2011, Lindelof said that the film would rely upon practical effects, and would use CGI generally for on-set pre-visualization of external space visuals. Scott said that \"you can pretty much do anything you want\" with digital technology, and, \"Doug Trumbull once said to me 'If you can do it live, do it live.' That was 29 years ago. Even though we have remarkable digital capabilities I still say do it live. It's cheaper.\" Cinematographer Dariusz Wolski convinced Scott that it would be possible to film in 3D with the same ease and efficiency of 2D filming. 3D company 3ality Technica provided some of the rigs and equipment to facilitate 3D filming, and trained the film's crew in their proper operation. According to Scott, the decision to film in 3D added $10 million to the film's budget. Since 3D films need high lighting levels on set, the hallmark dark and shadowy atmosphere of the \"Alien\" films was added in post-production using color grading processes, and the 3D equipment was based on post-\"Avatar\" technology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5772322", "title": "Digital Productions", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 510, "text": "Digital Productions created 27 minutes of animation, in 300 scenes, for the film \"The Last Starfighter\". Each frame of the animation contained an average of 250,000 polygons, and had a resolution of 3000 x 5000 36-bit pixels; they claimed that the imagery was 50 times more complex than the graphics in previous feature films. They estimated that using computer animation required only half the time, and one half to one third the cost, that would have been required if then-traditional methods had been used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26880575", "title": "Embrace Life", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 320, "text": "The film had a small budget of £47,000 (US$72,000) and was shot over two days in the summer of 2009 at Halliford Studios in London. The film was shot on a Phantom HD digital camera, with speeds of up to 1000 frames per second, and no CGI was used in the making of the film. It has a running time of 1 minute 29 seconds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "338849", "title": "The Last Starfighter", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 673, "text": "The computer graphics for the film were rendered by Digital Productions on a Cray X-MP supercomputer. The company created 27 minutes of effects for the film. This was considered an enormous amount of computer generated imagery at the time. For the 300 scenes containing computer graphics in the film, each frame of the animation contained an average of 250,000 polygons, and had a resolution of 3000 × 5000 36-bit pixels. Digital Productions estimated that using computer animation required only half the time, and one half to one third the cost of traditional special effects. The result was a cost of $14 million for a film that made about $21 million at the box office.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213525", "title": "Slow motion", "section": "Section::::How slow motion works.:Overcranking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 267, "text": " For the purposes of making the above illustration readable a projection speed of 10 frames per second (frame/s) has been selected, in fact film is usually projected at 24 frame/s making the equivalent slow overcranking rare, but available on professional equipment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4364033", "title": "3D rendering", "section": "Section::::Non real-time.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 592, "text": "Animations for non-interactive media, such as feature films and video, are rendered much more slowly. Non-real time rendering enables the leveraging of limited processing power in order to obtain higher image quality. Rendering times for individual frames may vary from a few seconds to several days for complex scenes. Rendered frames are stored on a hard disk then can be transferred to other media such as motion picture film or optical disk. These frames are then displayed sequentially at high frame rates, typically 24, 25, or 30 frames per second, to achieve the illusion of movement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "What essentially happened was that the Spanish became importers as opposed to exporters. Spain was so wealthy, that they simply paid for all of the goods they required from other European nations including textiles, weapons, ships even. Spain would simply buy it since they had enough wealth to outsource any internal development. This eventually led to their downfall as well, because at the turn of the industrial revolution Spain was so far behind the rest of Europe in terms of industry that they lost a lot of their stature and prestige.\n\nI wouldn't say it became worthless, because they were using it to purchase all of their needs and the rest of Europe was more than happy to provide those services for Spain, but it eventually did lead to stunting the advancement of the nation itself. However, I am not an export in economics, so it may have had a larger economic affect than I am aware of ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42616", "title": "Price revolution", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 211, "text": "Generally it is thought that this high inflation was caused by the large influx of gold and silver from the Spanish treasure fleet from the New World, including Mexico, Peru, and the rest of the Spanish Empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6168159", "title": "Moscow gold", "section": "Section::::Monetary consequences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 799, "text": "The withdrawal of the Bank of Spain's gold reserves to Moscow has been pointed out to be one of the main causes of the Spanish monetary crisis of 1937. While the gold became in practice an excellent source of funding, its usage dealt a hard blow against the coined and printed currency of the country. Nationalist efforts to expose the exportation of the gold put the government's financial credibility in question, and caused general mistrust among the public. A decree issued by the Ministry of Finance on October 3, 1936, obliging Spaniards to yield all the gold they possessed, caused widespread alarm. Even though the government denied in January 1937 that it had deposited the gold reserves abroad (\"vide supra\"), it was forced to acknowledge that it had made various payments with such gold.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42616", "title": "Price revolution", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 705, "text": "The shortage of precious metals during the late 15th and early 16th centuries eased in the second half of the 16th century. The Spanish mined American gold and silver at minimal cost and flooded the European market with an abundance of specie. This influx caused a relative decrease in the value of these metals in comparison with agricultural and craft products. Furthermore, depopulation – specifically in southern Spain – resulted in a high rate of inflation. The failure of the Spanish to control the influx of gold and the price fluctuations of gold and silver from the American mines, combined with war expenditures, led to three bankruptcies of the Spanish monarchy by the end of the 16th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "227672", "title": "Philippine peso", "section": "Section::::History.:Spanish colonial period.:Philippine Gold/Silver Bimetallic standard in the 19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 943, "text": "The Spanish gold onza (or 8-escudo coin) was of identical weight to the Spanish dollar but was officially valued at 16 silver pesos, thus putting the peso on a bimetallic standard with a gold/silver ratio of 16. Its divergence with the value of gold in international trade featured prominently in the continued monetary crises of the 19th century. In the 1850's the low price of gold in the international markets triggered the outflow of silver coins. In 1875 the adoption of the gold standard in Europe triggered a rise in the international price of gold and the replacement of gold coins with silver pesos. While the Philippines stayed officially bimetallic until 1898 with the peso worth either one silver Mexican peso (weighing 27.07 grams 0.903 fine, or 0.786 troy ounce XAG) or 1/16th the gold onza (weighing 1.6915 gram 0.875 fine, or 0.0476 troy ounce XAU), in reality the gold peso has increased in value to approx. two silver pesos.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "144571", "title": "Commercial Revolution", "section": "Section::::Colonialism and Mercantilism.:Inflation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 1614, "text": "Spain legally amassed approximately 180 tons of gold and 8200 tons of silver through its endeavors in the New World, and another unknown amount through smuggling, spending this money to finance wars and the arts. The spent silver, suddenly being spread throughout a previously cash starved Europe, caused widespread inflation. The inflation was worsened by a growing population but a static production level, low employee salaries and a rising cost of living. This problem, combined with underpopulation (caused by the Black Death), affected the system of agriculture. The landholding aristocracy suffered under the inflation, since they depended on paying small, fixed wages to peasant tenants that were becoming able to demand higher wages. The aristocracy made failed attempts to counteract this situation by creating short-term leases of their lands to allow periodic revaluation of rent. The manorial system (manor system of lord and peasant tenant) eventually vanished, and the landholding aristocrats were forced to sell pieces of their land in order to maintain their style of living. Such sales attracted the rich bourgeois (from the French word referring to this dominant class, emerging with commerce), who wanted to buy land and thereby increase their social status. Former \"common lands\" were fenced by the landed bourgeois, a process known as \"enclosure\" which increased the efficiency of raising livestock (mainly sheep's wool for the textile industry). This \"enclosure\" forced the peasants out of rural areas and into the cities, resulting in urbanization and eventually the industrial revolution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "878460", "title": "Spanish treasure fleet", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 553, "text": "The flow of precious metals also made many traders wealthy, both in Spain and abroad. The increase in gold and silver on the Iberian market sometimes caused high inflation in the 17th century, affecting the Spanish economy. As a consequence, the Crown was forced to delay the payment of some major debts, which had negative consequences for its lenders, mostly foreign bankers. By 1690 some of these lenders could no longer offer financial support to the Crown. The Spanish monopoly over its West and East Indies colonies lasted for over two centuries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53573229", "title": "History of Philippine money", "section": "Section::::Spanish era (1521-1898).:Philippine Gold / Silver Bimetallic Standard in the 19th Century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 348, "text": "The Spanish gold onza (or 8-escudo coin) was of identical weight to the Spanish dollar but was officially valued at 16 silver pesos, thus putting the peso on a bimetallic standard with a gold/silver ratio of 16. Its divergence with the value of gold in international trade featured prominently in the continued monetary crises of the 19th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As you mentioned already, electric motors provide the full amount of torque instantaneously ,whereas conventional drives need time to build it up. So a powerful electric car will launch of the starting line much faster, but it might not be able to achieve the top speeds of gas powered vehicles, really high kW electric motors will be to big.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's pretty simple, they have instant full torque at any RPM (where most automatic cars are at ~4000RPM or 1500RPM-3000RPM if turbo boosted), however, they are not powerful motors, at least not as powerful as a Lambo, meaning their horsepower isn't enough, plus, Tesla's are damn heavy, over 1000lb heavier.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Tesla's motors can in theory supply maximum torque at any RPM. The challenge is this. AC phased motors like the ones Tesla uses require an alternating electric current to be pumped into the motors. The exact frequency depends on exactly how fast you want the motors to spin at (with AC phased motors you are basically setting the position of the motor constantly to make constant rotation). \n\nThis AC current is generated by a device called a Variable Frequency Drive. The problem is that making a reliable AC waveform at high frequency and voltage is pretty difficult (especially due to things like inherent capacitance). The higher you make the frequency the sloppier the waveform gets and you lose torque. \n\nCars like the rimac concept one use a two speed transmission so that they don't have to rev the motors up into the point of inefficiency. The Tesla Model S didn't do this probably because they couldn't get the transmission worked out properly and it compromised reliability and other things, not to mention the extra weight. \n\nAlso at the end of the day Teslas are luxury cars, not Lambo fighters.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "909036", "title": "Elon Musk", "section": "Section::::Career.:Tesla.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 423, "text": "In a May 2013 interview with All Things Digital, Musk said that to overcome the range limitations of electric cars, Tesla is expanding its network of supercharger stations, tripling the number on the East and West coasts of the U.S. that June, with plans for more expansion across North America, including Canada, throughout the year. , Musk owns about 28.9 million Tesla shares, which equates to about 22% of the company.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39752358", "title": "Tesla Supercharger", "section": "Section::::Supercharger technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 226, "text": "Tesla has indicated on multiple occasions that they were interested in having discussions with other auto manufacturers about sharing the Supercharger network, however no agreements have been completed or made public to date.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5760445", "title": "Tesla Roadster (2008)", "section": "Section::::Sales.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 145, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 145, "end_character": 743, "text": "Tesla delivered approximately 2,450 Roadsters worldwide between February 2008 and December 2012. Featuring new options and enhanced features, the 2012 Tesla Roadster was sold in limited numbers only in mainland Europe, Asia and Australia, and as of July 2012, less than 140 units were available for sale in Europe and Asia before the remaining inventory would be sold out. Tesla's US exemption for not having special two-stage passenger airbags expired for cars made after the end of 2011 so the last Roadsters were not sold in the American market for regulatory reasons. The U.S. was the leading market with about 1,800 Roadsters sold. There were fewer than 50 right-hand-drive models of the Tesla Roadster produced and hand built in the UK.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18215937", "title": "Tesla Model S", "section": "Section::::Controversies.:Range limitation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 238, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 238, "end_character": 946, "text": "Tesla responded by publishing logs of the vehicle's charge levels and driving speed that contradicted Broder's account on several factual details. Tesla implied that Broder's behavior forced the car to fail. Broder replied to the criticism in a blog post and suggested that the speed discrepancies may have been because the car had been equipped with 19-inch wheels rather than the specified 21-inch wheels. In the midst of the controversy, a CNN reporter recreated Broder's trip without exhausting the battery. However, two key differences distinguished the two journeys. The weather was about warmer and CNN did the trip in one day; the \"Times\" let the car sit overnight without being plugged in. A reporter from CNBC also recreated the trip in one day without incidents. One week later, a group of Tesla owners recreated Broder's trip without problems. One owner was delayed because his car failed to charge and required two firmware updates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8783360", "title": "Chevrolet Volt", "section": "Section::::Production, price and sales.:End of Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 140, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 140, "end_character": 753, "text": "In 2018, General Motors decided to end production in March 2019. The primary reason given was that the Volt is a sedan, and sales of four-door vehicles were in decline. Car salesmen were proving resistant to selling the car because it was more complicated (and thus took more of their time) to explain how the vehicle operated. Marketing trends showed that sales of hybrids were dropping as more customers were turning to all-electric vehicles like the Chevrolet Bolt. The range-anxiety associated with all-electric vehicles had been in decline due to better battery technology, and most hybrid drivers were turning on their gas-powered engines less frequently. The battery technology developed for the Volt had already been incorporated into the Bolt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18215937", "title": "Tesla Model S", "section": "Section::::Design.:Practicality and livability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 647, "text": "To enhance livability, Tesla has developed a network of fast-charging 'Supercharger' stations that allow the driver to quickly and easily top-up the charge on their Model S. A Supercharger takes about 20 minutes to charge to 50%, 40 minutes to charge to 80%, and 75 minutes to 100% on the original 85 kWh Model S. Supercharger networks have rapidly expanded in Europe, across the United States, and in other countries where there is significant demand, and , the network has been established in most American states, thus making cross-country and long distance trips in an electric vehicle feasible and greatly alleviating fears of range anxiety.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39752358", "title": "Tesla Supercharger", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 452, "text": "A Tesla Supercharger is a 480-volt DC fast-charging station built by American vehicle manufacturer Tesla Inc. for their all-electric cars. The Tesla Supercharger network of fast-charging stations was introduced beginning in 2012. the electric vehicle network consisted of 12,011 individual Supercharger stalls at 1,422 locations worldwide. Tesla Model S was the first car to be able to use the network, followed by the Tesla Model X and Tesla Model 3.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In order to be declared brain dead there are a number of preconditions that must be met. These can vary slightly in different jurisdictions, but essentially there has to be a known disease process that has resulted in extensive brain damage. The damage must have involved the most basic parts of the brain, the brain stem, so that even the most primitive reflexes; those that control breathing, swallowing, pupillary response to light, are no longer functioning.\n\nFor an injury to cause brain death it usually is something that is effecting only the brain so that the other organs still function, and has not killed the patient outright, such that they have been placed on life support in the interim.\n\nHead trauma, and strokes are common, as they will often lead to delayed swelling of the whole brain which will eventually cut off the brain's blood supply. A similar thing happens in people who have been starved of oxygen for too long, which you might see in people who have had the heart restarted after a long period of CPR.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12687113", "title": "Organ donation in Jewish law", "section": "Section::::Relevant principles of Jewish Law.:Determination of death.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 388, "text": "Another major debate around organ donation concerns with the definition of death. Because if the accepted definition if death is \"incorrect,\" removing a heart from a donor who was established dead under the \"wrong\" criteria is tantamount to murder. With life-support and cardiopulmonary resuscitative technology, establishing the moment of death becomes more complicated and opinionated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43846", "title": "Organ donation", "section": "Section::::Bioethical issues.:Brain death versus cardiac death.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 114, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 114, "end_character": 809, "text": "In the United States, where since the 1980s the Uniform Determination of Death Act has defined death as the irreversible cessation of the function of either the brain or the heart and lungs, the 21st century has seen an order-of-magnitude increase of donation following cardiac death. In 1995, only one out of 100 dead donors in the nation gave their organs following the declaration of cardiac death. That figure grew to almost 11 percent in 2008, according to the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients. That increase has provoked ethical concerns about the interpretation of \"irreversible\" since \"patients may still be alive five or even 10 minutes after cardiac arrest because, theoretically, their hearts could be restarted, [and thus are] clearly not dead because their condition was reversible.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23753384", "title": "Religious views on organ donation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 467, "text": "Many different major religious groups and denominations have varying views on organ donation of a deceased and live bodies, depending on their ideologies. Differing opinions can arise depending on if the death is categorized as brain death or cease of the heartbeat. It is important for doctors and health care providers to be knowledgeable about differentiating theological and cultural views on death and organ donations as nations are becoming more multicultural.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12687113", "title": "Organ donation in Jewish law", "section": "Section::::Relevant principles of Jewish Law.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 284, "text": "If the donor is dead, there is again, in principle, no obstacle to organ donation so long as it is for the purpose of pikuach nefesh, but the reality is that the donor must be dead, otherwise the removal of vital organs would constitute murder, and the issue is how death is defined.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152776", "title": "Organ (anatomy)", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 278, "text": "Many societies have a system for organ donation, in which a living or deceased donor's organ is transplanted into a person with a failing organ. The transplantation of larger solid organs often requires immunosuppression to prevent organ rejection or graft-versus-host disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43846", "title": "Organ donation", "section": "Section::::Religious viewpoints.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 131, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 131, "end_character": 467, "text": "Orthodox Judaism considers organ donation obligatory if it will save a life, as long as the donor is considered dead as defined by Jewish law. In both Orthodox Judaism and non-Orthodox Judaism, the majority view holds that organ donation is permitted in the case of irreversible cardiac rhythm cessation. In some cases, rabbinic authorities believe that organ donation may be mandatory, whereas a minority opinion considers any donation of a live organ as forbidden.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23753384", "title": "Religious views on organ donation", "section": "Section::::Islam.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 321, "text": "The majority of Islamic religious leaders accept organ donation during life (provided it does not harm the donor) and after death in order to save life. Most religious leaders do not accept brain death as a criterion and consider cessation of all signs of life including heart beat as a precondition for declaring death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Most of the processes in the cell occur by diffusion. Meaning a lot of what is happening is random chance, but since cells are small and much more compact than textbooks and animations show, these processes can occur rather quickly. \n\nEnzymes (the do-ers of the cell) don't really \"know\" what they're doing. They just do what they do until they are told to shop. Usually it's caused by a feedback mechanism. I guess a decent analogy would be if you were an enzyme who's job was to paint squares, you would keep painting squares until you either you run out of paint or squares. You could also be tapped on the shoulder and told to go home for the night (inhibited).\n\nYou're asking a lot of questions that have a complex background that would take pages to explain each one. I would recommend browsing around [this youtube channel](_URL_0_) for a good visual break down of a lot of your questions and more!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2020081", "title": "Ameloblastoma", "section": "Section::::Histopathology.:Solid structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 450, "text": "Solid areas contain fibrous tissue islands or epithelium that interconnect through strands and sheets. The epithelial cells tend to move the nucleus away from the basement membrane to the opposite pole of the cell. This process is called \"reverse polarization\". Two main histological patterns most often occur: \"follicular\" and \"plexiform\". Other less common histological variants include \"acanthomatous\", \"basal cell\", and \"granular cell\" patterns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52001960", "title": "Contact guidance", "section": "Section::::Contact guidance in three-dimensional structures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 664, "text": "Cells can orient in response to contact guidance also when located inside three-dimensional structures, such as collagen gels, scaffolds, and soft tissues. For those conditions, it has been demonstrated that the geometrical cues provided by collagen or scaffold fibers are able to influence the orientation of cells. For example, it has been observed that endothelial colony forming cells align along the direction of the fibers present in electrospun scaffolds. Similarly, it has been demonstrated that the collagen fibers present in collagen gels and soft tissues can influence cell alignment, providing the most important stimulus in terms of cell orientation \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53979054", "title": "Clare Waterman", "section": "Section::::Research.:Actin-adhesion cross-talk and the “molecular clutch\" hypothesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1357, "text": "The ability of a cell to adhere to and move relative to its environment is mediated by cell surface proteins called integrins that bind extracellular components and mediate their linkage to the intracellular, force-generating actin cytoskeleton. However, the specific molecules mediating the links between integrins and actin and how they are organized at the cell membrane was not known. Dr. Waterman used Fluorescent Speckle Microscopy and super-resolution light microscopy methods to show in migrating cells that actin polymerizes at the leading edge, undergoes a rearward movement towards the cell center, and engages locally to integrins at the plasma membrane via a trilaminar nanoscale structure consisting of specific adapter proteins. The engagement of actin to the focal adhesion results in slowing of actin motion in the leading edge and transmission of its motion to the adapter proteins, and the protein vinculin is critical for this engagement. Dr. Waterman’s work supports a model that draws on analogy of the focal adhesion adapter proteins acting as a mechanical “clutch” to engage the moving actin with the matrix-bound integrins, and thus transmit intracellular force to friction on the extracellular environment to drive cell movement. Dr. Waterman’s works has led to the acceptance of the molecular clutch hypothesis of cell migration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21942008", "title": "Cell polarity", "section": "Section::::Examples of polarized cells.:Migratory cells.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 768, "text": "Many cell types are capable of migration, such as leukocytes and fibroblasts, and in order for these cells to move in one direction, they must have a defined front and rear. At the front of the cell is the leading edge, which is often defined by a flat ruffling of the cell membrane called the lamellipodium or thin protrusions called filopodia. Here, actin polymerization in the direction of migration allows cells to extend the leading edge of the cell and to attach to the surface. At the rear of the cell, adhesions are disassembled and bundles of actin microfilaments, called stress fibers, contract and pull the trailing edge forward to keep up with the rest of the cell. Without this front-rear polarity, cells would be unable to coordinate directed migration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7518005", "title": "Complex cell", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 448, "text": "Like a simple cell, a complex cell will respond primarily to oriented edges and gratings, however it has a degree of spatial invariance. This means that its receptive field cannot be mapped into fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones. Rather, it will respond to patterns of light in a certain orientation within a large receptive field, regardless of the exact location. Some complex cells respond optimally only to movement in a certain direction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6389071", "title": "Endocytic cycle", "section": "Section::::Non-polarised and polarised endocytic cycles.:Polarised cells.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 302, "text": "• Evidence indicates that those molecules in the cell's surface that act as the feet of the cell — the integrins, which attach the cell to the substratum — can also be endocytosed and transported through the cell. In this way, fresh adhesion sites (see cell adhesion) are provided at the cell's front.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20055670", "title": "Shockley–Queisser limit", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 687, "text": "When the material is placed in the sun, photons from the sunlight can be absorbed in the p-type side of the semiconductor, causing electrons in the valence band to be promoted in energy to the conduction band. This process is known as photoexcitation. As the name implies, electrons in the conduction band are free to move about the semiconductor. When a load is placed across the cell as a whole, these electrons will flow from the p-type side into the n-type side, lose energy while moving through the external circuit, and then go back into the p-type material where they can re-combine with the valence-band holes they left behind. In this way, sunlight creates an electric current.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > Why aren't there smashed insects on the inside of my back window?\n\nBecause of relativity. The car and everything contained within is traveling 50mph and let's say the bee is flying 10mph, then it only needs to travel 10mph relative to the moving car. From an onlooker on the side of the road, the bee would appear to be traveling 60mph relative to the onlooker but if you were sitting in the moving car, the bee is only traveling 10mph relative to you. I'm 90% sure that's how it works anyway! It's all about perspective.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > does the bee have to fly faster than 50mph to move from the backseat to the front seat?\n\nNo. The bee flies by pushing against the air around it, and all of the air in the car is moving along with the car.\n\nIt's much the same as the fact that, even though the earth is rotating from west to east at hundreds of miles per hour (actual speed depends on the latitude), you don't have to run faster than a speeding bullet to take a step from west to east, because the ground you're walking on is moving along with the earth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The bee isn't smashed because its flying through the air in the car, and the air is also moving at 50 mph.\n\nAll speed is relative. The speed of the bee might be 10 miles per hour through air. So, relative to the car, that's 10 miles per hour. If it flies from the back to the front, it's still 10 miles per hour relative to the car, but 60 mph relative to the ground.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Relativity my friend. Ask yourself this question - \"Is it the vehicle moving? Or is it the world that's moving?\" This type of thinking is what Einstein is famous for.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes. From the perspective of someone watching from the side of the road, the bee must fly faster than 50 mph. \n\nFortunately for the bee, it is ALREADY moving at 50 MPH because it accelerated with the car, as did the air around it, and you in the front seat. So, to the bee, it's just basically flying regular. \n\nThis is why, even though there are no smashed bugs on your back window, there are probably plenty on your front window. When a bug that is just sort of flying around encounters the car already moving at 50 mph, it gets accelerated to 50 mph also, but too fast to survive the impact. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the air in the car is moving at the same rate as the car is, and the bee is suspended in the air. It is moving at the same rate in the same direction as the car. The bee is pushing on the air around it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Forget about speed, relativity, or distance.\n\nAir is a fluid. Animals fly by pushing against the air, much like you would push against the water in a swimming pool.\n\nIn an enclosed vehicle, all the **air** inside the vehicle is traveling too. It's going to move around a little bit, but the air is moving along inside the car, and the bee only has to fly through the air around it, the fact the air is being shoved along inside a car doesn't affect it's ability to push itself through the air inside the vehicle.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Same reason why jumping on a moving bus doesn't make you crash into the back of the bus. Everything inside is also moving at the same speed so based on relativity the inside of the bus is practically stationary except for the slight movements caused by the bus actually moving. It'll take you the same time to move from the front to the back of the bus with or without the bus moving.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I swear i have spent my whole life thinking about this mind f----. Never had the courage to post because i thought it would be difficult to explain", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22868263", "title": "Mandyam Veerambudi Srinivasan", "section": "Section::::Research interests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 209, "text": "BULLET::::- When landing, the ground becomes closer and therefore appears to be moving faster. By keeping the apparent velocity of the ground constant, the bee reduces its own velocity in a continuous manner.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18952056", "title": "Greater roadrunner", "section": "Section::::Description and morphology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 306, "text": "Although capable of limited flight, it spends most of its time on the ground, and can run at speeds up to . Cases where roadrunners have run as fast as have been reported. This is the fastest running speed clocked for a flying bird, but not nearly as fast as the of the flightless and much larger ostrich.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52785853", "title": "Honeybee starvation", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Transportation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 704, "text": "Bee hives are transported cross-country in trucks nonstop or with little break. Bees are severely stressed from confinement, heat, weather changes and sudden change in their daily tasks. While on the road for two to three days, it is difficult for the truck driver or the beekeeper to check on the temperature and food level in the hives. Proper nutrition of the bees is affected and there is high risk of bees starving to death on the road trip. One study points to impaired food gland development in migratory bees resulting in improper feeding of brood. North Carolina State University news states that providing bees access to huge amount of food while on road may ease stress due to transportation \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24784744", "title": "Beardmore Wee Bee", "section": "Section::::Operational history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 757, "text": "The aircraft were given marks for four tasks: speed over two sets of five laps, slow speed flying and take off and landing distances. Only the Wee Bee and the Brownie, both Cherub engined, had the reliability to complete the speed tests, in which the Wee Bee achieved 70.1 mph (112.8 km/h), about 5 mph faster than the Bristol. It flew at just under 40 mph (64 km/h) and took off to clear a 6 ft (1.83 m) barrier with a run of 705 ft (215 m). Given the Wee Bee's clean aerodynamics it was not surprising to find it took to greatest distance to pull up at landing; wheel brakes were not fitted. Despite the long landing, the Wee Bee ended the competition well ahead in marks of the Brownie, its nearest rival, winning the Air Ministry first prize of £2,000.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57621", "title": "Dragonfly", "section": "Section::::Biology.:Flight.:Flight speed.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 409, "text": "Old and unreliable claims are made that dragonflies such as the southern giant darner can fly up to . However, the greatest reliable flight speed records are for other types of insects. In general, large dragonflies like the hawkers have a maximum speed of with average cruising speed of about . Dragonflies can travel at 100 body-lengths per second in forward flight, and three lengths per second backwards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22868263", "title": "Mandyam Veerambudi Srinivasan", "section": "Section::::Research interests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 203, "text": "BULLET::::- Similarly, bees slow down in a crowded landscape because nearby objects appear to move faster than objects on the horizon. This is a safety mechanism that reduces the incidence of collision.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63663", "title": "Fly", "section": "Section::::Flight.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 605, "text": "Flies have rapid reflexes that aid their escape from predators but their sustained flight speeds are low. Dolichopodid flies in the genus \"Condylostylus\" respond in less than 5 milliseconds to camera flashes by taking flight. In the past, the deer bot fly, \"Cephenemyia\", was claimed to be one of the fastest insects on the basis of an estimate made visually by Charles Townsend in 1927. This claim, of speeds of 600 to 800 miles per hour, was regularly repeated until Irving Langmuir showed it to be physically impossible as well as incorrect. Langmuir suggested an estimated speed of 25 miles per hour.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Record publishers think that LOL LOUDER = BETTER, when really, if taken to the extent shown [here](_URL_0_), it just makes the music shittier. Of course, if the artist wants it like that, then it isn't really an effect of the loudness war, just the artist being stupid/avant-garde.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ever been watching television with normal volume, and then when an advert comes on, the sound seems deafening, even if you've not changed the volume? That's loudness. \n\nUsually a recording will have its quiet parts and its loud parts, and the difference between these parts can make the music more interesting. With our advert, what has happened is they've made the quiet parts just as loud as the loud parts. Background noises, people's footsteps etc are all at the same volume as the soundtrack and the voiceover.\n\nIn music recording, a producer often will make quiet bits louder just to make them stand out (for instance if the singer starts singing softly, we still need to be able to hear her). This is done using a device/program called a compressor, which ‘squashes’ the volume so it's more uniform. It boosts the quiet bits and ‘rounds off’ the loud bits.\n\nWith the loudness war, the industry seems to think music stands out better on the radio if they don't just use a compressor, but a limiter. A limiter is like a compressor, but instead of giving the quiet bits a little boost and rounding off the loud bits, it pushes the quiet bits to maximum volume and just plain ‘chops’ the top off the loud bits.\n\nThe music sounds less interesting as a result.\n\n[This image](_URL_0_) shows the waveform of a Nine Inch Nails recording, one from its original release in 1989, and the other from its ‘remastered’ release in 2010. Which one looks like it'll sound more interesting?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think most of what's written here covers it but if you want a more \"ELI5\" answer:\n\nImagine that instead of a song you have a recording of a person talking, and that person is sometimes whispering, sometimes screaming. Now, obviously the scream will be louder than the whisper. Now imagine if someone who is controlling the recording, raised the volume of the whisper and lowered the volume of the scream so they would be at the same level. The whisper would still be whisper, but at the same volume of the scream (you can notice this effect in speech if you hear radio announcers closely).\n\nNow imagine this in music: you have a soft guitar part in quieter section of the song at the same level as the big drums in the chorus. Some people like this type of sound, others don't. In my opinion, while some genres of music benefit from this \"treatment\" (if not overdone), others just get ruined by it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are loud and quiet parts in music. Every media format (especially digital ones) has some limit of maximum sound level, so loudness of entire track is determined by it's loudest part. \n\nMost of music producers try to make music louder than their competitors to get the advantage on the radio, etc (people tend to prefer louder track to quieter, all else being equal). But once loudest part of the track achieves the maximum level, the only way to make track louder is dynamic compression. It makes quiet parts louder while loud parts remain the same.\n\nAs this competition progresses, mainstream music tracks become more and more compressed. It makes the music lose its dynamics. There are no more \"very quiet-quiet-medium-loud-very loud\" dynamics, music becomes just \"loud and very loud\".\n\nThis makes music sound tedious. Instead of nice \"tension and release\" we have just one continuos tension which is tiresome to listen to. Drums lose all the \"punch\" and sometimes even \"clipping\" occurs.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Compression is an effect you apply to audio to \"squash\" its volume into a narrower range, as people have said. Specifically, it \"listens\" to an audio track and \"turns down\" the volume whenever it exceeds a certain threshold, but then you can turn up the overall volume to push everything to a (high) equal level of loudness. Compression is really versatile and useful to a music producer or audio engineer (it can really \"glue\" parts together or adjust the way a sound hits) but can cause unpleasant distortion at extreme settings. People who are upset about the \"loudness war\" argue that commercial music tries to hard too sound as loud as possible to the detriment of sound quality.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3576625", "title": "Loudness war", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 661, "text": "The loudness war (or loudness race) refers to the trend of increasing audio levels in recorded music which reduces audio fidelity and, according to many critics, listener enjoyment. Increasing loudness was first reported as early as the 1940s, with respect to mastering practices for 7\" singles. The maximum peak level of analog recordings such as these is limited by varying specifications of electronic equipment along the chain from source to listener, including vinyl and Compact Cassette players. The issue garnered renewed attention starting in the 1990s with the introduction of digital signal processing capable of producing further loudness increases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3576625", "title": "Loudness war", "section": "Section::::Debate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 364, "text": "In 2007, Suhas Sreedhar published an article about the loudness war in the engineering magazine \"IEEE Spectrum\". Sreedhar said that the greater possible dynamic range of CDs was being set aside in favor of maximizing loudness using digital technology. Sreedhar said that the overcompressed modern music was fatiguing, that it did not allow the music to \"breathe\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3576625", "title": "Loudness war", "section": "Section::::History.:2000s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 889, "text": "By the early 2000s, the loudness war had become fairly widespread, especially with some remastered re-releases and greatest hits collections of older music. In 2008, loud mastering practices received mainstream media attention with the release of Metallica's \"Death Magnetic\" album. The CD version of the album has a high average loudness that pushes peaks beyond the point of digital clipping, causing distortion. This was reported by customers and music industry professionals, and covered in multiple international publications, including \"Rolling Stone\", \"The Wall Street Journal\", BBC Radio, \"Wired\", and \"The Guardian\". Ted Jensen, a mastering engineer involved in the \"Death Magnetic\" recordings, criticized the approach employed during the production process. A version of the album without dynamic range compression was included in the downloadable content for the video game \"\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3980112", "title": "Role of music in World War II", "section": "Section::::American songs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 1102, "text": "After successful incorporation of music into the war efforts, more was needed in order to keep hopes alive and stable both back in the U.S and in the Home Front. Various times music was used as a tool for battle in the war, whether it was to entertain or to recuperate the soldiers during the war. More importantly was the impact that the music during the 1940s had on the people then and the effect that it continues to have now. Sounds of War: Music in the United States during World War II argues that music composed during the 1940s was unlike any other time of music because of its emphasis on making the listener feel like they are part of the war or if they are somewhere else. It adds that songs from World War II continue to be used today in order to remember those harsh times of war and to remind everyone of what the cost of liberty and freedom was. Some examples of this would include Aaron Copland's \"\"Fanfare for the Common Man\"\" (1942) and \"\"Lincoln's Portrait\"\" (1942). These are still being played for presidential inaugurations and continue to have the effect of \"loss for freedom\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3576625", "title": "Loudness war", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 452, "text": "The production practices associated with the loudness war have been condemned by recording industry professionals including Alan Parsons and Geoff Emerick, along with mastering engineers Doug Sax, Stephen Marcussen, and Bob Katz. Musician Bob Dylan has also condemned the practice, saying, \"You listen to these modern records, they're atrocious, they have sound all over them. There's no definition of nothing, no vocal, no nothing, just like—static.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3576625", "title": "Loudness war", "section": "Section::::Debate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 737, "text": "In September 2011, Emmanuel Deruty wrote in \"Sound on Sound\", a recording industry magazine, that the loudness war has not led to a decrease in dynamic variability in modern music, possibly because the original digitally-recorded source material of modern recordings is more dynamic than analogue material. Deruty and Tardieu analyzed the \"loudness range\" (LRA) over a 45-year span of recordings, and observed that the crest factor of recorded music diminished significantly between 1985 and 2010, but the LRA remained relatively constant. Deruty and Damien Tardieu criticized Sreedhar's methods in an AES paper, saying that Sreedhar had confused crest factor (peak to RMS) with dynamics in the musical sense (pianissimo to fortissimo).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5129610", "title": "United States home front during World War II", "section": "Section::::Further reading.:Propaganda, advertising, media, public opinion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 233, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 233, "end_character": 244, "text": "BULLET::::- Fauser, Annegret. \"Sounds of War: Music in the United States During World War II\" (Oxford University Press; 2013) 366 pages; focuses on classical music in the 1940s, including work by both American composers and Europeans in exile.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Over the largest scales galaxies seem to arrange themselves in a foam like structure with the material we can see sitting where the bubble walls would be. Here is a [picture](_URL_0_) of a universe simulation to give you an impression.\n\nThe Great Wall in this would be a particular dense area. Our viewpoint is outside of it so it appears as a wall from where we are looking. If we where inside it would probably appear to look like more galaxies around us.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6209225", "title": "Rujm el-Hiri", "section": "Section::::Structure and description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 481, "text": "The central tumulus is built from smaller rocks, and is thought to have been constructed after the surrounding walls were constructed. Connecting to it are four main stone walls. The first wall, shaped like a semicircle, is 50m in diameter and 1.5m wide. That wall is connected to a second one, an almost complete circle 90m in diameter. The third wall is a full circle, 110m in diameter and 2.6m wide. The fourth and outermost wall is the largest: 150m in diameter and 3.2m wide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41157583", "title": "Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 852, "text": "Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall or the Great GRB Wall is the largest known structure in the observable universe, measuring approximately 10 billion light years in length. For perspective, the universe is only 13.8 billion years old. This massive galactic superstructure in a region of the sky seen in the data set mapping of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) that has been found to have an unusually higher concentration of similarly distanced GRBs than the expected average distribution. It was discovered in early November 2013 by a team of American and Hungarian astronomers led by István Horváth, Jon Hakkila and Zsolt Bagoly while analyzing data from the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission, together with other data from ground-based telescopes. It is the largest known formation in the universe, exceeding the size of the prior Huge-LQG by about two times.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41157583", "title": "Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall", "section": "Section::::Nomenclature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 585, "text": "The authors of the paper concluded a structure that was the possible explanation of the clustering, but they never associated any name with it. Hakkila stated that \"During the process, we were more concerned with whether it was real or not.\" The term \"Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall\" was coined by a Filipino teenager from Marikina City on the website Wikipedia, after reading a Discovery News report three weeks after the structure's discovery in 2013. The nomenclature was used by Jacqueline Howard, on her \"Talk Nerdy to Me\" video series, and Hakkila would later use the name.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5439", "title": "Capricornus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 464, "text": "Capricornus is one of the 88 modern constellations, and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy. Under its modern boundaries it is bordered by Aquila, Sagittarius, Microscopium, Piscis Austrinus, and Aquarius. The constellation is located in an area of sky called the Sea or the Water, consisting of many water-related constellations such as Aquarius, Pisces and Eridanus. It is the smallest constellation in the zodiac.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12326315", "title": "Hercules Cluster", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 329, "text": "The Hercules Cluster (Abell 2151) is a cluster of about 200 galaxies some 500 million light-years distant in the constellation Hercules. It is rich in spiral galaxies and shows many interacting galaxies. The cluster is part of the larger Hercules Supercluster, which is itself part of the much larger Great Wall super-structure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "107403", "title": "Hercules, California", "section": "Section::::Geography.:Location and surroundings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 409, "text": "Hercules is on the southeastern shores of San Pablo Bay, roughly 4 miles southwest of the Carquinez Bridge. By road, Hercules is roughly 12 miles north of Berkeley, California, 18 miles north of Oakland and 22 miles northeast of San Francisco. The shoreline at this location runs northeast to southwest. Refugio Creek runs through the middle of Hercules in a northwest direction and empties at the shoreline.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "607447", "title": "Walls of Constantinople", "section": "Section::::Sea Walls.:Propontis Wall.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 987, "text": "The wall of the Propontis was built almost at the shoreline, with the exception of harbours and quays, and had a height of 12–15 metres, with thirteen gates, and 188 towers. and a total length of almost 8,460 metres, with further 1,080 metres comprising the inner wall of the Vlanga harbour. Several sections of the wall were damaged during the construction of the \"Kennedy Caddesi\" coastal road in 1956–57. The wall's proximity to the sea and the strong currents of the Propontis meant that eastern and southern shores of the peninsula were comparatively safe from attack, but conversely, the walls had to be protected against the sea itself: a breakwater of boulders was placed in front of their base, and marble shafts were used as bonds in the walls' base to enhance their structural integrity. From the cape at the edge of the ancient acropolis of the city (modern \"Sarayburnu\", Seraglio Point), south and west to the Marble Tower, the Propontis Wall and its gates went as follows:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's basically a diagram of how they want a system or process or *whatever* to work. It's hard to define because it's a pretty vague thing to start with that you can take in many different directions. I bet if your teammates drew you a picture of what they're talking about it would work a lot better than trying to define it with words.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20699108", "title": "Treasury Information System Architecture Framework", "section": "Section::::TISAF building blocks.:TISAF Architecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 439, "text": "The Information Architecture is the \"what\" of information systems which defines and organizes all information needed to perform business operations and describes the relationships among this information. The Functional Architecture is the \"how\" of information systems which defines and organizes the business functions, processes, or activities that capture, manipulate, and manage the business information to support business operations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "793325", "title": "Zachman Framework", "section": "Section::::History.:Information Systems Architecture Framework.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 407, "text": "The Information Systems Architecture is designed to be a classification schema for organizing architecture models. It provides a synoptic view of the models needed for enterprise architecture. Information Systems Architecture does not define in detail what the models should contain, it does not enforce the modeling language used for each model, and it does not propose a method for creating these models.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41449", "title": "Open systems architecture", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 202, "text": "Open systems architecture, in telecommunication, is a standard that describes the layered hierarchical structure, configuration, or model of a communications or distributed data processing system that:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "185945", "title": "Information architecture", "section": "Section::::Definition.:Debate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 668, "text": "While the definition of information architecture is relatively well-established in the field of systems design, it is much more debatable within the context of online information systems (i.e., websites). Andrew Dillon refers to the latter as the \"big IA–little IA debate\". In the little IA view, information architecture is essentially the application of information science to web design which considers, for example, issues of classification and information retrieval. In the big IA view, information architecture involves more than just the organization of a website; it also factors in user experience, thereby considering usability issues of information design.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "185945", "title": "Information architecture", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 599, "text": "Information architecture (IA) is the structural design of shared information environments; the art and science of organizing and labelling websites, intranets, online communities and software to support usability and findability; and an emerging community of practice focused on bringing principles of design, architecture and information science to the digital landscape. Typically, it involves a model or concept of information that is used and applied to activities which require explicit details of complex information systems. These activities include library systems and database development.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "185945", "title": "Information architecture", "section": "Section::::Definition.:Debate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 344, "text": "The difficulty in establishing a common definition for \"information architecture\" arises partly from the term's existence in multiple fields. In the field of systems design, for example, information architecture is a component of enterprise architecture that deals with the information component when describing the structure of an enterprise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3403318", "title": "Systems architecture", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 313, "text": "A system architecture or systems architecture is the conceptual model that defines the structure, behavior, and more views of a system. An architecture description is a formal description and representation of a system, organized in a way that supports reasoning about the structures and behaviors of the system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Primary answer: Beards are easier maintained shaven than left to grow. Not having it there in the first place is considered professional since it implies that the person in question takes hygiene seriously by being willing to groom themselves every day.\n\nAncillary answer: Western cultures prefer cleanly shaven men to rugged ones for the reason indicated above. However, in places such as West Asia and Scandanavia, having a very large or substantial beard shows maturity and how \"strong\" a man is (i.e. it shows strong hormonal growth in that person). They are also status symbols elsewhere, depending upon what culture you ask.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Beards, like any other fashion, come in and out of style. [This article](_URL_0_) has a brief history of beards.\n\nAndrew Carnegie was rich, powerful, and bearded. Every President from Lincoln to Taft, except for McKinley and Andrew Johnson, had facial hair. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "162110", "title": "Beard", "section": "Section::::In religion.:Christianity.:LDS Church.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 515, "text": "Since the mid-twentieth century, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has encouraged men to be clean-shaven, particularly those that serve in ecclesiastical leadership positions. The church's encouragement of men's shaving has no theological basis, but stems from the general waning of facial hair's popularity in Western society during the twentieth century and its association with the hippie and drug culture aspects of the counterculture of the 1960s, and has not been a permanent rule.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "224101", "title": "Moustache", "section": "Section::::Occurrence and perceptions.:Religions.:Mormon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 729, "text": "Though it is never explicitly stated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints that all male members must be clean-shaven, within Mormon circles it is often considered \"taboo\" for men to have moustaches as the missionaries of the church are required to be clean-shaven as well as the honor code of Brigham Young University requiring students to have similar grooming standards. This has become somewhat of a social norm within the church itself. This often leads those members who do choose to wear moustaches feel somewhat like they do not quite fit the norm, and yet in the studies shown done by Nielsen and White, these men reportedly do not mind this feeling and that is why they continue to grow their facial hair.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3460869", "title": "Shave brush", "section": "Section::::Benefits of using a shaving brush.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 223, "text": "Bringing a shave brush across one's skin produces a mild exfoliation. Because a shave brush is most often used with a shave soap, this effect often replaces the pre-shave routine of washing and applying lotion to the face.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4923690", "title": "Body hair", "section": "Section::::Distribution.:Armpits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 915, "text": "Today in much of the world, it is common for women to regularly shave their underarm hair. The prevalence of this practice varies widely, though. The practice became popular for cosmetic reasons around 1915 in the United States and United Kingdom, when one or more magazines showed a woman in a dress with shaved underarms. As women's armpit hair contrasts more noticeably with her other body hair than does a man's, it is a significant indicator of sexual maturity and therefore unwelcome in conventional western polite society. Regular shaving became feasible with the introduction of the safety razor at the beginning of the 20th century. While underarm shaving was quickly adopted in some English speaking countries, especially in the US and Canada, it did not become widespread in Europe until well after World War II. Since then the practice has spread worldwide. Some men also choose to shave their armpits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146779", "title": "Barber", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 279, "text": "In previous times, barbers (known as barber surgeons) also performed surgery and dentistry. With the development of safety razors and the decreasing prevalence of beards, in Anglophonic cultures, most barbers now specialize in cutting men's scalp hair as opposed to facial hair.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1703365", "title": "Straight razor", "section": "Section::::Modern use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 91, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 91, "end_character": 330, "text": "Owing to health concerns, some areas require barbers who provide straight-razor shaving to use a version that employs a disposable blade system. In places such as Turkey, Australia, New Zealand, Ontario, Pennsylvania, Denver, Boston, Texas and San Diego, however, the professional use of straight razors in barber shops is legal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "486442", "title": "Razor", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 354, "text": "Straight razors were the most common form of shaving before the 20th century and remained common in many countries until the 1950s. Barbers were specially trained to give customers a thorough and quick shave, and a collection of straight razors ready for use was a common sight in most barbershops. Barbers still have them, but they use them less often.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hair is a source of nitrogen, and can be composted to make a fertilizer. I've thrown pet hair in the compost bins for years. \n\nI suspect that it might also, in larger quantities, help soil drainage (though I very well could be wrong about this).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Fun fact: the bread you eat may contain human hair as an ingredient. \n\nL-cysteïne (or E920) is an ingredient in bread used to improve the dough. It makes the dough less sticky and easier to handle. \nL-cysteïne can be derived from a lot of natural sources, but in China duckfeathers and human hair are often used. \nIn Europe the human kind is forbidden, but this cannot be checked via tests. So if your bakery buys this ingredient in China your bread may contain some human hair!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1242240", "title": "Hypertrichosis", "section": "Section::::Management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 467, "text": "Temporary hair removal may last from several hours to several weeks, depending on the method used. These procedures are purely cosmetic. Depilation methods, such as trimming, shaving, and depilatories, remove hair to the level of the skin and produce results that last several hours to several days. Epilation methods, such as plucking, electrology, waxing, sugaring, threading remove the entire hair from the root, the results lasting several days to several weeks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32435", "title": "Vellum", "section": "Section::::Manufacture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 405, "text": "Any remaining hair is removed (\"scudding\") and the skin is dried by attaching it to a frame (a \"herse\"). The skin is attached at points around the circumference with cords; to prevent tearing, the maker wraps the area of the skin to which the cord is to be attached around a pebble (a \"pippin\"). The maker then uses a crescent shaped knife, (a \"lunarium\" or \"lunellum\"), to clean off any remaining hairs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "155117", "title": "Pubic hair", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Styling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 440, "text": "All hair can be removed with wax formulated for that purpose. Some individuals may remove part or all of their pubic hair, axillary hair and facial hair. Pubic hair removal using wax is bikini waxing. The method of removing hair is called depilation (when removing only the hair above the skin) or epilation (when removing the entire hair). Beauty salons often offer various waxing services. It is sometimes referred to as \"pubic topiary\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14313", "title": "Hair", "section": "Section::::Hair care.:Removal practices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 286, "text": "Depilation is the removal of hair from the surface of the skin. This can be achieved through methods such as shaving. Epilation is the removal of the entire hair strand, including the part of the hair that has not yet left the follicle. A popular way to epilate hair is through waxing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "219757", "title": "Waxing", "section": "Section::::Contraindications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 573, "text": "There are many benefits to waxing versus other forms of hair removal. It is an effective method to remove large amounts of hair at one time. It is a long-lasting method, as hair in waxed areas will not grow back for two to eight weeks. When hair is shaved or removed by depilatory cream, the hair is removed at the surface rather than the hair root. Within a few days, the hair can reappear back at the surface. With these methods, hair tends to grow back in a rough stubble. Areas that are repeatedly waxed over long periods of time often exhibit regrowth that is softer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "155140", "title": "Hair removal", "section": "Section::::Forms of hair removal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 293, "text": "Depilation is the removal of the part of the hair above the surface of the skin. The most common form of depilation is shaving or trimming. Another option is the use of chemical depilatories, which work by breaking the disulfide bonds that link the protein chains that give hair its strength.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "445871", "title": "Bikini waxing", "section": "Section::::Technique.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 585, "text": "Pubic hair can be removed in a number of ways, such as waxing, shaving, sugaring, electrolysis, laser hair removal or with chemical depilatory creams. Waxing involves applying melted, usually hot, wax to the pubic hair that an individual would like to remove. The wax, which adheres to the hair as it hardens, is then covered with small strips of cloth. When the wax hardens sufficiently, the cloth is pulled off quickly, removing the hair from its roots as the wax is pulled away. Waxing can be performed on oneself privately using a home kit or by a cosmetologist at a salon or spa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]